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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #65909 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/65909)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Smaller Dictionary of Greek and Roman
-Antiquities, by William Smith
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: A Smaller Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities
-
-Author: William Smith
-
-Release Date: July 24, 2021 [eBook #65909]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-Produced by: John Campbell, Delphine Lettau, alternate illustrations from
-             TIA and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
-             https://www.pgdp.net
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND
-ROMAN ANTIQUITIES ***
-
-
-
-
-  TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
-
-  Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
-
-  Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes have been
-  placed at the end of the relevant entry. Footnotes for Tables I-XVI
-  have been kept at the bottom of each relevant Table.
-
-  Basic fractions are displayed as ½ ⅓ ¼ etc; other fractions are
-  mostly shown in the form a-b/c, for example 1/72 or 69-4/9. The
-  book also has some fractions in the form a-b, for example 1-40th or
-  7-100ths.
-
-  Each entry in the dictionary is a Latin name and uses vowel breves
-  and macrons to indicate pronunciation. Greek words in the text use
-  polytonic Greek. Some other less common characters are found in this
-  book and these will display on this device as:
-    ⛛  (0x26DB inverted Greek Δ)
-    M̄ (M with 0x0304 combining macron)
-    C̄ (C with 0x0304 combining macron)
-    ⬤  (0x2B24 black circle)
-
-  Several of the Tables at the back of the book are very dense and
-  wider than can be displayed on some devices. Use of a small-size
-  monospace font may help.
-
-  The original text was printed in two-column format; the indexes at
-  the back of the book reference the page and the column, a (left) or
-  b (right). This etext uses the normal single column format so that
-  the column reference does not apply; only the page reference is
-  relevant.
-
-  Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book.
-
-
-
-
-  A
-
-  SMALLER DICTIONARY
-
-  OF
-
-  Greek and Roman Antiquities.
-
-
-
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-
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-
-  A
-
-  SMALLER   DICTIONARY
-
-  OF
-
-  Greek and Roman Antiquities.
-
-
-  BY WILLIAM SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D.,
-  EDITOR OF THE ‘CLASSICAL AND LATIN DICTIONARIES,’ ETC.
-
-
-  [Illustration]
-
-  ABRIDGED FROM THE LARGER DICTIONARY.
-
-  _TWELFTH EDITION._
-
-  ILLUSTRATED WITH TWO HUNDRED WOODCUTS.
-
-  LONDON:
-  JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
-  1884.
-
-  _The right of Translation is reserved._
-
-
-
-
-DR. WM. SMITH’S DICTIONARIES.
-
-
-  A DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE; ITS ANTIQUITIES, BIOGRAPHY, GEOGRAPHY,
-  AND NATURAL HISTORY. With Illustrations. 3 vols. Medium 8vo. _5l.
-  5s._
-
-  A CONCISE BIBLE DICTIONARY. Condensed from the above. With Maps and
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-  40 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. _7s. 6d._
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-  and Antiquities of the Christian Church. With Illustrations. 2
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-  Institutions, Domestic Usages, Painting, Sculpture, Music, the
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-LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SOWS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET
-AND CHARING CROSS.
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-A
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-SMALLER DICTIONARY
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-OF
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-GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.
-
-
-
-
-ĂBĂCUS (ἄβαξ), denoted primarily a square tablet of any description,
-and was hence employed in the following significations:--(1) A table,
-or side-board, chiefly used for the display of gold and silver
-cups, and other kinds of valuable and ornamental utensils. The use
-of abaci was first introduced at Rome from Asia Minor after the
-victories of Cn. Manlius Vulso, B.C. 187, and their introduction was
-regarded as one of the marks of the growing luxury of the age.--(2)
-A draught-board or chess-board.--(3) A board used by mathematicians
-for drawing diagrams, and by arithmeticians for the purposes of
-calculation.--(4) A painted panel, coffer, or square compartment in
-the wall or ceiling of a chamber.--(5) In architecture, the flat
-square stone which constituted the highest member of a column, being
-placed immediately under the architrave.
-
-[Illustration: Abacus.]
-
-
-ABOLLA, a cloak chiefly worn by soldiers, and thus opposed to the
-toga, the garb of peace. [TOGA.] The abolla was used by the lower
-classes at Rome, and consequently by the philosophers who affected
-severity of manners and life. Hence the expression of Juvenal,
-_facinus majoris abollae_,--“a crime committed by a very deep
-philosopher.”
-
-[Illustration: Abolla. (Bellori, Arc. Triumph., pl. 11, 12.)]
-
-
-ABRŎGĀTĬO. [LEX.]
-
-
-ABSŎLŪTĬO. [JUDEX.]
-
-
-ĂCAENA (ἀκαίνη, ἄκαινα, or in later Greek ἄκενα, in one place
-ἄκαινον), a measuring rod of the length of ten Greek feet. It was
-used in measuring land, and thus resembles the Roman decempeda.
-
-
-ĂCATĬUM (ἀκάτιον, a diminutive of ἄκατος), a small vessel or boat
-used by the Greeks, which appears to have been the same as the Roman
-_scapha_. The _Acatia_ were also sails adapted for fast sailing.
-
-
-ACCENSUS. (1) A public officer, who attended on several of the Roman
-magistrates. The Accensi summoned the people to the assemblies,
-and those who had law-suits to court; they preserved order in the
-courts, and proclaimed the time of the day when it was the third
-hour, the sixth hour, and the ninth hour. An accensus anciently
-preceded the consul who had not the fasces, which custom, after being
-long disused, was restored by Julius Cæsar in his first consulship.
-Accensi also attended on the governors of provinces.--(2) The accensi
-were also a class of soldiers in the Roman army, who were enlisted
-after the full number of the legion had been completed, in order to
-supply any vacancies that might occur in the legion. They were taken,
-according to the census of Servius Tullius, from the fifth class of
-citizens, and were placed in battle in the rear of the army, behind
-the triarii.
-
-
-ACCLĀMĀTĬO, was the public expression of approbation or
-disapprobation, pleasure or displeasure, by loud acclamations.
-On many occasions, there appear to have been certain forms of
-acclamations always used by the Romans; as, for instance, at
-marriages, _Io Hymen_, _Hymenaee_, or _Talassio_; at triumphs,
-_Io Triumphe_; at the conclusion of plays, the last actor called
-out _Plaudite_ to the spectators; orators were usually praised by
-such expressions as _Bene et praeclare_, _Belle et festive_, _Non
-potest melius_, &c. Under the empire the name of _acclamationes_ was
-given to the praises and flatteries bestowed by the senate upon the
-reigning emperor and his family.
-
-
-ACCŬBĀTĬO, the act of reclining at meals. The Greeks and Romans were
-accustomed, in later times, to recline at their meals; but this
-practice could not have been of great antiquity in Greece, since
-Homer always describes persons as sitting at their meals; and Isidore
-of Seville, an ancient grammarian, also attributes the same custom
-to the ancient Romans. Even in the time of the early Roman emperors,
-children in families of the highest rank used to sit together, while
-their fathers and elders reclined on couches at the upper part of the
-room. Roman ladies continued the practice of sitting at table, even
-after the recumbent position had become common with the other sex.
-It appears to have been considered more decent, and more agreeable
-to the severity and purity of ancient manners, for women to sit,
-more especially if many persons were present. But, on the other
-hand, we find cases of women reclining, where there was conceived
-to be nothing bold or indelicate in their posture. Such is the case
-in the preceding woodcut, which seems intended to represent a scene
-of matrimonial felicity. For an account of the disposition of the
-couches, and of the place which each guest occupied in a Greek and
-Roman entertainment, see SYMPOSIUM and TRICLINIUM.
-
-[Illustration: Accubatio. Act of Reclining. (Montfaucon, Ant. Exp.,
-Suppl., iii. 60.)]
-
-
-ACCŪSĀTOR, ACCŪSĀTIO. [JUDEX.]
-
-
-ĂCERRA (θυμιατήριον, λιβανωτρίς), the incense-box or censer used
-in sacrifices. The acerra was also a small moveable altar placed
-before the dead, on which perfumes were burnt. The use of acerrae
-at funerals was forbidden by a law of the Twelve Tables as an
-unnecessary expense.
-
-[Illustration: Acerra. (From a Frieze in the Museum Capitolinum.)]
-
-
-ĂCĒTABŬLUM (ὀξίς, ὀξύβαφον, ὀξυβάφιον). (1) A vinegar-cup, wide and
-open above, as we see in the annexed cut. The name was also given to
-all cups resembling it in size and form, to whatever use they might
-be applied.--(2) A Roman measure of capacity, fluid and dry. It was
-one-fourth of the hemian, and therefore one-eighth of the sextarius.
-
-[Illustration: Acetabulum. (Dennis, Etruria, p. xcvi.)]
-
-
-ĂCHĀĬCUM FOEDUS. The Achaean league is divided into two periods.
-1. _The earlier period._--When the Heracleidae took possession
-of Peloponnesus, which had until then been chiefly inhabited
-by Achaeans, a portion of the latter, under Tisamenus, turned
-northwards and occupied the north coast of Peloponnesus. The country
-thus occupied derived from them its name of Achaia, and contained
-twelve confederate towns, which were governed by the descendants
-of Tisamenus, till at length they abolished the kingly rule after
-the death of Ogyges, and established a democracy. In the time of
-Herodotus the twelve towns of which the league consisted were:
-Pellene, Aegeira, Aegae, Bura, Helice, Aegium, Rhypes (Rhypae),
-Patreis (ae), Phareis (ae), Olenus, Dyme, and Tritaeeis (Tritaea).
-After the time of Herodotus, Rhypes and Aegae disappeared from the
-number, and Ceryneia and Leontium stepped into their place. The bond
-which united the towns of the league was not so much a political
-as a religious one, as is shown by the common sacrifice offered
-at Helice to Poseidon, and after the destruction of that town, at
-Aegium to Zeus, surnamed Homagyrius, and to Demeter Panachaea. The
-confederation exercised no great influence in the affairs of Greece
-down to the time when it was broken up by the Macedonians. 2. _The
-later period._--When Antigonus in B.C. 281 made the unsuccessful
-attempt to deprive Ptolemaeus Ceraunus of the Macedonian throne,
-the Achaeans availed themselves of the opportunity of shaking off
-the Macedonian yoke, and renewing their ancient confederation. The
-grand object however now was no longer a common worship, but a
-real political union among the confederates. The fundamental laws
-were, that henceforth the confederacy should form one inseparable
-state, that each town, which should join it, should have equal
-rights with the others, and that all members, in regard to foreign
-countries, should be considered as dependent, and bound to obey in
-every respect the federal government, and those officers who were
-entrusted with the executive. Aegium was the seat of the government,
-and it was there that the citizens of the various towns met at
-regular and stated times, to deliberate upon the common affairs of
-the league, and if it was thought necessary, upon those of separate
-towns, and even of individuals, and to elect the officers of the
-league. The league acquired its great strength in B.C. 251, when
-Aratus united Sicyon, his native place, with it, and some years
-later gained Corinth also for it. Megara, Troezene, and Epidaurus
-soon followed their example. Afterwards Aratus persuaded all the
-more important towns of Peloponnesus to join the confederacy, and
-thus Megalopolis, Argos, Hermione, Phlius, and others were added to
-it. In a short period the league reached the height of its power,
-for it embraced Athens, Megara, Aegina, Salamis, and the whole of
-Peloponnesus, with the exception of Sparta, Elis, Tegea, Orchomenos,
-and Mantineia. The common affairs of the confederate towns were
-regulated at general meetings attended by the citizens of all the
-towns, and held regularly twice every year, in the spring and in
-the autumn. These meetings, which lasted three days, were held in a
-grove of Zeus Homagyrius in the neighbourhood of Aegium, and near a
-sanctuary of Demeter Panachaea. Every citizen, both rich and poor,
-who had attained the age of thirty, might attend the assemblies,
-to which they were invited by a public herald, and might speak and
-propose any measure. The subjects which were to be brought before
-the assembly were prepared by a council (βουλή), which seems to have
-been permanent. The principal officers of the confederacy were:
-1. At first two strategi (στρατηγοί), but after the year B.C. 255
-there was only one, who in conjunction with an hipparchus (ἴππαρχος)
-or commander of the cavalry and an under-strategus (ὑποστρατηγός)
-commanded the army furnished by the confederacy, and was entrusted
-with the whole conduct of war; 2. A public secretary (γραμματεύς);
-and, 3. Ten demiurgi (δημιουργοί). All the officers of the league
-were elected in the assembly held in the spring, at the rising of
-the Pleiades, and legally they were invested with their several
-offices only for one year, though it frequently happened that men of
-great merit and distinction were re-elected for several successive
-years. If one of the officers died during the period of his office,
-his place was filled by his predecessor, until the time for the
-new elections arrived. The perpetual discord of the members of the
-league, the hostility of Sparta, the intrigues of the Romans, and the
-folly and rashness of the later strategi, brought about not only the
-destruction and dissolution of the confederacy, but of the freedom of
-all Greece, which after the fall of Corinth, in B.C. 146, became a
-Roman province under the name of Achaia.
-
-
-ĂCĬES. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-ĂCĪNĂCĒS (ἀκινάκης), a Persian sword, whence Horace speaks of the
-_Medus acinaces_. The acinaces was a short and straight weapon, and
-thus differed from the Roman _sica_, which was curved. It was worn on
-the right side of the body, whereas the Greeks and Romans usually had
-their swords suspended on the left side. The form of the acinaces,
-with the mode of wearing it, is illustrated by the following
-Persepolitan figures.
-
-[Illustration: Acinaces, Persian Sword. (From bas-reliefs at
-Persepolis.)]
-
-
-ACISCŬLUS. [ASCIA.]
-
-
-ĀCLIS, a kind of dart with a leathern thong attached to it. [AMENTUM.]
-
-
-ACROĀMA (ἀκρόαμα), which properly means any thing heard, was the name
-given to a concert of players on different musical instruments, and
-also to an interlude performed during the exhibition of the public
-games. The word is also applied to the actors and musicians who were
-employed to amuse guests during an entertainment, and is sometimes
-used to designate the anagnostae. [ANAGNOSTES.]
-
-
-ACRŎLĬTHI (ἀκρόλιθοι), statues, of which the extremities only were
-of marble, and the remaining part of the body of wood either gilt or
-covered with drapery.
-
-
-ACRŎPŎLIS (ἀκρόπολις). In almost all Greek states, which were
-usually built upon a hill, rock, or some natural elevation, there
-was a castle or a citadel, erected upon the highest part of the rock
-or hill, to which the name of _Acropolis_, higher or upper city,
-was given. Thus we read of an acropolis at Athens, Corinth, Argos,
-Messene, and many other places. The Capitolium at Rome answered the
-same purpose as the Acropolis in the Greek cities; and of the same
-kind were the tower of Agathocles at Utica, and that of Antonia at
-Jerusalem.
-
-
-ACROSTŎLĬUM. [NAVIS.]
-
-
-ACRŎTĒRĬUM (ἀκρωτήριον), signifies the extremity of any thing, and
-was applied by the Greeks to the extremities of the prow of a vessel
-(ἀκροστόλιον), which were usually taken from a conquered vessel as
-a mark of victory: the act of doing so was called ἀκρωτηριάζειν. In
-architecture it signifies, 1. The sloping roof of a building. 2. The
-pediment. 3. The pedestals for statues placed on the summit of a
-pediment. In sculpture it signifies the extremities of a statue, as
-wings, feet, hands, &c.
-
-
-ACTA. (1) The public acts and orders of a Roman magistrate, which
-after the expiration of his office were submitted to the senate for
-approval or rejection. Under the empire, all the magistrates when
-entering upon their office on the 1st of January swore approval of
-the acts of the reigning emperor.--(2) ACTA FORENSIA were of two
-kinds: first, those relating to the government, as leges, plebiscita,
-edicta, the names of all the magistrates, &c., which formed part of
-the _tabulae publicae_; and secondly, those connected with the courts
-of law.--(3) ACTA MILITARIA, contained an account of the duties,
-numbers, and expenses of each legion, and were probably preserved
-in the military treasury founded by Augustus.--(4) ACTA SENATUS,
-called also COMMENTARII SENATUS and ACTA PATRUM, contained an account
-of the various matters brought before the senate, the opinions of
-the chief speakers, and the decision of the house. By command of
-Julius Caesar they were published regularly every day as part of
-the government gazette. Augustus forbade the publication of the
-proceedings of the senate, but they still continued to be preserved,
-and one of the most distinguished senators was chosen by the emperor
-to compile the account.--(5) ACTA DIURNA, a gazette published daily
-at Rome by the authority of the government, during the later times
-of the republic and under the empire, corresponding in some measure
-to our newspapers. They were also called _Acta Publica_, _Acta
-Urbana_, _Acta Rerum Urbanarum_, _Acta Populi_, and sometimes simply
-_Acta_ or _Diurna_. They contained, 1. A list of births and deaths
-in the city, an account of the money paid into the treasury from
-the provinces, and every thing relating to the supply of corn. 2.
-Extracts from the Acta Forensia. 3. Extracts from the Acta Senatus.
-4. A court circular, containing an account of the births, deaths,
-festivals, and movements of the imperial family. 5. An account of
-such public affairs and foreign wars as the government thought proper
-to publish. 6. Curious and interesting occurrences, such as prodigies
-and miracles, the erection of new edifices, the conflagration of
-buildings, funerals, sacrifices, a list of the various games, and
-especially curious tales and adventures, with the names of the
-parties.
-
-
-ACTĬA (ἄκτια), a festival celebrated every four years at Actium in
-Epirus, with wrestling, horse-racing, and sea-fights, in honour of
-Apollo. There was a celebrated temple of Apollo at Actium. After
-the defeat of Antony off Actium, Augustus enlarged the temple, and
-instituted games to be celebrated every five years in commemoration
-of his victory.
-
-
-ACTĬO, is defined by a Roman jurist to be the right of pursuing by
-judicial means what is a man’s due. The old actions of the Roman
-law were called _legis actiones_ or _legitimae_, either because
-they were expressly provided for by the laws of the Twelve Tables,
-or because they were strictly adapted to the words of the laws, and
-therefore could not be varied. But these forms of action gradually
-fell into disuse, in consequence of the excessive nicety required,
-and the failure consequent on the slightest error in the pleadings,
-and they were eventually abolished by the Lex Aebutia, and two Leges
-Juliae, except in a few cases. In the old Roman constitution, the
-knowledge of the law was most closely connected with the institutes
-and ceremonial of religion, and was accordingly in the hands of
-the patricians alone, whose aid their clients were obliged to ask
-in all their legal disputes. App. Claudius Caecus, perhaps one of
-the earliest writers on law, drew up the various forms of actions,
-probably for his own use and that of his friends: the manuscript was
-stolen or copied by his scribe Cn. Flavius, who made it public; and
-thus, according to the story, the plebeians became acquainted with
-those legal forms which hitherto had been the exclusive property of
-the patricians. After the abolition of the old legal actions, a suit
-was prosecuted in the following manner:--An action was commenced by
-the plaintiff summoning the defendant to appear before the praetor
-or other magistrate who had _jurisdictio_; this process was called
-_in jus vocatio_; and, according to the laws of the Twelve Tables,
-was in effect a dragging of the defendant before the praetor, if
-he refused to go quietly; and although this rude proceeding was
-somewhat modified in later times, we find in the time of Horace
-that if the defendant would not go quietly, the plaintiff called on
-any bystander to witness, and dragged the defendant into court. The
-parties might settle their dispute on their way to the court, or
-the defendant might be bailed by a vindex. The vindex must not be
-confounded with the vades. This settlement of disputes on the way
-was called _transactio in via_, and serves to explain a passage in
-St. Matthew, v. 25. When before the praetor, the parties were said
-_jure agere_. The plaintiff then prayed for an action, and if the
-praetor allowed it (_dabat actionem_), he then declared what action
-he intended to bring against the defendant, which he called _edere
-actionem_. This might be done in writing, or orally, or by the
-plaintiff taking the defendant to the _album_ [ALBUM], and showing
-him which action he intended to rely on. As the _formulae_ on the
-album comprehended, or were supposed to comprehend, every possible
-form of action that could be required by a plaintiff, it was presumed
-that he could find among all the formulae some one which was adapted
-to his case; and he was, accordingly, supposed to be without excuse
-if he did not take pains to select the proper formula. If he took
-the wrong one, or if he claimed more than his due, he lost his cause
-(_causa cadebat_); but the praetor sometimes gave him leave to amend
-his claim or _intentio_. It will be observed, that as the formulae
-were so numerous and comprehensive, the plaintiff had only to select
-the formula which he supposed to be suitable to his case, and it
-would require no further variation than the insertion of the names
-of the parties and of the thing claimed, or the subject-matter of
-the suit, with the amount of damages, &c., as the case might be.
-When the praetor had granted an action, the plaintiff required the
-defendant to give security for his appearance before the praetor
-(_in jure_) on a day named, commonly the day but one after the _in
-jus vocatio_, unless the matter in dispute was settled at once. The
-defendant, on finding a surety, was said _vades dare_, _vadimonium
-promittere_, or _facere_; the surety, _vas_, was said _spondere_;
-the plaintiff, when satisfied with the surety, was said _vadari
-reum_, to let him go on his sureties, or to have sureties from him.
-When the defendant promised to appear _in jure_ on the day named,
-without giving any surety, this was called _vadimonium purum_. In
-some cases, _recuperatores_ [JUDEX] were named, who, in case of the
-defendant making default, condemned him in the sum of money named in
-the _vadimonium_. If the defendant appeared on the day appointed,
-he was said _vadimonium sistere_; if he did not appear, he was said
-_vadimonium deseruisse_; and the praetor gave to the plaintiff
-the _bonorum possessio_. Both parties, on the day appointed, were
-summoned by a crier (_praeco_), when the plaintiff made his claim
-or demand, which was very briefly expressed, and may be considered
-as corresponding to our declaration at law. The defendant might
-either deny the plaintiff’s claim, or he might reply to it by a
-plea, _exceptio_. If he simply denied the plaintiff’s claim, the
-cause was at issue, and a judex might be demanded. The forms of the
-_exceptio_, also, were contained in the praetor’s edict, or, upon
-hearing the facts, the praetor adapted the plea to the case. The
-plaintiff might reply to the defendant’s _exceptio_. The plaintiff’s
-answer was called _replicatio_. If the defendant answered the
-_replicatio_, his answer was called _duplicatio_; and the parties
-might go on to the _triplicatio_ and _quadruplicatio_, and even
-further, if the matters in question were such that they could not
-otherwise be brought to an issue. A person might maintain or defend
-an action by his _cognitor_ or _procurator_, or, as we should say,
-by his attorney. The plaintiff and defendant used a certain form
-of words in appointing a cognitor, and it would appear that the
-appointment was made in the presence of both parties. The cognitor
-needed not to be present, and his appointment was complete when by
-his acts he had signified his assent. When the cause was brought to
-an issue, a judex or judices might be demanded of the praetor, who
-named or appointed a judex, and delivered to him the formula, which
-contained his instructions. The judices were said _dari_ or _addici_.
-So far the proceedings were said to be _in jure_: the prosecution of
-the actio before the judex requires a separate discussion. [JUDEX.]
-
-
-ACTOR, signified generally a plaintiff. In a civil or private action,
-the plaintiff was often called _petitor_; in a public action (_causa
-publica_), he was called _accusator_. The defendant was called
-_reus_, both in private and public causes: this term, however,
-according to Cicero, might signify either party, as indeed we might
-conclude from the word itself. In a private action the defendant
-was often called _adversarius_, but either party might be called
-_adversarius_ with respect to the other. Wards brought their actions
-by their guardian or tutor. _Peregrini_, or aliens, originally
-brought their action through their patronus; but afterwards in their
-own name, by a fiction of law, that they were Roman citizens. A Roman
-citizen might also generally bring his action by means of a cognitor
-or procurator. [ACTIO.] Actor has also the sense of an agent or
-manager of another’s business generally. The _actor publicus_ was an
-officer who had the superintendence or care of slaves and property
-belonging to the state.
-
-
-ACTŬĀRĬAE NĀVES, transport-vessels, seem to have been built in a
-lighter style than the ordinary ships of burden, from which they also
-differed in being always furnished with oars, whereas the others were
-chiefly propelled by sails.
-
-
-ACTŬĀRĬI, short-hand writers, who took down the speeches in the
-senate and the public assemblies. In the debate in the Roman senate
-upon the punishment of those who had been concerned in the conspiracy
-of Catiline, we find the first mention of short-hand writers, who
-were employed by Cicero to take down the speech of Cato.
-
-
-ACTUS, a Roman measure of length, also called _actus quadratus_, was
-equal to half a jugerum, or 14,400 square Roman feet. The _actus
-minimus_, or _simplex_, was 120 feet long, and four broad, and
-therefore equal to 480 square Roman feet. Actus was also used to
-signify a bridle-way.
-
-
-ĂCUS (βελόνη, βελονίς, ῥαφίς), a needle, a pin. Pins were made not
-only of metal, but also of wood, bone, and ivory. They were used for
-the same purposes as with us, and also in dressing the hair. The mode
-of platting the hair, and then fastening it with a pin or needle, is
-shown in the annexed figure of a female head. This fashion has been
-continued to our own times by the females of Italy.
-
-[Illustration: Acus. (Montfaucon, Ant. Exp., Suppl., iii. 8.)]
-
-
-ADDICTI. [NEXI.]
-
-
-ADFĪNES. [AFFINES.]
-
-
-ADLECTI, or ALLECTI, those persons under the empire who were admitted
-to the privileges and honours of the praetorship, quaestorship,
-aedileship, and other public offices, without having any duties to
-perform. The senators called _adlecti_ seem to have been the same as
-the conscripti.
-
-
-ADLŎCŪTĬO. [ALLOCUTIO.]
-
-
-ADMISSĬŌNĀLES, chamberlains at the imperial court, who introduced
-persons into the presence of the emperor. They were divided into
-four classes; the chief officer of each class was called _proximus
-admissionum_; and the proximi were under the _magister admissionum_.
-Their duty was called _officium admissionis_. They were usually
-freedmen.
-
-
-ĂDŎLESCENS, was applied in the Roman law to a person from the end of
-his twelfth or fourteenth to the end of his twenty-fifth year, during
-which period a person was also called _adultus_. The word adolescens,
-however, is frequently used in a less strict sense in the Latin
-writers in referring to a person much older than the above-mentioned
-age.
-
-
-ĂDŌNĬA (ἀδώνια), a festival celebrated in honour of Aphrodite and
-Adonis in most of the Grecian cities. It lasted two days, and was
-celebrated by women exclusively. On the first day they brought into
-the streets statues of Adonis, which were laid out as corpses; and
-they observed all the rites customary at funerals, beating themselves
-and uttering lamentations. The second day was spent in merriment and
-feasting; because Adonis was allowed to return to life, and spend
-half the year with Aphrodite.
-
-
-ĂDOPTĬO, adoption. (1) GREEK.--Adoption was called by the Athenians
-εἰσποίησις, or sometimes simply ποίησις, or θέσις. The adoptive
-father was said ποιεῖσθαι, εἰσποιεῖσθαι, or sometimes ποιεῖν: and
-the father or mother (for a mother after the death of her husband
-could consent to her son being adopted) was said ἐκποιεῖν: the son
-was said ἐκποιεῖσθαι with reference to the family which he left;
-and εἰσποιεῖσθαι with reference to the family into which he was
-received. The son, when adopted, was called ποιητός, εἰσποιητός, or
-θετός, in opposition to the legitimate son born of the body of the
-father, who was called γνήσιος. A man might adopt a son either in
-his lifetime or by his testament, provided he had no male offspring,
-and was of sound mind. He might also, by testament, name a person
-to take his property, in case his son or sons should die under
-age. Only Athenian citizens could be adopted; but females could be
-adopted (by testament at least) as well as males. The adopted child
-was transferred from his own family and demus into those of the
-adoptive father; he inherited his property, and maintained the sacra
-of his adoptive father. It was not necessary for him to take his
-new father’s name, but he was registered as his son in the register
-of his phratria (φρατρικὸν γραμματεῖον). Subsequently to this, it
-was necessary to enter him in the register of the adoptive father’s
-demus (ληξιαρχικὸν γραμματεῖον), without which registration it
-appears that he did not possess the full rights of citizenship as a
-member of his new demus.--(2) ROMAN.--The Roman relation of parent
-and child arose either from a lawful marriage or from adoption.
-_Adoptio_ was the general name which comprehended the two species,
-_adoptio_ and _adrogatio_; and as the adopted person passed from
-his own familia into that of the person adopting, _adoptio_ caused
-a _capitis diminutio_, and the lowest of the three kinds. [CAPUT.]
-Adoption, in its specific sense, was the ceremony by which a person
-who was in the power of his parent (_in potestate parentum_),
-whether child or grandchild, male or female, was transferred to the
-power of the person adopting him. It was effected under the authority
-of a magistrate (_magistratus_), the praetor, for instance, at
-Rome, or a governor (_praeses_) in the provinces. The person to be
-adopted was emancipated [MANCIPATIO] by his natural father before
-the competent authority, and surrendered to the adoptive father by
-the legal form called _in jure cessio_. When a person was not in
-the power of his parent (_sui juris_), the ceremony of adoption was
-called _adrogatio_. Originally, it could only be effected at Rome,
-and only by a vote of the populus (_populi auctoritate_) in the
-comitia curiata (_lege curiata_); the reason of this being that the
-caput or status of a Roman citizen could not, according to the laws
-of the Twelve Tables, be effected except by a vote of the populus
-in the comitia curiata. Clodius, the enemy of Cicero, was adrogated
-into a plebeian family, in order to qualify himself to be elected
-a tribune of the plebs. Females could not be adopted by adrogatio.
-Under the emperors it became the practice to effect the adrogatio by
-an imperial rescript. The effect of adoption was to create the legal
-relation of father and son, just as if the adopted son were born of
-the blood of the adoptive father in lawful marriage. The adopted
-child was intitled to the name and sacra privata of the adopting
-parent. A person, on passing from one gens into another, and taking
-the name of his new familia, generally retained the name of his old
-gens also, with the addition to it of the termination _anus_. Thus
-Aemilius, the son of L. Aemilius Paullus, upon being adopted by P.
-Cornelius Scipio, assumed the name of P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus,
-and C. Octavius, afterwards the emperor Augustus, upon being adopted
-by the testament of his great-uncle the dictator, assumed the name of
-C. Julius Caesar Octavianus.
-
-
-ĂDŌRĀTĬO (προσκύνησις), adoration, was paid to the gods in the
-following manner:--The individual stretched out his right hand to the
-statue of the god whom he wished to honour, then kissed his hand,
-and waved it to the statue. The adoratio differed from the _oratio_
-or prayers, which were offered with the hands folded together and
-stretched out to the gods. The adoration paid to the Roman emperors
-was borrowed from the Eastern mode, and consisted in prostration on
-the ground, and kissing the feet and knees of the emperor.
-
-
-ADRŎGĀTĬO. [ADOPTIO, (ROMAN).]
-
-
-ĂDULTĔRĬUM, adultery. (1) GREEK.--Among the Athenians, if a man
-caught another man in the act of criminal intercourse (μοιχεία)
-with his wife, he might kill him with impunity; and the law was
-also the same with respect to a concubine (παλλακή). He might also
-inflict other punishment on the offender. It appears that there was
-no adultery, unless a married woman was concerned. The husband might,
-if he pleased, take a sum of money from the adulterer, by way of
-compensation, and detain him till he found sureties for the payment.
-The husband might also prosecute the adulterer in the action called
-μοιχείας γραφή. If the act of adultery was proved, the husband could
-no longer cohabit with his wife, under pain of losing his privileges
-of a citizen (ἀτιμία). The adulteress was excluded even from those
-temples which foreign women and slaves were allowed to enter; and if
-she was seen there, any one might treat her as he pleased, provided
-he did not kill her or mutilate her.--(2) ROMAN.--The word adulterium
-properly signifies, in the Roman law, the offence committed by a
-man’s having sexual intercourse with another man’s wife. _Stuprum_
-(called by the Greeks φθορά) signifies the like offence with a widow
-or virgin. In the time of Augustus a law was enacted (probably about
-B.C. 17), entitled _Lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis_, which seems
-to have contained special penal provisions against adultery; and
-it is also not improbable that, by the old law or custom, if the
-adulterer was caught in the fact, he was at the mercy of the injured
-husband, and that the husband might punish with death his adulterous
-wife. By the Julian law, a woman convicted of adultery was mulcted
-in half of her dowry (_dos_) and the third part of her property
-(_bona_), and banished (_relegata_) to some miserable island, such
-as Seriphos, for instance. The adulterer was mulcted in half his
-property, and banished in like manner. This law did not inflict the
-punishment of death on either party; and in those instances under
-the emperors in which death was inflicted, it must be considered as
-an extraordinary punishment, and beyond the provisions of the Julian
-law. The Julian law permitted the father (both adoptive and natural)
-to kill the adulterer and adulteress in certain cases, as to which
-there were several nice distinctions established by the law. If the
-wife was divorced for adultery, the husband was entitled to retain
-part of the dowry. By a constitution of the Emperor Constantine, the
-offence in the adulterer was made capital.
-
-
-ADVERSĀRĬA, a note-book, memorandum-book, posting-book, in which
-the Romans entered memoranda of any importance, especially of money
-received and expended, which were afterwards transcribed, usually
-every month, into a kind of ledger. (_Tabulae justae, codex accepti
-et expensi._)
-
-
-ADVERSĀRĬUS. [ACTOR.]
-
-
-ĂDŬNĂTI (ἀδύνατοι), were persons supported by the Athenian state,
-who, on account of infirmity or bodily defects, were unable to obtain
-a livelihood. The sum which they received from the state appears to
-have varied at different times. In the time of Lysias and Aristotle,
-one obolus a day was given; but it appears to have been afterwards
-increased to two oboli. The bounty was restricted to persons whose
-property was under three minae; and the examination of those who
-were entitled to it belonged to the senate of the Five Hundred.
-Peisistratus is said to have been the first to introduce a law for
-the maintenance of those persons who had been mutilated in war.
-
-
-ADVOCATUS, seems originally to have signified any person who gave
-another his aid in any affair or business, as a witness for instance;
-or for the purpose of aiding and protecting him in taking possession
-of a piece of property. It was also used to express a person who
-in any way gave his advice and aid to another in the management
-of a cause; but, in the time of Cicero, the word did not signify
-the orator or patronus who made the speech. Under the emperors it
-signified a person who in any way assisted in the conduct of a cause,
-and was sometimes equivalent to orator. The advocate’s fee was then
-called _Honorarium_.
-
-
-ĂDỸTUM. [TEMPLUM.]
-
-
-AEDES. [DOMUS; TEMPLUM.]
-
-AEDĪLES (ἀγορανόμοι). The name of these functionaries is said to be
-derived from their having the care of the temple (_aedes_) of Ceres.
-The aediles were originally two in number: they were elected from the
-plebs, and the institution of the office dates from the same time as
-that of the tribunes of the plebs, B.C. 494. Their duties at first
-seem to have been merely ministerial; they were the assistants of the
-tribunes in such matters as the tribunes entrusted to them, among
-which are enumerated the hearing of causes of smaller importance.
-At an early period after their institution (B.C. 446), we find them
-appointed the keepers of the senatus-consulta, which the consuls
-had hitherto arbitrarily suppressed or altered. They were also the
-keepers of the plebiscita. Other functions were gradually entrusted
-to them, and it is not always easy to distinguish their duties from
-some of those which belong to the censors. They had the general
-superintendence of buildings, both sacred and private; under this
-power they provided for the support and repair of temples, curiae,
-&c., and took care that private buildings which were in a ruinous
-state were repaired by the owners or pulled down. The care of the
-supply and distribution of water, of the streets and pavements, with
-the cleansing and draining of the city, belonged to the aediles;
-and, of course, the care of the cloacae. They had the office of
-distributing corn among the plebs, but this distribution of corn at
-Rome must not be confounded with the duty of purchasing or procuring
-it from foreign parts, which was performed by the consuls, quaestors,
-and praetors, and sometimes by an extraordinary magistrate, as the
-praefectus annonae. The aediles had to see that the public lands
-were not improperly used, and that the pasture grounds of the state
-were not trespassed on; and they had power to punish by fine any
-unlawful act in this respect. They had a general superintendence over
-buying and selling, and, as a consequence, the supervision of the
-markets, of things exposed to sale, such as slaves, and of weights
-and measures; from this part of their duty is derived the name under
-which the aediles are mentioned by the Greek writers (ἀγορανόμοι).
-It was their business to see that no new deities or religious rites
-were introduced into the city, to look after the observance of
-religious ceremonies, and the celebrations of the ancient feasts
-and festivals. The general superintendence of police comprehended
-the duty of preserving order, regard to decency, and the inspection
-of the baths and houses of entertainment. The aediles had various
-officers under them, as praecones, scribae, and viatores. The AEDILES
-CURULES, who were also two in number, were originally chosen only
-from the patricians, afterwards alternately from the patricians and
-the plebs, and at last indifferently from both. The office of curule
-aediles was instituted B.C. 365, and, according to Livy, on the
-occasion of the plebeian aediles refusing to consent to celebrate the
-Ludi Maximi for the space of four days instead of three; upon which a
-senatus-consultum was passed, by which two aediles were to be chosen
-from the patricians. From this time four aediles, two plebeian and
-two curule, were annually elected. The distinctive honours of the
-curule aediles were, the sella curulis, from whence their title is
-derived, the toga praetexta, precedence in speaking in the senate,
-and the jus imaginum. Only the curule aediles had the jus edicendi,
-or the right of promulgating edicta; but the rules comprised in their
-edicta served for the guidance of all the aediles. The edicta of the
-curule aediles were founded on their authority as superintendents
-of the markets, and of buying and selling in general. Accordingly,
-their edicts had mainly, or perhaps solely, reference to the rules
-as to buying and selling, and contracts for bargain and sale. The
-persons both of the plebeian and curule aediles were sacrosancti. It
-seems that after the appointment of the curule aediles, the functions
-formerly exercised by the plebeian aediles were exercised, with some
-few exceptions, by all the aediles indifferently. Within five days
-after being elected, or entering on office, they were required to
-determine by lot, or by agreement among themselves, what parts of
-the city each should take under his superintendence; and each aedile
-alone had the care of looking after the paving and cleansing of the
-streets, and other matters, it may be presumed, of the same local
-character within his district. The other duties of the office seem
-to have been exercised by them jointly. In the superintendence of
-the public festivals or solemnities, there was a further distinction
-between the two sets of aediles. Many of these festivals, such as
-those of Flora and Ceres, were superintended by either set of aediles
-indifferently; but the plebeian games were under the superintendence
-of the plebeian aediles, who had an allowance of money for that
-purpose; and the fines levied on the pecuarii, and others, seem to
-have been appropriated to these among other public purposes. The
-celebration of the Ludi Magni or Romani, of the Ludi Scenici, or
-dramatic representations, and the Ludi Megalesii, belonged specially
-to the curule aediles, and it was on such occasions that they often
-incurred a prodigious expense, with a view of pleasing the people,
-and securing their votes in future elections. This extravagant
-expenditure of the aediles arose after the close of the second Punic
-war, and increased with the opportunities which individuals had of
-enriching themselves after the Roman arms were carried into Greece,
-Africa, and Spain. Even the prodigality of the emperors hardly
-surpassed that of individual curule aediles under the republic; such
-as C. Julius Caesar, the dictator, P. Cornelius Lentulus Spinther,
-and, above all, M. Aemilius Scaurus, whose expenditure was not
-limited to bare show, but comprehended objects of public utility, as
-the reparation of walls, dock-yards, ports, and aquaeducts. In B.C.
-45, Julius Caesar caused two curule aediles and four plebeian aediles
-to be elected; and thenceforward, at least so long as the office of
-aedile was of any importance, six aediles were annually elected. The
-two new plebeian aediles were called Cereales, and their duty was
-to look after the supply of corn. Though their office may not have
-been of any great importance after the institution of a praefectus
-annonae by Augustus, there is no doubt that it existed for several
-centuries, and at least as late as the time of the emperor Gordian.
-The aediles belonged to the class of the minores magistratus. The
-plebeian aediles were originally chosen at the comitia centuriata,
-but afterwards at the comitia tributa, in which comitia the curule
-aediles also were chosen. It appears that until the lex annalis
-was passed (B.C. 180) a Roman citizen might be a candidate for any
-office after completing his twenty-seventh year. This law fixed the
-age at which each office might be enjoyed, and it seems that the
-age fixed for the aedileship was thirty-six. The aediles existed
-under the emperors; but their powers were gradually diminished, and
-their functions exercised by new officers created by the emperors.
-After the battle of Actium, Augustus appointed a Praefectus urbi,
-who exercised the general police, which had formerly been one of
-the duties of the aediles. Augustus also took from the aediles, or
-exercised himself, the office of superintending the religious rites,
-and the banishing from the city of all foreign ceremonials; he also
-assumed the superintendence of the temples, and thus may be said
-to have destroyed the aedileship by depriving it of its old and
-original function. The last recorded instance of the splendours of
-the aedileship is the administration of Agrippa, who volunteered to
-take the office, and repaired all the public buildings and all the
-roads at his own expense, without drawing anything from the treasury.
-The aedileship had, however, lost its true character before this
-time. Agrippa had already been consul before he accepted the office
-of aedile, and his munificent expenditure in this nominal office was
-the close of the splendour of the aedileship. Augustus appointed
-the curule aediles specially to the office of putting out fires,
-and placed a body of 600 slaves at their command; but the praefecti
-vigilum afterwards performed this duty. They retained, under the
-early emperors, a kind of police, for the purpose of repressing open
-licentiousness and disorder. The coloniae, and the municipia of the
-later period, had also their aediles, whose numbers and functions
-varied in different places. They seem, however, as to their powers
-and duties, to have resembled the aediles of Rome. They were chosen
-annually.
-
-
-AEDĬTŬI, AEDĬTŬMI, AEDĬTĬMI (called by the Greeks νεωκόροι, ζάκοροι,
-and ὑποζάκοροι), were persons who took care of the temples, attended
-to the cleaning of them, &c. They appear to have lived in the
-temples, or near them, and to have acted as ciceroni to those persons
-who wished to see them. Subsequently among the Greeks, the menial
-services connected with this office were left to slaves, and the
-persons called _neocori_ became priestly officers of high rank, who
-had the chief superintendence of temples, their treasures, and the
-sacred rites observed in them.
-
-[Illustration: Aegis worn by Athena.
-
-From Torso at Dresden. From Ancient Statues.]
-
-
-AEGIS (αἰγίς) signifies, literally, a goat-skin. According to ancient
-mythology, the aegis worn by Zeus was the hide of the goat Amaltheia,
-which had suckled him in his infancy. Homer always represents it as
-part of the armour of Zeus, whom on this account he distinguishes by
-the epithet _aegis-bearing_ (αἰγίοχος). He, however, asserts, that
-it was borrowed on different occasions both by Apollo and Athena.
-The aegis was connected with the shield of Zeus, either serving as
-a covering over it, or as a belt by which it was suspended from the
-right shoulder. Homer accordingly uses the word to denote not only
-the goat-skin, which it properly signified, but also the shield to
-which it belonged. The aegis was adorned in a style corresponding to
-the might and majesty of the father of the gods. In the middle of it
-was fixed the appalling Gorgon’s head, and its border was surrounded
-with golden tassels (θύσανοι), each of which was worth a hecatomb.
-The aegis is usually seen on the statues of Athena, in which it is
-a sort of scarf falling obliquely over the right shoulder, so as to
-pass round the body under the left arm. The serpents of the Gorgon’s
-head are transferred to the border of the skin. (See the left-hand
-figure in the cut.) The later poets and artists represent the aegis
-as a breast-plate covered with metal in the form of scales. (See the
-right-hand figure.)
-
-
-AENĔĀTŌRES, were those who blew upon wind instruments in the Roman
-army; namely, the _buccinatores_, _cornicines_, and _tubicines_. They
-were also employed in the public games.
-
-
-AENIGMA (αἴνιγμα), a riddle. It was an ancient custom among the
-Greeks to amuse themselves by proposing riddles at their symposia, or
-drinking parties. Those who were successful in solving them, received
-a prize, which usually consisted of wreaths, cakes, &c., while those
-who were unsuccessful were condemned to drink in one breath a certain
-quantity of wine, sometimes mixed with salt water. Those riddles
-which have come down to us are mostly in hexameter verse. The Romans
-seem to have been too serious to find any great amusement in riddles.
-
-
-AENUM, or ĂHĒNUM (sc. _vas_), a brazen vessel, used for boiling.
-The word is also frequently used in the sense of a dyer’s copper;
-and, as purple was the most celebrated dye of antiquity, we find the
-expressions _Sidonium aënum_, _Tyrium aënum_, &c.
-
-
-AEŌRA, or ĔŌRA (αἰώρα, ἐώρα), a festival at Athens, accompanied with
-sacrifices and banquets, whence it is sometimes called εὔδειπνος. It
-was probably instituted in honour of Icarius and his daughter Erigone.
-
-
-AERA. [CHRONOLOGIA.]
-
-
-AERĀRĬI, a class of Roman citizens, who were not included in the
-thirty tribes instituted by Servius Tullius. Although citizens, they
-did not possess the suffragium, or right of voting in the comitia.
-They were _cives sine suffragio_. They also paid the tribute in a
-different manner from the other citizens. The Aerarians were chiefly
-artisans and freedmen. The Caerites, or inhabitants of the Etruscan
-town of Caere, who obtained the franchise in early times, but without
-the suffragium, were probably the first body of aerarians. Any
-Roman citizen guilty of a crime punishable by the censors, might
-be degraded to the rank of an aerarian; so that his civic rights
-were suspended, at least for the time that he was an aerarian. All
-citizens so degraded were classed among the Caerites; whence we find
-the expressions _aerarium facere_ and _in tabulas Caeritum referre_
-used as synonymous. Persons who were made _infames_ likewise became
-aerarians, for they lost the jus honorum and the suffragium. The
-aerarians had to pay a tributum pro capite which was considerably
-higher than that paid by the other citizens. They were not allowed to
-serve in the legions.
-
-
-AERĀRĬI TRĬBŪNI. [AES EQUESTRE.]
-
-
-AERĀRĬUM (τὸ δημόσιον), the public treasury at Rome, and hence the
-public money itself. After the banishment of the kings the temple
-of Saturn was employed as the place for keeping the public money,
-and it continued to be so used till the later times of the empire.
-Besides the public money and the accounts connected with it, various
-other things were preserved in the treasury; of these the most
-important were:--1. The standards of the legions. 2. The various
-laws passed from time to time, engraven on brazen tables. 3. The
-decrees of the senate, which were entered there in books kept for the
-purpose, though the original documents were preserved in the temple
-of Ceres under the custody of the aediles. 4. Various other public
-documents, the reports and despatches of all generals and governors
-of provinces, the names of all foreign ambassadors that came to Rome,
-&c. Under the republic the aerarium was divided into two parts: the
-_common_ treasury, in which were deposited the regular taxes, and
-from which were taken the sums of money needed for the ordinary
-expenditure of the state; and the _sacred_ treasury (_aerarium
-sanctum_ or _sanctius_), which was never touched except in cases of
-extreme peril. Both of these treasuries were in the temple of Saturn,
-but in distinct parts of the temple. The produce of a tax of five
-per cent. (_vicesima_) upon the value of every manumitted slave,
-called _aurum vicesimarium_, was paid into the sacred treasury, as
-well as a portion of the immense wealth obtained by the Romans in
-their conquests in the East. Under Augustus the provinces and the
-administration of the government were divided between the senate,
-as the representative of the old Roman people, and the Caesar: all
-the property of the former continued to be called _aerarium_, and
-that of the latter received the name of _fiscus_. Augustus also
-established a third treasury, to provide for the pay and support of
-the army, and this received the name of _aerarium militare_. He also
-imposed several new taxes to be paid into this aerarium. In the time
-of the republic, the entire management of the revenues of the state
-belonged to the senate; and under the superintendence and control of
-the senate the quaestors had the charge of the aerarium. In B.C. 28,
-Augustus deprived the quaestors of the charge of the treasury and
-gave it to two praefects, whom he allowed the senate to choose from
-among the praetors at the end of their year of office. Various other
-changes were made with respect to the charge of the aerarium, but it
-was eventually entrusted, in the reign of Trajan, to praefects, who
-appear to have held their office for two years.
-
-
-AES (χαλκός), properly signifies a compound of copper and tin,
-corresponding to what we call _bronze_. It is incorrect to translate
-it _brass_, which is a combination of copper and zinc, since all the
-specimens of ancient objects, formed of the material called aes,
-are found upon analysis to contain no zinc. The employment of aes
-was very general among the ancients; money, vases, and utensils of
-all sorts, being made of it. All the most ancient coins in Rome and
-the old Italian states were made of aes, and hence money in general
-was called by this name. For the same reason we have _aes alienum_,
-meaning debt, and _aera_ in the plural, pay to the soldiers. The
-Romans had no other coinage except bronze or copper (_aes_), till
-B.C. 269, five years before the first Punic war, when silver was
-first coined; gold was not coined till sixty-two years after silver.
-The first coinage of aes is usually attributed to Servius Tullius,
-who is said to have stamped the money with the image of cattle
-(_pecus_), whence it is called _pecunia_. According to some accounts,
-it was coined from the commencement of the city, and we know that
-the old Italian states possessed a bronze or copper coinage from the
-earliest times. The first coinage was the _as_ [AS], which originally
-was a pound weight; but as in course of time the weight of the _as_
-was reduced not only in Rome, but in the other Italian states, and
-this reduction in weight was not uniform in the different states,
-it became usual in all bargains to pay the asses according to their
-weight, and not according to their nominal value. The _aes grave_ was
-not the old heavy coins as distinguished from the lighter modern; but
-it signified any number of copper coins reckoned according to the old
-style, by weight. There was, therefore, no occasion for the state
-to suppress the circulation of the old copper coins, since in all
-bargains the asses were not reckoned by tale, but by weight.--Bronze
-or copper (χαλκός) was very little used by the Greeks for money in
-early times. Silver was originally the universal currency, and copper
-appears to have been seldom coined till after the time of Alexander
-the Great. The copper coin was called _Chalcous_ (χαλκούς). The
-smallest silver coin at Athens was the quarter-obol, and the chalcous
-was the half of that, or the eighth of an obol. In later times, the
-obol was coined of copper as well as silver.
-
-
-AES CIRCUMFORĀNĔUM, money borrowed from the Roman bankers
-(_argentarii_), who had shops in porticoes round the forum.
-
-
-AES ĔQUESTRE, AES HORDĔĀRĬUM, and AES MĪLĬTĀRE, were the ancient
-terms for the pay of the Roman soldiers, before the regular
-_stipendium_ was introduced. The _aes equestre_ was the sum of
-money given for the purchase of the horse of an eques; the _aes
-hordearium_, the sum paid yearly for its keep, in other words the
-pay of an eques; and the _aes militare_, the pay of a foot soldier.
-None of this money seems to have been taken from the public treasury,
-but to have been paid by certain private persons, to whom this duty
-was assigned by the state. The _aes hordearium_, which amounted to
-2000 asses, had to be paid by single women (_viduae_, i.e. both
-maidens and widows) and orphans (_orbi_), provided they possessed a
-certain amount of property. The _aes equestre_, which amounted to
-10,000 asses, was probably also paid by the same class of persons.
-The _aes militare_, the amount of which is not expressly mentioned,
-had to be paid by the _tribuni aerarii_, and if not paid, the foot
-soldiers had a right of distress against them. It is generally
-assumed that these _tribuni aerarii_ were magistrates connected with
-the treasury, and that they were the assistants of the quaestors;
-but there are good reasons for believing that the _tribuni aerarii_
-were private persons, who were liable to the payment of the _aes
-militare_, and upon whose property a distress might be levied, if
-the money were not paid. They were probably persons whose property
-was rated at a certain sum in the census, and we may conjecture that
-they obtained the name of _tribuni aerarii_ because they levied the
-_tributum_, which was imposed for the purpose of paying the army,
-and then paid it to the soldiers. These _tribuni aerarii_ were no
-longer needed when the state took into its own hands the payment of
-the troops; but they were revived in B.C. 70, as a distinct class in
-the commonwealth, by the Lex Aurelia, which gave the judicia to the
-senators, equites and tribuni aerarii.
-
-
-AES UXŌRĬUM, was a tax paid by men who reached old age without having
-married. It was first imposed by the censors in B.C. 403. [LEX JULIA
-ET PAPIA POPPAEA.]
-
-
-AESYMNĒTES (αἰσυμνήτης), a person who was sometimes invested with
-unlimited power in the Greek states. His power partook in some degree
-of the nature both of kingly and tyrannical authority; since he was
-appointed legally, and did not usurp the government, but at the same
-time was not bound by any laws in his public administration. The
-office was not hereditary, nor was it held for life; but it only
-continued for a limited time, or till some object was accomplished.
-Thus we read that the inhabitants of Mytilene appointed Pittacus
-aesymnetes, in order to prevent the return of Alcaeus and the other
-exiles. Dionysius compares it with the dictatorship of Rome. In some
-states, such as Cyme and Chalcedon, it was the title borne by the
-regular magistrates.
-
-
-AETAS. [INFANS; IMPUBES.]
-
-
-AETŌLĬCUM FOEDUS (κοινὸν τῶν Αἰτώλων), the Aetolian league, appears
-as a powerful political body soon after the death of Alexander
-the Great, viz. during the Lamian war against Antipater. The
-characteristic difference between the Aetolian and Achaean leagues
-was that the former originally consisted of a confederacy of nations
-or tribes, while the latter was a confederacy of towns. The sovereign
-power of the confederacy was vested in the general assemblies of
-all the confederates (κοινὸν τῶν Αἰτώλων, _concilium Aetolorum_),
-and this assembly had the right to discuss all questions respecting
-peace and war, and to elect the great civil or military officers
-of the league. The ordinary place of meeting was Thermon, but on
-extraordinary occasions assemblies were also held in other towns
-belonging to the league, though they were not situated in the country
-of Aetolia Proper. The questions which were to be brought before
-the assembly were sometimes discussed previously by a committee,
-selected from the great mass, and called Apocleti (ἀπόκλητοι). The
-general assembly usually met in the autumn, when the officers of the
-league were elected. The highest among them, as among those of the
-Achaean league, bore the title of _Strategus_ (στρατηγός), whose
-office lasted only for one year. The strategus had the right to
-convoke the assembly; he presided in it, introduced the subjects for
-deliberation, and levied the troops. The officers next in rank to the
-strategus were the hipparchus and the public scribe. The political
-existence of the league was destroyed in B.C. 189 by the treaty
-with Rome, and the treachery of the Roman party among the Aetolians
-themselves caused in B.C. 167 five hundred and fifty of the leading
-patriots to be put to death, and those who survived the massacre were
-carried to Rome as prisoners.
-
-
-ĀĔTŌMA (ἀέτωμα). [FASTIGIUM.]
-
-
-AFFĪNES, AFFĪNĬTAS, or ADFĪNES, ADFĪNĬTAS. Affines are the _cognati_
-[COGNATI] of husband and wife, the cognati of the husband becoming
-the affines of the wife, and the cognati of the wife the affines
-of the husband. The father of a husband is the _socer_ of the
-husband’s wife, and the father of a wife is the _socer_ of the wife’s
-husband. The term _socrus_ expresses the same affinity with respect
-to the husband’s and wife’s mothers. A son’s wife is _nurus_, or
-daughter-in-law to the son’s parents; a wife’s husband is _gener_, or
-son-in-law to the wife’s parents. Thus the _avus_, _avia_--_pater_,
-_mater_--of the wife became by the marriage respectively the _socer
-magnus_, _prosocrus_, or _socrus magna_--_socer_, _socrus_--of the
-husband, who becomes with respect to them severally _progener_ and
-_gener_. In like manner the corresponding ancestors of the husband
-respectively assume the same names with respect to the son’s wife,
-who becomes with respect to them _pronurus_ and _nurus_. The son and
-daughter of a husband or wife born of a prior marriage are called
-_privignus_ and _privigna_, with respect to their step-father or
-step-mother; and with respect to such children, the step-father
-and step-mother are severally called _vitricus_ and _noverca_. The
-husband’s brother becomes _levir_ with respect to the wife, and his
-sister becomes _glos_ (the Greek γάλως). Marriage was unlawful among
-persons who had become such affines as above mentioned.
-
-
-ĂGALMA (ἄγαλμα) is a general name for a statue or image to represent
-a god.
-
-
-ĂGĀSO, a groom, whose business it was to take care of the horses. The
-word is also used for a driver of beasts of burden, and is sometimes
-applied to a slave who had to perform the lowest menial duties.
-
-
-ĂGĂTHŎERGI (ἀγαθοεργοί). In time of war the kings of Sparta had a
-body-guard of three hundred of the noblest of the Spartan youths
-(ἱππεῖς), of whom the five eldest retired every year, and were
-employed for one year under the name of _Agathoergi_, in missions to
-foreign states.
-
-
-ĂGĔLA (ἀγέλη), an assembly of young men in Crete, who lived together
-from their eighteenth year till the time of their marriage. An
-_agela_ always consisted of the sons of the most noble citizens, and
-the members of it were obliged to marry at the same time.
-
-
-ĂGĒMA (ἄγημα from ἄγω), the name of a chosen body of troops in the
-Macedonian army, usually consisting of horsemen.
-
-
-ĂGER PUBLĬCUS, the public land, was the land belonging to the Roman
-state. It was a recognised principle among the Italian nations that
-the territory of a conquered people belonged to the conquerors.
-Accordingly, the Romans were constantly acquiring fresh territory
-by the conquest of the surrounding people. The land thus acquired
-was usually disposed of in the following way. 1. The land which was
-under cultivation was either distributed among colonists, who were
-sent to occupy it, or it was sold, or it was let out to farm. 2. The
-land which was then out of cultivation, and which, owing to war,
-was by far the greater part, might be occupied by any of the Roman
-citizens on the payment of a portion of the yearly produce; a tenth
-of the produce of arable land, and a fifth of the produce of the
-land planted with the vine, the olive, and other valuable trees. 3.
-The land which had previously served as the common pasture land of
-the conquered state, or was suitable for the purpose, continued to
-be used as pasture land by the Roman citizens, who had, however, to
-pay a certain sum of money for the cattle which they turned upon it.
-The occupation of the public land spoken of above under the second
-head was always expressed by the words _possessio_ and _possidere_,
-and the occupier of the land was called the _possessor_. The land
-continued to be the property of the state; and accordingly we must
-distinguish between the terms _possessio_, which merely indicated
-the use or enjoyment of the land, and _dominium_, which expressed
-ownership, and was applied to private land, of which a man had the
-absolute ownership. The right of occupying the public land belonged
-only to citizens, and consequently only to the patricians originally,
-as they were the state. The plebeians were only subjects, and
-consequently had no right to the property of the state; but it is
-probable that they were permitted to feed their cattle on the public
-pasture lands. Even when the plebeians became a separate estate by
-the constitution of Servius Tullius, they still obtained no right to
-share in the possession of the public land, which continued to be the
-exclusive privilege of the patricians; but as a compensation, each
-individual plebeian received an assignment of a certain quantity of
-the public land as his own property. Henceforth the possession of the
-public land was the privilege of the patricians, and an assignment
-of a portion of it the privilege of the plebeians. As the state
-acquired new lands by conquest, the plebeians ought to have received
-assignments of part of them, but since the patricians were the
-governing body, they generally refused to make any such assignment,
-and continued to keep the whole as part of the ager publicus, whereby
-the enjoyment of it belonged to them alone. Hence, we constantly
-read of the plebeians claiming, and sometimes enforcing, a division
-of such land. With the extension of the conquests of Rome, the ager
-publicus constantly increased, and thus a large portion of Italy fell
-into the hands of the patricians, who frequently withheld from the
-state the annual payments of a tenth and a fifth, which they were
-bound to pay for the possession of the land, and thus deprived the
-state of a fund for the expenses of the war. In addition to which
-they used slaves as cultivators and shepherds, since freemen were
-liable to be drawn off from field-labour to military service, and
-slave-labour was consequently far cheaper. In this way the number
-of free labourers was diminished, and that of slaves augmented.
-To remedy this state of things several laws were from time to time
-proposed and carried, which were most violently opposed by the
-patricians. All laws which related to the _public_ land are called
-by the general title of _Leges Agrariae_, and accordingly all the
-early laws relating to the possession of the public land by the
-patricians, and to the assignment of portions of it to the plebeians,
-were strictly agrarian laws; but the first law to which this name
-is usually applied was proposed soon after the establishment of the
-republic by the consul, Sp. Cassius, in B.C. 486. Its object was to
-set apart the portion of the public land which the patricians were to
-possess, to divide the rest among the plebeians, to levy the payment
-due for the possession, and to apply it to paying the army. The first
-law, however, which really deprived the patricians of the advantages
-they had previously enjoyed in the occupation of the public land was
-the agrarian law of C. Licinius Stolo (B.C. 366), which limited each
-individual’s possession of public land to 500 jugera, and declared
-that no individual should have above 100 large and 500 smaller cattle
-on the public pastures: it further enacted that the surplus land was
-to be divided among the plebeians. As this law, however, was soon
-disregarded, it was revived again by Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (B.C.
-133), with some alterations and additions. The details of the other
-agrarian laws mentioned in Roman history are given under the name of
-the lex by which they are called. [LEX.]
-
-
-AGGER (χῶμα), from _ad_ and _gero_, was used in general for a heap
-or mound of any kind. It was more particularly applied:--(1) To a
-mound, usually composed of earth, which was raised round a besieged
-town, and which was gradually increased in breadth and height, till
-it equalled or overtopped the walls. The agger was sometimes made,
-not only of earth, but of wood, hurdles, &c.; whence we read of the
-agger being set on fire.--(2) To the earthen wall surrounding a Roman
-encampment, composed of the earth dug from the ditch (_fossa_), which
-was usually 9 feet broad and 7 feet deep; but if any attack was
-apprehended, the depth was increased to 12 feet and the breadth to 13
-feet. Sharp stakes, &c., were usually fixed upon the agger, which was
-then called _vallum_. When both words are used, the agger means the
-mound of earth, and the vallum the stakes, &c., which were fixed upon
-the agger.
-
-
-ĂGITĀTŌRES. [CIRCUS.]
-
-
-AGMEN. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-AGNĀTI. [COGNATI.]
-
-
-AGNŌMEN [NOMEN.]
-
-
-ĂGŌNĀLĬA or ĂGŌNĬA, one of the most ancient festivals at Rome, its
-institution being attributed to Numa Pompilius. It was celebrated on
-the 9th of January, the 21st of May, and the 11th of December; to
-which we should probably add the 17th of March, the day on which the
-Liberalia was celebrated, since this festival is also called _Agonia_
-or _Agonium Martiale_. The object of this festival was a disputed
-point among the ancients themselves. The victim which was offered
-was a ram; the person who offered it was the rex sacrificulus; and
-the place where it was offered was the regia. Now the ram was the
-usual victim presented to the guardian gods of the state, and the
-rex sacrificulus and the regia could be employed only for such
-ceremonies as were connected with the highest gods and affected the
-weal of the whole state. Regarding the sacrifice in this light, we
-see a reason for its being offered several times in the year. The
-etymology of the name was also a subject of much dispute among the
-ancients; and the various etymologies that were proposed are given
-at length by Ovid (_Fast._ i. 319-332). None of these, however, are
-at all satisfactory; and we would therefore suggest that it may have
-received its name from the sacrifice having been offered on the
-Quirinal hill, which was originally called _Agonus_.
-
-
-ĂGŌNES (ἀγῶνες), the general term among the Greeks for the contests
-at their great national games. The word also signified law-suits, and
-was especially employed in the phrase ἀγῶνες τιμητοί and ἀτίμητοι.
-[TIMEMA.]
-
-
-ĂGONŎTHĔTAE (ἀγωνοθέται), persons in the Grecian games who decided
-disputes, and adjudged the prizes to the victors. Originally, the
-person who instituted the contest and offered the prize was the
-_Agonothetes_, and this continued to be the practice in those games
-which were instituted by kings or private persons. But in the great
-public games, such as the Isthmian, Pythian, &c., the _Agonothetae_
-were either the representatives of different states, as the
-Amphictyons at the Pythian games, or were chosen from the people in
-whose country the games were celebrated. During the flourishing times
-of the Grecian republics the Eleans were the _Agonothetae_ in the
-Olympic games, the Corinthians in the Isthmian games, the Amphictyons
-in the Pythian games, and the Corinthians, Argives, and inhabitants
-of Cleonae in the Nemaean games. The _Agonothetae_ were also called
-_Aesymnetae_ (αἰσυμνῆται), _Agonarchae_ (ἀγωνάρχαι), _Agonodicae_
-(ἀγωνοδίκαι), _Athlothetae_ (ἀθλοθέται), _Rhabduchi_ (ῥαβδοῦχοι),
-or _Rhabdonomi_ (ῥαβδονόμοι, from the staff which they carried as
-an emblem of authority), _Brabeis_ (βραβεῖς), and _Brabeutae_
-(βραβευταί).
-
-
-ĂGŎRA (ἀγορά) properly means an assembly of any kind, and is usually
-employed by Homer to designate the general assembly of the people.
-The Agora seems to have been considered an essential part of the
-constitution of the early Grecian states. It was usually convoked
-by the king, but occasionally by some distinguished chieftain,
-as, for example, by Achilles before Troy. The king occupied the
-most important seat in these assemblies, and near him sat the
-nobles, while the people stood or sat in a circle around them. The
-people appear to have had no right of speaking or voting in these
-assemblies, but merely to have been called together to hear what
-had been already agreed upon in the council of the nobles, and to
-express their feelings as a body. The council of the nobles is called
-_Boulé_ (βουλή) and _Thoöcus_ (θόωκος), and sometimes even _Agora_.
-Among the Athenians, the proper name for the assembly of the people
-was _Ecclesia_ (ἐκκλησία), and among the Dorians _Halia_ (ἁλία). The
-term Agora was confined at Athens to the assemblies of the phylae and
-demi. The name Agora was early transferred from the assembly itself
-to the place in which it was held; and thus it came to be used for
-the market-place, where goods of all descriptions were bought and
-sold. Hence it answers to the Roman _forum_.
-
-
-ĂGŎRĀNŎMI (ἀγορανόμοι), public functionaries in most of the Grecian
-states, whose duties corresponded in many respects with those of the
-Roman aediles. At Athens their number was ten, five for the city, and
-five for the Peiraeus, and they were chosen by lot. The principal
-duty of the Agoranomi was, as their name imports, to inspect the
-market, and to see that all the laws respecting its regulation were
-properly observed. They had the inspection of all things that were
-sold in the market, with the exception of corn, which was subject
-to the jurisdiction of special officers, called _Sitophylaces_
-(σιτοφύλακες). They regulated the price and quantity of articles
-exposed for sale, and punished all persons convicted of cheating,
-especially by means of false weights and measures. They had the power
-of fining all citizens who infringed upon the rules of the market,
-and of whipping all slaves and foreigners guilty of a like offence.
-They also collected the market dues, and had the care of all the
-temples and fountains in the market place.
-
-
-AGRĀRĬAE LĒGES. [AGER PUBLICUS; LEX.]
-
-
-AGRAULĬA (ἀγραύλια) was a festival celebrated by the Athenians
-in honour of Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops. It was perhaps
-connected with the solemn oath, which all Athenians, when they
-arrived at manhood (ἔφηβοι), were obliged to take in the temple of
-Agraulos, that they would fight for their country, and always observe
-its laws.
-
-
-AGRĪMENSŌRES, or “land surveyors,” a college established under the
-Roman emperors. Like the jurisconsults, they had regular schools,
-and were paid handsome salaries by the state. Their business was
-to measure unassigned lands for the state, and ordinary lands for
-the proprietors, and to fix and maintain boundaries. Their writings
-on the subject of their art were very numerous; and we have still
-scientific treatises on the law of boundaries, such as those by
-Frontinus and Hyginus.
-
-
-AGRIŌNĬA (ἀγριώνια), a festival which was celebrated at Orchomenus,
-in Boeotia, in honour of Dionysus, surnamed Agrionius. A human being
-used originally to be sacrificed at this festival, but this sacrifice
-seems to have been avoided in later times. One instance, however,
-occurred in the days of Plutarch.
-
-
-AGRONŎMI (ἀγρονόμοι), the country-police, probably in Attica, whose
-duties corresponded in most respects to those of the astynomi in the
-city, and who appear to have performed nearly the same duties as the
-hylori (ὑλωροί).
-
-
-AGRŎTĔRAS THŬSIA (ἀγροτέρας θυσία), a festival celebrated every year
-at Athens in honour of Artemis, surnamed Agrotera (from ἄγρα, the
-chase). It was solemnized on the sixth of the month of Boëdromion,
-and consisted of a sacrifice of 500 goats, which continued to be
-offered in the time of Xenophon. Its origin is thus related:--When
-the Persians invaded Attica, the Athenians made a vow to sacrifice
-to Artemis Agrotera as many goats as there should be enemies slain
-at Marathon. But as the number of enemies slain was so great that
-an equal number of goats could not be found at once, the Athenians
-decreed that 500 should be sacrificed every year.
-
-
-AGYRTAE (ἀγύρται), mendicant priests, who were accustomed to travel
-through the different towns of Greece, soliciting alms for the gods
-whom they served, and whose images they carried, either on their
-shoulders or on beasts of burthen. They were, generally speaking,
-persons of the lowest and most abandoned character.
-
-
-ĂHĒNUM. [AENUM.]
-
-
-AIKIAS DĬKĒ (αἰκίας δίκη), an action brought at Athens, before the
-court of the Forty (οἱ τετταράκοντα), against any individual who
-had struck a citizen. Any citizen who had been thus insulted might
-proceed against the offending party, either by the αἰκίας δίκη,
-which was a private action, or by the ὕβρεως γραφή, which was looked
-upon in the light of a public prosecution.
-
-
-AITHOUSA (αἴθουσα), a word only used by Homer, is probably for
-αἴθουσα στοά, a portico exposed to the sun. From the passages in
-which it occurs, it seems to denote a covered portico, opening on to
-the court of the house, αὐλή, in front of the vestibule, πρόθυρον.
-
-
-ĀLA, part of a Roman house. [DOMUS.]
-
-
-ĀLA, ĀLĀRES, ĀLĀRĬI. _Ala_, which literally means _a wing_, was from
-the earliest epochs employed to denote the wing of an army, but in
-process of time was frequently used in a restricted sense.--(1) When
-a Roman army was composed of Roman citizens exclusively, the flanks
-of the infantry when drawn up in battle array were covered on the
-right and left by the cavalry; and hence _Ala_ denoted the body of
-horse which was attached to and served along with the foot-soldiers
-of the legion.--(2) When, at a later date, the Roman armies were
-composed partly of Roman citizens and partly of _Socii_, either
-_Latini_ or _Italici_, it became the practice to marshal the Roman
-troops in the centre of the battle line and the Socii upon the wings.
-Hence _ala_ and _alarii_ denoted the contingent furnished by the
-allies, both horse and foot, and the two divisions were distinguished
-as _dextera ala_ and _sinistra ala_.--(3) When the whole of the
-inhabitants of Italy had been admitted to the privileges of Roman
-citizens the terms _alarii_, _cohortes alariae_ were transferred
-to the _foreign_ troops serving along with the Roman armies.--(4)
-Lastly, under the empire, the term _ala_ was applied to regiments
-of horse, raised it would seem with very few exceptions in the
-provinces, serving apart from the legions and the cavalry of the
-legions.
-
-
-ĂLĂBARCHĒS (ἀλαβάρχης), the chief magistrate of the Jews at
-Alexandria, whose duties, as far as the government was concerned,
-chiefly consisted in raising and paying the taxes.
-
-
-ĂLĂBASTER or ĂLĂBASTRUM, a vessel or pot used for containing
-perfumes, or rather ointments, made of that species of marble which
-mineralogists call _gypsum_, and which is usually designated by the
-name of _alabaster_. When varieties of colour occur in the same
-stone, and are disposed in bands or horizontal strata, it is often
-called onyx alabaster; and when dispersed irregularly, as if in
-clouds, it is distinguished as agate alabaster. The term seems to
-have been employed to denote vessels appropriated to these uses, even
-when they were not made of the material from which it is supposed
-they originally received their name. Thus Theocritus speaks of
-golden alabastra. These vessels were of a tapering shape, and very
-often had a long narrow neck, which was sealed; so that when Mary,
-the sister of Lazarus, is said by St. Mark to break the alabaster
-box of ointment for the purpose of anointing our Saviour, it appears
-probable that she only broke the extremity of the neck, which was
-thus closed.
-
-
-ĀLĀRĬI. [ALA.]
-
-
-ĂLAUDA, a Gaulish word, the prototype of the modern French
-_Alouette_, denoting a small crested bird of the lark kind. The name
-alauda was bestowed by Julius Caesar on a legion of picked men, which
-he raised at his own expense among the inhabitants of Transalpine
-Gaul, about the year B.C. 55, which he equipped and disciplined after
-the Roman fashion, and on which he at a subsequent period bestowed
-the freedom of the state. The designation was, in all probability,
-applied from a plume upon the helmet, resembling the “apex” of the
-bird in question, or from the general shape and appearance of the
-head-piece.
-
-
-ALBŎGĂLĒRUS. [APEX.]
-
-
-ALBUM, a tablet of any material on which the praetor’s edicts, and
-the rules relating to actions and interdicts, were written. The
-tablet was put up in a public place, in order that all the world
-might have notice of its contents. According to some authorities,
-the album was so called because it was either a white material or a
-material whitened, and of course the writing would be of a different
-colour. According to other authorities, it was so called because the
-writing was in white letters. Probably the word album originally
-meant any tablet containing anything of a public nature. We know that
-it was, in course of time, used to signify a list of any public body;
-thus we find _album judicum_, or the body out of which judices were
-to be chosen [JUDEX], and _album senatorium_, or list of senators.
-
-
-ĀLĔA, gaming, or playing at a game of chance of any kind: hence
-_aleo_, _aleator_, a gamester, a gambler. Playing with _tali_, or
-_tesserae_, was generally understood, because this was by far the
-most common game of chance among the Romans. Gaming was forbidden
-by the Roman laws, both during the times of the republic and under
-the emperors, but was tolerated in the month of December at the
-Saturnalia, which was a period of general relaxation; and old men
-were allowed to amuse themselves in this manner at all times.
-
-
-ĂLĬCŬLA (ἄλλιξ or ἄλληξ), an upper dress, in all probability
-identical with the chlamys.
-
-
-ĂLIMENTĀRII PŬĔRI ET PŬELLAE. In the Roman republic the poorer
-citizens were assisted by public distributions of corn, oil, and
-money, which were called _congiaria_. [CONGIARIUM.] The Emperor Nerva
-was the first who extended them to children, and Trajan appointed
-them to be made every month, both to orphans and to the children of
-poor parents. The children who received them were called _pueri et
-puellae alimentarii_, and also (from the emperor) _pueri puellaeque
-Ulpiani_.
-
-
-ĀLĬPĬLUS, a slave, who attended on bathers to remove the superfluous
-hair from their bodies.
-
-
-ĂLIPTAE (ἀλείπται), among the Greeks, were persons who anointed the
-bodies of the athletae preparatory to their entering the palaestra.
-The chief object of this anointing was to close the pores of the
-body, in order to prevent much perspiration, and the weakness
-consequent thereon. The athleta was again anointed after the contest,
-in order to restore the tone of the strained muscles. He then bathed,
-and had the dust, sweat, and oil scraped off his body, by means
-of an instrument similar to the strigil of the Romans, and called
-_stlengis_ (στλεγγίς), and afterwards _xystra_ (ξύστρα). The aliptae
-took advantage of the knowledge they necessarily acquired of the
-state of the muscles of the athletae, and their general strength or
-weakness of body, to advise them as to their exercises and mode of
-life. They were thus a kind of medical trainers. Among the Romans the
-aliptae were slaves who scrubbed and anointed their masters in the
-baths. They, too, like the Greek aliptae, appear to have attended to
-their masters’ constitution and mode of life. They were also called
-_unctores_. They used in their operations a kind of scraper called
-strigil, towels (_lintea_), a cruise of oil (_guttus_), which was
-usually of horn, a bottle (_ampulla_), and a small vessel called
-_lenticula_.
-
-
-[Illustration: Allocutio (Coin of Nero.)]
-
-ALLŎCŪTĬO, an harangue made by a Roman imperator to his soldiers,
-to encourage them before battle, or on other occasions. On coins
-we frequently find a figure of an imperator standing on a platform
-and addressing the soldiers below him. Such coins bear the epigraph
-ADLOCUTIO.
-
-
-[Illustration: Allocutio. (Coin of Galba.)]
-
-ALŌA or HALŌA (ἀλῶα, ἁλῶα), an Attic festival, but celebrated
-principally at Eleusis, in honour of Demeter and Dionysus, the
-inventors of the plough and protectors of the fruits of the earth.
-
-
-ALTĀRE. [ARA.]
-
-
-ĂLŪTA. [CALCEUS.]
-
-
-ĂLỸTAE (ἀλύται), persons whose business it was to keep order in
-the public games. They received their orders from an _alytarches_
-(ἀλυτάρχης), who was himself under the direction of the agonothetae,
-or hellenodicae.
-
-
-ĀMĂNŬENSIS, or AD MĂNUM SERVUS, a slave, or freedman, whose office it
-was to write letters and other things under his master’s direction.
-The amanuenses must not be confounded with another sort of slaves,
-also called _ad manum servi_, who were always kept ready to be
-employed in any business.
-
-
-ĂMĂRYNTHĬA, or ĂMĂRYSĬA (ἀμαρύνθια or ἀμαρύσια), a festival of
-Artemis Amarynthia or Amarysia, celebrated, as it seems, originally
-at Amarynthus in Euboea, with extraordinary splendour, but also
-solemnised in several places in Attica, such as Athmone.
-
-
-AMBARVĀLIĂ. [ARVALES FRATRES.]
-
-
-AMBĬTUS, which literally signifies “a going about,” cannot, perhaps,
-be more nearly expressed than by our word _canvassing_. After the
-plebs had formed a distinct class at Rome, and when the whole body
-of the citizens had become very greatly increased, we frequently
-read, in the Roman writers, of the great efforts which it was
-necessary for candidates to make in order to secure the votes of the
-citizens. At Rome, as in every community into which the element of
-popular election enters, solicitation of votes, and open or secret
-influence and bribery, were among the means by which a candidate
-secured his election to the offices of state. The following are the
-principal terms occurring in the Roman writers in relation to the
-canvassing for the public offices:--A candidate was called _petitor_;
-and his opponent with reference to him _competitor_. A candidate
-(_candidatus_) was so called from his appearing in the public places,
-such as the fora and Campus Martius, before his fellow-citizens,
-in a whitened toga. On such occasions the candidate was attended
-by his friends (_deductores_), or followed by the poorer citizens
-(_sectatores_), who could in no other manner show their good will
-or give their assistance. The word _assiduitas_ expressed both
-the continual presence of the candidate at Rome and his continual
-solicitations. The candidate, in going his rounds or taking his
-walk, was accompanied by a _nomenclator_, who gave him the names
-of such persons as he might meet; the candidate was thus enabled
-to address them by their name, an indirect compliment, which could
-not fail to be generally gratifying to the electors. The candidate
-accompanied his address with a shake of the hand (_prensatio_). The
-term _benignitas_ comprehended generally any kind of treating, as
-shows, feasts, &c. The _ambitus_, which was the object of several
-penal enactments, taken as a generic term, comprehended the two
-species--_ambitus_ and _largitiones_ (bribery). _Liberalitas_ and
-_benignitas_ are opposed by Cicero, as things allowable, to _ambitus_
-and _largitio_, as things illegal. Money was paid for votes; and,
-in order to insure secrecy and secure the elector, persons called
-_interpretes_ were employed to make the bargain, _sequestres_ to hold
-the money till it was to be paid, and _divisores_ to distribute it.
-The offence of ambitus was a matter which belonged to the judicia
-publica, and the enactments against it were numerous. One of the
-earliest, though not the earliest of all, the Lex Cornelia Baebia
-(B.C. 181) was specially directed against _largitiones_. Those
-convicted under it were incapacitated from being candidates for
-ten years. The Lex Cornelia Fulvia (B.C. 159) punished the offence
-with exile. The Lex Acilia Calpurnia (B.C. 67) imposed a fine on
-the offending party, with exclusion from the senate and all public
-offices. The Lex Tullia (B.C. 63), passed in the consulship of
-Cicero, in addition to the penalty of the Acilian law, inflicted
-ten years’ exsilium on the offender; and, among other things,
-forbade a person to exhibit gladiatorial shows (_gladiatores dare_)
-within any two years in which he was a candidate, unless he was
-required to do so, on a fixed day, by a testator’s will. Two years
-afterwards the Lex Aufidia was proposed, but not passed; by which,
-among other things, it was provided that, if a candidate promised
-(_pronuntiavit_) money to a tribe, and did not pay it, he should
-be unpunished; but, if he did pay the money, he should further pay
-to each tribe (annually?) 3000 sesterces as long as he lived. This
-absurd proposal occasioned the witticism of Cicero, who said that
-Clodius observed the law by anticipation; for he promised, but did
-not pay. The Lex Licinia (B.C. 55) was specially directed against the
-offence of _sodalitium_, or the wholesale bribery of a tribe by gifts
-and treating; and another lex, passed (B.C. 52) when Pompey was sole
-consul, had for its object the establishment of a speedier course
-of proceeding on trials for ambitus. All these enactments failed
-in completely accomplishing their object. That which no law could
-suppress, so long as the old popular forms retained any of their
-pristine vigour, was accomplished by the imperial usurpation. Caesar,
-when dictator, nominated some of the candidates for public offices:
-as to the consulship, he managed the appointments to that office just
-as he pleased. The popular forms of election were observed during the
-time of Augustus. Tiberius transferred the elections from the comitia
-to the senate, by which the offence of ambitus, in its proper sense,
-entirely disappeared. The trials for ambitus were numerous in the
-time of the republic. The oration of Cicero in defence of L. Murena,
-who was charged with ambitus, and that in defence of Cn. Plancius,
-who was charged with _sodalitium_, are both extant.
-
-
-AMBRŎSĬA (ἀμβροσία), the food of the gods, which conferred upon them
-eternal youth and immortality, and was brought to Jupiter by pigeons.
-It was also used by the gods for anointing their body and hair;
-whence we read of the ambrosial locks of Jupiter.
-
-
-AMBŪBAIAE (probably from the Syriac _abub aubub_, a pipe), Eastern
-dancing girls, who frequented chiefly the Circus at Rome, and
-obtained their living by prostitution and lascivious songs and dances.
-
-
-AMBURBĬUM, a sacrifice which was performed at Rome for the
-purification of the city.
-
-
-AMENTUM. [HASTA.]
-
-
-ĂMICTŌRĬUM. [STROPHIUM.]
-
-
-ĂMICTUS. The verb _amicire_ is commonly opposed to _induere_,
-the former being applied to the putting on of the outer garment,
-the pallium, laena, or toga (ἱμάτιον, φᾶρος); the latter, to the
-putting on of the inner garment, the tunic (χιτών). In consequence
-of this distinction, the verbal nouns _amictus_ and _indutus_, even
-without any further denomination of the dress being added, indicate
-respectively the outer and inner clothing. In Greek _amicire_ is
-expressed by ἀμφιέννυσθαι, ἀμπέχεσθαι, ἐπιβάλλεσθαι, περιβάλλεσθαι:
-and _induere_ by ἐνδύνειν. Hence came ἀμπεχόνη, ἐπίβλημα, and
-ἐπιβόλαιον, περίβλημα, and περιβόλαιον, an outer garment, a cloak, a
-shawl; and ἔνδυμα, an inner garment, a tunic, a shirt.
-
-
-AMPHICTỸŎNES (ἀμφικτύονες). Institutions called amphictyonic appear
-to have existed in Greece from time immemorial. They seem to have
-been originally associations of neighbouring tribes, formed for the
-regulation of mutual intercourse and the protection of a common
-temple or sanctuary, at which the representatives of the different
-members met, both to transact business and to celebrate religious
-rites and games. One of these associations was of much greater
-importance than all the rest, and was called, by way of eminence,
-the _Amphictyonic League_ or _Council_ (ἀμφικτυονία). It differed
-from other similar associations in having two places of meeting, the
-sanctuaries of two divinities; which were the temple of Demeter, in
-the village of Anthela, near Thermopylae, where the deputies met
-in autumn; and that of Apollo, at Delphi, where they assembled in
-spring. Its connexion with the latter place not only contributed
-to its dignity, but also to its permanence. Its early history is
-involved in obscurity. Most of the ancients suppose it to have
-been founded by Amphictyon, the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, from
-whom they imagined that it derived its name: but this opinion is
-destitute of all foundation, and arose from the ancients assigning
-the establishment of their institutions to some mythical hero. There
-can be little doubt as to the true etymology of the word. It was
-originally written ἀμφικτίονες, and consequently signified those that
-dwelt around some particular locality. Its institution, however, is
-clearly of remote antiquity. It was originally composed of twelve
-_tribes_ (not cities or states, it must be observed), each of which
-tribes contained various independent cities or states. We learn
-from Aeschines, that in B.C. 343, eleven of these tribes were as
-follows:--The Thessalians, Boeotians (not Thebans only), Dorians,
-Ionians, Perrhaebians, Magnetes, Locrians, Oetaeans or Oenianians,
-Phthiots or Achaeans of Phthia, Malians, and Phocians; other lists
-leave us in doubt whether the remaining tribe were the Dolopes or
-Delphians; but as the Delphians could hardly be called a distinct
-tribe, their nobles appearing to have been Dorians, it seems probable
-that the Dolopes were originally members, and afterwards supplanted
-by the Delphians. All the states belonging to each of these tribes
-were on a footing of perfect equality. Thus Sparta enjoyed no
-advantages over Dorium and Cytinium, two small towns in Doris: and
-Athens, an Ionic city, was on a par with Eretria in Euboea, and
-Priene in Asia Minor, two other Ionic cities. The ordinary council
-was called _Pylaea_ (πυλαία), from its meeting in the neighbourhood
-of Pylae (Thermopylae), but the name was given to the session at
-Delphi as well as to that at Thermopylae. The council was composed of
-two classes of representatives, one called _Pylagorae_ (Πυλαγόραι),
-and the other _Hieromnemones_ (Ἱερομνήμονες). Athens sent three
-Pylagorae and one Hieromnemon; of whom the former were elected
-apparently for each session, and the latter by lot, probably for a
-longer period. Respecting the relative duties of the Pylagorae and
-Hieromnemones we have little information: the name of the latter
-implies that they had a more immediate connection with the temple. We
-are equally in the dark respecting the numbers who sat in the council
-and its mode of proceeding. It would seem that all the deputies had
-seats in the council, and took part in its deliberations; but if it
-be true, as appears from Aeschines, that each of the tribes had only
-two votes, it is clear that all the deputies could not have voted. In
-addition to the ordinary council, there was an _ecclesia_ (ἐκκλησία),
-or general assembly, including not only the classes above mentioned,
-but also those who had joined in the sacrifices, and were consulting
-the god. It was convened on extraordinary occasions by the chairman
-of the council. Of the duties of the Amphictyons nothing will give us
-a clearer view than the oath they took, which was as follows:--“They
-would destroy no city of the Amphictyons, nor cut off their streams
-in war or peace; and if any should do so, they would march against
-him, and destroy his cities; and should any pillage the property of
-the god, or be privy to or plan anything against what was in his
-temple (at Delphi), they would take vengeance on him with hand and
-foot, and voice, and all their might.” From this oath we see that
-the main duty of the deputies was the preservation of the rights and
-dignity of the temple of Delphi. We know, too, that after it was
-burnt down (B.C. 548), they contracted with the Alcmaeonidae for its
-rebuilding. History, moreover, teaches that if the council produced
-any palpable effects, it was from their interest in Delphi; and
-though they kept up a standing record of what ought to have been the
-international law of Greece, they sometimes acquiesced in, and at
-other times were parties to, the most iniquitous acts. Of this the
-case of Crissa is an instance. This town lay on the Gulf of Corinth,
-near Delphi, and was much frequented by pilgrims from the West. The
-Crissaeans were charged by the Delphians with undue exactions from
-these strangers. The council declared war against them, as guilty
-of a wrong against the god. The war lasted ten years, till, at the
-suggestion of Solon, the waters of the Pleistus were turned off,
-then poisoned, and turned again into the city. The besieged drank
-their fill, and Crissa was soon razed to the ground; and thus, if it
-were an Amphictyonic city, was a solemn oath doubly violated. Its
-territory--the rich Cirrhaean plain--was consecrated to the god,
-and curses imprecated upon whomsoever should till or dwell in it.
-Thus ended the First Sacred War (B.C. 585), in which the Athenians
-were the instruments of Delphian vengeance. The second or Phocian
-war (B.C. 350) was the most important in which the Amphictyons were
-concerned; and in this the Thebans availed themselves of the sanction
-of the council to take vengeance on their enemies, the Phocians. To
-do this, however, it was necessary to call in Philip of Macedon, who
-readily proclaimed himself the champion of Apollo, as it opened a
-pathway to his own ambition. The Phocians were subdued (B.C. 346),
-and the council decreed that all their cities, except Abae, should
-be razed, and the inhabitants dispersed in villages not containing
-more than fifty persons. Their two votes were given to Philip, who
-thereby gained a pretext for interfering with the affairs of Greece;
-and also obtained the recognition of his subjects as Hellenes. The
-Third Sacred War arose from the Amphissians tilling the devoted
-Cirrhaean plain. The Amphictyons called in the assistance of Philip,
-who soon reduced the Amphissians to subjection. Their submission
-was immediately followed by the battle of Chaeroneia (B.C. 338),
-and the extinction of the independence of Greece. In the following
-year, a congress of the Amphictyonic states was held, in which war
-was declared as if by united Greece against Persia, and Philip
-elected commander-in-chief. On this occasion the Amphictyons assumed
-the character of national representatives as of old, when they set
-a price upon the head of Ephialtes, for his treason to Greece at
-Thermopylae. It has been sufficiently shown that the Amphictyons
-themselves did not observe the oaths they took; and that they did not
-much alleviate the horrors of war, or enforce what they had sworn
-to do, is proved by many instances. Thus, for instance, Mycenae was
-destroyed by Argos (B.C. 535), Thespiae and Plataeae by Thebes,
-and Thebes herself swept from the face of the earth by Alexander,
-without the Amphictyons raising one word in opposition. Indeed, a
-few years before the Peloponnesian war, the council was a passive
-spectator of what Thucydides calls the Sacred War (ὁ ἱερὸς πόλεμος),
-when the Lacedaemonians made an expedition to Delphi, and put the
-temple into the hands of the Delphians, the Athenians, after their
-departure, restoring it to the Phocians. The council is rarely
-mentioned after the time of Philip. We are told that Augustus wished
-his new city, Nicopolis (A.D. 31), to be enrolled among the members.
-Pausanias, in the second century of our era, mentions it as still
-existing, but deprived of all power and influence.
-
-
-AMPHĬDRŎMĬA (ἀμφιδρόμια or δρομιάμφιον ἧμαρ), a family festival of
-the Athenians, at which the newly-born child was introduced into
-the family, and received its name. The friends and relations of the
-parents were invited to the festival of the amphidromia, which was
-held in the evening, and they generally appeared with presents. The
-house was decorated on the outside with olive branches when the child
-was a boy, or with garlands of wool when the child was a girl; and a
-repast was prepared for the guests. The child was carried round the
-fire by the nurse, and thus, as it were, presented to the gods of the
-house and to the family, and at the same time received its name, to
-which the guests were witnesses. The carrying of the child round the
-hearth was the principal part of the solemnity, from which its name
-was derived.
-
-[Illustration: Longitudinal Section of the Flavian Amphitheatre.]
-
-[Illustration: Elevation of one side of the preceding Section.
-
-EXPLANATION.
-
-  A, The arena.
-
-  _p_, The wall or podium inclosing it.
-
-  P, The podium itself, on which were chairs, or seats, for the
-  senators, &c.
-
-  M′, The first maenianum, or slope of benches, for the equestrian
-  order.
-
-  M″, The second maenianum.
-
-  M‴, The third maenianum, elevated considerably above the preceding
-  one, and appropriated to the pullati.
-
-  W, The colonnade, or gallery, which contained seats for women.
-
-  E, The narrow gallery round the summit of the interior, for the
-  attendants who worked the velarium.
-
-  _pr_, _pr_, The præcinctiones, or landings, at the top of the
-  first and second maenianum; in the pavement of which were grated
-  apertures, at intervals, to admit light into the vomitoria beneath
-  them.
-
-  V V V V, Vomitoria.
-
-  G G G, The three external galleries through the circumference of
-  the building, open to the arcades of the exterior.
-
-  _g g_, Inner gallery.
-
-The situation and arrangement of the staircases, &c., are not
-expressed, as they could not be rendered intelligible without plans
-at various levels of the building.]
-
-
-AMPHĬTHĔĀTRUM, an amphitheatre, was a place for the exhibition of
-public shows of combatants, wild beasts, and naval engagements, and
-was entirely surrounded with seats for the spectators; whereas,
-in those for dramatic performances, the seats were arranged in a
-semicircle facing the stage. An amphitheatre is therefore frequently
-described as a double theatre, consisting of two such semicircles,
-or halves, joined together, the spaces allotted to their orchestras
-becoming the inner inclosure, or area, termed the _arena_. The
-form, however, of the ancient amphitheatres was not a circle, but
-invariably an ellipse. Gladiatorial shows and combats of wild beasts
-(_venationes_) were first exhibited in the forum and the circus; and
-it appears that the ancient custom was still preserved till the time
-of Julius Caesar. The first building in the form of an amphitheatre
-is said to have been erected by C. Scribonius Curio, one of Caesar’s
-partisans; but the account which is given of this building sounds
-rather fabulous. It is said to have consisted of two wooden theatres,
-made to revolve on pivots, in such a manner that they could, by
-means of windlasses and machinery, be turned round face to face, so
-as to form one building. Soon after Caesar himself erected, in the
-Campus Martius, a stationary amphitheatre, made of wood; to which
-building the name of _amphitheatrum_ was for the first time given.
-The first stone amphitheatre was built by Statilius Taurus, in the
-Campus Martius, at the desire of Augustus. This was the only stone
-amphitheatre at Rome till the time of Vespasian. One was commenced by
-Caligula, but was not continued by Claudius. The one erected by Nero
-in the Campus Martius was only a temporary building, made of wood.
-The amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus was burnt in the fire of Rome
-in the time of Nero; and hence, as a new one was needed, Vespasian
-commenced the celebrated _Amphitheatrum Flavium_ in the middle of
-the city, in the valley between the Caelian, the Esquiline, and the
-Velia, on the spot originally occupied by the lake or large pond
-attached to Nero’s palace. Vespasian did not live to finish it. It
-was dedicated by Titus in A.D. 80, but was not completely finished,
-till the reign of Domitian. This immense edifice, which is even
-yet comparatively entire, covered nearly six acres of ground, and
-was capable of containing about 87,000 spectators. It is called at
-the present day the _Colosseum_ or _Colisaeum_. The interior of an
-amphitheatre was divided into three parts, the _arena_, _podium_, and
-_gradus_. The clear open space in the centre of the amphitheatre was
-called the _arena_, because it was covered with sand, or sawdust,
-to prevent the gladiators from slipping, and to absorb the blood.
-The size of the arena was not always the same in proportion to the
-size of the amphitheatre, but its average proportion was one-third
-of the shorter diameter of the building. The arena was surrounded
-by a wall distinguished by the name of _podium_; although such
-appellation, perhaps, rather belongs to merely the upper part of
-it, forming the parapet, or balcony, before the first or lowermost
-seats, nearest to the arena. The arena, therefore, was no more than
-an open oval court, surrounded by a wall about fifteen feet high;
-a height considered necessary, in order to render the spectators
-perfectly secure from the attacks of wild beasts. There were four
-principal entrances leading into the arena; two at the ends of each
-axis or diameter of it, to which as many passages led directly from
-the exterior of the building; besides secondary ones, intervening
-between them, and communicating with the corridors beneath the seats
-on the podium. The wall or enclosure of the arena is supposed to
-have been faced with marble, more or less sumptuous; besides which,
-there appears to have been, in some instances at least, a sort of
-net-work affixed to the top of the podium, consisting of railing, or
-rather open trellis-work of metal. As a further defence, ditches,
-called _euripi_, sometimes surrounded the arena. The term podium was
-also applied to the terrace, or gallery itself, immediately above
-the arena, which was no wider than to be capable of containing two,
-or at the most, three ranges of moveable seats, or chairs. This, as
-being by far the best situation for distinctly viewing the sports
-in the arena, and also more commodiously accessible than the seats
-higher up, was the place set apart for senators and other persons
-of distinction, such as foreign ambassadors; and it was here, also,
-that the emperor himself used to sit, in an elevated place, called
-_suggestus_ or _cubiculum_, and likewise the person who exhibited
-the games on a place elevated like a pulpit or tribunal (_editoris
-tribunal_). Above the podium were the _gradus_, or seats of the other
-spectators, which were divided into _maeniana_, or stories. The first
-_maenianum_, consisting of fourteen rows of stone or marble seats,
-was appropriated to the equestrian order. The seats appropriated
-to the senators and equites were covered with cushions, which were
-first used in the time of Caligula. Then, after an interval or space,
-termed a _praecinctio_, and forming a continued landing-place from
-the several staircases in it, succeeded the second maenianum, where
-were the seats called _popularia_, for the third class of spectators,
-or the populus. Behind this was the second praecinctio, bounded
-by a rather high wall; above which was the third maenianum, where
-there were only wooden benches for the _pullati_, or common people.
-The next and last division, namely, that in the highest part of the
-building, consisted of a colonnade, or gallery, where females were
-allowed to witness the spectacles of the amphitheatre, but some parts
-of it were also occupied by the pullati. Each maenianum was not
-only divided from the other by the praecinctio, but was intersected
-at intervals by spaces for passages left between the seats, called
-_scalae_, or _scalaria_; and the portion between two such passages
-was called _cuneus_, because the space gradually widened like a
-wedge, from the podium to the top of the building. The entrances to
-the seats from the outer porticoes were called _vomitoria_. At the
-very summit was the narrow platform for the men who had to attend
-to the _velarium_, or awning, by which the building was covered as
-a defence against the sun and rain. The velarium appears usually to
-have been made of wool, but more costly materials were sometimes
-employed. The first of the preceding cuts represents a longitudinal
-section of the Flavian amphitheatre, and the second, which is on a
-larger scale, a part of the above section, including the exterior
-wall, and the seats included between that and the arena. It will
-serve to convey an idea of the leading form and general disposition
-of the interior. For an account of the gladiatorial contests, and the
-shows of wild beasts, exhibited in the amphitheatre, see GLADIATORES,
-NAUMACHIA, and VENATIO.
-
-
-[Illustration: Amphorae. (British Museum.)]
-
-AMPHŎRA (ἀμφορεύς), a vessel used for holding wine, oil, honey,
-&c. The following cut represents amphorae in the British Museum.
-They are of various forms and sizes; in general they are tall and
-narrow, with a small neck, and a handle on each side of the neck
-(whence the name, from ἀμφί, _on both sides_, and φέρω, to carry),
-and terminating at the bottom in a point, which was let into a stand
-or stuck in the ground, so that the vessel stood upright: several
-amphorae have been found in this position in the cellars at Pompeii.
-Amphorae were commonly made of earthenware. Homer mentions amphorae
-of gold and stone, and the Egyptians had them of brass; glass vessels
-of this form have been found at Pompeii. The most common use of the
-amphora, both among the Greeks and the Romans, was for keeping wine.
-The cork was covered with pitch or gypsum, and (among the Romans)
-on the outside the title of the wine was painted, the date of the
-vintage being marked by the names of the consuls then in office; or,
-when the jars were of glass, little tickets (_pittoria_, _tesserae_)
-were suspended from them, indicating these particulars.--The Greek
-amphoreus and the Roman amphora were also names of fixed measures.
-The amphoreus, which was also called _metretes_ (μετρητής) and
-_cadus_ (κάδος), was equal to three Roman urnae = 8 gallons, 7·365
-pints, imperial measure. The Roman amphora was two-thirds of the
-amphoreus, and was equal to 2 urnae = 8 congii = to 5 gallons, 7·577
-pints; its solid content was exactly a Roman cubic foot.
-
-
-AMPLĬĀTĬO, an adjournment of a trial, which took place when the
-judices after hearing the evidence of the advocates were unable to
-come to a satisfactory conclusion. This they expressed by giving in
-the tablets, on which were the letters N. L. (_non liquet_), and the
-praetor, by pronouncing the word _amplius_, thereupon adjourned the
-trial to any day he chose. The defendant and the cause were then said
-_ampliari_.
-
-
-[Illustration: Ampulla. (Sketched by G. Scharf from a relief at
-Athens, discovered in 1840.)]
-
-AMPULLA (λήκυθος, βομβύλιος), a bottle, usually made among the Romans
-either of glass or earthenware, rarely of more valuable materials.
-Ampullae were more or less globular. From their round and swollen
-shape, the word was used by Horace to indicate grand and turgid but
-empty language. (“Projicit ampullas et sesquipedalia verba,” _Ar.
-Poet._ 97.) Ampullae are frequently mentioned in connection with the
-bath, since every Roman took with him to the bath a bottle of oil for
-anointing the body after bathing. The dealer in bottles was called
-_ampullarius_.
-
-[Illustration: Ampulla. (From a tomb at Myra in Lycia.)]
-
-
-AMPYX (ἄμπυξ, ἀμπυκτήρ, Lat. _frontale_), a frontal, a broad band
-or plate of metal, which ladies of rank wore above the forehead as
-part of the head-dress. The frontal of a horse was called by the same
-name. The annexed cut exhibits the frontal on the head of Pegasus, in
-contrast with the corresponding ornament as shown on the heads of two
-females.
-
-[Illustration: Ampyces, Frontlets. (From Paintings on Vases.)]
-
-
-ĂMŬLĒTUM (περίαπτον, περίαμμα, φυλακτήριον), an amulet. This word in
-Arabic (hamalet) means _that which is suspended_. It was probably
-brought into Europe by Arabian merchants, together with the articles
-to which it was applied. An amulet was any object,--a stone, a plant,
-an artificial production, or a piece of writing,--which was suspended
-from the neck, or tied to any part of the body, for the purpose of
-warding off calamities and securing advantages of any kind. Faith in
-the virtues of amulets was almost universal in the ancient world, so
-that the art of medicine consisted in a very considerable degree of
-directions for their application.
-
-
-ĂMUSSIS or ĂMUSSĬUM, a carpenter’s and mason’s instrument, the use of
-which was to obtain a true plane surface.
-
-
-ĂNĂCEIA (ἀνάκεια, or ἀνάκειον), a festival of the Dioscuri or Anactes
-(Ἄνακτες), as they were called at Athens. These heroes, however,
-received the most distinguished honours in the Dorian and Achaean
-states, where it may be supposed that every town celebrated a
-festival in their honour, though not under the name of Anaceia.
-
-
-ĂNACRĬSIS (ἀνάκρισις), an examination, was used to signify the
-pleadings preparatory to a trial at Athens, the object of which was
-to determine, generally, if the action would lie. The magistrates
-were said ἀνακρίνειν τὴν δίκην or τοὺς ἀντιδίκους, and the parties
-ἀνακρίνεσθαι. The process consisted in the production of proofs, of
-which there were five kinds:--1. The laws; 2. Written documents;
-3. Testimonies of witnesses present (μαρτυρίαι), or affidavits of
-absent witnesses (ἐκμαρτυρίαι); 4. Depositions of slaves extorted
-by the rack; 5. The oath of the parties. All these proofs were
-committed to writing, and placed in a box secured by a seal (ἐχῖνος)
-till they were produced at the trial. If the evidence produced at
-the anacrisis was so clear and convincing that there could not
-remain any doubt, the magistrate could decide the question without
-sending the cause to be tried before the dicasts: this was called
-_diamartyria_ (διαμαρτυρία). The archons were the proper officers
-for holding the anacrisis; they are represented by Athena (Minerva),
-in the _Eumenides_ of Aeschylus, where there is a poetical sketch of
-the process in the law courts. For an account of the _anacrisis_ or
-examination, which each archon underwent previously to entering on
-office, see ARCHON.
-
-
-ĂNĂGLỸPHA or ĂNĂGLYPTA (ἀνάγλυφα, ἀνάγλυπτα), chased or embossed
-vessels made of bronze or of the precious metals, which derived their
-name from the work on them being in relief, and not engraved.
-
-
-ĂNĂGNOSTĒS, a slave, whose duty it was to read or repeat passages
-from books during an entertainment, and also at other times.
-
-
-ĂNĂGŌGĬA (ἀναγώγια), a festival celebrated at Eryx, in Sicily, in
-honour of Aphrodite. The inhabitants of the place believed that,
-during this festival, the goddess went over into Africa.
-
-
-ĂNĂTŎCISMUS. [FENUS.]
-
-
-ANCĪLE. [SALII.]
-
-
-ANCŎRA. [NAVIS.]
-
-
-ANDĂBĂTA. [GLADIATOR.]
-
-
-ANDRŎGĔŌNIA (ἀνδρογεώνια), a festival with games, held every year in
-the Cerameicus at Athens, in honour of the hero Androgeus, son of
-Minos, who had overcome all his adversaries in the festive games of
-the Panathenaea, and was afterwards killed by his jealous rivals.
-
-
-ANDRŎLEPSĬA (ἀνδροληψία or ἀνδρολήψιον), a legal means by which the
-Athenians were enabled to take vengeance upon a community in which an
-Athenian citizen had been murdered, by seizing three individuals of
-that state or city, as hostages, until satisfaction was given.
-
-
-ANDRŌNĪTIS. [DOMUS, GREEK.]
-
-
-ANGĂRĪA (ἀγγαρεία, Hdt. ἀγγαρήϊον), a word borrowed from the
-Persians, signifying a system of posting by relays of horses, which
-was used among that people, and which, according to Xenophon, was
-established by Cyrus. The term was adopted by the Romans under the
-empire to signify compulsory service in forwarding the messages of
-the state. The Roman _angaria_, also called _angariarum exhibitio_
-or _praestatio_, included the maintenance and supply, not only of
-horses, but of ships and messengers, in forwarding both letters and
-burdens; it is defined as a _personale munus_; and there was no
-ground of exemption from it allowed, except by the favour of the
-emperor.
-
-
-ANGĬPORTUS, or ANGĬPORTUM, a narrow lane between two rows of houses,
-which might either be what the French call a _cul-de-sac_, or it
-might terminate at both ends in some public street.
-
-
-ANGUSTICLĀVĬI. [CLAVUS.]
-
-
-ANNĀLES MAXĬMI. [PONTIFEX.]
-
-
-ANNŌNA (from _annus_, like _pomona_ from _pomum_).--(1) The produce
-of the year in corn, fruit, wine, &c., and hence,--(2) provisions
-in general, especially the corn, which, in the later years of the
-republic, was collected in the storehouses of the state, and sold to
-the poor at a cheap rate in times of scarcity; and which, under the
-emperors, was distributed to the people gratuitously, or given as pay
-and rewards;--(3) the price of provisions;--(4) a soldier’s allowance
-of provisions for a certain time. The word is used also in the
-plural for yearly or monthly distributions of pay in corn, &c.
-
-
-ANNŬLUS (δακτύλιος), a ring. It is probable that the custom of
-wearing rings was very early introduced into Greece from Asia, where
-it appears to have been almost universal. They were worn not merely
-as ornaments, but as articles for use, as the ring always served as a
-seal. A seal was called _sphragis_ (σφραγίς), and hence this name was
-given to the ring itself, and also to the gem or stone for a ring in
-which figures were engraved. Rings in Greece were mostly worn on the
-fourth finger (παράμεσος). At Rome, the custom of wearing rings was
-believed to have been introduced by the Sabines, who were described
-in the early legends as wearing golden rings with precious stones of
-great beauty. But, whenever introduced at Rome, it is certain that
-they were at first always of iron; that they were destined for the
-same purpose as in Greece, namely, to be used as seals; and that
-every free Roman had a right to use such a ring. This iron ring was
-worn down to the last period of the republic by such men as loved the
-simplicity of the good old times. In the course of time, however,
-it became customary for all the senators, chief magistrates, and at
-last for the equites also, to wear a golden seal-ring. The right of
-wearing a gold ring, which was subsequently called the _jus annuli
-aurei_, or the _jus annulorum_, remained for several centuries at
-Rome the exclusive privilege of senators, magistrates, and equites,
-while all other persons continued to wear iron ones. During the
-empire the right of granting the annulus aureus belonged to the
-emperors, and some of them were not very scrupulous in conferring
-this privilege. Augustus gave it to Mena, a freedman, and to Antonius
-Musa, a physician. The emperors Severus and Aurelian conferred the
-right of wearing golden rings upon all Roman soldiers; and Justinian
-at length allowed all the citizens of the empire, whether ingenui
-or libertini, to wear such rings. The ring of a Roman emperor was a
-kind of state seal, and the emperor sometimes allowed the use of it
-to such persons as he wished to be regarded as his representatives.
-During the republic and the early times of the empire the jus annuli
-seems to have made a person ingenuus (if he was a libertus), and to
-have raised him to the rank of eques, provided he had the requisite
-equestrian census, and it was probably never granted to any one
-who did not possess this census. Those who lost their property,
-or were found guilty of a criminal offence, lost the jus annuli.
-The principal value of a ring consisted in the gem set in it, or
-rather in the workmanship of the engraver. The stone most frequently
-used was the onyx (σαρδῶνος, σαρδόνυξ), on account of its various
-colours, of which the artist made the most skilful use. In the art
-of engraving upon gems the ancients far surpassed anything that
-modern times can boast of. The devices engraved upon rings were very
-various: they were portraits of ancestors or of friends, subjects
-connected with mythology; and in many cases a person had engraved
-upon his seal some symbolical allusion to the real or mythical
-history of his family. The bezel or part of the ring which contained
-the gem was called _pala_. With the increasing love of luxury and
-show, the Romans, as well as the Greeks, covered their fingers with
-rings. Some persons also wore rings of immoderate size, and others
-used different rings for summer and winter. Much superstition appears
-to have been connected with rings, especially in the East and in
-Greece. Some persons made it a lucrative trade to sell rings which
-were believed to possess magic powers, and to preserve the wearers
-from external danger.
-
-
-ANNUS. [CALENDARIUM.]
-
-
-ANQUĪSĪTĬO, signified, in criminal trials at Rome, the investigation
-of the facts of the case with reference to the penalty that was to
-be imposed: accordingly the phrases _pecunia capitis_ or _capitis
-anquirere_ are used. Under the emperors the term _anquisitio_ lost
-its original meaning, and was employed to indicate an accusation
-in general; in which sense it also occurs even in the times of the
-republic.
-
-
-[Illustration: Temple in Antis. (Temple of Artemis at Eleusia.)]
-
-ANTAE (παραστάδες), square pillars, which were commonly joined to
-the side-walls of a building, being placed on each side of the door,
-so as to assist in forming the portico. These terms are seldom
-found except in the plural; because the purpose served by antae
-required that they should be erected corresponding to each other and
-supporting the extremities of the same roof. The temple _in antis_
-was one of the simplest kind. It had in front antae attached to the
-walls which inclosed the cella; and in the middle, between the antae,
-two columns supporting the architrave.
-
-
-ANTĔAMBŬLŌNES, slaves who were accustomed to go before their
-masters, in order to make way for them through the crowd. The term
-_anteambulones_ was also given to the clients, who were accustomed to
-walk before their patroni, when the latter appeared in public.
-
-
-ANTĔCESSŌRES, called also ANTĔCURSŌRES, horse-soldiers, who were
-accustomed to precede an army on march, in order to choose a suitable
-place for the camp, and to make the necessary provisions for the
-army. They do not appear to have been merely scouts, like the
-_speculatores_.
-
-
-ANTĔCOENA. [COENA.]
-
-
-ANTĔFIXA, terra-cottas, which exhibited various ornamental designs,
-and were used in architecture to cover the frieze (_zophorus_) of
-the entablature. These terra-cottas do not appear to have been used
-among the Greeks, but were probably Etruscan in their origin, and
-were thence taken for the decoration of Roman buildings. The name
-_antefixa_ is evidently derived from the circumstance that they were
-_fixed before_ the buildings which they adorned. Cato, the censor,
-complained that the Romans of his time began to despise ornaments
-of this description, and to prefer the marble friezes of Athens and
-Corinth. The rising taste which Cato deplored may account for the
-superior beauty of the antefixa preserved in the British Museum,
-which were discovered at Rome.
-
-
-ANTENNA. [NAVIS.]
-
-
-ANTĔPĪLĀNI. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-ANTĔSIGNĀNI. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-ANTHESPHŎRĬA (ἀνθεσφόρια), a flower-festival, principally celebrated
-in Sicily, in honour of Demeter and Persephone, in commemoration of
-the return of Persephone to her mother in the beginning of spring.
-
-
-ANTHESTĒRĬA. [DIONYSIA.]
-
-
-ANTĬDŎSIS (ἀντίδοσις), in its literal and general meaning, “an
-exchange,” was, in the language of the Attic courts, peculiarly
-applied to proceedings under a law which is said to have originated
-with Solon. By this, a citizen nominated to perform a leiturgia,
-such as a trierarchy or choregia, or to rank among the property-tax
-payers, in a class disproportioned to his means, was empowered to
-call upon any qualified person not so charged to take the office in
-his stead, or submit to a complete exchange of property, the charge
-in question of course attaching to the first party, if the exchange
-were finally effected. For the proceedings the courts were opened
-at a stated time every year by the magistrates that had official
-cognisance of the particular subject; such as the strategi in cases
-of trierarchy and rating to the property-taxes, and the archon in
-those of choregia.
-
-
-ANTĬGRĂPHE (ἀντιγραφή) originally signified the writing put in by the
-defendant, his “plea” in all causes whether public or private, in
-answer to the indictment or bill of the prosecutor. It is, however,
-also applied to the bill or indictment of the plaintiff or accuser.
-
-
-ĀNTLĬA (ἄντλια), any machine for raising water, a pump. The most
-important of these machines were:--(1) The tympanum; a tread-wheel,
-worked by men treading on it.--(2) A wheel having wooden boxes
-or buckets, so arranged as to form steps for those who trod the
-wheel.--(3) The chain pump.--(4) The _cochlea_, or Archimedes’s
-screw.--(5) The _ctesibica machina_, or forcing-pump.--Criminals
-were condemned to the _antlia_ or tread-mill. The antlia with which
-Martial (ix. 19) watered his garden, was probably the pole and bucket
-universally employed in Italy, Greece, and Egypt. The pole is curved,
-as shown in the annexed figure; because it is the stem of a fir or
-some other tapering tree.
-
-[Illustration: Antlia.]
-
-
-ANTYX (ἄντυξ), the rim or border of any thing, especially of a shield
-or chariot. The rim of the large round shield of the ancient Greeks
-was thinner than the part which it enclosed; but on the other hand,
-the antyx of a chariot must have been thicker than the body to which
-it gave both form and strength. In front of the chariot the antyx was
-often raised above the body, into the form of a curvature, which
-served the purpose of a hook to hang the reins upon.
-
-[Illustration: Antyx. (From an Etruscan tomb.)]
-
-
-ĂPĂGŌGĒ (ἀπαγωγή), a summary process, allowed in certain cases by the
-Athenian law. The term denotes not merely the act of apprehending
-a culprit caught _in ipso facto_, but also the written information
-delivered to the magistrate, urging his apprehension. The cases in
-which the _apagoge_ was most generally allowed were those of theft,
-murder, ill-usage of parents, &c.
-
-
-ĂPĂTŪRĬA (ἀπατούρια) was a political festival, which the Athenians
-had in common with all the Greeks of the Ionian name, with the
-exception of those of Colophon and Ephesus. It was celebrated in the
-month of Pyanepsion, and lasted for three days. The name ἀπατούρια
-is not derived from ἀπατᾶν, to deceive, but is composed of ἀ =
-ἅμα and πατύρια, which is perfectly consistent with what Xenophon
-says of the festival, that when it is celebrated the fathers and
-relations assemble together. According to this derivation, it is
-the festival at which the phratriae met to discuss and settle their
-own affairs. But, as every citizen was a member of a phratria, the
-festival extended over the whole nation, who assembled _according to
-phratriae_. The festival lasted three days. The third day was the
-most important; for on that day, children born in that year, in the
-families of the phratriae, or such as were not yet registered, were
-taken by their fathers, or in their absence by their representatives
-(κύριοι), before the assembled members of the phratria. For every
-child a sheep or a goat was sacrificed. The father, or he who
-supplied his place, was obliged to establish by oath that the child
-was the offspring of free-born parents, and citizens of Athens.
-After the victim was sacrificed, the phratores gave their votes,
-which they took from the altar of Zeus Phratrius. When the majority
-voted against the reception, the cause might be tried before one
-of the courts of Athens; and if the claims of the child were found
-unobjectionable, its name, as well as that of the father, was
-entered into the register of the phratria, and those who had wished
-to effect the exclusion of the child were liable to be punished.
-
-
-ĂPERTA NĀVIS. [NAVIS.]
-
-
-ĂPEX, a cap worn by the flamines and salii at Rome. The essential
-part of the apex, to which alone the name properly belonged, was a
-pointed piece of olive-wood, the base of which was surrounded with
-a lock of wool. This was worn on the top of the head, and was held
-there either by fillets only, or, as was more commonly the case, by
-the aid of a cap which fitted the head, and was also fastened by
-means of two strings or bands. The albogalerus, a white cap made of
-the skin of a white victim sacrificed to Jupiter, and worn by the
-flamen dialis, had the apex fastened to it by means of an olive twig.
-
-[Illustration: Apices, caps worn by the Salii. (From bas-reliefs and
-coins.)]
-
-
-APHLASTON (ἄφλαστον). [NAVIS.]
-
-
-ĂPHRACTUS. [NAVIS.]
-
-
-ĂPHRŎDĪSĬA (ἀφροδίσια) were festivals celebrated in honour of
-Aphrodité, in a great number of towns in Greece, but particularly
-in the island of Cyprus. Her most ancient temple was at Paphos. No
-bloody sacrifices were allowed to be offered to her, but only pure
-fire, flowers, and incense.
-
-
-APLUSTRE. [NAVIS.]
-
-
-ĂPŎCLĒTI (ἀποκλητοὶ). [AETOLICUM FOEDUS.]
-
-
-ĂPODECTAE (ἀποδέκται), public officers at Athens, who were introduced
-by Cleisthenes in the place of the ancient colacretae (κωλακρέται).
-They were ten in number, one for each tribe, and their duty was
-to collect all the ordinary taxes, and distribute them among the
-separate branches of the administration which were entitled to them.
-
-
-ĂPŎGRĂPHĒ (ἀπογραφή), literally, “a list, or register;” signified
-also, (1) An accusation in public matters, more particularly when
-there were several defendants. It differed but little, if at all,
-from the ordinary _graphe_.--(2) A solemn protest or assertion
-in writing before a magistrate, to the intent that it might be
-preserved by him till it was required to be given in evidence.--(3) A
-specification of property, said to belong to the state, but actually
-in the possession of a private person; which specification was made
-with a view to the confiscation of such property to the state.
-
-
-ĂPOLLĬNĀRES LŪDI. [LUDI APOLLINARES.]
-
-
-ĂPOLLŌNĬA (ἀπολλώνια), the name of a propitiatory festival solemnized
-at Sicyon, in honour of Apollo and Artemis.
-
-
-ĂPŎPHŎRĒTA (ἀποφόρητα) were presents, which were given to friends at
-the end of an entertainment to take home with them. These presents
-appear to have been usually given on festival days, especially during
-the Saturnalia.
-
-
-ĂPORRHĒTA (ἀπόῤῥητα), literally “things forbidden,” has two peculiar,
-but widely different, acceptations in the Attic dialect. In one of
-these it implies contraband goods; in the other, it denotes certain
-contumelious epithets, from the application of which both the living
-and the dead were protected by special laws.
-
-
-ĂPŎSTŎLEUS (ἀποστολεύς), the name of a public officer at Athens.
-There were ten magistrates of this name, and their duty was to see
-that the ships were properly equipped and provided by those who were
-bound to discharge the trierarchy. They had the power, in certain
-cases, of imprisoning the trierarchs who neglected to furnish the
-ships properly.
-
-
-ĂPŎTHĒCA (ἀποθήκη), a place in the upper part of the house, in which
-the Romans frequently placed the earthen amphorae in which their
-wines were deposited. This place, which was quite different from the
-_cella vinaria_, was above the _fumarium_; since it was thought that
-the passage of the smoke through the room tended greatly to increase
-the flavour of the wine. The position of the apotheca explains the
-expression in Horace (_Carm._ ii. 21, 7), _Descende_, _testa_.
-
-
-ĂPŎTHĔŌSIS (ἀποθέωσις), the enrolment of a mortal among the gods. The
-mythology of Greece contains numerous instances of the deification of
-mortals; but in the republican times of Greece we find few examples
-of such deification. The inhabitants of Amphipolis, however, offered
-sacrifices to Brasidas after his death. In the Greek kingdoms,
-which arose in the East on the dismemberment of the empire of
-Alexander, it appears to have been not uncommon for the successor
-to the throne to offer divine honours to the former sovereign.
-Such an apotheosis of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, is described by
-Theocritus in his 17th Idyl. The term apotheosis, among the Romans,
-properly signified the elevation of a deceased emperor to divine
-honours. This practice, which was common upon the death of almost
-all the emperors, appears to have arisen from the opinion which was
-generally entertained among the Romans, that the souls or manes of
-their ancestors became deities; and as it was common for children
-to worship the manes of their fathers, so it was natural for divine
-honours to be publicly paid to a deceased emperor, who was regarded
-as the parent of his country. This apotheosis of an emperor was
-usually called _consecratio_; and the emperor who received the honour
-of an apotheosis was usually said _in deorum numerum referri_, or
-_consecrari_, and whenever he is spoken of after his death, the title
-of _divus_ is prefixed to his name. The funeral pile on which the
-body of the deceased emperor was burnt, was constructed of several
-stories in the form of chambers rising one above another, and in the
-highest an eagle was placed, which was let loose as the fire began to
-burn, and which was supposed to carry the soul of the emperor from
-earth to heaven.
-
-
-APPĀRĬTOR, the general name for a public servant of the magistrates
-at Rome, namely, the ACCENSUS, CARNIFEX, COACTOR, INTERPRES, LICTOR,
-PRAECO, SCRIBA, STATOR, VIATOR, of whom an account is given in
-separate articles. They were called apparitores because they were
-at hand to execute the commands of the magistrates (_quod iis
-apparebant_). Their service or attendance was called _apparitio_.
-
-
-APPELLĀTĬO, appeal.--(1) GREEK (ἔφεσις or ἀναδικία.) Owing to the
-constitution of the Athenian tribunals, each of which was generally
-appropriated to its peculiar subjects of cognisance, and therefore
-could not be considered as homogeneous with or subordinate to any
-other, there was little opportunity for bringing appeals properly
-so called. It is to be observed also, that in general a cause was
-finally and irrevocably decided by the verdict of the dicasts (δίκη
-αὐτοτελής). There were only a few exceptions in which appeals and
-new trials might be resorted to.--(2) ROMAN. The word _appellatio_,
-and the corresponding verb _appellare_, are used in the early Roman
-writers to express the application of an individual to a magistrate,
-and particularly to a tribune, in order to protect himself from some
-wrong inflicted, or threatened to be inflicted. It is distinguished
-from _provocatio_, which in the early writers is used to signify
-an appeal to the populus in a matter affecting life. It would seem
-that the provocatio was an ancient right of the Roman citizens.
-The surviving Horatius, who murdered his sister, appealed from the
-duumviri to the populus. The decemviri took away the provocatio; but
-it was restored by the _Lex Valeria et Horatia_, B.C. 449, in the
-year after the decemvirate, and it was at the same time enacted, that
-in future no magistrate should be made from whom there should be no
-appeal. On this Livy remarks, that the plebs were now protected by
-the _provocatio_ and the _tribunicium auxilium_; this latter term has
-reference to the appellatio properly so called. The complete phrase
-to express the provocatio is _provocare ad populum_; and the phrase
-which expresses the appellatio is _appellare ad_, &c.
-
-
-APSIS or ABSIS (ἁψίς), in architecture, signified first, any building
-or portion of a building of a circular form or vaulted, and more
-especially the circular and vaulted end of a Basilica.
-
-
-ĂQUAE DUCTUS (ὑδραγωγία), literally, a water-conduit, but the word
-is used especially for the magnificent structures by means of which
-Rome and other cities of the Roman empire were supplied with water.
-A Roman aqueduct, often called simply _aqua_, may be described in
-general terms as a channel, constructed as nearly as possible with
-a regular declivity from the source whence the water was derived to
-the place where it was delivered, carried through hills by means of
-tunnels, and over valleys upon a substruction of solid masonry or
-arches. The aqueduct is mentioned by Strabo as among the structures
-which were neglected by the Greeks, and first brought into use by
-the Romans. Springs (κρῆναι, κρουνοί) were sufficiently abundant
-in Greece to supply the great cities with water; and they were
-frequently converted into public fountains by the formation of a head
-for their waters, and the erection of an ornamental superstructure.
-Of this we have an example in the _Enneacrunos_ at Athens, which
-was constructed by Peisistratus and his sons. The Romans were in a
-very different position, with respect to the supply of water, from
-most of the Greek cities. They, at first, had recourse to the Tiber,
-and to wells sunk in the city; but the water obtained from those
-sources was very unwholesome, and must soon have proved insufficient,
-from the growth of the population. It was this necessity that led
-to the invention of aqueducts, in order to bring pure water from
-the hills which surround the Campagna. The number of aqueducts was
-gradually increased, partly at the public expense, and partly by
-the munificence of individuals, till, in the fourth century of the
-Christian era, they amounted to fourteen. Of these only four belong
-to the time of the republic, while five were built in the reigns of
-Augustus and Claudius.--1. The _Aqua Appia_, begun by the censor
-Appius Claudius Caecus in B.C. 313. Its sources were near the _Via
-Praenestina_, between the seventh and eighth mile-stones.--2. The
-_Anio Vetus_ was commenced forty years later, B.C. 273, by the censor
-M. Curius Dentatus, and was finished by M. Fulvius Flaccus. The
-water was derived from the river Anio, above Tibur, at a distance of
-20 Roman miles from the city; but, on account of its windings, its
-actual length was 43 miles.--3. The _Aqua Marcia_, one of the most
-important of the whole, was built by the praetor Q. Marcius Rex, by
-command of the senate, in B.C. 144. It commenced at the side of the
-_Via Valeria_, 36 miles from Rome.--4. The _Aqua Tepula_, built by
-the censors Cn. Servilius Caepio and L. Cassius Longinus in B.C.
-127, began at a spot in the Lucullan or Tusculan land, two miles
-to the right of the tenth milestone on the _Via Latina_. It was
-afterwards connected with.--5. The _Aqua Julia_, built by Agrippa in
-his aedileship, B.C. 33. It was conducted from a source two miles
-to the right of the twelfth milestone on the _Via Latina_, first to
-the _Aqua Tepula_, in which it was merged as far as the reservoir
-(_piscina_) on the _Via Latina_, seven miles from Rome. From this
-reservoir the water was carried along two distinct channels, on
-the same substructions; the lower channel being called the _Aqua
-Tepula_, and the upper the _Aqua Julia_; and this double aqueduct
-again was united with the _Aqua Marcia_, over the watercourse of
-which the other two were carried.--6. The _Aqua Virgo_, built by
-Agrippa, to supply his baths. From a source in a marshy spot by the
-8th milestone on the _Via Collatina_, it was conducted by a very
-circuitous route.--7. The _Aqua Alsietina_ (sometimes called also
-_Aqua Augusta_), on the other side of the Tiber, was constructed
-by Augustus from the _Lacus Alsietinus_ (_Lago di Martignano_),
-which lay 6500 _passus_ to the right of the 14th milestone on the
-_Via Claudia_.--8, 9. The two most magnificent aqueducts were the
-_Aqua Claudia_ and the _Anio Novus_ (or _Aqua Aniena Nova_), both
-commenced by Caligula in A.D. 36, and finished by Claudius in A.D.
-50. The water of the _Aqua Claudia_ was derived from two copious and
-excellent springs, near the 38th milestone on the _Via Sublacensis_.
-Its length was nearly 46½ miles. The _Anio Novus_ began at the 42nd
-milestone. It was the longest and the highest of all the aqueducts,
-its length being nearly 59 miles, and some of its arches 109 feet
-high. In the neighbourhood of the city these two aqueducts were
-united, forming two channels on the same arches, the _Claudia_
-below and the _Anio Novus_ above. These nine aqueducts were all
-that existed in the time of Frontinus, who was the _curator_ of the
-aqueducts in the reigns of Nerva and Trajan. There was also another
-aqueduct, not reckoned with the nine, because its waters were no
-longer brought all the way to Rome, viz.: 10. The _Aqua Crabra_.--The
-following were of later construction. 11. The _Aqua Trajana_, brought
-by Trajan from the _Lacus Sabatinus_ (now _Bracciano_).--12. The
-_Aqua Alexandrina_, constructed by Alexander Severus; its source was
-in the lands of Tusculum, about 14 miles from Rome.--13. The _Aqua
-Septimiana_, built by Septimius Severus, was perhaps only a branch
-of the _Aqua Julia_.--14. The _Aqua Algentia_ had its source at _M.
-Algidus_ by the _Via Tusculana_. Its builder is unknown.--Great
-pains were taken by successive emperors to preserve and repair the
-aqueducts. From the Gothic wars downwards, they have for the most
-part shared the fate of the other great Roman works of architecture;
-their situation and purpose rendering them peculiarly exposed to
-injury in war; but still their remains form the most striking
-features of the Campagna, over which their lines of ruined arches,
-clothed with ivy and the wild fig-tree, radiate in various directions.
-
-[Illustration: Triple Aqueduct.]
-
-Three of them still serve for their ancient use. They are--(1.) The
-_Acqua Vergine_, the ancient _Aqua Virgo_. (2.) The _Acqua Felice_,
-named after the conventual name of its restorer Sixtus V. (Fra
-Felice), is, probably, a part of the ancient _Aqua Claudia_, though
-some take it for the _Alexandrina_. (3.) The _Acqua Paola_, the
-ancient _Alsietina_.--The following woodcut represents a restored
-section of the triple aqueduct of Agrippa:--_a._ the _Aqua Marcia_;
-_b._ the _Aqua Tepula_; _c._ the _Aqua Julia_. The two latter are of
-brick and vaulted over. The air-vents are also shown.--The channel
-of an aqueduct (_specus_, _canalis_) was a trough of brick or stone,
-lined with cement, and covered with a coping, which was almost always
-arched; and the water either ran directly through this trough, or
-it was carried through pipes laid along the trough. These pipes
-were of lead, or terra-cotta (_fictiles_), and sometimes, for the
-sake of economy, of leather. At convenient points on the course of
-the aqueduct, and especially near the middle and end, there was
-generally a reservoir (_piscina_, _piscina limosa_) in which the
-water might deposit any sediment that it contained. The water was
-received, when it reached the walls of the city, in a vast reservoir
-called _castellum_, which formed the _head of water_ and also served
-the purpose of a _meter_. From this principal _castellum_ the water
-flowed into other _castella_, whence it was distributed for public
-and private use. The term _castellum_ is sometimes also applied to
-the intermediate reservoirs already mentioned. During the republic,
-the censors and aediles had the superintendence of the aqueducts.
-Augustus first established _curatores_ (or _praefecti_) _aquarum_,
-who were invested with considerable authority. They were attended
-outside the city by two lictors, three public slaves, a secretary,
-and other attendants. In the time of Nerva and Trajan, 460 slaves
-were constantly employed under the orders of the _curatores aquarum_
-in attending to the aqueducts. They consisted of:--1. The _villici_,
-whose duty it was to attend to the pipes and _calices_. 2. The
-_castellarii_, who had the superintendence of all the _castella_,
-both within and without the city. 3. The _circuitores_, so called
-because they had to go from post to post, to examine into the state
-of the works, and also to keep watch over the labourers employed
-upon them. 4. The _silicarii_, or paviours. 5. The _tectores_, or
-masons. These and other workmen appear to have been included under
-the general term of AQUARII.
-
-
-ĂQUAE ET IGNIS INTERDICTĬO. [EXSILIUM.]
-
-
-ĂQUĀRĬI, slaves who carried water for bathing, &c., into the female
-apartments. The aquarii were also public officers who attended to the
-aqueducts. [AQUAE DUCTUS.]
-
-
-ĂQUĬLA. [SIGNA MILITARIA.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Arae, Altars.]
-
-ĀRA (βωμός, θυτήριον), an altar. _Ara_ was a general term denoting
-any structure elevated above the ground, and used to receive upon
-it offerings made to the gods. _Altare_, probably contracted from
-_alta ara_, was properly restricted to the larger, higher, and
-more expensive structures. Four specimens of ancient altars are
-given below; the two in the former woodcut are square, and those
-in the latter round, which is the less common form. At the top of
-three of the above altars we see the hole intended to receive the
-fire (ἐσχαρίς, ἐσχάρα): the fourth was probably intended for the
-offering of fruits or other gifts, which were presented to the gods
-without fire. When the altars were prepared for sacrifice, they were
-commonly decorated with garlands or festoons. These were composed
-of certain kinds of leaves and flowers, which were considered
-consecrated to such uses, and were called _verbenae_. The altars
-constructed with most labour and skill belonged to temples; and they
-were erected either before the temple or within the cella of the
-temple, and principally before the statue of the divinity to whom
-it was dedicated. The altars in the area before the temple were
-altars of burnt-offerings, at which animal sacrifices (_victimae_,
-σφάγια, ἱερεῖα) were presented: only incense was burnt, or cakes and
-bloodless sacrifices offered on the altars within the building.
-
-[Illustration: Arae, Altars.]
-
-
-ĂRĀTRUM (ἄροτρον), a plough. Among the Greeks and Romans the three
-most essential parts of the plough were,--the plough-tail (γύης,
-_buris_, _bura_), the share-beam (ἔλυμα, _dens_, _dentale_), that
-is, the piece of wood to which the share is fixed, and the pole
-(ῥυμός], ἱστοβοεύς, _temo_). In the time and country of Virgil
-it was the custom to force a tree into the crooked form of the
-_buris_, or plough-tail. The upper end of the _buris_ being held by
-the ploughman, the lower part, below its junction with the pole,
-was used to hold the _dentale_ or share-beam, which was either
-sheathed with metal, or driven bare into the ground, according to
-circumstances. The term _vomer_ was sometimes applied to the end of
-the _dentale_. To these three parts, the two following are added in
-the description of the plough by Virgil:--1. The _earth-boards_, or
-_mould-boards_ (_aures_), rising on each side, bending outwardly in
-such a manner as to throw on either hand the soil which had been
-previously loosened and raised by the share, and adjusted to the
-share-beam (_dentale_), which was made double for the purpose of
-receiving them. 2. The _handle_ (_stiva_). Virgil describes this
-part as used to turn the plough at the end of the furrow; and it is
-defined by an ancient commentator on Virgil as the “handle by which
-the plough is directed.” It is probable that as the _dentalia_,
-the two share-beams, were in the form of the Greek letter Λ, which
-Virgil describes by _duplici dorso_, the _buris_ was fastened to the
-left share-beam and the _stiva_ to the right, so that the plough of
-Virgil was more like the modern Lancashire plough, which is commonly
-held behind with both hands. Sometimes, however, the _stiva_ was
-used alone and instead of the _buris_ or tail. In place of _stiva_
-the term _capulus_ is sometimes employed. The only other part of the
-plough requiring notice is the coulter (_culter_), which was used by
-the Romans as it is with us. It was inserted into the pole so as to
-depend vertically before the share, cutting through the roots which
-came in its way, and thus preparing for the more complete overturning
-of the soil by the share. Two small wheels were also added to some
-ploughs. The plough, as described by Virgil, corresponds in all
-essential particulars with the plough now used about Mantua and
-Venice. The Greeks and Romans usually ploughed their land three
-times for each crop. The first ploughing was called _proscindere_,
-or _novare_ (νεοῦσθαι, νεάζεσθαι); the second _offringere_, or
-_iterare_; and the third, _lirare_, or _tertiare_. The field which
-underwent the “proscissio” was called _vervactum_ or _novale_
-(νεός), and in this process the coulter was employed, because the
-fresh surface was entangled with numberless roots which required
-to be divided before the soil could be turned up by the share. The
-term “_offringere_” from _ob_ and _frangere_, was applied to the
-second ploughing; because the long parallel clods already turned
-up were broken and cut across, by drawing the plough through them
-at right angles to its former direction. The field which underwent
-this process was called _ager iteratus_. After the second ploughing
-the sower cast his seed. Also the clods were often, though not
-always, broken still further by a wooden mallet, or by harrowing
-(_occatio_). The Roman ploughman then, for the first time, attached
-the earth-boards to his share. The effect of this adjustment was
-to divide the level surface of the “ager _iteratus_” into ridges.
-These were called _porcae_, and also _lirae_, whence came the verb
-_lirare_, to make ridges, and also _delirare_, to decline from the
-straight line. The earth-boards, by throwing the earth to each side
-in the manner already explained, both covered the newly-scattered
-seed, and formed between the ridges furrows (αὔλακες, _sulci_) for
-carrying off the water. In this state the field was called _seges_
-and τρίπολος. When the ancients ploughed three times only, it was
-done in the spring, summer, and autumn of the same year. But in
-order to obtain a still heavier crop, both the Greeks and the Romans
-ploughed four times, the proscissio being performed in the latter
-part of the preceding year, so that between one crop and another two
-whole years intervened.
-
-[Illustration: Aratrum, Plough (now used at Mantua).
-
-  1. Buris.
-  2. Temo.
-  3. Dentale.
-  4. Culter.
-  5. Vomer.
-  6 6. Aures.]
-
-
-ARBĬTER. [JUDEX.]
-
-ARCA (κιβωτός). (1) A chest, in which the Romans were accustomed to
-place their money; and the phrase _ex arca solvere_ had the meaning
-of paying in ready money. The term arcae was usually applied to
-the chests in which the rich kept their money, and was opposed to
-the smaller _loculi_, _sacculus_, and _crumena_.--(2) The coffin
-in which persons were buried, or the bier on which the corpse was
-placed previously to burial.--(3) A strong cell made of oak, in which
-criminals and slaves were confined.
-
-
-ARCĔRA, a covered carriage or litter, spread with cloths, which
-was used in ancient times in Rome, to carry the aged and infirm.
-It is said to have obtained the name of arcera on account of its
-resemblance to an arca, or chest.
-
-[Illustration: Arcera. (Ginzrot, Wagen, Tav. 19, fig. 2.)]
-
-
-ARCHEION (ἀρχεῖον) properly means any public place belonging to
-the magistrates, but is more particularly applied to the archive
-office, where the decrees of the people and other state documents
-were preserved. This office is sometimes merely called τὸ δημοσίον.
-At Athens the archives were kept in the temple of the mother of the
-gods (μήτρῳον), and the charge of it was entrusted to the president
-(ἐπιστάτης) of the senate of the Five-hundred.
-
-
-ARCHĬĀTER (ἀρχίατρος), a medical title under the Roman emperors, the
-exact signification of which has been the subject of much discussion,
-but which most probably means “the chief of the physicians.” The
-first person whom we find bearing this title is Andromachus,
-physician to Nero. In after times the order appears to have been
-divided, and we find two distinct classes of archiatri, viz., those
-of the palace and those of the people.
-
-
-ARCHĬMĪMUS. [MIMUS.]
-
-
-ARCHĬTECTŪRA (ἀρχιτεκτονία, ἀρχιτεκτονική), architecture. The
-necessity for a habitation, and the attempt to adorn those
-habitations which were intended for the gods, are the two causes
-from which the art derives its existence. In early times little
-attention was paid to domestic architecture. The resources of the
-art were lavished upon the temples of the gods; and hence the
-greater part of the history of Grecian architecture is inseparably
-connected with that of the temple, and has its proper place under
-TEMPLUM, and the subordinate headings, such as COLUMNA, &c. But,
-though the first rise of architecture, as a fine art, is connected
-with the temple, yet, viewed as the science of construction, it must
-have been employed, even earlier, for other purposes, such as the
-erection of fortifications, palaces, treasuries, and other works of
-utility. Accordingly, it is the general opinion of antiquaries, that
-the very earliest edifices, of which we have any remains, are the
-so-called Cyclopean works, in which we see huge unsquared blocks of
-stone built together in the best way that their shapes would allow.
-[MURUS.] In addition to these, however, there are other purposes
-for which architecture, still using the term in its lower sense,
-would be required in a very early stage of political society; such
-as the general arrangement of cities, the provision of a place for
-the transaction of public business, with the necessary edifices
-appertaining to it [AGORA, FORUM], and the whole class of works which
-we embrace under the head of civil engineering, such as those for
-drainage [CLOACA, EMISSARIUS], for communication [VIA, PONS], and
-for the supply of water [AQUAE DUCTUS]. Almost equally necessary are
-places devoted to public exercise, health, and amusement, GYMNASIUM,
-STADIUM, HIPPODROMUS, CIRCUS, BALNEUM, THEATRUM, AMPHITHEATRUM.
-Lastly, the skill of the architect has been from the earliest times
-employed to preserve the memory of departed men and past events;
-and hence we have the various works of monumental and triumphal
-architecture, which are described under the heads FUNUS, ARCUS,
-COLUMNA. The history of architecture may be divided into five
-periods. The first, which is chiefly mythical, comes down to the
-time of Cypselus, Ol. 30, B.C. 660: the second period comes down to
-the termination of the Persian war, Ol. 75. 2, B.C. 478: the third
-is the brilliant period from the end of the Persian war to the death
-of Alexander the Great, Ol. 114, B.C. 323: the fourth period extends
-to the battle of Actium, B.C. 31: the fifth period embraces the
-architecture of the Roman empire till it became mingled with the
-Gothic. Strongly fortified cities, palaces, and treasuries are the
-chief works of the earlier part of the first period; and to it may
-be referred most of the so-called Cyclopean remains; while the era
-of the Dorian invasion marks, in all probability, the commencement
-of the Dorian style of temple architecture. In the second period
-the art made rapid advances under the powerful patronage of the
-aristocracies in some cities, as at Sparta, and of the tyrants in
-others, as Cypselus at Corinth, Theagnes at Megara, Cleisthenes
-at Sicyon, the Peisistratids at Athens, and Polycrates at Samos.
-Architecture now assumed decidedly the character of a fine art, and
-became associated with the sister arts of sculpture and painting,
-which are essential to its development. Magnificent temples sprung
-up in all the principal Greek cities; and while the Doric order was
-brought almost, if not quite, to perfection, in Greece Proper, in
-the Doric colonies of Asia Minor, and in Central Italy and Sicily,
-the Ionic order appeared, already perfect at its first invention, in
-the great temple of Artemis at Ephesus. The ruins still existing at
-Paestum, Syracuse, Agrigentum, Selinus, Aegina, and other places,
-are imperishable monuments of this period. To it also belong the
-great works of the Roman kings. The commencement of the third and
-most brilliant period of the art was signalized by the rebuilding of
-Athens, the establishment of regular principles for the laying out
-of cities by Hippodamus of Miletus, and the great works of the age
-of Pericles, by the contemporaries of Phidias, at Athens, Eleusis,
-and Olympia. The first part of the fourth period saw the extension
-of the Greek architecture over the countries conquered by Alexander,
-and, in the West, the commencement of the new style, which arose from
-the imitation, with some alterations, of the Greek forms by Roman
-architects, to which the conquest of Greece gave, of course, a new
-impulse. By the time of Augustus, Rome was adorned with every kind
-of public and private edifice, surrounded by villas, and furnished
-with roads and aqueducts; and these various erections were adorned by
-the forms of Grecian art; but already Vitruvius begins to complain
-that the purity of that art is corrupted by the intermixture of
-heterogeneous forms. This process of deterioration went on rapidly
-during the fifth period, though combined at first with increasing
-magnificence in the scale and number of the buildings erected. The
-early part of this period is made illustrious by the numerous works
-of Augustus and his successors, especially the Flavii, Nerva, Trajan,
-Hadrian, and the Antonines, at Rome and in the provinces; but from
-the time of the Antonines the decline of the art was rapid and
-decided. In one department a new impulse was given to architecture
-by the rise of Christian churches, which were generally built on the
-model of the Roman Basilica. One of the most splendid specimens of
-Christian architecture is the church of S. Sophia at Constantinople,
-built in the reign of Justinian, A.D. 537, and restored, after its
-partial destruction by an earthquake, in 554. But, long before this
-time, the Greco-Roman style had become thoroughly corrupted, and
-that new style, which is called the Byzantine, had arisen out of the
-mixture of Roman architecture with ideas derived from the Northern
-nations.
-
-
-ARCHITHĔŌRUS (ἀρχιθέωρος). [DELIA.]
-
-
-ARCHON (ἄρχων). The government of Athens began with monarchy,
-and, after passing through a dynasty[1] and aristocracy, ended in
-democracy. Of the kings of Athens, considered as the capital of
-Attica, Theseus may be said to have been the first; for to him,
-whether as a real individual or a representative of a certain period,
-is attributed the union of the different and independent states of
-Attica under one head. The last was Codrus; in acknowledgment of
-whose patriotism in meeting death for his country, the Athenians
-are said to have determined that no one should succeed him with the
-title of king (βασιλεύς). It seems, however, equally probable that
-it was the nobles who availed themselves of the opportunity to serve
-their own interests, by abolishing the kingly power for another, the
-possessors of which they called _Archontes_ (ἄρχοντες) or rulers.
-These for some time continued to be like the kings of the house of
-Codrus, appointed for life: still an important point was gained by
-the nobles, the office being made accountable (ὑπεύθυνος), which of
-course implies that the nobility had some control over it. This state
-of things lasted for twelve reigns of archons. The next step was to
-limit the continuance of the office to ten years, still confining
-it to the Medontidae, or house of Codrus, so as to establish what
-the Greeks called a dynasty, till the archonship of Eryxias, the
-last archon of that family elected as such. At the end of his ten
-years (B.C. 684), a much greater change took place: the archonship
-was made annual, and its various duties divided among a college
-of nine, chosen by suffrage (χειροτονία) from the Eupatridae, or
-Patricians, and no longer elected from the Medontidae exclusively.
-This arrangement lasted till the time of Solon, who still continued
-the election by suffrage, but made the qualification for office
-depend, not on birth, but property. The election by lot is believed
-to have been introduced by Cleisthenes (B.C. 508). The last change
-is supposed to have been made by Aristides, who after the battle of
-Plataeae (B.C. 479) abolished the property qualification, throwing
-open the archonship and other magistracies to all the citizens; that
-is, to the Thetes, as well as the other classes, the former of whom
-were not allowed by Solon’s laws to hold any magistracy at all.
-Still, after the removal of the old restrictions, some security was
-left to insure respectability; for, previously to an archon entering
-on office, he underwent an examination, called the _anacrisis_
-(ἀνάκρισις), as to his being a legitimate and a good citizen, a good
-son, and qualified in point of property, but the latter limitation
-was either done away with by Aristides, or soon became obsolete. Yet,
-even after passing a satisfactory _anacrisis_, each of the archons,
-in common with other magistrates, was liable to be deposed on
-complaint of misconduct made before the people, at the first regular
-assembly in each prytany. On such an occasion the _epicheirotonia_
-(ἐπιχειροτονία), as it was called, took place: and we read that
-in one case the whole college of archons was deprived of office
-(ἀποχειροτονεῖσθαι). In consequence of the democratical tendency of
-the assembly and courts of justice established by Solon, the archons
-lost the great political power which they at one time possessed.
-They became, in fact, not as of old directors of the government,
-but merely municipal magistrates, exercising functions and bearing
-titles described below. It has been already stated, that the duties
-of the single archon were shared by a college of nine. The first, or
-president of this body, was called _Archon_, by way of pre-eminence,
-or _Archon Eponymus_ (ἄρχων ἐπώνυμος), from the year being
-distinguished by and registered in his name. The second was styled
-_Archon Basileus_ (ἄρχων βασιλεύς), or the King Archon; the third
-_Polemarchus_ (πολέμαρχος), or commander-in-chief; the remaining
-six, _Thesmothetae_ (θεσμοθέται), or legislators. As regards the
-duties of the archons, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish
-what belonged to them individually, and what collectively. It
-seems that a considerable portion of the judicial functions of the
-ancient kings devolved upon the _Archon Eponymus_, who was also
-constituted a sort of state protector of those who were unable to
-defend themselves. Thus he was to superintend orphans, heiresses,
-families losing their representatives, widows left pregnant, and
-to see that they were not wronged in any way. This archon had also
-the superintendence of the greater Dionysia, and the Thargelia.
-The functions of the _King Archon_ were almost all connected with
-religion; his distinguishing title shows that he was considered a
-representative of the old kings in their capacity of high priest, as
-the Rex Sacrificulus was at Rome. Thus he presided at the Lenaea,
-or older Dionysia; superintended the mysteries and the games called
-_Lampadephoriae_, and had to offer up sacrifices and prayers in the
-Eleusinium, both at Athens and Eleusis. Moreover, indictments for
-impiety, and controversies about the priesthood, were laid before
-him; and, in cases of murder, he brought the trial into the court of
-the areiopagus, and voted with its members. His wife, also, who was
-called _Basilissa_ (βασίλισσα), had to offer certain sacrifices, and
-therefore it was required that she should be a citizen of pure blood,
-without stain or blemish. The _Polemarch_ was originally, as his name
-denotes, the commander-in-chief, and we find him discharging military
-duties as late as the battle of Marathon, in conjunction with the ten
-_Strategi_; he there took, like the kings of old, the command of the
-right wing of the army. This, however, seems to be the last occasion
-on record of this magistrate appointed by lot being invested with
-such important functions; and in after ages we find that his duties
-ceased to be military, having been, in a great measure, transferred
-to the protection and superintendence of the resident aliens, so that
-he resembled in many respects the praetor peregrinus at Rome. Thus,
-all actions affecting aliens, the isoteles and proxeni were brought
-before him previously to trial. Moreover, it was the polemarch’s
-duty to offer the yearly sacrifice to Artemis, in commemoration of
-the vow made by Callimachus, at Marathon, and to arrange the funeral
-games in honour of those who fell in war. The six _Thesmothetae_ were
-extensively connected with the administration of justice, and appear
-to have been called legislators, because, in the absence of a written
-code, they might be said to make laws, or _thesmi_ (θεσμοί), in the
-ancient language of Athens, though in reality they only explained
-them. They were required to review, every year, the whole body of
-laws, that they might detect any inconsistencies or superfluities,
-and discover whether any laws which were abrogated were in the public
-records amongst the rest. Their report was submitted to the people,
-who referred the necessary alterations to a legislative committee
-chosen for the purpose, and called _Nomothetae_ (νομοθέται). The
-chief part of the duties of the thesmothetae consisted in receiving
-informations, and bringing cases to trial in the courts of law, of
-the days of sitting in which they gave public notice. They did not
-try them themselves, but seem to have constituted a sort of grand
-jury, or inquest. The trial itself took place before the Dicastae.
-[DICASTAE.] It is necessary to be cautious in our interpretation of
-the words ἀρχή and ἄρχοντες, since they have a double meaning in
-the Attic orators, sometimes referring to the archons peculiarly
-so called, and sometimes to any other magistracy. The archons had
-various privileges and honours. The greatest of the former was the
-exemption from the trierarchies--a boon not allowed even to the
-successors of Harmodius and Aristogeiton. As a mark of their office,
-they wore a chaplet or crown of myrtle; and if any one struck or
-abused one of the archons, when wearing this badge of office, he
-became _atimus_ (ἄτιμος), or infamous in the fullest extent, thereby
-losing his civic rights. The archons, at the close of their year
-of service, were admitted among the members of the areiopagus.
-[AREIOPAGUS.]
-
-
-FOOTNOTE:
-
-[1] By this is meant that the supreme power, though not monarchical,
-was confined to one family.
-
-
-[Illustration: Arch of Tiryns. (Gell’s Itinerary, pl. 16.)]
-
-ARCUS (also fornix), an arch. A true arch is formed of a series
-of wedge-like stones, or of bricks, supporting each other, and
-all bound firmly together by their mutual pressure. It would seem
-that the arch, as thus defined, and as used by the Romans, was not
-known to the Greeks in the early periods of their history. But they
-made use of a contrivance, even in the heroic age, by which they
-were enabled to gain all the advantages of our archway in making
-corridors, or hollow galleries, and which in appearance resembled
-the pointed arch, such as is now termed Gothic. This was effected
-by cutting away the superincumbent stones in the manner already
-described, at an angle of about 45° with the horizon. The mode of
-construction and appearance of such arches is represented in the
-annexed drawing of the walls of Tiryns. The gate of Signia (_Segni_)
-in Latium exhibits a similar example. The principle of the true arch
-seems to have been known to the Romans from the earliest period;
-it is used in the _Cloaca Maxima_. It is most probably an Etruscan
-invention. The use of it constitutes one leading distinction between
-Greek and Roman architecture, for by its application the Romans were
-enabled to execute works of far bolder construction than those of
-the Greeks. The Romans, however, never used any other form of arch
-than the semicircle. The arcus triumphalis, triumphal arch, was a
-structure peculiar to the Romans, erected in honour of an individual,
-or in commemoration of a conquest. Triumphal arches were built
-across the principal streets of Rome, and, according to the space
-of their respective localities, consisted of a single archway, or
-a central one for carriages, and two smaller ones on each side for
-foot-passengers. Those actually made use of on the occasion of a
-triumphal entry and procession were merely temporary and hastily
-erected; and, having served their purpose, were taken down again, and
-sometimes replaced by others of more durable materials. Stertinius
-is the first upon record who erected anything of the kind. He built
-an arch in the Forum Boarium, about B.C. 196, and another in the
-Circus Maximus, each of which was surmounted by gilt statues. There
-are twenty-one arches recorded by different writers, as having been
-erected in the city of Rome, five of which now remain:--1. _Arcus
-Drusi_, which was erected to the honour of Claudius Drusus on the
-Appian way. 2. _Arcus Titi_, at the foot of the Palatine, which
-was erected to the honour of Titus, after his conquest of Judaea;
-the bas-reliefs of this arch represent the spoils from the temple
-of Jerusalem carried in triumphal procession. 3. _Arcus Septimii
-Severi_, which was erected by the senate (A.D. 207) at the end of
-the Via Sacra, in honour of that emperor and his two sons, Caracalla
-and Geta, on account of his conquest of the Parthians and Arabians.
-4. _Arcus Gallieni_, erected to the honour of Gallienus by a private
-individual, M. Aurelius Victor. 5. _Arcus Constantini_, which was
-larger than the arch of Titus. As a specimen of the triumphal arches,
-a drawing of the arch of Drusus is given in the preceding page.
-
-[Illustration: Arch of Drusus at Rome]
-
-
-ARCUS (βιός, τόξον), the bow used for shooting arrows, is one of the
-most ancient of all weapons, but is characteristic of Asia rather
-than of Europe. In the Roman armies it was scarcely ever employed
-except by auxiliaries; and these auxiliaries, called _sagittarii_,
-were chiefly Cretes and Arabians. The upper of the two figures below
-shows the Scythian or Parthian bow unstrung; the lower one represents
-the usual form of the Grecian bow, which had a double curvature,
-consisting of two circular portions united by the handle. When not
-used, the bow was put into a case (τοξοθήκη, γωρυτός, _corytus_),
-which was made of leather, and sometimes ornamented. It frequently
-held the arrows as well as the bow, and on this account is often
-confounded with the _pharetra_ or quiver.
-
-[Illustration: Arcus, Bow. (From paintings on vases.)
-
-Corytus, Bow-case. (From a Relief in the Vatican, Visconti, iv.
-tav. 43.)]
-
-
-ĀRĔA (ἅλως, or ἁλωά), the threshing-floor, was a raised place in the
-field, open on all sides to the wind. Great pains were taken to make
-this floor hard; it was sometimes paved with flint stones, but more
-usually covered with clay and smoothed with a roller.
-
-
-ĂREIOPĂGUS (ὁ Ἄρειος πάγος, or hill of Ares) was a rocky eminence,
-lying to the west of, and not far from the Acropolis at Athens. It
-was the place of meeting of the council (Ἡ ἐν Ἀρείῳ πάγῳ βουλή),
-which was sometimes called _The Upper Council_ (Ἡ ἄνω βουλή), to
-distinguish it from the senate of Five-hundred, which sat in the
-Cerameicus within the city. It was a body of very remote antiquity,
-acting as a criminal tribunal, and existed long before the time
-of Solon, but he so far modified its constitution and sphere of
-duty, that he may almost be called its founder. What that original
-constitution was, must in some degree be left to conjecture, though
-there is every reason to suppose that it was aristocratical, the
-members being taken, like the ephetae, from the noble patrician
-families. [EPHETAE.] By the legislation of Solon the Areiopagus was
-composed of the ex-archons, who, after an unexceptionable discharge
-of their duties, “went up” to the Areiopagus, and became members
-of it for life, unless expelled for misconduct. As Solon made the
-qualification for the office of archon to depend not on birth but
-on property, the council after his time ceased to be aristocratic
-in constitution; but, as we learn from Attic writers, continued so
-in spirit. In fact, Solon is said to have formed the two councils,
-the senate and the Areiopagus, to be a check upon the democracy;
-that, as he himself expressed it, “the state riding upon them as
-anchors might be less tossed by storms.” Nay, even after the archons
-were no longer elected by suffrage, but by lot, and the office was
-thrown open by Aristides to all the Athenian citizens, the “upper
-council” still retained its former tone of feeling. Moreover, besides
-these changes in its constitution, Solon altered and extended its
-functions. Before his time it was only a criminal court, trying cases
-of “wilful murder and wounding, of arson and poisoning,” whereas he
-gave it extensive powers of a censorial and political nature. Thus
-we learn that he made the council an “overseer of everything, and
-the guardian of the laws,” empowering it to inquire how any one got
-his living and to punish the idle; and we are also told that the
-Areiopagites were “superintendents of good order and decency,” terms
-as unlimited and undefined as Solon not improbably wished to leave
-their authority. When heinous crimes had notoriously been committed,
-but the guilty parties were not known, or no accuser appeared, the
-Areiopagus inquired into the subject, and reported to the demus. The
-report or information was called _apophasis_. This was a duty which
-they sometimes undertook on their own responsibility, and in the
-exercise of an old established right, and sometimes on the order of
-the demus. Nay, to such an extent did they carry their power, that
-on one occasion they apprehended an individual (Antiphon), who had
-been acquitted by the general assembly, and again brought him to a
-trial, which ended in his condemnation and death. Again, we find them
-revoking an appointment whereby Aeschines was made the advocate of
-Athens before the Amphictyonic council, and substituting Hyperides
-in his room. They also had duties connected with religion, one of
-which was to superintend the sacred olives growing about Athens, and
-try those who were charged with destroying them; and in general it
-was their office to punish the impious and irreligious. Independent,
-then, of its jurisdiction as a criminal court in cases of wilful
-murder, which Solon continued to the Areiopagus, its influence must
-have been sufficiently great to have been a considerable obstacle
-to the aggrandisement of the democracy at the expense of the other
-parties in the state. Accordingly, we find that Pericles, who was
-opposed to the aristocracy, resolved to diminish its power and
-circumscribe its sphere of action. His coadjutor in this work was
-Ephialtes, a statesman of inflexible integrity, and also a military
-commander. They experienced much opposition in their attempts, not
-only in the assembly, but also on the stage, where Aeschylus produced
-his tragedy of the Eumenides, the object of which was to impress upon
-the Athenians the dignity, sacredness, and constitutional worth of
-the institution which Pericles and Ephialtes wished to reform. Still
-the opposition failed: a decree was carried by which, as Aristotle
-says, the Areiopagus was “mutilated,” and many of its hereditary
-rights abolished, though it is difficult to ascertain the precise
-nature of the alterations which Pericles effected. The jurisdiction
-of the Areiopagus in cases of murder was still left to them. In such
-cases the process was as follows:--The king archon brought the case
-into court, and sat as one of the judges, who were assembled in
-the open air, probably to guard against any contamination from the
-criminal. The accuser first came forwards to make a solemn oath that
-his accusation was true, standing over the slaughtered victims, and
-imprecating extirpation upon himself and his whole family were it
-not so. The accused then denied the charge with the same solemnity
-and form of oath. Each party then stated his case with all possible
-plainness, keeping strictly to the subject, and not being allowed
-to appeal in any way to the feelings or passions of the judges.
-After the first speech, a criminal accused of murder might remove
-from Athens, and thus avoid the capital punishment fixed by Draco’s
-_Thesmi_, which on this point were still in force. Except in cases
-of parricide, neither the accuser nor the court had power to prevent
-this; but the party who thus evaded the extreme punishment was not
-allowed to return home, and when any decree was passed at Athens to
-legalize the return of exiles, an exception was always made against
-those who had thus left their country. The Areiopagus continued
-to exist, in name at least, till a very late period. Thus we find
-Cicero mentioning the council in his letters; and an individual is
-spoken of as an Areiopagite under the emperors Gratian and Theodosius
-(A.D. 380). The case of St. Paul is generally quoted as an instance
-of the authority of the Areiopagus in religious matters; but the
-words of the sacred historian do not necessarily imply that he was
-brought before the council. It may, however, be remarked, that the
-Areiopagites certainly took cognizance of the introduction of new
-and unauthorised forms of religious worship, called ἐπίθετα ἱερά, in
-contradistinction to the πάτρια or older rites of the state.
-
-
-ĂRĒNA. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]
-
-
-ĂRĔTĀLŎGI, persons who amused the company at the Roman dinner tables.
-
-
-ARGĒI, the name given by the pontifices to the places consecrated
-by Numa for the celebration of religious services. Varro calls them
-the chapels of the argei, and says they were twenty-seven in number,
-distributed in the different districts of the city. There was a
-tradition that these argei were named from the chieftains who came
-with Hercules, the Argive, to Rome, and occupied the Capitoline,
-or, as it was anciently called, Saturnian hill. It is impossible
-to say what is the historical value or meaning of this legend; we
-may, however, notice its conformity with the statement that Rome was
-founded by the Pelasgians, with whom the name of Argos was connected.
-The name argei was also given to certain figures thrown into the
-Tiber from the Sublician bridge, on the Ides of May in every year.
-This was done by the pontifices, the vestals, the praetors, and other
-citizens, after the performance of the customary sacrifices. The
-images were thirty in number, made of bulrushes, and in the form of
-men. Ovid makes various suppositions to account for the origin of
-this rite; we can only conjecture that it was a symbolical offering,
-to propitiate the gods, and that the number was a representative
-either of the thirty patrician curiae at Rome, or perhaps of the
-thirty Latin townships.
-
-
-ARGENTĀRĬI, bankers or money changers. (1) GREEK. The bankers at
-Athens were called _Trapezitae_ (τραπεζίται), from their tables
-(τραπεζαι) at which they sat, while carrying on their business, and
-which were in the market place. Their principal occupation was that
-of changing money; but they frequently took money, at a moderate
-premium, from persons who did not like to occupy themselves with
-the management of their own affairs, and placed it out at interest.
-Their usual interest was 36 per cent.; a rate that at present
-scarcely occurs except in cases of money lent on bottomry. The only
-instance of a bank recognized and conducted on behalf of the state
-occurs at Byzantium, where at one time it was let by the republic
-to capitalists to farm. Yet the state probably exercised some kind
-of superintendence over the private bankers, since it is hardly
-possible otherwise to account for the unlimited confidence which they
-enjoyed.--(2) ROMAN. The _Argentarii_ at Rome must be distinguished
-from the _mensarii_ and _nummularii_, or public bankers. [MENSARII.]
-The argentarii were private persons, who carried on business on their
-own responsibility, and were not in the service of the republic;
-but the shops or _tabernae_ about the forum, which they occupied,
-and in which they transacted their business, were state property.
-The business of the argentarii may be divided into the following
-branches. 1. _Permutatio_, or the exchange of foreign coin for Roman,
-and in later times the giving of bills of exchange payable in foreign
-towns. 2. The keeping of sums of money for other persons. Such money
-might be deposited by the owner merely to save himself the trouble
-of keeping it and making payments, and in this case it was called
-_depositum_; the argentarius then paid no interest, and the money was
-called _vacua pecunia_. Or the money was deposited on condition of
-the argentarius paying interest; in this case the money was called
-_creditum_. A payment made through a banker was called _per mensam_,
-_de mensa_, or _per mensae scripturam_, while a payment made by the
-debtor in person was a payment _ex arca_ or _de domo_. An argentarius
-never paid away any person’s money without being either authorised by
-him in person or receiving a cheque which was called _perscriptio_.
-The argentarii kept accurate accounts in books called _codices_,
-_tabulae_, or _rationes_, and there is every reason for believing
-that they were acquainted with what is called in book-keeping double
-entry. When a party found to be in debt paid what he owed, he had
-his name effaced (_nomen expedire_ or _expungere_) from the banker’s
-books. 3. Their connection with commerce and public auctions. In
-private sales and purchases, they sometimes acted as agents for
-either party (_interpretes_), and sometimes they undertook to sell
-the whole estate of a person, as an inheritance. At public auctions
-they were almost invariably present, registering the articles sold,
-their prices, and purchasers, and receiving the payment from the
-purchasers. 4. The testing of the genuineness of coins (_probatio
-nummorum_). This, however, seems originally to have been a part of
-the duty of public officers, the mensarii or nummularii, until in
-the course of time the opinion of an argentarius also came to be
-looked upon as decisive. 5. The _solidorum venditio_, that is, the
-obligation of purchasing from the mint the newly coined money, and
-circulating it among the people. This branch of their functions
-occurs only under the empire. The argentarii formed a collegium,
-divided into _societates_ or corporations, which alone had the right
-to admit new members of their guild. None but freemen could become
-members of such a corporation. It has already been observed that the
-argentarii had their shops round the forum: hence to become bankrupt
-was expressed by _foro cedere_, or _abire_, or _foro mergi_.
-
-
-ARGENTUM (ἄργυρος), silver. The relative value of gold and silver
-differed considerably at different periods in Greek and Roman
-history. Herodotus mentions it as 13 to 1; Plato, as 12 to 1;
-Menander, as 10 to 1; and Livy as 10 to 1, about B.C. 189. According
-to Suetonius, Julius Caesar, on one occasion, exchanged silver for
-gold in the proportion of 9 to 1; but the most usual proportion under
-the early Roman emperors was about 12 to 1. The proportion in modern
-times, since the discovery of the American mines, has varied between
-17 to 1 and 14 to 1. In the earliest times the Greeks obtained their
-silver chiefly as an article of commerce from the Phocaeans and the
-Samians; but they soon began to work the rich mines of their own
-country and its islands. The chief mines were in Siphnos, Thessaly,
-and Attica. In the last-named country, the silver mines of Laurion
-furnished a most abundant supply, and were generally regarded as
-the chief source of the wealth of Athens. The Romans obtained most
-of their silver from the very rich mines of Spain, which had been
-previously worked by the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, and which,
-though abandoned for those of Mexico, are still not exhausted. By
-far the most important use of silver among the Greeks was for money.
-There are sufficient reasons for believing that, until some time
-after the end of the Peloponnesian war, the Athenians had no gold
-currency. [AURUM.] It may be remarked that all the words connected
-with money are derived from ἄργυρος, and not from χρυσός, as
-καταργυρόω, “to bribe with money;” ἀργυραμοιβός, “a money changer,”
-&c.; and ἄργυρος is itself not unfrequently used to signify money
-in general, as _aes_ is in Latin. At Rome, on the contrary, silver
-was not coined till B.C. 269, before which period Greek silver was
-in circulation at Rome; and the principal silver coin of the Romans,
-the _denarius_, was borrowed from the Greek _drachma_. For further
-details respecting silver money, see DENARIUS, DRACHMA. From a very
-early period, silver was used also in works of art; and the use of it
-for mere purposes of luxury and ostentation, as in plate, was very
-general both in Greece and Rome.
-
-
-ARGỸRASPĬDES (ἀργυράσπιδες), a division of the Macedonian army, who
-were so called because they carried shields covered with silver
-plates.
-
-
-ARGỸROCŎPEION (ἀργυροκοπεῖον), the place where money was coined, the
-mint, at Athens.
-
-
-ĂRĬES (κριός), the battering-ram, was used to batter down the walls
-of besieged cities. It consisted of a large beam, made of the trunk
-of a tree, especially of a fir or an ash. To one end was fastened a
-mass of bronze or iron (κεφαλή, ἐμβολή, προτομή), which resembled in
-its form the head of a ram. The aries in its simplest state was borne
-and impelled by human hands, without other assistance. In an improved
-form, the ram was surrounded with iron bands, to which rings were
-attached for the purpose of suspending it by ropes or chains from a
-beam fixed transversely over it. By this contrivance the soldiers
-were relieved from the necessity of supporting the weight of the ram,
-and could with ease give it a rapid and forcible motion backwards and
-forwards. The use of this machine was further aided by placing the
-frame in which it was suspended upon wheels, and also by constructing
-over it a wooden roof, so as to form a “testudo,” which protected the
-besieging party from the defensive assaults of the besieged.
-
-[Illustration: Aries, Battering Ram. (From Column of Trajan.)]
-
-
-ĀRISTOCRĂTĬA (ἀριστοκρατία), signifies literally “the government of
-the best men,” and as used by Plato, Aristotle, Polybius, &c., it
-meant the government of a class whose supremacy was founded not on
-wealth merely, but on personal distinction. That there should be
-an aristocracy, moreover, it was essential that the administration
-of affairs should be conducted with a view to the promotion of the
-general interests, not for the exclusive or predominant advantage
-of the privileged class As soon as the government ceased to be
-thus conducted, or whenever the only title to political power in
-the dominant class was the possession of superior wealth, the
-constitution was termed an oligarchy (ὀλιγαρχία), which, in the
-technical use of the term, was always looked upon as a corruption
-(παρέκβασις) of an aristocracy. In the practical application of the
-term aristocracy, however, the personal excellence which was held to
-be a necessary element was not of a higher kind than what, according
-to the deeply-seated ideas of the Greeks, was commonly hereditary in
-families of noble birth, and in early times would be the ordinary
-accompaniments of noble rank, namely, wealth, military skill, and
-superior education and intelligence. It is to be noted that the word
-ἀριστοκρατία is never, like the English term _aristocracy_, the name
-of a class, but only of a particular political constitution.
-
-
-[Illustration: Greek Soldier. (From an ancient vase.)
-
-Roman Soldiers. (From Column of Trajan.)]
-
-ARMA, ARMĀTŪRA (ἔντεα, τεύχεα, Hom.; ὅπλα), arms, armour. Homer
-describes in various passages an entire suit of armour, and we
-observe that it consisted of the same portions which were used by
-the Greek soldiers ever after. Moreover, the order of putting them
-on is always the same. The heavy-armed warrior, having already a
-tunic around his body, and preparing for combat, puts on--1. his
-greaves (κνημῖδες, _ocreae_); 2. his cuirass (θώραξ, _lorica_), to
-which belonged the μίτρη underneath, and the zone (ζώνη, ζωστῆρ,
-_cingulum_), above; 3. his sword (ξίφος, _ensis_, _gladius_), hung on
-the left side of his body by means of a belt which passed over the
-right shoulder; 4. the large round shield (σάκος, ἀσπίς, _clipeus_,
-_scutum_), supported in the same manner; 5. his helmet (κόρυς, κυνέη,
-_cassis_, _galea_); 6. he took his spear (ἔγχος, δόρυ, _hasta_), or
-in many cases, two spears. The form and use of these portions are
-described in separate articles, under their Latin names. The annexed
-cut exhibits them all. Those who were defended in the manner which
-has now been represented are called by Homer _aspistae_ (ἀσπισταί),
-from their great shield (ἀσπίς); also _angemachi_ (ἀγχεμάχοι),
-because they fought hand to hand with their adversaries; but much
-more commonly _promachi_ (πρόμαχοι), because they occupied the
-front of the army. In later times, the heavy-armed soldiers were
-called _hoplitae_ (ὁπλίται), because the term _hopla_ (ὄπλα) more
-especially denoted the defensive armour, the shield and thorax. By
-wearing these they were distinguished from the light-armed (ψιλοί,
-ἄνοπλοι, γυμνοί, γυμνῆται, γυμνῆτες), who, instead of being defended
-by the shield and thorax, had a much slighter covering, sometimes
-consisting of skins, and sometimes of leather or cloth; and instead
-of the sword or lance, they commonly fought with darts, stones, bows
-and arrows, or slings. Besides the heavy and light-armed soldiers,
-another description of men, the _peltastae_ (πελτασταί), also
-formed a part of the Greek army, though we do not hear of them in
-early times. Instead of the large round shield, they carried a
-smaller one called the _pelté_ (πέλτη), and in other respects their
-armour, though heavier and more effective than that of the psili,
-was much lighter than that of the hoplites. The weapon on which they
-principally depended was the spear. The Roman legions consisted, as
-the Greek infantry for the most part did, of heavy and light-armed
-troops (_gravis et levis armatura_). The preceding figure represents
-two heavy-armed Roman soldiers. All the essential parts of the Roman
-heavy armour (_lorica_, _ensis_, _clipeus_, _galea_, _hasta_) are
-mentioned together, except the spear, in a well-known passage of St.
-Paul (_Eph._ vi. 17).
-
-
-ARMĀRĬUM, originally a place for keeping arms, afterwards a cupboard,
-in which were kept not only arms, but also clothes, books, money, and
-other articles of value. The armarium was generally placed in the
-atrium of the house.
-
-
-ARMILLA (ψάλιον, ψέλιον, or ψέλλιον, χλιδών, ἀμφιδέα), a bracelet or
-armlet, worn both by men and women. It was a favourite ornament of
-the Medes and Persians. Bracelets do not appear to have been worn
-among the Greeks by the male sex, but Greek ladies had bracelets of
-various materials, shapes, and styles of ornament. They frequently
-exhibited the form of snakes, and were in such cases called snakes
-(ὄφεις) by the Athenians. According to their length, they went once,
-twice, or thrice round the arm, or even a greater number of times.
-The Roman generals frequently bestowed armillae upon soldiers for
-deeds of extraordinary merit.
-
-[Illustration: Armillae, Bracelets. (Museo Borbonico, vol. ii. tav.
-14 vol. vii. tav. 46.)
-
-Armilla, Bracelet. (On Statue of Sleeping Ariadne in Vatican.)]
-
-
-ARMĬLUSTRĬUM, a Roman festival for the purification of arms. It was
-celebrated every year on the 19th of October, when the citizens
-assembled in arms, and offered sacrifices in the place called
-Armilustrum, or Vicus Armilustri.
-
-
-ARRA, ARRĂBO, or ARRHA, ARRHABO, was the thing which purchasers
-and vendors gave to one another, whether it was a sum of money or
-anything else, as an evidence of the contract being made: it was
-no essential part of the contract of buying and selling, but only
-evidence of agreement as to price. The term arrha, in its general
-sense of an evidence of agreement, was also used on other occasions,
-as in the case of betrothment (_sponsalia_). Sometimes the word
-arrha is used as synonymous with _pignus_, but this is not the legal
-meaning of the term.
-
-
-ARRHĒPHŎRĬA (ἀῤῥηφόρια), a festival celebrated at Athens in honour
-of Athena (Minerva). Four girls, of between seven and eleven years
-(ἀῤῥηφόροι, ἐρσηφόροι, ἐῤῥηφόροι), were selected every year by
-the king archon from the most distinguished families, two of whom
-superintended the weaving of the sacred peplus of Athena; the two
-others had to carry the mysterious and sacred vessels of the goddess.
-These latter remained a whole year on the Acropolis; and when the
-festival commenced, the priestess of the goddess placed vessels upon
-their heads, the contents of which were neither known to them nor to
-the priestess. With these they descended to a natural grotto within
-the district of Aphrodite in the gardens. Here they deposited the
-sacred vessels, and carried back something else, which was covered
-and likewise unknown to them. After this the girls were dismissed
-and others were chosen to supply their place in the acropolis.
-
-
-ARRŎGĀTĬO. [ADOPTIO.]
-
-
-ARTĂBA (ἀρτάβη), a Persian measure of capacity = 1 medimnus and 3
-choenices (Attic) = 102 Roman sextarii = 12 gallons, 5·092 pints.
-
-
-ARTĔMĪSĬA (ἀρτεμίσια), a festival celebrated at Syracuse in honour
-of Artemis Potamia and Soteira. It lasted three days, which were
-principally spent in feasting and amusements, Festivals of the same
-name, and in honour of the same goddess, were held in many places in
-Greece, but principally at Delphi.
-
-
-ARTOPTA. [PISTOR.]
-
-
-ĂRŪRA (ἄρουρα), a Greek measure of surface, mentioned by Herodotus,
-who says that it is a hundred Egyptian cubits in every direction. Now
-the Egyptian cubit contained nearly 17¾ inches; therefore the square
-of 100 by 17¾ inches, _i.e._ nearly 148 feet, gives the number of
-square feet (English) in the arura, viz. 21,904.
-
-
-ĂRUSPEX. [HARUSPEX.]
-
-
-ARVĀLES FRĀTRES, formed a college or company of twelve priests, and
-were so called from offering public sacrifices for the fertility
-of the fields. That they were of extreme antiquity is proved by
-the legend which refers their institution to Romulus, of whom it
-is said, that when his nurse Acca Laurentia lost one of her twelve
-sons, he allowed himself to be adopted by her in his place, and
-called himself and the remaining eleven “Fratres Arvales.” We also
-find a college called the Sodales Titii, and as the latter were
-confessedly of Sabine origin, and instituted for the purpose of
-keeping up the Sabine religious rites, it is probable that these
-colleges corresponded one to the other--the Fratres Arvales being
-connected with the Latin, and the Sodales Titii with the Sabine
-element of the Roman state. The office of the fratres arvales was
-for life, and was not taken away even from an exile or captive.
-One of their annual duties was to celebrate a three days’ festival
-in honour of Dea Dia, supposed to be Ceres, sometimes held on the
-17th, 19th, and 20th, sometimes on the 27th, 29th, and 30th of May.
-But besides this festival of the Dea Dia, the fratres arvales were
-required on various occasions, under the emperors, to make vows
-and offer up thanksgivings. Under Tiberius, the Fratres Arvales
-performed sacrifices called the _Ambarvalia_, at various places on
-the borders of the ager Romanus, or original territory of Rome;
-and it is probable that this was a custom handed down from time
-immemorial, and, moreover, that it was a duty of the priesthood to
-invoke a blessing on the whole territory of Rome. There were also the
-private _ambarvalia_, which were so called from the victim (_hostia
-ambarvalis_) that was slain on the occasion being led three times
-round the corn-fields, before the sickle was put to the corn. This
-victim was accompanied by a crowd of merry-makers, the reapers and
-farm-servants dancing and singing, as they marched, the praises of
-Ceres, and praying for her favour and presence, while they offered
-her the libations of milk, honey, and wine. This ceremony was also
-called a _lustratio_, or purification.
-
-
-ARX signifies a height within the walls of a city, upon which a
-citadel was built, and thus came to be applied to the citadel
-itself. Thus one of the summits of the Capitoline hill at Rome is
-called _Arx_. The _Arx_ was the regular place at Rome for taking
-the auspices, and was hence likewise called _auguraculum_; or, more
-probably, the auguraculum was a place in the Arx.
-
-
-AS, or _Libra_, a pound, the unit of weight among the Romans. [LIBRA.]
-
-
-AS, the unit of value in the Roman and old Italian coinages, was
-made of copper, or of the mixed metal called AES. It was originally
-of the weight of a pound of twelve ounces, whence it was called _as
-libralis_ and _aes grave_. The oldest form of the _as_ is that which
-bears the figure of an animal (a bull, ram, boar, or sow). The next
-and most common form is that which has the two-faced head of Janus on
-one side, and the prow of a ship on the other (whence the expression
-used by Roman boys in tossing up, _Capita aut navim_.) Pliny informs
-us, that in the time of the first Punic war (B.C. 264-241), in
-order to meet the expenses of the state, this weight of a pound was
-diminished, and asses were struck of the same weight as the sextans
-(that is, two ounces, or one-sixth of the ancient weight); and that
-thus the republic paid off its debts, gaining five parts in six; that
-afterwards, in the second Punic war, in the dictatorship of Q. Fabius
-Maximus (B.C. 217), asses of one ounce were made, and the denarius
-was decreed to be equal to sixteen asses, the republic thus gaining
-one half; but that in military pay the denarius was always given for
-ten asses; and that soon after, by the Papirian law (about B.C. 191),
-asses of half an ounce were made. The value of the as, of course,
-varied with its weight. Before the reduction to two ounces, ten asses
-were equal to the denarius = about 8½ pence English [DENARIUS].
-Therefore the as = 3·4 farthings. By the reduction the denarius
-was made equal to sixteen asses; therefore the as = 2⅛ farthings.
-The as was divided into parts, which were named according to the
-number of ounces they contained. They were the _deunx_, _dextans_,
-_dodrans_, _bes_, _septunx_, _semis_, _quincunx_, _triens_,
-_quadrans_ or _teruncius_, _sextans_, _sescunx_ or _sescuncia_, and
-uncia, consisting respectively of 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2,
-1½, and 1 ounces. Of these divisions the following were represented
-by coins; namely, the _semis_, _quincunx_, _triens_, _quadrans_,
-_sextans_, and _uncia_. After the reduction in the weight of the
-as, coins were struck of the value of 2, 3, 4, and even 10 asses,
-which were called respectively _dussis_ or _dupondius_, _tressis_,
-_quadrussis_, and _decussis_. Other multiples of the as were denoted
-by words of similar formation, up to _centussis_, 100 asses; but most
-of them do not exist as coins. In certain forms of expression, in
-which _aes_ is used for money without specifying the denomination,
-we must understand the as. Thus _deni aeris_, _mille aeris_, _decies
-aeris_, mean respectively 10, 1000, 1,000,000 _asses_. The word _as_
-was used also for any whole which was to be divided into equal parts;
-and those parts were called _unciae_. Thus these words were applied
-not only to weight and money, but to measures of length, surface,
-and capacity, to inheritances, interest, houses, farms, and many
-other things. Hence the phrases _haeres ex asse_, the heir to a whole
-estate; _haeres ex dodrante_, the heir to three-fourths. The _as_ was
-also called in ancient times _assarius_ (sc. _nummus_), and in Greek
-τὸ ἀσσάριον. According to Polybius, the assarius was equal to half
-the obolus.
-
-
-ASCĬA (σκέπαρνον), an adze. The annexed cut shows two varieties of
-the adze. The instrument at the bottom was called _acisculus_, and
-was chiefly used by masons.
-
-[Illustration: Asciae, adzes. (From ancient monuments and a coin.)]
-
-
-ASCLĒPIEIA (ἀσκληπίεια), the name of festivals which were probably
-celebrated in all places where temples of Asclepius (Aesculapius)
-existed. The most celebrated, however, was that of Epidaurus, which
-took place every five years, and was solemnized with contests of
-rhapsodists and musicians, and with solemn processions and games.
-
-
-ASCŌLĬASMUS (ἀσκωλιασμός, the leaping upon the leathern bag, ἀσκός)
-was one of the many kinds of amusements in which the Athenians
-indulged during the Anthesteria and other festivals in honour of
-Dionysus. Having sacrificed a he-goat to the god, they made a bag out
-of the skin, smeared it with oil, and then tried to dance upon it.
-
-[Illustration: Ascoliasmus. (From an ancient gem.)]
-
-
-ĂSĔBEIAS GRĂPHĒ (ἀσεβείας γραφή), one of the many forms prescribed
-by the Attic laws for the impeachment of impiety. Any citizen not
-incapacitated by disfranchisement (ἀτιμία) seems to have been a
-competent accuser; and citizens, resident aliens, and strangers, were
-equally liable to the accusation. Whether the causes were brought
-into the areiopagus, or the common heliastic court, seems to have
-been determined by the form of action adopted by the prosecutor, or
-the degree of competency to which the areiopagus rose or fell at the
-different periods of Athenian history.
-
-
-ĂSĬARCHAE (ἀσιάρχαι) were, in the Roman province of Asia, the chief
-presidents of the religious rites, whose office it was to exhibit
-games and theatrical amusements every year, in honour of the gods and
-the Roman emperor, at their own expense, like the Roman aediles. They
-were ten in number, selected annually by the different towns of Asia,
-and approved of by the Roman proconsul; of these, one was the chief
-asiarch, and frequently, but not always, resided at Ephesus.
-
-
-ASSĀRĬUS NUMMUS. [AS.]
-
-
-ASSERTOR, or ADSERTOR, contains the same root as the verb _adserere_,
-which, when coupled with the word _manu_, signifies to lay hold
-of a thing, to draw it towards one. Hence the phrase _adserere
-in libertatem_, or _liberali adserere manu_, applies to him who
-lays his hand on a person reputed to be a slave, and _asserts_, or
-maintains his freedom. The person who thus maintained the freedom of
-a reputed slave was called _adsertor_. The person whose freedom was
-thus claimed was said to be _adsertus_. The expressions _liberalis
-causa_, and _liberalis manus_, which occur in connection with the
-verb _adserere_, will easily be understood from what has been said.
-Sometimes the word _adserere_ alone was used as equivalent to
-_adserere in libertatem_. The expression _asserere in servitutem_, to
-claim a person as a slave, occurs in Livy.
-
-
-ASSESSOR, or ADSESSOR, literally one who sits by the side of
-another. Since the consuls, praetors, governors of provinces, and
-the judices, were often imperfectly acquainted with the law and
-forms of procedure, it was necessary that they should have the aid
-of those who had made the law their study. The assessors sat on the
-tribunal with the magistrate. Their advice or aid was given during
-the proceedings as well as at other times, but they never pronounced
-a judicial sentence.
-
-
-ASSĬDUI. [LOCUPLETES.]
-
-
-ASTRĂGĂLUS (ἀστράγαλος), literally, that particular bone in the
-ankles of certain quadrupeds, which the Greeks, as well as the
-Romans, used for dice and other purposes. [TALUS.] In architecture
-it signifies a certain moulding (the astragal) which seems to have
-derived its name from its resemblance to a string or chain of _tali_,
-and it is in fact always used in positions where it seems intended to
-bind together the parts to which it is applied. It belongs properly
-to the more highly decorated forms of the Ionic order, in which it
-appears as a lower edging to the larger mouldings, especially the
-_echinus_ (ovolo), particularly in the capital, as shown in the
-following woodcut.
-
-[Illustration: Astragalus. (Capital of an Ionic Column. Dilettanti
-Society, Ionian Antiquities.)]
-
-
-ASTRĂTEIAS GRĂPHĒ (ἀστρατείας γραφή), the accusation instituted at
-Athens against persons who failed to appear among the troops after
-they had been enrolled for a campaign by the generals. The defendant,
-if convicted, incurred disfranchisement (ἀτιμία) both in his own
-person and that of his descendants.
-
-
-ASTRŎLŎGĬA, astrology. A belief very early arose, which still
-prevails unshaken in the East, that a close connection subsisted
-between the position and movements of the heavenly bodies and the
-fate of man. Few doubted that the destiny of a child might be
-predicted with certainty by those who were skilled to interpret
-the position of the stars at the moment of his birth, and that the
-result of any undertaking might be foretold from the aspect of the
-firmament when it was commenced. Hence a numerous and powerful
-class of men arose who were distinguished by various designations.
-From the country where their science was first developed, they
-were called _Chaldaei_ or _Babylonii_; from observing the stars,
-_astronomi_, _astrologi_, _planetarii_; from employing diagrams such
-as were used by geometricians, _mathematici_; from determining the
-lot of man at his natal hour, _genethliaci_; from prophesying the
-consummation of his struggles, ἀποτελεσματικοί; while their art was
-known as ἀστρολογία, μετεωρολογία, γενεθλιαλογία, ἀποτελεσματική,
-_Ars Chaldaeorum_, _Mathesis_, or, from the tables they consulted,
-πινακική. Their calculations were termed _Babylonii numeri_,
-Χαλδαίων μέθοδοι, Χαλδαίων ψηφίδες, _Rationes Chaldaicae_; their
-responses when consulted _Chaldaeorum monita_, _Chaldaeorum natalicia
-praedicta_, _Astrologorum praedicta_. The stars and constellations
-to which attention was chiefly directed were the planets and the
-signs of the zodiac, some of which were supposed to exert uniformly
-a benign influence (ἀγαθοποιοὶ ἀστέρες), such as Venus, Jupiter,
-Luna, Virgo, Libra, Taurus; others to be uniformly malign (κακοποιοὶ
-ἀστέρες), such as Saturnus, Mars, Scorpio, Capricornus; others to be
-doubtful (ἐπίκοινοι ἀστέρες), such as Mercurius. The exact period of
-birth (_hora genitalis_) being the critical moment, the computations
-founded upon it were styled γένεσις(_genitura_), ὡροσκόπος
-(_horoscopus_), or simply θέμα, and the star or stars in the
-ascendant _sidus natalitium_, _sidera natalitia_. Astrologers seem
-to have found their way very early into Italy. In B.C. 139 an edict
-was promulgated by C. Cornelius Hispallus, at that time praetor, by
-which the Chaldaeans were ordered to quit Italy within ten days, and
-they were again banished from the city in B.C. 33, by M. Agrippa, who
-was then aedile. Another severe ordinance was levelled by Augustus
-against this class, but the frequent occurrence of such phrases as
-“expulit et mathematicos,” “pulsis Italia mathematicis,” in the
-historians of the empire prove how firm a hold these pretenders must
-have obtained over the public mind, and how profitable the occupation
-must have been which could induce them to brave disgrace, and
-sometimes a cruel death.
-
-
-ASTỸNŎMI (ἀστυνόμοι), or street-police of Athens, were ten in number,
-five for the city, and as many for the Peiraeeus. The _astynomi_ and
-_agoranomi_ divided between them most of the functions of the Roman
-aediles. [AGORANOMI.]
-
-
-ĂSῩLUM (ἄσυλον). In the Greek states the temples, altars, sacred
-groves, and statues of the gods, generally possessed the privilege
-of protecting slaves, debtors, and criminals, who fled to them for
-refuge. The laws, however, do not appear to have recognised the
-right of all such sacred places to afford the protection which was
-claimed, but to have confined it to a certain number of temples, or
-altars, which were considered in a more especial manner to have the
-ἀσυλία, or _jus asyli_. There were several places in Athens which
-possessed this privilege; of which the best known was the Theseium,
-or temple of Theseus, in the city, near the gymnasium, which was
-chiefly intended for the protection of ill-treated slaves, who could
-take refuge in this place, and compel their masters to sell them to
-some other person. In the time of Tiberius, the number of places
-possessing the jus asyli in the Greek cities in Greece and Asia
-Minor became so numerous, as seriously to impede the administration
-of justice; and, consequently, the senate, by the command of the
-emperor, limited the jus asyli to a few cities. The asylum, which
-Romulus is said to have opened at Rome to increase the population of
-the city, was a place of refuge for the inhabitants of other states,
-rather than a sanctuary for those who had violated the laws of the
-city. In the republican and early imperial times, a right of asylum,
-such as existed in the Greek states, does not appear to have been
-recognised by the Roman law; but it existed under the empire, and a
-slave could fly to the temples of the gods, or the statues of the
-emperors, to avoid the ill-usage of his master.
-
-
-ĂTĔLEIA (ἀτέλεια), immunity from public burthens, was enjoyed at
-Athens by the archons for the time being; by the descendants of
-certain persons, on whom it had been conferred as a reward for great
-services, as in the case of Harmodius and Aristogeiton; and by the
-inhabitants of certain foreign states. It was of several kinds: it
-might be a general immunity (ἀτέλεια ἁπάντων); or a more special
-exemption, as from custom-duties, from the liturgies, or from
-providing sacrifices.
-
-
-ĀTELLĀNAE FĂBŬLAE were a species of farce or comedy, so called from
-Atella, a town of the Osci, in Campania. From this circumstance,
-and from being written in the Oscan dialect, they were also called
-_Ludi Osci_. These Atellane plays were not _praetextatae_, _i.e._
-comedies in which magistrates and persons of rank were introduced,
-nor _tabernariae_, the characters in which were taken from low life;
-they rather seem to have been a union of high comedy and its parody.
-They were also distinguished from the mimes by the absence of low
-buffoonery and ribaldry, being remarkable for a refined humour, such
-as could be understood and appreciated by educated people. They were
-not performed by regular actors (_histriones_), but by Roman citizens
-of noble birth, who were not on that account subjected to any
-degradation, but retained their rights as citizens, and might serve
-in the army. The Oscan or Opican language, in which these plays were
-written, was spread over the whole of the south of Italy, and from
-its resemblance to the Latin could easily be understood by the more
-educated Romans.
-
-
-ĂTHĒNAEUM (ἀθήναιον), a school (_ludus_) founded by the Emperor
-Hadrian at Rome, for the promotion of literary and scientific studies
-(_ingenuarum artium_), and called Athenaeum from the town of Athens,
-which was still regarded as the seat of intellectual refinement.
-The Athenaeum was situated on the Capitoline hill. It was a kind of
-university, with a staff of professors, for the various branches
-of study. Besides the instruction given by these magistri, poets,
-orators, and critics were accustomed to recite their compositions
-there, and these prelections were sometimes honoured with the
-presence of the emperors themselves. The Athenaeum seems to have
-continued in high repute till the fifth century.
-
-
-ATHLĒTAE (ἀθληταί, ἀθλητῆρες), persons who contended in the public
-games of the Greeks and Romans for prizes (ἆθλα, whence the name of
-ἀθληταί), which were given to those who conquered in contests of
-agility and strength. The name was in the later period of Grecian
-history, and among the Romans, properly confined to those persons
-who entirely devoted themselves to a course of training which might
-fit them to excel in such contests, and who, in fact, made athletic
-exercises their profession. The athletae differed, therefore, from
-the _agonistae_ (ἀγωνισταί), who only pursued gymnastic exercises
-for the sake of improving their health and bodily strength, and who,
-though they sometimes contended for the prizes in the public games,
-did not devote their whole lives, like the athletae, to preparing
-for these contests. Athletae were first introduced at Rome, B.C.
-186, in the games exhibited by M. Fulvius, on the conclusion of
-the Aetolian war. Aemilius Paullus, after the conquest of Perseus,
-B.C. 167, is said to have exhibited games at Amphipolis, in which
-athletae contended. Under the Roman emperors, and especially under
-Nero, who was passionately fond of the Grecian games, the number of
-athletae increased greatly in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor. Those
-athletae who conquered in any of the great national festivals of
-the Greeks were called _Hieronicae_ (ἱερονῖκαι), and received the
-greatest honours and rewards. Such a conqueror was considered to
-confer honour upon the state to which he belonged; he entered his
-native city through a breach made in the walls for his reception, in
-a chariot drawn by four white horses, and went along the principal
-street of the city to the temple of the guardian deity of the state.
-Those games, which gave the conquerors the right of such an entrance
-into the city, were called _Iselastici_ (from εἰσελαύνειν). This term
-was originally confined to the four great Grecian festivals, the
-Olympian, Isthmian, Nemean, and Pythian, but was afterwards applied
-to other public games. In the Greek states, the victors in these
-games not only obtained the greatest glory and respect, but also
-substantial rewards. They were generally relieved from the payment
-of taxes, and also enjoyed the first seat (προεδρία) in all public
-games and spectacles. Their statues were frequently erected at the
-cost of the state, in the most frequented part of the city, as the
-market-place, the gymnasia, and the neighbourhood of the temples. At
-Athens, according to a law of Solon, the conquerors in the Olympic
-games were rewarded with a prize of 500 drachmae; and the conquerors
-in the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian, with one of 100 drachmae;
-and at Sparta they had the privilege of fighting near the person
-of the king. The privileges of the athletae were secured, and in
-some respects increased, by the Roman emperors. The term athletae,
-though sometimes applied metaphorically to other combatants, was
-properly limited to those who contended for the prize in the five
-following contests:--1. _Running_ (δρόμος, _cursus_). [STADIUM.]
-2. _Wrestling_ (πάλη, _lucta_). 3. _Boxing_ (πυγμή, _pugilatus_).
-4. The _pentathlum_ (πένταθλον), or, as the Romans called it,
-_quinquertium_. 5. The _pancratium_ (παγκράτιον). Of all these an
-account is given in separate articles. Great attention was paid to
-the training of the athletae. They were generally trained in the
-_palaestrae_, which, in the Grecian states, were distinct places from
-the gymnasia. Their exercises were superintended by the gymnasiarch,
-and their diet was regulated by the aliptes. [ALIPTAE.]--The
-athletae were accustomed to contend naked. In the descriptions of
-the games given in the Iliad, the combatants are represented with
-a girdle about their loins; and the same practice, as we learn
-from Thucydides, anciently prevailed at the Olympic games, but was
-discontinued afterwards.
-
-
-ĂTĪMĬA (ἀτιμία), the forfeiture of a man’s civil rights at Athens.
-It was either total or partial. A man was totally deprived of his
-rights, both for himself and for his descendants (καθάπαξ ἄτιμος),
-when he was convicted of murder, theft, false witness, partiality as
-arbiter, violence offered to a magistrate, and so forth. This highest
-degree of atimia excluded the person affected by it from the forum,
-and from all public assemblies; from the public sacrifices, and from
-the law courts; or rendered him liable to immediate imprisonment,
-if he was found in any of these places. It was either temporary
-or perpetual, and either accompanied or not with confiscation of
-property. Partial atimia only involved the forfeiture of some
-few rights, as, for instance, the right of pleading in court.
-Public debtors were suspended from their civic functions till they
-discharged their debt to the state. People who had once become
-altogether atimi were very seldom restored to their lost privileges.
-The converse term to _atimia_ was _epitimia_ (ἐπιτιμία).
-
-
-ATLANTES (ἄτλαντες) and TĔLĂMŌNES (τελαμῶνες), terms used in
-architecture, the former by the Greeks, the latter by the Romans, to
-designate those male figures which are sometimes fancifully used,
-like the female _Caryatides_, in place of columns. Both words are
-derived from τλῆναι, and the former evidently refers to the fable of
-Atlas, who supported the vault of heaven, the latter _perhaps_ to
-the strength of the Telamonian Ajax.
-
-[Illustration: Atlantes. (From Temple at Agrigentum: Professor
-Cockerell.)]
-
-
-ĀTRĀMENTUM, a term applicable to any black colouring substance, for
-whatever purpose it may be used, like the _melan_ (μέλαν) of the
-Greeks. There were, however, three principal kinds of atramentum:
-one called _librarium_, or _scriptorium_ (in Greek, γραφικὸν μέλαν),
-writing-ink; another called _sutorium_, which was used by the
-shoemakers for dyeing leather; the third _tectorium_, or _pictorium_,
-which was used by painters for some purposes, apparently as a sort
-of varnish. The inks of the ancients seem to have been more durable
-than our own; they were thicker and more unctuous, in substance and
-durability more resembling the ink now used by printers. An inkstand
-was discovered at Herculaneum, containing ink as thick as oil, and
-still usable for writing. The ancients used inks of various colours.
-Red ink, made of _minium_ or vermilion, was used for writing the
-titles and beginning of books. So also was ink made of _rubrica_,
-“red ochre;” and because the headings of _laws_ were written with
-rubrica, the word rubric came to be used for the civil law. So
-_album_, a white or whited table, on which the praetors’ edicts
-were written, was used in a similar way. A person devoting himself
-to _album_ and _rubrica_, was a person devoting himself to the law.
-[ALBUM.]
-
-
-ĀTRĬUM (called αὐλή by the Greeks and by Virgil, and also μεσαύλιον,
-περίστυλον, περίστῳον) is used in a distinctive as well as collective
-sense, to designate a particular part in the private houses of the
-Romans [DOMUS], and also a class of public buildings, so called
-from their general resemblance in construction to the atrium of a
-private house. An atrium of the latter description was a building by
-itself, resembling in some respects the open basilica [BASILICA],
-but consisting of three sides. Such was the Atrium Publicum in
-the capitol, which, Livy informs us, was struck with lightning,
-B.C. 216. It was at other times attached to some temple or other
-edifice, and in such case consisted of an open area and surrounding
-portico in front of the structure. Several of these buildings are
-mentioned by the ancient historians, two of which were dedicated to
-the same goddess, Libertas. The most celebrated, as well as the most
-ancient, was situated on the Aventine Mount. In this atrium there
-was a tabularium, where the legal tablets (_tabulae_) relating to
-the censors were preserved. The other Atrium Libertatis was in the
-neighbourhood of the Forum Caesaris, and was immediately behind the
-Basilica Paulli or Aemilia.
-
-
-AUCTĬO signifies generally “an increasing, an enhancement,” and hence
-the name is applied to a public sale of goods, at which persons
-bid against one another. The sale was sometimes conducted by an
-_argentarius_, or by a _magister auctionis_; and the time, place,
-and conditions of sale, were announced either by a public notice
-(_tabula_, _album_, &c.), or by a crier (_praeco_). The usual phrases
-to express the giving notice of a sale were, _auctionem proscribere,
-praedicare_; and to determine on a sale, _auctionem constituere_.
-The purchasers (_emtores_), when assembled, were sometimes said
-_ad tabulam adesse_. The phrases signifying to bid are, _liceri_,
-_licitari_, which was done either by word of mouth, or by such
-significant hints as are known to all people who have attended an
-auction. The property was said to be knocked down (_addici_) to the
-purchaser. The praeco, or crier, seems to have acted the part of the
-modern auctioneer, so far as calling out the biddings, and amusing
-the company. Slaves, when sold by auction, were placed on a stone,
-or other elevated thing, as is the case when slaves are sold in
-the United States of North America; and hence the phrase _homo de
-lapide emtus_. It was usual to put up a spear (_hasta_) in auctions;
-a symbol derived, it is said, from the ancient practice of selling
-under a spear the booty acquired in war.
-
-
-AUCTOR, a word which contains the same element as _aug-eo_, and
-signifies generally one who enlarges, confirms, or gives to a
-thing its completeness and efficient form. The numerous technical
-significations of the word are derivable from this general notion. As
-he who gives to a thing that which is necessary for its completeness
-may in this sense be viewed as the chief actor or doer, the
-word auctor is also used in the sense of one who originates or
-proposes a thing; but this cannot be viewed as its primary meaning.
-Accordingly, the word auctor, when used in connection with lex or
-senatus consultum, often means him who originates and proposes.--The
-expressions _patres auctores fiunt_, _patres auctores facti_, have
-given rise to much discussion. In the earlier periods of the Roman
-state, the word _patres_ was equivalent to _patricii_; in the later
-period, when the patricians had lost all importance as a political
-body, the term patres signified the senate. Hence some ambiguity has
-arisen. The expression _patres auctores fiunt_, when used of the
-early period of Rome, means that the determinations of the populus
-in the comitia centuriata were confirmed by the patricians in the
-comitia curiata. Till the time of Servius Tullius there were only
-the comitia curiata, and this king first established the comitia
-centuriata, in which the plebs also voted, and consequently it was
-not till after this time that the phrase _patres auctores fiunt_
-could be properly applied. Livy, however, uses it of an earlier
-period. The comitia curiata first elected the king, and then by
-another vote conferred upon him the imperium. The latter was called
-_lex curiata de imperio_, an expression not used by Livy, who
-employs instead the phrase _patres auctores fiunt_ (Liv. i. 17, 22,
-32).--After the exile of the last Tarquin, the patres, that is the
-patricians, had still the privilege of confirming at the comitia
-curiata the vote of the comitia centuriata, that is, they gave to
-it the _patrum auctoritas_; or, in other words, the _patres_ were
-_auctores facti_. In the fifth century of the city a change was made.
-By one of the laws of the plebeian dictator Q. Publilius Philo, it
-was enacted that in the case of leges to be enacted at the comitia
-centuriata, the _patres_ should be _auctores_, that is, the curiae
-should give their assent before the vote of the comitia centuriata.
-By a lex Maenia of uncertain date the same change was made as to
-elections.--But both during the earlier period and afterwards no
-business could be brought before the comitia without first receiving
-the sanction of the senate; and accordingly the phrase _patres
-auctores fiunt_ came now to be applied to the approval of a measure
-by the senate before it was confirmed by the votes of the people.
-This preliminary approval was also termed _senatus auctoritas_.--When
-the word auctor is applied to him who recommends but does not
-originate a legislative measure, it is equivalent to _suasor_.
-Sometimes both auctor and suasor are used in the same sentence, and
-the meaning of each is kept distinct. With reference to dealings
-between individuals, auctor has the sense of owner. In this sense
-auctor is the seller (_venditor_), as opposed to the buyer (_emtor_):
-and hence we have the phrase _a malo auctore emere_. Auctor is also
-used generally to express any person under whose authority any legal
-act is done. In this sense, it means a tutor who is appointed to aid
-or advise a woman on account of the infirmity of her sex.
-
-
-AUCTŌRĀMENTUM, the pay of gladiators. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-
-AUCTŌRĬTAS. The technical meanings of this word correlate with those
-of auctor. The auctoritas senatus was not a senatus-consultum; it
-was a measure, incomplete in itself, which received its completion
-by some other authority. Auctoritas, as applied to property, is
-equivalent to legal ownership, being a correlation of auctor.
-
-
-AUDĪTŌRĬUM, as the name implies, is any place for hearing. It was
-the practice among the Romans for poets and others to read their
-compositions to their friends, who were sometimes called the
-auditorium; but the word was also used to express any place in which
-any thing was heard, and under the empire it was applied to a court
-of justice. Under the republic the place for all judicial proceedings
-was the comitium and the forum. But for the sake of shelter and
-convenience it became the practice to hold courts in the Basilicae,
-which contained halls, which were also called auditoria. It is first
-under M. Aurelius that the auditorium principis is mentioned, by
-which we must understand a hall or room in the imperial residence;
-and in such a hall Septimius Severus and the later emperors held
-their regular sittings when they presided as judges. The latest
-jurists use the word generally for any place in which justice was
-administered.
-
-
-AUGUR, AUGŬRĬUM; AUSPEX, AUSPĬCĬUM. _Augur_ or _auspex_ meant
-a diviner by birds, but came in course of time, like the Greek
-οἰωνός, to be applied in a more extended sense: his art was called
-_augurium_ or _auspicium_. Plutarch relates that the _augures_ were
-originally termed _auspices_. The word _auspex_ was supplanted by
-_augur_, but the scientific term for the observation continued on
-the contrary to be _auspicium_ and not _augurium_. By Greek writers
-on Roman affairs, the augurs are called οἰωνοπόλοι, οἰωνοσκόποι,
-οἰωνισταί, οἱ ἐπ’ οἰωνοῖς ἱερεῖς. The belief that the flight of
-birds gave some intimation of the will of the gods seems to have
-been prevalent among many nations of antiquity, and was common to
-the Greeks, as well as the Romans; but it was only among the latter
-people that it was reduced to a complete system, governed by fixed
-rules, and handed down from generation to generation. In Greece,
-the oracles supplanted the birds, and the future was learnt from
-Apollo and other gods, rarely from Zeus, who possessed very few
-oracles in Greece. The contrary was the case at Rome: it was from
-Jupiter that the future was learnt, and the birds were regarded
-as his messengers. It must be remarked in general, that the Roman
-auspices were essentially of a practical nature; they gave no
-information respecting the course of future events, they did not
-inform men _what was to happen_, but simply taught them _what they
-were to do, or not to do_; they assigned no reason for the decision
-of Jupiter--they simply announced, yes or no. The words _augurium_
-and _auspicium_ came to be used in course of time to signify the
-observation of various kinds of signs. They were divided into five
-sorts: _ex caelo_, _ex avibus_, _ex tripudiis_, _ex quadrupedibus_,
-_ex diris_. Of these, the last three formed no part of the ancient
-auspices.--1. _Ex caelo._ This included the observation of the
-various kinds of thunder and lightning, and was regarded as the
-most important, _maximum auspicium_. Whenever it was reported by a
-person authorised to take the auspices, that Jupiter thundered or
-lightened, the comitia could not be held.--2. _Ex avibus._ It was
-only a few birds which could give auguries among the Romans. They
-were divided into two classes: _Oscines_, those which gave auguries
-by singing, or their voice, and _Alites_, those which gave auguries
-by their flight. To the former class belonged the raven (_corvus_)
-and the crow (_cornix_), the first of these giving a favourable omen
-(_auspicium ratum_) when it appeared on the right, the latter, on the
-contrary, when it was seen on the left: likewise the owl (_noctua_)
-and the hen (_gallina_). To the _aves alites_ belonged first of all
-the eagle (_aquila_), which is called pre-eminently the bird of
-Jupiter (_Jovis ales_), and next the vulture (_vultur_). Some birds
-were included both among the _oscines_ and the _alites_: such were
-the _Picus Martius_, and _Feronius_, and the _Parra_. These were the
-principal birds consulted in the auspices. When the birds favoured an
-undertaking, they were said _addicere_, _admittere_ or _secundare_,
-and were then called _addictivae_, _admissivae_, _secundae_, or
-_praepetes_: when unfavourable they were said _abdicere_, _arcere_,
-_refragari_, &c., and were then called _adversae_ or _alterae_.
-The birds which gave unfavourable omens were termed _funebres_,
-_inhibitae_, _lugubres_, _malae_, &c., and such auspices were called
-_clivia_ and _clamatoria_.--3. _Ex tripudiis._ These auspices were
-taken from the feeding of chickens, and were especially employed on
-military expeditions. The chickens were kept in a cage, under care of
-a person called _pullarius_; and when the auspices were to be taken,
-the pullarius opened the cage and threw to the chickens pulse or a
-kind of soft cake. If they refused to come out or to eat, or uttered
-a cry (_occinerent_), or beat their wings, or flew away, the signs
-were considered unfavourable. On the contrary, if they ate greedily,
-so that something fell from their mouth and struck the earth, it
-was called _tripudium solistimum_ (_tripudium_ quasi _terripavium_,
-_solistimum_, from _solum_, according to the ancient writers), and
-was held a favourable sign.--4. _Ex quadrupedibus._ Auguries could
-also be taken from four-footed animals; but these formed no part of
-the original science of the augurs, and were never employed by them
-in taking auspices on behalf of the state, or in the exercise of
-their art properly so called. They must be looked upon simply as a
-mode of private divination. When a fox, a wolf, a horse, a dog, or
-any other kind of quadruped ran across a person’s path or appeared in
-an unusual place, it formed an augury.--5. _Ex diris_, sc. _signis_.
-Under this head was included every kind of augury which does not fall
-under any of the four classes mentioned above, such as sneezing,
-stumbling, and other accidental things. There was an important
-augury of this kind connected with the army, which was called _ex
-acuminibus_, that is, the flames appearing at the points of spears or
-other weapons. The ordinary manner of taking the auspices, properly
-so called (i.e. _ex caelo_ and _ex avibus_), was as follows: The
-person who was to take them first marked out with a wand (_lituus_)
-a division in the heavens called _templum_ or _tescum_, within which
-he intended to make his observations. The station where he was to
-take the auspices was also separated by a solemn formula from the
-rest of the land, and was likewise called _templum_ or _tescum_.
-He then proceeded to pitch a tent in it (_tabernaculum capere_),
-and this tent again was also called _templum_, or, more accurately,
-_templum minus_. [TEMPLUM.] Within the walls of Rome, or, more
-properly speaking, within the pomoerium, there was no occasion to
-select a spot and pitch a tent on it, as there was a place on the
-Arx on the summit of the Capitoline hill, called _Auguraculum_,
-which had been consecrated once for all for this purpose. In like
-manner there was in every Roman camp a place called _augurale_, which
-answered the same purpose; but on all other occasions a place had to
-be consecrated, and a tent to be pitched, as, for instance, in the
-Campus Martius, when the comitia centuriata were to be held. The
-person who was then taking the auspices waited for the favourable
-signs to appear; but it was necessary during this time that there
-should be no interruption of any kind whatsoever (_silentium_), and
-hence the word _silentium_ was used in a more extended sense to
-signify the absence of every thing that was faulty. Every thing, on
-the contrary, that rendered the auspices invalid was called _vitium_;
-and hence we constantly read in Livy and other writers of _vitio
-magistratus creati_, _vitio lex lata_, &c. The watching for the
-auspices was called _spectio_ or _servare de coelo_, the declaration
-of what was observed _nuntiatio_, or, if they were unfavourable,
-_obnuntiatio_. In the latter case, the person who took the auspices
-seems usually to have said _alio die_, by which the business in hand,
-whether the holding of the _comitia_ or any thing else, was entirely
-stopped.--In ancient times no one but a patrician could take the
-auspices. Hence the possession of the auspices (_habere auspicia_)
-is one of the most distinguished prerogatives of the patricians;
-they are said to be _penes patrum_, and are called _auspicia
-patrum_. It would further appear that every patrician might take
-the auspices; but here a distinction is to be observed between the
-_auspicia privata_ and _auspicia publica_. One of the most frequent
-occasions on which the _auspicia privata_ were taken, was in case of
-a marriage: and this was one great argument used by the patricians
-against _connubium_ between themselves and the plebeians, as it
-would occasion, they urged, _perturbationem auspiciorum publicorum
-privatorumque_. In taking these private auspices, it would appear
-that any patrician was employed who knew how to form _templa_ and
-was acquainted with the art of augury. The case, however, was very
-different with respect to the _auspicia publica_, generally called
-_auspicia_ simply, or those which concerned the state. The latter
-could only be taken by the persons who represented the state, and who
-acted as mediators between the gods and the state; for though all the
-patricians were eligible for taking the auspices, yet it was only the
-magistrates who were in actual possession of them. In case, however,
-there was no patrician magistrate, the auspices became vested in the
-whole body of the patricians (_auspicia ad patres redeunt_), who had
-recourse to an _interregnum_ for the renewal of them, and for handing
-them over in a perfect state to the new magistrates: hence we find
-the expressions _repetere de integro auspicia_, and _renovare per
-interregnum auspicia_.--The distinction between the duties of the
-magistrates and the augurs in taking the auspices is one of the
-most difficult points connected with this subject, but perhaps a
-satisfactory solution of these difficulties may be found by taking
-an historical view of the question. We are told not only that the
-kings were in possession of the auspices, but that they themselves
-were acquainted with the art and practised it. Romulus is stated to
-have appointed three augurs, but only as his assistants in taking
-the auspices, a fact which it is important to bear in mind. Their
-dignity gradually increased in consequence of their being employed
-at the inauguration of the kings, and also in consequence of their
-becoming the preservers and depositaries of the science of augury.
-Formed into a collegium, they handed down to their successors the
-various rules of the science, while the kings, and subsequently the
-magistrates of the republic, were liable to change. Their duties thus
-became two-fold, to assist the magistrates in taking up auspices,
-and to preserve a scientific knowledge of the art. As the augurs
-were therefore merely the assistants of the magistrates, they could
-not take the auspices without the latter, though the magistrates on
-the contrary could dispense with their assistance. At the same time
-it must be borne in mind, that as the augurs were the interpreters
-of the science, they possessed the right of declaring whether the
-auspices were valid or invalid. They thus possessed in reality a
-veto upon every important public transaction; and they frequently
-exercised this power as a political engine to vitiate the election
-of such parties as were unfavourable to the enclusive privileges of
-the patricians. But although the augurs could declare that there was
-some fault in the auspices, yet, on the other hand, they could not,
-by virtue of their office, declare that any unfavourable sign had
-appeared to them, since it was not to them that the auspices were
-sent. Thus we are told that the augurs did not possess the _spectio_.
-This _spectio_ was of two kinds, one more extensive and the other
-more limited. In the one case the person who exercised it could put a
-stop to the proceedings of any other magistrate by his obnuntiatio:
-this was called _spectio et nuntiatio_ (perhaps also _spectio cum
-nuntiatione_), and belonged only to the highest magistrates, the
-consuls, dictators, interreges, and, with some modifications, to
-the praetors. In the other case, the person who took the auspices
-only exercised the _spectio_ in reference to the duties of his own
-office, and could not interfere with any other magistrate: this
-was called _spectio sine nuntiatione_, and belonged to the other
-magistrates, the censors, aediles, and quaestors. Now as the augurs
-did not possess the auspices, they consequently could not possess
-the spectio (_habere spectionem_); but as the augurs were constantly
-employed by the magistrates to take the auspices, they _exercised_
-the spectio, though they did not _possess_ it in virtue of their
-office. When they were employed by the magistrates in taking the
-auspices, they possessed the right of the _nuntiatio_, and thus had
-the power, by the declaration of unfavourable signs (_obnuntiatio_),
-to put a stop to all important public transactions.--The auspices
-were not conferred upon the magistrates in any special manner. It
-was the act of their election which made them the recipients of the
-auspices, since the comitia, in which they were appointed to their
-office, were held _auspicato_, and consequently their appointment
-was regarded as ratified by the gods. The auspices, therefore,
-passed immediately into their hands upon the abdication of their
-predecessors in office.--The auspices belonging to the different
-magistrates were divided into two classes, called _auspicia maxima_
-or _majora_ and _minora_. The former, which belonged originally to
-the kings, passed over to the consuls, censors, and praetors, and
-likewise to the extraordinary magistrates, the dictators, interreges,
-and consular tribunes. The quaestors and the curule aediles, on the
-contrary, had only the _auspicia minora_.--It was a common opinion in
-antiquity that a college of three augurs was appointed by Romulus,
-answering to the number of the early tribes, the Ramnes, Tities,
-and Lucerenses, but the accounts vary respecting their origin and
-number. At the passing of the Ogulnian law (B.C. 300) the augurs were
-four in number. This law increased the number of pontiffs to eight,
-by the addition of four plebeians, and that of the augurs to nine
-by the addition of five plebeians. The number of nine augurs lasted
-down to the dictatorship of Sulla, who increased them to fifteen,
-a multiple of the original three, probably with a reference to the
-early tribes. A sixteenth was added by Julius Caesar after his
-return from Egypt. The members of the college of augurs possessed
-the right of self-election (_cooptatio_) until B.C. 103, the year
-of the Domitian law. By this law it was enacted that vacancies in
-the priestly colleges should be filled up by the votes of a minority
-of the tribes, _i.e._ seventeen out of thirty-five chosen by lot.
-The Domitian law was repealed by Sulla B.C. 81, but again restored
-B.C. 63, during the consulship of Cicero, by the tribune T. Annius
-Labienus, with the support of Caesar. It was a second time abrogated
-by Antony B.C. 44; whether again restored by Hirtius and Pansa in
-their general annulment of the acts of Antony, seems uncertain.
-The emperors possessed the right of electing augurs at pleasure.
-The augurs were elected for life, and even if capitally convicted,
-never lost their sacred character. When a vacancy occurred, the
-candidate was nominated by two of the elder members of the college,
-the electors were sworn, and the new member was then solemnly
-inaugurated. On such occasion there was always a splendid banquet
-given, at which all the augurs were expected to be present. The only
-distinction in the college was one of age; an elder augur always
-voted before a younger, even if the latter filled one of the higher
-offices in the state. The head of the college was called _magister
-collegii_. As insignia of their office the augurs wore the _trabea_,
-or public dress, and carried in their hand the _lituus_ or curved
-wand. [LITUUS.] On the coins of the Romans, who filled the office
-of augur, we constantly find the _lituus_, and along with it, not
-unfrequently, the _capis_, an earthen vessel which was used by them
-in sacrifices. The science of the augurs was called _jus augurum_
-and _jus augurium_, and was preserved in books (_libri augurales_),
-which are frequently mentioned in the ancient writers. The expression
-for consulting the augurs was _referre ad augures_, and their
-answers were called _decreta_ or _responsa augurum_. The science of
-augury had greatly declined in the time of Cicero; and although he
-frequently deplores its neglect in his _De Divinatione_, yet neither
-he nor any of the educated classes appears to have had any faith in
-it.
-
-[Illustration: Coin representing the lituus and capis on the reverse.]
-
-
-AŪGŬRĀCŬLUM. [ARX; AUGUR, p. 50, b.]
-
-
-AUGŬRĀLE. [AUGUR, p. 50, b.]
-
-
-AUGŬRIUM. [AUGUR.]
-
-
-AUGUSTĀLES--(1) (sc. _ludi_, also called _Augustalia_, sc.
-_certamina_, _ludicra_), games celebrated in honour of Augustus, at
-Rome and in other parts of the Roman empire. After the battle of
-Actium, a quinquennial festival was instituted; and the birthday
-of Augustus, as well as that on which the victory was announced at
-Rome, were regarded as festival days. It was not, however, till
-B.C. 11 that the festival on the birthday of Augustus was formally
-established by a decree of the senate, and it is this festival which
-is usually meant when the Augustales or Augustalia are mentioned.
-It was celebrated iv. Id. Octobr. At the death of Augustus, this
-festival assumed a more solemn character, was added to the Fasti,
-and celebrated to his honour as a god. It was henceforth exhibited
-annually in the circus, at first by the tribunes of the plebs, at the
-commencement of the reign of Tiberius, but afterwards by the praetor
-peregrinus.--(2) The name of two classes of priests, one at Rome and
-the other in the municipia. The _Augustales_ at Rome, properly called
-_sodales Augustales_, were an order of priests instituted by Tiberius
-to attend to the worship of Augustus and the Julia gens. They were
-chosen by lot from among the principal persons of Rome, and were
-twenty-one in number, to which were added Tiberius, Drusus, Claudius,
-and Germanicus, as members of the imperial family. They were also
-called _sacerdotes Augustales_, and sometimes simply _Augustales_.
-The _Augustales_ in the municipia are supposed by most modern writers
-to have been a class of priests selected by Augustus from the
-libertini to attend to the religions rites connected with the worship
-of the Lares, which that emperor was said to have put up in places
-where two or more ways met; but there are good reasons for thinking
-that they were instituted in imitation of the Augustales at Rome, and
-for the same object, namely, to attend to the worship of Augustus.
-They formed a collegium and were appointed by the _decuriones_, or
-senate of the municipia. The six principal members of the college
-were called _Seviri_, a title which seems to have been imitated from
-the _Seviri_ in the equestrian order at Rome.
-
-
-AUGUSTUS, a name bestowed upon Octavianus in B.C. 27, by the senate
-and the Roman people. It was a word used in connection with religion,
-and designated a person as sacred and worthy of worship; hence
-the Greek writers translate it by Σεβαστός. It was adopted by all
-succeeding emperors, as if descended, either by birth or adoption,
-from the first emperor of the Roman world. The name of _Augusta_
-was frequently bestowed upon females of the imperial family; but
-_Augustus_ belonged exclusively to the reigning emperor till towards
-the end of the second century of the Christian aera, when M. Aurelius
-and L. Verus both received this surname. From this time we frequently
-find two or even a greater number of _Augusti_. From the time of
-Probus the title became _perpetuus Augustus_, and from Philippus or
-Claudius Gothicus _semper Augustus_, the latter of which titles was
-borne by the so-called Roman emperors in Germany. [CAESAR.]
-
-
-AULAEUM. [SIPARIUM.]
-
-
-AURĔUS. [AURUM.]
-
-
-AURĪGA. [CIRCUS.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Aureus Nummus. (British Museum.)]
-
-AURUM (χρυσός), gold. Gold was scarce in Greece. The chief places
-from which the Greeks procured their gold were India, Arabia,
-Armenia, Colchis, and Troas. It was found mixed with the sands of the
-Pactolus and other rivers. Almost the only method of purifying gold,
-known to the ancients, seems to have been that of grinding and then
-roasting it, and by this process they succeeded in getting it very
-pure. This is what we are to understand by the phrase χρυσίον ἄπεφθον
-in Thucydides, and by the word _obrussa_ in Pliny. The art of gilding
-was known to the Greeks from the earliest times of which we have any
-information. The time when gold was first coined at Athens is very
-uncertain, but on the whole it appears most probable that gold money
-was not coined there, or in Greece Proper generally, till the time of
-Alexander the Great, if we except a solitary issue of debased gold at
-Athens in B.C. 407. But from a very early period the Asiatic nations,
-and the Greek cities of Asia Minor and the adjacent islands, as well
-as Sicily and Cyrene, possessed a gold coinage, which was more or
-less current in Greece. Herodotus says that the Lydians were the
-first who coined gold, and the stater of Croesus appears to have been
-the earliest gold coin known to the Greeks. The Daric was a Persian
-coin. Staters of Cyzicus and Phocaea had a considerable currency in
-Greece. There was a gold coinage in Samos as early as the time of
-Polycrates. The islands of Siphnos and Thasos, which possessed gold
-mines, appear to have had a gold coinage at an early period. The
-Macedonian gold coinage came into circulation in Greece in the time
-of Philip, and continued in use till the subjection of Greece to the
-Romans. [DARICUS; STATER.] The standard gold coin of Rome was the
-_aureus nummus_, or _denarius aureus_, which, according to Pliny,
-was first coined 62 years after the first silver coinage [ARGENTUM],
-that is, in the year 207 B.C. The lowest denomination was the
-_scrupulum_, which was made equal to 20 sestertii. The weight of the
-scrupulum was 18·06 grains. The annexed cut represents a gold coin
-of 60 sestertii. Pliny adds that afterwards aurei were coined of 40
-to the pound, which weight was diminished, till under Nero they were
-45 to the pound. The average weight of the aurei of Augustus, in the
-British Museum, is 121·26 grains: and as the weight was afterwards
-diminished, we may take the average at 120 grains. The value of the
-aureus in terms of the sovereign = 1_l._ 1_s._ 1_d._ and a little
-more than a halfpenny. This is its value according to the present
-worth of gold; but its current value in Rome was different from
-this, on account of the difference in the worth of the metal. The
-aureus passed for 25 denarii; therefore, the denarius being 8½_d._,
-it was worth 17_s._ 8½_d._ The ratio of the value of gold to that of
-silver is given in the article ARGENTUM. Alexander Severus coined
-pieces of one-half and one-third of the aureus, called _Semissis_
-and _tremissis_, after which time the aureus was called _solidus_.
-Constantine the Great coined aurei of 72 to the pound; at which
-standard the coin remained to the end of the empire.
-
-[Illustration: Aureus of Augustus. (British Museum.)]
-
-
-AURUM CŎRŌNĀRĬUM. When a general in a Roman province had obtained a
-victory, it was the custom for the cities in his own provinces, and
-for those from the neighbouring states, to send golden crowns to him,
-which were carried before him in his triumph at Rome. In the time of
-Cicero it appears to have been usual for the cities of the provinces,
-instead of sending crowns on occasion of a victory, to pay money,
-which was called _aurum coronarium_. This offering, which was at
-first voluntary, came to be regarded as a regular tribute, and was
-sometimes exacted by the governors of the provinces, even when no
-victory had been gained.
-
-
-AURUM VĪCĒSĬMĀRĬUM. [AERARIUM.]
-
-
-AUSPEX. [AUGUR.]
-
-
-AUSPĬCĬUM. [AUGUR.]
-
-
-AUTHEPSA (αὐθέψης), which literally means “self-boiling,” or
-“self-cooking,” was the name of a vessel which is supposed to have
-been used for heating water, or for keeping it hot.
-
-
-AUTŎNŎMI (αὐτονόμοι), the name given by the Greeks to those states
-which were governed by their own laws, and were not subject to any
-foreign power. This name was also given to those cities subject to
-the Romans, which were permitted to enjoy their own laws and elect
-their own magistrates.
-
-
-AUXĬLĬA. [SOCII.]
-
-
-AXĀMENTA. [SALII.]
-
-
-AXĪNĒ. [SECURIS.]
-
-
-AXIS. [CURRUS.]
-
-
-AXŎNES (ἄξονες), also called _kurbeis_ (κύρβεις), wooden tablets of
-a square or pyramidal form, made to turn on an axis, on which were
-written the laws of Solon. According to some writers the _Axones_
-contained the civil, and the _Kurbeis_ the religious laws; according
-to others the _Kurbeis_ had four sides and the _Axones_ three. But at
-Athens, at all events, they seem to have been identical. They were at
-first preserved in the Acropolis, but were afterwards placed in the
-agora, in order that all persons might be able to read them.
-
-
-
-
-BĀLISTA, BALLISTA. [TORMENTUM.]
-
-
-BALNĔUM or BĂLĬNĔUM (λοετρόν or λουτρόν, βαλανεῖον, also _balneae_
-or _balineae_), a bath. _Balneum_ or _balineum_ signifies, in
-its primary sense, a bath or bathing vessel, such as most Romans
-possessed in their own houses; and from that it came to mean
-the chamber which contained the bath. When the baths of private
-individuals became more sumptuous, and comprised many rooms, the
-plural _balnea_ or _balinea_ was adopted, which still, in correct
-language, had reference only to the baths of private persons.
-_Balneae_ and _balineae_, which have no singular number, were the
-public baths. But this accuracy of diction is neglected by many of
-the later writers. _Thermae_ (from θέρμη, warmth) means properly
-warm springs, or baths of warm water, but was afterwards applied to
-the structures in which the baths were placed, and which were both
-hot and cold. There was, however, a material distinction between the
-_balneae_ and _thermae_, inasmuch as the former was the term used
-under the republic, and referred to the public establishments of
-that age, which contained no appliances for luxury beyond the mere
-convenience of hot and cold baths, whereas the latter name was given
-to those magnificent edifices which grew up under the empire, and
-which comprised within their range of buildings all the appurtenances
-belonging to the Greek gymnasia, as well as a regular establishment
-appropriated for bathing.--Bathing was a practice familiar to the
-Greeks of both sexes from the earliest times. The artificial warm
-bath was taken in a vessel called _asaminthus_ (ἀσάμινθος) by Homer,
-and _puelus_ (πύελος) by the later Greeks. It did not contain water
-itself, but was only used for the bather to sit in, while the
-warm water was poured over him. On Greek vases, however, we never
-find anything corresponding to a modern bath in which persons can
-stand or sit; but there is always a round or oval basin (λουτήρ or
-λουτήριον), resting on a stand, by the side of which those who are
-bathing are standing undressed and washing themselves. In the Homeric
-times it was customary to take first a cold and afterwards a warm
-bath; but in later times it was the usual practice of the Greeks to
-take first a warm or vapour, and afterwards a cold bath. At Athens
-the frequent use of the public baths, most of which were warm baths
-(βαλανεῖα, called by Homer θερμὰ λοετρά), was regarded in the time
-of Socrates and Demosthenes as a mark of luxury and effeminacy.
-Accordingly, Phocion was said to have never bathed in a public bath,
-and Socrates to have used it very seldom. After bathing both sexes
-anointed themselves, in order that the skin might not be left harsh
-and rough, especially after warm water. Oil (ἔλαιον) is the only
-ointment mentioned by Homer, but in later times precious unguents
-(μῦρα) were used for this purpose. The bath was usually taken before
-the principal meal of the day (δεῖπνον). The Lacedaemonians, who
-considered warm water as enervating, used two kinds of baths; namely,
-the cold daily bath in the Eurotas, and a dry sudorific bath in a
-chamber heated with warm air by means of a stove, and from them
-the chamber used by the Romans for a similar purpose was termed
-_Laconicum_. A sudorific or vapour bath (πυρία or πυριατήριον) is
-mentioned as early as the time of Herodotus. At what period the use
-of the warm bath was introduced among the Romans is not recorded; but
-we know that Scipio had a warm bath in his villa at Liternum, and
-the practice of heating an apartment with warm air by flues placed
-immediately under it, so as to produce a vapour bath, is stated to
-have been invented by Sergius Orata, who lived in the age of Crassus,
-before the Marsic war. By the time of Cicero the use of baths of
-warm water and hot air had become common, and in his time there were
-baths at Rome which were open to the public upon payment of a small
-fee. In the public baths at Rome the men and women used originally to
-bathe in separate sets of chambers; but under the empire it became
-the common custom for both sexes to bathe indiscriminately in the
-same bath. This practice was forbidden by Hadrian and M. Aurelius;
-and Alexander Severus prohibited any baths, common to both sexes,
-from being opened in Rome. The price of a bath was a quadrant, the
-smallest piece of coined money, from the age of Cicero downwards,
-which was paid to the keeper of the bath (_balneator_). Children
-below a certain age were admitted free. It was usual with the Romans
-to take the bath after exercise, and before the principal meal
-(_coena_) of the day; but the debauchees of the empire bathed also
-after eating as well as before, in order to promote digestion, and to
-acquire a new appetite for fresh delicacies.
-
-[Illustration: Roman Bath. (Fresco from the Thermae of Titus.)]
-
-Upon quitting the bath the Romans as well as the Greeks were
-anointed with oil. The Romans did not content themselves with a
-single bath of hot or cold water; but they went through a course of
-baths in succession, in which the agency of air as well as water was
-applied. It is difficult to ascertain the precise order in which
-the course was usually taken; but it appears to have been a general
-practice to close the pores, and brace the body after the excessive
-perspiration of the vapour bath, either by pouring cold water over
-the head, or by plunging at once into the _piscina_. To render the
-subjoined remarks more easily intelligible, the preceding woodcut is
-inserted, which is taken from a fresco painting upon the walls of
-the thermae of Titus at Rome. The chief parts of a Roman bath were
-as follow:--1. _Apodyterium._ Here the bathers were expected to take
-off their garments, which were then delivered to a class of slaves,
-called _capsarii_, whose duty it was to take charge of them. These
-men were notorious for dishonesty, and were leagued with all the
-thieves of the city, so that they connived at the robberies which
-they were placed to prevent. There was probably an _Elaeothesium_
-or _Unctorium_, as appears from the preceding cut, in connection
-with the apodyterium, where the bathers might be anointed with
-oil.--2. _Frigidarium_ or _Cella Frigidaria_, where the cold bath
-was taken. The cold bath itself was called _Natatio_, _Natatorium_,
-_Piscina_, _Baptisterium_, or _Puteus_.--3. _Tepidarium_ would seem
-from the preceding cut to have been a bathing room, for a person
-is there apparently represented pouring water over a bather. But
-there is good reason for thinking that this was not the case. In
-most cases the tepidarium contained no water at all, but was a
-room merely heated with warm air of an agreeable temperature, in
-order to prepare the body for the great heat of the vapour and warm
-baths, and upon returning from the latter, to obviate the danger
-of a too sudden transition to the open air.--4. The _Caldarium_ or
-_Concamerata Sudatio_ contained at one extremity the vapour bath
-(_Laconicum_), and at the other the warm bath (_balneum_ or _calda
-lavatio_), while the centre space between the two ends was termed
-_sudatio_ or _sudatorium_. In larger establishments the vapour bath
-and warm bath were in two separate cells, as we see in the preceding
-cut: in such cases the former part _alone_ was called _concamerata
-sudatio_. The whole rested on a suspended pavement (_suspensura_),
-under which was a fire (_hypocaustum_), so that the flames might heat
-the whole apartment. (See cut.) The warm water bath (_balneum_ or
-_calda lavatio_), which is also called _piscina_ or _calida piscina_,
-_labrum_ and _solium_, appears to have been a capacious marble vase,
-sometimes standing upon the floor, like that in the preceding cut,
-and sometimes either partly elevated above the floor, as it was at
-Pompeii, or entirely sunk into it. After having gone, through the
-regular course of perspiration, the Romans made use of instruments
-called _strigiles_ or _strigles_, to scrape off the perspiration.
-
-[Illustration: Strigil. (From a Relief at Athens.)]
-
-The strigil was also used by the Greeks, who called it _stlengis_
-(στλεγγίς) or _xystra_ (ξύστρα). The figure in the cut on p. 24 is
-represented with a strigil in his hand. As the strigil was not a
-blunt instrument, its edge was softened by the application of oil,
-which was dropped upon it from a small vessel called _guttus_ or
-_ampulla_, which had a narrow neck, so as to discharge its contents
-drop by drop, from whence the name is taken.
-
-[Illustration: Strigil and Guttus. (From a Statue in the Vatican.)]
-
-In the _Thermae_, spoken of above, the baths were of secondary
-importance. They were a Roman adaptation of the Greek gymnasium,
-contained exedrae for the philosophers and rhetoricians to lecture
-in, porticoes for the idle, and libraries for the learned, and were
-adorned with marbles, fountains, and shaded walks and plantations.
-M. Agrippa, in the reign of Augustus, was the first who afforded
-these luxuries to his countrymen, by bequeathing to them the thermae
-and gardens which he had erected in the Campus Martius. The example
-set by Agrippa was followed by Nero, and afterwards by Titus, the
-ruins of whose thermae are still visible, covering a vast extent,
-partly under ground and partly above the Esquiline hill. Thermae were
-also erected by Trajan, Caracalla, and Diocletian, of the two last
-of which ample remains still exist. Previously to the erection of
-these establishments for the use of the population, it was customary
-for those who sought the favour of the people to give them a day’s
-bathing free of expense. From thence it is fair to infer that the
-quadrant paid for admission into the _balneae_ was not exacted at the
-_thermae_, which, as being the works of the emperors, would naturally
-be opened with imperial generosity to all, and without any charge.
-
-
-BALTĔUS (τελαμών), a belt, a shoulder belt, was used to suspend the
-sword. See the figs. on p. 41. In the Homeric times the Greeks used
-a belt to support the shield. The balteus was likewise employed
-to suspend the quiver, and sometimes together with it the bow.
-More commonly the belt, whether employed to support the sword, the
-shield, or the quiver, was made of leather, and was frequently
-ornamented with gold, silver, and precious stones. In a general
-sense _balteus_ was applied not only to the belt which passed over
-the shoulder, but also to the girdle (_cingulum_), which encompassed
-the waist. In architecture, Vitruvius applies the term _Baltei_ to
-the bands surrounding the volute on each side of an Ionic capital.
-Other writers apply it to the _praecinctiones_ of an amphitheatre.
-[AMPHITHEATRUM.]
-
-
-BĂRATHRON (βάραθρον), also called ORUGMA (ὄρυγμα), a deep cavern or
-chasm, like the Ceadas at Sparta, behind the Acropolis at Athens,
-into which criminals were thrown. [CEADAS.]
-
-
-BARBA (πώγων, γένειον, ὑπήνη), the beard. The Greeks seem generally
-to have worn the beard till the time of Alexander the Great; and
-a thick beard was considered as a mark of manliness. The Greek
-philosophers in particular were distinguished by their long beards
-as a sort of badge. The Romans in early times wore the beard uncut,
-and the Roman beards are said not to have been shaved till B.C. 300,
-when P. Ticinius Maena brought over a barber from Sicily; and Pliny
-adds, that the first Roman who is said to have been shaved every day
-was Scipio Africanus. His custom, however, was soon followed, and
-shaving became a regular thing. In the later times of the republic
-there were many who shaved the beard only partially, and trimmed it,
-so as to give it an ornamental form; to them the terms _bene barbati_
-and _barbatuli_ are applied. In the general way at Rome, a long
-beard (_barba promissa_) was considered a mark of slovenliness and
-_squalor_. The first time of shaving was regarded as the beginning
-of manhood, and the day on which this took place was celebrated as
-a festival. There was no particular time fixed for this to be done.
-Usually, however, it was done when the young Roman assumed the toga
-virilis. The hair cut off on such occasions was consecrated to
-some god. Thus Nero put his up in a gold box, set with pearls, and
-dedicated it to Jupiter Capitolinus. Under the emperor Hadrian the
-beard began to revive. Plutarch says that the emperor wore it to hide
-some scars on his face. The practice afterwards became common, and
-till the time of Constantine the Great, the emperors appear in busts
-and coins with beards. The Romans let their beards grow in time of
-mourning; the Greeks, on the other hand, on such occasions shaved the
-beard close.
-
-
-BARBĬTUS (βάρβιτος), or BARBĬTON (βάρβιτον), a stringed instrument,
-the original form of which is uncertain. Later writers use it as
-synonymous with the lyra. [LYRA.]
-
-
-BASCAUDA, a British basket. This term, which remains with very little
-variation in the Welsh “basgawd” and the English “basket,” was
-conveyed to Rome together with the articles denoted by it.
-
-
-BĂSĬLĬCA (sc. _aedes_, _aula_, _porticus_--βασιλική, also _regia_),
-a building which served as a court of law and an exchange, or place
-of meeting for merchants and men of business. The word was adopted
-from the Athenians, whose second archon was styled _archon basileus_
-(ἄρχων βασιλεύς), and the tribunal where he adjudicated _stoa
-basileius_ (ἡ βασίλειος στοά), the substantive _aula_ or _porticus_
-in Latin being omitted for convenience, and the distinctive epithet
-converted into a substantive. The first edifice of this description
-at Rome was not erected until B.C. 182. It was situated in the
-forum adjoining the curia, and was denominated Basilica Porcia, in
-commemoration of its founder, M. Porcius Cato. Besides this there
-were twenty others erected at different periods, within the city
-of Rome. The forum, or, where there was more than one, the one
-which was in the most frequented and central part of the city, was
-always selected for the site of a basilica; and hence it is that the
-classic writers not unfrequently use the terms _forum_ and _basilica_
-synonymously. The ground plan of all these buildings is rectangular,
-and their width not more than half, nor less than one-third of the
-length. This area was divided into three naves, consisting of a
-centre (_media porticus_), and two side aisles, separated from the
-centre one, each by a single row of columns. At one end of the centre
-aisle was the tribunal of the judge, in form either rectangular or
-circular, as is seen in the annexed plan of the basilica at Pompeii.
-In the centre of the tribunal was placed the curule chair of the
-praetor, and seats for the judices and the advocates. The two side
-aisles, as has been said, were separated from the centre one by a
-row of columns, behind each of which was placed a square pier or
-pilaster (_parastata_), which supported the flooring of an upper
-portico, similar to the gallery of a modern church. The upper gallery
-was in like manner decorated with columns, of lower dimensions than
-those below; and these served to support the roof, and were connected
-with one another by a parapet-wall or balustrade (_pluteus_), which
-served as a defence against the danger of falling over, and screened
-the crowd of loiterers above (_sub-basilicani_) from the people of
-business in the area below. Many of these edifices were afterwards
-used as Christian churches, and many churches were built after the
-model above described. Such churches were called _basilicae_, which
-name they retain to the present day, being still called at Rome
-_basiliche_.
-
-[Illustration: Ground Plan of a Basilica.]
-
-
-BASTERNA, a kind of litter (_lectica_) in which women were carried
-in the time of the Roman emperors. It appears to have resembled the
-Lectica [LECTICA] very closely; and the only difference apparently
-was, that the lectica was carried by slaves, and the basterna by two
-mules.
-
-
-BAXA, or BAXĔA, a sandal made of vegetable leaves, twigs, or fibres,
-worn on the stage by comic actors.
-
-
-BĒMA (βῆμα). [ECCLESIA.]
-
-
-BENDĬDEIA (βενδίδεια), a Thracian festival in honour of the goddess
-Bendis, who is said to be identical with the Grecian Artemis and with
-the Roman Diana. The festival was of a bacchanalian character. From
-Thrace it was brought to Athens, where it was celebrated in the
-Peiraeeus, on the 19th or 20th of the month Thargelion, before the
-Panathenaea Minora. The temple of Bendis was called Bendideion.
-
-
-BĔNĔFĬCĬUM, BĔNĔFĬCĬĀRĬUS. The term _beneficium_ is of frequent
-occurrence in the Roman law, in the sense of some special privilege
-or favour granted to a person in respect of age, sex, or condition.
-But the word was also used in other senses. In the time of Cicero
-it was usual for a general, or a governor of a province, to report
-to the treasury the names of those under his command who had done
-good service to the state: those who were included in such report
-were said _in beneficiis ad aerarium deferri_. _In beneficiis_ in
-these passages may mean that the persons so reported were considered
-as persons who had deserved well of the state; and so the word
-_beneficium_ may have reference to the services of the individuals;
-but as the object for which their services were reported was the
-benefit of the individuals, it seems that the term had reference also
-to the reward, immediate or remote, obtained for their services. The
-honours and offices of the Roman state, in the republican period,
-were called the _beneficia_ of the Populus Romanus. Beneficium also
-signified any promotion conferred on or grant made to soldiers, who
-were thence called _beneficiarii_.
-
-
-BESTIĀRĬI (θηριομάχοι), persons who fought with wild beasts in the
-games of the circus. They were either persons who fought for the sake
-of pay (_auctoramentum_), and who were allowed arms, or they were
-criminals, who were usually permitted to have no means of defence
-against the wild beasts.
-
-
-BIBLĬŎPŌLA (βιβλιοπώλης), also called _librarius_, a bookseller.
-The shop was called _apotheca_ or _taberna libraria_, or merely
-_libraria_. The Romans had their Paternoster-row; for the bibliopolae
-or librarii lived mostly in one street, called Argiletum. Another
-favourite quarter of the booksellers was the Vicus Sandalarius.
-There seems also to have been a sort of bookstalls by the temples of
-Vertumnus and Janus.
-
-
-BIBLĬŎTHĒCA (βιβλιοθήκη, or ἀποθήκη βιβλίων), primarily, the place
-where a collection of books was kept; secondarily, the collection
-itself. Public collections of books appear to have been very ancient.
-That of Peisistratus (B.C. 550) was intended for public use; it
-was subsequently removed to Persia by Xerxes. About the same time
-Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, is said to have founded a library. In
-the best days of Athens, even private persons had large collections
-of books; but the most important and splendid public library of
-antiquity was that founded by the Ptolemies at Alexandria, begun
-under Ptolemy Soter, but increased and re-arranged in an orderly
-and systematic manner by Ptolemy Philadelphus, who also appointed a
-fixed librarian, and otherwise provided for the usefulness of the
-institution. A great part of this splendid library was consumed
-by fire in the siege of Alexandria by Julius Caesar; but it was
-soon restored, and continued in a flourishing condition till it
-was destroyed by the Arabs, A.D. 640. The Ptolemies were not long
-without a rival in zeal. Eumenes, king of Pergamus, became a patron
-of literature and the sciences, and established a library, which,
-in spite of the prohibition against exporting papyrus issued by
-Ptolemy, who was jealous of his success, became very extensive, and
-perhaps next in importance to the library of Alexandria. The first
-public library in Rome was that founded by Asinius Pollio, and was
-in the atrium Libertatis on Mount Aventine. The library of Pollio
-was followed by that of Augustus in the temple of Apollo on Mount
-Palatine and by another, bibliothecae Octavianae, in the theatre of
-Marcellus. There were also libraries on the Capitol, in the temple of
-Peace, in the palace of Tiberius, besides the Ulpian library, which
-was the most famous, founded by Trajan. Libraries were also usually
-attached to the Thermae. [BALNEUM.] Private collections of books were
-made at Rome soon after the second Punic war. The zeal of Cicero,
-Atticus, and others, in increasing their libraries is well known. It
-became, in fact, the fashion to have a room elegantly furnished as a
-library, and reserved for that purpose. The charge of the libraries
-in Rome was given to persons called _librarii_.
-
-
-BĪCOS (βῖκος), the name of an earthen vessel in common use among the
-Greeks, for holding wine, and salted meat and fish.
-
-
-BĬDENTAL, the name given to a place where any one had been struck
-by lightning, or where any one had been killed by lightning and
-buried. Such a place was considered sacred. Priests, who were
-called _bidentales_, collected the earth which had been torn up by
-lightning, and every thing that had been scorched, and burnt it in
-the ground with a sorrowful murmur. The officiating priest was said
-_condere fulgur_; he further consecrated the spot by sacrificing a
-two-year-old sheep (_bidens_), whence the name of the place and of
-the priest, and he also erected an altar, and surrounded it with a
-wall or fence. To move the bounds of a bidental, or in any way to
-violate its sacred precincts, was considered as sacrilege.
-
-
-BIDIAEI (βιδιαῖοι), magistrates in Sparta, whose business was to
-inspect the gymnastic exercises. They were either five or six in
-number.
-
-
-BĪGA or BĪGAE. [CURRUS.]
-
-
-BĪGĀTUS. [DENARIUS.]
-
-
-BĬPENNIS. [SECURIS.]
-
-
-BĬRĒMIS. (1.) A ship with two banks of oars. [NAVIS.] Such ships
-were called _dicrota_ by the Greeks, which term is also used by
-Cicero.--(2.) A boat rowed by two oars.
-
-
-BISSEXTUS ANNUS. [CALENDARIUM, ROMAN.]
-
-
-BŎĒDRŎMĬA (βοηδρόμια), a festival celebrated at Athens on the seventh
-day of the month Boëdromion, in honour of Apollo Boëdromius. The name
-Boëdromius, by which Apollo was called in Boeotia and many other
-parts of Greece, seems to indicate that by this festival he was
-honoured as a martial god, who, either by his actual presence or by
-his oracles, afforded assistance in the dangers of war.
-
-
-BOEŌTARCHĒS (βοιωτάρχης, or βοιωτάρχος), the name of the chief
-magistrates of the Boeotian confederacy, chosen by the different
-states. Their duties were chiefly of a military character. Each
-state of the confederacy elected one boeotarch, the Thebans two.
-The total number from the whole confederacy varied with the number
-of the independent states, but at the time of the Peloponnesian war
-they appear to have been ten or twelve. The boeotarchs, when engaged
-in military service, formed a council of war, the decisions of which
-were determined by a majority of votes, the president being one of
-the two Theban boeotarchs, who commanded alternately. Their period of
-service was a year, beginning about the winter solstice; and whoever
-continued in office longer than his time was punishable with death,
-both at Thebes and in other cities.
-
-
-BŎNA, property. The phrase _in bonis_ is frequently used as opposed
-to _dominium_ or _Quiritarian ownership_ (_ex jure Quiritium_). The
-ownership of certain kinds of things among the Romans could only be
-transferred from one person to another with certain formalities, or
-acquired by usucapion (that is, the uninterrupted possession of a
-thing for a certain time). But if it was clearly the intention of
-the owner to transfer the ownership, and the necessary forms only
-were wanting, the purchaser had the thing _in bonis_, and he had
-the enjoyment of it, though the original owner was still _legally_
-the owner, and was said to have the thing _ex jure Quiritium_,
-notwithstanding he had parted with the thing. The person who
-possessed a thing _in bonis_ was protected in the enjoyment of it
-by the praetor, and consequently after a time would obtain the
-Quiritarian ownership of it by usucapion. [USUCAPIO.]
-
-
-BŎNA CĂDŪCA. _Caducum_ literally signifies that which falls: thus
-_glans caduca_ is the mast which falls from a tree. The strict legal
-sense of _caducum_ and _bona caduca_ is as follows:--If a thing is
-left by testament to a person, so that he can take it by the jus
-civile, but from some cause has not taken it, that thing is called
-_caducum_, as if it had _fallen_ from him. Or if a _heres ex parte_,
-or a legatee, died before the opening of the will, the thing was
-_caducum_. That which was caducum came, in the first place, to
-those among the heredes who had children; and if the heredes had
-no children, it came among those of the legatees who had children.
-In case there was no prior claimant the caducum belonged to the
-aerarium; and subsequently to the fiscus. [AERARIUM.]
-
-
-BŎNA FĬDES implies, generally speaking, the absence of all fraud and
-unfair dealing or acting. In various actions arising out of mutual
-dealings, such as buying and selling, lending and hiring, partnership
-and others, bona fides is equivalent to aequum and justum; and such
-actions were sometimes called bonae fidei actiones. The formula of
-the praetor, which was the authority of the judex, empowered him
-in such cases to inquire and determine _ex bona fide_, that is,
-according to the real merits of the case: sometimes aequius melius
-was used instead of ex bona fide.
-
-
-BŎNŌRUM CESSĬO. There were two kinds of bonorum cessio, _in jure_
-and _extra jus_. The _in jure cessio_ was a mode of transferring
-ownership by means of a fictitious suit. The _bonorum cessio extra
-jus_ was introduced by a Julian law, passed either in the time of
-Julius Caesar or Augustus, which allowed an insolvent debtor to give
-up his property to his creditors. The debtor thus avoided the infamia
-consequent on the bonorum emtio, which was involuntary, and he was
-free from all personal execution. He was also allowed to retain a
-small portion of his property for his support. The property thus
-given up was sold, and the proceeds distributed among the creditors.
-
-
-BŎNŌRUM COLLĀTĬO. By the strict rules of the civil law an emancipated
-son had no right to the inheritance of his father, whether he died
-testate or intestate. But, in course of time, the praetor granted to
-emancipated children the privilege of equal succession with those who
-remained in the power of the father at the time of his death; but
-only on condition that they should bring into one common stock with
-their father’s property, and for the purpose of an equal division
-among all the father’s children, whatever property they had at the
-time of the father’s death, and which would have been acquired for
-the father in case they had still remained in his power. This was
-called bonorum collatio.
-
-
-BŎNŌRUM EMTĬO ET EMTOR. The expression bonorum emtio applies to a
-sale of the property either of a living or of a dead person. It
-was in effect, as to a living debtor, an execution. In the case of
-a dead person, his property was sold when it was ascertained that
-there was neither heres nor bonorum possessor, nor any other person
-entitled to succeed to it. In the case of the property of a living
-person being sold, the praetor, on the application of the creditors,
-ordered it to be possessed (_possideri_) by the creditors for thirty
-successive days, and notice to be given of the sale. This explains
-the expression in Livy (ii. 24): “ne quis militis, donec in castris
-esset, bona _possideret_ aut venderet.”
-
-
-BŎNŌRUM POSSESSĬO was the right of suing for or retaining a patrimony
-or thing which belonged to another at the time of his death. The
-bonorum possessio was given by the edict both _contra tabulas_,
-_secundum tabulas_, and _intestati_. 1. An emancipated son had
-no legal claim on the inheritance of his father; but if he was
-omitted in his father’s will, or not expressly exheredated, the
-praetor’s edict gave him the bonorum possessio contra tabulas, on
-condition that he would bring into hotchpot (_bonorum collatio_)
-with his brethren who continued in the parent’s power, whatever
-property he had at the time of the parent’s death. 2. The _bonorum
-possessio secundum tabulas_ was that possession which the praetor
-gave, conformably to the words of the will, to those named in it as
-heredes, when there was no person intitled to make a claim against
-the will, or none who chose to make such a claim. 3. In the case of
-intestacy (_intestati_) there were seven degrees of persons who might
-claim the bonorum possessio, each in his order, upon there being
-no claim of a prior degree. The first three degrees were children,
-_legitimi heredes_, and _proximi cognati_. Emancipated children could
-claim as well as those who were not emancipated, and adoptive as well
-as children of the blood; but not children who had been adopted into
-another family. If a freedman died intestate, leaving only a wife
-(in manu) or an adoptive son, the patron was entitled to the bonorum
-possessio of one half of his property.
-
-
-BŎŌNAE (βοῶναι), persons in Athens who purchased oxen for the
-public sacrifices and feasts. They are spoken of by Demosthenes
-in conjunction with the ἱεροποιοί and those who presided over the
-mysteries.
-
-
-BORĔASMUS (βορεασμός or βορεασμοί), a festival celebrated by the
-Athenians in honour of Boreas, which, as Herodotus seems to think,
-was instituted during the Persian war, when the Athenians, being
-commanded by an oracle to invoke their γαμβρὸς ἐπίκουρος, prayed to
-Boreas. But considering that Boreas was intimately connected with
-the early history of Attica, we have reason to suppose that even
-previous to the Persian wars certain honours were paid to him, which
-were perhaps only revived and increased after the event recorded by
-Herodotus. The festival, however, does not seem ever to have had any
-great celebrity.
-
-
-BOULĒ (βουλή--ἡ τῶν πεντακοσίων). In the heroic ages, represented to
-us by Homer, the _boulé_ is simply an aristocratical council of the
-elders amongst the nobles, sitting under their king as president,
-which decided on public business and judicial matters, frequently in
-connection with, but apparently not subject to an _agora_, or meeting
-of the freemen of the state. [AGORA.] This form of government, though
-it existed for some time in the Ionian, Aeolian, and Achaean states,
-was at last wholly abolished in these states. Among the Dorians,
-however, especially among the Spartans, this was not the case, for
-they retained the kingly power of the Heracleidae, in conjunction
-with the _Gerousia_ or assembly of elders, of which the kings were
-members. [GEROUSIA.] At Athens on the contrary, the _boulé_ was a
-representative, and in most respects a popular body (δημοτικόν). The
-first institution of the Athenian _boulé_ is generally attributed to
-Solon; but there are strong reasons for supposing that, as in the
-case of the _Areiopagus_, he merely modified the constitution of a
-body which he found already existing. But be this as it may, it is
-admitted that Solon made the number of his _boulé_ 400, 100 from
-each of the four tribes. When the number of the tribes was raised
-to ten by Cleisthenes (B.C. 510), the council also was increased to
-500, fifty being taken from each of the ten tribes. The _bouleutae_
-(βουλευταί) or councillors were appointed by lot, and hence they are
-called councillors made by the bean (οἱ ἀπὸ τοῦ κυάμου βουλευταί),
-from the use of beans in drawing lots. They were required to submit
-to a scrutiny or _docimasia_, in which they gave evidence of being
-genuine citizens, of never having lost their civic rights by
-_atimia_, and also of being above 30 years of age. They remained
-in office for a year, receiving a drachma (μισθὸς βουλευτικός) for
-each day on which they sat: and independent of the general account
-(εὐθύναι), which the whole body had to give at the end of the year,
-any single member was liable to expulsion for misconduct by his
-colleagues. The senate of 500 was divided into ten sections of fifty
-each, the members of which were called _prytanes_ (πρυτάνεις), and
-were all of the same tribe; they acted as presidents both of the
-council and the assemblies during thirty-five or thirty-six days,
-as the case might be, so as to complete the lunar year of 354 days
-(12×29½). Each tribe exercised these functions in turn; the period
-of office was called a _prytany_ (πρυτανεία), and the tribe that
-presided the _presiding tribe_; the order in which the tribes
-presided was determined by lot, and the four supernumerary days were
-given to the tribes which came last in order. Moreover, to obviate
-the difficulty of having too many in office at once, every fifty
-was subdivided into five bodies of ten each; its prytany also being
-portioned out into five periods of seven days each; so that only ten
-senators presided for a week over the rest, and were thence called
-_proedri_ (πρόεδροι). Again, out of these proedri an _epistates_
-(ἐπιστάτης) was chosen for one day to preside as a chairman in the
-senate, and the assembly of the people; during his day of office
-he kept the public records and seal. The prytanes had the right of
-convening the council and the assembly (ἐκκλησία). The duty of the
-proedri and their president was to propose subjects for discussion,
-and to take the votes both of the councillors and the people;
-for neglect of their duty they were liable to a fine. Moreover,
-whenever a meeting, either of the council or of the assembly, was
-convened, the chairman of the proedri selected by lot nine others,
-one from each of the non-presiding tribes; these also were called
-proedri, and possessed a chairman of their own, likewise appointed
-by lot from among themselves. But the proedri who proposed the
-subject for discussion to the assembly belonged to the presiding
-tribe. It is observed, under AREIOPAGUS, that the chief object of
-Solon, in forming the senate and the areiopagus, was to control the
-democratical powers of the state: for this purpose he ordained that
-the senate should discuss and vote upon all matters before they were
-submitted to the assembly, so that nothing could be laid before the
-people on which the senate had not come to a previous decision.
-This decision, or bill, was called _probouleuma_ (προβούλευμα); but
-then not only might this _probouleuma_ be rejected or modified by
-the assembly, but the latter also possessed and exercised the power
-of coming to a decision completely different from the will of the
-senate. In addition to the bills which it was the duty of the senate
-to propose of their own accord, there were others of a different
-character, viz. such as any private individual might wish to have
-submitted to the people. To accomplish this, it was first necessary
-for the party to obtain, by petition, the privilege of access to
-the senate, and leave to propose his motion; and if the measure met
-with their approbation, he could then submit it to the assembly. A
-proposal of this kind, which had the sanction of the senate, was
-also called _probouleuma_, and frequently related to the conferring
-of some particular honour or privilege upon an individual. Thus the
-proposal of Ctesiphon for crowning Demosthenes is so styled. In the
-assembly the bill of the senate was first read, perhaps by the crier,
-after the introductory ceremonies were over; and then the proedri put
-the question to the people, whether they approved of it. The people
-declared their will by a show of hands (προχειροτονία). If it was
-confirmed it became a _psephisma_ (ψήφισμα), or decree of the people,
-binding upon all classes. The form for drawing up such decrees varied
-in different ages. In the time of Demosthenes the decrees commence
-with the name of the archon; then come the day of the month, the
-tribe in office, and, lastly, the name of the proposer. The motive
-for passing the decree is next stated; and then follows the decree
-itself, prefaced with the formula δεδόχθαι τῇ βουλῇ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ.
-The senate-house was called _Bouleuterion_ (βουλευτηριον). The
-prytanes also had a building to hold their meetings in, where they
-were entertained at the public expense during their prytany. This
-was called the _Prytaneion_, and was used for a variety of purposes.
-[PRYTANEION.]
-
-
-BRĀCAE, or BRACCAE (ἀναξυρίδες), trowsers, pantaloons, were common
-to all the nations which encircled the Greek and Roman population,
-extending from the Indian to the Atlantic ocean, but were not worn
-by the Greeks and Romans themselves. Accordingly the monuments
-containing representations of people different from the Greeks and
-Romans exhibit them in trowsers, thus distinguishing them from the
-latter people.
-
-
-BRAURŌNĬA (βραυρώνια), a festival celebrated in honour of Artemis
-Brauronia, in the Attic town of Brauron, where Orestes and
-Iphigeneia, on their return from Tauris, were supposed by the
-Athenians to have landed, and left the statue of the Taurian goddess.
-It was held every fifth year, and the chief solemnity consisted in
-the Attic girls between the ages of five and ten years going in
-solemn procession to the sanctuary, where they were consecrated to
-the goddess. During this act the priests sacrificed a goat, and the
-girls performed a propitiatory rite, in which they imitated bears.
-This rite may have simply risen from the circumstance that the bear
-was sacred to Artemis, especially in Arcadia. There was also a
-quinquennial festival called Brauronia, which was celebrated by men
-and dissolute women, at Brauron, in honour of Dionysus.
-
-
-BRUTTĬĀNI, slaves whose duty it was to wait upon the Roman
-magistrates. They are said to have been originally taken from among
-the Bruttians.
-
-
-BUCCĬNA (βυκάνη), a kind of horn trumpet, anciently made out of a
-shell (_buccinum_), the form of which is exhibited in the specimen
-annexed. The _buccina_ was distinct from the _cornu_; but it is
-often confounded with it. The buccina seems to have been chiefly
-distinguished by the twisted form of the shell, from which it was
-originally made. In later times it was carved from horn, and perhaps
-from wood or metal, so as to imitate the shell. The _buccina_ was
-chiefly used to proclaim the watches of the day and of the night,
-hence called _buccina prima_, _secunda_, &c. It was also blown at
-funerals, and at festive entertainments both before sitting down to
-table and after.
-
-[Illustration: Buccina, Trumpet. (Blanchini, De Mus. Instrum. Vet.)]
-
-
-BULLA, a circular plate or boss of metal, so called from its
-resemblance in form to a bubble floating upon water. Bright studs
-of this description were used to adorn the sword belt; but we most
-frequently read of _bullae_ as ornaments worn by children, suspended
-from the neck, and especially by the sons of the noble and wealthy.
-Such an one is called _heres bullatus_ by Juvenal. The bulla was
-usually made of thin plates of gold. The use of the bulla, like that
-of the praetexta, was derived from the Etruscans. It was originally
-worn only by the children of the patricians, but subsequently by all
-of free birth.
-
-[Illustration: Bulla. (From the Collection of Mr. Rogers; the gold
-chord added from a specimen in the Brit. Mus.)]
-
-
-BŪRIS. [ARATRUM.]
-
-
-BUSTUM. It was customary among the Romans to burn the bodies of the
-dead before burying them. When the spot appointed for that purpose
-adjoined the place of sepulture, it was termed _bustum_; when it
-was separate from it, it was called _ustrina_. From this word the
-gladiators, who were hired to fight round the burning pyre of the
-deceased, were called _bustuarii_.
-
-
-BUXUM or BUXUS, probably means the wood of the box-tree, but was
-given as a name to many things made of this wood. The tablets used
-for writing on, and covered with wax (_tabulae ceratae_), were
-usually made of box. In the same way the Greek πυξίον, formed from
-πύξος, “box-wood,” came to be applied to any tablets, whether they
-were made of this wood or any other substance. Tops and combs were
-made of box-wood, and also all wind instruments, especially the flute.
-
-
-BYSSUS (βύσσος), linen, and not cotton. The word byssus appears to
-come from the Hebrew _butz_, and the Greeks probably got it through
-the Phoenicians.
-
-
-
-
-CĂBEIRĬA (καβείρια), mysteries, festivals, and orgies, solemnised
-in all places in which the Pelasgian Cabeiri were worshipped, but
-especially in Samothrace, Imbros, Lemnos, Thebes, Anthedon, Pergamus,
-and Berytos. Little is known respecting the rites observed in these
-mysteries, as no one was allowed to divulge them. The most celebrated
-were those of the island of Samothrace, which, if we may judge from
-those of Lemnos, were solemnised every year, and lasted for nine
-days. Persons on their admission seem to have undergone a sort of
-examination respecting the life they had led hitherto, and were then
-purified of all their crimes, even if they had committed murder.
-
-
-CĀDŪCĔUS (κηρύκειον, κηρύκιον), the staff or mace carried by heralds
-and ambassadors in time of war. This name is also given to the staff
-with which Hermes or Mercury is usually represented, as is shown in
-the following figure of that god. From _caduceus_ was formed the
-word _caduceator_, which signified a person sent to treat of peace.
-The persons of the caduceatores were considered sacred.
-
-[Illustration: Hermes bearing the Caduceus. (Museo Borbonico, vol.
-vi. pl. 2.)]
-
-
-CĂDŪCUM. [BONA CADUCA.]
-
-
-CĂDUS (κάδος, κάδδος), a large vessel usually made of earthenware,
-which was used for keeping wine, drawing water, &c. The name of
-cadus was sometimes given to the vessel or urn in which the counters
-or pebbles of the dicasts were put, when they gave their vote on a
-trial, but the diminutive καδίσκος was more commonly used in this
-signification.
-
-
-CAELĀTŪRA (τορευτική), a branch of the fine arts, under which all
-sorts of ornamental work in metal, except actual statues, appear to
-be included. The principal processes, which these words were used
-to designate, seem to have been of three kinds: hammering metal
-plates into moulds or dies, so as to bring out a raised pattern;
-engraving the surface of metals with a sharp tool; and working a
-pattern of one metal upon or into the surface of another: in short,
-the various processes which we describe by the words _chasing_,
-_damascening_, &c. The objects on which the _caelator_ exercised his
-art were chiefly weapons and armour--especially shields, chariots,
-tripods, and other votive offerings, quoits, candelabra, thrones,
-curule chairs, mirrors, goblets, dishes, and all kinds of gold and
-silver plate. The ornamental work with which the chaser decorated
-such objects consisted either of simple running patterns, chiefly in
-imitation of plants and flowers, or of animals, or of mythological
-subjects, and, for armour, of battles. The mythological subjects
-were reserved for the works of the greatest masters of the art: they
-were generally executed in very high relief (_anaglypha_). In the
-finest works, the ornamental pattern was frequently distinct from
-the vessel, to which it was either fastened permanently, or so that
-it could be removed at pleasure, the vessel being of silver, and the
-ornaments of gold, _crustae aut emblemata_. The art of ornamental
-metal-work was in an advanced stage of progress among the Greeks of
-the heroic period, as we see from numerous passages of Homer: but its
-origin, in the high artistic sense, is to be ascribed to Phidias,
-and its complete development to Polycletus. In the last age of the
-Roman Republic, the prevailing wealth and luxury, and the presence of
-Greek artists at Rome, combined to bring the art more than ever into
-requisition. After this period it suddenly fell into disuse.
-
-
-CAELĬBĀTUS. [AES UXORIUM; LEX JULIA ET PAPIA POPPAEA.]
-
-
-CAERĬTUM TĂBŬLAE. [AERARII.]
-
-
-CAESAR, a title of the Roman emperors, was originally a family name
-of the Julia gens; it was assumed by Octavianus as the adopted son
-of the great dictator, C. Julius Caesar, and was by him handed down
-to his adopted son Tiberius. It continued to be used by Caligula,
-Claudius, and Nero, as members either by adoption or female descent
-of Caesar’s family; but although the family became extinct with
-Nero, succeeding emperors still retained the name as part of their
-titles, and it was the practice to prefix it to their own names, as
-for instance, _Imperator Caesar Domitianus Augustus_. When Hadrian
-adopted Aelius Varus, he allowed the latter to take the title of
-Caesar; and from this time, though the title of _Augustus_ continued
-to be confined to the reigning emperor, that of _Caesar_ was also
-granted to the second person in the state and the heir presumptive to
-the throne. [AUGUSTUS.]
-
-
-CĂLĂMISTRUM, an instrument made of iron, and hollow like a reed
-(_calamus_), used for curling the hair. For this purpose it was
-heated, the person who performed the office of heating it in wood
-ashes (_cinis_) being called _ciniflo_, or _cinerarius_.
-
-
-CĂLĂMUS, a sort of reed which the ancients used as a pen for writing.
-The best sorts were got from Aegypt and Cnidus.
-
-
-CĂLANTĬCA. [COMA.]
-
-
-CĂLĂTHUS (κάλαθος, also called τάλαρος), usually signified the basket
-in which women placed their work, and especially the materials for
-spinning. In the following cut a slave, belonging to the class called
-_quasillariae_, is presenting her mistress with the calathus.
-Baskets of this kind were also used for other purposes, such as for
-carrying fruits, flowers, &c. The name of calathi was also given to
-cups for holding wine. Calathus was properly a Greek word, though
-used by the Latin writers. The Latin word corresponding to it was
-_qualus_ or _quasillus_. From _quasillus_ came _quasillaria_, the
-name of the slave who spun, and who was considered the meanest of the
-female slaves.
-
-[Illustration: Slave presenting a Calathus. (From a Painting on a
-Vase.)]
-
-
-CALCĔUS, CALCĔĀMEN, CALCĔĀMENTUM (ὑποδήμα, πέδιλον), a shoe or boot,
-anything adapted to cover and preserve the feet in walking. The use
-of shoes was by no means universal among the Greeks and Romans. The
-Homeric heroes are represented without shoes when armed for battle.
-Socrates, Phocion, and Cato, frequently went barefoot. The Roman
-slaves had no shoes. The covering of the feet was removed before
-reclining at meals. People in grief, as for instance at funerals,
-frequently went barefooted. Shoes may be divided into those in which
-the mere sole of a shoe was attached to the sole of the foot by
-ties or bands, or by a covering for the toes or the instep [SOLEA;
-CREPIDA; SOCCUS]; and those which ascended higher and higher,
-according as they covered the ankles, the calf, or the whole of the
-leg. To calceamenta of the latter kind, _i.e._ to shoes and boots,
-as distinguished from sandals and slippers, the term _calceus_ was
-applied in its proper and restricted sense. There were also other
-varieties of the _calceus_ according to its adaptation to particular
-professions or modes of life. Thus the CALIGA was principally worn
-by soldiers; the PERO by labourers and rustics; and the COTHURNUS
-by tragedians, hunters, and horsemen. The _calcei_ probably did
-not much differ from our shoes, and are exemplified in a painting
-at Herculaneum, which represents a female wearing bracelets, a
-wreath of ivy, and a panther’s skin, while she is in the attitude
-of dancing and playing on the cymbals. The form and colour of the
-calceus indicated rank and office. Roman senators wore high shoes
-like buskins, fastened in front with four black thongs. They were
-also sometimes adorned with a small crescent: we do not find on any
-ancient statues the crescent, but we may regard the bottom right hand
-figure in the annexed cut as representing the shoe of a senator.
-Among the calcei worn by senators, those called _mullei_, from their
-resemblance to the scales of the red mullet, were particularly
-admired; as well as others called _alutae_, because the leather was
-softened by the use of alum.
-
-[Illustration: Greek Shoes. (From ancient Vases.)
-
-Roman Shoes. (Museo Borbonico.)]
-
-
-CALCŬLĀTOR (λογιστής), a keeper of accounts in general, and also a
-teacher of arithmetic. In Roman families of importance there was a
-_calculator_ or account-keeper, who is, however, more frequently
-called by the name of _dispensator_, or procurator: he was a kind of
-steward.
-
-
-CALCŬLI, little stones or pebbles, used for various purposes, as,
-for instance, among the Athenians for voting. Calculi were used
-in playing a sort of draughts. Subsequently, instead of pebbles,
-ivory, or silver, or gold, or other men (as we call them) were used;
-but they still bore the name of calculi. Calculi were also used
-in reckoning; and hence the phrases _calculum ponere_, _calculum
-subducere_.
-
-
-CALDĀRĬUM. [BALNEUM.]
-
-
-CĂLENDAE or KĂLENDAE. [CALENDARIUM.]
-
-
-CĂLENDĀRĬUM or KĂLENDĀRĬUM, generally signified an account-book,
-in which were entered the names of a person’s debtors, with the
-interest which they had to pay, and it was so called because the
-interest had to be paid on the calends of each month. The word,
-however, was also used in the signification of a modern calendar or
-almanac. (1) GREEK CALENDAR. The Greek year was divided into twelve
-lunar months, depending on the actual changes of the moon. The first
-day of the month (νουμηνία) was not the day of the conjunction, but
-the day on the evening of which the new moon appeared; consequently
-full moon was the middle of the month. The lunar month consists of
-twenty-nine days and about thirteen hours; accordingly some months
-were necessarily reckoned at twenty-nine days, and rather more of
-them at thirty days. The latter were called _full_ months (πληρεῖς),
-the former _hollow_ months (κοῖλοι). As the twelve lunar months
-fell short of the solar year, they were obliged every other year
-to interpolate an intercalary month (μὴν ἐμβολιμαῖος) of thirty or
-twenty-nine days. The ordinary year consisted of 354 days, and the
-interpolated year, therefore, of 384 or 383. This interpolated year
-(τριέτηρις) was seven days and a half too long, and to correct the
-error, the intercalary month was from time to time omitted. The Attic
-year began with the summer solstice: the following is the sequence of
-the Attic months and the number of days in each:--Hecatombaeon (30),
-Metageitnion (29), Boedromion (30), Pyanepsion (29), Maemacterion
-(30), Poseideon (29), Gamelion (30), Anthesterion (29), Elaphebolion
-(30), Munychion (29), Thargelion (30), Scirophorion (29). The
-intercalary month was a second Poseideon inserted in the middle of
-the year. Every Athenian month was divided into three decads. The
-days of the first decad were designated as ἱσταμένου or ἀρχομένου
-μηνος, and were counted on regularly from one to ten; thus, δευτέρα
-ἀρχομένου or ἱσταμένου is “the second day of the month.” The days
-of the second decad were designated as ἐπὶ δέκα or μεσοῦντος, and
-were counted on regularly from the 11th to the 20th day, which was
-called εἴκας. There were two ways of counting the days of the last
-decad; they were either reckoned onwards from the 20th (thus, πρώτη
-ἐπὶ εἰκάδι was the 21st), or backwards from the last day, with
-the addition φθίνοντος, παυομένου, λήγοντος, or ἀπίοντος; thus,
-the twenty-first day of a hollow month was ἐνάτη φθίνοντος; of a
-full month, δεκάτη φθίνοντος. The last day of the month was called
-ἕνη καὶ νέα, “the old and new,” because as the lunar month really
-consisted of more than twenty-nine and less than thirty days, the
-last day might be considered as belonging equally to the old and
-new month. Separate years were designated at Athens by the name of
-the chief archon, hence called _archon eponymus_ (ἄρχων ἐπώνυμος),
-or “the name giving archon;” at Sparta, by the first of the ephors;
-at Argos, by the priestess of JUNO, &c.--(2) ROMAN CALENDAR. The
-old Roman, frequently called the Romulian year, consisted of only
-ten months, which were called Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Junius,
-Quinctilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, December. That
-March was the first month in the year is implied in the last six
-names. Of these months, four, namely, Martius, Maius, Quinctilis,
-and October, consisted of thirty-one days, the other six of thirty.
-The four former were distinguished in the latest form of the Roman
-calendar by having their nones two days later than any of the other
-months. The symmetry of this arrangement will appear by placing the
-numbers in succession:--31, 30; 31, 30; 31, 30, 30; 31, 30, 30.
-The Romulian year therefore consisted of 304 days, and contained
-thirty-eight nundinae or weeks; every eighth day, under the name of
-_nonae_, or _nundinae_, being especially devoted to religious and
-other public purposes. Hence we find that the number of _dies fasti_
-afterwards retained in the Julian calendar tally exactly with these
-thirty-eight nundines; besides which, it may be observed that a year
-of 304 days bears to a solar year of 365 days nearly the ratio of
-five to six, six of the Romulian years containing 1824, five of the
-solar years 1825 days; and hence we may explain the origin of the
-well-known quinquennial period called the lustrum, which ancient
-writers expressly call an _annus magnus_; that is, in the modern
-language of chronology, a cycle. It was consequently the period at
-which the Romulian and solar years coincided. The next division of
-the Roman year was said to have been made by Numa Pompilius, who
-instituted a lunar year of 12 months and 355 days. Livy says that
-Numa so regulated his lunar year of twelve months by the insertion
-of intercalary months, that at the end of every _nineteenth_ year
-(_vicesimo anno_) it again coincided with the same point in the
-sun’s course from which it started. It is well known that 19 years
-constitute a most convenient cycle for the junction of a lunar and
-solar year. It seems certain that the Romans continued to use a lunar
-year for some time after the establishment of the republic; and it
-was probably at the time of the decemviral legislation that the
-lunar year was abandoned. By the change which was then made the year
-consisted of 12 months, the length of each of which was as follows:--
-
-  Martius,      31 days.
-  Aprilis,      29   ”
-  Maius,        31   ”
-  Junius,       29   ”
-  Quinctilis,   31   ”
-  Sextilis,     29   ”
-  September,    29   ”
-  October,      31   ”
-  November,     29   ”
-  December,     29   ”
-  Januarius,    29   ”
-  Februarius,   28   ”
-
-The year thus consisted of 355 days, and this was made to correspond
-with the solar year by the insertion of an intercalary month
-(_mensis intercalaris_ or _intercalarius_), called _Mercedonius_
-or _Mercidonius_. This month of 22 or 23 days seems to have been
-inserted in alternate years. As the festivals of the Romans were for
-the most part dependent upon the calendar, the regulation of the
-latter was entrusted to the college of pontifices, who in early times
-were chosen exclusively from the body of patricians. It was therefore
-in the power of the college to add to their other means of oppressing
-the plebeians, by keeping to themselves the knowledge of the days on
-which justice could be administered, and assemblies of the people
-could be held. In the year 304 B.C., one Cn. Flavius, a secretary
-(_scriba_) of Appius Claudius, is said fraudulently to have made the
-_Fasti_ public. The other privilege of regulating the year by the
-insertion of the intercalary month gave the pontiffs great political
-power, which they were not backward to employ. Every thing connected
-with the matter of intercalation was left to their unrestrained
-pleasure; and the majority of them, on personal grounds, added to or
-took from the year by capricious intercalations, so as to lengthen or
-shorten the period during which a magistrate remained in office, and
-seriously to benefit or injure the farmer of the public revenue. The
-calendar was thus involved in complete confusion, and accordingly we
-find that in the time of Cicero the year was three months in advance
-of the real solar year. At length, in the year B.C. 46, Caesar, now
-master of the Roman world, employed his authority, as pontifex
-maximus, in the correction of this serious evil. The account of the
-way in which he effected this is given by Censorinus:--“The confusion
-was at last carried so far that C. Caesar, the pontifex maximus, in
-his third consulate, with Lepidus for his colleague, inserted between
-November and December two intercalary months of 67 days, the month
-of February having already received an intercalation of 23 days, and
-thus made the whole year to consist of 445 days. At the same time he
-provided against a repetition of similar errors, by casting aside
-the intercalary month, and adapting the year to the sun’s course.
-Accordingly, to the 355 days of the previously existing year he added
-ten days, which he so distributed between the seven months having
-29 days that January, Sextilis, and December received two each, the
-others but one; and these additional days he placed at the end of
-the several months, no doubt with the wish not to remove the various
-festivals from those positions in the several months which they had
-so long occupied. Hence in the present calendar, although there are
-seven months of 31 days, yet the four months, which from the first
-possessed that number, are still distinguishable by having their
-nones on the seventh, the rest having them on the fifth of the month.
-Lastly, in consideration of the quarter of a day, which he regarded
-as completing the true year, he established the rule that, at the
-end of every four years, a single day should be intercalated, where
-the month had been hitherto inserted, that is, immediately after the
-terminalia; which day is now called the _bissextum_.” The mode of
-denoting the days of the month will cause no difficulty, if it be
-recollected that the kalends always denote the first of the month;
-that the nones occur on the seventh of the four months of March,
-May, Quinctilis or July, and October, and on the fifth of the other
-months; that the ides always fall eight days later than the nones;
-and lastly, that the intermediate days are in all cases reckoned
-backwards upon the Roman principle of counting both extremes. For the
-month of January the notation will be as follows:--
-
-  1. Kal. Jan.
-  2. a. d. IV. Non. Jan.
-  3. a. d. III. Non. Jan.
-  4. Prid. Non. Jan.
-  5. Non. Jan.
-  6. a. d. VIII. Id. Jan.
-  7. a. d. VII. Id. Jan.
-  8. a. d. VI. Id. Jan.
-  9. a. d. V. Id. Jan.
-  10. a. d. IV. Id. Jan.
-  11. a. d. III. Id. Jan.
-  12. Prid. Id. Jan.
-  13. Id. Jan.
-  14. a. d. XIX. Kal. Feb.
-  15. a. d. XVIII. Kal. Feb.
-  16. a. d. XVII. Kal. Feb.
-  17. a. d. XVI. Kal. Feb.
-  18. a. d. XV. Kal. Feb.
-  19. a. d. XIV. Kal. Feb.
-  20. a. d. XIII. Kal. Feb.
-  21. a. d. XII. Kal. Feb.
-  22. a. d. XI. Kal. Feb.
-  23. a. d. X. Kal. Feb.
-  24. a. d. IX. Kal. Feb.
-  25. a. d. VIII. Kal. Feb.
-  26. a. d. VII. Kal. Feb.
-  27. a. d. VI. Kal. Feb.
-  28. a. d. V. Kal. Feb.
-  29. a. d. IV. Kal. Feb.
-  30. a. d. III. Kal. Feb.
-  31. Prid. Kal. Feb.
-
-The letters _a d_ are often, through error, written together, and so
-confounded with the preposition _ad_ which would have a different
-meaning, for _ad kalendas_ would signify _by_, i.e. _on or before
-the kalends_. The letters are in fact an abridgment of _ante diem_,
-and the full phrase for “on the second of January,” would be _ante
-diem quartum nonas Januarias_. The word _ante_ in this expression
-seems really to belong in sense to _nonas_, and to be the cause why
-_nonas_ is an accusative. Whether the phrase _kalendae Januarii_ was
-ever used by the best writers is doubtful. The words are commonly
-abbreviated; and those passages where Aprilis, Decembris, &c. occur
-are of no avail, as they are probably accusatives. The _ante_ may be
-omitted, in which case the phrase will be _die quarto nonarum_. In
-the leap year (to use a modern phrase), the last days of February
-were called,--
-
-  Feb. 23. a. d. VII. Kal. Mart.
-  Feb. 24. a. d. VI. Kal. Mart. posteriorem.
-  Feb. 25. a. d. VI. Kal. Mart. priorem.
-  Feb. 26. a. d. V. Kal. Mart.
-  Feb. 27. a. d. IV. Kal. Mart.
-  Feb. 28. a. d. III. Kal. Mart.
-  Feb. 29. Prid. Kal. Mart.
-
-In which the words _prior_ and _posterior_ are used in reference to
-the retrograde direction of the reckoning. From the fact that the
-intercalated year has two days called _ante diem sextum_, the name
-bissextile has been applied to it. The term _annus bissextilis_,
-however, does not occur in any classical writer, but in place of
-it the phrase _annus bissextus_.--The names of two of the months
-were changed in honour of Julius Caesar and Augustus. Julius was
-substituted for Quinctilis, the month in which Caesar was born, in
-the second Julian year, that is, the year of the dictator’s death,
-for the first Julian year was the first year of the _corrected_
-Julian calendar, that is, B.C. 45. The name Augustus in place of
-Sextilis was introduced by the emperor himself in B.C. 27. The month
-of September in like manner received the name of Germanicus from
-the general so called, and the appellation appears to have existed
-even in the time of Macrobius. Domitian, too, conferred his name
-upon October; but the old word was restored upon the death of the
-tyrant.--The Julian calendar supposes the mean tropical year to
-be 365 d. 6 h.; but this exceeds the real amount by 11′ 12″, the
-accumulation of which, year after year, caused at last considerable
-inconvenience. Accordingly, in the year 1582, Pope Gregory XIII.
-again reformed the calendar. The ten days by which the year had been
-unduly retarded were struck out by a regulation that the day after
-the fourth of October in that year should be called the fifteenth;
-and it was ordered that whereas hitherto an intercalary day had been
-inserted every four years, for the future three such intercalations
-in the course of four hundred years should be omitted, viz., in
-those years which are divisible without remainder by 100, but not by
-400. Thus, according to the Julian calendar, the years 1600, 1700,
-1800, 1900, 2000, were to be bissextile as before. The bull which
-effected this change was issued Feb. 24th, 1582. The Protestant parts
-of Europe resisted what they called a papistical invention for more
-than a century. In England the Gregorian calendar was first adopted
-in 1752. In Russia, and those countries which belonged to the Greek
-church, the Julian year, or _old style_, as it is called, still
-prevails. In the ancient calendars the letters A, B, C, D, E, F,
-G, H, were used for the purpose of fixing the nundines in the week
-of eight days; precisely in the same way in which the first seven
-letters are still employed in ecclesiastical calendars, to mark the
-days of the Christian week.
-
-
-CĂLĬGA, a strong and heavy sandal worn by the Roman soldiers, but
-not by the superior officers. Hence the common soldiers, including
-centurions, were distinguished by the name of _caligati_. The emperor
-Caligula received that cognomen when a boy, in consequence of wearing
-the caliga, and being inured to the life of a common soldier. The
-cuts on pp. 1, 41, show the difference between the caliga of the
-common soldier and the calceus worn by men of higher rank.
-
-
-CĂLIX (κύλιξ). (1) a drinking-cup used at symposia and on similar
-occasions.--(2) A vessel used in cooking.--(3) A tube in the
-aquaeducts attached to the extremity of each pipe, where it entered
-the castellum.
-
-[Illustration: Calices, Drinking-cups. (Museo Borbonico, vol. v. pl.
-18.)]
-
-
-CALLIS, a beaten path or track made by the feet of cattle. The
-sheep-walks in the mountainous parts of Campania and Apulia were
-the property of the Roman state; and as they were of considerable
-value, one of the quaestors usually had these _calles_ assigned to
-him as his province, whence we read of the _Callium provincia_. His
-principal duties were to receive the _scriptura_, or tax paid for
-the pasturage of the cattle, and to protect life and property in
-these wild and mountainous districts. When the senate wished to put
-a slight upon the consuls on one occasion they endeavoured to assign
-to them as their provinces, the care of the woods (_silvae_) and
-sheep-walks (_calles_).
-
-
-CALLISTEIA (καλλιστεῖα), a festival, or perhaps merely a part of one,
-held by the women of Lesbos; at which they assembled in the sanctuary
-of Hera, and the fairest received the prize of beauty. Similar
-contests of beauty are said to have been held in other places.
-
-
-CĀLŌNES, the slaves or servants of the Roman soldiers, so called
-from carrying wood (κᾶλα) for their use. The word _calo_, however,
-was also applied to farm-servants. The _calones_ and _lixae_ are
-frequently spoken of together, but they were not the same: the latter
-were freemen, who merely followed the camp for the purposes of gain
-and merchandise, and were so far from being indispensable to an army,
-that they were sometimes forbidden to attend it.
-
-
-CĂLUMNĬA. When an accuser failed in his proof, and the accused
-party was acquitted, there might be an inquiry into the conduct and
-motives of the accuser. If the person who made this judicial inquiry
-found that the accuser had merely acted from error of judgment, he
-acquitted him in the form _non probasti_; if he convicted him of evil
-intention, he declared his sentence in the words _calumniatus es_,
-which sentence was followed by the legal punishment. The punishment
-for _calumnia_ was fixed by the lex Remmia, or as it is sometimes,
-perhaps incorrectly, named, the lex Memmia. But it is not known when
-this lex was passed, nor what were its penalties. It appears from
-Cicero, that the false accuser might be branded on the forehead with
-the letter K, the initial of Kalumnia. The punishment for calumnia
-was also _exsilium, relegatio in insulam_, or loss of rank (_ordinis
-amissio_); but probably only in criminal cases, or in matters
-relating to status.
-
-
-CĂMĂRA (καμάρα), or CĂMĔRA. (1) A particular kind of arched
-ceiling, formed by semicircular bands or beams of wood, arranged at
-small lateral distances, over which a coating of lath and plaster
-was spread, and the whole covered in by a roof, resembling in
-construction the hooped awnings in use amongst us.--(2) A small boat
-used in early times by the people who inhabited the shores of the
-Palus Maeotis, capable of containing from twenty-five to thirty men.
-These boats were made to work fore and aft, like the fast-sailing
-proas of the Indian seas, and continued in use until the age of
-Tacitus.
-
-
-CĂMILLI, CĂMILLAE, boys and girls employed in the religious rites and
-ceremonies of the Romans. They were required to be perfect in form,
-and sound in health, free born, and with both their parents alive;
-or, in other words, according to the expression of the Romans, _pueri
-seu puellae ingenui, felicissimi, patrimi matrimique_.
-
-
-CĂMĪNUS. [DOMUS.]
-
-
-CAMPESTRE (sc. _subligar_), a kind of girdle or apron, which the
-Roman youths wore around their loins, when they exercised naked in
-the Campus Martius. The campestre was sometimes worn in warm weather,
-in place of the tunic under the toga.
-
-
-CAMPUS MARTĬUS. [See CLASSICAL DICTIONARY.]
-
-
-CĂNĂBUS (κάναβος), a figure of wood in the form of a skeleton, round
-which the clay or plaster was laid in forming models. Figures of a
-similar kind, formed to display the muscles and veins, were studied
-by painters in order to acquire some knowledge of anatomy.
-
-
-CĀNATHRON (κάναθρον), a carriage, the upper part of which was made of
-basket-work, or more properly the basket itself, which was fixed in
-the carriage.
-
-
-CANCELLĀRĬUS. [CANCELLI.]
-
-
-CANCELLI, lattice-work, placed before a window, a door-way, the
-tribunal of a judge, or any other place. Hence was derived the
-word _Cancellarius_, which originally signified a porter, who
-stood at the latticed or grated door of the emperor’s palace. The
-cancellarius also signified a legal scribe or secretary, who sat
-within the cancelli or lattice-work. The chief scribe or secretary
-was called Cancellarius κατ’ ἐξοχήν, and was eventually invested with
-judicial power at Constantinople. From this word has come the modern
-Chancellor.
-
-
-CANDĒLA, a candle, made either of wax (_cerea_), or tallow
-(_sebacea_), was used universally by the Romans before the invention
-of oil lamps (_lucernae_). In later times candelae were only used
-by the poorer classes; the houses of the more wealthy were always
-lighted by lucernae.
-
-
-CANDĒLABRUM, originally a candlestick, but afterwards the name of a
-stand for supporting lamps (λυχνοῦχοι), in which signification it
-most commonly occurs. The candelabra of this kind were usually made
-to stand upon the ground, and were of a considerable height. The
-most common kind were made of wood; but those which have been found
-in Herculaneum and Pompeii are mostly of bronze. Sometimes they were
-made of the more precious metals, and even of jewels. The candelabra
-did not always stand upon the ground, but were also placed upon
-the table. Such candelabra usually consisted of pillars, from the
-capitals of which several lamps hung down, or of trees, from whose
-branches lamps also were suspended.
-
-[Illustration: Candelabrum in the Vatican. (Visconti, vol. IV. tav.
-5.)]
-
-
-CANDĬDĀTUS. [AMBITUS.]
-
-
-CANDYS (κάνδυς), a robe worn by the Medes and Persians over their
-trowsers and other garments. It had wide sleeves, and was made of
-woollen cloth, which was either purple or of some other splendid
-colour. In the Persepolitan sculptures, from which the annexed
-figures are taken, nearly all the principal personages wear it.
-
-[Illustration: Candys, Persian Cloak. (From Bas-relief at
-Persepolis.)]
-
-
-CĂNĒPHŎROS (κανηφόρος), a virgin who carried a flat circular basket
-(κάνεον, _canistrum_) at sacrifices, in which the chaplet of flowers,
-the knife to slay the victim, and sometimes the frankincense
-were deposited. The name, however, was more particularly applied
-to two virgins of the first Athenian families who were appointed
-to officiate as canephori at the Panathaenaea. The preceding cut
-represents the two canephori approaching a candelabrum. Each of them
-elevates one arm to support the basket while she slightly raises her
-tunic with the other.
-
-[Illustration: Canephori. (British Museum.)]
-
-
-CANTHĂRUS (κάνθαρος), a kind of drinking cup, furnished with handles.
-It was the cup sacred to Bacchus, who is frequently represented on
-ancient vases holding it in his hand.
-
-[Illustration: Cantharus. (From an ancient Vase.)]
-
-
-CANTĬCUM, an interlude between the acts of a Roman comedy, and
-sometimes, perhaps, of a tragedy. It consisted of flute music,
-accompanied by a kind of recitative performed by a single actor,
-or if there were two, the second was not allowed to speak with the
-first. In the canticum, as violent gesticulation was required, it
-appears to have been the custom, from the time of Livius Andronicus,
-for the actor to confine himself to the gesticulation, while another
-person sang the recitative.
-
-
-CĂPILLUS. [COMA.]
-
-
-CĂPISTRUM (φορβειά), a halter, or tie for horses, asses, or other
-animals, placed round the head or neck, and made of osiers or other
-fibrous materials. The Greek word φορβειά was also applied to a
-contrivance used by pipers and trumpeters to compress their mouths
-and cheeks, and thus to aid them in blowing. It is often seen in
-works of ancient art, and was said to be the invention of Marsyas.
-[TIBIA.]
-
-
-CĂPĬTE CENSI. [CAPUT.]
-
-
-CĂPĬTIS DĒMĬNŪTĬO. [CAPUT.]
-
-
-CĂPĬTŌLĪNI LŪDI. [LUDI.]
-
-
-CĂPĬTŌLĬUM. [See CLASS. DICTIONARY.]
-
-
-CĂPĬTŬLUM. [COLUMNA.]
-
-
-CAPSA, or SCRĪNĬUM, a box for holding books among the Romans. These
-boxes were of a cylindrical form. There does not appear to have
-been any difference between the _capsa_ and _scrinium_, except that
-the latter word was usually applied to those boxes which held a
-considerable number of rolls. The slaves who had the charge of these
-book-chests were called _capsarii_, and also _custodes scriniorum_;
-and the slaves who carried in a capsa behind their young masters
-the books, &c. of the sons of respectable Romans, when they went to
-school, were called by the same name.
-
-[Illustration: The Muse Clio with a Capsa. (Pitture d’Ercolano, vol.
-ii. pl. 2.)]
-
-
-CAPSĀRĬI, the name of three different classes of slaves. [BALNEUM;
-CAPSA.]
-
-
-CĂPUT, the head. The term “head” is often used by the Roman writers
-as equivalent to “person,” or “human being.” By an easy transition
-it was used to signify “life:” thus, _capite damnari_, _plecti_,
-&c., are equivalent to capital punishment. _Caput_ is also used
-to express a man’s _status_, or civil condition; and the persons
-who were registered in the tables of the censor are spoken of as
-_capita_, sometimes with the addition of the word _civium_, and
-sometimes not. Thus to be registered in the census was the same
-thing as _caput habere_: and a slave and a filius familias, in this
-sense of the word, were said to have no _caput_. The sixth class of
-Servius Tullius comprised the _proletarii_ and the _capite censi_,
-of whom the latter, having little or no property, were barely rated
-as so many _head_ of citizens.--He who lost or changed his status
-was said to be _capite minutus_, _deminutus_, or _capitis minor_.
-_Capitis minutio_ or _deminutio_ was a change of a person’s status
-or civil condition, and consisted of three kinds.--A Roman citizen
-possessed freedom (_libertas_), citizenship (_civitas_), and family
-(_familias_): the loss of all three constituted the _maxima capitis
-deminutio_. This capitis deminutio was sustained by those who refused
-to be registered at the census, or neglected the registration, and
-were thence called _incensi_. The _incensus_ was liable to be sold,
-and so to lose his liberty. Those who refused to perform military
-service might also be sold.--The loss of citizenship and family only,
-as when a man was interdicted from fire and water, was the _media
-capitis deminutio_. [EXSILIUM.]--The change of family by adoption,
-and by the in manum conventio, was the _minima capitis deminutio_.--A
-_judicium capitale_, or _poena capitalis_, was one which affected a
-citizen’s caput.
-
-
-CĂPUT. [FENUS.]
-
-
-CĂPUT EXTŌRUM. The Roman soothsayers (_haruspices_) pretended to a
-knowledge of coming events from the inspection of the entrails of
-victims slain for that purpose. The part to which they especially
-directed their attention was the liver, the convex upper portion of
-which seems to have been called the _caput extorum_. Any disease
-or deficiency in this organ was considered an unfavourable omen;
-whereas, if healthy and perfect, it was believed to indicate good
-fortune. If no caput was found, it was a bad sign (_nihil tristius
-accidere potuit_); if well defined or double, it was a lucky omen.
-
-
-CĂRĂCALLA, an outer garment used in Gaul, and not unlike the Roman
-_lacerna_. It was first introduced at Rome by the emperor Aurelius
-Antoninus Bassianus, who compelled all the people that came to
-court to wear it, whence he obtained the surname of Caracalla. This
-garment, as worn in Gaul, does not appear to have reached lower than
-the knee, but Caracalla lengthened it so as to reach the ankle.
-
-
-CARCER (_kerker_, German; γοργύρα, Greek), a prison, is connected
-with ἕρκος and εἵργω, the guttural being interchanged with the
-aspirate. (1) GREEK. Imprisonment was seldom used amongst the Greeks
-as a legal punishment for offences; they preferred banishment to
-the expense of keeping prisoners in confinement. The prisons in
-different countries were called by different names; thus there
-was the _Ceadas_ (Κεάδας), at Sparta; and, among the Ionians, the
-_Gorgyra_ (γοργύρα), as at Samos. The prison at Athens was in former
-times called _Desmoterion_ (δεσμωτήριον), and afterwards, by a
-sort of euphemism, οἴκημα. It was chiefly used as a guard-house or
-place of execution, and was under the charge of the public officers
-called the Eleven.--(2) ROMAN. A prison was first built at Rome by
-Ancus Martius, overhanging the forum. This was enlarged by Servius
-Tullius, who added to it a souterrain, or dungeon, called from him
-the _Tullianum_. Sallust describes this as being twelve feet under
-ground, walled on each side, and arched over with stone work. For
-a long time this was the only prison at Rome, being, in fact, the
-“Tower,” or state prison of the city, which was sometimes doubly
-guarded in times of alarm, and was the chief object of attack in
-many conspiracies. There were, however, other prisons besides this,
-though, as we might expect, the words of Roman historians generally
-refer to this alone. In the _Tullianum_ prisoners were generally
-executed, and this part of the prison was also called _robur_.
-
-
-CARCĔRES. [CIRCUS.]
-
-
-CARCHĒSĬUM (καρχήσιον). (1) A beaker or drinking-cup, which was used
-by the Greeks in very early times. It was slightly contracted in the
-middle, and its two handles extended from the top to the bottom. It
-was much employed in libations of wine, milk, and honey.--(2) The
-upper part of the mast of a ship. [NAVIS.]
-
-
-CARMENTĀLĬA, a festival celebrated in honour of Carmenta or
-Carmentis, who is fabled to have been the mother of Evander, who
-came from Pallantium in Arcadia, and settled in Latium: he was said
-to have brought with him a knowledge of the arts, and the Latin
-alphabetical characters as distinguished from the Etruscan. This
-festival was celebrated annually on the 11th of January. A temple
-was erected to the same goddess, at the foot of the Capitoline
-hill, near the Porta Carmentalis, afterwards called Scelerata. The
-name Carmenta is said to have been given to her from her prophetic
-character, carmens or carmentis being synonymous with vates. The word
-is, of course, connected with _carmen_, as prophecies were generally
-delivered in verse.
-
-
-CARNEIA (καρνεῖα), a great national festival, celebrated by the
-Spartans in honour of Apollo Carneios. The festival began on the
-seventh day of the month of Carneios = Metageitnion of the Athenians,
-and lasted for nine days. It was of a warlike character, similar to
-the Attic Boëdromia. During the time of its celebration nine tents
-were pitched near the city, in each of which nine men lived in
-the manner of a military camp, obeying in everything the commands
-of a herald. The priest conducting the sacrifices at the Carneia
-was called _Agetes_ (Ἀγητής), whence the festival was sometimes
-designated by the name _Agetoria_ or _Agetoreion_ (Ἀγητόρια or
-Ἀγητόρειον), and from each of the Spartan tribes five men (Καρνεᾶται)
-were chosen as his ministers, whose office lasted four years,
-during which period they were not allowed to marry. When we read in
-Herodotus and Thucydides that the Spartans during the celebration of
-this festival were not allowed to take the field against an enemy, we
-must remember that this restriction was not peculiar to the Carneia,
-but common to all the great festivals of the Greeks: traces of it are
-found even in Homer.
-
-
-CARNĬFEX, the public executioner at Rome, who executed slaves and
-foreigners, but not citizens, who were punished in a manner different
-from slaves. It was also his business to administer the torture.
-This office was considered so disgraceful, that he was not allowed
-to reside within the city, but lived without the Porta Metia or
-Esquilina, near the place destined for the punishment of slaves,
-called Sestertium under the emperors.
-
-
-CARPENTUM, a cart; also a two-wheeled carriage, enclosed, and with
-an arched or sloping cover overhead. The carpentum was used to
-convey the Roman matrons in the public festal processions; and this
-was a high distinction, since the use of carriages in the city was
-entirely forbidden during the whole of the republican period. Hence
-the privilege of riding in a carpentum in the public festivals was
-sometimes granted to females of the imperial family. This carriage
-contained seats for two, and sometimes for three persons, besides
-the coachman. It was commonly drawn by a pair of mules, but more
-rarely by oxen or horses, and sometimes by four horses like a
-quadriga.--Carpenta, or covered carts, were much used by the Britons,
-the Gauls, and other northern nations. These, together with the
-carts of the more common form, including baggage-waggons, appear to
-have been comprehended under the term _carri_, or _carra_, which is
-the Celtic name with a Latin termination. The Gauls took a great
-multitude of them on their military expeditions, and when they were
-encamped, arranged them in close order, so as to form extensive lines
-of circumvallation.
-
-
-CARRĀGO, a kind of fortification, consisting of a great number of
-waggons placed round an army. It was employed by barbarous nations,
-as, for instance, the Scythians, Gauls, and Goths. Carrago also
-signifies sometimes the baggage of an army.
-
-
-CARRŪCA, a carriage, the name of which only occurs under the
-emperors. It appears to have been a species of rheda [RHEDA], had
-four wheels, and was used in travelling. These carriages were
-sometimes used in Rome by persons of distinction, like the carpenta;
-in which case they appear to have been covered with plates of bronze,
-silver, and even gold, which were sometimes ornamented with embossed
-work.
-
-
-CARRUS. [CARPENTUM.]
-
-
-CĂRỸA or CĂRỸĀTIS (καρύα, καρυατίς), a festival celebrated at Caryae,
-in Laconia, in honour of Artemis Caryatis. It was celebrated every
-year by Lacedaemonian maidens with national dances of a very lively
-kind.
-
-
-CĂRỸĀTĬDES, female figures used in architecture instead of columns.
-Their name is usually derived from Caryae, a city in Arcadia, near
-the Laconian border, the women of which are said to have been reduced
-to slavery by the Greeks, because Caryae had joined the Persians at
-the invasion of Greece. But this tale is probably apocryphal. One of
-the porticos of the Erechtheum at Athens is supported by Caryatides.
-
-
-CASSIS. [GALEA.]
-
-
-CASTELLUM ĂQUAE. [AQUAE DUCTUS.]
-
-
-CASTRA. Roman armies never halted for a single night without forming
-a regular entrenchment, termed _castra_, capable of receiving within
-its limits the whole body of fighting men, their beasts of burden,
-and the baggage. So completely was this recognised as a part of the
-ordinary duties of each march, that _pervenire ad locum tertiis ...
-quartis ... septuagesimis castris_ are the established phrases for
-expressing the number of days occupied in passing from one point to
-another. Whenever circumstances rendered it expedient for a force to
-occupy the same ground for any length of time, then the encampment
-was distinguished as _castra stativa_. In wild and barbarian lands,
-where there were no large towns and no tribes on whose faith
-reliance could be placed, armies, whether of invasion or occupation,
-were forced to remain constantly in camps. They usually, however,
-occupied different ground in summer and in winter, whence arose the
-distinction between _castra aestiva_ and _castra hiberna_, both alike
-being _stativa_. But whether a camp was temporary or permanent,
-whether tenanted in summer or in winter, the main features of the
-work were always the same for the same epoch. In hiberna, huts of
-turf or stone would be substituted for the open tents of the aestiva
-(hence _aedificare hiberna_), and in stativa held for long periods
-the defences would present a more substantial and finished aspect,
-but the general outline and disposition of the parts were invariable.
-Polybius has transmitted to us a description of a Roman camp, from
-which the annexed plan has been drawn up. It is such as would be
-formed at the close of an ordinary day’s march by a regular consular
-army consisting of two Roman legions with the full contingent of
-Socii. Each legion is calculated at 4200 infantry and 300 cavalry;
-the Socii furnished an equal number of infantry, and twice as many
-cavalry, so that the whole force would amount to 16,800 foot and
-1800 horse. Skill in the selection of a spot for a camp (_capere
-locum castris_) was ever considered as a high quality in a general,
-and we find it recorded among the praises of the most renowned
-commanders that they were wont in person to perform this duty. Under
-ordinary circumstances, however, the task was devolved upon one of
-the military tribunes, and a certain number of centurions appointed
-from time to time for the purpose. These having gone forward in
-advance of the army until they reached the place near which it was
-intended to halt, and having taken a general survey of the ground,
-selected a spot from whence a good view of the whole proposed area
-might be obtained. This spot was considerably within the limits of
-the contemplated enclosure, and was marked by a small white flag. The
-next object was to ascertain in what direction water and fodder might
-be most easily and securely provided. These two preliminary points
-being decided, the business of measuring out the ground (_metari
-castra_) commenced, and was executed, as we learn from various
-sources, with graduated rods (_decempedae_) by persons denominated
-_metatores_. In practice the most important points were marked by
-white poles, some of which bore flags of various colours, so that the
-different battalions on reaching the ground could at once discover
-the place assigned to them.
-
-[Illustration: A, praetorium.--B, tents of the tribunes.--C, tents
-of the praefecti sociorum.--D, street 100 feet wide.--E, F, G, and
-H, streets 50 feet wide.--L, select foot and volunteers.--K, select
-horse and volunteers.--M, extraordinary horse of the allies.--N,
-extraordinary foot of the allies.--O, reserved for occasional
-auxiliaries.--Q, the street called Quintana, 50 feet wide.--V P, via
-principalis, 100 feet wide.]
-
-The white flag A, which served as the starting point of the
-whole construction, marked the position of the consul’s tent, or
-_praetorium_, so called because _praetor_ was the ancient term for
-any one invested with supreme command. A square area was left open,
-extending a hundred feet each way from the praetorium. The camp was
-divided into two parts, the upper and the lower. The upper part
-formed about a third of the whole. In it was the _praetorium_ (A) or
-general’s tent. A part of the praetorium was called the _Augurale_,
-as the auguries were there taken by the general. On the right and
-left of the praetorium were the _forum_ and _quaestorium_; the former
-a sort of market-place, the latter appropriated to the quaestor and
-the camp stores under his superintendence. On the sides of and facing
-the forum and quaestorium, were stationed select bodies of horse
-(K) taken from the extraordinaries, with mounted volunteers, who
-served out of respect to the consul, and were stationed near him. And
-parallel to these were posted similar bodies of foot-soldiers (L).
-Before the quaestorium and the forum were the tents of the twelve
-tribunes of the two legions (B), and before the select bodies of
-horse and infantry the tents of the praefecti sociorum were probably
-placed (C). Again, behind the praetorium, the quaestorium, and the
-forum, ran a street or _via_ (D), 100 feet broad, from one side of
-the camp to the other. Along the upper side of this street was ranged
-the main body of the “extraordinary” horse (M): they were separated
-into two equal parts by a street fifty feet broad (E). At the back
-of this body of cavalry was posted a similar body of infantry (N),
-selected from the allies, and facing the opposite way, _i.e._ towards
-the ramparts of the camp. The vacant spaces (O) on each side of these
-troops were reserved for foreigners and occasional auxiliaries.
-The lower part of the camp was divided from the upper by a street,
-called the _Via Principalis_ (V P), or _Principia_, a hundred feet
-broad. Here the tribunal of the general was erected, from which he
-harangued the soldiers, and here the tribunes administered justice.
-Here also the principal standards, the altars of the gods, and the
-images of the emperors were placed. The lower part of the camp was
-occupied by the two legions and the troops of the allies according
-to the arrangement of the preceding cut. Between the ramparts and
-the tents was left a vacant space of 200 feet on every side, which
-was useful for many purposes: thus it served for the reception of
-any booty that was taken, and facilitated the entrance and exit of
-the army. The camp had four gates, one at the top and bottom, and
-one at each of the sides; the top or back-gate, which was the side
-most away from the enemy, was called the _decumana_. The bottom or
-the front gate was the _practoria_, the gates of the sides were the
-_porta principalis dextra_, and the _porta principalis sinistra_. The
-whole camp was surrounded by a trench (_fossa_), generally nine feet
-deep and twelve broad, and a rampart (_vallum_) made of the earth
-that was thrown up (_agger_), with stakes (_valli_) fixed at the
-top of it. The labour of this work was so divided, that the allies
-completed the two sides of the camp alongside of which they were
-stationed, and the two Roman legions the rest.--In describing the
-Roman camp and its internal arrangements, we have confined ourselves
-to the information given by Polybius, which, of course, applies only
-to his age, and to armies constituted like those he witnessed. When
-the practice of drawing up the army according to cohorts, ascribed
-to Marius or Caesar [EXERCITUS], had superseded the ancient division
-into maniples, and the distinction of triarii, &c., the internal
-arrangements of the camp must have been changed accordingly. In
-each legion the tribunes divided themselves into three sections of
-two each, and each section in turn undertook for two months the
-superintendence of all matters connected with the camp. Out of the
-twenty maniples of Principes and Triarii in each legion, two were
-appointed to take charge of the broad passage or street called
-_Principia_, extending right across the camp in front of the tents
-of the tribunes. Of the remaining eighteen maniples of Principes and
-Hastati in each legion, three were assigned by lot to each of the six
-tribunes, and of these three maniples one in turn rendered each day
-certain services to the tribune to whom it was specially attached.
-One maniple was selected each day from the whole legionary force,
-to keep guard beside the tent of the general. Three sentinels were
-usually posted at the tents of the quaestor, and of the legati: and
-by night sentinels kept watch at every maniple, being chosen out of
-the maniple which they guarded. The Velites mounted guard by day
-and by night along the whole extent of the vallum: to them also in
-bodies of ten was committed the charge of the gates, while strong
-bodies of infantry and cavalry were thrown forward in advance of
-each gate, to resist any sudden onset, and give timely notice of the
-approach of the enemy.--_Excubiae_; _excubias agere_; _excubare_;
-are the general terms used with reference to mounting guard whether
-by night or by day. _Vigiliae_; _vigilias agere_; _vigilare_; are
-restricted to night duty: _Excubiae_ and _Vigiliae_ frequently
-denote not only the service itself, but also the individuals who
-performed it. _Stationes_ is used specially to denote the advanced
-posts thrown forward in front of the gates. _Custodes_ or _Custodiae_
-the parties who watched the gates themselves, _Praesidia_ the
-sentinels on the ramparts, but all these words are employed in many
-other significations also. The duty of going the rounds (_Vigilias
-circuire s. circumire_) was committed to the Equites, and for this
-purpose each legion supplied daily four, picked out from each turma
-in rotation by the commander of the troop. The eight persons thus
-selected decided by lot in which watch they should make their rounds,
-two being assigned to each watch. They then repaired to the tribune,
-and each individual received a written order specifying the posts
-which he was to visit, every post being visited in each watch by one
-or other of the two to whom the watch belonged. Sometimes we find
-centurions, tribunes, and even the general in chief represented as
-going the rounds, but, under ordinary circumstances, the duty was
-performed as we have described. The watchword for the night was not
-communicated verbally, but by means of a small rectangular tablet
-of wood (πλατεῖον ἐπιγεγραμμένον--_tessera_) upon which it was
-written.--_Breaking up a Camp._ On the first signal being given by
-the trumpet, the tents were all struck and the baggage packed, the
-tents of the general and the tribunes being disposed of before the
-others were touched. At the second signal the baggage was placed upon
-the beasts of burden; at the third, the whole army began to move.
-
-
-CĂTĂLŎGUS (κατάλογος), the catalogue of those persons in Athens who
-were liable to regular military service. At Athens, those persons
-alone who possessed a certain amount of property were allowed to
-serve in the regular infantry, whilst the lowest class, the thetes,
-had not this privilege. [CENSUS.] Thus the former are called οἱ ἐκ
-καταλόγου στρατεύοντες, and the latter οἱ ἔξω τοῦ καταλόγου.
-
-
-CĂTĂPHRACTA. [LORICA.]
-
-
-CĂTĂPHRACTI (κατάφρακτοι). (1) Heavy-armed cavalry, the horses
-of which were also covered with defensive armour. Among many of
-the Eastern nations, who placed their chief dependence upon their
-cavalry, we find horses protected in this manner; but among the
-Romans we do not read of any troops of this description till the
-later times of the empire, when the discipline of the legions was
-destroyed, and the chief dependence began to be placed on the
-cavalry. This species of troops was common among the Persians from
-the earliest times, from whom it was adopted by their Macedonian
-conquerors. They were called by the Persians _clibanarii_.--(2)
-Decked vessels, in opposition to _Aphracti_.
-
-
-CĂTĂPĪRĀTĒR (καταπειρατηρία, βολίς), the lead used in sounding (ἐν τῷ
-βολίζειν), or fathoming the depth of water in navigation. The mode of
-employing this instrument appears to have been precisely the same as
-that now in use.
-
-
-CĂTĂPULTA. [TORMENTUM.]
-
-
-CĂTĂRACTA (καταῤῥάκτης), a portcullis, so called because it fell with
-great force and a loud noise. It was an additional defence, suspended
-by iron rings and ropes, before the gates of a city, in such a manner
-that, when the enemy had come up to the gates, the portcullis might
-be let down so as to shut them in, and to enable the besieged to
-assail them from above.
-
-
-CĂTEIA, a missile used in war by the Germans, Gauls, and some of the
-Italian nations, supposed to resemble the ACLIS.
-
-
-CĂTĒNA, dim. CĂTELLA (ἄλυσις, dim. ἀλύσιον, ἀλυσίδιον), a chain.
-The chains which were of superior value, either on account of the
-material or the workmanship, are commonly called _catellae_ (ἀλύσια),
-the diminutive expressing their fineness and delicacy as well as
-their minuteness. The specimens of ancient chains which we have in
-bronze lamps, in scales, and in ornaments for the person, especially
-necklaces, show a great variety of elegant and ingenious patterns.
-Besides a plain circle or oval, the separate link is often shaped
-like the figure 8, or is a bar with a circle at each end, or assumes
-other forms, some of which are here shown. The links are also found
-so closely entwined, that the chain resembles platted wire or thread,
-like the gold chains now manufactured at Venice. This is represented
-in the lowest figure of the woodcut.
-
-[Illustration: Ancient Chains.]
-
-
-CĂTERVĀRĬI. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Cathedra. (From a Painting on a Vase.)]
-
-CĂTHEDRA, a seat or chair, was more particularly applied to a soft
-seat used by women, whereas _sella_ signified a seat common to both
-sexes. The cathedrae were, no doubt, of various forms and sizes; but
-they usually appear to have had backs to them. On the cathedra in the
-annexed cut is seated a bride, who is being fanned by a female slave
-with a fan made of peacock’s feathers. Women were also accustomed to
-be carried abroad in these cathedrae instead of in lecticae, which
-practice was sometimes adopted by effeminate persons of the other
-sex. The word cathedra was also applied to the chair or pulpit from
-which lectures were read.
-
-
-CĂTĪNUS, or CĂTĪNUM, a large dish, on which fish and meat were served
-up at table. Hence Horace speaks of an _angustus catinus_ as an
-indication of niggardliness on the part of the host.
-
-
-CĂVAEDĬUM. [DOMUS.]
-
-
-CĂVĔA. [THEATRUM.]
-
-
-CAUPŌNA. (1) An inn, where travellers obtained food and lodging; in
-which sense it answered to the Greek words πανδοκεῖον, καταγώγιον,
-and κατάλυσις. Inns for the accommodation of persons of all classes
-existed among the Greeks and Romans, although they were not equal
-either in size or convenience to similar places in modern times.
-An inn was also called _taberna_ and _taberna diversoria_, or
-simply _diversorium_ or _deversorium_.--(2) A shop, where wine
-and ready-dressed meat were sold, thus corresponding to the Greek
-καπηλεῖον. The person who kept a caupona was called _caupo_. In
-Greek κάπηλος signifies in general a retail trader, who sold goods
-in small quantities; but the word is more particularly applied to
-a person who sold ready-dressed provisions, and especially wine in
-small quantities. In these καπηλεῖα only persons of the very lowest
-class were accustomed to eat and drink. In Rome itself there were, no
-doubt, inns to accommodate strangers; but these were probably only
-frequented by the lower classes, since all persons in respectable
-society could easily find accommodation in the houses of their
-friends. There were, however, in all parts of the city, numerous
-houses where wine and ready-dressed provisions were sold. The houses
-where persons were allowed to eat and drink were usually called
-_popinae_ and not _cauponae_; and the keepers of them, _popae_. They
-were principally frequented by slaves and the lower classes, and
-were consequently only furnished with stools to sit upon instead of
-couches. The _Thermopolia_, where the _calida_ or warm wine and water
-was sold, appear to have been the same as the _popinae_. Many of
-these popinae were little better than the _lupanaria_ or brothels;
-whence Horace calls them _immundas popinas_. The _ganeae_, which are
-sometimes mentioned in connection with the _popinae_, were brothels,
-whence they are often classed with the _lustra_. Under the emperors
-many attempts were made to regulate the popinae, but apparently
-with little success. All persons who kept inns or houses of public
-entertainment of any kind were held in low estimation both among
-the Greeks and Romans. They appear to have fully deserved the bad
-reputation which they possessed, for they were accustomed to cheat
-their customers by false weights and measures, and by all the means
-in their power.
-
-
-CAUSĬA (καυσία), a hat with a broad brim, which was made of felt, and
-worn by the Macedonian kings. Its form is seen in the annexed figure.
-The Romans adopted it from the Macedonians.
-
-[Illustration: Causia, Hat. (From a Painting on a Vase.)]
-
-
-CAUTĬO, CĂVĒRE. These words are of frequent occurrence, and have a
-great variety of significations, according to the matter to which
-they refer. Their general signification is that of security given by
-one person to another, or security which one person obtains by the
-advice or assistance of another. The _cautio_ was most frequently a
-writing, which expressed the object of the parties to it; accordingly
-the word cautio came to signify both the instrument (_chirographum_
-or _instrumentum_) and the object which it was the purpose of the
-instrument to secure. Cicero uses the expression _cautio chirographi
-mei_. The phrase _cavere aliquid alicui_ expressed the fact of one
-person giving security to another as to some particular thing or act.
-The word _cautio_ was also applied to the release which a debtor
-obtained from his creditor on satisfying his demand; in this sense
-cautio is equivalent to a modern receipt; it is the debtor’s security
-against the same demand being made a second time. Thus _cavere ab
-aliquo_ signifies to obtain this kind of security. _Cavere_ is also
-applied to express the professional advice and assistance of a lawyer
-to his client for his conduct in any legal matter. _Cavere_ and its
-derivatives are also used to express the provisions of a law, by
-which any thing is forbidden or ordered, as in the phrase, _Cautum
-est lege_, &c. It is also used to express the words in a will, by
-which a testator declares his wish that certain things should be done
-after his death.
-
-
-CĔADAS or CAEADAS (κεάδας or καιάδας), a deep cavern or chasm, like
-the Barathron at Athens, into which the Spartans were accustomed to
-thrust persons condemned to death.
-
-
-CĔLĔRES, are said by Livy to have been three hundred horsemen,
-who formed the body-guard of Romulus both in peace and war. There
-can, however, be little doubt that these Celeres were not simply
-the body-guard of the king, but were the same as the equites,
-or horsemen, a fact which is expressly stated by some writers.
-[EQUITES.] The etymology of Celeres is variously given. Some writers
-derived it from their leader Celer, who was said to have slain Remus,
-but most writers connected it with the Greek κέλης, in reference to
-the quickness of their service. The Celeres were under the command
-of a _Tribunus Celerum_, who stood in the same relation to the king
-as the magister equitum did in a subsequent period to the dictator.
-He occupied the second place in the state, and in the absence of the
-king had the right of convoking the comitia. Whether he was appointed
-by the king, or elected by the comitia, has been questioned, but the
-former is the more probable.
-
-
-CELLA, in its primary sense, means a store-room of any kind. Of these
-there were various descriptions, which took their distinguishing
-denominations from the articles they contained, as, for instance,
-the _cella penuaria_ or _penaria_, the _cella olearia_ and _cella
-vinaria_. The slave to whom the charge of these stores was intrusted,
-was called _cellarius_, or _promus_, or _condus_, “quia _promit_ quod
-_conditum est_,” and sometimes _promus condus_ and _procurator peni_.
-This answers to our butler and housekeeper. Any number of small rooms
-clustered together like the cells of a honeycomb were also termed
-_cellae_; hence the dormitories of slaves and menials are called
-_cellae_, and _cellae familiaricae_, in distinction to a bed-chamber,
-which was _cubiculum_. Thus a sleeping-room at a public-house is
-also termed _cella_. _Cella ostiarii_, or _janitoris_, is the
-porter’s lodge. In the baths the _cella caldaria_, _tepidaria_, and
-_frigidaria_, were those which contained respectively the warm,
-tepid, and cold bath. [BALNEAE.] The interior of a temple, that is
-the part included within the outside shell (σηκός), was also called
-_cella_. There was sometimes more than one _cella_ within the same
-peristyle or under the same roof, in which case each cell took
-the name of the deity whose statue it contained, as _cella_ Jovis,
-_cella_ Junonis, _cella_ Minervae, as in the temple of Jupiter on the
-Capitoline.
-
-
-CĔNOTĂPHĬUM, a cenotaph (κενός and τάφος), was an empty or honorary
-tomb, erected as a memorial of a person whose body was buried
-elsewhere, or not found for burial at all.
-
-
-CENSOR (τιμητής), the name of two magistrates of high rank in the
-Roman republic. Their office was called _Censura_ (τιμητεία or
-τιμητία). The _Census_, which was a register of Roman citizens and
-of their property, was first established by Servius Tullius, the
-fifth king of Rome. After the expulsion of the kings it was taken
-by the consuls; and special magistrates were not appointed for the
-purpose of taking it till the year B.C. 443. The reason of this
-alteration was owing to the appointment in the preceding year of
-tribuni militum with consular power in place of the consuls; and
-as these tribunes might be plebeians, the patricians deprived the
-consuls, and consequently their representatives, the tribunes, of
-the right of taking the census, and entrusted it to two magistrates,
-called _Censores_, who were to be chosen exclusively from the
-patricians. The magistracy continued to be a patrician one till B.C.
-351, when C. Marcius Rutilus was the first plebeian censor. Twelve
-years afterwards, B.C. 339, it was provided by one of the Publilian
-laws, that one of the censors must necessarily be a plebeian, but it
-was not till B.C. 280 that a plebeian censor performed the solemn
-purification of the people (_lustrum condidit_). In B.C. 131 the two
-censors were for the first time plebeians.--The censors were elected
-in the comitia centuriata held under the presidency of a consul. As
-a general principle, the only persons eligible to the office were
-those who had previously been consuls; but a few exceptions occur.
-At first there was no law to prevent a person being censor a second
-time; but the only person, who was twice elected to the office, was
-C. Marcius Rutilus in B.C. 265; and he brought forward a law in this
-year, enacting that no one should be chosen censor a second time, and
-received in consequence the surname of Censorinus.--The censorship
-is distinguished from all other Roman magistracies by the length of
-time during which it was held. The censors were originally chosen
-for a whole lustrum, that is, a period of five years; but their
-office was limited to eighteen months, as early as ten years after
-its institution (B.C. 433), by a law of the dictator Mam. Aemilius
-Mamercinus. The censors also held a very peculiar position with
-respect to rank and dignity. No imperium was bestowed upon them,
-and accordingly they had no lictors. The _jus censurae_ was granted
-to them by a _lex centuriata_, and not by the curiae, and in that
-respect they were inferior in power to the consuls and praetors. But
-notwithstanding this, the censorship was regarded as the highest
-dignity in the state, with the exception of the dictatorship; it was
-a _sanctus magistratus_, to which the deepest reverence was due.
-They possessed of course the sella curulis. The funeral of a censor
-was always conducted with great pomp and splendour, and hence a
-_funus censorium_ was voted even to the emperors.--The censorship
-continued in existence for 421 years, namely, from B.C. 443 to
-B.C. 22; but during this period many lustra passed by without any
-censor being chosen at all. Its power was limited by one of the
-laws of the tribune Clodius (B.C. 58). After the year B.C. 22 the
-emperors discharged the duties of the censorship under the name of
-_Praefectura Morum_.--The duties of the censors may be divided into
-three classes, all of which were however closely connected with
-one another: I. _The Census_, or register of the citizens and of
-their property, in which were included the _lectio senatus_, and
-the _recognitio equitum_; II. _The Regimen Morum_; and III. _The
-administration of the finances of the state_, under which were
-classed the superintendence of the public buildings and the erection
-of all new public works.--I. The CENSUS, the first and principal
-duty of the censors, for which the proper expression is _censum
-agere_, was always held in the Campus Martius, and from the year
-B.C. 435 in a special building called _Villa Publica_. After the
-auspicia had been taken, the citizens were summoned by a public crier
-(_praeco_) to appear before the censors. Each tribe was called up
-separately, and every paterfamilias had to appear in person before
-the censors, who were seated in their curule chairs. The census was
-conducted _ad arbitrium censoris_; but the censors laid down certain
-rules, sometimes called _leges censui censendo_, in which mention
-was made of the different kinds of property subject to the census,
-and in what way their value was to be estimated. According to these
-laws each citizen had to give an account of himself, of his family,
-and of his property upon oath, _ex animi sententia_. First he had
-to give his full name (_praenomen_, _nomen_, and _cognomen_) and
-that of his father, or if he were a freedman that of his patron,
-and he was likewise obliged to state his age. He was then asked,
-_Tu, ex animi tui sententia, uxorem habes?_ and if married he had
-to give the name of his wife, and likewise the number, names, and
-ages of his children, if any. Single women (_viduae_) and orphans
-(_orbi orbaeque_) were represented by their tutores; their names
-were entered in separate lists, and they were not included in the
-sum total of capita. After a citizen had stated his name, age,
-family, &c., he then had to give an account of all his property,
-so far as it was subject to the census. In making this statement
-he was said _censere_ or _censeri_, as a deponent, “to value or
-estimate himself,” or as a passive “to be valued or estimated:”
-the censor, who received the statement, was also said _censere_,
-as well as _accipere censum_. Only such things were liable to the
-census (_censui censendo_) as were property _ex jure Quiritium_. Land
-formed the most important article in the census; next came slaves and
-cattle. The censors also possessed the right of calling for a return
-of such objects as had not usually been given in, such as clothing,
-jewels, and carriages. We can hardly doubt that the censors possessed
-the power of setting a higher valuation on the property than the
-citizens themselves had put. The tax (_tributum_) was usually one
-per thousand upon the property entered in the books of the censors;
-but on one occasion the censors, as a punishment, compelled a person
-to pay eight per thousand (_octuplicato censu_, Liv. iv. 24). A
-person who voluntarily absented himself from the census, and thus
-became _incensus_, was subject to the severest punishment. It is
-probable that service in the army was a valid excuse for absence.
-After the censors had received the names of all the citizens with the
-amount of their property, they then had to make out the lists of the
-tribes, and also of the classes and centuries; for by the legislation
-of Servius Tullius the position of each citizen in the state was
-determined by the amount of his property. [COMITIA CENTURIATA.]
-These lists formed a most important part of the _Tabulae Censoriae_,
-under which name were included all the documents connected in any
-way with the discharge of the censors’ duties. These lists, as far
-at least as they were connected with the finances of the state,
-were deposited in the aerarium, which was the temple of Saturn; but
-the regular depository for all the archives of the censors was in
-earlier times the Atrium Libertatis, near the Villa publica, and
-in later times the temple of the Nymphs. The censors had also to
-make out the lists of the senators for the ensuing lustrum, or till
-new censors were appointed; striking out the names of such as they
-considered unworthy, and making additions to the body from those who
-were qualified. [SENATUS.] In the same manner they held a review of
-the equites equo publico, and added and removed names as they judged
-proper. [EQUITES.] After the lists had been completed, the number of
-citizens was counted up, and the sum total announced; and accordingly
-we find that, in the account of a census, the number of citizens is
-likewise usually given. They are in such cases spoken of as _capita_,
-sometimes with the addition of the word _civium_, and sometimes not;
-and hence to be registered in the census was the same thing as _caput
-habere_. [CAPUT.]--II. REGIMEN MORUM. This was the most important
-branch of the censors’ duties, and the one which caused their office
-to be the most revered and the most dreaded in the Roman state. It
-naturally grew out of the right which they possessed of excluding
-unworthy persons from the lists of citizens. They were constituted
-the conservators of public and private virtue and morality; they
-were not simply to prevent crime or particular acts of immorality,
-but their great object was to maintain the old Roman character and
-habits, the _mos majorum_. The proper expression for this branch of
-their power was _regimen morum_, which was called in the times of
-the empire _cura_ or _praefectura morum_. The punishment inflicted
-by the censors in the exercise of this branch of their duties was
-called _Nota_ or _Notatio_, or _Animadversio Censoria_. In inflicting
-it they were guided only by their conscientious convictions of
-duty; they had to take an oath that they would act neither through
-partiality nor favour; and in addition to this, they were bound in
-every case to state in their lists, opposite the name of the guilty
-citizen, the cause of the punishment inflicted on him,--_Subscriptio
-censoria_. The consequence of such a nota was only _ignominia_ and
-not infamia [INFAMIA], and the censorial verdict was not a _judicium_
-or res _judicata_, for its effects were not lasting, but might be
-removed by the following censors, or by a lex. A nota censoria was
-moreover not valid, unless both censors agreed. The ignominia was
-thus only a transitory capitis deminutio, which does not appear even
-to have deprived a magistrate of his office, and certainly did not
-disqualify persons labouring under it for obtaining a magistracy,
-for being appointed as judices by the praetor, or for serving in the
-Roman armies. This superintendence of the conduct of Roman citizens
-extended so far, that it embraced the whole of the public and private
-life of the citizens. Thus we have instances of their censuring
-or punishing persons for not marrying, for breaking a promise of
-marriage, for divorce, for bad conduct during marriage, for improper
-education of children, for living in an extravagant and luxurious
-manner, and for many other irregularities in private life. Their
-influence was still more powerful in matters connected with the
-public life of the citizens. Thus we find them censuring or punishing
-magistrates who were forgetful of the dignity of their office or
-guilty of bribery, as well as persons who were guilty of improper
-conduct towards magistrates, of perjury, and of neglect of their
-duties both in civil and military life. The punishments inflicted
-by the censors are generally divided into four classes:--1. _Motio_
-or _ejectio e senatu_, or the exclusion of a man from the number of
-senators. This punishment might either be a simple exclusion from the
-list of senators, or the person might at the same time be excluded
-from the tribes and degraded to the rank of an aerarian. The censors
-in their new lists omitted the names of such senators as they wished
-to exclude, and in reading these new lists in public, passed over
-the names of those who were no longer to be senators. Hence the
-expression _praeteriti senatores_ is equivalent to _e senatu ejecti_.
-2. The _ademptio equi_, or the taking away the equus publicus from
-an eques. This punishment might likewise be simple, or combined
-with the exclusion from the tribes and the degradation to the rank
-of an aerarian. [EQUITES.] 3. The _motio e tribu_, or the exclusion
-of a person from his tribe. If the further degradation to the rank
-of an aerarian was combined with the motio e tribu, it was always
-expressly stated. 4. The fourth punishment was called _referre in
-aerarios_ or _facere aliquem aerarium_, and might be inflicted on any
-person who was thought by the censors to deserve it. [AERARII.]--III.
-THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE FINANCES OF THE STATE, was another part
-of the censors’ office. In the first place the _tributum_, or
-property-tax, had to be paid by each citizen according to the amount
-of his property registered in the census, and, accordingly, the
-regulation of this tax naturally fell under the jurisdiction of the
-censors. [TRIBUTUM.] They also had the superintendence of all the
-other revenues of the state, the _vectigalia_, such as the tithes
-paid for the public lands, the salt-works, the mines, the customs,
-&c. [VECTIGALIA.] All these branches of the revenue the censors
-were accustomed to let out to the highest bidder for the space of a
-lustrum or five years. The act of letting was called _venditio_ or
-_locatio_, and seems to have taken place in the month of March. The
-censors also possessed the right, though probably not without the
-concurrence of the senate, of imposing new vectigalia, and even of
-selling the land belonging to the state. The censors, however, did
-not receive the revenues of the state. All the public money was paid
-into the aerarium, which was entirely under the jurisdiction of the
-senate; and all disbursements were made by order of this body, which
-employed the quaestors as its officers. [AERARIUM; SENATUS.]--In one
-important department the censors were entrusted with the expenditure
-of the public money; though the actual payments were no doubt made
-by the quaestors. The censors had the general superintendence of
-all the public buildings and works (_opera publica_); and to meet
-the expenses connected with this part of their duties, the senate
-voted them a certain sum of money or certain revenues, to which
-they were restricted, but which they might at the same time employ
-according to their discretion. They had to see that the temples and
-all other public buildings were in a good state of repair (_aedes
-sacras tueri_ and _sarta tecta exigere_), that no public places
-were encroached upon by the occupation of private persons (_loca
-tueri_), and that the aquaeducts, roads, drains, &c. were properly
-attended to. The repairs of the public works and the keeping of them
-in proper condition were let out by the censors by public auction to
-the lowest bidder. The persons who undertook the contract were called
-_conductores_, _mancipes_, _redemptores_, _susceptores_, &c.; and the
-duties they had to discharge were specified in the _Leges Censoriae_.
-The censors had also to superintend the expenses connected with the
-worship of the gods. In these respects it is not easy to define
-with accuracy the respective duties of the censors and aediles:
-but it may be remarked in general that the superintendence of the
-aediles had more of a police character, while that of the censors had
-reference to all financial matters.--After the censors had performed
-their various duties and taken the census, the _lustrum_ or solemn
-purification of the people followed. When the censors entered upon
-their office, they drew lots to see which of them should perform this
-purification (_lustrum facere_ or _condere_), but both censors were
-obliged of course to be present at the ceremony. [LUSTRUM.]--In the
-Roman and Latin colonies and in the municipia there were censors,
-who likewise bore the name of _quinquennales_. They are spoken of
-under COLONIA. A census was sometimes taken in the provinces, even
-under the republic; but there seems to have been no general census
-taken in the provinces till the time of Augustus. At Rome the census
-still continued to be taken under the empire, but the old ceremonies
-connected with it were no longer continued, and the ceremony of the
-lustration was not performed after the time of Vespasian.--The word
-_census_, besides the meaning of “valuation” of a person’s estate,
-has other significations, which must be briefly mentioned: 1. It
-signified the amount of a person’s property, and hence we read of
-_census senatorius_, the estate of a senator; _census equestris_, the
-estate of an eques. 2. The lists of the censors. 3. The tax which
-depended upon the valuation in the census.
-
-
-CENSUS.--(1) GREEK.--The Greek term for a man’s property as
-ascertained by the census, as well as for the act of ascertaining
-it, is τίμημα. The only Greek state concerning whose arrangement
-of the census we have any satisfactory information, is Athens.
-Previous to the time of Solon no census had been instituted at
-Athens. According to his census, all citizens were divided into four
-classes: 1. _Pentacosiomedimni_ (Πεντακοσιομέδιμνοι), or persons
-possessing landed property which yielded an annual income of at least
-500 medimni of dry or liquid produce. 2. _Hippeis_ (Ἱππεῖς), i.e.
-knights or persons able to keep a war-horse, were those whose lands
-yielded an annual produce of at least 300 medimni, whence they are
-also called τριακοσιομέδιμνοι. 3. _Zeugitae_ (Ζευγῖται), i.e. persons
-able to keep a yoke of oxen (ζεῦγος), were those whose annual income
-consisted of at least 150 medimni. 4. The _Thetes_ (Θῆτες) contained
-all the rest of the free population, whose income was below that of
-the Zeugitae. The constitution of Athens, so long as it was based
-upon these classes, was a timocracy (τιμοκρατία, or ἀπὸ τιμημάτων
-πολιτεία). The highest magistracy at Athens, or the archonship,
-was at first accessible only to persons of the first class,
-until Aristides threw all the state offices open to all classes
-indiscriminately. The maintenance of the republic mainly devolved
-upon the first three classes, the last being exempted from all taxes.
-As the land in the legislation of Solon was regarded as the capital
-which yielded an annual income, he regulated his system of taxation
-by the value of the land, which was treated as the taxable capital.
-Lists of this taxable property (ἀπογραφαί) were kept at first by
-the naucrari, who also had to conduct the census, and afterwards
-by the demarchi.--As property is a fluctuating thing, the census
-was repeated from time to time, but the periods differed in the
-various parts of Greece, for in some a census was held every year,
-and in others every two or four years. At Athens every person had to
-state the amount of his property, and if there was any doubt about
-his honesty, it seems that a counter-valuation (ἀντιτίμησις) might
-be made. This system of taxation according to classes, and based
-upon the possession of productive estates, underwent a considerable
-change in the time of the Peloponnesian war, though the divisions
-into classes themselves continued to be observed for a considerable
-time after. As the wants of the republic increased, and as many
-citizens were possessed of large property, without being landed
-proprietors, the original land-tax was changed into a property-tax.
-This property-tax was called εἰσφορά, concerning which see EISPHORA.
-Compare LEITURGIAE; and for the taxes paid by resident aliens,
-METOICI.--(2) ROMAN. [CENSOR.]
-
-
-CENTESĬMA, namely _pars_, or the hundredth part, also called
-_vectigal rerum venalium_, or _centesima rerum venalium_, was a tax
-of one per cent. levied at Rome and in Italy upon all goods that were
-exposed for public sale at auctions. It was collected by persons
-called _coactores_. This tax was perhaps introduced after the civil
-war between Marius and Sulla. Its produce was assigned by Augustus
-to the _aerarium militare_. Tiberius reduced the tax to one half
-per cent. (_ducentesima_), after he had changed Cappadocia into
-a province, and had thereby increased the revenue of the empire.
-Caligula in the beginning of his reign abolished the tax altogether
-for Italy.
-
-CENTUMVĬRI, were judices, who resembled other judices in this
-respect, that they decided cases under the authority of a
-magistratus; but they differed from other judices in being a definite
-body or collegium. This collegium seems to have been divided into
-four parts, each of which sometimes sat by itself. The origin of
-the court is unknown. According to an ancient writer, three were
-chosen out of each tribe, and consequently the whole number out of
-the 35 tribes would be 105, who, in round numbers, were called the
-hundred men. If the centumviri were chosen from the tribes, this
-seems a strong presumption in favour of the high antiquity of the
-court. It was the practice to set up a spear in the place where
-the centumviri were sitting, and accordingly the word _hasta_, or
-_hasta centumviralis_, is sometimes used as equivalent to the words
-_judicium centumvirale_. The praetor presided in this court. The
-jurisdiction of the centumviri was chiefly confined to civil matters,
-but it appears that crimina sometimes came under their cognizance.
-The younger Pliny, who practised in this court, makes frequent
-allusions to it in his letters.
-
-
-CENTŬRĬA. [EXERCITUS; COMITIA.]
-
-
-CENTŬRĬĀTA CŎMĪTĬA. [COMITIA.]
-
-
-CENTŬRĬO. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-CENTUSSIS. [As.]
-
-
-CĒRA (κηρός), wax. For its employment in painting, see PICTURA;
-and for its application as a writing material, see TABULAE and
-TESTAMENTUM.
-
-
-CĔRĔĀLĬA, a festival celebrated at Rome in honour of Ceres, whose
-wanderings in search of her lost daughter Proserpine were represented
-by women, clothed in white, running about with lighted torches.
-During its continuance, games were celebrated in the Circus Maximus,
-the spectators of which appeared in white; but on any occasion of
-public mourning the games and festivals were not celebrated at all,
-as the matrons could not appear at them except in white. The day
-of the Cerealia is doubtful; some think it was the ides or 13th of
-April, others the 7th of the same month.
-
-
-CĔRĔVĪSĬA, CERVĪSĬA (ζύθος), ale or beer, was almost or altogether
-unknown to the Greeks and Romans; but it was used very generally by
-the surrounding nations, whose soil and climate were less favourable
-to the growth of vines. According to Herodotus, the Egyptians
-commonly drank “barley wine;” and Diodorus Siculus says that the
-Egyptian beer was nearly equal to wine in strength and flavour. The
-Iberians and Thracians, and the people in the north of Asia Minor,
-instead of drinking their beer out of cups, placed it before them in
-a large bowl or vase, which was sometimes of gold or silver. This
-being full to the brim with the grains, as well as the fermented
-liquor, the guests, when they pledged one another, drank together
-out of the same bowl by stooping down to it, although, when this
-token of friendship was not intended, they adopted the more refined
-method of sucking up the fluid through tubes of cane. The Suevi and
-other northern nations offered to their gods libations of beer, and
-expected that to drink it in the presence of Odin would be among the
-delights of Valhalla.
-
-
-CĒRŌMA (κήρωμα), the oil mixed with wax (κηρός) with which wrestlers
-were anointed; also the place where they were anointed, and, in later
-times, the place where they wrestled.
-
-
-CĔRŪCHI. [NAVIS.]
-
-
-CESTRUM. [PICTURA.]
-
-
-CESTUS. (1) The thongs or bands of leather, which were tied round
-the hands of boxers, in order to render their blows more powerful
-(ἱμάντες, or ἱμάντες πυκτικοί). The cestus was used by boxers in the
-earliest times, and is mentioned in the Iliad; but in the heroic
-times it consisted merely of thongs of leather, and differed from the
-cestus used in later times in the public games, which was a most
-formidable weapon, being frequently covered with knots and nails, and
-loaded with lead and iron.--(2) A band or tie of any kind, but more
-particularly the zone or girdle of Venus, on which was represented
-every thing that could awaken love.
-
-[Illustration: Cestus. (Fabretti, de Col. Traj., p. 261.)]
-
-
-CETRA, or CAETRA, a target, _i.e._ a small round shield, made of the
-hide of a quadruped. It formed part of the defensive armour of the
-Osci, and of the people of Spain, Mauritania, and Britain, and seems
-to have been much the same as the target of the Scotch Highlanders.
-The Romans do not appear to have used the cetra; but we find mention
-of _cetratae cohortes_ levied in the provinces. Livy compares it to
-the _pelta_ of the Greeks and Macedonians, which was also a small
-light shield.
-
-
-CHALCĬOĒCĬA (χαλκιοίκια), an annual festival, with sacrifices, held
-at Sparta in honour of Athena, surnamed _Chalcioecus_ (Χαλκίοικος),
-i.e. the goddess of the brazen-house. Young men marched on the
-occasion in full armour to the temple of the goddess; and the ephors,
-although not entering the temple, but remaining within its sacred
-precincts, were obliged to take part in the sacrifice.
-
-
-CHALCUS (χαλκοῦς), a denomination of Greek copper-money. Bronze or
-copper (χαλκός) was very little used by the Greeks for money till
-after the time of Alexander the Great. The χαλκία πονηρὰ at Athens
-issued in B.C. 406 were a peculiar exception; and they were soon
-afterwards called in, and the silver currency restored. It is not
-improbable, however, that the copper coin called χαλκοῦς was in
-circulation in Athens still earlier. The smallest silver coin at
-Athens was the quarter-obol, and the χαλκοῦς was the half of that, or
-the eighth of an obol. Its value was somewhat more than 3-4ths of a
-farthing. The χαλκοῦς in later times was divided into lepta, of which
-it contained seven. In later times the obol was coined of copper as
-well as silver.
-
-
-CHĂRISTĬA (from χαρίζομαι, to grant a favour or pardon), a solemn
-feast among the Romans, to which none but relations and members
-of the same family were invited, in order that any quarrel or
-disagreement which had arisen amongst them might be made up. The day
-of celebration was the 19th of February.
-
-
-CHEIRŎNŎMĬA (χειρονομία), a mimetic movement of the hands, which
-formed a part of the art of dancing among the Greeks and Romans. In
-gymnastics it was applied to the movements of the hands in pugilistic
-combat.
-
-
-CHEIRŎTŎNĬA (χειροτονία). In the Athenian assemblies two modes
-of voting were practised, the one by pebbles (ψηφίζεσθαι), the
-other by a show of hands (χειροτονεῖν). The latter was employed in
-the election of those magistrates who were chosen in the public
-assemblies, and who were hence called χειροτονητοί, in voting upon
-laws, and in some kinds of trials on matters which concerned the
-people. We frequently find, however, the word ψηφίζεσθαι used where
-the votes were really given by show of hands. The manner of voting
-by a show of hands was as follows:--The herald said: “Whoever thinks
-that Meidias is guilty, let him lift up his hand.” Then those who
-thought so stretched forth their hands. Then the herald said again:
-“Whoever thinks that Meidias is not guilty, let him lift up his
-hand;” and those who were of this opinion stretched forth their
-hands. The number of hands was counted each time by the herald; and
-the president, upon the herald’s report, declared on which side the
-majority voted. It is important to understand clearly the compounds
-of this word. A vote condemning an accused person is καταχειροτονία:
-one acquitting him, ἀποχειροτονία; ἐπιχειροτονεῖν is to confirm by
-a majority of votes: ἐπιχειροτονία τῶν νομῶν was a revision of the
-laws, which took place at the beginning of every year: ἐπιχειροτονία
-τῶν ἀρχῶν was a vote taken in the first assembly of each prytany on
-the conduct of the magistrates; in these cases, those who voted for
-the confirmation of the law, or for the continuance in office of
-the magistrate, were said ἐπιχειροτονεῖν, those on the other side
-ἀποχειροτονεῖν: διαχειροτονία is a vote for one of two alternatives:
-ἀντιχειροτονεῖν, to vote against a proposition. The compounds of
-ψηφίζεσθαι have similar meanings.
-
-
-CHĪRŎGRĂPHUM (χειρόγραφον), meant first, as its derivation implies, a
-hand-writing or autograph. In this its simple sense, χείρ in Greek and
-_manus_ in Latin are often substituted for it. From this meaning was
-easily derived that of a signature to a will or other instrument,
-especially a note of hand given by a debtor to his creditor.
-
-
-CHITON (χιτών). [TUNICA.]
-
-
-CHLAENA (χλαῖνα). [PALLIUM.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Chlamys. (The Figure on the left from a Painting on a
-Vase; that on the right from the Brit. Mus.)]
-
-CHLĂMỸS (χλαμύς, _dim._ χλαμύδιον), a scarf, denoted an article of
-the _amictus_, or outer raiment of the Greeks. It was for the most
-part woollen; and it differed from the _himation_ (ἱμάτιον), or
-cloak, the usual amictus of the male sex, in being smaller, finer,
-and oblong instead of square, its length being generally about twice
-its breadth. The scarf does not appear to have been much worn by
-children. It was generally assumed on reaching adolescence, and was
-worn by the ephebi from about seventeen to twenty years of age, and
-hence was called χλαμὺς ἐφηβηική. It was also worn by the military,
-especially of high rank, over their body armour, and by hunters and
-travellers, more particularly on horseback. The usual mode of wearing
-the scarf was to pass one of its shorter sides round the neck, and
-to fasten it by means of a brooch (_fibula_), either over the breast
-(cut, HASTA), in which case it hung down the back, or over the
-right shoulder, so as to cover the left arm (cut, CAUSIA). In the
-following cut it is worn again in another way. The aptitude of the
-scarf to be turned in every possible form around the body, made it
-useful even for defence. The hunter used to wrap his chlamys about
-his left arm when pursuing wild animals, and preparing to fight with
-them. The annexed woodcut exhibits a figure of Neptune armed with the
-trident in his right hand, and having a chlamys to protect the left.
-When Diana goes to the chase, as she does not require her scarf for
-purposes of defence, she draws it from behind over her shoulders,
-and twists it round her waist so that the belt of her quiver passes
-across it. (See woodcut.) Among the Romans the scarf came more
-into use under the emperors. Caligula wore one enriched with gold.
-Severus, when he was in the country or on an expedition, wore a scarf
-dyed with the coccus.
-
-[Illustration: Chlamys. (Neptune from a Coin, and Diana from a Statue
-in the Vatican.)]
-
-
-CHOENIX (χοῖνιξ), a Greek measure of capacity, the size of which is
-differently given; it was probably of different sizes in the several
-states. Some writers make it equal to three cotylae (nearly 1½ pints
-English); others to four cotylae (nearly 2 pints English); others
-again make it eight cotylae (nearly 4 pints English).
-
-
-CHŎRĒGUS (χορηγός), a person who had to bear the expenses of the
-choregia (χορηγία), one of the regularly recurring state burthens
-(ἐγκύκλιοι λειτουργίαι) at Athens. The choregus was appointed by his
-tribe, though we are not informed according to what order. The same
-person might serve as choregus for two tribes at once; and after B.C.
-412 a decree was passed allowing two persons to unite and undertake a
-choregia together. The duties of the choregia consisted in providing
-the choruses for tragedies and comedies, the lyric choruses of men
-and boys, the pyrrhicists, the cyclic choruses, and the choruses of
-flute-players for the different religious festivals at Athens. When
-a poet intended to bring out a play, he had to get a chorus assigned
-him by the archon [CHORUS], who nominated a choregus to fulfil the
-requisite duties. He had first to collect his chorus, and then to
-procure a teacher (χοροδιδάσκαλος), whom he paid for instructing the
-choreutae. The chorus were generally maintained, during the period
-of their instruction, at the expense of the choregus. The choregus
-who exhibited the best musical or theatrical entertainment received
-as a prize a tripod, which he had the expense of consecrating, and
-sometimes he had also to build the monument on which it was placed.
-There was a whole street at Athens formed by the line of these
-tripod-temples, and called “The Street of the Tripods.”
-
-CHŎRUS (χορός) probably signified originally a company of dancers
-dancing in a ring. In later times, a choric performance always
-implies the singing or musical recitation of a poetical composition,
-accompanied by appropriate dancing and gesticulation, or at least
-by a measured march. In all the Dorian states, especially among the
-Spartans, choral performances were cultivated with great assiduity.
-Various causes contributed to this, as, for example, their universal
-employment in the worship of Apollo, the fact that they were not
-confined to the men, but that women also took part in them, and that
-many of the dances had a gymnastic character given them, and were
-employed as a mode of training to martial exercises. [SALTATIO.]
-Hence Doric lyric poetry became almost exclusively choral, which
-was not the case with the other great school of Greek lyric poetry,
-the Aeolian; so that the Doric dialect came to be looked upon as
-the appropriate dialect for choral compositions, and Doric forms
-were retained by the Athenians even in the choral compositions
-which were interwoven with their dramas. The instrument commonly
-used in connection with the Doric choral poetry was the cithara.
-A great impetus was given to choral poetry by its application to
-the dithyramb. This ancient Bacchanalian performance seems to have
-been a hymn sung by one or more of an irregular band of revellers,
-to the music of the flute. Arion, a contemporary of Periander, was
-the first who gave a regular choral form to the dithyramb. This
-chorus, which ordinarily consisted of fifty men or youths, danced
-in a ring round the altar of Dionysus. Hence such choruses were
-termed _cyclic_ (κύκλιοι χοροί). With the introduction of a regular
-choral character, Arion also substituted the cithara for the flute.
-It was from the dithyramb that the Attic tragedy was developed. For
-details see TRAGOEDIA. From the time of Sophocles onwards the regular
-number of the chorus in a tragedy was 15; but it is impossible to
-arrive at any definite conclusion with regard to the number of the
-chorus in the early dramas of Aeschylus. The fact that the number
-of the dithyrambic chorus was 50, and that the mythological number
-of the Oceanides and Danaides was the same, tempts one to suppose
-that the chorus in the Prometheus and the Supplices consisted of
-50. Most writers, however, agree in thinking that such a number was
-too large to have been employed. The later chorus of 15 was arranged
-in a quadrangular form (τετράγωνος). It entered the theatre by the
-passage to the right of the spectators. [THEATRUM.] Its entrance
-was termed πάροδος; its leaving the stage in the course of the play
-μετάστασις; its re-entrance ἐπιπάροδος; its exit ἄφοδος. As it
-entered in three lines, with the spectators on its left, the stage on
-its right, the middle choreutes of the left row (τρίτος ἀριστέρου)
-was the Coryphaeus or Hegemon, who in early times at least was not
-unfrequently the choregus himself. Of course the positions first
-taken up by the choreutae were only retained till they commenced
-their evolutions. To guide them in these, lines were marked upon
-the boards with which the orchestra was floored. The flute as well
-as the cithara was used as an accompaniment to the choric songs.
-The dance of the tragic chorus was called ἐμμέλεια.--The ordinary
-number of the chorus in a comedy was 24. Like the tragic chorus it
-was arranged in a quadrangular form, and entered the orchestra from
-opposite sides, according as it was supposed to come from the city
-or from the country. It consisted sometimes half of male and half of
-female choreutae. The dance of the comic chorus was the κόρδαξ. In
-the Satyric drama the chorus consisted of Satyrs: its number is quite
-uncertain. Its dance was called σίκιννις. When a poet intended to
-bring forward a play, he had to apply for a chorus (χορὸν αἰτεῖν) to
-the archons, to the king archon if the play was to be brought forward
-at the Lenaea, to the archon eponymus if at the great Dionysia.
-If the play were thought to deserve it, he received a chorus
-(χορὸν λαμβάνειν), the expenses of which were borne by a choregus.
-[CHOREGUS.] The poet then either trained (διδάσκειν) the chorus
-himself, or entrusted that business to a professed chorus trainer
-(χοροδιδάσκαλος), who usually had an assistant (ὑποδιδάσκαλος).
-For training the chorus in its evolutions there was also an
-ὀρχηστοδιδάσκαλος.
-
-
-CHOUS, or CHOEUS (χοῦς or χοεῦς), was equal to the Roman congius,
-and contained six ξέσται, or sextarii (nearly six pints English).
-It seems that there was also a smaller measure of the same name,
-containing two sextarii (nearly two pints English).
-
-
-CHRŎNOLŎGĬA (χρονολογία), chronology. The Greeks reckoned their
-years generally according to their magistrates, in the early times
-according to the years of the reign of their kings, and afterwards
-according to their annual magistrates. At Athens the year was called
-by the name of one of the nine archons, who from this circumstance
-was called ἄρχων ἐπώνυμος, or the archon par excellence; and at
-Sparta the years were called after one of the five ephors, who for
-this reason was likewise termed ἐπώνυμος. In Argos time was counted
-according to the years of the high priestess of Hera, who held her
-office for life (ἡρεσίς); and the inhabitants of Elis probably
-reckoned according to the Olympic games, which were celebrated every
-fifth year during the first full moon which followed after the summer
-solstice. Thus there was no era which was used by _all_ the Greeks in
-common for the ordinary purposes of life.--Timaeus, who flourished
-about B.C. 260, was the first historian who counted the years by
-Olympiads, each of which contained four years. The beginning of the
-Olympiads is commonly fixed in the year 3938 of the Julian period, or
-in B.C. 776. If we want to reduce any given Olympiad to years before
-Christ, _e.g._ Ol. 87, we take the number of the Olympiads actually
-elapsed, that is, 86, multiply it by 4, and deduct the number
-obtained from 776, so that the first year of the 87th Ol. will be the
-same as the year 432 B.C. If the number of Olympiads amounts to more
-than 776 years, that is, if the Olympiad falls after the birth of
-Christ, the process is the same as before, but from the sum obtained
-by multiplying the Olympiads by 4, we must deduct the number 776, and
-what remains is the number of the years after Christ. As the Olympic
-games were celebrated 293 times, we have 293 Olympic cycles, that is,
-1172 years, 776 of which fall before, and 396 after Christ.--Some
-writers also adopted the Trojan era, the fall of Troy being placed
-by Eratosthenes and those who adopted this era, in the year B.C.
-1184. After the time of Alexander the Great, several other eras were
-introduced in the kingdoms that arose out of his empire. The first
-was the Philippic era, sometimes also called the era of Alexander or
-the era of Edessa; it began on the 12th of November B.C. 324, the
-date of the accession of Philip Arrhidaeus. The second was the era of
-the Seleucidae, beginning on the 1st of October B.C. 312, the date
-of the victory of Seleucus Nicator at Gaza, and of his re-conquest
-of Babylonia. This era was used very extensively in the East. The
-Chaldaean era differed from it only by six months, beginning in the
-spring of B.C. 311. Lastly, the eras of Antioch, of which there were
-three, but the one most commonly used began in November B.C. 49.--The
-Romans during the time of the republic reckoned their years by the
-names of the consuls, which were registered in the Fasti. Along
-with this era there existed another, used only by the historians.
-It reckoned the years from the foundation of the city (_ab urbe
-condita_); but the year of the foundation of the city was a question
-of uncertainty among the Romans themselves. M. Terentius Varro placed
-it on the 21st of April in the third year of the 6th Olympiad, that
-is, B.C. 753; and this is the era most commonly used. To find out
-the year B.C. corresponding to the year A.U.C., subtract the year
-A.U.C. from 754; thus 605 A.U.C. = 149 B.C. To find out the year A.D.
-corresponding to the year A.U.C., subtract 753 from the year A.U.C.;
-thus 767 A.U.C. = 14 A.D.
-
-
-CHRȲSENDĔTA, costly dishes used by the Romans at their
-entertainments, apparently made of silver, with golden ornaments.
-
-
-CIDĂRIS. [TIARA.]
-
-
-CINCTUS GABĪNUS. [TOGA.]
-
-
-CINGŬLUM. [ZONA.]
-
-
-CĬNĔRĀRĬUS. [CALAMISTRUM.]
-
-
-CĬNĔRES. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-CĬNĬFLO. [CALAMISTRUM.]
-
-
-CIPPUS, a low column, sometimes round, but more frequently
-rectangular. Cippi were used for various purposes; the decrees of
-the senate were sometimes inscribed upon them; and with distances
-engraved upon them, they also served as mile-stones. They were,
-however, more frequently employed as sepulchral monuments. It was
-also usual to place at one corner of the burying-ground a cippus, on
-which the extent of the burying-ground was marked, towards the road
-(_in fronte_), and backwards to the fields (_in agrum_).
-
-[Illustration: Cippus, in the Vatican.]
-
-
-CIRCENSES LŪDI. [CIRCUS.]
-
-
-CIRCĬTŌRES, or CIRCŬĬTŌRES. [CASTRA.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Ground Plan of the Circus.]
-
-CIRCUS. When Tarquinius Priscus had taken the town of Apiolae from
-the Latins, he commemorated his success by an exhibition of races
-and pugilistic contests in the Murcian valley, between the Palatine
-and Aventine hills, around which a number of temporary platforms
-were erected by the patres and equites, called _spectacula_,
-_fori_, or _foruli_, from their resemblance to the deck of a ship;
-each one raising a stage for himself, upon which he stood to view
-the games. This course, with its surrounding scaffoldings, was
-termed circus; either because the spectators stood round to see
-the shows, or because the procession and races went round in a
-circuit. Previously, however, to the death of Tarquin, a permanent
-building was constructed for the purpose, with regular tiers of
-seats in the form of a theatre. To this the name of Circus Maximus
-was subsequently given, as a distinction from the Flaminian and
-other similar buildings, which it surpassed in extent and splendour;
-and hence it is often spoken of as _the_ Circus, without any
-distinguishing epithet. Of the Circus Maximus scarcely a vestige now
-remains; but this loss is fortunately supplied by the remains of a
-small circus on the Via Appia, the ground-plan of which is in a state
-of considerable preservation: it is represented in the annexed cut,
-and may be taken as a model of all others. Around the double lines
-(A, A) were arranged the seats (_gradus_, _sedilia_, _subsellia_), as
-in a theatre, termed collectively the _cavea_; the lowest of which
-were separated from the ground by a _podium_, and the whole divided
-longitudinally by _praecinctiones_, and diagonally into _cunei_, with
-their _vomitoria_ attached to each. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] Towards the
-extremity of the upper branch of the _cavea_, the general outline
-is broken by an outwork (B), which was probably the _pulvinar_, or
-station for the emperor, as it is placed in the best situation for
-seeing both the commencement and end of the course, and in the most
-prominent part of the circus. In the opposite branch is observed
-another interruption to the uniform line of seats (C), betokening
-also, from its construction, a place of distinction; which might have
-been assigned to the person at whose expense the games were given
-(_editor spectaculorum_). In the centre of the area was a low wall
-(D) running lengthways down the course, which, from its resemblance
-to the position of the dorsal bone in the human frame, was termed
-_spina_. At each extremity of the spina were placed, upon a base (E,
-E), three wooden cylinders, of a conical shape, like cypress trees,
-which were called _metae_--the goals. Their situation is distinctly
-seen in the cut on p. 89. The most remarkable objects upon the
-_spina_ were two columns (F) supporting seven conical balls, which,
-from their resemblance to eggs, were called _ova_. Their use was to
-enable the spectators to count the number of rounds which had been
-run; and they were seven in number, because seven was the number of
-the circuits made in each race. As each round was run, one of the
-_ova_ was either put up or taken down. An egg was adopted for this
-purpose, in honour of Castor and Pollux. At the other extremity of
-the spina were two similar columns (G), sustaining dolphins, termed
-_delphinae_, or _delphinarum columnae_, which do not appear to have
-been intended to be removed, but only placed there as corresponding
-ornaments to the _ova_; and the figure of the dolphin was selected in
-honour of Neptune. These figures are also seen in the cut on p. 89.
-At the extremity of the circus in which the two horns of the _cavea_
-terminate, were placed the stalls for the horses and chariots (H,
-H), commonly called _carceres_, but more anciently the whole line of
-building at this end of the circus was termed _oppidum_: hence in the
-circus, of which the plan is given above, we find two towers (I, I)
-at each end of the _carceres_. The number of _carceres_ is supposed
-to have been usually twelve, as in this plan.
-
-[Illustration: Carceres opening of the Gates. (From a marble at
-Velletri.)]
-
-[Illustration: Carceres, with Gates open. (Marble in British Museum.)]
-
-They were vaults, closed in front by gates of open wood-work
-(_cancelli_), which were opened simultaneously upon the signal
-being given, by removing a rope attached to pilasters of the kind
-called _Hermae_, placed for that purpose between each stall, upon
-which the gates were immediately thrown open by a number of men, as
-represented in the preceding woodcut. The cut below represents a set
-of four _carceres_, with their _Hermae_, and _cancelli_ open, as
-left after the chariots had started; in which the gates are made to
-open inwards. The preceding account and woodcuts will be sufficient
-to explain the meaning of the various words by which the _carceres_
-were designated in poetical language, namely, _claustra_, _crypta_,
-_fauces_, _ostia_, _fores carceris_, _repagula_, _limina equorum_.
-There were five entrances to the circus; one (L) in the centre of
-the carceres, called _porta pompae_, because it was the one through
-which the Circensian procession entered, and the others at M, M, N,
-and O. At the entrance of the course, exactly in the direction of the
-line (J, K), were two small pedestals (_hermuli_) on each side of
-the _podium_, to which was attached a chalked rope (_alba linea_),
-for the purpose of making the start fair, precisely as is practised
-at Rome for the horse-races during Carnival. Thus, when the doors
-of the _carceres_ were thrown open, if any of the horses rushed out
-before the others, they were brought up by this rope until the whole
-were fairly abreast, when it was loosened from one side, and all
-poured into the course at once. This line was also called _calx_,
-and _creta_. The _metae_ served only to regulate the turnings of
-the course, the _alba linea_ answered to the starting and winning
-post of modern days.--From this description the Circus Maximus
-differed little, except in size and magnificence of embellishment.
-The numbers which the Circus Maximus was capable of containing are
-computed at 150,000 by Dionysius, 260,000 by Pliny, and 385,000 by
-P. Victor, all of which are probably correct, but have reference
-to different periods of its history. Its length, in the time of
-Julius Caesar, was three stadia, the width one, and the depth of
-the buildings occupied half a stadium. When the Circus Maximus was
-permanently formed by Tarquinius Priscus, each of the thirty curiae
-had a particular place assigned to it; but as no provision was made
-for the plebeians in this circus, it is supposed that the Circus
-Flaminius was designed for the games of the commonalty, who in early
-times chose their tribunes there, on the Flaminian field. However,
-in the latter days of the republic, these invidious distinctions
-were lost, and all classes sat promiscuously in the circus. The
-seats were then marked off at intervals by a line or groove drawn
-across them (_linea_), so that the space included between two lines
-afforded sitting room for a certain number of spectators. Under the
-empire, however, the senators and equites were separated from the
-common people. The seat of the emperor (_pulvinar or cubiculum_)
-was most likely in the same situation in the Circus Maximus as in
-the one above described.--The Circensian games (_Ludi Circenses_)
-were first instituted by Romulus, according to the legends, when he
-wished to attract the Sabine population to Rome, for the purpose of
-furnishing his own people with wives, and were celebrated in honour
-of the god Consus, or Neptunus Equestris, from whom they were styled
-_Consuales_. But after the construction of the Circus Maximus they
-were called indiscriminately _Circenses_, _Romani_, or _Magni_. They
-embraced six kinds of games:--I. CURSUS; II. LUDUS TROJAE; III. PUGNA
-EQUESTRIS; IV. CERTAMEN GYMNICUM; V. VENATIO; VI. NAUMACHIA. The two
-last were not peculiar to the circus, but were exhibited also in
-the amphitheatre, or in buildings appropriated for them. The games
-commenced with a grand procession (_Pompa Circensis_), in which all
-those who were about to exhibit in the circus, as well as persons of
-distinction, bore a part. The statues of the gods formed the most
-conspicuous feature in the show, which were paraded upon wooden
-platforms, called _fercula_ and _thensae_. The former were borne
-upon the shoulders, as the statues of saints are carried in modern
-processions; the latter were drawn along upon wheels.--I. CURSUS,
-the races. The carriage usually employed in the circus was drawn
-by two or four horses (_bigae_, _quadrigae_). [CURRUS.] The usual
-number of chariots which started for each race was four. The drivers
-(_aurigae_, _agitatores_) were also divided into four companies, each
-distinguished by a different colour, to represent the four seasons of
-the year, and called a _factio_: thus _factio prasina_, the green,
-represented the spring; _factio russata_, red, the summer; _factio
-veneta_, azure, the autumn; and _factio alba_ or _albata_, white,
-the winter. Originally there were but two factions, _albata_ and
-_russata_, and consequently only two chariots started at each race.
-The driver stood in his car within the reins, which went round his
-back. This enabled him to throw all his weight against the horses,
-by leaning backwards; but it greatly enhanced his danger in case
-of an upset. To avoid this peril, a sort of knife or bill-hook was
-carried at the waist, for the purpose of cutting the reins in a case
-of emergency. When all was ready, the doors of the carceres were
-flung open, and the chariots were formed abreast of the _alba linea_
-by men called _moratores_ from their duty; the signal for the start
-was then given by the person who presided at the games, sometimes by
-sound of trumpet, or more usually by letting fall a napkin; whence
-the Circensian games are called _spectacula mappae_. The _alba linea_
-was then cast off, and the race commenced, the extent of which was
-seven times round the _spina_, keeping it always on the left. A
-course of seven circuits was termed _unus missus_, and twenty-five
-was the number of races run in each day, the last of which was called
-_missus aerarius_, because in early times the expense of it was
-defrayed by a collection of money (_aes_) made amongst the people.
-The victor descended from his car at the conclusion of the race, and
-ascended the _spina_, where he received his reward (_bravium_, from
-the Greek βραβεῖον), which consisted in a considerable sum of money.
-
-[Illustration: Chariot Race in the Circus. (Florentine Gem.)]
-
-The horse-racing followed the same rules as the chariots. The
-enthusiasm of the Romans for these races exceeded all bounds. Lists
-of the horses (_libella_), with their names and colours, and those
-of the drivers, were handed about, and heavy bets made upon each
-faction; and sometimes the contests between two parties broke out
-into open violence and bloody quarrels, until at last the disputes
-which originated in the circus had nearly lost the Emperor Justinian
-his crown.--II. LUDUS TROJAE, a sort of sham-fight, said to have been
-invented by Aeneas, performed by young men of rank on horseback,
-and often exhibited by the emperors.--III. PUGNA EQUESTRIS ET
-PEDESTRIS, a representation of a battle, upon which occasions a camp
-was formed in the circus.--IV. CERTAMEN GYMNICUM. See ATHLETAE, and
-the references to the articles there given.--V. [VENATIO.]--VI.
-[NAUMACHIA.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Cisium. (From monument at Igel, near Treves.)]
-
-CĬSĬUM, a light open carriage with two wheels, adapted to carry two
-persons rapidly from place to place. The cisia were quickly drawn
-by mules. Cicero mentions the case of a messenger who travelled 56
-miles in 10 hours in such vehicles, which were kept for hire at the
-stations along the great roads; a proof that the ancients considered
-six Roman miles per hour as an extraordinary speed.
-
-
-[Illustration: Cista. (From a Painting on a Vase.)]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-CISTA (κίστη). (1) A small box or chest, in which anything might
-be placed, but more particularly applied to the small boxes which
-were carried in procession in the festivals of Demeter and Dionysus.
-These boxes, which were always kept closed in the public processions,
-contained sacred things connected with the worship of these deities.
-In the representations of Dionysiac processions on ancient vases
-women carrying cistae are frequently introduced.--(2) The ballot-box,
-into which those who voted in the comitia and in the courts of
-justice cast their tabellae. It is represented in the annexed cut,
-and should not be confounded with the _situla_ or _sitella_, into
-which sortes or lots were thrown. [SITULA.]
-
-
-CISTŎPHŎRUS (κιστοφόρος), a silver coin, which is supposed to belong
-to Rhodes, and which was in general circulation in Asia Minor at the
-time of the conquest of that country by the Romans. It took its name
-from the device upon it, which was either the sacred chest (_cista_)
-of Bacchus, or more probably a flower called κιστός. Its value is
-extremely uncertain: some writers suppose it to have been worth in
-our money about 7¼_d._
-
-
-CĬTHĂRA. [LYRA.]
-
-
-CĪVIS. [CIVITAS.]
-
-
-CĪVĬTAS, citizenship. (1) GREEK (πολιτεία). Aristotle defines a
-citizen (πολίτης) to be one who is a partner in the legislative
-and judicial power (μέτοχος κρίσεως καὶ ἀρχῆς). No definition will
-equally apply to all the different states of Greece, or to any single
-state at different times; the above seems to comprehend more or less
-properly all those whom the common use of language entitled to the
-name. A state in the heroic ages was the government of a prince; the
-citizens were his subjects, and derived all their privileges, civil
-as well as religious, from their nobles and princes. The shadows
-of a council and assembly were already in existence, but their
-business was to obey. Upon the whole the notion of citizenship
-in the heroic ages only existed so far as the condition of aliens
-or of domestic slaves was its negative. The rise of a dominant
-class gradually overthrew the monarchies of ancient Greece. Of
-such a class, the chief characteristics were good birth and the
-hereditary transmission of privileges, the possession of land, and
-the performance of military service. To these characters the names
-_gamori_ (γάμοροι), _knights_ (ἱππεῖς), _eupatridae_ (εὐπατρίδαι),
-&c. severally correspond. Strictly speaking, these were the only
-citizens; yet the lower class were quite distinct from bondmen or
-slaves. It commonly happened that the nobility occupied the fortified
-towns, while the _demus_ (δῆμος) lived in the country and followed
-agricultural pursuits: whenever the latter were gathered within
-the walls, and became seamen or handicraftsmen, the difference of
-ranks was soon lost, and wealth made the only standard. The quarrels
-of the nobility among themselves, and the admixture of population
-arising from immigrations, all tended to raise the lower orders from
-their political subjection. It must be remembered, too, that the
-possession of domestic slaves, if it placed them in no new relation
-to the governing body, at any rate gave them leisure to attend to
-the higher duties of a citizen, and thus served to increase their
-political efficiency. During the convulsions which followed the
-heroic ages, naturalisation was readily granted to all who desired
-it; as the value of citizenship increased, it was, of course, more
-sparingly bestowed. The ties of hospitality descended from the prince
-to the state, and the friendly relations of the Homeric heroes
-were exchanged for the προξενίαι of a later period. In political
-intercourse, the importance of these last soon began to be felt,
-and the _Proxenus_ at Athens, in after times, obtained rights only
-inferior to actual citizenship. [HOSPITIUM.] The isopolite relation
-existed, however, on a much more extended scale. Sometimes particular
-privileges were granted: as ἐπιγαμία, the right of intermarriage;
-ἔγκτησις, the right of acquiring landed property; ἀτέλεια, immunity
-from taxation, especially ἀτέλεια μετοικίου, from the tax imposed on
-resident aliens. All these privileges were included under the general
-term ἰσοτέλεια, or ἰσοπολίτεια, and the class who obtained them were
-called ἰσοτελεῖς. They bore the same burthens with the citizens,
-and could plead in the courts or transact business with the people,
-without the intervention of a προστάτης, or patron. Respecting
-the division of the Athenian citizens into tribes, phratriae and
-demes, see the articles TRIBUS and DEMUS.--If we would picture to
-ourselves the true notion which the Greeks embodied in the word
-_polis_ (πόλις), we must lay aside all modern ideas respecting the
-nature and object of a state. With us practically, if not in theory,
-the _essential_ object of a state hardly embraces more than the
-protection of life and property. The Greeks, on the other hand, had
-the most vivid conception of the state as a whole, every part of
-which was to co-operate to some great end to which all other duties
-were considered as subordinate. Thus the aim of democracy was said to
-be liberty; wealth, of oligarchy; and education, of aristocracy. In
-all governments the endeavour was to draw the social union as close
-as possible, and it seems to have been with this view that Aristotle
-laid down a principle which answered well enough to the accidental
-circumstances of the Grecian states, that a _polis_ must be of a
-certain size. This unity of purpose was nowhere so fully carried out
-as in the government of Sparta. The design of Spartan institutions
-was evidently to unite the governing body among themselves against
-the superior numbers of the subject population. The division of
-lands, the syssitia, the education of their youth, all tended to
-this great object. [HELOTES; PERIOECI.] In legal rights all Spartans
-were equal: but there were yet several gradations, which, when once
-formed, retained their hold on the aristocratic feelings of the
-people. First, there was the dignity of the Heraclide families;
-and, connected with this, a certain pre-eminence of the Hyllean
-tribe. Another distinction was that between the _Homoioi_ (ὅμοιοι)
-and _Hypomeiones_ (ὑπομείονες), which, in later times, appears
-to have been considerable. The latter term probably comprehended
-those citizens who, from degeneracy of manners or other causes, had
-undergone some kind of civil degradation. To these the _Homoioi_
-were opposed, although it is not certain in what the precise
-difference consisted. All the Spartan citizens were included in the
-three tribes, Hylleans, Dymanes or Dymanatae, and Pamphilians, each
-of which was divided into ten obes or phratries. The citizens of
-Sparta, as of most oligarchical states, were landowners, although
-this does not seem to have been looked upon as an essential of
-citizenship.--(2) ROMAN. _Civitas_ means the whole body of _cives_,
-or members, of any given state, and the word is frequently used
-by the Roman writers to express the rights of a Roman citizen, as
-distinguished from those of other persons not Roman citizens, as
-in the phrases, _dare civitatem_, _donare civitate_, _usurpare
-civitatem_. Some members of a political community (_cives_) may have
-more political rights than others; and this was the case at Rome
-under the republic, in which we find a distinction made between
-two great classes of Roman citizens, one that had, and another
-that had not, a share in the sovereign power (_optimo jure_, _non
-optimo jure cives_). That which peculiarly distinguished the higher
-class, or the _optimo jure cives_, was the right to vote in a tribe
-(_jus suffragiorum_), and the capacity of enjoying magistracy (_jus
-honorum_). The inferior class, or the _non optimo jure cives_, did
-not possess the above rights, which the Romans called _jus publicum_,
-but they only had the _jus privatum_, which comprehended the _jus
-connubii_ and _jus commercii_, and those who had not these had no
-citizenship.--Under the empire we find the free persons who were
-within the political limits of the Roman state divided into three
-great classes. The same division probably existed in an early period
-of the Roman state, and certainly existed in the time of Cicero.
-These classes were, _Cives_, _Latini_, and _Peregrini_. _Civis_ is he
-who possesses the complete rights of a Roman citizen. _Peregrinus_
-was incapable of exercising the rights of _commercium_ and
-_connubium_, which were the characteristic rights of a Roman citizen;
-but he had a capacity for making all kinds of contracts which were
-allowable by the jus gentium. The _Latinus_ was in an intermediate
-state; he had not the _connubium_, and consequently he had not the
-_patria potestas_ nor rights of agnatio; but he had the _commercium_
-or the right of acquiring quiritarian ownership, and he had also a
-capacity for all acts incident to quiritarian ownership, as the power
-of making a will in Roman form, and of becoming heres under a will.
-The rights of a Roman citizen were acquired in several ways, but most
-commonly by a person being born of parents who were Roman citizens.
-A slave might obtain the civitas by manumission (_vindicta_), by the
-census, and by a testamentum, if there was no legal impediment; but
-it depended on circumstances whether he became a _civis Romanus_,
-a _Latinus_, or in the number of the _peregrini dediticii_.
-[MANUMISSIO.] The civitas could be conferred on a foreigner by a lex,
-as in the case of Archias, who was a civis of Heraclea, a civitas
-which had a foedus with Rome, and who claimed the civitas Romana
-under the provisions of a lex of Silvanus and Carbo, B.C. 89. By the
-provisions of this lex, the person who chose to take the benefit of
-it was required, within sixty days after the passing of the lex, to
-signify to the praetor his wish and consent to accept the civitas
-(_profiteri_). This lex was intended to give the civitas, under
-certain limitations, to foreigners who were citizens of foederate
-states (_foederatis civitatibus adscripti_). [FOEDERATAE CIVITATES.]
-Thus the great mass of the Italians obtained the civitas, and the
-privileges of the former civitates foederatae were extended to the
-provinces, first to part of Gaul, and then to Sicily, under the name
-of Jus Latii or Latinitas. This Latinitas gave a man the right of
-acquiring the Roman citizenship by having exercised a magistratus
-in his own civitas; a privilege which belonged to the foederatae
-civitates of Italy before they obtained the Roman civitas.
-
-
-CLĀRĬGĀTĬO. [FETIALES.]
-
-
-CLASSĬCUM. [CORNU.]
-
-
-CLĀVUS ANNĀLIS. In the early ages of Rome, when letters were yet
-scarcely in use, the Romans kept a reckoning of their years by
-driving a nail (_clavus_), on the ides of each September, into the
-side walls of the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, which ceremony
-was performed by the consul or a dictator.
-
-
-CLĀVUS GŬBERNĀCŬLI. [NAVIS.]
-
-
-CLĀVUS LĀTUS, CLĀVUS ANGUSTUS. The _clavus_, as an article of dress,
-seems to have been a purple band worn upon the tunic and toga, and
-was of two fashions, one broad and the other narrow, denominated
-respectively _clavus latus_ and _clavus angustus_. The former was a
-single broad band of purple, extending perpendicularly from the neck
-down the centre of the tunic; the latter probably consisted of two
-narrow purple slips, running parallel to each from the top to the
-bottom of the tunic, one from each shoulder. The _latus clavus_ was
-a distinctive badge of the senatorian order; and hence it is used to
-signify the senatorial dignity, and _laticlavius_, the person who
-enjoys it. The _angustus clavus_ was the decoration of the equestrian
-order; but the right of wearing the latus clavus was also given to
-the children of equestrians, at least in the time of Augustus, as a
-prelude to entering the senate-house. This, however, was a matter
-of personal indulgence, and was granted only to persons of very
-ancient family and corresponding wealth, and then by special favour
-of the emperor. In such cases the latus clavus was assumed with the
-toga virilis, and worn until the age arrived at which the young
-equestrian was admissible into the senate, when it was relinquished
-and the angustus clavis resumed, if a disinclination on his part, or
-any other circumstances, prevented him from entering the senate, as
-was the case with Ovid. But it seems that the latus clavus could be
-again resumed if the same individual subsequently wished to become
-a senator, and hence a fickle character is designated as one who is
-always changing his clavus. The latus clavus is said to have been
-introduced at Rome by Tullus Hostilius, and to have been adopted by
-him after his conquest of the Etruscans; nor does it appear to have
-been confined to any particular class during the earlier periods, but
-to have been worn by all ranks promiscuously. It was laid aside in
-public mourning.
-
-
-CLEPSȲDRA. [HOROLOGIUM.]
-
-
-CLĒRŪCHI (κληροῦχοι), the name of Athenian citizens who occupied
-conquered lands; their possession was called _cleruchia_ (κληρουχία).
-The Athenian Cleruchi differed from the ἄποικοι or ordinary
-colonists. The only object of the earlier colonies was to relieve
-surplus population, or to provide a home for those whom internal
-quarrels had exiled from their country. Most usually they originated
-in private enterprise, and became independent of, and lost their
-interest in, the parent state. On the other hand, it was essential
-to the very notion of a _cleruchia_ that it should be a public
-enterprise, and should always retain a connection more or less
-intimate with Athens herself. The connection with the parent state
-subsisted in all degrees. Sometimes, as in the case of Lesbos, the
-holders of land did not reside upon their estates, but let them to
-the original inhabitants, while themselves remained at Athens. The
-condition of these cleruchi did not differ from that of Athenian
-citizens who had estates in Attica. All their political rights they
-not only retained, but exercised as Athenians. Another case was where
-the cleruchi resided on their estates, and either with or without
-the old inhabitants, formed a new community. These still retained
-the rights of Athenian citizens, which distance only precluded them
-from exercising: they used the Athenian courts; and if they or their
-children wished to return to Athens, naturally and of course they
-regained the exercise of their former privileges. Sometimes, however,
-the connection might gradually dissolve, and the cleruchi sink into
-the condition of mere allies, or separate wholly from the mother
-country. It was to Pericles that Athens was chiefly indebted for the
-extension and permanence of her colonial settlements. His principal
-object was to provide for the redundancies of population, and raise
-the poorer citizens to a fortune becoming the dignity of Athenian
-citizens. It was of this class of persons that the settlers were
-chiefly composed; the state provided them with arms, and defrayed the
-expenses of their journey. The Cleruchiae were lost by the battle of
-Aegospotami, but partially restored on the revival of Athenian power.
-
-
-CLĒTĒRES or CLĒTORES (κλητῆρες, κλῆτορες), summoners, were at Athens
-not official persons, but merely witnesses to the prosecutor that he
-had served the defendant with a notice of the action brought against
-him, and the day upon which it would be requisite for him to appear
-before the proper magistrate.
-
-
-CLĪBĂNĀRĬI. [CATAPHRACTI.]
-
-
-CLĬENS is said to contain the same element as the verb _cluere_,
-to “hear” or “obey,” and may be accordingly compared with the
-German word _höriger_, “a dependant,” from _hören_, “to hear.” In
-the earliest times of the Roman state we find a class of persons
-called _clientes_, who must not be confounded with the plebeians,
-from whom they were distinct. The clients were not slaves: they had
-property of their own and freedom, and appear to have had votes in
-the comitia centuriata, but they did not possess the full rights of
-Roman citizens; and the peculiarity of their condition consisted in
-every client being in a state of dependence upon or subjection to
-some patrician, who was called his _patronus_, and to whom he owed
-certain rights and duties. The patronus, on the other hand, likewise
-incurred certain obligations towards his client. This relationship
-between patronus and cliens was expressed by the word _clientela_,
-which also expressed the whole body of a man’s clients. The relative
-rights and duties of the patrons and the clients were, according
-to Dionysius, as follows:--The patron was the legal adviser of
-the cliens; he was the client’s guardian and protector, as he was
-the guardian and protector of his own children; he maintained the
-client’s suit when he was wronged, and defended him when another
-complained of being wronged by him: in a word, the patron was the
-guardian of the client’s interests, both private and public. The
-client contributed to the marriage portion of the patron’s daughter,
-if the patron was poor; and to his ransom, or that of his children,
-if they were taken prisoners; he paid the costs and damages of a suit
-which the patron lost, and of any penalty in which he was condemned;
-he bore a part of the patron’s expenses incurred by his discharging
-public duties, or filling the honourable places in the state. Neither
-party could accuse the other, or bear testimony against the other,
-or give his vote against the other. This relationship between patron
-and client subsisted for many generations, and resembled in all
-respects the relationship by blood. The relation of a master to his
-liberated slave (_libertus_) was expressed by the word _patronus_,
-and the libertus was the cliens of his patronus. Distinguished
-Romans were also the protectors of states and cities, which were in
-a certain relation of subjection or dependence to Rome. In the time
-of Cicero we also find _patronus_ in the sense of adviser, advocate,
-or defender, opposed to _cliens_ in the sense of the person defended
-or the consultor,--a use of the word which must be referred to the
-original character of the patronus.
-
-
-CLĬENTĒLA. [CLIENS.]
-
-
-CLĬPĔUS (ἀσπίς), the large shield worn by the Greeks and Romans,
-which was originally of a circular form, and is said to have been
-first used by Proetus and Acrisius of Argos, and therefore is called
-_clipeus Argolicus_, and likened to the sun. But the clipeus is
-often represented in Roman sculpture of an oblong oval, which makes
-the distinction between the common buckler and that of Argos. The
-outer rim was termed ἄντυξ by the Greeks; and in the centre was a
-projection called ὀμφάλος or _umbo_, which served as a sort of weapon
-by itself, or caused the missiles of the enemy to glance off from the
-shield. In the Homeric times, the Greeks merely used a leather strap
-(τελαμών) to support the shield, but subsequently a handle (ὄχανον or
-ὀχάνη). The usual form of the clipeus is exhibited in the figure of
-the Greek warrior on p. 41. When the census was instituted by Servius
-Tullius at Rome, the first class only used the _clipeus_, and the
-second were armed with the _scutum_ [SCUTUM]; but after the Roman
-soldiery received pay, the _clipeus_ was discontinued altogether for
-the _scutum_.
-
-
-CLĪTELLAE, a pair of panniers, and therefore only used in the plural
-number.
-
-
-CLŎĀCA, a sewer, a drain. Rome was intersected by numerous sewers,
-some of which were of an immense size: the most celebrated of them
-was the _cloaca maxima_, the construction of which is ascribed to
-Tarquinius Priscus. It was formed by three tiers of arches, one
-within the other, the innermost of which is a semicircular vault
-of 14 feet in diameter. The manner of its construction is shown in
-the preceding cut. Under the republic, the administration of the
-sewers was entrusted to the censors: but under the empire, particular
-officers were appointed for that purpose, called _cloacarum
-curatores_, who employed condemned criminals in cleansing and
-repairing them.
-
-[Illustration: Cloaca Maxima at Rome.]
-
-
-CŌA VESTIS, the Coan robe, was a transparent dress, chiefly worn by
-women of loose reputation. It has been supposed to have been made of
-silk, because in Cos silk was spun and woven at a very early period.
-
-[Illustration: Coa Vestis. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)]
-
-
-CŎACTOR, the name of collectors of various sorts, _e.g._ the servants
-of the publicani, or farmers of the public taxes, who collected
-the revenues for them, and those who collected the money from the
-purchasers of things sold at a public auction. Horace informs us that
-his father was a coactor of this kind. Moreover, the servants of the
-money-changers were so called, from collecting their debts for them.
-The “coactores agminis” were the soldiers who brought up the rear of
-a line of march.
-
-
-CŎCHLĔA (κοχλίας), which properly means a snail, was also used to
-signify other things of a spiral form. (1) A screw, used in working
-clothes-presses, and oil and wine presses.--(2) A spiral pump for
-raising water, invented by Archimedes, from whom it has ever since
-been called the Archimedean screw.--(3) A peculiar kind of door
-through which the wild beasts passed from their dens into the arena
-of the amphitheatre.
-
-
-COCHLĔAR. (κοχλιάριον), a kind of spoon, which appears to have
-terminated with a point at one end, and at the other was broad and
-hollow like our own spoons. The pointed end was used for drawing
-snails (_cochleae_) out of their shells, and eating them, whence it
-derived its name; and the broader part for eating eggs, &c. Cochlear
-was also the name given to a small measure like our spoonful.
-
-
-CŌDEX, identical with _caudex_, as _Claudius_ and _Clodius_,
-_claustrum_ and _clostrum_, _cauda_ and _coda_, originally signified
-the trunk or stem of a tree. The name codex was especially applied
-to wooden tablets bound together and lined with a coat of wax, for
-the purpose of writing upon them, and when, at a later age, parchment
-or paper, or other materials were substituted for wood, and put
-together in the shape of a book, the name of codex was still given
-to them. In the time of Cicero we find it also applied to the tablet
-on which a bill was written. At a still later period, during the
-time of the emperors, the word was used to express any collection
-of laws or constitutions of the emperors, whether made by private
-individuals or by public authority, as the _Codex Gregorianus_,
-_Codex Theodosianus_, and _Codex Justinianeus_.
-
-
-COEMPTĬO. [MATRIMONIUM.]
-
-
-COENA (δεῖπνον), the principal meal of the Greeks and Romans,
-dinner. (1) GREEK. Three names of meals occur in the Iliad and
-Odyssey--_ariston_ (ἄριστον), _deipnon_ (δεῖπνον), _dorpon_ (δόρπον).
-The word _ariston_ uniformly means the early, as _dorpon_ does the
-late meal; but _deipnon_, on the other hand, is used for either,
-apparently without any reference to time. In the Homeric age it
-appears to have been usual to sit during mealtimes. Beef, mutton,
-and goat’s flesh were the ordinary meats, usually eaten roasted.
-Cheese, flour, and occasionally fruits, also formed part of the
-Homeric meals. Bread, brought on in baskets, and salt (ἃλς, to
-which Homer gives the epithet θεῖος), are mentioned. The Greeks
-of a later age usually partook of three meals, called _acratisma_
-(ἀκράτισμα), _ariston_, and _deipnon_. The last, which corresponds
-to the _dorpon_ of the Homeric poems, was the evening meal or
-dinner; the _ariston_ was the luncheon; and the _acratisma_, which
-answers to the _ariston_ of Homer, was the early meal or breakfast.
-The _acratisma_ was taken immediately after rising in the morning.
-It usually consisted of bread, dipped in unmixed wine (ἄκρατος),
-whence it derived its name. Next followed the _ariston_ or luncheon;
-but the time at which it was taken is uncertain. It is frequently
-mentioned in Xenophon’s Anabasis, and appears to have been taken at
-different times, as would naturally be the case with soldiers in
-active service. We may conclude from many circumstances that this
-meal was taken about the middle of the day, and that it answered
-to the Roman _prandium_. The _ariston_ was usually a simple meal,
-but of course varied according to the habits of individuals. The
-principal meal was the _deipnon_. It was usually taken rather late
-in the day, frequently not before sunset. The Athenians were a social
-people, and were very fond of dining in company. Entertainments
-were usually given, both in the heroic ages and later times, when
-sacrifices were offered to the gods, either on public or private
-occasions; and also on the anniversary of the birthdays of members
-of the family, or of illustrious persons, whether living or dead.
-When young men wished to dine together they frequently contributed
-each a certain sum of money, called _symbole_ (συμβολή), or brought
-their own provisions with them. When the first plan was adopted,
-they were said ἀπὸ συμβολῶν δειπνεῖν, and one individual was usually
-entrusted with the money to procure the provisions, and make all the
-necessary preparations. This kind of entertainment, in which each
-guest contributed to the expense, is mentioned in Homer under the
-name of ἔρανος. An entertainment in which each person brought his own
-provisions with him, or at least contributed something to the general
-stock, was called a δεῖπνον ἀπὸ σπυρίδος, because the provisions
-were brought in baskets.--The most usual kind of entertainments,
-however, were those in which a person invited his friends to his own
-house. It was expected that they should come dressed with more than
-ordinary care, and also have bathed shortly before. As soon as the
-guests arrived at the house of their host, their shoes or sandals
-were taken off by the slaves and their feet washed. After their feet
-had been washed, the guests reclined on the couches. It has already
-been remarked that Homer never describes persons as reclining, but
-always as sitting at their meals; but at what time the change was
-introduced is uncertain. The Dorians of Crete always sat; but the
-other Greeks reclined. The Greek women and children, however, like
-the Roman, continued to sit at their meals. [ACCUBATIO.] It was usual
-for only two persons to recline on each couch. After the guests had
-placed themselves on the couches, the slaves brought in water to
-wash their hands. The dinner was then served up; whence we read of
-τὰς τραπέζας εἰσφέρειν, by which expression we are to understand not
-merely the dishes, but the tables themselves, which were small enough
-to be moved with ease. In eating, the Greeks had no knives or forks,
-but made use of their fingers only, except in eating soups or other
-liquids, which they partook of by means of a spoon, called μυστίλη,
-μύστρον, or μύστρος. It would exceed the limits of this work to give
-an account of the different dishes which were introduced at a Greek
-dinner, though their number is far below those which were usually
-partaken of at a Roman entertainment. The most common food among
-the Greeks was the μάζα, a kind of frumenty or soft cake, which was
-prepared in different ways. Wheaten or barley bread was the second
-most usual species of food; it was sometimes made at home, but more
-usually bought at the market of the ἀρτοπῶλαι or ἀρτοπώλιδες. The
-vegetables ordinarily eaten were mallows (μαλάχη), lettuces (θρίδαξ),
-cabbages (ῥάφανοι), beans (κύαμοι), lentils (φακαῖ), &c. Pork was
-the most favourite animal food, as was the case among the Romans.
-It is a curious fact, which Plato has remarked, that we never read
-in Homer of the heroes partaking of fish. In later times, however,
-fish was one of the most favourite foods of the Greeks. A dinner
-given by an opulent Athenian usually consisted of two courses, called
-respectively πρῶται τράπεζαι and δεύτεραι τράπεζαι. The first course
-embraced the whole of what we consider the dinner, namely, fish,
-poultry, meat, &c.; the second, which corresponds to our dessert
-and the Roman _bellaria_, consisted of different kinds of fruit,
-sweetmeats, confections, &c. When the first course was finished, the
-tables were taken away, and water was given to the guests for the
-purpose of washing their hands. Crowns made of garlands of flowers
-were also then given to them, as well as various kinds of perfumes.
-Wine was not drunk till the first course was finished; but as soon as
-the guests had washed their hands, unmixed wine was introduced in a
-large goblet, of which each drank a little, after pouring out a small
-quantity as a libation. This libation was said to be made to the
-“good spirit” (ἀγαθοῦ δαίμονος), and was usually accompanied with the
-singing of the paean and the playing of flutes. After this libation
-mixed wine was brought in, and with their first cup the guests
-drank to Διὸς Σωτῆρος. With the libations the _deipnon_ closed; and
-at the introduction of the dessert (δεύτεραι τράπεζαι) the πότος,
-συμπόσιον or κῶμος commenced, of which an account is given under
-SYMPOSIUM.--(2) ROMAN. As the Roman meals are not always clearly
-distinguished, it will be convenient to treat of all under the most
-important one; and we shall confine ourselves to the description of
-the ordinary life of the middle ranks of society in the Augustan age,
-noticing incidentally the most remarkable deviations. The meal with
-which the Roman sometimes began the day was the _jentaculum_, which
-was chiefly taken by children, or sick persons, or the luxurious. An
-irregular meal (if we may so express it) was not likely to have any
-very regular time: two epigrams of Martial, however, seem to fix the
-hour at about three or four o’clock in the morning. Bread formed the
-substantial part of this early breakfast, to which cheese, or dried
-fruit, as dates and raisins, were sometimes added. Next followed the
-_prandium_ or luncheon, with persons of simple habits a frugal meal,
-usually taken about twelve or one o’clock. The _coena_, or principal
-meal of the day, corresponding to our “dinner,” was usually taken
-about three o’clock in the time of Cicero and Augustus, though we
-read of some persons not dining till near sunset. A Roman dinner
-at the house of a wealthy man usually consisted of three courses.
-The first was called _promulsis_, _antecoena_, or _gustatio_, and
-was made up of all sorts of stimulants to the appetite. Eggs also
-were so indispensable to the first course that they almost gave a
-name to it (_ab ovo usque ad mala_). The frugality of Martial only
-allowed of lettuce and Sicenian olives; indeed he himself tells us
-that the _promulsis_ was a refinement of modern luxury. It would far
-exceed our limits to mention all the dishes which formed the second
-course of a Roman dinner. Of birds, the Guinea hen (_Afra avis_), the
-pheasant (_phasiana_, so called from Phasis, a river of Colchis),
-and the thrush, were most in repute; the liver of a capon steeped in
-milk, and beccaficos (_ficedulae_) dressed with pepper, were held a
-delicacy. The peacock, according to Macrobius, was first introduced
-by Hortensius the orator, at an inaugural supper, and acquired such
-repute among the Roman gourmands as to be commonly sold for fifty
-denarii. Other birds are mentioned, as the duck (_anas_), especially
-its head and breast; the woodcock (_attagen_), the turtle, and
-flamingo (_phoenicopterus_), the tongue of which, Martial tells us,
-particularly commended itself to the delicate palate. Of fish, the
-variety was perhaps still greater; the charr (_scarus_), the turbot
-(_rhombus_), the sturgeon (_acipenser_), the mullet (_mullus_), were
-highly prized, and dressed in the most various fashions. Of solid
-meat, pork seems to have been the favourite dish, especially sucking
-pig. Boar’s flesh and venison were also in high repute: the former is
-described by Juvenal as _animal propter convivia natum_. Condiments
-were added to most of these dishes: such were the _muria_, a kind of
-pickle made from the tunny fish; the _garum sociorum_, made from the
-intestines of the mackerel (_scomber_), so called because brought
-from abroad; _alec_, a sort of brine; _faex_, the sediment of wine,
-&c. Several kinds of _fungi_ are mentioned, truffles (_boleti_),
-mushrooms (_tuberes_), which either made dishes by themselves, or
-formed the garniture for larger dishes. It must not be supposed that
-the _artistes_ of imperial Rome were at all behind ourselves in the
-preparation and arrangements of the table. In a large household, the
-functionaries to whom this important duty was entrusted were four,
-the butler (_promus_), the cook (_archimagirus_), the arranger of the
-dishes (_structor_), and the carver (_carptor_ or _scissor_). Carving
-was taught as an art, and performed to the sound of music, with
-appropriate gesticulations.
-
-      ----“minimo sane discrimine refert,
-      Quo vultu lepores, et quo gallina secetur.”
-
-In the supper of Petronius, a large round tray (_ferculum_,
-_repositorium_) is brought in, with the signs of the zodiac figured
-all round it, upon each of which the _artiste_ (_structor_) had
-placed some appropriate viand, a goose on Aquarius, a pair of scales
-with tarts (_scriblitae_) and cheesecakes (_placentae_) in each scale
-on Libra, &c. In the middle was placed a hive supported by delicate
-herbage. Presently four slaves come forward dancing to the sound of
-music, and take away the upper part of the dish; beneath appear all
-kinds of dressed meats; a hare with wings to imitate Pegasus, in
-the middle; and four figures of Marsyas at the corners, pouring hot
-sauce (_garum piperatum_) over the fish, that were swimming in the
-Euripus below. So entirely had the Romans lost all shame of luxury,
-since the days when Cincius, in supporting the Fannian law, charged
-his own age with the enormity of introducing the _porcus Trojanus_, a
-sort of pudding stuffed with the flesh of other animals.--The third
-course was the _bellaria_ or dessert, to which Horace alludes when
-he says of Tigellius _ab ovo usque ad mala citaret_; it consisted
-of fruits (which the Romans usually ate uncooked), such as almonds
-(_amygdalae_), dried grapes (_uvae passae_), dates (_palmulae_,
-_caryotae_, _dactyli_); of sweetmeats and confections, called _edulia
-mellita_, _dulciaria_, such as cheesecakes (_cupediae_, _crustula_,
-_liba_, _placentae_, _artolagani_), almond cakes (_coptae_),
-tarts (_scriblitae_), whence the maker of them was called _pistor
-dulciarius_, _placentarius_, _libarius_, &c. We will now suppose
-the table spread and the guests assembled, each with his _mappa_ or
-napkin, and in his dinner dress, called _coenatoria_ or _cubitoria_,
-usually of a bright colour, and variegated with flowers. First they
-took off their shoes, for fear of soiling the couch, which was often
-inlaid with ivory or tortoise-shell, and covered with cloth of gold.
-Next they lay down to eat, the head resting on the left elbow and
-supported by cushions. There were usually, but not always, three on
-the same couch, the middle place being esteemed the most honourable.
-Around the tables stood the servants (_ministri_) clothed in a tunic,
-and girt with napkins; some removed the dishes and wiped the tables
-with a rough cloth, others gave the guests water for their hands,
-or cooled the room with fans. Here stood an eastern youth behind
-his master’s couch, ready to answer the noise of the fingers, while
-others bore a large platter of different kinds of meat to the guests.
-Dinner was set out in a room called _coenatio_ or _diaeta_ (which two
-words perhaps conveyed to a Roman ear nearly the same distinction
-as our dining-room and parlour). The _coenatio_, in rich men’s
-houses, was fitted up with great magnificence. Suetonius mentions a
-supper-room in the golden palace of Nero, constructed like a theatre,
-with shifting scenes to change with every course. In the midst of
-the coenatio were set three couches (_triclinia_), answering in
-shape to the square, as the long semicircular couches (_sigmata_) did
-to the oval tables. An account of the disposition of the couches,
-and of the place which each guest occupied, is given in the article
-TRICLINIUM.
-
-[Illustration: A Feast. (Vatican Virgil MS.)]
-
-
-COENĀCŬLUM. [DOMUS.]
-
-
-COENĀTĬO. [COENA.]
-
-
-COGNĀTI, COGNĀTĬO. The _cognatio_ was the relationship of blood
-which existed between those who were sprung from a common pair;
-and all persons so related were called _cognati_. The foundation
-of _cognatio_ is a legal marriage. The term _cognatus_ (with some
-exceptions) comprehends _agnatus_; an _agnatus_ may be a _cognatus_,
-but a _cognatus_ is only an _agnatus_ when his relationship by blood
-is traced through males. Those who were of the same blood by both
-parents were sometimes called _germani_; _consanguinei_ were those
-who had a common father only; and _uterini_ those who had a common
-mother only.
-
-
-COGNĬTOR. [ACTIO.]
-
-
-COGNŌMEN. [NOMEN.]
-
-
-CŎHORS. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-CŌLĂCRĔTAE (κωλακρέται, also called κωλαγρέται), the name of very
-ancient magistrates at Athens, who had the management of all
-financial matters in the time of the kings. Cleisthenes deprived them
-of the charge of the finances, which he transferred to the Apodectae.
-[APODECTAE.] From this time the Colacretae had only to provide for
-the meals in the Prytaneium, and subsequently to pay the fees to the
-dicasts, when the practice of paying the dicasts was introduced by
-Pericles.
-
-
-COLLĒGĬUM. The persons who formed a collegium were called _collegae_
-or _sodales_. The word collegium properly expressed the notion
-of several persons being united in any office or for any common
-purpose; it afterwards came to signify a body of persons, and the
-union which bound them together. The collegium was the ἑταιρία of
-the Greeks. The legal notion of a collegium was as follows:--A
-collegium or corpus, as it was also called, must consist of three
-persons at least. Persons who legally formed such an association were
-said _corpus habere_, which is equivalent to our phrase of being
-incorporated; and in later times they were said to be _corporati_,
-and the body was called a _corporatio_. Associations of individuals,
-who were entitled to have a corpus, could hold property in common.
-Such a body, which was sometimes also called a _universitas_, was
-a legal unity. That which was due to the body, was not due to the
-individuals of it; and that which the body owed, was not the debt
-of the individuals. The common property of the body was liable
-to be seized and sold for the debts of the body. It does not
-appear how collegia were formed, except that some were specially
-established by legal authority. Other collegia were probably formed
-by voluntary associations of individuals under the provisions of
-some general legal authority, such as those of the publicani. Some
-of these corporate bodies resembled our companies or guilds; such
-were the _fabrorum_, _pistorum_, &c. _collegia_. Others were of a
-religious character; such as the _pontificum_, _augurum_, _fratrum
-arvalium collegia_. Others were bodies concerned about government and
-administration; as _tribunorum plebis_, _quaestorum_, _decurionum
-collegia_. According to the definition of a collegium, the consuls
-being only two in number were not a collegium, though each was called
-collega with respect to the other, and their union in office was
-called collegium. When a new member was taken into a collegium, he
-was said _co-optari_, and the old members were said with respect to
-him, _recipere in collegium_. The mode of filling up vacancies would
-vary in different collegia. The statement of their rules belongs to
-the several heads of AUGUR, PONTIFEX, &c.
-
-
-CŎLŌNĬA, a colony, contains the same element as the verb _colere_,
-“to cultivate,” and as the word colonus, which probably originally
-signified a “tiller of the earth.” (1) GREEK. The usual Greek words
-for a colony are ἀποικία and κληρουχία. The latter word, which
-signified a division of conquered lands among Athenian citizens,
-and which corresponds in some respects to the Roman _colonia_, is
-explained in the article CLERUCHI. The earlier Greek colonies, called
-ἀποικίαι, were usually composed of mere bands of adventurers, who
-left their native country, with their families and property, to
-seek a new home for themselves. Some of the colonies, which arose
-in consequence of foreign invasion or civil wars, were undertaken
-without any formal consent from the rest of the community; but
-usually a colony was sent out with the approbation of the mother
-country, and under the management of a leader (οἰκιστής) appointed
-by it. But whatever may have been the origin of the colony, it was
-always considered in a political point of view independent of the
-mother country, called by the Greeks _metropolis_ (μητρόπολις), the
-“mother-city,” and entirely emancipated from its control. At the
-same time, though a colony was in no political subjection to its
-parent state, it was united to it by the ties of filial affection;
-and, according to the generally received opinions of the Greeks, its
-duties to the parent state corresponded to those of a daughter to
-her mother. Hence, in all matters of common interest, the colony
-gave precedence to the mother state; and the founder of the colony
-(οἰκιστής), who might be considered as the representative of the
-parent state, was usually worshipped, after his death, as a hero.
-Also, when the colony became in its turn a parent, it usually sought
-a leader for the colony which it intended to found from the original
-mother country; and the same feeling of respect was manifested by
-embassies which were sent to honour the principal festivals of the
-parent state, and also by bestowing places of honour and other marks
-of respect upon the ambassadors and other members of the parent
-state, when they visited the colony at festivals and on similar
-occasions. The colonists also worshipped in their new settlement
-the same deities as they had been accustomed to honour in their
-native country: the sacred fire, which was constantly kept burning
-on their public hearth, was taken from the Prytaneium of the parent
-city; and sometimes the priests also were brought from the mother
-state. In the same spirit, it was considered a violation of sacred
-ties for a mother country and a colony to make war upon one another.
-The preceding account of the relations between the Greek colonies
-and the mother country is supported by the history which Thucydides
-gives us of the quarrel between Corcyra and Corinth. Corcyra was
-a colony of Corinth, and Epidamnus a colony of Corcyra; but the
-leader (οἰκιστής) of the colony of Epidamnus was a Corinthian who
-was invited from the metropolis Corinth. In course of time, in
-consequence of civil dissensions, and attacks from the neighbouring
-barbarians, the Epidamnians apply for aid to Corcyra, but their
-request is rejected. They next apply to the Corinthians, who took
-Epidamnus under their protection, thinking, says Thucydides, that the
-colony was no less theirs than the Corinthians’: and also induced to
-do so through hatred of the Corcyraeans, because they neglected them
-though they were colonists; for they did not give to the Corinthians
-the customary honours and deference in the public solemnities and
-sacrifices, which the other colonies were wont to pay to the mother
-country. The Corcyraeans, who had become very powerful by sea,
-took offence at the Corinthians receiving Epidamnus under their
-protection, and the result was a war between Corcyra and Corinth.
-The Corcyraeans sent ambassadors to Athens to ask assistance; and in
-reply to the objection that they were a colony of Corinth, they said,
-“that every colony, as long as it is treated kindly, respects the
-mother country: but when it is injured, is alienated from it; for
-colonists are not sent out as subjects, but that they may have equal
-rights with those that remain at home.” It is true that ambitious
-states, such as Athens, sometimes claimed dominion over other states
-on the ground of relationship; but as a general rule, colonies may be
-regarded as independent states, attached to their metropolis by ties
-of sympathy and common descent, but no further. The case of Potidaea,
-to which the Corinthians sent annually the chief magistrates
-(δημιουργοί), appears to have been an exception to the general
-rule.--(2) ROMAN. A kind of colonisation seems to have existed among
-the oldest Italian nations, who, on certain occasions, sent out their
-superfluous male population, with arms in their hands, to seek for a
-new home. But these were apparently mere bands of adventurers, and
-such colonies rather resembled the old Greek colonies, than those
-by which Rome extended her dominion and her name. Colonies were
-established by the Romans as far back as the annals or traditions
-of the city extend, and the practice was continued, without
-intermission, during the republic and under the empire. Colonies
-were intended to keep in check a conquered people, and also to
-repress hostile incursions; and their chief object was originally
-the extension and preservation of the Roman dominion in Italy.
-Cicero calls the old Italian colonies the _propugnacula imperii_.
-Another object was to increase the power of Rome by increasing the
-population. Sometimes the immediate object of a colony was to carry
-off a number of turbulent and discontented persons. Colonies were
-also established for the purpose of providing for veteran soldiers, a
-practice which was begun by Sulla, and continued under the emperors;
-these coloniae were called militares. The old Roman colonies were in
-the nature of garrisons planted in conquered towns, and the colonists
-had a portion of the conquered territory (usually a third part)
-assigned to them. The inhabitants retained the rest of their lands,
-and lived together with the new settlers, who alone composed the
-proper colony. The conquered people must at first have been quite
-a distinct class from, and inferior to, the colonists. No colonia
-was established without a lex, plebiscitum, or senatusconsultum;
-a fact which shows that a Roman colony was never a mere body of
-adventurers, but had a regular organisation by the parent state.
-When a law was passed for founding a colony, persons were appointed
-to superintend its formation (_coloniam deducere_). These persons
-varied in number, but three was a common number (_triumviri ad
-colonos deducendos_). We also read of _duumviri_, _quinqueviri_,
-_vigintiviri_ for the same purpose. The law fixed the quantity of
-land that was to be distributed, and how much was to be assigned to
-each person. No Roman could be sent out as a colonist without his
-free consent, and when the colony was not an inviting one, it was
-difficult to fill up the number of volunteers. The colonia proceeded
-to its place of destination in the form of an army (_sub vexillo_),
-which is indicated on the coins of some coloniae. An urbs, if one
-did not already exist, was a necessary part of a new colony, and
-its limits were marked out by a plough, which is also indicated on
-ancient coins. The colonia had also a territory, which, whether
-marked out by the plough or not, was at least marked out by metes
-and bounds. Thus the urbs and territory of the colonia respectively
-corresponded to the urbs Roma and its territory. Religious ceremonies
-always accompanied the foundation of the colony, and the anniversary
-was afterwards observed. It is stated that a colony could not be
-sent out to the same place to which a colony had already been
-sent in due form (_auspicato deducta_). This merely means, that
-so long as the colony maintained its existence, there could be no
-new colony in the same place; a doctrine that would hardly need
-proof, for a new colony implied a new assignment of lands; but new
-settlers (_novi adscripti_) might be sent to occupy colonial lands
-not already assigned. Indeed it was not unusual for a colony to
-receive additions, and a colony might be re-established, if it seemed
-necessary, from any cause. The commissioners appointed to conduct the
-colony had apparently a profitable office, and the establishment of a
-new settlement gave employment to numerous functionaries, among whom
-Cicero enumerates--_apparitores_, _scribae_, _librarii_, _praecones_,
-_architecti_. The foundation of a colony might then, in many cases,
-not only be a mere party measure, carried for the purpose of gaining
-popularity, but it would give those in power an opportunity of
-providing places for many of their friends.--The colonies founded by
-the Romans were divided into two great classes of colonies of Roman
-citizens and Latin colonies; names which had no reference to the
-persons who formed the colonies, but merely indicated their political
-rights with respect to Rome as members of the colony. The members of
-a Roman colony (_colonia civium Romanorum_) preserved all the rights
-of Roman citizens. The members of a Latin colony (_colonia Latina_)
-ceased to have the full rights of Roman citizens. Probably some of
-the old Latin colonies were established by the Romans in conjunction
-with other Latin states. After the conquest of Latium, the Romans
-established colonies, called Latin colonies, in various parts of
-Italy. Roman citizens, who chose to join such colonies, gave up their
-civic rights for the more solid advantage of a grant of land, and
-became LATINI. [CIVITAS.] Such colonies were subject to, and part of,
-the Roman state; but they did not possess the Roman franchise, and
-had no political bond among themselves.--The lex Julia, passed B.C.
-90, gave the Roman franchise to the members of the Latin colonies and
-the Socii; and such Latin colonies and states of the Socii were then
-called _municipia_, and became complete members of the Roman state.
-Thus there was then really no difference between these municipia and
-the Roman coloniae, except in their historical origin: the members of
-both were Roman citizens, and the Roman law prevailed in both.--In
-the colonies, as at Rome, the popular assembly had originally the
-sovereign power; they chose the magistrates, and could even make
-laws. When the popular assemblies became a mere form in Rome, and the
-elections were transferred by Tiberius to the senate, the same thing
-happened in the colonies, whose senates then possessed whatever power
-had once belonged to the community. The common name of this senate
-was _ordo decurionum_; in later times, simply _ordo_ and _curia_; the
-members of it were _decuriones_ or _curiales_. Thus, in the later
-ages, _curia_ is opposed to _senatus_, the former being the senate of
-a colony, and the latter the senate of Rome. But the terms senatus
-and senator were also applied to the senate and members of the
-senate of a colony. After the decline of the popular assemblies, the
-senate had the whole internal administration of a city, conjointly
-with the magistratus; but only a decurio could be a magistratus, and
-the choice was made by the decuriones. The highest magistratus of
-a colonia were the _duumviri_ or _quattuorviri_, so called, as the
-members might vary, whose functions may be compared with those of the
-consulate at Rome before the establishment of the praetorship. The
-name _duumviri_ seems to have been the most common. Their principal
-duties were the administration of justice, and accordingly we find
-on inscriptions “Duumviri J. D.” (_juri dicundo_), “Quattuorviri
-J. D.” The name consul also occurs in inscriptions to denote this
-chief magistracy; and even dictator and praetor occur under the
-empire and under the republic. The office of the duumviri lasted a
-year.--In some Italian towns there was a _praefectus juri dicundo_;
-he was in the place of, and not co-existent with, the duumviri. The
-duumviri were, as we have seen, originally chosen by the people;
-but the praefectus was appointed annually in Rome, and sent to the
-town called a _praefectura_, which might be either a municipium or a
-colonia, for it was only in the matter of the praefectus that a town
-called a praefectura differed from other Italian towns. Arpinum is
-called both a municipium and a praefectura; and Cicero, a native of
-this place, obtained the highest honours that Rome could confer.--The
-_censor_, _curator_, or _quinquennalis_, all which names denote the
-same functionary, was also a municipal magistrate, and corresponded
-to the censor at Rome, and in some cases, perhaps, to the quaestor
-also. Censors are mentioned in Livy as magistrates of the twelve
-Latin colonies. The quinquennales were sometimes duumviri, sometimes
-quattuorviri; but they are always carefully distinguished from the
-duumviri and quattuorviri J. D.; and their functions were those of
-censors. They held their office for one year, and during the four
-intermediate years the functions were not exercised. The office of
-censor or quinquennalis was higher in rank than that of the duumviri
-J. D., and it could only be filled by those who had discharged the
-other offices of the municipality.
-
-
-CŎLOSSUS (κολοσσός) is used both by the Greeks and Romans to signify
-a statue larger than life; but as such statues were very common, the
-word was more frequently applied to designate figures of gigantic
-dimensions. Such figures were first executed in Egypt, and were
-afterwards made by the Greeks and Romans. Among the colossal statues
-of Greece, the most celebrated was the bronze _colossus_ at Rhodes,
-dedicated to the sun, the height of which was about 90 feet.
-
-
-[Illustration: Colum. (Museo Borbonico, vol. viii. pl. 14.)]
-
-CŌLUM (ἠθμός), a strainer or colander, was used for straining
-wine, milk, olive-oil, and other liquids. Those that were used as
-articles of luxury for straining wine were frequently made of some
-metal, such as bronze or silver. Occasionally a piece of linen cloth
-(σάκκος, _saccus_) was placed over the τρύγοιπος or _colum_, and the
-wine (σακκίας, _saccatus_) filtered through. The use of the _saccus_
-was considered objectionable for all delicate wines, since it was
-believed to injure, if not entirely to destroy their flavour, and
-in every instance to diminish the strength of the liquor. For this
-reason it was employed by the dissipated in order that they might be
-able to swallow a greater quantity without becoming intoxicated. The
-double purpose of cooling and weakening was effectually accomplished
-by placing ice or snow in the filter, which under such circumstances
-became a _colum nivarium_, or _saccus nivarius_. The preceding
-woodcut shows the plan and profile of a silver colum.
-
-
-CŎLUMBĀRĬUM, a dovecot or pigeon-house, also signified a sepulchral
-chamber formed to receive the ashes of the lower orders, or
-dependants of great families; and in the plural, the niches in which
-the cinerary urns (_ollae_) were deposited.
-
-
-[Illustration: Ancient Columns.]
-
-CŎLUMNA (κίων, στύλος), a pillar or column. The use of the trunks
-of trees placed upright for supporting buildings, unquestionably
-led to the adoption of similar supports wrought in stone. As the
-tree required to be based upon a flat square stone, and to have
-a stone or tile of similar form fixed on its summit to preserve
-it from decay, so the column was made with a square base, and was
-covered with an _abacus_. [ABACUS.] Hence the principal parts of
-which every column consists are three, the base (_basis_), the shaft
-(_scapus_), and the capital (_capitulum_). In the Doric, which
-is the oldest style of Greek architecture, we must consider all
-the columns in the same row as having one common base (_podium_),
-whereas in the Ionic and Corinthian each column has a separate base,
-called _spira_. The capitals of these two latter orders show, on
-comparison with the Doric, a much richer style of ornament; and
-the character of lightness and elegance is further obtained in
-them by their more slender shaft, its height being much greater in
-proportion to its thickness. Of all these circumstances some idea
-may be formed by the inspection of the three accompanying specimens
-of pillars. The first on the left hand is Doric, the second Ionic,
-and the third Corinthian. In all the orders the shaft tapers from
-the bottom towards the top. The shaft was, however, made with a
-slight swelling in the middle, which was called the _entasis_. It
-was, moreover, almost universally channelled or fluted. Columns
-were used in the interior of buildings, to sustain the beams which
-supported the ceiling. Rows of columns were often employed within
-a building, to enclose a space open to the sky. Beams supporting
-ceilings passed from above the columns to the adjoining walls, so
-as to form covered passages or ambulatories (στοαί). Such a circuit
-of columns was called a _peristyle_ (περίστυλον), and the Roman
-_atrium_ was built upon this plan. The largest and most splendid
-temples enclosed an open space like an atrium, which was accomplished
-by placing one peristyle upon another. In such cases, the lower
-rows of columns being Doric, the upper were sometimes Ionic or
-Corinthian, the lighter being properly based upon the heavier. A
-temple so constructed was called _hypaethral_ (ὕπαιθρος). But it was
-on the exterior of public buildings, and especially of temples, that
-columns were displayed in the most beautiful combinations, either
-surrounding the building entirely, or arranged in porticoes on one
-or more of its fronts. [TEMPLUM.] Their original and proper use was,
-of course, to support the roof of the building; and, amidst all the
-elaborations of architectural design, this object was still kept in
-view. On the summit of the row of columns rests the _architrave_,
-i.e. _chief beam_ (ἐπιστύλιον, _epistylium_): above this is the
-_frieze_ (ζωοφόρος, ζωφόρος, _zophorus_), in which the most ancient
-order, namely the Doric, shows, in its triglyphs, what were
-originally the ends of the cross-beams: in the other orders these
-ends are generally concealed, and the frieze forms a flat surface,
-which is frequently ornamented by figures in relief, whence its Greek
-name. Above the frieze projects the cornice (κορωνίς, _coronis_ or
-_corona_), forming a handsome finish to the entablature (for so these
-three members taken together are called), and also, on the sides of
-the building, serving to unite the ends of the rafters of the roof.
-The triangular gable-end of the roof, above the entablature, is
-called the _pediment_. [FASTIGIUM.]--Columns in long rows were used
-in aquaeducts, and single pillars were fixed in harbours for mooring
-ships.--Single columns were also erected to commemorate persons or
-events. Among these, some of the most remarkable were the _columnae
-rostratae_, called by that name because three ship-beaks proceeded
-from each side of them, designed to record successful engagements at
-sea. The most important and celebrated of those which yet remain,
-is one erected in honour of the consul C. Duillius, on occasion of
-his victory over the Carthaginian fleet, B.C. 261. Columns were also
-employed to commemorate the dead. The column on the right hand in the
-last woodcut exhibits that which the senate erected to the honour of
-the Emperor Trajan. Similar columns were erected to the memory of
-many of the Roman emperors.
-
-[Illustration: Columna Rostrata. Columna Trajana.]
-
-
-CŎLUMNĀRĬUM, a tax imposed in the time of Julius Caesar upon the
-pillars that supported a house. The _Ostiarium_ was a similar tax.
-[OSTIARIUM.] The _columnarium_, levied by Metellus Scipio in Syria in
-B.C. 49-48, was a tax of a similar kind, but was simply an illegal
-means of extorting money from the provincials.
-
-
-CŎLUS, a distaff. [FUSUS.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Greek Head-dresses. (From Ancient Vases.)
-
-The left-hand figure on the top wears a κεκρύφαλος proper
-(_reticulum_). Of the two bottom figures, the one on the left-hand
-wears a μίτρα, and the one on the right a σάκκος.]
-
-CŎMA (κόμη, κουρά), the hair. (1) GREEK. In the earliest times the
-Greeks wore their hair long, and thus they are constantly called in
-Homer καρηκομόωντες Ἀχαιοί. The Spartan boys always had their hair
-cut quite short (ἐν χρῷ κείροντες); but as soon as they reached
-the age of puberty (ἔφηβοι), they let it grow long. Before going
-to battle they combed and dressed it with especial care. It seems
-that both Spartan men and women tied their hair in a knot over the
-crown of the head. The custom of the Athenians was different. They
-wore their hair long in childhood, and cut it off when they reached
-the age of puberty. The cutting off of the hair, which was always
-done when a boy became an ἔφηβος, was a solemn act, attended with
-religious ceremonies. A libation was first offered to Hercules,
-which was called οἰνιστήρια or οἰνιαστήρια, and the hair after being
-cut off was dedicated to some deity, usually a river-god. But when
-the Athenians passed into the age of manhood, they again let their
-hair grow. In ancient times at Athens the hair was rolled up into
-a kind of knot on the crown of the head, and fastened with golden
-clasps in the shape of grasshoppers. This fashion of wearing the
-hair was called κρωβύλος, and in the case of females κόρυμβος. The
-heads of females were frequently covered with a kind of band or a
-coif of net-work. Of these coiffures one was called σφενδόνη, which
-was a broad band across the forehead, sometimes made of metal, and
-sometimes of leather, adorned with gold. But the most common kind of
-head-dress for females was called by the general name of κεκρύφαλος,
-and this was divided into the three species of κεκρύφαλος, σάκκος,
-and μίτρα. The κεκρύφαλος, in its narrower sense, was a caul or coif
-of net-work, corresponding to the Latin _reticulum_. These hair-nets
-were frequently made of gold threads, sometimes of silk, or the
-Elean byssus, and probably of other materials. The σάκκος and the
-μίτρα were, on the contrary, made of close materials. The σάκκος
-covered the head entirely like a sack or bag; it was made of various
-materials, such as silk, byssus, and wool. The μίτρα was a broad band
-of cloth of different colours, which was wound round the hair, and
-was worn in various ways. It was originally an Eastern head-dress,
-and may, therefore, be compared to the modern turban. The Roman
-_calautica_ or _calvatica_ is said by Servius to have been the same
-as the _mitra_, but in a passage in the Digest they are mentioned as
-if they were distinct.--With respect to the colour of the hair, black
-was the most frequent, but _blonde_ (ξανθὴ κόμη) was the most prized.
-In Homer, Achilles, Ulysses, and other heroes are represented with
-blonde hair. At a later time it seems to have been not unfrequent
-to dye hair, so as to make it either black or blonde, and this
-was done by men as well as by women, especially when the hair was
-growing gray.--(2) ROMAN. Besides the generic _coma_ we also find
-the following words signifying the hair: _capillus_, _caesaries_,
-_crines_, _cincinnus_, and _cirrus_, the two last words being used to
-signify curled hair. In early times the Romans wore their hair long,
-and hence the Romans of the Augustan age designated their ancestors
-_intonsi_ and _capillati_. But after the introduction of barbers into
-Italy about B.C. 300, it became the practice to wear the hair short.
-The women, too, originally dressed their hair with great simplicity,
-but in the Augustan period a variety of different head-dresses came
-into fashion. Sometimes these head-dresses were raised to a great
-height by rows of false curls. So much attention did the Roman ladies
-devote to the dressing of the hair, that they kept slaves especially
-for this purpose, called _ornatrices_, and had them instructed by a
-master in the art. Most of the Greek head-dresses mentioned above
-were also worn by the Roman ladies; but the _mitrae_ appear to
-have been confined to prostitutes. One of the simplest modes of
-wearing the hair was allowing it to fall down in tresses behind, and
-only confining it by a band encircling the head. [VITTA.] Another
-favourite plan was platting the hair, and then fastening it behind
-with a large pin. Blonde hair was as much prized by the Romans as by
-the Greeks, and hence the Roman ladies used a kind of composition or
-wash to make it appear this colour (_spuma caustica_). False hair or
-wigs (φενάκη, πηνίκη, _galerus_) were worn both by Greeks and Romans.
-Among both people likewise in ancient times the hair was cut close in
-mourning [FUNUS]; and among both the slaves had their hair cut close
-as a mark of servitude.
-
-
-CŌMISSĀTĬO (derived from κῶμος), the name of a drinking
-entertainment, which took place after the coena, from which, however,
-it must be distinguished. The comissatio was frequently prolonged to
-a late hour at night, whence the verb _comissari_ means “to revel,”
-and the substantive _comissator_ a “reveller,” or “debauchee.”
-
-
-CŎMĬTĬA. This word is formed from _co_, _cum_, or _con_, and _ire_,
-and therefore _comitium_ is a place of meeting, and _comitia_ the
-meeting itself, or the assembled people. In the Roman constitution
-the comitia were the ordinary and legal meetings or assemblies of the
-people, and distinct from the _contiones_ and _concilia_. All the
-powers of government were divided at Rome between the senate, the
-magistrates, and the people in their assemblies. Properly speaking,
-the people alone (the _populus_) was the real sovereign by whom the
-power was delegated to the magistrates and the senate. The sovereign
-people or populus, however, was not the same at all times. In the
-earliest times of Rome the populus consisted of the patricians (or
-patres) only, the plebs and the clients forming no part of the
-populus, but being without the pale of the state. The original
-populus was divided into thirty _curiae_, and the assembly of these
-curiae (the _comitia curiata_) was the only assembly in which the
-populus was represented. A kind of amalgamation of the patricians
-and the plebs afterwards appeared in the comitia of the centuries,
-instituted by king Servius Tullius, and henceforth the term populus
-was applied to the united patricians and plebeians assembled in the
-_comitia centuriata_. But Servius had also made a local division
-of the whole Roman territory into thirty tribes, which held their
-meetings in assemblies called _comitia tributa_, which, in the course
-of time, acquired the character of national assemblies, so that the
-people thus assembled were likewise designated by the term populus.
-
-We shall examine in order the nature, power, and business of each of
-these different comitia. (1) COMITIA CURIATA consisted of the members
-of the thirty curiae, that is, the patricians, who formed exclusively
-the populus in the early times. They were convened, in the kingly
-period, by the king himself, or by his tribunus celerum, and in the
-king’s absence by the praefectus urbi. After the death of a king the
-comitia were held by the interrex. In the republican period, the
-president was always one of the high patrician magistrates, viz. a
-consul, praetor, or dictator. They were called together by lictors
-or heralds. The votes were given by curiae, each curia having one
-collective vote; but within a curia each citizen belonging to it
-had an independent vote, and the majority of the members of a curia
-determined the vote of the whole curia. The meeting was always held
-in the comitium. The comitia curiata did not possess much power in
-the kingly period. They could only be called together when the king
-(or his representative) chose, and could only determine upon matters
-which the king submitted to them. The main points upon which the
-populus had to decide were the election of the king, the passing of
-laws, declarations of war, the capital punishment of Roman citizens,
-and, lastly, certain affairs of the curiae and gentes. The priestly
-officers, such as the Curiones, Flamines Curiales, were likewise
-either elected by the curiae, or at least inaugurated by them. The
-right of finally deciding upon the life of Roman citizens (_judicia
-de capite civis Romani_) is said to have been given to the populus
-by king Tullus Hostilius. It must further be remarked, that when the
-king had been elected, the populus held a second meeting, in which he
-was formally inducted into his new office. This formality was called
-_lex curiata de imperio_, whereby the king received his _imperium_,
-together with the right of holding the comitia. Down to the time of
-Servius Tullius, the comitia curiata were the only popular assemblies
-of Rome, and remained of course in the undiminished possession of the
-rights above described; but the constitution of that king brought
-about a great change, by transferring the principal rights which
-had hitherto been enjoyed by the curiae to a new national assembly
-or the comitia centuriata. But while the patricians were obliged to
-share their rights with the plebeians, they reserved for themselves
-the very important right of sanctioning or rejecting any measure
-which had been passed by the centuries. The sanction of decrees
-passed by the centuries is often expressed by _patres auctores
-fiunt_, and down to the time of the Publilian law no decree of the
-centuries could become law without this sanction. By the Publilian
-law (B.C. 339) it was enacted that the curiae should give their
-assent before the vote of the comitia centuriata; so that the veto
-of the curiae was thus virtually abolished. The comitia curiata thus
-became a mere formality, and, instead of the thirty curiae themselves
-giving their votes, the ceremony was performed by thirty lictors.
-The comitia of the curiae were also called COMITIA CALATA or “the
-summoned comitia” (from _calare_, i.e. _vocare_), when summoned for
-the purposes mentioned below:--1. On the calends it was proclaimed
-to the comitia calata on what day of the new month the nones fell,
-and perhaps also the ides as well as the nature of the other days,
-namely, whether they were fasti or nefasti, comitiales, feriae,
-&c., because all these things were known in the early times to the
-pontiffs exclusively. 2. The inauguration of the flamines, and after
-the banishment of the kings, also that of the rex sacrorum. 3. The
-_testamenti factio_, or the making of a will. 4. The _detestatio
-sacrorum_, which was in all probability an act connected with the
-testamenti factio, that is, a solemn declaration, by which the heir
-was enjoined to undertake the sacra privata of the testator along
-with the reception of his property. The comitia calata were summoned
-by the college of pontiffs, who also presided in them.
-
-(2) COMITIA CENTURIATA. The object of the legislation of Servius
-Tullius was to unite the different elements of which the Roman
-people consisted, into one great political body, in which power and
-influence were to be determined by property and age. The whole people
-was conceived as an army (_exercitus_), and was therefore divided
-into two parts, the cavalry (_equites_), and infantry (_pedites_).
-The infantry was divided into five classes, or, as Dionysius has
-it, into six classes, for he regards the whole body of people,
-whose property did not come up to the census of the fifth class,
-as a sixth. The class to which a citizen belonged determined the
-_tributum_, or war tax, he had to pay, as well as the kind of service
-he had to perform in the army and the armour in which he had to
-serve. But for the purpose of voting in the comitia, each class was
-subdivided into a number of centuries (_centuriae_, probably because
-each was conceived to contain 100 men, though the centuries may have
-greatly differed in the number of men they contained). Hence the name
-of _Comitia Centuriata_. Each century was divided into the _seniores_
-and the _juniores_. Each century, further, was counted as one vote,
-so that a class had as many votes as it contained centuries. In
-like manner, the equites were divided into a number of centuries or
-votes. The two principal authorities on these subdivisions are Livy
-and Dionysius. The annexed table will show the census as well as the
-number of centuries or votes assigned to each class.
-
-        _According to Livy._                 _According to Dionysius._
-    I. Classis. Census: 100,000 asses.   I. Classis. Census: 100 minae.
-       40 centuriae seniorum.               40 centuriae seniorum.
-       40 centuriae juniorum.               40 centuriae juniorum.
-        2 centuriae fabrum.
-   II. Classis. Census: 75,000 asses.   II. Classis. Census: 75 minae.
-       10 centuriae seniorum.               10 centuriae seniorum.
-       10 centuriae juniorum.               10 centuriae juniorum.
-                                             2 centuriae fabrum (one
-                                                voting with the seniores
-                                                and the other with the
-                                                juniores).
-  III. Classis. Census: 50,000 asses.  III. Classis. Census: 50 minae.
-       10 centuriae seniorum.               10 centuriae seniorum.
-       10 centuriae juniorum.               10 centuriae juniorum.
-   IV. Classis. Census: 25,000 asses.   IV. Classis. Census: 25 minae.
-       10 centuriae seniorum.               10 centuriae seniorum.
-       10 centuriae juniorum.               10 centuriae juniorum.
-                                             2 centuriae cornicinum and
-                                                tubicinum (one voting with
-                                                the seniores, and the
-                                                other with the juniores).
-    V. Classis. Census: 11,000 asses.    V. Classis. Census: 12½ minae.
-       15 centuriae seniorum.               15 centuriae seniorum.
-       15 centuriae juniorum.               15 centuriae juniorum.
-        3 centuriae accensorum,         VI. Classis. Census: below 12½
-           cornicinum, tubicinum.           minae.
-        1 centuria capite censorum.          1 centuria capite censorum.
-
-According to both Dionysius and Livy, the equites voted in eighteen
-centuries before the seniores of the first class; and hence there
-were, according to Livy, 194, and, according to Dionysius, 193
-centuries or votes. The latter number is the more probable, since
-Livy’s even number of 194 centuries would have rendered it impossible
-to obtain an absolute majority. In this manner all Roman citizens,
-whether patricians or plebeians, who had property to a certain
-amount, were privileged to take part and vote in the centuriata
-comitia, and none were excluded except slaves, peregrini, women and
-the aerarii. The juniores were all men from the age of seventeen to
-that of forty-six, and the seniores all men from the age of forty-six
-upwards. The order of voting was arranged in such a manner, that if
-the eighteen centuries of the equites and the eighty centuries of
-the first class were agreed upon a measure, the question was decided
-at once, there being no need for calling upon the other classes to
-vote. Hence, although all Roman citizens appeared in these comitia
-on a footing of equality, yet by far the greater power was thrown
-into the hands of the wealthy.--As regards the functions of the
-comitia centuriata, they were--(a.) _The election of magistrates._
-The magistrates that were elected by the centuries are the consuls
-(whence the assembly is called _comitia consularia_), the praetors
-(hence _comitia praetoria_), the military tribunes with consular
-power, the censors, and the decemvirs. (b.) _Legislation._ The
-legislative power of the centuries at first consisted in their
-passing or rejecting a measure which was brought before them by the
-presiding magistrate in the form of a senatus consultum, so that
-the assembly had no right of originating any legislative measure,
-but voted only upon such as were brought before them as resolutions
-of the senate. (c.) _The decision upon war_, on the ground of a
-senatus consultum, likewise belonged to the centuries. Peace was
-concluded by a mere senatus consultum, and without any co-operation
-of the people. (d.) _The highest judicial power._ The comitia
-centuriata were in the first place the highest court of appeal, and
-in the second, they had to try all offences committed against the
-state; hence, all cases of _perduellio_ and _majestas_: and no case
-involving the life of a Roman citizen could be decided by any other
-court. The sanction of the curiae to the measures of the centuriae
-has been already explained.--The comitia centuriata could be held
-only on _dies comitiales_ or _fasti_, on which it was lawful to
-transact business with the people, and the number of such days in
-every year was about 190; but on _dies nefasti_ (that is, _dies
-festi_, _feriati_, comp. DIES), and, at first also on the nundinae,
-no comitia could be held, until in B.C. 287 the Hortensian law
-ordained that the nundinae should be regarded as dies fasti.--The
-place where the centuries met was the Campus Martius, which contained
-the septa for the voters, a tabernaculum for the president, and the
-villa publica for the augurs.--The president at the comitia was the
-same magistrate who convoked them, and this right was a privilege of
-the consuls, and, in their absence, of the praetors. An interrex and
-dictator also, or his representative, the magister equitum, might
-likewise convene and preside at the comitia. One of the main duties
-devolving upon the president, and which he had to perform before
-holding the comitia, was to consult the auspices (_auspicari_). When
-the auspices were favourable, the people were called together, which
-was done by three successive and distinct acts: the first was quite
-a general invitation to come to the assembly (_inlicium_). At the
-same time when this invitation was proclaimed _circum moeros_ or
-_de moeris_, a horn was blown, which being the more audible signal,
-is mentioned by some writers alone, and without the inlicium. When
-upon this signal the people assembled in irregular masses, there
-followed the second call by the accensus, or the call _ad contionem_
-or _conventionem_; that is, to a regular assembly, and the crowd
-then separated, grouping themselves according to their classes and
-ages. Hereupon the consul appeared, ordering the people to come _ad
-comitia centuriata_; and led the whole _exercitus_--for, in these
-comitia, the Roman people are always conceived as an exercitus--out
-of the city, to the Campus Martius.--It was customary from the
-earliest times for an armed force to occupy the Janiculum, when the
-people were assembled in the Campus Martius, for the purpose of
-protecting the city against any sudden attack of the neighbouring
-people; and on the Janiculum a vexillum was hoisted during the whole
-time that the assembly lasted. This custom continued to be observed
-even at the time when Rome had no longer anything to fear from the
-neighbouring tribes.--When the people were thus regularly assembled,
-the business was commenced with a solemn sacrifice, and a prayer of
-the president, who then took his seat on his tribunal. The president
-then opened the business by explaining to the people the subject
-for which they had been convened, and concluded his exposition with
-the words, _velitis, jubeatis Quirites_, e.g. _bellum indici_, or
-_ut M. Tullio aqua igni interdictum sit_, or whatever the subject
-might be. This formula was the standing one in all comitia, and the
-whole exposition of the president was called _rogatio_. When the
-comitia were assembled for the purpose of an election, the presiding
-magistrate had to read out the names of the candidates, and might
-exercise his influence by recommending the one whom he thought most
-fit for the office in question. If the assembly had been convened
-for the purpose of passing a legislative measure, the president
-usually recommended the proposal, or he might grant to others, if
-they desired it, permission to speak about the measure, either in
-its favour or against it (_Contionem dare_). When the comitia acted
-as a court of justice, the president stated the crime, proposed the
-punishment to be inflicted upon the offender, and then allowed others
-to speak either in defence of the accused or against him. When the
-subject brought before the assembly was sufficiently discussed, the
-president called upon the people to prepare for voting by the words,
-_ite in suffragium, bene juvantibus diis_. He then passed the stream
-Petronia, and went to the _septa_.--Respecting the mode of voting,
-it is commonly supposed that the people were always polled by word
-of mouth, till the passing of the leges tabellariae about the middle
-of the second century before Christ, when the ballot by means of
-tabellae was introduced. [LEGES TABELLARIAE.] It appears, however,
-that the popular assemblies voted by ballot, as well as by word of
-mouth, long before the passing of the leges tabellariae, but that
-instead of using tabellae, they employed stones or pebbles (the Greek
-ψῆφοι), and that each voter received two stones, one white and the
-other black, the former to be used in the approval and the latter in
-the condemnation of a measure. The voting by word of mouth seems to
-have been adopted in elections and trials, and the use of pebbles to
-have been confined to the enactment and repeal of laws. Previous to
-the leges tabellariae, the rogatores, who subsequently collected the
-written votes, stood at the entrance of the septa, and asked every
-citizen for his vote, which was taken down, and used to determine
-the vote of each century. After the introduction of the ballot, if
-the business was the passing of a law, each citizen was provided
-with two tabellae, one inscribed V. R. _i.e._ _Uti Rogas_, “I vote
-for the law,” the other inscribed A. _i.e._ _Antiquo_, “I am for the
-old law.” If the business was the election of a magistrate, each
-citizen was supplied with only one tablet, on which the names of the
-candidates were written, or the initials of their names; the voter
-then placed a mark (_punctum_) against the one for whom he voted,
-whence _puncta_ are spoken of in the sense of votes. For further
-particulars respecting the voting in the comitia, see DIRIBITORES
-and SITULA. In judicial assemblies every citizen was provided with
-three tabellae, one of which was marked with A. _i.e._ _Absolvo_,
-“I acquit;” the second with C. _i.e._ _Condemno_, “I condemn;” and
-the third with N. L. _i.e._ _Non Liquet_, “It is not clear to me.”
-The first of these was called _Tabella absolutoria_ and the second
-_Tabella damnatoria_, and hence Cicero calls the former _litera
-salutaris_, and the latter _litera tristis_.--There were in the
-Campus Martius septa or inclosures (whether they existed from the
-earliest times is unknown), into which one class of citizens was
-admitted after another for the purpose of voting. The first that
-entered were the eighteen centuries of the equites, then followed
-the first class and so on. It very rarely happened that the lowest
-class was called upon to vote, as there was no necessity for it,
-unless the first class did not agree with the equites. After the time
-when the comitia of the centuries became amalgamated with those of
-the tribes, a large space near the villa publica was surrounded with
-an enclosure, and divided into compartments for the several tribes.
-The whole of this enclosure was called _ovile, septa, carceres_, or
-_cancelli_; and in later times a stone building, containing the whole
-people, was erected; it was divided into compartments for the classes
-as well as the tribes and centuries; the access to these compartments
-was formed by narrow passages called _pontes_ or _ponticuli_. On
-entering, the citizens received their tablets, and when they had
-consulted within the enclosures, they passed out of them again by a
-_pons_ or _ponticulus_, at which they threw their vote into a chest
-(_cista_) which was watched by _rogatores_. Hereupon the _rogatores_
-collected the tablets, and gave them to the _diribitores_, who
-classified and counted the votes, and then handed them over to the
-_custodes_, who again checked them off by points marked on a tablet.
-The order in which the centuries voted was determined in the Servian
-constitution, in the manner described above; but after the union of
-the centuries and tribes, the order was determined by lot; and this
-was a matter of no slight importance, since it frequently happened
-that the vote of the first determined the manner in which subsequent
-ones voted. In the case of elections, the successful candidate was
-proclaimed twice, first by the praeco, and then by the president, and
-without this renuntiatio the election was not valid. After all the
-business was done, the president pronounced a prayer, and dismissed
-the assembly with the word _discedite_.--Cases are frequently
-mentioned in which the proceedings of the assembly were disturbed,
-so that it was necessary to defer the business till another day.
-This occurred--1, when it was discovered that the auspices had been
-unfavourable, or when the gods manifested their displeasure by rain,
-thunder, or lightning; 2, when a tribune interceded; 3, when the sun
-set before the business was over, for it was a principle that the
-auspices were valid only for one day from sunrise to sunset; 4, when
-a _morbus comitialis_ occurred, _i.e._ when one of the assembled
-citizens was seized with an epileptic fit; 5, when the vexillum was
-taken away from the Janiculum, this being a signal which all citizens
-had to obey; 6, when any tumult or insurrection broke out in the city.
-
-(3) COMITIA TRIBUTA. These assemblies likewise were called into
-existence by the constitution of Servius Tullius, who divided the
-Roman territory into thirty local tribes. It is a disputed question
-whether the patricians were originally included in these tribes; but,
-whether they were or not, it is certain, that by far the majority
-of the people in the tribes were plebeians, and that, consequently,
-the character of these assemblies was essentially plebeian. After
-the decemvirate, the patricians had certainly the right of voting in
-the assemblies of the tribes, which were then also convened by the
-higher magistrates. The assemblies of the tribes had originally only
-a local power; they were intended to collect the tributum, and to
-furnish the contingents for the army; they may further have discussed
-the internal affairs of each tribe, such as the making or keeping
-up of roads, wells, and the like. But their influence gradually
-increased, and they at length acquired the following powers:--1.
-_The election of the inferior magistrates_, whose office it was to
-protect the commonalty or to superintend the affairs of the tribes.
-Hence the tribunes of the plebs were elected in the comitia tributa.
-In like manner, the aediles were elected by them, though the curule
-aediles were elected at a different time from the plebeian aediles
-and under the presidency of a consul. At a still later time, the
-quaestors and tribunes of the soldiers, who had before been appointed
-by the consuls, were appointed in the assemblies of the tribes. The
-proconsuls to be sent into the provinces, and the prolongation of
-the imperium for a magistrate who was already in a province, were
-likewise points which were determined by the tribes in later times.
-The inferior magistrates elected by the tribes are:--the triumviri
-capitales, triumviri monetales, the curatores viarum, decemviri
-litibus judicandis, tribuni aerarii, magistri vicorum et pagorum,
-praefecti annonae, duumviri navales, quinqueviri muris turribusque
-reficiendis, triumviri coloniae deducendae, triumviri, quatuorviri,
-&c., mensarii, and lastly, after the Domitian law, B.C. 104, also the
-members of colleges of priests. The pontifex maximus had been elected
-by the people from an earlier time. 2. _The legislative power_ of
-the comitia tributa was at first very insignificant, for all they
-could do was to make regulations concerning the local affairs of
-the tribes. But after a time, when the tribes began to be the real
-representatives of the people, matters affecting the whole people
-also were brought before them by the tribunes, which, framed as
-resolutions, were laid before the senate, where they might either
-be sanctioned or rejected. This practice of the tributa comitia
-gradually acquired for them the right of taking the initiative in
-any measure, or the right of originating measures, until, in B.C.
-449, this right was recognised and sanctioned by a law of L. Valerius
-Publicola and M. Horatius Barbatus. This law gave to the decrees
-passed by the tribes the power of a real _lex_, binding upon the
-whole people, provided they obtained the sanction of the senate and
-the populus, that is, the people assembled in the comitia curiata or
-in the comitia centuriata. In B.C. 339, the Publilian law enacted
-_ut plebiscita omnes Quirites tenerent_. This law was either a
-re-enactment of the one passed in B.C. 449, or contained a more
-detailed specification of the cases in which plebiscita should be
-binding upon the whole nation, or, lastly, it made their validity
-independent of the sanction of other comitia, so that nothing would
-be required except the assent of the senate. In B.C. 287, the
-Hortensian law was passed, which seems to have been only a revival
-and a confirmation of the two preceding laws, for it was framed in
-almost the same terms; but it may also be, that the Hortensian law
-made the plebiscita independent of the sanction of the senate, so
-that henceforth the comitia tributa were quite independent in their
-legislative character. 3. _The judicial power_ of the comitia tributa
-was much more limited than that of the comitia centuriata, inasmuch
-as they could take cognizance only of offences against the majesty of
-the people, while all crimes committed against the state were brought
-before the centuries. Even patricians, when they had offended against
-the commonalty or its members, were tried and fined by the tribes.
-This again constitutes a difference between the judicial power of
-the centuries and that of the tribes, for the former could inflict
-capital punishment, but the latter only fines. The comitia tributa
-might assemble either within or without the city, but not farther
-from it than 1000 paces, because the power of the tribunes did not
-extend farther. For elections the Campus Martius was usually chosen,
-but sometimes also the forum, the Capitol, or the Circus Flaminius.
-The presidents were commonly the tribunes, who were supported by the
-aediles, and no matter could be brought before the tribes without
-the knowledge and consent of the tribunes. As the comitia tributa,
-however, more and more assumed the character of national assemblies,
-the higher magistrates also sometimes acted as presidents, though
-perhaps not without previously obtaining the permission of the
-tribunes. The preparations for the comitia tributa were less formal
-and solemn than for those of the centuries. In the case of elections,
-the candidates had to give in their names, and the president
-communicated them to the people. When a legislative measure was to
-be brought before the assembly, a tribune made the people acquainted
-with it in _contiones_, and that on the three preceding nundines. The
-same was the case when the people were to meet as a court of justice.
-The auspicia were not consulted for the comitia of the tribes, but
-the _spectio_ alone was sufficient, and the tribunes had the right
-of _obnuntiatio_. In the comitia the tribune who had been chosen to
-preside sat on the tribunal supported by his colleagues, and laid
-before the people the subject of the meeting, concluding with the
-words _velitis, jubeatis Quirites_. The bill was never read by the
-tribune himself, but by a praeco, and then began the debates, in
-which persons might either oppose or recommend the measure, though
-private persons had to ask the tribunes for permission to speak.
-When the discussion was over the president called upon the people
-_ite in suffragium_, as at the comitia centuriata. They then formed
-themselves into their tribes, which, like the centuries, ascertained
-their own votes in enclosures (septa). Which of the 35 tribes was
-to give its vote first, was determined by lot, and that tribe was
-called _praerogativa_ or _principium_ (the others were termed _jure
-vocatae_). The vote of the first tribe was given by some person of
-distinction whose name was mentioned in the plebiscitum, if it was
-of a legislative nature. The manner of collecting the votes was, on
-the whole, the same as in the comitia centuriata. The announcing of
-the result of the votes was the _renuntiatio_. If it so happened that
-two candidates had the same number of votes, the question was decided
-by drawing lots. The circumstances which might cause the meeting to
-break up and defer its business till another day, are the same as
-those which put an end to the comitia centuriata.
-
-(4) _The comitia centuriata mixed with the comitia tributa._--The
-Servian constitution was retained unaltered so long as no great
-change took place in the republic; but when the coinage and the
-standard of property had become altered, when the constitution of
-the army had been placed on a different footing, and, above all,
-when the plebeians began to be recognized as a great and essential
-element in the Roman state, it must have been found inconvenient to
-leave to the equites and the first class so great a preponderance in
-the comitia of the centuries, and it became necessary to secure more
-power and influence to the democratic element. A change, therefore,
-took place, and the comitia centuriata became mixed with the comitia
-tributa; but neither the time nor the exact nature of this change
-is accurately ascertained. Some refer it to the censorship of C.
-Flaminius, B.C. 220, others to that of Q. Fabius and P. Decius,
-B.C. 304. But there is evidence that it must be assigned to even an
-earlier date than this, for the (tribus) praerogativa is mentioned
-as early as B.C. 396 in the election of the consular tribunes, where
-the pure comitia tributa cannot be meant, and a centuria praerogativa
-is a thing unknown. With regard to the manner of the change, the
-most probable opinion is, that the citizens of each tribe were
-divided into five property classes, each consisting of seniores and
-juniores, so that each of the 35 tribes contained ten centuries,
-and all the tribes together 350 centuries. According to this new
-arrangement, the five ancient classes, divided into seniores and
-juniores, continued to exist as before, but henceforth they were
-most closely united with the tribes, whereas before the tribes had
-been mere local divisions and entirely independent of property. The
-union now effected was that the classes became subdivisions of the
-tribes, and that accordingly centuries occur both in the classes
-and in the tribes. Each tribe contained ten centuries, two of the
-first class (one of the seniores and one of the juniores), two of
-the second (likewise seniores and juniores), two of the third, two
-of the fourth, and two of the fifth class. The equites were likewise
-divided according to tribes and centuries, and they seem to have
-voted with the first class, and to have been in fact included in it,
-so as to be called centuries of the first class. The centuries of
-the cornicines, tubicines and fabri, which are no longer mentioned,
-probably ceased to exist as distinct centuries. The voting by tribes
-can hardly be conceived, except in those cases in which the ten
-centuries of every tribe were unanimous; this may have been the
-case very often, and when it was so, the tribus praerogativa was
-certainly the tribe chosen by lot to give its unanimous vote first.
-But if there was any difference of opinion among the centuries making
-up a tribe, the true majority could only be ascertained by choosing
-by lot one of the 70 centuriae of the first class to give its vote
-first, or rather it was decided by lot from which tribe the two
-centuries of the first class were to be taken to give their vote
-first. (Hence the plural _praerogativae_.) The tribe, moreover, to
-which those centuries belonged which voted first, was itself likewise
-called tribus praerogativa. Of the two centuries, again, that of
-seniores gave its vote before the juniores, and in the documents
-both were called by the name of their tribe, as _Galeria juniorum_,
-_i.e._ the juniores of the first class in the tribus Galeria,
-_Aniensis juniorum, Veturia juniorum_. As soon as the praerogativa
-had voted, the renuntiatio took place, and the remaining centuries
-then deliberated whether they should vote the same way or not. When
-this was done all the centuries of the first tribe proceeded to vote
-at once, for there would not have been time for the 350 centuries
-to vote one after another, as was done by the 193 centuries in
-the comitia centuriata.--These comitia of the centuries combined
-with the tribes were far more democratical than the comitia of the
-centuries; they continued to be held, and preserved their power along
-with the comitia tributa, even after the latter had acquired their
-supreme importance in the republic. During the time of the moral and
-political corruption of the Romans, the latter appear to have been
-chiefly attended by the populace, which was guided by the tribunes,
-and the wealthier and more respectable citizens had little influence
-in them. When the libertini and all the Italians were incorporated
-in the old thirty-five tribes, and when the political corruption had
-reached its height, no trace of the sedate and moderate character was
-left by which the comitia tributa had been distinguished in former
-times. Under Augustus the comitia still sanctioned new laws and
-elected magistrates, but their whole proceedings were a mere farce,
-for they could not venture to elect any other persons than those
-recommended by the emperor. Tiberius deprived the people even of this
-shadow of their former power, and conferred the power of election
-upon the senate. When the elections were made by the senate the
-result was announced to the people assembled as comitia centuriata
-or tributa. Legislation was taken away from the comitia entirely,
-and was completely in the hands of the senate and the emperor. From
-this time the comitia may be said to have ceased to exist, as all the
-sovereign power formerly possessed by the people was conferred upon
-the emperor by the lex regia. [LEX REGIA.]
-
-
-COMMĔĀTUS, a furlough, or leave of absence from the army for a
-certain time.
-
-
-COMMENTĀRĬUS or COMMENTĀRĬUM, a book of memoirs or memorandum-book,
-whence the expression _Caesaris Commentarii_. It is also used for a
-lawyer’s brief, the notes of a speech, &c.
-
-
-COMMERCĬUM. [CIVITAS (ROMAN).]
-
-
-CŌMOEDĬA (κωμῳδία), comedy. (1) GREEK. Comedy took its rise at the
-vintage festivals of Dionysus. It originated with those who led
-off the phallic songs of the band of revellers (κῶμος), who at the
-vintage festivals of Dionysus gave expression to the feelings of
-exuberant joy and merriment which were regarded as appropriate to
-the occasion, by parading about, partly on foot, partly in waggons,
-with the symbol of the productive powers of nature, singing a wild,
-jovial song in honour of Dionysus and his companions. These songs
-were commonly interspersed with, or followed by petulant, extemporal
-witticisms with which the revellers assailed the bystanders. This
-origin of comedy is indicated by the name κωμῳδία, which undoubtedly
-means “the song of the κῶμος,” though it has sometimes been derived
-from κώμη, as if the meaning were “a village song.” It was among the
-Dorians that comedy first assumed any thing of a regular shape. The
-Megarians, both in the mother country and in Sicily, claimed to be
-considered as its originators, and so far as the comedy of Athens
-is concerned, the claim of the former appears well founded. Among
-the Athenians the first attempts at comedy were made at Icaria by
-Susarion, a native of Megara, about B.C. 578. Susarion no doubt
-substituted for the more ancient improvisations of the chorus and
-its leader premeditated compositions. There would seem also to have
-been some kind of poetical contest, for we learn that the prize for
-the successful poet was a basket of figs and a jar of wine. It was
-also the practice of those who took part in the comus to smear their
-faces with wine-lees, either to prevent their features from being
-recognised, or to give themselves a more grotesque appearance. Hence
-comedy came to be called τρυγῳδία, or lee-song. Others connected
-the name with the circumstance of a jar of new wine (τρύξ) being
-the prize for the successful poet. It was, however, in Sicily, that
-comedy was earliest brought to something like perfection. Epicharmus
-was the first writer who gave it a new form, and introduced a
-regular plot. In his efforts he appears to have been associated
-with Phormis, a somewhat older contemporary. The Megarians in
-Sicily claimed the honour of the invention of comedy, on account of
-Epicharmus having lived in Megara before he went to Syracuse. In
-Attica, the first comic poet of any importance whom we hear of after
-Susarion is Chionides, who is said to have brought out plays in B.C.
-488. Euetes, Euxenides, and Myllus were probably contemporaries
-of Chionides; he was followed by Magnes and Ecphantides. Their
-compositions, however, seem to have been little but the reproduction
-of the old Megaric farce of Susarion, differing, no doubt, in
-form, by the introduction of an actor or actors, separate from the
-chorus, in imitation of the improvements that had been made in
-tragedy.--That branch of the Attic drama which was called the _Old
-Comedy_, begins properly with Cratinus, who was to comedy very much
-what Aeschylus was to tragedy. The old comedy has been described as
-the comedy of caricature, and such indeed it was, but it was also a
-great deal more. As it appeared in the hands of its great masters
-Cratinus, Hermippus, Eupolis, and especially Aristophanes, its main
-characteristic was that it was throughout _political_. Everything
-that bore upon the political or social interests of the Athenians
-furnished materials for it. The old Attic comedy lasted from Ol. 80
-to Ol. 94 (B.C. 458-404). From Cratinus to Theopompus there were
-forty-one poets, fourteen of whom preceded Aristophanes. The later
-pieces of Aristophanes belong to the Middle rather than to the Old
-Comedy. The chorus in a comedy consisted of twenty-four. [CHORUS.]
-The dance of the chorus was the κόρδαξ, the movements of which were
-capricious and licentious, consisting partly in a reeling to and
-fro, in imitation of a drunken man, and in various unseemly and
-immodest gestures. Comedies have choric songs, but no στάσιμα, or
-songs between acts. The most important of the choral parts was the
-Parabasis, when the actors having left the stage, the chorus, which
-was ordinarily divided into four rows, containing six each, and was
-turned towards the stage, turned round, and advancing towards the
-spectators delivered an address to them in the name of the poet,
-either on public topics of general interest, or on matters which
-concerned the poet personally, criticising his rivals and calling
-attention to his merits; the address having nothing whatever to
-do with the action of the play. The parabasis was not universally
-introduced: three plays of Aristophanes, the Ecclesiazusae,
-Lysistrata, and Plutus, have none. As the old Attic comedy was the
-offspring of the political and social vigour and freedom of the age
-during which it flourished, it naturally declined and ceased with the
-decline and overthrow of the freedom and vigour which were necessary
-for its development.--It was replaced by a comedy of a somewhat
-different style, which was known as the _Middle Comedy_, the age of
-which lasted from the end of the Peloponnesian war to the overthrow
-of liberty by Philip of Macedon. (Ol. 94-110.) The comedy of this
-period found its materials in satirizing classes of people instead of
-individuals, in criticising the systems and merits of philosophers
-and literary men, and in parodies of the compositions of living and
-earlier poets, and travesties of mythological subjects. It formed
-a transition from the old to the new comedy, and approximated to
-the latter in the greater attention to the construction of plots
-which seem frequently to have been founded on amorous intrigues,
-and in the absence of that wild grotesqueness which marked the
-old comedy. As regards its external form, the plays of the middle
-comedy, generally speaking, had neither parabasis nor chorus. The
-most celebrated authors of the middle comedy were Antiphanes and
-Alexis.--The _New Comedy_ was a further development of the last
-mentioned kind. It answered as nearly as may be to the modern
-comedy of manners or character. Dropping for the most part personal
-allusions, caricature, ridicule, and parody, which, in a more general
-form than in the old comedy, had maintained their ground in the
-middle comedy, the poets of the new comedy made it their business
-to reproduce in a generalized form a picture of the every-day life
-of those by whom they were surrounded. There were various standing
-characters which found a place in most plays, such as we find in the
-plays of Plautus and Terence, the _leno perjurus_, _amator fervidus_,
-_servulus callidus_, _amica illudens_, _sodalis opitulator_, _miles
-proeliator_, _parasitus edax_, _parentes tenaces_, _meretrices
-procaces_. In the new comedy there was no chorus. It flourished from
-about B.C. 340 to B.C. 260. The poets of the new comedy amounted to
-64 in number. The most distinguished was Menander.--(2) ROMAN.--The
-accounts of the early stages of comic poetry among the Romans are
-scanty. Scenic entertainments were introduced at Rome in B.C. 363
-from Etruria, where it would seem they were a familiar amusement.
-Tuscan players (_ludiones_), who were fetched from Etruria, exhibited
-a sort of pantomimic dance to the music of a flute, without any
-song accompanying their dance, and without regular dramatic
-gesticulation. The amusement became popular, and was imitated by the
-young Romans, who improved upon the original entertainment by uniting
-with it extemporaneous mutual raillery, composed in a rude irregular
-measure, a species of diversion which had been long known among the
-Romans at their agrarian festivals under the name of _Fescennina_
-[FESCENNINA]. It was 123 years after the first introduction of
-these scenic performances before the improvement was introduced of
-having a regular plot. This advance was made by Livius Andronicus,
-a native of Magna Graecia, in B.C. 240. His pieces, which were both
-tragedies and comedies, were merely adaptations of Greek dramas.
-The representation of regular plays of this sort was now left to
-those who were histriones by profession, and who were very commonly
-either foreigners or slaves; the free-born youth of Rome confined
-their own scenic performances to the older, irregular farces, which
-long maintained their ground, and were subsequently called _exodia_.
-[EXODIA; SATURA.] Livius, as was common at that time, was himself an
-actor in his own pieces. The first imitator of the dramatic works
-of Livius Andronicus was Cn. Naevius, a native of Campania. He
-composed both tragedies and comedies, which were either translations
-or imitations of those of Greek writers. The most distinguished
-successors of Naevius were Plautus, who chiefly imitated Epicharmus,
-and Terence, whose materials were drawn mostly from Menander,
-Diphilus, Philemon, and Apollodorus. The comedy of the Romans was
-throughout but an imitation of that of the Greeks, and chiefly of
-the new comedy. Where the characters were ostensibly Greek, and the
-scene laid in Athens or some other Greek town, the comedies were
-termed _palliatae_. All the comedies of Terence and Plautus belong to
-this class. When the story and characters were Roman, the plays were
-called _togatae_. But the fabulae togatae were in fact little else
-than Greek comedies clothed in a Latin dress.
-
-The togatae were divided into two classes, the _trabeatae_ and
-_tabernariae_, according as the subject was taken from high or from
-low life. In the comediae palliatae, the costume of the ordinary
-actors was the Greek pallium. The plays which bore the name of
-_praetextatae_, were not so much tragedies as historical plays. It
-is a mistake to represent them as comedies. There was a species
-of tragi-comedy, named from the poet who introduced that style
-_Rhinthonica_. A tragedy the argument of which was Greek was termed
-_crepidata_. The mimes are sometimes classed with the Latin comedies.
-[MIMUS.] The mimes differed from the comedies in little more than
-the predominance of the mimic representation over the dialogue. Latin
-comedies had no chorus, any more than the dramas of the new comedy,
-of which they were for the most part imitations. Like them, too, they
-were introduced by a prologue, which answered some of the purposes
-of the parabasis of the old comedy, so far as bespeaking the good
-will of the spectators, and defending the poet against his rivals and
-enemies. It also communicated so much information as was necessary to
-understand the story of the play. The prologue was commonly spoken
-by one of the players, or, perhaps, by the manager of the troop.
-Respecting the _Atellanae fabulae_ see that article.
-
-
-COMPĬTĀLĬA, also called LŪDI COMPĬTĀLĬCĬI, a festival celebrated
-once a year in honour of the lares compitales, to whom sacrifices
-were offered at the places where two or more ways met. In the time
-of Augustus, the ludi compitalicii had gone out of fashion, but were
-restored by him. The compitalia belonged to the _feriae conceptivae_,
-that is, festivals which were celebrated on days appointed annually
-by the magistrates or priests. The exact day on which this festival
-was celebrated appears to have varied, though it was always in the
-winter, generally at the beginning of January.
-
-
-COMPLŪVĬUM. [DOMUS.]
-
-
-CONCĬLĬUM generally has the same meaning as _conventus_ or
-_conventio_, but the technical import of concilium in the Roman
-constitution was an assembly of a _portion_ of the people as
-distinct from the general assemblies or comitia. Accordingly, as
-the comitia tributa embraced only a portion of the Roman people,
-viz. the plebeians, these comitia are often designated by the term
-_concilia plebis_. Concilium is also used by Latin writers to denote
-the assemblies or meetings of confederate towns or nations, at which
-either their deputies alone or any of the citizens met who had time
-and inclination, and thus formed a representative assembly. Such an
-assembly or diet is commonly designated as _commune concilium_, or τὸ
-κοινόν, e.g. _Achaeorum_, _Aetolorum_, _Boeotorum_, _Macedoniae_, and
-the like.
-
-
-CONFARRĔĀTĬO. [MATRIMONIUM.]
-
-
-CONGĬĀRĬUM (_scil. vas_, from _congius_), a vessel containing a
-_congius_. [CONGIUS.] In the early times of the Roman republic the
-_congius_ was the usual measure of oil or wine which was, on certain
-occasions, distributed among the people; and thus _congiarium_
-became a name for liberal donations to the people, in general,
-whether consisting of oil, wine, corn, money, or other things, while
-donations made to the soldiers were called _donativa_, though they
-were sometimes also termed _congiaria_. Many coins of the Roman
-emperors were struck in commemoration of such congiaria. _Congiarium_
-was, moreover, occasionally used simply to designate a present or a
-pension given by a person of high rank, or a prince, to his friends.
-
-[Illustration: Congiarium. (Coin of Trajan.)]
-
-
-CONGĬUS, a Roman liquid measure, which contained six sextarii, or the
-eighth part of the amphora (nearly six pints Eng.) It was equal to
-the larger _chous_ of the Greeks.
-
-
-CONNUBĬUM. [MATRIMONIUM.]
-
-
-CŌNŌPĒUM (κωνωπεῖον), a gnat or musquito-curtain, _i.e._ a covering
-made to be expanded over beds and couches to keep away gnats and
-other flying insects, so called from κώνωψ, a gnat. _Conopeum_ is the
-origin of the English word _canopy_.
-
-
-CONQUĪSĪTŌRES, persons employed to go about the country and impress
-soldiers, when there was a difficulty in completing a levy. Sometimes
-commissioners were appointed by a decree of the senate for the
-purpose of making a conquisitio.
-
-
-CONSANGUĬNĔI. [COGNATI.]
-
-
-CONSĔCRĀTĬO. [APOTHEOSIS.]
-
-
-CONSĬLĬUM. [CONVENTUS.]
-
-
-CONSUĀLĬA, a festival, with games, celebrated by the Romans,
-according to Ovid and others, in honour of Consus, the god of secret
-deliberations, or, according to Livy, of Neptunus Equestris. Some
-writers, however, say that Neptunus Equestris and Consus were only
-different names for one and the same deity. It was solemnised every
-year in the circus, by the symbolical ceremony of uncovering an altar
-dedicated to the god, which was buried in the earth. For Romulus,
-who was considered as the founder of the festival, was said to
-have discovered an altar in the earth on that spot. The solemnity
-took place on the 21st of August with horse and chariot races, and
-libations were poured into the flames which consumed the sacrifices.
-During these festive games horses and mules were not allowed to do
-any work, and were adorned with garlands of flowers. It was at their
-first celebration that, according to the ancient legend, the Sabine
-maidens were carried off.
-
-
-CONSUL (ὕπατος), the title of the two chief officers or magistrates
-of the Roman republic. The word is probably composed of _con_ and
-_sul_, which contains the same root as the verb _salio_, so that
-consules signifies “those who come together,” just as _praesul_
-means “one who goes before,” and _exsul_, “one who goes out.” The
-consulship is said to have been instituted upon the expulsion of
-the kings in B.C. 509, when the kingly power was transferred to
-two magistrates, whose office lasted only for one year, that it
-might not degenerate into tyranny by being vested longer in the
-same persons; and for the same reason two were appointed instead
-of one king, as neither could undertake anything unless it was
-sanctioned and approved by his colleague. Their original title was
-_praetores_, or commanders of the armies, but this was changed into
-that of _consules_ in B.C. 449, and the latter title remained in
-use until the latest periods of the Roman empire.--The consuls were
-at first elected from the patricians exclusively. Their office was
-suspended in B.C. 451, and its functions were performed by ten high
-commissioners (_decemviri_), appointed to frame a code of laws. On
-the re-establishment of the consulship in B.C. 449, the tribunes
-proposed that one of the consuls should be chosen from the plebeians,
-but this was strenuously resisted by the patricians, and a compromise
-effected by suspending the consular office, and creating in its stead
-military tribunes (_tribuni militum_) with consular power, who might
-be elected indifferently both from the patricians and plebeians.
-They were first appointed in B.C. 444. The plebeians, however, were
-not satisfied with this concession, and still endeavoured to attain
-the higher dignity of the consulship. At length, after a serious and
-long-protracted struggle between the two orders, it was enacted by
-the Licinian law, in B.C. 367, that henceforth the consulship should
-be divided between the patricians and plebeians, and that one of the
-consuls should always be a plebeian. Accordingly, in B.C. 366 L.
-Sextius was elected the first plebeian consul. This law, however,
-was not always observed, and it still frequently happened that both
-consuls were patricians, until, in later times, when the difference
-between the two orders had entirely ceased, and the plebeians were
-on a footing of perfect equality with the patricians, the consuls
-were elected from both orders indiscriminately.--During the later
-periods of the republic it was customary for persons to pass through
-several subordinate magistracies before they were elected consuls,
-though this rule was departed from in many particular cases. The age
-at which a person was eligible to the consulship was fixed in B.C.
-180, by the lex annalis [LEX ANNALIS], at 43.--The election of the
-consuls always took place in the comitia of the centuries, some time
-before the expiration of the official year of the actual consuls, and
-the election was conducted either by the actual consuls themselves,
-or by an interrex or a dictator, and the persons elected, until they
-entered upon their office, were called _consules designati_. While
-they were _designati_, they were in reality no more than private
-persons, but still they might exercise considerable influence upon
-public affairs, for in the senate they were asked for their opinion
-first. If they had been guilty of any illegal act, either before or
-during their election, such as bribery (_ambitus_), they were liable
-to prosecution, and the election might be declared void.--The time
-at which the old consuls laid down their office and the consules
-designati entered upon theirs, differed at different times. The
-first consuls are said to have entered upon their office in October,
-then we find mention of the 1st of August, of the ides of December,
-the 1st of July, and very frequently of the ides of March, until,
-in B.C. 153, it became an established rule for the consuls to enter
-upon their duties on the 1st of January; and this custom remained
-down to the end of the republic. On that day the senators, equites,
-and citizens of all classes conducted in a procession (_deductio_
-or _processus consularis_) the new magistrates from their residence
-to the capitol, where, if the auspices were favourable, the consuls
-offered up sacrifices, and were inaugurated. From thence the
-procession went to the curia, where the senate assembled, and where
-the consuls returned thanks for their election. There they might
-also speak on any subject that was of importance to the republic,
-such as peace and war, the distribution of provinces, the general
-condition of the state, the _feriae Latinae_, and the like. During
-the first five days of their office they had to convoke a _contio_,
-and publicly to take a solemn oath, by which, in the earliest times,
-they pledged themselves not to allow any one to assume regal power
-at Rome, but afterwards only to maintain the laws of the republic
-(_in leges jurare_). On the expiration of their office they had to
-take another oath, stating that they had faithfully obeyed the laws,
-and not done anything against the constitution. The new consuls
-on entering upon their office usually invited their friends to a
-banquet. When a consul died during his year of office, his colleague
-immediately convoked the comitia to elect a new one. A consul thus
-elected to fill a vacancy was called _consul suffectus_, but his
-powers were not equal to those of an ordinary consul, for he could
-not preside at the elections of other magistrates, not even in the
-case of the death of his colleague. In the latter case, as well as
-when the consuls were prevented by illness or other circumstances,
-the comitia were held by an interrex or a dictator.--The outward
-distinctions of the consuls were, with few exceptions, the same
-as those which had formerly belonged to the kings. The principal
-distinction was the twelve lictors with the _fasces_, who preceded
-the consuls; but the axes did not appear in the fasces within the
-city. This outward sign of their power was taken by the consuls in
-turn every month, and while one consul was preceded by the twelve
-lictors with their fasces, the other was during the same month
-preceded by an _accensus_, and followed by the lictors; and the
-one was called during that month _consul major_, and the other
-_consul minor_. Other distinctions of the consuls were the curule
-chair (_sella curulis_), and the toga with the purple hem (_toga
-praetexta_). The ivory sceptre (_scipio_ or _sceptrum_) and purple
-toga were not distinctions of the consuls in general, but only when
-they celebrated a triumph. Under the empire a consul was sometimes
-distinguished by the senate with a sceptre bearing an eagle on the
-top, but his regular ensigns consisted of the _toga picta_, the
-_trabea_, and the fasces, both within and without the city.--The
-consuls were the highest ordinary magistrates at Rome. Their power
-was at first quite equal to that of the kings, except that it was
-limited to one year, and that the office of high priest, which had
-been vested in the king, was at the very beginning detached from the
-consulship, and given to the _rex sacrorum_ or _rex sacrificulus_.
-Yet the _auspicia majora_ continued to belong to the consuls. This
-regal power of the consuls, however, was gradually curtailed by
-various laws, especially by the institution of the tribunes of the
-plebs, whose province it was to protect the plebeians against the
-unjust or oppressive commands of the patrician magistrates. Nay,
-in the course of time, whole branches of the consular power were
-detached from it; the reason for which was, that, as the patricians
-were compelled to allow the plebeians a share in the highest
-magistracy, they stripped it of as much of its original power as
-they could, and reserved these detached portions for themselves.
-In this manner the censorship was detached from the consulship in
-B.C. 443, and the praetorship in B.C. 367. But notwithstanding
-all this, the consuls remained the highest magistrates, and all
-other magistrates, except the tribunes of the plebs, were obliged
-to obey their commands, and show them great outward respect. The
-functions of the consuls during the time of the republic may be
-conveniently described under the following heads:--1. They were in
-all civil matters the heads of the state, being invested with the
-imperium, which emanated from the sovereign people, and which they
-held during the time of their office. In this capacity they had the
-right of convoking both the senate and the assembly of the people;
-they presided in each (in the comitia of the curies as well as in
-those of the centuries), and they took care that the resolutions
-of the senate and people were carried into effect. They might also
-convoke _contiones_, whenever they thought it necessary. In the
-senate they conducted the discussions, and put the questions to the
-vote, thus exercising the greatest influence upon all matters which
-were brought before the senate either by themselves or by others.
-When a decree was passed by the senate, the consuls were usually
-commissioned to see that it was carried into effect; though there are
-also instances of the consuls opposing a decree of the senate. 2.
-The supreme command of the armies belonged to the consuls alone by
-virtue of their imperium. Accordingly, when a war was decreed, they
-were ordered by a senatus consultum to levy the troops, whose number
-was determined by the senate, and they appointed most of the other
-military officers. While at the head of their armies they had full
-power of life and death over their soldiers, who, on their enrolment,
-had to take an oath (_sacramentum_) to be faithful and obedient to
-the commands of the consuls. When the consuls had entered upon their
-office, the senate assigned them their provinces, that is, their
-spheres of action, and the consuls either settled between themselves
-which province each was to have, or, which was more common, they drew
-lots. Usually one consul remained at Rome, while the other went out
-at the head of the army: sometimes both left the city, and carried
-on war in different quarters; and sometimes, when the danger was
-very pressing, both consuls commanded the armies against one and
-the same enemy. If it was deemed advisable, the imperium of one or
-of both consuls was prolonged for the particular province in which
-they were engaged, in which case they had the title of proconsuls
-[PROCONSUL], and their successors either remained at Rome, or were
-engaged in other quarters. During the latter period of the republic
-the consuls remained at Rome during the time of their office, and
-on its expiration they had a foreign province (in the real sense
-of the word) assigned to them, where they undertook either the
-peaceful administration, or carried on war against internal or
-external enemies. While in their provinces, both the consuls and
-proconsuls had the power of life and death over the provincials, for
-they were looked upon there as the chief military commanders; and
-the provincials, being _peregrini_, did not enjoy the privileges
-of Roman citizens. 3. The supreme jurisdiction was part of the
-consular imperium, and as such vested in the consuls so long as
-there were no praetors. In civil cases they administered justice
-to the patricians as well as plebeians, either acting themselves
-as _judices_, or appointing others as _judices_ and _arbitri_. In
-criminal cases there appears from early times to have been this
-difference: that patricians charged with capital offences were tried
-by the curies, while the plebeians came under the jurisdiction of
-the consuls, whose power, however, was in this case rather limited,
-partly by the intercession of the tribunes of the people, and partly
-by the right of appeal (_provocatio_) from the sentence of the
-consuls. The consuls might, further, summon any citizen before their
-tribunal, and, in case of disobedience, seize him (_prendere_),
-and fine him up to a certain amount. After the institution of the
-praetorship, the consuls no longer possessed any regular ordinary
-jurisdiction; and whenever they exercised it, it was an exception
-to the general custom, and only by a special command of the senate.
-4. Previous to the institution of the censorship the consuls had to
-perform all the functions which afterwards belonged to the censors:
-they were accordingly the highest officers of finance, held the
-census, drew up the lists of the senators, equites, &c. After the
-establishment of the censorship they still retained the general
-superintendence of the public economy, inasmuch as they had the
-keys of the _aerarium_, and as the quaestors or paymasters were
-dependent on them. But still in the management of the finances the
-consuls were at all times under the control of the senate. 5. In all
-relations with foreign states the consuls were the representatives
-of the Roman republic. Hence they might conclude peace or treaties
-with foreign nations, which had, however, to be sanctioned by the
-senate and people at Rome; and unless this sanction was obtained a
-treaty was void. They received foreign ambassadors, and introduced
-them into the senate, and in short all negotiations with foreign
-princes or nations passed through their hands. 6. In matters
-connected with their own official functions, the consuls, like all
-other magistrates, had the power of issuing proclamations or orders
-(_edicta_), which might be binding either for the occasion only, or
-remain in force permanently.--Although the consular power had been
-gradually diminished, it was in cases of imminent danger restored to
-its original and full extent, by a decree of the senate calling upon
-the consuls _videant ne quid res publica detrimenti capiat_. In such
-cases the consuls received sovereign power, but they were responsible
-for the manner in which they had exercised it.--It has already been
-observed, that to avoid collision and confusion, the two consuls did
-not possess the same power at the same time, but that each had the
-imperium every other month. The one who possessed it, as the _consul
-major_, exercised all the rights of the office, though he always
-consulted his colleague. In the earliest times it was customary for
-the elder of the two consuls to take the imperium first, afterwards
-the one who had had the greater number of votes at the election, and
-had therefore been proclaimed (_renuntiare_) first. In the time of
-Augustus it was enacted that the consul who had most children should
-take precedence of the other; and some distinction of rank continued
-to be observed down to the latest times of the empire.--Towards the
-end of the republic the consulship lost its power and importance. The
-first severe blow it received was from Julius Caesar, the dictator,
-for he received the consulship in addition to his dictatorship, or
-he arbitrarily ordered others to be elected, who were mere nominal
-officers, and were allowed to do nothing without his sanction. He
-himself was elected consul at first for five, then for ten years, and
-at last for life. Under Augustus the consulship was a mere shadow
-of what it had been: the consuls no longer held their office for a
-whole year, but usually for a few months only; and hence it happened
-that sometimes one year saw six, twelve, or even twenty-five consuls.
-Those who were elected the first in the year ranked higher than the
-rest, and their names alone were used to mark the year, according to
-the ancient custom of the Romans of marking the date of an event by
-the names of the consuls of the year in which the event occurred.
-During the last period of the empire it became the practice to have
-titular or honorary consuls, who were elected by the senate and
-confirmed by the emperor. Constantine appointed two consuls, one
-for Rome and another for Constantinople, who held their office for a
-whole year, and whose functions were only those of chief justices.
-All the other consuls were designated as _honorarii_ or _consulares_.
-But though the consulship had thus become almost an empty title, it
-was still regarded as the highest dignity in the empire, and as the
-object of the greatest ambition. It was connected with very great
-expenses, partly on account of the public games which a consul had
-to provide, and partly on account of the large donations he had to
-make to the people. The last consul at Rome was Decimus Theodorus
-Paulinus, A.D. 536, and at Constantinople, Flavius Basilius junior,
-A.D. 541.
-
-
-CONSŬLARIS, signified, under the republic, a person who had held the
-office of consul; but under the empire, it was the title of many
-magistrates and public officers, who enjoyed the insignia of consular
-dignity, without having filled the office of consul. Thus we find
-commanders of armies and governors of provinces called _Consulares_
-under the empire.
-
-
-CONTĬO, a contraction for _conventio_, that is, a meeting, or a
-_conventus_. In the technical sense, however, a contio was an
-assembly of the people at Rome convened by a magistrate for the
-purpose of making the people acquainted with measures which were
-to be brought before the next comitia, and of working upon them
-either to support or oppose the measure. But no question of any kind
-could be decided by a contio, and this constitutes the difference
-between contiones and comitia. Still contiones were also convened
-for other purposes, _e.g._ of persuading the people to take part in
-a war, or of bringing complaints against a party in the republic.
-Every magistrate had the right to convene contiones, but it was most
-frequently exercised by the consuls and tribunes, and the latter more
-especially exercised a great influence over the people in and through
-these contiones. A magistrate who was higher in rank than the one who
-had convened a contio, had the right to order the people to disperse,
-if he disapproved of the object. It should be remarked, that the term
-contio is also used to designate the speeches and harangues addressed
-to the people in an assembly, and that in a loose mode of speaking,
-contio denotes any assembly of the people.
-
-
-CONTŬBERNĀLES (σύσκηνοι), signified originally men who served in
-the same army and lived in the same tent. The word is derived from
-_taberna_ (afterwards _tabernaculum_), which was the original name
-for a military tent, as it was made of boards (_tabulae_). Each tent
-was occupied by ten soldiers (_contubernales_), with a subordinate
-officer at their head, who was called _decanus_, and in later times
-_caput contubernii_. Young Romans of illustrious families used to
-accompany a distinguished general on his expeditions, or to his
-province, for the purpose of gaining under his superintendence a
-practical training in the art of war, or in the administration of
-public affairs, and were, like soldiers living in the same tent,
-called his _contubernales_. In a still wider sense, the name
-_contubernales_ was applied to persons connected by ties of intimate
-friendship, and living under the same roof; and hence, when a freeman
-and a slave, or two slaves, who were not allowed to contract a legal
-marriage, lived together as husband and wife, they were called
-_contubernales_; and their connection, as well as their place of
-residence, _contubernium_.
-
-
-CONTŬBERNĬUM. [CONTUBERNALES.]
-
-
-CONVĔNĪRE IN MĂNUM. [MATRIMONIUM.]
-
-
-CONVENTUS, was the name applied to the whole body of Roman citizens
-who were either permanently or for a time settled in a province. In
-order to facilitate the administration of justice, a province was
-divided into a number of districts or circuits, each of which was
-called _conventus_, _forum_, or _jurisdictio_. Roman citizens living
-in a province were entirely under the jurisdiction of the proconsul;
-and at certain times of the year, fixed by the proconsul, they
-assembled in the chief town of the district, and this meeting bore
-the name of _conventus_ (σύνοδος). Hence the expressions--_conventus
-agere_, _peragere_, _convocare_, _dimittere_. At this conventus
-litigant parties applied to the proconsul, who selected a number of
-judges from the conventus to try their causes. The proconsul himself
-presided at the trials, and pronounced the sentence according to
-the views of the judges, who were his assessors (_consilium_ or
-_consiliarii_). These conventus appear to have been generally held
-after the proconsul had settled the military affairs of the province;
-at least, when Caesar was proconsul of Gaul, he made it a regular
-practice to hold the conventus after his armies had retired to their
-winter quarters.
-
-
-CONVĪVĬUM. [SYMPOSIUM.]
-
-
-CŎPHĬNUS (κόφινος, Engl. _coffin_), a large kind of wicker basket,
-made of willow branches. It would seem that it was used by the Greeks
-as a basket or cage for birds. The Romans used it for agricultural
-purposes, and it sometimes formed a kind of portable hot-bed.
-Juvenal, when speaking of the Jews, uses the expression _cophinus et
-foenum_ (a truss of hay), figuratively to designate their poverty.
-
-
-CORBIS, _dim_. CORBŬLA, CORBĬCŬLA, a basket of very peculiar form
-and common use among the Romans, both for agricultural and other
-purposes. It was made of osiers twisted together, and was of a
-conical or pyramidal shape. A basket answering precisely to this
-description, both in form and material, is still to be seen in
-every-day use among the Campanian peasantry, which is called in the
-language of the country “la corbella.”
-
-
-CORBĪTAE, merchantmen of the larger class, so called because they
-hung out a _corbis_ at the mast-head for a sign. They were also
-termed _onerariae_; and hence Plautus, in order to designate the
-voracious appetites of some women, says, “Corbitam cibi comesse
-possunt.”
-
-
-[Illustration: Cornu. (Bartholini de Tibiis.)]
-
-[Illustration: Altar of Julius Victor. (Bartoli, Pict. Ant., p. 76.)]
-
-CORNU, a wind instrument, anciently made of horn, but afterwards
-of brass. Like the _tuba_, it differed from the _tibia_ in being a
-larger and more powerful instrument, and from the _tuba_ itself, in
-being curved nearly in the shape of a C, with a cross-piece to steady
-the instrument for the convenience of the performer. Hence Ovid says
-(_Met._ i. 98):
-
-      “Non tuba _directi_, non aeris cornua _flexi_.”
-
-The _classicum_, which originally meant a signal, rather than the
-musical instrument which gave the signal, was usually sounded with
-the _cornu_.
-
-      “Sonuit reflexo classicum cornu,
-      Lituusque _adunco_ stridulos cantus
-      Elisit aere.”
-                                (Sen. _Oed._ 734.)
-
-The _Cornicines_ and _Liticines_, the persons who blew the _Cornu_
-and _Lituus_, formed a collegium. In the preceding cut, M. Julius
-Victor, a member of the Collegium, holds a lituus in his right hand,
-and touches with his left a cornu on the ground. See engraving under
-TUBA.
-
-
-[Illustration: Corona Civica, on a Coin of the Emperor Galba.
-
-SPQR OB CS = Senatus Populusque Romanus ob civem servatum.]
-
-CŎRŌNA (στέφανος), a crown, that is, a circular ornament of metal,
-leaves, or flowers, worn by the ancients round the head or neck,
-and used as a festive as well as funereal decoration, and as a
-reward of talent, military or naval prowess, and civil worth. Its
-first introduction as an honorary reward is attributable to the
-athletic games, in some of which it was bestowed as a prize upon
-the victor. It was the only reward contended for by the Spartans in
-their gymnic contests, and was worn by them when going to battle.
-The Romans refined upon the practice of the Greeks, and invented a
-great variety of crowns formed of different materials, each with a
-separate appellation, and appropriated to a particular purpose.--I.
-CORONA OBSIDIONALIS. Amongst the honorary crowns bestowed by the
-Romans for military achievements, the most difficult of attainment,
-and the one which conferred the highest honour, was the _corona
-obsidionalis_, presented by a beleaguered army after its liberation
-to the general who broke up the siege. It was made of grass, or weeds
-and wild flowers, thence called _corona graminea_, and _graminea
-obsidionalis_, gathered from the spot on which the beleaguered
-army had been enclosed.--II. CORONA CIVICA, the second in honour
-and importance, was presented to the soldier who had preserved the
-life of a Roman citizen in battle. It was made of the leaves of the
-oak. The soldier who had acquired this crown had a place reserved
-next to the senate at all the public spectacles; and they, as well
-as the rest of the company, rose up upon his entrance. He was freed
-from all public burthens, as were also his father, and his paternal
-grandfather; and the person who owed his life to him was bound, ever
-after, to cherish his preserver as a parent, and afford him all such
-offices as were due from a son to his father.--III. CORONA NAVALIS or
-ROSTRATA, called also CLASSICA. It is difficult to determine whether
-these were two distinct crowns, or only two denominations for the
-same one. It seems probable that the _navalis corona_, besides being
-a generic term, was inferior in dignity to the latter, and given to
-the sailor who first boarded an enemy’s ship; whereas the _rostrata_
-was given to a commander who destroyed the whole fleet, or gained
-any very signal victory. At all events, they were both made of gold;
-and one at least (_rostrata_) decorated with the beaks of ships like
-the _rostra_ in the forum. The Athenians likewise bestowed golden
-crowns for naval services; sometimes upon the person who got his
-trireme first equipped, and at others upon the captain who had his
-vessel in the best order.--IV. CORONA MURALIS, was presented by the
-general to the first man who scaled the wall of a besieged city. It
-was made of gold, and decorated with turrets.--V. CORONA CASTRENSIS
-or VALLARIS, was presented to the first soldier who surmounted the
-_vallum_, and forced an entrance into the enemy’s camp. This crown
-was made of gold, and ornamented with the palisades (_valli_) used
-in forming an entrenchment.--VI. CORONA TRIUMPHALIS. There were
-three sorts of triumphal crowns: the first was made of laurel or
-bay leaves, and was worn round the head of the commander during his
-triumph; the second was of gold, which, being too large and massive
-to be worn, was held over the head of the general during his triumph,
-by a public officer. This crown, as well as the former one, was
-presented to the victorious general by his army. The third kind,
-likewise of gold and of great value, was sent as a present from the
-provinces to the commander. [AURUM CORONARIUM.]--VII. CORONA OVALIS,
-was given to a commander who obtained only an ovation. It was made
-of myrtle.--VIII. CORONA OLEAGINA, was made of the olive leaf,
-and conferred upon the soldiers as well as their commanders.--The
-Greeks in general made but little use of crowns as rewards of valour
-in the earlier periods of their history, except as prizes in the
-athletic contests; but previous to the time of Alexander, crowns of
-gold were profusely distributed, amongst the Athenians at least,
-for every trifling feat, whether civil, naval, or military, which,
-though lavished without much discrimination as far as regards the
-character of the receiving parties, were still subjected to certain
-legal restrictions in respect of the time, place, and mode in which
-they were conferred. They could not be presented but in the public
-assemblies, and with the consent, that is by suffrage, of the people,
-or by the senators in their council, or by the tribes to their own
-members, or by the δημόται to members of their own δῆμος. According
-to the statement of Aeschines, the people could not lawfully present
-crowns in any place except in their assembly, nor the senators
-except in the senate-house; nor, according to the same authority,
-in the theatre, which is, however, denied by Demosthenes; nor at
-the public games, and if any crier there proclaimed the crowns he
-was subject to _atimia_. Neither could any person holding an office
-receive a crown whilst he was ὑπεύθυνος, that is, before he had
-passed his accounts.--The second class of crowns were emblematical
-and not honorary, and the adoption of them was not regulated by
-law, but custom. Of these there were also several kinds.--I. CORONA
-SACERDOTALIS, was worn by the priests (_sacerdotes_), with the
-exception of the pontifex maximus and his minister (_camillus_),
-as well as the bystanders, when officiating at the sacrifice. It
-does not appear to have been confined to any one material.--II.
-CORONA FUNEBRIS and SEPULCHRALIS. The Greeks first set the example
-of crowning the dead with chaplets of leaves and flowers, which was
-imitated by the Romans. Garlands of flowers were also placed upon
-the bier, or scattered from the windows under which the procession
-passed, or entwined about the cinerary urn, or as a decoration to
-the tomb. In Greece these crowns were commonly made of parsley.--III.
-CORONA CONVIVIALIS. The use of chaplets at festive entertainments
-sprung likewise from Greece. They were of various shrubs and flowers,
-such as roses (which were the choicest), violets, myrtle, ivy,
-_philyra_, and even parsley.--IV. CORONA NUPTIALIS. The bridal wreath
-was also of Greek origin, among whom it was made of flowers plucked
-by the bride herself, and not bought, which was of ill omen. Amongst
-the Romans it was made of _verbena_, also gathered by the bride
-herself, and worn under the _flammeum_, with which the bride was
-always enveloped. The bridegroom also wore a chaplet. The doors of
-his house were likewise decorated with garlands, and also the bridal
-couch.--V. CORONA NATALITIA, the chaplet suspended over the door of
-the vestibule, both in the houses of Athens and Rome, in which a
-child was born. At Athens, when the infant was male, the crown was
-made of olive; when female, of wool. At Rome it was of laurel, ivy,
-or parsley.
-
-[Illustration: Females with Crowns. (From an ancient Painting.)]
-
-
-CŎRŌNIS (κορωνίς), the cornice of an entablature, is properly a Greek
-word signifying anything curved. It is also used by Latin writers,
-but the genuine Latin word for a _cornice_ is _corona_ or _coronix_.
-
-
-CORTĪNA, the name of the table or hollow slab, supported by a tripod,
-upon which the priestess at Delphi sat to deliver her responses; and
-hence the word is used for the oracle itself. The Romans made tables
-of marble or bronze after the pattern of the Delphian tripod, which
-they used as we do our sideboards, for the purpose of displaying
-their plate at an entertainment. These were termed _cortinae
-Delphicae_, or _Delphicae_ simply.
-
-
-CŎRỸBANTĬCA (κορυβαντικά), a festival and mysteries celebrated at
-Cnossus in Crete, by the Corybantes. (See _Class. Dict._, CORYBANTES.)
-
-
-CŎRYMBUS (κόρυμβος). [COMA.]
-
-
-CORVUS, a sort of crane, used by C. Duilius against the Carthaginian
-fleet in the battle fought off Mylae, in Sicily (B.C. 260). The
-Romans, we are told, being unused to the sea, saw that their only
-chance of victory was by bringing a sea-fight to resemble one on
-land. For this purpose they invented a machine, of which Polybius
-has left a minute description. In the fore part of the ship a round
-pole was fixed perpendicularly, twenty-four feet in height and about
-nine inches in diameter; at the top of this was a pivot, upon which
-a ladder was set, thirty-six feet in length and four in breadth.
-The ladder was guarded by cross-beams, fastened to the upright pole
-by a ring of wood, which turned with the pivot above. Along the
-ladder a rope was passed, one end of which took hold of the _corvus_
-by means of a ring. The _corvus_ itself was a strong piece of iron,
-with a spike at the end, which was raised or lowered by drawing in
-or letting out the rope. When an enemy’s ship drew near, the machine
-was turned outwards, by means of the pivot, in the direction of the
-assailant. Another part of the machine was a breast-work, let down
-from the ladder, and serving as a bridge, on which to board the
-enemy’s vessel. By means of these cranes the Carthaginian ships were
-either broken or closely locked with the Roman, and Duilius gained a
-complete victory.
-
-
-CŌRȲTOS or CŌRȲTUS (γωρυτός, κωρυτός), [ARCUS.]
-
-
-COSMĒTAE, a class of slaves among the Romans, whose duty it was to
-dress and adorn ladies.
-
-
-COSMI (κοσμοί), the supreme magistrates in Crete, were ten in number,
-and were chosen, not from the body of the people, but from certain
-γένη or houses, which were probably of more pure Doric or Achaean
-descent than their neighbours. The first of them in rank was called
-_protocosmus_, and gave his name to the year. They commanded in war,
-and also conducted the business of the state with the representatives
-and ambassadors of other cities. Their period of office was a year;
-but any of them during that time might resign, and was also liable
-to deposition by his colleagues. In some cases, too, they might be
-indicted for neglect of their duties. On the whole, we may conclude
-that they formed the executive and chief power in most of the cities
-of Crete.
-
-
-[Illustration: Cothurnus. (From Statues of Artemis--Diana.)]
-
-CŎTHURNUS (κόθορνος), a boot. Its essential distinction was its
-height; it rose above the middle of the leg, so as to surround
-the calf, and sometimes it reached as high as the knees. It was
-worn principally by horsemen, by hunters, and by men of rank and
-authority. The sole of the cothurnus was commonly of the ordinary
-thickness; but it was sometimes made much thicker than usual,
-probably by the insertion of slices of cork. The object was, to add
-to the apparent stature of the wearer; and this was done in the case
-of the actors in Athenian tragedy, who had the soles made unusually
-thick as one of the methods adopted in order to magnify their whole
-appearance. Hence tragedy in general was called _cothurnus_. As the
-cothurnus was commonly worn in hunting, it is represented as part of
-the costume of Artemis (Diana).
-
-
-COTTĂBUS (κότταβος), a social game which was introduced from Sicily
-into Greece, where it became one of the favourite amusements of young
-people after their repasts. The simplest way in which it originally
-was played was this:--One of the company threw out of a goblet a
-certain quantity of wine, at a certain distance, into a metal basin.
-While he was doing this, he either thought of or pronounced the name
-of his mistress; and if all the wine fell in the basin, and with a
-full sound, it was a good sign for the lover. This simple amusement
-soon assumed a variety of different characters, and became, in
-some instances, a regular contest, with prizes for the victor. One
-of the most celebrated modes in which it was carried on is called
-δι’ ὀξυβάφων. A basin was filled with water, with small empty cups
-(ὀξύβαφα) swimming upon it. Into these the young men, one after
-another, threw the remnant of the wine from their goblets, and he who
-had the good fortune to drown most of the bowls obtained the prize,
-consisting either of simple cakes, sweetmeats, or sesame-cakes.
-
-
-CŎTYTTĬA (κοττύτια), a festival which was originally celebrated by
-the Edonians of Thrace, in honour of a goddess called Cotys, or
-Cotytto. It was held at night. The worship of Cotys, together with
-the festival of the Cotyttia, was adopted by several Greek states,
-chiefly those which were induced by their commercial interest to
-maintain friendly relations with Thrace. The festivals of this
-goddess were notorious among the ancients for the dissolute manner
-and the debaucheries with which they were celebrated.
-
-
-CŎTỸLA (κοτύλη), a measure of capacity among the Romans and Greeks:
-by the former it was also called _hemina_; by the latter, τρυβλίον
-and ἡμίνα or ἡμίμνα. It was the half of the sextarius or ξέστης, and
-contained 6 cyathi, or nearly half a pint English.
-
-
-CŎVĪNUS (Celtic, _kowain_), a kind of car, the spokes of which were
-armed with long sickles, and which was used as a scythe-chariot
-chiefly by the ancient Belgians and Britons. The Romans designated,
-by the name of covinus, a kind of travelling carriage, which seems
-to have been covered on all sides with the exception of the front.
-It had no seat for a driver, but was conducted by the traveller
-himself, who sat inside. The _covinarii_ (this word occurs only in
-Tacitus) seem to have constituted a regular and distinct part of a
-British army. Compare ESSEDUM.
-
-
-CRĀTER (κρατήρ, Ionic κρητήρ, from κεράννυμι, I mix), a vessel in
-which the wine, according to the custom of the ancients, who very
-seldom drank it pure, was mixed with water, and from which the cups
-were filled. Craters were among the first things on the embellishment
-of which the ancient artists exercised their skill; and the number of
-craters dedicated in temples seems everywhere to have been very great.
-
-
-CRĔPĬDA (κρηπίς), a slipper. Slippers were worn with the pallium, not
-with the toga, and were properly characteristic of the Greeks, though
-adopted from them by the Romans.
-
-
-CRĪMEN. Though this word occurs so frequently, it is not easy to fix
-its meaning. _Crimen_ is often equivalent to _accusatio_ (κατηγορία);
-but it frequently means an act which is legally punishable. Those
-delicta which were punishable according to special leges, senatus
-consulta, and constitutiones, and were prosecuted in judicia publica
-by an accusatio publica, were more especially called crimina; and
-the penalties in case of conviction were loss of life, of freedom,
-of civitas, and the consequent infamia, and sometimes pecuniary
-penalties also.
-
-
-CRISTA. [GALEA.]
-
-
-CRĬTES (κριτής), a judge, was the name applied by the Greeks to any
-person who did not judge of a thing like a δικαστής, according to
-positive laws, but according to his own sense of justice and equity.
-But at Athens a number of κριταί was chosen by ballot from a number
-of selected candidates at every celebration of the Dionysia: they
-were called οἱ κριταί, κατ’ ἐξοχήν. Their office was to judge of the
-merit of the different choruses and dramatic poems, and to award the
-prizes to the victors. Their number was five for comedy and the same
-number for tragedy, one being taken from every tribe.
-
-
-CRŌBỸLUS. [COMA.]
-
-
-CRŎCŌTA (sc. _vestis_, κροκωτὸν sc. ἱμάτιον, or κροκωτὸς sc. χιτών),
-was a kind of gala-dress, chiefly worn by women on solemn occasions,
-and in Greece especially, at the festival of the Dionysia. Its name
-was derived from _crocus_, one of the favourite colours of the Greek
-ladies.
-
-
-CRŎTĂLUM. [CYMBALUM.]
-
-
-CRUSTA. [CAELATURA.]
-
-
-CRUX (σταυρός, σκόλοψ), an instrument of capital punishment, used by
-several ancient nations, especially the Romans and Carthaginians.
-Crucifixion was of two kinds, the less usual sort being rather
-impalement than what we should describe by the word crucifixion, as
-the criminal was transfixed by a pole, which passed through the back
-and spine and came out at the mouth. The cross was of several kinds;
-one in the shape of an X, called _crux Andreana_, because tradition
-reports St. Andrew to have suffered upon it; another was formed like
-a T. The third, and most common sort, was made of two pieces of wood
-crossed, so as to make four right angles. It was on this, according
-to the unanimous testimony of the fathers, that our Saviour suffered.
-The punishment, as is well known, was chiefly inflicted on slaves,
-and the worst kind of malefactors. The criminal, after sentence
-pronounced, carried his cross to the place of execution; a custom
-mentioned in the Gospels. Scourging appears to have formed a part
-of this, as of other capital punishments among the Romans; but the
-scourging of our Saviour is not to be regarded in this light, for
-it was inflicted before sentence was pronounced. The criminal was
-next stripped of his clothes and nailed or bound to the cross. The
-latter was the more painful method, as the sufferer was left to die
-of hunger. Instances are recorded of persons who survived nine days.
-It was usual to leave the body on the cross after death. The breaking
-of the legs of the thieves, mentioned in the Gospels, was accidental;
-because, by the Jewish law, it is expressly remarked, the bodies
-could not remain on the cross during the Sabbath-day.
-
-
-CRYPTA (from κρύπτειν, to conceal), a crypt. Amongst the Romans,
-any long narrow vault, whether wholly or partially below the level
-of the earth, is expressed by this term. The specific senses of the
-word are:--(1) A covered portico or arcade; called more definitely
-_crypto-porticus_, because it was not supported by open columns like
-the ordinary portico, but closed at the sides, with windows only for
-the admission of light and air.--(2) A grotto, particularly one open
-at both extremities, forming what in modern language is denominated a
-“tunnel.” A subterranean vault used for any secret worship was also
-called _crypta_.--(3) When the practice of consuming the body by fire
-was relinquished [FUNUS], and a number of bodies was consigned to one
-place of burial, as the catacombs for instance, this common tomb was
-called _crypta_.
-
-
-CRYPTEIA (κρυπτεία), the name of an atrocious practice at Sparta,
-said to have been introduced by Lycurgus. The following is the
-description given of the crypteia. The ephors, at intervals, selected
-from among the young Spartans, those who appeared to be best
-qualified for the task, and sent them in various directions all over
-the country, provided with daggers and their necessary food. During
-the day-time, these young men concealed themselves; but at night they
-broke forth into the high-roads, and massacred those of the helots
-whom they met, or whom they thought proper.
-
-
-CŬBĬCŬLĀRĬI, slaves who had the care of the sleeping and dwelling
-rooms. Faithful slaves were always selected for this office, as they
-had, to a certain extent, the care of their master’s person. It was
-the duty of the cubicularii to introduce visitors to their master.
-
-
-CŬBĬCŬLUM usually means a sleeping and dwelling room in a Roman house
-[DOMUS], but it is also applied to the pavilion or tent in which
-the Roman emperors were accustomed to witness the public games. It
-appears to have been so called, because the emperors were accustomed
-to recline in the cubicula, instead of sitting, as was anciently the
-practice, in a sella curulis.
-
-
-CŬBĬTUS (πῆχυς), a Greek and Roman measure of length, originally
-the length of the human arm from the elbow to the wrist, or to the
-knuckle of the middle finger. It was equal to a foot and a half,
-which gives 1 foot 5·4744 inches Eng. for the Roman, and 1 foot
-6·2016 inches for the Greek cubit.
-
-
-CŬCULLUS, a cowl. As the cowl was intended to be used in the open
-air, and to be drawn over the head to protect it from the injuries
-of the weather, instead of a hat or cap, it was attached only to
-garments of the coarsest kind. The cucullus was also used by persons
-in the higher circles of society, when they wished to go abroad
-without being known.
-
-
-CŪDO or CŪDON, a skull-cap made of leather or of the rough shaggy fur
-of any wild animal, such as were worn by the _velites_ of the Roman
-armies, and apparently synonymous with _galerus_ or _galericulus_.
-
-
-CŪLĔUS, or CULLĔUS, a Roman measure, which was used for estimating
-the produce of vineyards. It was the largest liquid measure used by
-the Romans, containing 20 amphorae, or 118 gallons, 7·546 pints.
-
-
-CŬLĪNA. [DOMUS, p. 143.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Cultri (From Tombstone of a Cultrarius.)]
-
-CULTER (μάχαιρα, κοπίς, or σφαγίς), a knife with only one edge, which
-formed a straight line. The blade was pointed, and its back curved.
-It was used for a variety of purposes, but chiefly for killing
-animals either in the slaughter-house, or in hunting, or at the
-altars of the gods. The priest who conducted a sacrifice never killed
-the victim himself; but one of his ministri, appointed for that
-purpose, who was called either by the general name _minister_, or the
-more specific _popa_ or _cultrarius_.
-
-
-CULTRĀRĬUS. [CULTER.]
-
-
-CŬNĔUS was the name applied to a body of foot soldiers, drawn up in
-the form of a wedge, for the purpose of breaking through an enemy’s
-line. The common soldiers called it a _caput porcinum_, or pig’s
-head. The name _cuneus_ was also applied to the compartments of
-seats in circular or semi-circular theatres, which were so arranged
-as to converge to the centre of the theatre, and diverge towards
-the external walls of the building, with passages between each
-compartment.
-
-
-CŬNĪCŬLUS (ὑπόνομος), a mine or passage underground, was so called
-from its resemblance to the burrowing of a rabbit. Fidenae and Veii
-are said to have been taken by mines, which opened, one of them into
-the citadel, the other into the temple of Juno.
-
-
-CŪPA, a wine-vat, a vessel very much like the _dolium_, and used for
-the same purpose, namely, to receive the fresh must, and to contain
-it during the process of fermentation. The inferior wines were drawn
-for drinking from the _cupa_, without being bottled in _amphorae_,
-and hence the term _vinum de cupa_. The _cupa_ was either made of
-earthenware, like the _dolium_, or of wood, and covered with pitch.
-It was also used for fruits and corn, forming rafts, and containing
-combustibles in war, and even for a sarcophagus.
-
-
-CŪRĀTOR. Till a Roman youth attained the age of puberty, which was
-generally fixed at fourteen years of age, he was incapable of any
-legal act, and was under the authority of a _tutor_ or guardian;
-but with the attainment of the age of puberty, he became capable of
-performing every legal act, and was freed from the control of his
-_tutor_. As, however, a person of that tender age was liable to be
-imposed upon, the lex Plaetoria enacted that every person between
-the time of puberty and twenty-five years of age should be under
-the protection of a _curator_. The date of this lex is not known,
-though it is certain that the law existed when Plautus wrote (about
-B.C. 200), who speaks of it as the _lex quina vicemaria_. This law
-established a distinction of age, which was of great practical
-importance, by forming the citizens into two classes, those above
-and those below twenty-five years of age (_minores viginti quinque
-annis_). A person under the last-mentioned age was sometimes simply
-called _minor_. The object of the lex was to protect persons under
-twenty-five years of age against all fraud (_dolus_). A person who
-wasted his property (_prodigus_), and a person of unsound mind
-(_furiosus, demens_), were also placed under the care of a _curator_.
-
-
-CŪRĀTŌRES were public officers of various kinds under the Roman
-empire, such as the _curatores annonae_, the _curatores ludorum_, the
-_curatores regionum_, &c.
-
-
-CŪRĬA, signifies both a division of the Roman people and the place
-of assembly for such a division. Each of the three ancient Romulian
-tribes, the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, was subdivided into 10
-curiae, so that the whole body of the populus or the patricians was
-divided into 30 curiae. The plebeians had no connection whatever
-with the curiae. All the members of the different gentes belonging
-to one curia were called, in respect of one another, _curiales_.
-The division into curiae was of great political importance in the
-earliest times of Rome, for the curiae alone contained the citizens,
-and their assembly alone was the legitimate representative of the
-whole people. [COMITIA CURIATA.] Each curia as a corporation had its
-peculiar sacra, and besides the gods of the state, they worshipped
-other divinities and with peculiar rites and ceremonies. For such
-religious purposes each curia had its own place of worship, called
-curia, in which the curiales assembled for the purpose of discussing
-political, financial, religious and other matters. The religious
-affairs of each curia were taken care of by a priest, _Curio_, who
-was assisted by another called curialis Flamen. As there were 30
-curiae, there were likewise 30 curiones, who formed a college of
-priests, presided over by one of them, called _Curio Maximus_. The
-30 curiae had each its distinct name, which are said to have been
-derived from the names of the Sabine women who had been carried off
-by the Romans, though it is evident that some derived their names
-from certain districts or from ancient eponymous heroes. Curia
-is also used to designate the place in which the senate held its
-meetings, such as curia Hostilia, curia Julia, curia Pompeii, and
-from this there gradually arose the custom of calling the senate
-itself in the Italian towns curia, but never the senate of Rome. The
-official residence of the Salii, which was dedicated to Mars, was
-likewise styled curia.
-
-
-CŪRIĀTA CŎMĬTĬA. [COMITIA.]
-
-
-CŪRĬO. [CURIA.]
-
-
-CŪRĬUS (κύριος), signified generally at Athens the person responsible
-for the welfare of such members of a family as the law presumed to
-be incapable of protecting themselves; as, for instance, minors and
-slaves, and women of all ages.
-
-
-[Illustration: Currus. (Ancient Chariot preserved in the Vatican.)]
-
-CURRUS (ἅρμα), a chariot, a car. These terms appear to have denoted
-those two-wheeled vehicles for the carriage of persons, which were
-open overhead, thus differing from the _carpentum_, and closed in
-front, in which they differed from the _cisium_. The most essential
-articles in the construction of the currus were, 1. The rim (ἄντυξ)
-[ANTYX]. 2. The axle (ἄξων, _axis_). 3. The wheels (κύκλα, τροχοί,
-_rotae_), which revolved upon the axle, and were prevented from
-coming off by the insertion of pins (ἔμβολοι) into the extremities
-of the axles. The parts of the wheel were:--(_a_) The nave (πλήμνη,
-_modiolus_). (_b_) The spokes (κνῆμαι, literally, the _legs, radii_.)
-(_c_) The felly (ἴτυς). (_d_) The tire (ἐπίσωτρον, _canthus_). 4.
-The pole (ῥυμός, _temo_). All the parts above mentioned are seen
-in the preceding cut of an ancient chariot. The Greeks and Romans
-appear never to have used more than one pole and one yoke, and the
-currus thus constructed was commonly drawn by two horses, which were
-attached to it by their necks, and therefore called δίζυγες ἵπποι,
-συνωρίς, _gemini jugales_, _equi bijuges_, &c. If a third horse was
-added, as was not unfrequently the case, it was fastened by traces.
-The horse so attached was called παρήορος, παράσειρος, σειραφόρος,
-in Latin, _funalis_, and is opposed to the ζυγῖται or ζύγιοι, the
-yoke-horses. The ἵππος παρήορος is placed on the right of the two
-yoke-horses. (See woodcut.) The Latin name for a chariot and pair
-was _biga_, generally _bigae_. When a third horse was added, it was
-called _triga_.
-
-
-[Illustration: Triga. (From a Painting on a Vase.)]
-
-
-[Illustration: Quadrigae. (From Paintings on a Vase and a
-Terra-cotta.)]
-
-A chariot and four was called _quadriga_, generally _quadrigae_; in
-Greek, τετραορία or τέθριππος. The horses were commonly harnessed in
-a quadriga after the manner already represented, the two strongest
-horses being placed under the yoke, and the two others fastened
-on each side by means of ropes. This is clearly seen in the two
-quadrigae figured below, especially in the one on the right hand. It
-represents a chariot overthrown in passing the goal at the circus.
-The charioteer having fallen backwards, the pole and yoke are thrown
-upwards into the air; the two trace-horses have fallen on their
-knees, and the two yoke-horses are prancing on their hind legs.--The
-currus was adapted to carry two persons, and on this account was
-called in Greek δίφρος. One of the two was of course the driver. He
-was called ἡνίοχος, because he held the reins, and his companion
-παραβάτης, from going by his side or near him. In the Homeric ages,
-chariots were commonly employed on the field of battle. The men of
-rank all took their chariots with them, and in an engagement placed
-themselves in front. Chariots were not much used by the Romans. The
-most splendid kind were the quadrigae, in which the Roman generals
-and emperors rode when they triumphed. The body of the triumphal car
-was cylindrical, as we often see it represented on medals. It was
-enriched with gold and ivory. The utmost skill of the painter and
-the sculptor was employed to enhance its beauty and splendour. The
-triumphal car had in general no pole, the horses being led by men who
-were stationed at their heads.
-
-[Illustration: Marble Chariot in the Vatican.]
-
-
-CURSŌRES, slaves whose duty it was to run before the carriage of
-their masters. They first came into fashion in the first century
-of the Christian aera. The word _cursores_ was also applied to all
-slaves whom their masters employed in carrying letters, messages, &c.
-
-
-CURSUS. [CIRCUS.]
-
-
-CŬRŪLIS SELLA. [SELLA CURULIS.]
-
-
-CUSTŌDES. [COMITIA.]
-
-
-CUSTŌDES, CUSTŌDĬAE. [CASTRA.]
-
-
-CUSTOS URBIS. [PRAEFECTUS URBI.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Cyathi. (Museo Borbonico, vol. iv. pl. 12.)]
-
-CỸĂTHUS (κύαθος), a Greek and Roman liquid measure, containing
-one-twelfth of the sextarius, or ·0825 of a pint English. The form
-of the cyathus used at banquets was that of a small ladle, by means
-of which the wine was conveyed into the drinking-cups from the large
-vessel (_crater_) in which it was mixed. Two of these cyathi are
-represented in the preceding woodcut. The cyathus was also the name
-given to a cup holding the same quantity as the measure. Hence Horace
-says (_Carm._ iii. 8. 13):
-
-      “Sume, Maecenas, cyathos amici
-      Sospitis centum.”
-
-
-CYCLAS (κυκλάς), a circular robe worn by women, to the bottom of
-which a border was affixed, inlaid with gold. It appears to have been
-usually made of some thin material.
-
-
-CȲMA (κῦμα), in architecture, an _ogee_, a wave-shaped moulding,
-consisting of two curves, the one concave and the other convex.
-There were two forms, the _cyma recta_, which was concave above, and
-convex below, thus, [Illustration], and the _cyma reversa_, which was
-convex above and concave below, thus [Illustration]. The diminutive
-_cymatium_ or _cumatium_ (κυμάτιον) is also used, and is indeed the
-more common name.
-
-
-CYMBA (κύμβη) is derived from κύμβος, a hollow, and is employed to
-signify any small kind of boat used on lakes, rivers, &c. It appears
-to have been much the same as the _acatium_ and _scapha_.
-
-
-[Illustration: Cymbala. (From a Bas-relief in the Vatican.)]
-
-CYMBĂLUM (κύμβαλον), a musical instrument, in the shape of two half
-globes, which were held one in each hand by the performer, and
-played by being struck against each other. The word is derived from
-κύμβος, a hollow. The cymbal was a very ancient instrument, being
-used in the worship of Cybelé, Bacchus, Juno, and all the earlier
-deities of the Grecian and Roman mythology. It probably came from the
-East. The crotalum (κρόταλον) was a kind of cymbal. It appears to
-have been a split reed or cane, which clattered when shaken with the
-hand. Women who played on the crotalum were termed _crotalistriae_.
-Such was Virgil’s Copa:
-
-      “Crispum sub crotalo docta movere latus.”
-
-The line alludes to the dance with crotala (similar to
-castanets).--For _sistrum_, which some have referred to the class of
-_cymbala_, see SISTRUM.
-
-[Illustration: Crotala. (Borghese Vase now in the Louvre.)]
-
-
-
-
-DACTỸLUS (δάκτυλος), a Greek measure, answering to the Roman
-_digitus_, each signifying a _finger-breadth_, and being the
-sixteenth part of a foot. [PES.]
-
-
-DAEDALA or DAEDĂLEIA (δαίδαλα, δαιδάλεια), names used by the Greeks
-to signify those early works of art which were ascribed to the age of
-Daedalus, and especially the ancient wooden statues, ornamented with
-gilding and bright colours and real drapery, which were the earliest
-known forms of the images of the gods, after the mere blocks of wood
-or stone, which were at first used for symbols of them.
-
-
-DAEDĂLA (δαίδαλα), the name of two festivals, celebrated in Boeotia
-in honour of Hera, and called respectively the _Great_ and the
-_Lesser Daedala_. The latter were celebrated by the Plataeans alone;
-in the celebration of the former, which took place only every
-sixtieth year, the Plataeans were joined by the other Boeotians.
-
-
-DAMARĔTĪON (δαμαρέτειον χρύσιον), a Sicilian coin, respecting which
-there is much dispute; but it was probably a gold coin, equal in
-value to fifty litrae or ten Attic drachmae of silver; that is, a
-half stater.
-
-
-DAMIURGI. [DEMIURGI.]
-
-
-DAMŎSĬA. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-DANĂCE (δανάκη), properly the name of a foreign coin, was also the
-name given to the obolos, which was placed in the mouth of the dead
-to pay the ferryman in Hades.
-
-
-DAPHNĒPHŎRĬA (δαφνηφόρια), a festival celebrated every ninth year at
-Thebes in honour of Apollo, surnamed Ismenius or Galaxius. Its name
-was derived from the laurel branches (δάφναι) which were carried by
-those who took part in its celebration.
-
-
-DĀREICUS (δαρεικός), or to give the name in full, the Stater of
-Dareius, a gold coin of Persia, stamped on one side with the figure
-of an archer crowned and kneeling upon one knee, and on the other
-with a sort of quadrata incusa or deep cleft. It is supposed to have
-derived its name from the first Dareius, king of Persia. It is equal
-to about 1_l._ 1_s._ 10_d._ 1·76 farthings.
-
-[Illustration: Dareicus. (British Museum.)]
-
-
-DĔCĂDŪCHI (δεκαδοῦχοι), the members of a council of Ten, who
-succeeded the Thirty in the supreme power at Athens, B.C. 403. They
-were chosen from the ten tribes, one from each; but, though opposed
-to the Thirty, they sent ambassadors to Sparta to ask for assistance
-against Thrasybulus and the exiles. They remained masters of Athens
-till the party of Thrasybulus obtained possession of the city and the
-democracy was restored.
-
-
-DĔCARCHĬA or DĔCĂDARCHĬA (δεκαρχία, δεκαδαρχία), a supreme council
-established in many of the Grecian cities by the Lacedaemonians, who
-entrusted to it the whole government of the state under the direction
-of a Spartan harmost. It always consisted of the leading members of
-the aristocratical party.
-
-
-DĔCASMUS (δεκασμός), bribery. There were two actions for bribery at
-Athens: one, called δεκασμοῦ γραφή, lay against the person who gave
-the bribe; and the other, called δώρων or δωροδοκίας γραφή, against
-the person who received it. These actions applied to the bribery of
-citizens in the public assemblies of the people (συνδεκάζειν τὴν
-ἐκκλησίαν), of the Heliaea or any of the courts of justice, of the
-βουλή, and of the public advocates. Actions for bribery were under
-the jurisdiction of the thesmothetae. The punishment on conviction
-of the defendant was death, or payment of ten times the value of the
-gift received, to which the court might add a further punishment
-(προστίμημα).
-
-
-DĔCĂTE (δεκάτη). [DECUMAE.]
-
-
-DĔCEMPĔDA, a pole ten feet long, used by the agrimensores
-[AGRIMENSORES] in measuring land. Thus we find that the agrimensores
-were sometimes called _decempedatores_.
-
-
-DĔCEMPRĪMI. [SENATUS.]
-
-
-DĔCEMVĬRI, or the “ten-men,” the name of various magistrates and
-functionaries at Rome, of whom the most important were:--(1)
-DECEMVIRI LEGIBUS SCRIBENDIS, ten commissioners, who were appointed
-to draw up a code of laws. They were entrusted with supreme power
-in the state, and all the other magistracies were suspended. They
-entered upon their office at the beginning of the year B.C. 451; and
-they discharged their duties with diligence, and dispensed justice
-with impartiality. Each administered the government day by day in
-succession as during an interregnum; and the fasces were only carried
-before the one who presided for the day. They drew up a body of laws,
-distributed into ten sections; which, after being approved of by
-the senate and the comitia, were engraven on tables of metal, and
-set up in the comitium. On the expiration of their year of office,
-all parties were so well satisfied with the manner in which they
-had discharged their duties, that it was resolved to continue the
-same form of government for another year; more especially as some
-of the decemvirs said that their work was not finished. Ten new
-decemvirs were accordingly elected, of whom App. Claudius alone
-belonged to the former body. These magistrates framed several new
-laws, which were approved of by the centuries, and engraven on two
-additional tables. They acted, however, in a most tyrannical manner.
-Each was attended by twelve lictors, who carried not the rods only,
-but the axes, the emblem of sovereignty. They made common cause
-with the patrician party, and committed all kinds of outrages upon
-the persons and property of the plebeians and their families. When
-their year of office expired they refused to resign or to appoint
-successors. At length, the unjust decision of App. Claudius, in the
-case of Virginia, which led her father to kill her with his own
-hands to save her from prostitution, occasioned an insurrection of
-the people. The decemvirs were in consequence obliged to resign
-their office, B.C. 449; after which the usual magistracies were
-re-established. The ten tables of the former, and the two tables of
-the latter decemvirs, form together the laws of the Twelve Tables,
-which were the groundwork of the Roman laws. This, the first attempt
-to make a code, remained also the only attempt for near one thousand
-years, until the legislation of Justinian.--(2) DECEMVIRI LITIBUS or
-STLITIBUS JUDICANDIS, were magistrates forming a court of justice,
-which took cognizance of civil cases. The history as well as the
-peculiar jurisdiction of this court during the time of the republic
-is involved in inextricable obscurity. In the time of Cicero it
-still existed, and the proceedings in it took place in the ancient
-form of the sacramentum. Augustus transferred to these decemvirs
-the presidency in the courts of the centumviri. During the empire,
-this court had jurisdiction in capital matters, which is expressly
-stated in regard to the decemvirs.--(3) DECEMVIRI SACRIS FACIUNDIS,
-sometimes called simply DECEMVIRI SACRORUM, were the members of an
-ecclesiastical collegium, and were elected for life. Their chief duty
-was to take care of the Sibylline books, and to inspect them on all
-important occasions by command of the senate. Under the kings the
-care of the Sibylline books was committed to two men (_duumviri_) of
-high rank. On the expulsion of the kings, the care of these books was
-entrusted to the noblest of the patricians, who were exempted from
-all military and civil duties. Their number was increased about the
-year 367 B.C. to ten, of whom five were chosen from the patricians
-and five from the plebeians. Subsequently their number was still
-further increased to fifteen (_quindecemviri_), probably by Sulla. It
-was also the duty of the decemviri to celebrate the games of Apollo,
-and the secular games.
-
-
-DĔCENNĀLĬA or DĔCENNĬA, a festival celebrated with games every ten
-years by the Roman emperors. This festival owed its origin to the
-fact that Augustus refused the supreme power when offered to him for
-his life, and would only consent to accept it for ten years, and when
-these expired, for another period of ten years, and so on to the end
-of his life.
-
-
-DĔCĬMĀTĬO, the selection, by lot, of every tenth man for punishment,
-when any number of soldiers in the Roman army had been guilty of
-any crime. The remainder usually had barley allowed to them instead
-of wheat. This punishment appears not to have been inflicted in the
-early times of the republic.
-
-
-DĒCRĒTUM seems to mean that which is determined in a particular case
-after examination or consideration. It is sometimes applied to a
-determination of the consuls, and sometimes to a determination of
-the senate. A _decretum_ of the senate would seem to differ from
-a _senatus-consultum_, in the way above indicated: it was limited
-to the special occasion and circumstances, and this would be true
-whether the decretum was of a judicial or a legislative character.
-But this distinction in the use of the two words, as applied to an
-act of the senate, was, perhaps, not always observed.
-
-
-DĔCŬMAE (sc. _partes_) formed a portion of the _vectigalia_ of the
-Romans, and were paid by subjects whose territory, either by conquest
-or _deditio_, had become the property of the state (_ager publicus_).
-They consisted, as the name denotes, of a tithe or tenth of the
-produce of the soil, levied upon the cultivators (_aratores_) or
-occupiers (_possessores_) of the lands, which, from being subject to
-this payment, were called _agri decumani_. The tax of a tenth was,
-however, generally paid by corn lands: plantations and vineyards, as
-requiring no seed and less labour, paid a fifth of the produce. A
-similar system existed in Greece also. Peisistratus, for instance,
-imposed a tax of a tenth on the lands of the Athenians, which the
-Peisistratidae lowered to a twentieth. At the time of the Persian
-war the confederate Greeks made a vow, by which all the states
-who had surrendered themselves to the enemy were subjected to the
-payment of tithes for the use of the god at Delphi. The tithes of
-the public lands belonging to Athens were farmed out as at Rome to
-contractors, called δεκατώναι: the term δεκατηλόγοι was applied to
-the collectors; but the callings were, as we might suppose, often
-united in the same person. The title δεκατευταί is applied to both.
-A δεκάτη, or tenth of a different kind, was the arbitrary exaction
-imposed by the Athenians (B.C. 410) on the cargoes of all ships
-sailing into or out of the Pontus. They lost it by the battle of
-Aegospotami (B.C. 405); but it was re-established by Thrasybulus
-about B.C. 391. The tithe was let out to farm.
-
-
-DĔCUNCIS, another name for the Dextans. [AS.]
-
-
-DĔCŬRĬA. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-DĔCŬRĬŌNES. [COLONIA: EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-DĔCUSSIS. [AS.]
-
-
-DĒDĬCĀTĬO. [INAUGURATIO.]
-
-
-DĒDĬTĬCĬI, were those who had taken up arms against the Roman people,
-and being conquered, had surrendered themselves. Such people did not
-individually lose their freedom, but as a community all political
-existence, and of course had no other relation to Rome than that of
-subjects.
-
-
-DĒDUCTŌRES. [AMBITUS.]
-
-
-DEIGMA (δεῖγμα), a particular place in the Peiraeeus, as well as
-in the harbours of other states, where merchants exposed samples
-of their goods for sale. The samples themselves were also called
-_deigmata_.
-
-
-DEIPNON. [COENA.]
-
-
-DĒLĀTOR, an informer. The delatores, under the emperors, were a
-class of men who gained their livelihood by informing against their
-fellow-citizens. They constantly brought forward false charges to
-gratify the avarice or jealousy of the different emperors, and were
-consequently paid according to the importance of the information
-which they gave.
-
-
-DĒLECTUS. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-DĒLĬA (δήλια), the name of festivals and games celebrated in the
-island of Delos, to which the Cyclades and the neighbouring Ionians
-on the coasts belonged. The Delia had existed from very early times,
-and were celebrated every fifth year. That the Athenians took part
-in these solemnities at a very early period, is evident from the
-_Deliastae_ (afterwards called θεωροί) mentioned in the laws of
-Solon; the sacred vessel (θεωρίς), moreover, which they sent to Delos
-every year, was said to be the same which Theseus had sent after
-his return from Crete. In the course of time the celebration of
-this ancient panegyris in Delos had ceased, and it was not revived
-until B.C. 426, when the Athenians, after having purified the island
-in the winter of that year, restored the ancient solemnities, and
-added horse-races, which had never before taken place at the Delia.
-After this restoration, Athens, being at the head of the Ionian
-confederacy, took the most prominent part in the celebration of the
-Delia; and though the islanders, in common with Athens, provided
-the choruses and victims, the leader (ἀρχιθέωρος), who conducted
-the whole solemnity, was an Athenian, and the Athenians had the
-superintendence of the common sanctuary. From these solemnities,
-belonging to the great Delian panegyris, we must distinguish the
-_lesser Delia_, which were mentioned above, and which were celebrated
-every year, probably on the 6th of Thargelion. The Athenians on
-this occasion sent the sacred vessel (θεωρίς), which the priest of
-Apollo adorned with laurel branches, to Delos. The embassy was called
-θεωρία; and those who sailed to the island, θεωροί; and before they
-set sail a solemn sacrifice was offered in the Delion, at Marathon,
-in order to obtain a happy voyage. During the absence of the vessel
-the city of Athens was purified, and no criminal was allowed to be
-executed.
-
-
-DELPHĪNĬA (δελφίνια), a festival of the same expiatory character as
-the Apollonia, which was celebrated in various towns of Greece, in
-honour of Apollo, surnamed Delphinius.
-
-
-DELPHIS (δελφίς), an instrument of naval warfare. It consisted of a
-large mass of iron or lead suspended on a beam, which projected from
-the mast of the ship like a yard-arm. It was used to sink, or make a
-hole in, an enemy’s vessel, by being dropped upon it when alongside.
-
-
-DĒLŪBRUM. [TEMPLUM.]
-
-
-DĒMARCHI (δήμαρχοι), officers, who were the head-boroughs or chief
-magistrates of the demi in Attica, and are said to have been first
-appointed by Cleisthenes. Their duties were various and important.
-Thus, they convened meetings of the demus, and took the votes upon
-all questions under consideration; they made and kept a register of
-the landed estates in their districts, levied the monies due to the
-demus for rent, &c. They succeeded to the functions which had been
-discharged by the _naucrari_ of the old constitution.
-
-
-DĒMENSUM, an allowance of corn, given to Roman slaves monthly or
-daily. It usually consisted of four or five modii of corn a month.
-
-
-DĒMĬNŪTIO CĂPĬTIS. [CAPUT.]
-
-
-DĒMĬURGI (δημιουργοί), magistrates, whose title is expressive of
-their doing the service of the people, existed in several of the
-Peloponnesian states. Among the Eleans and Mantineans they seem to
-have been the chief executive magistracy. We also read of _demiurgi_
-in the Achaean league, who probably ranked next to the _strategi_,
-and put questions to the vote in the general assembly of the
-confederates. Officers named _epidemiurgi_, or upper demiurgi, were
-sent by the Corinthians to manage the government of their colony at
-Potidaea.
-
-
-DĒMŎCRĂTĬA (δημοκρατία), that form of constitution in which the
-sovereign political power is in the hands of the demus (δῆμος) or
-commonalty. In a passage of Herodotus (iii. 80), the characteristics
-of a democracy are specified to be--1. Equality of legal rights
-(ἰσονομίη). 2. The appointment of magistrates by lot. 3. The
-accountability of all magistrates and officers. 4. The reference
-of all public matters to the decision of the community at large.
-Aristotle remarks--“The following points are characteristic of a
-democracy; that all magistrates should be chosen out of the whole
-body of citizens; that all should rule each, and each in turn rule
-all; that either all magistracies, or those not requiring experience
-and professional knowledge, should be assigned by lot; that there
-should be no property qualification, or but a very small one, for
-filling any magistracy; that the same man should not fill the same
-office twice, or should fill offices but few times, and but few
-offices, except in the case of military commands; that all, or as
-many as possible of the magistracies, should be of brief duration;
-that all citizens should be qualified to serve as dicasts; that the
-supreme power in everything should reside in the public assembly,
-and that no magistrate should be entrusted with irresponsible power
-except in very small matters.” It is somewhat curious that neither
-in practice nor in theory did the representative system attract any
-attention among the Greeks. That diseased form of a democracy, in
-which from the practice of giving pay to the poorer citizens for
-their attendance in the public assembly, and from other causes,
-the predominant party in the state came to be in fact the lowest
-class of the citizens, was by later writers termed an _Ochlocracy_
-(ὀχλοκρατία--the dominion of the mob).
-
-
-DĒMŎSĬI (δημόσιοι), public slaves at Athens, who were purchased by
-the state. The public slaves, most frequently mentioned, formed
-the city guard; it was their duty to preserve order in the public
-assembly, and to remove any person whom the prytaneis might order.
-They are generally called bowmen (τοξόται); or from the native
-country of the majority, Scythians (Σκύθαι); and also Speusinians,
-from the name of the person who first established the force. They
-originally lived in tents in the market-place, and afterwards upon
-the Areiopagus. Their officers had the name of toxarchs (τόξαρχοι).
-Their number was at first 300, purchased soon after the battle of
-Salamis, but was afterwards increased to 1200.
-
-
-DĒMUS (δῆμος), originally indicated a district or tract of land;
-and in this meaning of a country district, inhabited and under
-cultivation, it is contrasted with πόλις. When Cleisthenes, at
-Athens, broke up the four tribes of the old constitution, he
-substituted in their place ten local tribes (φυλαὶ τοπικαί),
-each of which he subdivided into ten _demi_ or country parishes,
-possessing each its principal town; and in some one of these demi
-were enrolled all the Athenian citizens resident in Attica, with
-the exception, perhaps, of those who were natives of Athens itself.
-These subdivisions corresponded in some degree to the _naucrariae_
-(ναυκραρίαι) of the old tribes, and were originally one hundred in
-number. These demi formed independent corporations, and had each
-their several magistrates, landed and other property, with a common
-treasury. They had likewise their respective convocations or “parish
-meetings,” convened by the _demarchi_, in which was transacted the
-public business of the demus, such as the leasing of its estates,
-the elections of officers, the revision of the registers or lists
-of δημόται, and the admission of new members. Independent of these
-bonds of union, each demus seems to have had its peculiar temples and
-religious worship. There were likewise judges, called δικασταὶ κατα
-δημους, who decided cases where the matter in dispute was of less
-value than ten drachmae. Admission into a demus was necessary before
-any individual could enter upon his full rights and privileges as
-an Attic citizen. The register of enrolment was called ληξιαρχικὸν
-γραμματεῖον.
-
-
-DĒNĀRĬUS, the principal silver coin among the Romans, was so called
-because it was originally equal to ten asses; but on the reduction
-of the weight of the as [AS], it was made equal to sixteen asses,
-except in military pay, in which it was still reckoned as equal to
-ten asses. The denarius was first coined five years before the first
-Punic war, B.C. 269. [ARGENTUM.] The average value of the denarii
-coined at the end of the commonwealth is about 8½_d._, and those
-under the empire about 7½_d._ If the denarius be reckoned in value
-8½_d._, the other Roman coins of silver will be of the following
-value:
-
-                            | Pence. |  Farth.
-                            |        |
-  Teruncius                 |   --   |   ·53125
-  Sembella                  |   --   |  1·0625
-  Libella                   |   --   |  2·125
-  Sestertius                |    2   |   ·5
-  Quinarius or Victoriatus  |    4   |  1
-  Denarius                  |    8   |  2
-
-[Illustration: Denarius. (British Museum.)]
-
-Some denarii were called _serrati_, because their edges were notched
-like a saw, which appears to have been done to prove that they were
-solid silver, and not plated; and others _bigati_ and _quadrigati_,
-because on their reverse were represented chariots drawn by two and
-four horses respectively.
-
-DĒSIGNĀTOR. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-DĒSULTOR, a rider in the Roman games, who generally rode two horses
-at the same time, sitting on them without a saddle, and vaulting upon
-either of them at his pleasure.
-
-
-DĔUNX. [As, LIBRA.]
-
-
-DEXTANS. [As, LIBRA.]
-
-
-DĬĂDĒMA, originally a white fillet, used to encircle the head. It is
-represented on the head of Dionysus, and was, in an ornamented form,
-assumed by kings as an emblem of sovereignty.
-
-
-DĬAETĒTAE (διαιτηταί), or arbitrators, at Athens, were of two kinds;
-the one public and appointed by lot (κληρωτοί), the other private,
-and chosen (αἱρετοί) by the parties who referred to them the decision
-of a disputed point, instead of trying it before a court of justice;
-the judgments of both, according to Aristotle, being founded on
-equity rather than law. The number of public arbitrators seems to
-have been 40, four for each tribe. Their jurisdiction was confined to
-civil cases.
-
-
-DĬĀLIS FLĀMEN. [FLAMEN.]
-
-
-DĬĂMASTĪGŌSIS (διαμαστίγωσις), a solemnity performed at Sparta at
-the festival of Artemis Orthia. Spartan youths were scourged on
-the occasion at the altar of Artemis, by persons appointed for the
-purpose, until their blood gushed forth and covered the altar. Many
-anecdotes are related of the courage and intrepidity with which young
-Spartans bore the lashes of the scourge; some even died without
-uttering a murmur at their sufferings, for to die under the strokes
-was considered as honourable a death as that on the field of battle.
-
-
-DĬĂPSĔPHĬSIS (διαψήφισις), a political institution at Athens, the
-object of which was to prevent aliens, or such as were the offspring
-of an unlawful marriage, from assuming the rights of citizens. By
-this method a trial of spurious citizens was to be held by the
-demotae, within whose deme intruders were suspected to exist.
-
-
-DĪĂSĬA (διάσια), a great festival celebrated at Athens, without
-the walls of the city, in honour of Zeus, surnamed Μειλίχιος. The
-whole people took part in it, and the wealthier citizens offered
-victims, while the poorer classes burnt such incense as their country
-furnished. The diasia took place in the latter half of the month of
-Anthesterion with feasting and rejoicings, and was, like most other
-festivals, accompanied by a fair.
-
-
-DĬCASTĒS (δικαστής), the name of a judge, or rather juryman, at
-Athens. The conditions of his eligibility were, that he should be a
-free citizen, in the enjoyment of his full franchise (ἐπιτιμία), and
-not less than thirty years of age, and of persons so qualified 6,000
-were selected by lot for the service of every year. Their appointment
-took place annually under the conduct of the nine archons and their
-official scribe; each of these ten personages drew by lot the names
-of 600 persons of the tribe assigned to him; the whole number so
-selected was again divided by lot into ten sections of 500 each,
-together with a supernumerary one, consisting of 1000 persons, from
-among whom the occasional deficiencies in the sections of 500 might
-be supplied. To each of the ten sections one of the ten first letters
-of the alphabet was appropriated as a distinguishing mark, and a
-small tablet (πινάκιον), inscribed with the letter of the section
-and the name of the individual, was delivered as a certificate of
-his appointment to each dicast. Before proceeding to the exercise of
-his functions, the dicast was obliged to swear the official oath.
-This oath being taken, and the divisions made as above mentioned, it
-remained to assign the courts to the several sections of dicasts in
-which they were to sit. This was not, like the first, an appointment
-intended to last during the year, but took place under the conduct
-of the thesmothetae, _de novo_, every time that it was necessary
-to impanel a number of dicasts. As soon as the allotment had taken
-place, each dicast received a staff, on which was painted the letter
-and the colour of the court awarded him, which might serve both as a
-ticket to procure admittance, and also to distinguish him from any
-loiterer that might endeavour clandestinely to obtain a sitting after
-business had begun. While in court, and probably from the hand of
-the presiding magistrate (ἡγέμων δικαστηρίου), he received the token
-or ticket that entitled him to receive his fee (δικαστικόν). This
-payment is said to have been first instituted by Pericles, and was
-originally a single obolus; it was increased by Cleon to thrice that
-amount about the 88th Olympiad.
-
-
-DĬCĒ (δίκη), signifies generally any proceedings at law by one
-party directly or mediately against others. The object of all
-such actions is to protect the body politic, or one or more of
-its individual members, from injury and aggression; a distinction
-which has in most countries suggested the division of all causes
-into two great classes, the public and the private, and assigned to
-each its peculiar form and treatment. At Athens the first of these
-was implied by the terms public δίκαι, or ἀγῶνες, or still more
-peculiarly by γραφαί; causes of the other class were termed private
-δίκαι, or ἀγῶνες, or simply δίκαι in its limited sense. In a δίκη,
-only the person whose rights were alleged to be affected, or the
-legal protector (κύριος) of such person, if a minor or otherwise
-incapable of appearing _suo jure_, was permitted to institute an
-action as plaintiff; in public causes, with the exception of some few
-in which the person injured or his family were peculiarly bound and
-interested to act, any free citizen, and sometimes, when the state
-was directly attacked, almost any alien, was empowered to do so.
-The court fees, called _prytaneia_, were paid in private but not in
-public causes, and a public prosecutor that compromised the action
-with the defendant was in most cases punished by a fine of a thousand
-drachmae and a modified disfranchisement, while there was no legal
-impediment at any period of a private lawsuit to the reconciliation
-of the litigant parties.--The proceedings in the δίκη were commenced
-by a summons (πρόσκλησις) to the defendant to appear on a certain
-day before the proper magistrate (εἰσαγωγεύς), and there answer
-the charges preferred against him. This summons was often served
-by the plaintiff in person, accompanied by one or two witnesses
-(κλητῆρες), whose names were endorsed upon the declaration (λῆξις
-or ἔγκλημα). Between the service of the summons and appearance of
-the parties before the magistrate, it is very probable that the law
-prescribed the intervention of a period of five days. If both parties
-appeared, the proceedings commenced by the plaintiff putting in his
-declaration, and at the same time depositing his share of the court
-fees (πρυτανεῖα), which were trifling in amount, but the non-payment
-of which was a fatal objection to the further progress of a cause.
-When these were paid, it became the duty of the magistrate, if no
-manifest objection appeared on the face of the declaration, to cause
-it to be written out on a tablet, and exposed for the inspection
-of the public on the wall or other place that served as the cause
-list of his court. The magistrate then appointed a day for the
-further proceedings of the _anacrisis_ [ANACRISIS]. If the plaintiff
-failed to appear at the anacrisis, the suit, of course, fell to
-the ground; if the defendant made default, judgment passed against
-him. An affidavit might at this, as well as at other periods of the
-action, be made in behalf of a person unable to attend upon the
-given day, and this would, if allowed, have the effect of postponing
-further proceedings (ὑπωμοσία); it might, however, be combated by
-a counter-affidavit, to the effect that the alleged reason was
-unfounded or otherwise insufficient (ἀνθυπωμοσία); and a question
-would arise upon this point, the decision of which, when adverse to
-the defendant, would render him liable to the penalty of contumacy.
-The plaintiff was in this case said ἐρήμην ἑλεῖν; the defendant,
-ἐρήμην ὀφλεῖν, δίκην being the word omitted in both phrases. The
-anacrisis began with the affidavit of the plaintiff (προωμοσία),
-then followed the answer of the defendant (ἀντωμοσία or ἀντιγραφή),
-then the parties produced their respective witnesses, and reduced
-their evidence to writing, and put in originals, or authenticated
-copies, of all the records, deeds, and contracts that might be
-useful in establishing their case, as well as memoranda of offers
-and requisitions then made by either side (προκλήσεις). The whole of
-the documents were then, if the cause took a straightforward course
-(εὐθυδικία), enclosed on the last day of the anacrisis in a casket
-(ἐχῖνος), which was sealed, and entrusted to the custody of the
-presiding magistrate, till it was produced and opened at the trial.
-During the interval no alteration in its contents was permitted, and
-accordingly evidence that had been discovered after the anacrisis
-was not producible at the trial.--In some causes, the trial before
-the dicasts was by law appointed to come on within a given time; in
-such as were not provided for by such regulations, we may suppose
-that it would principally depend upon the leisure of the magistrate.
-Upon the court being assembled, the magistrate called on the cause,
-and the plaintiff opened his case. At the commencement of the speech,
-the proper officer (ὁ ἐφ’ ὕδωρ) filled the clepsydra with water. As
-long as the water flowed from this vessel the orator was permitted
-to speak; if, however, evidence was to be read by the officer of
-the court, or a law recited, the water was stopped till the speaker
-recommenced. The quantity of water, or, in other words, the length
-of the speeches, was different in different causes. After the
-speeches of the advocates, which were in general two on each side,
-and the incidental reading of the documentary and other evidence,
-the dicasts proceeded to give their judgment by ballot.--When the
-principal point at issue was decided in favour of the plaintiff,
-there followed in many cases a further discussion as to the fine or
-punishment to be inflicted on the defendant (παθεῖν ἢ ἀποτῖσαι). All
-actions were divided into two classes,--ἀγῶνες ἀτίμητοι, _suits not
-to be assessed_, in which the fine, or other penalty, was determined
-by the laws; and ἀγῶνες τιμητοί, _suits to be assessed_, in which
-the penalty had to be fixed by the judges. If the suit was an ἀγῶν
-τιμητος, the plaintiff generally mentioned in the pleadings the
-punishment which he considered the defendant deserved (τίμημα); and
-the defendant was allowed to make a counter-assessment (ἀντιτιμᾶσθαι
-or ὑποτιμᾶσθαι), and to argue before the judges why the assessment of
-the plaintiff ought to be changed or mitigated. In certain causes,
-which were determined by the laws, any of the judges was allowed
-to propose an additional assessment (προστίμημα); the amount of
-which, however, appears to have been usually fixed by the laws.
-Thus, in certain cases of theft, the additional penalty was fixed
-at five days’ and nights’ imprisonment. Upon judgment being given
-in a private suit, the Athenian law left its execution very much in
-the hands of the successful party, who was empowered to seize the
-moveables of his antagonist as a pledge for the payment of the money,
-or institute an action of ejectment (ἐξούλης) against the refractory
-debtor. The judgment of a court of dicasts was in general decisive
-(δίκη αὐτοτελής); but upon certain occasions, as, for instance,
-when a gross case of perjury or conspiracy could be proved by the
-unsuccessful party to have operated to his disadvantage, the cause,
-upon the conviction of such conspirators or witnesses, might be
-commenced _de novo_.
-
-
-DICTĀTOR, an extraordinary magistrate at Rome. The name is of
-Latin origin, and the office probably existed in many Latin towns
-before it was introduced into Rome. We find it in Lanuvium even
-in very late times. At Rome this magistrate was originally called
-_magister populi_ and not _dictator_, and in the sacred books he
-was always designated by the former name down to the latest times.
-On the establishment of the Roman republic the government of the
-state was entrusted to two consuls, that the citizens might be the
-better protected against the tyrannical exercise of the supreme
-power. But it was soon felt that circumstances might arise in
-which it was of importance for the safety of the state that the
-government should be vested in the hands of a single person, who
-should possess for a season absolute power, and from whose decision
-there should be no appeal to any other body. Thus it came to pass
-that in B.C. 501, nine years after the expulsion of the Tarquins,
-the dictatorship (_dictatura_) was instituted. By the original law
-respecting the appointment of a dictator (_lex de dictatore creando_)
-no one was eligible for this office unless he had previously been
-consul. We find, however, a few instances in which this law was not
-observed.--When a dictator was considered necessary, the senate
-passed a senatus consultum, that one of the consuls should nominate
-(_dicere_) a dictator; and without a previous decree of the senate
-the consuls had not the power of naming a dictator. The nomination or
-proclamation of the dictator was always made by the consul, probably
-without any witnesses, between midnight and morning, and with the
-observance of the auspices (_surgens_ or _oriens nocte silentio
-dictatorem dicebat_). The technical word for this nomination or
-proclamation was _dicere_ (seldom _creare_ or _facere_). Originally
-the dictator was of course a patrician. The first plebeian dictator
-was C. Marcius Rutilus, nominated in B.C. 356 by the plebeian consul
-M. Popillius Laenas. The reasons which led to the appointment of
-a dictator, required that there should be only one at a time. The
-dictators that were appointed for carrying on the business of the
-state were said to be nominated _rei gerundae causa_, or sometimes
-_seditionis sedandae causa_; and upon them, as well as upon the
-other magistrates, the imperium was conferred by a _Lex Curiata_.
-The dictatorship was limited to six months, and no instances occur
-in which a person held this office for a longer time, for the
-dictatorships of Sulla and Caesar are of course not to be taken into
-account. On the contrary, though a dictator was appointed for six
-months, he often resigned his office long previously, immediately
-after he had dispatched the business for which he had been appointed.
-As soon as the dictator was nominated, a kind of suspension took
-place with respect to the consuls and all the other magistrates,
-with the exception of the tribuni plebis. The regular magistrates
-continued, indeed, to discharge the duties of their various offices
-under the dictator, but they were no longer independent officers,
-but were subject to the higher imperium of the dictator, and obliged
-to obey his orders in every thing. The superiority of the dictator’s
-power to that of the consuls consisted chiefly in the three following
-points--greater independence of the senate, more extensive power of
-punishment without any appeal (_provocatio_) from their sentence
-to the people, and irresponsibility. To these three points, must
-of course be added that he was not fettered by a colleague. We may
-naturally suppose that the dictator would usually act in unison with
-the senate; but it is expressly stated that in many cases where the
-consuls required the co-operation of the senate, the dictator could
-act on his own responsibility. That there was originally no appeal
-from the sentence of the dictator is certain, and accordingly the
-lictors bore the axes in the fasces before them even in the city,
-as a symbol of their absolute power over the lives of the citizens,
-although by the Valerian law the axes had disappeared from the fasces
-of the consuls. Whether, however, the right of _provocatio_ was
-afterwards given cannot be determined. It was in consequence of the
-great and irresponsible power possessed by the dictatorship, that we
-find it frequently compared with the regal dignity, from which it
-only differed in being held for a limited time.--There were however
-a few limits to the power of the dictator. 1. The most important was
-that which we have mentioned above, that the period of his office was
-only six months. 2. He had not power over the treasury, but could
-only make use of the money which was granted him by the senate. 3.
-He was not allowed to leave Italy, since he might thus easily become
-dangerous to the republic; though the case of Atilius Calatinus in
-the first Punic war forms an exception to this rule. 4. He was not
-allowed to ride on horseback at Rome, without previously obtaining
-the permission of the people; a regulation apparently capricious,
-but perhaps adopted that he might not bear too great a resemblance
-to the kings, who were accustomed to ride.--The insignia of the
-dictator were nearly the same as those of the kings in earlier times;
-and of the consuls subsequently. Instead however of having only
-twelve lictors, as was the case with the consuls, he was preceded by
-twenty-four bearing the secures as well as the fasces. The _sella
-curulis_ and _toga praetexta_ also belonged to the dictator.--The
-preceding account of the dictatorship applies more particularly to
-the dictator rei gerundae causa; but dictators were also frequently
-appointed, especially when the consuls were absent from the city,
-to perform certain acts, which could not be done by any inferior
-magistrate. These dictators had little more than the name; and as
-they were only appointed to discharge a particular duty, they had to
-resign immediately that duty was performed. The occasions on which
-such dictators were appointed, were principally:--1. For the purpose
-of holding the comitia for the elections (_comitiorum habendorum
-causa_). 2. For fixing the _clavus annalis_ in the temple of Jupiter
-(_clavi figendi causa_) in times of pestilence or civil discord,
-because the law said that this ceremony was to be performed by the
-_praetor maximus_, and after the institution of the dictatorship
-the latter was regarded as the highest magistracy in the state. 3.
-For appointing holidays (_feriarum constituendarum causa_) on the
-appearance of prodigies, and for officiating at the public games
-(_ludorum faciendorum causa_), the presidency of which belonged
-to the consuls or praetors. 4. For holding trials (_quaestionibus
-exercendis_.) 5. And on one occasion, for filling up vacancies in
-the senate (_legendo senatui_).--Along with the dictator there was
-always a _magister equitum_, the nomination of whom was left to the
-choice of the dictator, unless the senatus consultum specified,
-as was sometimes the case, the name of the person who was to be
-appointed. The magister equitum had, like the dictator, to receive
-the imperium by a lex curiata. The dictator could not be without
-a magister equitum, and, consequently, if the latter died during
-the six months of the dictatorship, another had to be nominated
-in his stead. The magister equitum was subject to the imperium of
-the dictator, but in the absence of his superior he became his
-representative, and exercised the same powers as the dictator. The
-magister equitum was originally, as his name imports, the commander
-of the cavalry, while the dictator was at the head of the legions,
-the infantry; and the relation between them was in this respect
-similar to that which subsisted between the king and the tribunus
-celerum. Dictators were only appointed so long as the Romans had
-to carry on wars in Italy. A solitary instance of the nomination
-of a dictator for the purpose of carrying on war out of Italy has
-been already mentioned. The last dictator rei gerundae causa was M.
-Junius Pera, in B.C. 216. From that time dictators were frequently
-appointed for holding the elections down to B.C. 202, but after
-that year the dictatorship disappears altogether.--After a lapse of
-120 years, Sulla caused himself to be appointed dictator in B.C.
-82, _reipublicae constituendae causa_, but neither his dictatorship
-nor that of Caesar is to be compared with the genuine office. Soon
-after Caesar’s death the dictatorship was abolished for ever by a
-lex proposed by the consul Antonius. During the time, however, that
-the dictatorship was in abeyance, a substitute was invented for it,
-whenever the circumstances of the republic required the adoption of
-extraordinary measures, by the senate investing the consuls with
-dictatorial power. This was done by the well-known formula, _Videant_
-or _dent operam consules, ne quid respublica detrimenti capiat_.
-
-
-DICTYNNĬA (δικτύννια), a festival with sacrifices, celebrated
-at Cydonia in Crete, in honour of Artemis, surnamed Δίκτυννα or
-Δικτύνναια, from δίκτυον, a hunter’s net.
-
-
-DĬES (ἡμέρα), a day. The name _dies_ was applied, like our word day,
-to the time during which, according to the notions of the ancients,
-the sun performed his course around the earth, and this time they
-called the civil day (_dies civilis_, in Greek νυχθήμερον, because
-it included both night and day). The natural day (_dies naturalis_),
-or the time from the rising to the setting of the sun, was likewise
-designated by the name dies. The civil day began with the Greeks
-at the setting of the sun, and with the Romans at midnight. At the
-time of the Homeric poems the natural day was divided into three
-parts. The first, called ἠώς, began with sunrise, and comprehended
-the whole space of time during which light seemed to be increasing,
-_i.e._ till mid-day. The second part was called μέσον ἦμαρ or mid-day,
-during which the sun was thought to stand still. The third part bore
-the name of δείλη or δείελον ἦμαρ, which derived its name from the
-increased warmth of the atmosphere. Among the Athenians the first
-and last of the divisions made at the time of Homer were afterwards
-subdivided into two parts. The earlier part of the morning was termed
-πρωΐ or πρῲ τῆς ἡμέρας: the latter, πληθούσης τῆς ἀγορᾶς, or περὶ
-πλήθουσαν ἀγοράν. The μέσον ἦμαρ of Homer was afterwards expressed
-by μεσημβρία, μέσον ἡμέρας, or μέση ἡμέρα, and comprehended, as
-before, the middle of the day, when the sun seemed neither to rise
-nor to decline. The two parts of the afternoon were called δείλη
-πρωΐη or πρωΐα, and δείλη ὀψίη or ὀψία. This division continued to
-be observed down to the latest period of Grecian history, though
-another more accurate division was introduced at an early period;
-for Anaximander, or, according to others, his disciple Anaximenes,
-is said to have made the Greeks acquainted with the use of the
-Babylonian chronometer or sun-dial (called πόλος, or ὡρολόγιον), by
-means of which the natural day was divided into twelve equal spaces
-of time. The division of the day most generally observed by the
-Romans, was that into _tempus antemeridianum_ and _pomeridianum_,
-the _meridies_ itself being only considered as a point at which the
-one ended and the other commenced. But as it was of importance that
-this moment should be known, an especial officer [ACCENSUS] was
-appointed, who proclaimed the time of mid-day. The division of the
-day into twelve equal spaces, which were shorter in winter than in
-summer, was first adopted when artificial means of measuring time
-were introduced among the Romans from Greece. This was about the
-year B.C. 291, when L. Papirius Cursor, after the war with Pyrrhus
-in southern Italy, brought to Rome an instrument called _solarium
-horologium_, or simply _solarium_. But as the solarium had been
-made for a different latitude, it showed the time at Rome very
-incorrectly. Scipio Nasica, therefore, erected in B.C. 159 a public
-clepsydra, which indicated the hours of the night as well as of the
-day. Even after the erection of this clepsydra it was customary
-for one of the subordinate officers of the praetor to proclaim the
-third, sixth, and ninth hours; which shows that the day was, like the
-night, divided into four parts, each consisting of three hours.--All
-the days of the year were, according to different points of view,
-divided by the Romans into different classes. For the purpose of the
-administration of justice all days were divided into _dies fasti_
-and _dies nefasti_. DIES FASTI were the days on which the praetor
-was allowed to administer justice in the public courts; they derived
-their name from _fari_ (_fari tria verba_; _do_, _dico_, _addico_).
-On some of the dies fasti comitia could be held, but not on all. The
-regular _dies fasti_ were marked in the Roman calendar by the letter
-F, and their number in the course of the year was 38.--Besides these
-there were certain days called _dies intercisi_, on which the praetor
-might hold his courts, but not at all hours, so that sometimes one
-half of such a day was _fastus_, while the other half was _nefastus_.
-Their number was 65 in the year.--DIES NEFASTI were days on which
-neither courts of justice nor comitia were allowed to be held, and
-which were dedicated to other purposes. The term _dies nefasti_,
-which originally had nothing to do with religion, but simply
-indicated days on which no courts were to be held, was in subsequent
-times applied to religious days in general, as _dies nefasti_ were
-mostly dedicated to the worship of the gods.--In a religious point
-of view all days of the year were either _dies festi_, or _dies
-profesti_, or _dies intercisi_. According to the definition given by
-Macrobius, _dies festi_ were dedicated to the gods, and spent with
-sacrifices, repasts, games, and other solemnities; _dies profesti_
-belonged to men for the administration of their private and public
-affairs. _Dies intercisi_ were common between gods and men, that is,
-partly devoted to the worship of the gods, partly to the transaction
-of ordinary business. _Dies profesti_ were either _dies fasti_, or
-_dies comitiales_, that is, days on which comitia were held, or _dies
-comperendini_, that is, days to which any action was allowed to be
-transferred; or _dies stati_, that is, days set apart for causes
-between Roman citizens and foreigners; or _dies proeliales_, that is,
-all days on which religion did not forbid the commencement of a war.
-
-
-DIFFARRĔĀTĬO. [DIVORTIUM.]
-
-
-DĬĬPŎLEIA (διιπόλεια), also called Διπόλεια or Διπόλια, a very ancient
-festival celebrated every year on the acropolis of Athens in honour
-of Zeus, surnamed Πολιεύς.
-
-
-DĬMĂCHAE (διμάχαι), Macedonian horse-soldiers, who also fought on
-foot when occasion required, like our dragoons.
-
-
-DĪMĬNŪTĬO CĂPĬTIS. [CAPUT.]
-
-
-DĬŎCLEIA (διόκλεια), a festival celebrated by the Megarians in honour
-of an ancient Athenian hero, Diocles, around whose grave young men
-assembled on the occasion, and amused themselves with gymnastic and
-other contests. We read that he who gave the sweetest kiss obtained
-the prize, consisting of a garland of flowers.
-
-
-DĬŎNȲSĬA (διονύσια), festivals celebrated in various parts of Greece
-in honour of Dionysus, and characterised by extravagant merriment
-and enthusiastic joy. Drunkenness, and the boisterous music of
-flutes, cymbals, and drums, were likewise common to all Dionysiac
-festivals. In the processions called θίασοι (from θείαζω), with
-which they were celebrated, women also took part in the disguise
-of Bacchae, Lenae, Thyades, Naiades, Nymphs, &c., adorned with
-garlands of ivy, and bearing the thyrsus in their hands, so that
-the whole train represented a population inspired, and actuated by
-the powerful presence of the god. The choruses sung on the occasion
-were called dithyrambs, and were hymns addressed to the god in the
-freest metres and with the boldest imagery, in which his exploits
-and achievements were extolled. [CHORUS.] The phallus, the symbol
-of the fertility of nature, was also carried in these processions.
-The indulgence in drinking was considered by the Greeks as a duty
-of gratitude which they owed to the giver of the vine; hence in
-some places it was thought a crime to remain sober at the Dionysia.
-The Attic festivals of Dionysus were four in number: the _Rural_ or
-_Lesser Dionysia_ (Διονύσια κατ’ ἀγρούς, or μικρά), the _Lenaea_
-(Λήναια), the _Anthesteria_ (Ἀνθεστήρια), and the _City_ or _Great
-Dionysia_ (Διονύσια ἐν ἄστει, ἀστικά, or μεγάλα). The season of
-the year sacred to Dionysus was during the months nearest to the
-shortest day; and the Attic festivals were accordingly celebrated
-in Poseideon, Gamelion, Anthesterion, and Elaphebolion.--The _Rural_
-or _Lesser Dionysia_, a vintage festival, were celebrated in the
-various demes of Attica in the month of Poseideon, and were under
-the superintendence of the several local magistrates, the demarchs.
-This was doubtless the most ancient of all, and was held with the
-highest degree of merriment and freedom; even slaves enjoyed full
-freedom during its celebration, and their boisterous shouts on the
-occasion were almost intolerable. It is here that we have to seek
-for the origin of comedy, in the jests and the scurrilous abuse with
-which the peasants assailed the bystanders from a waggon in which
-they rode about. The Dionysia in the Peiraeeus, as well as those of
-the other demes of Attica, belonged to the lesser Dionysia.--The
-second festival, the _Lenaea_ (from ληνός, the wine-press, from which
-also the month of Gamelion was called by the Ionians Lenaeon), was
-celebrated in the month of Gamelion; the place of its celebration
-was the ancient temple of Dionysus Limnaeus (from λίμνη, as the
-district was originally a swamp). This temple was called the Lenaeon.
-The Lenaea were celebrated with a procession and scenic contests in
-tragedy and comedy. The procession probably went to the Lenaeon,
-where a goat (τράγος, whence the chorus and tragedy which arose out
-of it were called τραγικὸς χορός, and τραγῳδία) was sacrificed, and a
-chorus standing around the altar sang the dithyrambic ode to the god.
-As the dithyramb was the element out of which, by the introduction of
-an actor, tragedy arose [CHORUS], it is natural that, in the scenic
-contests of this festival, tragedy should have preceded comedy. The
-poet who wished his play to be brought out at the Lenaea applied to
-the second archon, who had the superintendence of this festival, and
-who gave him a chorus if the piece was thought to deserve it.--The
-third festival, the _Anthesteria_, was celebrated on the 11th,
-12th, and 13th days of the month of Anthesterion. The second archon
-likewise superintended the celebration of the Anthesteria, and
-distributed the prizes among the victors in the various games which
-were carried on during the season. The first day was called πιθοιγία:
-the second, χόες: and the third, χύτροι. The first day derived its
-name from the opening of the casks to taste the wine of the preceding
-year; the second from χοῦς, the cup, and seems to have been the day
-devoted to drinking. The third day had its name from χύτρος, a pot,
-as on this day persons offered pots with flowers, seeds, or cooked
-vegetables, as a sacrifice to Dionysus and Hermes Chthonius. It is
-uncertain whether dramas were performed at the Anthesteria; but it
-is supposed that comedies were represented, and that tragedies which
-were to be brought out at the great Dionysia were perhaps rehearsed
-at the Anthesteria. The mysteries connected with the celebration
-of the Anthesteria were held at night.--The fourth festival, the
-_City_ or _Great Dionysia_, was celebrated about the 12th of the
-month of Elaphebolion; but we do not know whether they lasted more
-than one day or not. The order in which the solemnities took place
-was as follows:--the great public procession, the chorus of boys,
-the _comus_ [CHORUS], comedy, and, lastly, tragedy. Of the dramas
-which were performed at the great Dionysia, the tragedies at least
-were generally new pieces; repetitions do not, however, seem to have
-been excluded from any Dionysiac festival. The first archon had
-the superintendence, and gave the chorus to the dramatic poet who
-wished to bring out his piece at this festival. The prize awarded to
-the dramatist for the best play consisted of a crown, and his name
-was proclaimed in the theatre of Dionysus. As the great Dionysia
-were celebrated at the beginning of spring, when the navigation was
-re-opened, Athens was not only visited by numbers of country people,
-but also by strangers from other parts of Greece, and the various
-amusements and exhibitions on this occasion were not unlike those
-of a modern fair.--The worship of Dionysus, whom the Romans called
-Bacchus, or rather the Bacchic mysteries and orgies (_Bacchanalia_),
-are said to have been introduced from southern Italy into Etruria,
-and from thence to Rome, where for a time they were carried on in
-secret, and, during the latter period of their existence, at night.
-The initiated, according to Livy, not only indulged in feasting and
-drinking at their meetings, but when their minds were heated with
-wine they indulged in the coarsest excesses and the most unnatural
-vices. The time of initiation lasted ten days; on the tenth, the
-person who was to be initiated took a solemn meal, underwent a
-purification by water, and was led into the sanctuary (_Bacchanal_).
-At first only women were initiated, and the orgies were celebrated
-every year during three days. But Pacula Annia, a Campanian matron,
-pretending to act under the direct influence of Bacchus, changed the
-whole method of celebration: she admitted men to the initiation,
-and transferred the solemnisation, which had hitherto taken place
-during the daytime, to the night. Instead of three days in the year,
-she ordered that the Bacchanalia should be held during five days in
-every month. It was from that time that these orgies were carried
-on with frightful licentiousness and excesses of every kind. The
-evil at length became so alarming, that, in B.C. 186, the consuls,
-by the command of the senate, instituted an investigation into the
-nature and object of these new rites. The result was that numerous
-persons were arrested, and some put to death; and that a decree of
-the senate was issued, commanding that no Bacchanalia should be held
-either in Rome or Italy; that if any one should think such ceremonies
-necessary, or if he could not neglect them without scruples or making
-atonements, he should apply to the praetor urbanus, who might then
-consult the senate. If the permission should be granted to him in
-an assembly of the senate, consisting of not less than one hundred
-members, he might solemnise the Bacchic sacra; but no more than five
-persons were to be present at the celebration; there should be no
-common fund, and no master of the sacra or priest. A brazen table
-containing this important document was discovered near Bari, in
-southern Italy, in the year 1640, and is at present in the imperial
-Museum of Vienna. While the _Bacchanalia_ were thus suppressed,
-another more simple and innocent festival of Bacchus, the _Liberalia_
-(from _Liber_, or _Liber Pater_, a name of Bacchus), continued to
-be celebrated at Rome every year on the 16th of March. Priests and
-aged priestesses, adorned with garlands of ivy, carried through the
-city wine, honey, cakes, and sweetmeats, together with an altar with
-a handle (_ansata ara_), in the middle of which there was a small
-fire-pan (_foculus_), in which from time to time sacrifices were
-burnt. On this day Roman youths who had attained their sixteenth year
-received the _toga virilis_.
-
-
-DĬŎSCŪRĬA (διοσκούρια), festivals celebrated in various parts of
-Greece in honour of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux). Their worship
-was very generally adopted in Greece, especially in the Doric and
-Achaean states; but little is known of the manner in which their
-festivals were celebrated. At Athens the festival was called Anaceia.
-
-
-DĬŌTA, a vessel having two ears (ὦτα) or handles, used for holding
-wine. It appears to have been much the same as the amphora. [AMPHORA.]
-
-
-DIPHTHĔRA (διφθέρα), a kind of cloak made of the skins of animals,
-and worn by herdsmen and country people. It had a covering for the
-head (ἐπικράνον), in which respect it would correspond to the Roman
-_cucullus_.
-
-
-DIPLŌMA, a writ or public document, which conferred upon a person
-any right or privilege. During the republic, it was granted by the
-consuls and senate; and under the empire, by the emperor and the
-magistrates whom he authorised to do so. It consisted of two leaves,
-whence it derived its name.
-
-
-DIPTỸCHA (δίπτυχα), two writing tablets, which could be folded
-together. They were commonly made of wood and covered over with wax.
-
-
-DĬRĬBĬTŌRES. [COMITIA.]
-
-
-DISCUS (δίσκος), a circular plate of stone, or metal, made for
-throwing to a distance as an exercise of strength and dexterity. It
-was one of the principal gymnastic exercises of the ancients, being
-included in the _Pentathlum_.
-
-[Illustration: Discobolus. (Osterley, Denk. der alt Kunst, vol. 1.
-No. 139)]
-
-
-DISPENSĀTOR. [CALCULATOR.]
-
-
-DITHỸRAMBUS. [CHORUS.]
-
-
-DĪVERSŌRĬUM. [CAUPONA.]
-
-
-DĪVĪNĀTĬO (μαντική), a power in man which foresees future things
-by means of those signs which the gods throw in his way. Among the
-Greeks the _manteis_ (μάντεις), or seers, who announced the future,
-were supposed to be under the direct influence of the gods, chiefly
-that of Apollo. In many families of seers the inspired knowledge of
-the future was considered to be hereditary, and to be transmitted
-from father to son. To these families belonged the Iamids, who from
-Olympia spread over a considerable part of Greece; the Branchidae,
-near Miletus; the Eumolpids, at Athens and Eleusis; the Telliads,
-the Acarnanian seers, and others. Along with the seers we may also
-mention the Bacides and the Sibyllae. Both existed from a very remote
-time, and were distinct from the manteis so far as they pretended
-to derive their knowledge of the future from sacred books (χρησμοί)
-which they consulted, and which were in some places, as at Athens
-and Rome, kept by the government or some especial officers, in the
-acropolis and in the most revered sanctuary. The Bacides are said to
-have been descended from one or more prophetic nymphs of the name of
-Bacis. The Sibyllae were prophetic women, probably of Asiatic origin,
-whose peculiar custom seems to have been to wander with their sacred
-books from place to place. The Sibylla, whose books gained so great
-an importance at Rome, is reported to have been the Erythraean: the
-books which she was said to have sold to one of the Tarquins were
-carefully concealed from the public, and only accessible to the
-duumvirs. Besides these more respectable prophets and prophetesses,
-there were numbers of diviners of an inferior order (χρησμολόγοι),
-who made it their business to explain all sorts of signs, and to
-tell fortunes. They were, however, more particularly popular with
-the lower orders, who are everywhere most ready to believe what is
-most marvellous and least entitled to credit. No public undertaking
-of any consequence was ever entered upon by the Greeks and Romans
-without consulting the will of the gods, by observing the signs
-which they sent, especially those in the sacrifices offered for the
-purpose, and by which they were thought to indicate the success
-or the failure of the undertaking. For this kind of divination no
-divine inspiration was thought necessary, but merely experience and
-a certain knowledge acquired by routine; and although in some cases
-priests were appointed for the purpose of observing and explaining
-signs [AUGUR; HARUSPEX], yet on any sudden emergency, especially
-in private affairs, any one who met with something extraordinary,
-might act as his own interpreter. The principal signs by which the
-gods were thought to declare their will, were things connected with
-the offering of sacrifices, the flight and voice of birds, all
-kinds of natural phenomena, ordinary as well as extraordinary, and
-dreams.--The interpretation of signs of the first class (ἱερομαντεία
-or ἱεροσκοπία, _haruspicium_ or _ars haruspicina_) was, according
-to Aeschylus, the invention of Prometheus. It seems to have been
-most cultivated by the Etruscans, among whom it was raised into a
-complete science, and from whom it passed to the Romans. Sacrifices
-were either offered for the special purpose of consulting the gods,
-or in the ordinary way; but in both cases the signs were observed,
-and when they were propitious, the sacrifice was said καλλιερεῖν. The
-principal points that were generally observed were, 1. The manner
-in which the victim approached the altar. 2. The nature of the
-intestines with respect to their colour and smoothness; the liver
-and bile were of particular importance. 3. The nature of the flame
-which consumed the sacrifice. Especial care was also taken during
-a sacrifice, that no inauspicious or frivolous words were uttered
-by any of the bystanders: hence the admonitions of the priests,
-εὐφημεῖτε and εὐφημία, or σιγᾶτε, σιωπᾶτε, _favete linguis_, and
-others; for improper expressions were not only thought to pollute
-and profane the sacred act, but to be unlucky omens.--The art of
-interpreting signs of the second class was called οἰωνιστική,
-_augurium_, or _auspicium_. It was, like the former, common to Greeks
-and Romans, but never attained the same degree of importance in
-Greece as it did in Rome. [AUSPICIUM.] The Greeks, when observing
-the flight of birds, turned their face toward the north, and then a
-bird appearing to the right (east), especially an eagle, a heron, or
-a falcon, was a favourable sign; while birds appearing to the left
-(west) were considered as unlucky signs. Of greater importance than
-the appearance of animals, at least to the Greeks, were the phenomena
-in the heavens, particularly during any public transaction. Among the
-unlucky phenomena in the heavens (διοσημεῖα, _signa_, or _portenta_)
-were thunder and lightning, an eclipse of the sun or moon,
-earthquakes, rain of blood, stones, milk, &c. Any one of these signs
-was sufficient at Athens to break up the assembly of the people.--In
-common life, things apparently of no importance, when occurring at a
-critical moment, were thought by the ancients to be signs sent by the
-gods, from which conclusions might be drawn respecting the future.
-Among these common occurrences we may mention sneezing, twinkling
-of the eyes, tinkling of the ears, &c.--The art of interpreting
-dreams (ὀνειροπολία), which had probably been introduced into Europe
-from Asia, where it is still a universal practice, seems in the
-Homeric age to have been held in high esteem, for dreams were said
-to be sent by Zeus. In subsequent times, that class of diviners
-who occupied themselves with the interpretation of dreams, seems
-to have been very numerous and popular; but they never enjoyed any
-protection from the state, and were chiefly resorted to by private
-individuals.--The subject of oracles is treated in a separate
-article. [ORACULUM.]--The word _divinatio_ was used in a particular
-manner by the Romans as a law term. If in any case two or more
-accusers came forward against one and the same individual, it was, as
-the phrase ran, _decided by divination_, who should be the chief or
-real accuser, whom the others then joined as _subscriptores;_ _i.e._ by
-putting their names to the charge brought against the offender. This
-transaction, by which one of several accusers was selected to conduct
-the accusation, was called _divinatio_, as the question here was not
-about facts, but about something which was to be done, and which
-could not be found out by witnesses or written documents; so that
-the judices had, as it were, to divine the course which they had to
-take. Hence the oration of Cicero, in which he tries to show that he,
-and not Q. Caecilius Niger, ought to conduct the accusation against
-Verres, is called _Divinatio in Caecilium_.
-
-
-DĪVĪSOR. [AMBITUS.]
-
-
-DĪVORTĬUM (ἀπόλειψις, ἀπόπεμψις), divorce. (1) GREEK. The laws of
-Athens permitted either the husband or the wife to call for and
-effect a divorce. If it originated with the wife, she was said
-to leave her husband’s house (ἀπολείπειν); if otherwise, to be
-dismissed from it (ἀποπεμπέσθαι). After divorce, the wife resorted
-to her male relations, with whom she would have remained if she
-had never quitted her maiden state; and it then became their duty
-to receive or recover from her late husband all the property that
-she had brought to him in acknowledged dowry upon their marriage.
-If, upon this, both parties were satisfied, the divorce was final
-and complete: if otherwise, an action ἀπολείψεως, or ἀποπέμψεως,
-would be instituted, as the case might be, by the party opposed to
-the separation. A separation, however, whether it originated from
-the husband or the wife, was considered to reflect discredit on the
-latter.--(2) ROMAN. Divorce always existed in the Roman polity.
-As one essential part of a marriage was the consent and conjugal
-affection of the parties, it was considered that this affection was
-necessary to its continuance, and accordingly either party might
-declare his or her intention to dissolve the connection. No judicial
-decree, and no interference of any public authority, was requisite to
-dissolve a marriage. The first instance of divorce at Rome is said
-to have occurred about B.C. 234, when Sp. Carvilius Ruga put away
-his wife, on the ground of barrenness: it is added, that his conduct
-was generally condemned. Towards the latter part of the republic,
-and under the empire, divorces became very common. Pompey divorced
-his wife Mucia for alleged adultery; and Cicero divorced his wife
-Terentia, after living with her thirty years, and married a young
-woman. Cato the younger divorced his wife Marcia, that his friend
-Hortensius might marry her, and have children by her; for this is
-the true meaning of the story that he lent his wife to Hortensius.
-If a husband divorced his wife, the wife’s dowry, as a general
-rule, was restored; and the same was the case when the divorce took
-place by mutual consent. Corresponding to the forms of marriage by
-_confarreatio_ and _coemtio_, there were the forms of divorce by
-_diffarreatio_ and _remancipatio_. In course of time, less ceremony
-was used; but still some distinct notice or declaration of intention
-was necessary to constitute a divorce. The term _repudium_, it is
-said, properly applies to a marriage only contracted, and _divortium_
-to an actual marriage; but sometimes divortium and repudium appear
-to be used indifferently. The phrases to express a divorce are,
-_nuntium remittere_, _divortium facere_; and the form of words
-might be as follows--_Tuas res tibi habeto, tuas res tibi agito_.
-The phrases used to express the renunciation of a marriage contract
-were, _renuntiare repudium_, _repudium remittere_, _dicere_, and
-_repudiare_; and the form of words might be, _Conditione tua non
-utor_.
-
-
-DŎCĂNA (τὰ δόκανα, from δοκός, a beam) was an ancient symbolical
-representation of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), at Sparta.
-It consisted of two upright beams with others laid across them
-transversely.
-
-
-DŎCĬMĂSĬA (δοκιμασία). When any citizen of Athens was either
-appointed by lot, or chosen by suffrage, to hold a public office,
-he was obliged, before entering on its duties, to submit to a
-_docimasia_, or scrutiny into his previous life and conduct, in which
-any person could object to him as unfit. The _docimasia_, however,
-was not confined to persons appointed to public offices; for we read
-of the denouncement of a scrutiny against orators who spoke in the
-assembly while leading profligate lives, or after having committed
-flagitious crimes.
-
-
-DODRANS. [AS.]
-
-
-DŎLĀBRA, _dim._ DŎLĀBELLA (σμίλη, _dim_. σμιλίον), a chisel, a celt,
-was used for a variety of purposes in ancient as in modern times.
-_Celtes_ is an old Latin word for a chisel, probably derived from
-_coelo_, to engrave. Celts, or chisels, were frequently employed in
-making entrenchments and in destroying fortifications; and hence they
-are often found in ancient earth-works and encampments. They are for
-the most part of bronze, more rarely of hard stone. The sizes and
-forms which they present, are as various as the uses to which they
-were applied. The annexed woodcut is designed to show a few of the
-most remarkable varieties.
-
-[Illustration: Dolabrae, Celts. (From different Collections in Great
-Britain.)]
-
-
-DŌLĬUM, a cylindrical vessel, somewhat resembling our tubs or casks,
-into which new wine was put to let it ferment.
-
-DŎLO (δόλων). (1) A secret poniard or dagger contained in a case,
-used by the Italians. It was inserted in the handles of whips, and
-also in walking sticks, thus corresponding to our sword-stick.--(2) A
-small top-sail.
-
-
-DŎMĬNĬUM signifies quiritarian ownership, or property in a thing; and
-_dominus_, or _dominus legitimus_, is the owner. The dominus has the
-power of dealing with a thing as he pleases, and differs from the
-bare _possessor_, who has only the right of possession, and has not
-the absolute ownership of the thing.
-
-
-DŎMUS (οἶκος), a house.--(1) GREEK. A Greek house was always divided
-into two distinct portions, the _Andronitis_, or men’s apartments
-(ἀνδρωνῖτις), and the _Gynaeconitis_, or women’s apartments
-(γυναικωνῖτις). In the earliest times, as in the houses referred
-to by Homer, and in some houses at a later period, the women’s
-apartments were in the upper story (ὑπερῷον), but usually at a later
-time the gynaeconitis was on the same story with the andronitis,
-and behind it. The front of the house towards the street was not
-large, as the apartments extended rather in the direction of its
-depth than of its width. In towns the houses were often built side
-by side, with party-walls between. The exterior wall was plain,
-being composed generally of stone, brick, and timber, and often
-covered with stucco. There was no open space between the street and
-the house-door, like the Roman _vestibulum_. The πρόθυρα, which is
-sometimes mentioned, seems to be merely the space in front of the
-house, where there was generally an altar of Apollo Agyieus, or a
-rude obelisk emblematical of the god. Sometimes there was a laurel
-tree in the same position, and sometimes a head of the god Hermes.
-A few steps (ἀναβαθμοί) led up to the house-door, which generally
-bore some inscription, for the sake of a good omen, or as a charm.
-The door sometimes opened outwards; but this seems to have been
-an exception to the general rule, as is proved by the expressions
-used for opening, ἐνδοῦναι, and shutting it, ἐπισπάσασθαι and
-ἐφελκύσασθαι. The handles were called ἐπισπαστῆρες. The house-door
-was called αὔλειος or αὔλεια θύρα, because it led to the αὐλή. It
-gave admittance to a narrow passage (θυρωρεῖον, πυλών, θυρών), on
-one side of which, in a large house, were the stables, on the other
-the porter’s lodge. The duty of the porter (θυρωρός) was to admit
-visitors and to prevent anything improper from being carried into or
-out of the house. The porter was attended by a dog. Hence the phrase
-εὐλαβεῖσθαι τὴν κύνα, corresponding to the Latin _Cave canem_. From
-the θυρωρεῖον we pass into the peristyle or court (περιστύλιον, αὐλή)
-of the andronitis, which was a space open to the sky in the centre
-(ὕπαιθρον), and surrounded on all four sides by porticoes (στοαί), of
-which one, probably that nearest the entrance, was called προστόον.
-These porticoes were used for exercise, and sometimes for dining in.
-Here was commonly the altar on which sacrifices were offered to the
-household gods. In building the porticoes the object sought was to
-obtain as much sun in winter, and as much shade and air in summer as
-possible. Round the peristyle were arranged the chambers used by the
-men, such as banqueting rooms (οἶκοι, ἀνδρῶνες), which were large
-enough to contain several sets of couches (τρίκλινοι, ἑπτάκλινοι,
-τριακοντάκλινοι, and at the same time to allow abundant room for
-attendants, musicians, and performers of games; parlours or sitting
-rooms (ἐξέδραι), and smaller chambers and sleeping rooms (δωμάτια,
-κοιτῶνες, οἰκήματα); picture-galleries and libraries, and sometimes
-store-rooms; and in the arrangement of these apartments attention was
-paid to their aspect. The peristyle of the andronitis was connected
-with that of the gynaeconitis by a door called μέταυλος, μέσαυλος, or
-μεσαύλιος, which was in the middle of the portico of the peristyle
-opposite to the entrance. By means of this door all communication
-between the andronitis and gynaeconitis could be shut off.
-
-[Illustration: Ground-plan of a Greek House.
-
-α, House-door, αὔλειος θύρα: θυρ’, passage, θυρωρεῖον or θυρών: Α,
-peristyle, or αὐλή of the andronitis; ο, the halls and chambers
-of the andronitis; μ, μέταυλος or μέσαυλος θύρα: Γ, peristyle of
-the gynaeconitis; γ, chambers of the gynaeconitis; π, προστάς or
-παραστάς: θ, θάλαμος and ἀμφιθάλαμος: Ι, rooms for working in wool
-(ἱστῶνες); Κ, garden-door, κηταία θύρα.]
-
-Accordingly Xenophon calls it θύρα βαλανωτός. Its name μέσαυλος is
-evidently derived from μέσος, and means the door _between_ the two
-αὐλαί or peristyles. This door gave admittance to the peristyle
-of the gynaeconitis, which differed from that of the andronitis
-in having porticoes round only three of its sides. On the fourth
-side were placed two antae [ANTAE], at a considerable distance
-from each other. A third of the distance between these antae was
-set off inwards, thus forming a chamber or vestibule, which was
-called προστάς, παραστάς, and πρόδρομος. On the right and left of
-this προστάς were two bed-chambers, the θάλαμος and ἀμφιθάλαμος,
-of which the former was the principal bed-chamber of the house,
-and here also seem to have been kept the vases, and other valuable
-articles of ornament. Beyond these rooms were large apartments
-(ἱστῶνες) used for working in wool. Round the peristyle were the
-eating-rooms, bed-chambers, store-rooms, and other apartments in
-common use. Besides the αὔλειος θύρα and the μέσαυλος θύρα, there
-was a third door (κηπαία θύρα) leading to the garden. The preceding
-is a conjectural plan of the ground-floor of a Greek house of the
-larger size. There was usually, though not always, an upper story
-(ὑπερῷον διῆρες), which seldom extended over the whole space occupied
-by the lower story. The principal use of the upper story was for the
-lodging of the slaves. The access to the upper floor seems to have
-been sometimes by stairs on the outside of the house, leading up from
-the street. Guests were also lodged in the upper story. But in some
-large houses there were rooms set apart for their reception (ξενῶνες)
-on the ground-floor. The roofs were generally flat, and it was
-customary to walk about upon them. In the interior of the house the
-place of doors was sometimes supplied by curtains (παραπετάσματα),
-which were either plain, or dyed, or embroidered. The principal
-openings for the admission of light and air were in the roofs of
-the peristyles; but it is incorrect to suppose that the houses had
-no windows (θυρίδες), or at least none overlooking the street. They
-were not at all uncommon. Artificial warmth was procured partly by
-means of fire-places. It is supposed that chimneys were altogether
-unknown, and that the smoke escaped through an opening in the roof
-(καπνοδόκη), but it is not easy to understand how this could be the
-case when there was an upper story. Little portable stoves (ἐσχάραι,
-ἐσχαρίδες) or chafing-dishes (ἀνθράκια) were frequently used. The
-houses of the wealthy in the country, at least in Attica, were much
-larger and more magnificent than those in the towns. The latter seem
-to have been generally small and plain, especially in earlier times,
-when the Greeks preferred expending the resources of art and wealth
-on their temples and public buildings; but the private houses became
-more magnificent as the public buildings began to be neglected. The
-decorations of the interior were very plain at the period to which
-our description refers. The floors were of stone. At a late period
-coloured stones were used. Mosaics are first mentioned under the
-kings of Pergamus. The walls, up to the 4th century B.C., seem to
-have been only whited. The first instance of painting them is that
-of Alcibiades. This innovation met with considerable opposition.
-We have also mention of painted ceilings at the same period. At a
-later period this mode of decoration became general.--(2) ROMAN. The
-houses of the Romans were poor and mean for many centuries after the
-foundation of the city. Till the war with Pyrrhus the houses were
-covered only with thatch or shingles, and were usually built of wood
-or unbaked bricks. It was not till the latter times of the republic,
-when wealth had been acquired by conquests in the East, that houses
-of any splendour began to be built; but it then became the fashion
-not only to build houses of an immense size, but also to adorn them
-with columns, paintings, statues, and costly works of art. Some idea
-may be formed of the size and magnificence of the houses of the Roman
-nobles during the later times of the republic by the price which
-they fetched. The consul Messalla bought the house of Autronius for
-3700 sestertia (nearly 33,000_l._), and Cicero the house of Crassus,
-on the Palatine, for 3500 sestertia (nearly 31,000_l._). The house
-of Publius Clodius, whom Milo killed, cost 14,800 sestertia (about
-131,000_l._); and the Tusculan villa of Scaurus was fitted up with
-such magnificence, that when it was burnt by his slaves, he lost
-100,000 sestertia, upwards of 885,000_l._--Houses were originally
-only one story high; but as the value of ground increased in the
-city they were built several stories in height, and the highest
-floors were usually inhabited by the poor. Till the time of Nero,
-the streets in Rome were narrow and irregular, and bore traces of
-the haste and confusion with which the city was built after it had
-been burnt by the Gauls; but after the great fire in the time of
-that emperor, by which two-thirds of Rome was burnt to the ground,
-the city was built with great regularity. The streets were made
-straight and broad; the height of the houses was restricted, and a
-certain part of each was required to be built of Gabian or Alban
-stone, which was proof against fire. The principal parts of a Roman
-house were the, 1. _Vestibulum_, 2. _Ostium_, 3. _Atrium_ or _Cavum
-Aedium_, 4. _Alae_, 5. _Tablinum_, 6. _Fauces_, 7. _Peristylium_.
-The parts of a house which were considered of less importance,
-and of which the arrangement differed in different houses, were
-the, 1. _Cubicula_, 2. _Triclinia_, 3. _Oeci_, 4. _Exedrae_, 5.
-_Pinacotheca_, 6. _Bibliotheca_, 7. _Balineum_, 8. _Culina_, 9.
-_Coenacula_, 10. _Diaeta_, 11. _Solaria_. We shall speak of each
-in order.--1. VESTIBULUM did not properly form part of the house,
-but was a vacant space before the door, forming a court, which was
-surrounded on three sides by the house, and was open on the fourth
-to the street.--2. OSTIUM, which is also called _janua_ and _fores_,
-was the entrance to the house. The street-door admitted into a hall,
-to which the name of ostium was also given, and in which there was
-frequently a small room (_cella_) for the porter (_janitor_ or
-_ostiarius_), and also for a dog, which was usually kept in the hall
-to guard the house. Another door (_janua interior_) opposite the
-street-door led into the atrium.--3. ATRIUM or CAVUM AEDIUM, also
-written _Cavaedium_, are probably only different names of the same
-room.
-
-[Illustration: Atrium of the House of Ceres at Pompeii.]
-
-The Atrium or Cavum Aedium was a large apartment roofed over with
-the exception of an opening in the centre, called _compluvium_,
-towards which the roof sloped so as to throw the rain-water into
-a cistern in the floor, termed _impluvium_, which was frequently
-ornamented with statues, columns, and other works of art. The word
-_impluvium_, however, is also employed to denote the aperture in
-the roof. The atrium was the most important room in the house,
-and among the wealthy was usually fitted up with much splendour
-and magnificence. Originally it was the only sitting-room in the
-house; but in the houses of the wealthy it was distinct from the
-private apartments, and was used as a reception-room, where the
-patron received his clients, and the great and noble the numerous
-visitors who were accustomed to call every morning to pay their
-respects or solicit favours. But though the atrium was not used by
-the wealthy as a sitting-room for the family, it still continued to
-be employed for many purposes which it had originally served. Thus
-the nuptial couch was placed in the atrium opposite the door, and
-also the instruments and materials for spinning and weaving, which
-were formerly carried on by the women of the family in this room.
-Here also the images of their ancestors were placed, and the focus or
-fire-place, which possessed a sacred character, being dedicated to
-the Lares of each family.--4. ALAE, wings, were small apartments or
-recesses on the left and right sides of the atrium.--5. TABLINUM was
-in all probability a recess or room at the further end of the atrium
-opposite the door leading into the hall, and was regarded as part of
-the atrium. It contained the family records and archives. With the
-tablinum the Roman house appears to have originally ceased; and the
-sleeping-rooms were probably arranged on each side of the atrium. But
-when the atrium and its surrounding rooms were used for the reception
-of clients and other public visitors, it became necessary to increase
-the size of the house; and the following rooms were accordingly
-added:--6. FAUCES appear to have been passages, which passed from the
-atrium to the peristylium or interior of the house.--7. PERISTYLIUM
-was in its general form like the atrium, but it was one-third greater
-in breadth, measured transversely, than in length. It was a court
-open to the sky in the middle; the open part, which was surrounded
-by columns, was larger than the impluvium in the atrium, and was
-frequently decorated with flowers and shrubs.--The arrangement of the
-rooms, which are next to be noticed, varied according to the taste
-and circumstances of the owner. It is therefore impossible to assign
-to them any regular place in the house.--1. CUBICULA, bed-chambers,
-appear to have been usually small. There were separate cubicula for
-the day and night; the latter were also called _dormitoria_.--2.
-TRICLINIA are treated of in a separate article. [TRICLINIUM.]--3.
-OECI, from the Greek οἶκος, were spacious halls or saloons borrowed
-from the Greeks, and were frequently used as triclinia. They were to
-have the same proportions as triclinia, but were to be more spacious
-on account of having columns, which triclinia had not.--4. EXEDRAE
-were rooms for conversation and the other purposes of society.--5.
-PINACOTHECA, a picture-gallery.--6, 7. BIBLIOTHECA and BALINEUM are
-treated of in separate articles.--8. CULINA, the kitchen.
-
-[Illustration: Kitchen of the House of Pansa at Pompeii.]
-
-The food was originally cooked in the atrium: but the progress of
-refinement afterwards led to the use of another part of the house for
-this purpose. In the kitchen of Pansa’s house at Pompeii, a stove for
-stews and similar preparations was found, very much like the charcoal
-stoves used in the present day. Before it lie a knife, a strainer,
-and a kind of frying-pan with four spherical cavities, as if it were
-meant to cook eggs.--9. COENACULA, properly signified rooms to dine
-in; but after it became the fashion to dine in the upper part of the
-house, the whole of the rooms above the ground-floor were called
-_coenacula_.--10. DIAETA, an apartment used for dining in, and for
-the other purposes of life. It appears to have been smaller than
-the triclinium. _Diaeta_ is also the name given by Pliny to rooms
-containing three or four bed-chambers (_cubicula_). Pleasure-houses
-or summer-houses are also called _diaetae_.--11. SOLARIA, properly
-places for basking in the sun, were terraces on the tops of houses.
-The preceding cut represents the atrium of a house at Pompeii. In
-the centre is the impluvium, and the passage at the further end is
-the ostium or entrance hall.--The preceding account of the different
-rooms, and especially of the arrangement of the atrium, tablinum,
-peristyle, &c., is best illustrated by the houses which have been
-disinterred at Pompeii. The ground-plan of one is accordingly
-subjoined.
-
-[Illustration: Ground-plan of a House at Pompeii.]
-
-Like most of the other houses at Pompeii, it had no vestibulum
-according to the meaning given above. 1. The _ostium_ or
-entrance-hall, which is six feet wide and nearly thirty long. Near
-the street-door there is a figure of a large fierce dog worked in
-mosaic on the pavement, and beneath it is written _Cave Canem_. The
-two large rooms on each side of the vestibule appear from the large
-openings in front of them to have been shops; they communicate with
-the entrance-hall, and were therefore probably occupied by the master
-of the house. 2. The _atrium_, which is about twenty-eight feet in
-length and twenty in breadth; its _impluvium_ is near the centre
-of the room, and its floor is paved with white tesserae, spotted
-with black. 3. Chambers for the use of the family, or intended for
-the reception of guests, who were entitled to claim hospitality.
-4. A small room with a staircase leading up to the upper rooms.
-5. _Alae._ 6. The _tablinum_. 7. The _fauces_. 8. Peristyle, with
-Doric columns and garden in the centre. The large room on the right
-of the peristyle is the triclinium; beside it is the kitchen; and
-the smaller apartments are cubicula and other rooms for the use of
-the family.--Having given a general description of the rooms of a
-Roman house, it remains to speak of the (1) floors, (2) walls, (3)
-ceilings, (4) windows, and (5) the mode of warming the rooms. For
-the doors, see JANUA.--(1.) The floor (_solum_) of a room was seldom
-boarded: it was generally covered with stone or marble, or mosaics.
-The common floors were paved with pieces of bricks, tiles, stones,
-&c., forming a kind of composition called _ruderatic_. Sometimes
-pieces of marble were imbedded in a composition ground, and these
-probably gave the idea of mosaics. As these floors were beaten
-down (_pavita_) with rammers (_fistucae_), the word _pavimentum_
-became the general name for a floor. Mosaics, called by Pliny
-_lithostrota_ (λιθόστρωτα), though this word has a more extensive
-meaning, first came into use in Sulla’s time, who made one in the
-temple of Fortune at Praeneste. Mosaic work was afterwards called
-_Musivum opus_, and was most extensively employed.--(2.) The inner
-walls (_parietes_) of private rooms were frequently lined with slabs
-of marble, but were more usually covered by paintings, which in the
-time of Augustus were made upon the walls themselves. This practice
-was so common that we find even the small houses in Pompeii have
-paintings upon their walls.--(3.) The ceilings seem originally to
-have been left uncovered, the beams which supported the roof or the
-upper story being visible. Afterwards planks were placed across
-these beams at certain intervals, leaving hollow spaces, called
-_lacunaria_ or _laquearia_, which were frequently covered with
-gold and ivory, and sometimes with paintings. There was an arched
-ceiling in common use, called CAMARA.--(4.) The Roman houses had
-few windows (_fenestrae_). The principal apartments, the atrium,
-peristyle, &c., were lighted from above, and the cubicula and other
-small rooms generally derived their light from them, and not from
-windows looking into the street. The rooms only on the upper story
-seem to have been usually lighted by windows. The windows appear
-originally to have been merely openings in the wall, closed by means
-of shutters, which frequently had two leaves (_bifores fenestrae_).
-Windows were also sometimes covered by a kind of lattice or trellis
-work (_clathri_), and sometimes by net-work, to prevent serpents
-and other noxious reptiles from getting in. Afterwards, however,
-windows were made of a transparent stone, called _lapis specularis_
-(mica); such windows were called _specularia_. Windows made of glass
-(_vitrum_) are first mentioned by Lactantius, who lived in the fourth
-century of the Christian era; but the discoveries at Pompeii prove
-that glass was used for windows under the early emperors.--(5.) The
-rooms were heated in winter in different ways; but the Romans had
-no stoves like ours. The cubicula, triclinia, and other rooms,
-which were intended for winter use, were built in that part of the
-house upon which the sun shone most; and in the mild climate of
-Italy this frequently enabled them to dispense with any artificial
-mode of warming the rooms. Rooms exposed to the sun in this way were
-sometimes called _heliocamini_. The rooms were sometimes heated by
-hot air, which was introduced by means of pipes from a furnace below,
-but more frequently by portable furnaces or braziers (_foculi_), in
-which coal or charcoal was burnt. The _caminus_ was also a kind of
-stove, in which wood appears to have been usually burnt, and probably
-only differed from the _foculus_ in being larger and fixed to one
-place. The rooms usually had no chimneys for carrying off the smoke,
-which escaped through the windows, doors, and openings in the roof;
-still chimneys do not appear to have been entirely unknown to the
-ancients, as some are said to have been found in the ruins of ancient
-buildings.
-
-
-DŌNĀRĬA (ἀναθήματα or ἀνακείμενα), presents made to the gods, either
-by individuals or communities. Sometimes they are also called
-_dona_ or δῶρα. The belief that the gods were pleased with costly
-presents was as natural to the ancients as the belief that they
-could be influenced in their conduct towards men by the offering of
-sacrifices; and, indeed, both sprang from the same feeling. Presents
-were mostly given as tokens of gratitude for some favour which a god
-had bestowed on man; as, for instance, by persons who had recovered
-from illness or escaped from shipwreck; but some are also mentioned,
-which were intended to induce the deity to grant some especial
-favour. Almost all presents were dedicated in temples, to which in
-some places an especial building was added, in which these treasures
-were preserved. Such buildings were called θησαυροί(treasuries);
-and in the most frequented temples of Greece many states had their
-separate treasuries. The act of dedication was called ἀνατιθέναι,
-_donare_, _dedicare_, or _sacrare_.
-
-
-DŌNĀTĪVUM. [CONGIARIUM.]
-
-
-DORMĪTŌRĬA. [DOMUS.]
-
-
-DOS (φερνή, προΐξ), dowry. (1) GREEK. In the Homeric times it was
-customary for the husband to purchase his wife from her relations,
-by gifts called ἕδνα or ἔεδνα. But at Athens, during the historical
-period, the contrary was the case; for every woman had to bring her
-husband some dowry, and so universal was the practice, that one of
-the chief distinctions between a wife and a παλλακή, or concubine,
-consisted in the former having a portion, whereas the latter had
-not; hence, persons who married wives without portions appear to
-have given them or their guardians an acknowledgment in writing by
-which the receipt of a portion was admitted. Moreover, poor heiresses
-were either married or portioned by their next of kin, according to
-a law, which fixed the amount of portion to be given at five minae
-by a Pentacosiomedimnus, three by a Horseman, and one and a half by
-a Zeugites. The husband had to give to the relatives or guardians
-of the wife security (ἀποτίμημα) for the dowry, which was not
-considered the property of the husband himself, but rather of his
-wife and children. The portion was returned to the wife in case of a
-divorce.--(2) ROMAN. The _dos_ among the Romans was every thing which
-on the occasion of a woman’s marriage was transferred by her, or by
-another person, to the husband. All the property of the wife which
-was not made dos continued to be her own, and was comprised under the
-name of _parapherna_. The dos upon its delivery became the husband’s
-property, and continued to be his so long as the marriage relation
-existed. In the case of divorce, the woman, or her relations, could
-bring an action for the restitution of the dos; and, accordingly, a
-woman whose dos was large (_dotata uxor_) had some influence over her
-husband, inasmuch as she had the power of divorcing herself, and thus
-of depriving him of the enjoyment of her property.
-
-
-[Illustration: Attic Drachma. (British Museum.)]
-
-DRACHMA (δραχμή), the principal silver coin among the Greeks. The two
-chief standards in the currencies of the Greek states were the Attic
-and Aeginetan. The average value of the Attic drachma was 9¾_d._ of
-our money. It contained six obols (ὀβολοί); and the Athenians had
-separate silver coins, from four drachmae to a quarter of an obol.
-There were also silver pieces of two drachmae and four drachmae.
-(See tables.) The tetradrachm in later times was called _stater_.
-The latter word also signifies a gold coin, equal in value to twenty
-drachmae [STATER]. The obolos, in later times, was of bronze: but in
-the best times of Athens we only read of silver obols. The χαλκοῦς
-was a copper coin, and the eighth part of an obol. The Attic
-standard prevailed most in the maritime and commercial states. It
-was the standard of Philip’s gold, and was introduced by Alexander
-for silver also.--The Aeginetan standard appears to have been the
-prevalent one in early times: we are told that money was first coined
-at Aegina by order of Pheidon at Argos. In later times the Aeginetan
-standard was used in almost all the states of the Peloponnesus,
-except Corinth. The average value of the Aeginetan drachma was 1_s._
-1¾_d._ in our money; and the values of the different coins of this
-standard are as follows:--
-
-                |  Shill.  |   Pence.  |  Farth.
-  ½ Obol        |   -      |     1     |   0·583
-  Obol          |   -      |     2     |   1·166
-  Diobolus      |   -      |     4     |   2·33
-  Triobolus     |   -      |     6     |   2·5
-  Drachma       |   1      |     1     |   3
-  Didrachm      |   2      |     3     |   2
-
-[Illustration: Aeginetan Drachma. (British Museum.)]
-
-As the Romans reckoned in sesterces, so the Greeks generally reckoned
-by drachmae; and when a sum is mentioned in the Attic writers,
-without any specification of the unit, drachmae are usually meant.
-
-
-DRĂCO. [SIGNA MILITARIA.]
-
-
-DŬCĒNĀRĬI.--(1) The name given to the Roman procuratores, who
-received a salary of 200 sestertia. The procuratores first received a
-salary in the time of Augustus.--(2) A class or decuria of judices,
-first established by Augustus. They were so called because their
-property, as valued in the census, amounted only to 200 sestertia.
-They appear to have tried cases of small importance.
-
-
-DŬCENTĒSĬMA. [CENTESIMA.]
-
-
-DŬŎDĔCIM SCRIPTA. [LATRUNCULI.]
-
-
-DŬŎDĔCIM TĂBŬLĀRUM LEX. [LEX.]
-
-
-DUPLĀRĬI or DUPLĬCĀRĬI, were soldiers who received on account of
-their good conduct double allowance (_duplicia cibaria_), and perhaps
-in some cases double pay likewise.
-
-
-DŬPONDĬUS. [AS.]
-
-
-DUSSIS. [AS.]
-
-
-DUUMVĬRI, or the two men, the name of various magistrates and
-functionaries at Rome, and in the coloniae and municipia. (1)
-DUUMVIRI JURI DICUNDO were the highest magistrates in the municipal
-towns. [COLONIA.]--(2) DUUMVIRI NAVALES, extraordinary magistrates,
-who were created, whenever occasion required, for the purpose
-of equipping and repairing the fleet. They appear to have been
-originally appointed by the consuls and dictators, but were first
-elected by the people, B.C. 311.--(3) DUUMVIRI PERDUELLIONIS.
-[PERDUELLIO.]--(4) DUUMVIRI QUINQUENNALES, were the censors in the
-municipal towns, and must not be confounded with the _duumviri juri
-dicundo_. [COLONIA.]--(5) DUUMVIRI SACRORUM originally had the charge
-of the Sibylline books. Their duties were afterwards discharged by
-the _decemviri sacris faciundis_. [DECEMVIRI.]--(6) DUUMVIRI were
-also appointed for the purpose of building or dedicating a temple.
-
-
-
-
-ECCLĒSĬA (ἐκκλησία), the name of the general assembly of the citizens
-at Athens, in which they met to discuss and determine upon matters
-of public interest, and which was therefore the sovereign power
-in the state. These assemblies were either _ordinary_ (νόμιμοι or
-κυρίαι), and held four times in each prytany, or _extraordinary_,
-that is, specially convened, upon any sudden emergency, and therefore
-called σύγκλητοι. The place in which they were anciently held was
-the _agora_. Afterwards they were transferred to the Pnyx, and at
-last to the great theatre of Dionysus, and other places. The most
-usual place, however, was the Pnyx, which was situated to the west
-of the Areiopagus, on a slope connected with Mount Lycabettus, and
-partly at least within the walls of the city. It was semicircular in
-form, with a boundary wall part rock and part masonry, and an area of
-about 12,000 square yards. On the north the ground was filled up and
-paved with large stones, so as to get a level surface on the slope.
-Towards this side, and close to the wall, was the _bema_ (βῆμα), a
-stone platform or hustings ten or eleven feet high, with an ascent
-of steps. The position of the _bema_ was such as to command a view
-of the sea from behind, and of the Propylaea and Parthenon in front,
-and we may be sure that the Athenian orators would often rouse the
-national feelings of their hearers by pointing to the assemblage of
-magnificent edifices, “monuments of Athenian gratitude and glory,”
-which they had in view from the Pnyx.--The right of convening
-the people was generally vested in the prytanes or presidents of
-the council of Five Hundred [see BOULÉ], but in cases of sudden
-emergency, and especially during wars, the strategi also had the
-power of calling extraordinary meetings, for which, however, the
-consent of the senate appears to have been necessary. The prytanes
-not only gave a previous notice of the day of assembly, and published
-a programme of the subjects to be discussed, but also, it appears,
-sent a crier round to collect the citizens. All persons who did not
-obey the call were subject to a fine, and six magistrates called
-lexiarchs were appointed, whose duty it was to take care that the
-people attended the meetings, and to levy fines on those who refused
-to do so. With a view to this, whenever an assembly was to be held,
-certain public slaves (Σκύθαι or τοξόται) were sent round to sweep
-the agora, and other places of public resort, with a rope coloured
-with vermilion. The different persons whom these ropemen met, were
-driven by them towards the ecclesia, and those who refused to go were
-marked by the rope and fined. An additional inducement to attend,
-with the poorer classes, was the μισθὸς ἐκκλησιαστικός, or pay which
-they received for it. The payment was originally an obolus, but was
-afterwards raised to three. The right of attending was enjoyed by all
-legitimate citizens who were of the proper age (generally supposed
-to be twenty, certainly not less than eighteen), and not labouring
-under any _atimia_, or loss of civil rights.--In the article BOULÉ it
-is explained who the prytanes and the proedri were; and we may here
-remark, that it was the duty of the proedri of the same tribe, under
-the presidency of their chairman (ὁ ἐπιστάτης), to lay before the
-people the subjects to be discussed; to read, or cause to be read,
-the previous bill (τὸ προβούλευμα) of the senate, without which no
-measure could be brought before the ecclesia, and to give permission
-to the speakers to address the people. The officers who acted under
-them, were the crier (ὁ κήρυξ), and the Scythian bowmen.--Previous,
-however, to the commencement of any business, the place was purified
-by the offering of sacrifices, and then the gods were implored in
-a prayer to bless the proceedings of the meeting. The privilege of
-addressing the assembly was not confined to any class or age among
-those who had the right to be present: all, without any distinction,
-were invited to do so by the proclamation, Τίς ἀγορεύειν βούλεται,
-which was made by the crier after the proedri had gone through the
-necessary preliminaries, and laid the subject of discussion before
-the meeting; for though, according to the institutions of Solon,
-those persons who were above fifty years of age ought to have been
-called upon to speak first, this regulation had in later times
-become quite obsolete. The speakers are sometimes simply called οἱ
-παρίοντες, and appear to have worn a crown of myrtle on their heads
-while addressing the assembly. The most influential and practised
-speakers of the assembly were generally distinguished by the name of
-ῥήτορες. After the speakers had concluded, any one was at liberty
-to propose a decree, whether drawn up beforehand or framed in the
-meeting, which, however, it was necessary to present to the proedri,
-that they might see, in conjunction with the _nomophylaces_, whether
-there was contained in it anything injurious to the state, or
-contrary to the existing laws. If not, it was read by the crier;
-though, even after the reading, the chairman could prevent it being
-put to the vote, unless his opposition was overborne by threats and
-clamours. Private individuals also could do the same, by engaging
-upon oath (ὑπωμοσία) to bring against the author of any measure
-they might object to, an accusation called a γραφὴ παράνομων. If,
-however, the chairman refused to submit any question to the decision
-of the people, he might be proceeded against by _endeixis_; and if
-he allowed the people to vote upon a proposal which was contrary
-to existing constitutional laws, he was in some cases liable to
-_atimia_. If, on the contrary, no opposition of this sort was offered
-to a proposed decree, the votes of the people were taken, by the
-permission of the chairman and with the consent of the rest of the
-proedri. The decision of the people was given either by show of
-hands, or by ballot, _i.e._ by casting pebbles into urns (καδίσκοι);
-the former was expressed by the word χειροτονεῖν, the latter by
-ψηφίζεσθαι, although the two terms are frequently confounded. The
-more usual method of voting was by show of hands, as being more
-expeditious and convenient (χειροτονία). Vote by ballot, on the other
-hand, was only used in a few special cases determined by law; as,
-for instance, when a proposition was made for allowing those who
-had suffered _atimia_ to appeal to the people for restitution of
-their former rights; or for inflicting extraordinary punishments on
-atrocious offenders, and generally, upon any matter which affected
-private persons. In cases of this sort it was settled by law, that
-a decree should not be valid unless six thousand citizens at least
-voted in favour of it. This was by far the majority of those citizens
-who were in the habit of attending; for, in time of war, the number
-never amounted to five thousand, and in time of peace seldom to ten
-thousand.--The determination or decree of the people was called a
-ψήφισμα, which properly signifies a law proposed to an assembly,
-and approved of by the people. Respecting the form for drawing up a
-ψήφισμα, see BOULÉ.--When the business was over, the order for the
-dismissal of the assembly was given by the prytanes, through the
-proclamation of the crier; and as it was not customary to continue
-meetings, which usually began early in the morning, till after
-sunset, if one day were not sufficient for the completion of any
-business, it was adjourned to the next. But an assembly was sometimes
-broken up, if any one, whether a magistrate or private individual,
-declared that he saw an unfavourable omen, or perceived thunder and
-lightning. The sudden appearance of rain also, or the shock of an
-earthquake, or any natural phenomenon of the kind called διοσημίαι,
-was a sufficient reason for the hasty adjournment of an assembly.
-
-
-ECCLETI. [HOMOEI.]
-
-
-ECDĬCUS (ἔκδικος), the name of an officer in many of the towns of
-Asia Minor during the Roman dominion, whose principal duty was the
-care of the public money, and the prosecution of all parties who owed
-money to the state.
-
-
-ECMARTȲRĬA (ἐκμαρτυρία), signifies the deposition of a witness at
-Athens, who, by reason of absence abroad, or illness, was unable
-to attend in court. His statement was taken down in writing, in
-the presence of persons expressly appointed to receive it, and
-afterwards, upon their swearing to its identity, was read as evidence
-in the cause.
-
-
-ĒDICTUM. The _Jus Edicendi_, or power of making edicts, belonged
-to the higher _magistratus populi Romani_, but it was principally
-exercised by the two praetors, the praetor urbanus, and the praetor
-peregrinus, whose jurisdiction was exercised in the provinces by the
-praeses. The curule aediles likewise made many edicts; and tribunes,
-censors, and pontifices also promulgated edicts relating to the
-matters of their respective jurisdictions. The edicta were among
-the sources of Roman law. The edictum may be described generally
-as a rule promulgated by a magistratus on entering on his office,
-which was done by writing it on an album and exhibiting it in a
-conspicuous place. As the office of a magistratus was annual, the
-rules promulgated by a predecessor were not binding on a successor,
-but he might confirm or adopt the rules of his predecessor, and
-introduce them into his own edict, and hence such adopted rules were
-called _edictum ralatitium_, or _vetus_, as opposed to _edictum
-novum_. A _repentinum edictum_ was that rule which was made (_prout
-res incidit_) for the occasion. A _perpetuum edictum_ was that rule
-which was made by the magistratus on entering upon office, and which
-was intended to apply to all cases to which it was applicable during
-the year of his office: hence it was sometimes called also _annua
-lex_. Until it became the practice for magistratus to adopt the
-edicta of their predecessors, the edicta could not form a body of
-permanent binding rules; but when this practice became common, the
-edicta (_edictum tralatitium_) soon constituted a large body of law,
-which was practically of as much importance as any other part of the
-law.
-
-
-EICOSTĒ (εἰκοστή), a tax or duty of one-twentieth (five per cent.)
-upon all commodities exported or imported by sea in the states of the
-allies subject to Athens. This tax was first imposed B.C. 413, in the
-place of the direct tribute which had up to this time been paid by
-the subject allies; and the change was made with the hope of raising
-a greater revenue. This tax, like all others, was farmed, and the
-farmers of it were called εἰκοστολόγοι.
-
-
-EIRĒN or ĪRĒN (εἴρην or ἴρην), the name given to the Spartan youth
-when he attained the age of twenty. At the age of eighteen he emerged
-from childhood, and was called μελλείρην. When he had attained his
-twentieth year, he began to exercise a direct influence over his
-juniors, and was entrusted with the command of troops in battle. The
-word appears to have originally signified a commander. The ἰρένες
-mentioned in Herodotus, in connection with the battle of Plataeae,
-were certainly not youths, but commanders.
-
-
-EISANGĔLĬA (εἰσαγγελία), signifies, in its primary and most general
-sense, a denunciation of any kind, but, much more usually, an
-information laid before the council or the assembly of the people,
-and the consequent impeachment and trial of state criminals at
-Athens under novel or extraordinary circumstances. Among these were
-the occasions upon which manifest crimes were alleged to have been
-committed, and yet of such a nature as the existing laws had failed
-to anticipate, or at least describe specifically (ἄγραφα ἀδικήματα),
-the result of which omission would have been, but for the enactment
-by which the accusations in question might be preferred (νόμος
-εἰσαγγελτικός), that a prosecutor would not have known to what
-magistrate to apply; that a magistrate, if applied to, could not with
-safety have accepted the indictment or brought it into court; and
-that, in short, there would have been a total failure of justice.
-
-
-EISITĒRĬA (εἰσιτήρια, _scil._ ἱερά), sacrifices offered at Athens by
-the senate before the session began, in honour of the Θεοὶ Βουλαῖοι,
-_i.e._ Zeus and Athena.
-
-
-EISPHŎRA (εἰσφορά), an extraordinary tax on property, raised at
-Athens, whenever the means of the state were not sufficient to
-carry on a war. It is not quite certain when this property-tax was
-introduced; but it seems to have come first into general use about
-B.C. 428. It could never be raised without a decree of the people,
-who also assigned the amount required; and the _strategi_, or
-generals, superintended its collection, and presided in the courts
-where disputes connected with, or arising from, the levying of the
-tax were settled. The usual expressions for paying this property-tax
-are: εἰσφέρειν χρήματα, εἰσφέρειν εἰς τὸν πόλεμον, εἰς τὴν σωτηρίαν
-τῆς πόλεως, εἰσφορὰς εἰσφέρειν, and those who paid it were called οἱ
-εἰσφέροντες. The census of Solon was at first the standard according
-to which the _eisphora_ was raised, until in B.C. 377 a new census
-was instituted, in which the people, for the purpose of fixing the
-rates of the property-tax, were divided into a number of symmoriae
-(συμμορίαι) or classes, similar to those which were afterwards made
-for the trierarchy. Each of the ten tribes or phylae, appointed
-120 of its wealthier citizens; and the whole number of persons
-included in the symmoriae was thus 1200, who were considered as the
-representatives of the whole republic. This body of 1200 was divided
-into four classes, each consisting of 300. The first class, or the
-richest, were the leaders of the symmoriae (ἡγεμόνες συμμοριῶν),
-and are often called the three hundred. They probably conducted the
-proceedings of the symmoriae, and they, or, which is more likely,
-the demarchs, had to value the taxable property. Other officers
-were appointed to make out the lists of the rates, and were called
-ἐπιγραφεῖς, διαγραφεῖς or ἐκλογεῖς. When the wants of the state were
-pressing, the 300 leaders advanced the money to the others, who paid
-it back to the 300 at the regular time. The first class probably
-consisted of persons who possessed property from 12 talents upwards;
-the second class, of persons who possessed property from 6 talents
-and upwards, but under 12; the third class, of persons who possessed
-property from 2 talents upwards, but under 6; the fourth class, of
-persons who possessed property from 25 minae upwards, but under 2
-talents. The rate of taxation was higher or lower according to the
-wants of the republic at the time; we have accounts of rates of a
-12th, a 50th, a 100th, and a 500th part of the taxable property.
-If any one thought that his property was taxed higher than that of
-another man on whom juster claims could be made, he had the right to
-call upon this person to take the office in his stead, or to submit
-to a complete exchange of property. [ANTIDOSIS.] No Athenian, on
-the other hand, if belonging to the tax-paying classes, could be
-exempt from the _eisphora_, not even the descendants of Harmodius and
-Aristogeiton.
-
-
-ĒLECTRUM (ἤλεκτρος and ἤλεκτρον), is used by the ancient writers
-in two different senses, either for _amber_ or for a mixture of
-metals composed of gold and silver. In Homer and Hesiod, it has, in
-all probability, the former meaning. The earliest passage of any
-Greek writer, in which the word is _certainly_ used for the metal,
-is in the _Antigone_ of Sophocles (1038). This alludes to _native
-electrum_; but the compound was also made artificially. Pliny
-states that when gold contains a fifth part of silver, it is called
-_electrum_; that it is found in veins of gold; and that it is also
-made by art: if, he adds, it contains more than a fifth of silver, it
-becomes too brittle to be malleable. But Isidorus mentions electrum
-composed of _three_ parts gold, and _one_ of silver. Electrum was
-used for plate, and the other similar purposes for which gold and
-silver were employed. It was also used as a material for money.
-Lampridius tells us, that Alexander Severus struck coins of it;
-and coins are in existence, of this metal, struck by the kings of
-Bosporus, by Syracuse, and by other Greek states.
-
-
-ĔLEUSĪNĬA (ἐλευσίνια), a festival and mysteries, originally
-celebrated only at Eleusis in Attica, in honour of Demeter and
-Persephone. The Eleusinian mysteries, or _the_ mysteries, as they
-were sometimes called, were the holiest and most venerable of all
-that were celebrated in Greece. Various traditions were current among
-the Greeks respecting the author of these mysteries: for, while some
-considered Eumolpus or Musaeus to be their founder, others stated
-that they had been introduced from Egypt by Erechtheus, who at a time
-of scarcity provided his country with corn from Egypt, and imported
-from the same quarter the sacred rites and mysteries of Eleusis.
-A third tradition attributed the institution to Demeter herself,
-who, when wandering about in search of her daughter, Persephone,
-was believed to have come to Attica, in the reign of Erechtheus,
-to have supplied its inhabitants with corn, and to have instituted
-the mysteries at Eleusis. This last opinion seems to have been the
-most common among the ancients, and in subsequent times a stone was
-shown near the well Callichoros at Eleusis, on which the goddess,
-overwhelmed with grief and fatigue, was believed to have rested on
-her arrival in Attica. All the accounts and allusions in ancient
-writers seem to warrant the conclusion, that the legends concerning
-the introduction of the Eleusinia are descriptions of a period when
-the inhabitants of Attica were becoming acquainted with the benefits
-of agriculture, and of a regularly constituted form of society.--In
-the reign of Erechtheus a war is said to have broken out between
-the Athenians and Eleusinians; and when the latter were defeated,
-they acknowledged the supremacy of Athens in everything except the
-mysteries, which they wished to conduct and regulate for themselves.
-Thus the superintendence remained with the descendants of Eumolpus
-[EUMOLPIDAE], the daughters of the Eleusinian king Celeus, and a
-third class of priests, the Ceryces, who seem likewise to have been
-connected with the family of Eumolpus, though they themselves traced
-their origin to Hermes and Aglauros.--At the time when the local
-governments of the several townships of Attica were concentrated at
-Athens, the capital became also the centre of religion, and several
-deities who had hitherto only enjoyed a local worship, were now
-raised to the rank of national gods. This seems also to have been
-the case with the Eleusinian goddess, for in the reign of Theseus we
-find mention of a temple at Athens, called Eleusinion, probably the
-new and national sanctuary of Demeter. Her priests and priestesses
-now became naturally attached to the national temple of the capital,
-though her original place of worship at Eleusis, with which so many
-sacred associations were connected, still retained its importance and
-its special share in the celebration of the national solemnities.--We
-must distinguish between the greater Eleusinia, which were celebrated
-at Athens and Eleusis, and the lesser, which were held at Agrae
-on the Ilissus. The lesser Eleusinia were only a preparation
-(προκάθαρσις or προάγνευσις) for the real mysteries. They were held
-every year in the month of Anthesterion, and, according to some
-accounts, in honour of Persephone alone. Those who were initiated in
-them bore the name of _Mystae_ (μύσται), and had to wait at least
-another year before they could be admitted to the great mysteries.
-The principal rites of this first stage of initiation consisted in
-the sacrifice of a sow, which the mystae seem to have first washed
-in the Cantharus, and in the purification by a priest, who bore
-the name of _Hydranos_ (Ὑδρανός). The mystae had also to take an
-oath of secrecy, which was administered to them by the _Mystagogus_
-(μυσταγωγός, also called ἱεροφάντης or προφήτης), and they received
-some kind of preparatory instruction, which enabled them afterwards
-to understand the mysteries which were revealed to them in the
-great Eleusinia.--The great mysteries were celebrated every year in
-the month of Boedromion, during nine days, from the 15th to the
-23rd, both at Athens and Eleusis. The initiated were called ἐπόπται
-or ἔφυροι. On the first day, those who had been initiated in the
-lesser Eleusinia, assembled at Athens. On the second day the mystae
-went in solemn procession to the sea-coast, where they underwent
-a purification. Of the third day scarcely anything is known with
-certainty; we are only told that it was a day of fasting, and that in
-the evening a frugal meal was taken, which consisted of cakes made
-of sesame and honey. On the fourth day the καλάθος κάθοδος seems to
-have taken place. This was a procession with a basket containing
-pomegranates and poppy-seeds; it was carried on a waggon drawn by
-oxen, and women followed with small mystic cases in their hands.
-On the fifth day, which appears to have been called the torch day
-(ἡ τῶν λαμπάδων ἡμέρα), the mystae, led by the δᾳδοῦχος, went in
-the evening with torches to the temple of Demeter at Eleusis, where
-they seem to have remained during the following night. This rite was
-probably a symbolical representation of Demeter wandering about in
-search of Persephone. The sixth day, called _Iacchos_, was the most
-solemn of all. The statue of Iacchos, son of Demeter, adorned with a
-garland of myrtle and bearing a torch in his hand, was carried along
-the sacred road amidst joyous shouts and songs, from the Cerameicus
-to Eleusis. This solemn procession was accompanied by great numbers
-of followers and spectators. During the night from the sixth to
-the seventh day the mystae remained at Eleusis, and were initiated
-into the last mysteries (ἐποπτεία). Those who were neither ἐπόπται
-nor μύσται were sent away by a herald. The mystae now repeated the
-oath of secrecy which had been administered to them at the lesser
-Eleusinia, underwent a new purification, and then they were led by
-the mystagogus in the darkness of night into the lighted interior
-of the sanctuary (φωταγωγία), and were allowed to see (αὐτοψία)
-what none except the epoptae ever beheld. The awful and horrible
-manner in which the initiation is described by later, especially
-Christian writers, seems partly to proceed from their ignorance of
-its real character, partly from their horror of and aversion to
-these pagan rites. The more ancient writers always abstained from
-entering upon any description of the subject. Each individual, after
-his initiation, is said to have been dismissed by the words κόγξ,
-ὄμπαξ, in order to make room for other mystae. On the seventh day
-the initiated returned to Athens amid various kinds of raillery and
-jests, especially at the bridge over the Cephisus, where they sat
-down to rest, and poured forth their ridicule on those who passed
-by. Hence the words γεφυρίζειν and γεφυρισμός. These σκώμματα seem,
-like the procession with torches to Eleusis, to have been dramatical
-and symbolical representations of the jests by which, according to
-the ancient legend, Iambe or Baubo had dispelled the grief of the
-goddess and made her smile. We may here observe, that probably the
-whole history of Demeter and Persephone was in some way or other
-symbolically represented at the Eleusinia. The eighth day, called
-_Epidauria_ (Ἐπιδαύρια), was a kind of additional day for those
-who by some accident had come too late, or had been prevented from
-being initiated on the sixth day. It was said to have been added
-to the original number of days, when Asclepius, coming over from
-Epidaurus to be initiated, arrived too late, and the Athenians, not
-to disappoint the god, added an eighth day. The ninth and last day
-bore the name of πλημοχοαί, from a peculiar kind of vessel called
-πλημοχοή, which is described as a small kind of κότυλος. Two of these
-vessels were on this day filled with water or wine, and the contents
-of the one thrown to the east, and those of the other to the west,
-while those who performed this rite uttered some mystical words.--The
-Eleusinian mysteries long survived the independence of Greece.
-Attempts to suppress them were made by the emperor Valentinian, but
-he met with strong opposition, and they seem to have continued down
-to the time of the elder Theodosius. Respecting the secret doctrines
-which were revealed in them to the initiated, nothing certain is
-known. The general belief of the ancients was, that they opened to
-man a comforting prospect of a future state. But this feature does
-not seem to have been originally connected with these mysteries, and
-was probably added to them at the period which followed the opening
-of a regular intercourse between Greece and Egypt, when some of the
-speculative doctrines of the latter country, and of the East, may
-have been introduced into the mysteries, and hallowed by the names of
-the venerable bards of the mythical age. This supposition would also
-account, in some measure, for the legend of their introduction from
-Egypt. In modern times many attempts have been made to discover the
-nature of the mysteries revealed to the initiated, but the results
-have been as various and as fanciful as might be expected. The most
-sober and probable view is that, according to which, “they were
-the remains of a worship which preceded the rise of the Hellenic
-mythology and its attendant rites, grounded on a view of nature,
-less fanciful, more earnest, and better fitted to awaken both
-philosophical thought and religious feeling.”
-
-
-ĔLEUTHĔRĬA (ἐλευθέρια), the feast of liberty, a festival which the
-Greeks, after the battle of Plataeae (479 B.C.), instituted in honour
-of Zeus Eleutherios (the deliverer). It was intended not merely
-to be a token of their gratitude to the god to whom they believed
-themselves to be indebted for their victory over the barbarians, but
-also as a bond of union among themselves; for, in an assembly of all
-the Greeks, Aristeides carried a decree that delegates (πρόβουλοι
-καὶ θεωροί) from all the Greek states should assemble every year
-at Plataeae for the celebration of the Eleutheria. The town itself
-was at the same time declared sacred and inviolable, as long as its
-citizens offered the annual sacrifices which were then instituted on
-behalf of Greece. Every fifth year these solemnities were celebrated
-with contests, in which the victors were rewarded with chaplets.
-
-
-ELLŌTĬA or HELLŌTĬA (ἐλλώτια or ἑλλώτια), a festival with a torch
-race celebrated at Corinth in honour of Athena as a goddess of fire.
-
-
-ĒMANCĬPĀTĬO, was an act by which the _patria potestas_ was dissolved
-in the lifetime of the parent, and it was so called because it was in
-the form of a sale (_mancipatio_). By the laws of the Twelve Tables
-it was necessary that a son should be sold three times in order to
-be released from the paternal power, or to be _sui juris_. In the
-case of daughters and grandchildren, one sale was sufficient. The
-father transferred the son by the form of a sale to another person,
-who manumitted him, upon which he returned into the power of the
-father. This was repeated, and with the like result. After a third
-sale, the paternal power was extinguished, but the son was re-sold to
-the parent, who then manumitted him, and so acquired the rights of a
-patron over his emancipated son, which would otherwise have belonged
-to the purchaser who gave him his final manumission.
-
-
-EMBAS (ἐμβάς), a shoe worn by men, and which appears to have been
-the most common kind of shoe worn at Athens. Pollux says that it was
-invented by the Thracians, and that it was like the low cothurnus.
-The _embas_ was also worn by the Boeotians, and probably in other
-parts of Greece.
-
-
-EMBĂTEIA (ἐμβατεία). In Attic law this word (like the corresponding
-English one, _entry_), was used to denote a formal taking possession
-of real property. Thus, when a son entered upon the land left him
-by his father, he was said ἐμβατεύειν or βαδίζειν εἰς τὰ πατρῳα,
-and thereupon he became _seised_, or possessed of his inheritance.
-If any one disturbed him in the enjoyment of this property, with
-an intention to dispute the title, he might maintain an action of
-ejectment, ἐξούλης δίκη. Before entry he could not maintain such
-action.
-
-
-EMBLĒMA (ἔμβλημα, ἔμπαισμα), an inlaid ornament. The art of inlaying
-was employed in producing beautiful works of two descriptions,
-viz.;--1st, those which resembled our marquetry, buhl, and Florentine
-mosaics; and 2dly, those in which crusts (_crustae_), exquisitely
-wrought in bas-relief and of precious materials, were fastened upon
-the surface of vessels or other pieces of furniture. To the latter
-class of productions belonged the cups and plates which Verres
-obtained by violence from the Sicilians, and from which he removed
-the emblems for the purpose of having them set in gold instead of
-silver.
-
-
-ĒMĔRĬTI, the name given to those Roman soldiers who had served out
-their time, and had exemption (_vacatio_) from military service. The
-usual time of service was twenty years for the legionary soldiers,
-and sixteen for the praetorians. At the end of their period of
-service they received a bounty or reward (_emeritum_), either in
-lands or money, or in both.
-
-
-ĒMISSĀRĬUM (ὑπόνομος), a channel, natural or artificial, by which
-an outlet is formed to carry off any stagnant body of water. Such
-channels may be either open or underground; but the most remarkable
-works of the kind are of the latter description, as they carry off
-the waters of lakes surrounded by hills. In Greece, the most striking
-example is presented by the subterraneous channels which carry off
-the waters of the lake Copais in Boeotia, which were partly natural
-and partly artificial. Some works of this kind are among the most
-remarkable efforts of Roman ingenuity. Remains still exist to show
-that the lakes Trasimene, Albano, Nemi, and Fucino, were all drained
-by means of _emissaria_, the last of which is still nearly perfect,
-and open to inspection, having been partially cleared by the present
-king of Naples. Julius Caesar is said to have first conceived the
-idea of this stupendous undertaking, which was carried into effect by
-the Emperor Claudius.
-
-
-EMMĒNI DĬKAE (ἔμμηνοι δίκαι), suits in the Athenian courts, which
-were not allowed to be pending above a month. This regulation was
-confined to those subjects which required a speedy decision; and of
-these the most important were disputes respecting commerce (ἐμπορικαὶ
-δίκαι). All causes relating to mines (μεταλλικαὶ δίκαι) were also
-ἔμμηνοι δίκαι, as well as those relating to ἔρανοι. [ERANI.]
-
-
-EMPŎRĬUM (τὸ ἐμπόριον), a place for wholesale trade in commodities
-carried by sea. The name is sometimes applied to a sea-port town,
-but it properly signifies only a particular place in such a town.
-The word is derived from ἔμπορος, which signifies in Homer a person
-who sails as a passenger in a ship belonging to another person; but
-in later writers it signifies the merchant or wholesale dealer, and
-differs from κάπηλος, the retail dealer. The emporium at Athens was
-under the inspection of certain officers, who were elected annually
-(ἐπιμεληταὶ τοῦ ἐμπορίου).
-
-
-ENCAUSTĬCA. [PICTURA.]
-
-
-ENCTĒSIS (ἔγκτησις), the right of possessing landed property and
-houses (ἔγκτησις γῆς καὶ οἰκίας) in a foreign country, which was
-frequently granted by one Greek state to another, or to separate
-individuals of another state. Ἐγκτήματα were such possessions in
-a foreign country, or in a different δῆμος from that to which an
-Athenian belonged by birth.
-
-
-ENDEIXIS (ἔνδειξις), properly denotes a prosecution instituted
-against such persons as were alleged to have exercised rights or
-held offices while labouring under a peculiar disqualification.
-The same form of action was available against the chairman of the
-proedri (ἐπιστάτης), who wrongly refused to take the votes of the
-people in the assembly; against malefactors, especially murderers;
-traitors, ambassadors accused of malversation, and persons who
-furnished supplies to the enemy during war. The first step taken by
-the prosecutor was to lay his information in writing, also called
-_endeixis_, before the proper magistrate, who then arrested, or
-held to bail, the person criminated, and took the usual steps for
-bringing him to trial. There is great obscurity with respect to the
-punishment which followed condemnation. The accuser, if unsuccessful,
-was responsible for bringing a malicious charge (ψευδοῦς ἐνδείξεως
-ὑπεύθυνος).
-
-
-ENDRŎMIS (ἐνδρομίς), a thick, coarse blanket, manufactured in Gaul,
-and called “endromis” because those who had been exercising in the
-stadium (ἐν δρόμῳ) threw it over them to obviate the effects of
-sudden exposure when they were heated. Notwithstanding its coarse and
-shaggy appearance, it was worn on other occasions as a protection
-from the cold by rich and fashionable persons at Rome.
-
-
-ENSIS. [GLADIUS.]
-
-
-ENTĂSIS (ἔντασις). The most ancient columns now existing, diminish
-immediately and regularly from the base to the neck, so that the
-edge forms a straight line--a mode of construction which is wanting
-in grace and apparent solidity. To correct this, a swelling outline,
-called _entasis_, was given to the shaft, which seems to have been
-the first step towards combining grace and grandeur in the Doric
-column.
-
-
-EPANGĔLĬA (ἐπαγγελία). If a citizen of Athens had incurred _atimia_,
-the privilege of taking part or speaking in the public assembly was
-forfeited. But as it sometimes might happen that a person, though not
-formally declared _atimus_, had committed such crimes as would, on
-accusation, draw upon him this punishment, it was of course desirable
-that such individuals, like real _atimi_, should be excluded from
-the exercise of the rights of citizens. Whenever, therefore, such
-a person ventured to speak in the assembly, any Athenian citizen
-had the right to come forward in the assembly itself and demand of
-him to establish his right to speak by a trial or examination of
-his conduct (δοκιμασία τοῦ βίου), and this demand, denouncement, or
-threat, was called _epangelia_, or _epangelia docimasias_ (ἐπαγγελία
-δοκιμασίας). The impeached individual was then compelled to desist
-from speaking, and to submit to a scrutiny into his conduct, and, if
-he was convicted, a formal declaration of _atimia_ followed.
-
-
-EPARITI (ἐπάριτοι), the name of the standing army in Arcadia, which
-was formed to preserve the independence of the Arcadian towns, when
-they became united as one state after the defeat of the Spartans at
-Leuctra. They were 5000 in number, and were paid by the state.
-
-
-EPHĒBUS (ἔφηβος), the name of Athenian youths after they had
-attained the age of 18. The state of _ephebeia_ (ἐφηβεία) lasted for
-two years, till the youths had attained the age of 20, when they
-became men, and were admitted to share all the rights and duties of
-citizens, for which the law did not prescribe a more advanced age.
-Before a youth was enrolled among the ephebi, he had to undergo a
-_docimasia_ (δοκιμασία), the object of which was partly to ascertain
-whether he was the son of Athenian citizens, or adopted by a citizen,
-and partly whether his body was sufficiently developed and strong
-to undertake the duties which now devolved upon him. After the
-_docimasia_ the young men received in the assembly a shield and a
-lance; but those whose fathers had fallen in the defence of their
-country received a complete suit of armour in the theatre. It seems
-to have been on this occasion that the ephebi took an oath in the
-temple of Artemis Aglauros, by which they pledged themselves never
-to disgrace their arms or to desert their comrades; to fight to
-the last in the defence of their country, its altars and hearths;
-to leave their country not in a worse but in a better state than
-they found it; to obey the magistrates and the laws; to resist
-all attempts to subvert the institutions of Attica; and finally,
-to respect the religion of their forefathers. This solemnity took
-place towards the close of the year, and the festive season bore the
-name of _ephebia_ (ἐφήβια). The external distinction of the ephebi
-consisted in the chlamys and the petasus. During the two years of
-the ephebeia, which may be considered as a kind of apprenticeship in
-arms, and in which the young men prepared themselves for the higher
-duties of full citizens, they were generally sent into the country,
-under the name of _peripoli_ (περίπολοι), to keep watch in the towns
-and fortresses, on the coast and frontier, and to perform other
-duties which might be necessary for the protection of Attica.
-
-
-ĔPHĒGĒSIS (ἐφήγησις), denotes the method of proceeding against such
-criminals as were liable to be summarily arrested by a private
-citizen [APAGOGE] when the prosecutor was unwilling to expose
-himself to personal risk in apprehending the offender. Under these
-circumstances he made an application to the proper magistrate, and
-conducted him and his officers to the spot where the capture was to
-be effected.
-
-
-ĔPHĔTAE (ἐφέται), the name of certain judges at Athens, who tried
-cases of homicide. They were fifty-one in number, selected from noble
-families, and more than fifty years of age. They formed a tribunal
-of great antiquity, and were in existence before the legislation of
-Solon, but, as the state became more and more democratical, their
-duties became unimportant and almost antiquated. The Ephetae once sat
-in one or other of the five courts, according to the nature of the
-causes they had to try. In historical times, however, they sat in
-_four_ only, called respectively the court by the Palladium (τὸ ἐπὶ
-Παλλαδίῳ), by the Delphinium (τὸ ἐπὶ Δελφινίῳ), by the Prytaneium (τὸ
-ἐπὶ Πρυτανείῳ), and the court at Phreatto or Zea (τὸ ἐν Φρεαττοῖ). At
-the first of these courts they tried cases of unintentional, at the
-second, of intentional but justifiable homicide. At the Prytaneium,
-by a strange custom, somewhat analogous to the imposition of a
-deodand, they passed sentence upon the instrument of murder when
-the perpetrator of the act was not known. In the court at Phreatto,
-on the sea shore at the Peiraeeus, they tried such persons as were
-charged with wilful murder during a temporary exile for unintentional
-homicide.
-
-
-[Illustration: Ephippium, Saddle. (Coin of Labienus.)]
-
-ĔPHIPPĬUM (ἀστράβη, ἐφίππιον, ἐφίππειον), a saddle. Although the
-Greeks occasionally rode without any saddle, yet they commonly used
-one, and from them the name, together with the thing, was borrowed by
-the Romans. The ancient saddles appear, indeed, to have been thus far
-different from ours, that the cover stretched upon the hard frame was
-probably of stuffed or padded cloth rather than leather, and that the
-saddle was, as it were, a cushion fitted to the horse’s back. Pendent
-cloths (στρώματα, _strata_) were always attached to it so as to cover
-the sides of the animal; but it was not provided with stirrups. The
-saddle with the pendent cloths is exhibited in the annexed coin. The
-term “Ephippium” was in later times in part supplanted by the word
-“sella,” and the more specific expression “sella equestris.”
-
-
-ĔPHŎRI (ἔφοροι). Magistrates called _Ephori_ or overseers were common
-to many Dorian constitutions in times of remote antiquity; but the
-Ephori of Sparta are the most celebrated of them all. The origin
-of the Spartan ephori is quite uncertain, but their office in the
-historical times was a kind of counterpoise to the kings and council,
-and in that respect peculiar to Sparta alone of the Dorian states.
-Their number, five, appears to have been always the same, and was
-probably connected with the five divisions of the town of Sparta,
-namely, the four κῶμαι, Limnae, Mesoa, Pitana, Cynosura, and the
-Πόλις or city properly so called, around which the κῶμαι lay. They
-were elected from and by the people, without any qualification of age
-or property, and without undergoing any scrutiny; so that the people
-enjoyed through them a participation in the highest magistracy of
-the state. They entered upon office at the autumnal solstice, and
-the first in rank of the five gave his name to the year, which was
-called after him in all civil transactions. They possessed judicial
-authority in civil suits, and also a general superintendence over
-the morals and domestic economy of the nation, which in the hands
-of able men would soon prove an instrument of unlimited power.
-Their jurisdiction and power were still further increased by the
-privilege of instituting scrutinies (εὔθυναι) into the conduct of all
-the magistrates. Even the kings themselves could be brought before
-their tribunal (as Cleomenes was for bribery). In extreme cases, the
-ephors were also competent to lay an accusation against the kings
-as well as the other magistrates, and bring them to a capital trial
-before the great court of justice. In later times the power of the
-ephors was greatly increased; and this increase appears to have been
-principally owing to the fact, that they put themselves in connection
-with the assembly of the people, convened its meetings, laid measures
-before it, and were constituted its agents and representatives.
-When this connection arose is matter of conjecture. The power which
-such a connection gave would, more than anything else, enable them
-to encroach on the royal authority, and make themselves virtually
-supreme in the state. Accordingly, we find that they transacted
-business with foreign ambassadors; dismissed them from the state;
-decided upon the government of dependent cities; subscribed in the
-presence of other persons to treaties of peace; and in time of war
-sent out troops when they thought necessary. In all these capacities
-the ephors acted as the representatives of the nation, and the agents
-of the public assembly, being in fact the executive of the state. In
-course of time the kings became completely under their control. For
-example, they fined Agesilaus on the vague charge of trying to make
-himself popular, and interfered even with the domestic arrangements
-of other kings. In the field the kings were followed by two ephors,
-who belonged to the council of war; the three who remained at home
-received the booty in charge, and paid it into the treasury, which
-was under the superintendence of the whole College of Five. But
-the ephors had still another prerogative, based on a religious
-foundation, which enabled them to effect a temporary deposition of
-the kings. Once in eight years, as we are told, they chose a calm
-and cloudless night to observe the heavens, and if there was any
-appearance of a falling meteor, it was believed to be a sign that the
-gods were displeased with the kings, who were accordingly suspended
-from their functions until an oracle allowed of their restoration.
-The outward symbols of supreme authority also were assumed by the
-ephors; and they alone kept their seats while the kings passed;
-whereas it was not considered below the dignity of the kings to rise
-in honour of the ephors. When Agis and Cleomenes undertook to restore
-the old constitution, it was necessary for them to overthrow the
-ephoralty, and accordingly Cleomenes murdered the ephors for the time
-being, and abolished the office (B.C. 225); it was, however, restored
-under the Romans.
-
-
-ĔPĬBĂTAE (ἐπιβάται), were soldiers or marines appointed to defend the
-vessels in the Athenian navy, and were entirely distinct from the
-rowers, and also from the land soldiers, such as hoplitae, peltasts,
-and cavalry. It appears that the ordinary number of epibatae on
-board a trireme was ten. The epibatae were usually taken from the
-thetes, or fourth class of Athenian citizens. The term is sometimes
-also applied by the Roman writers to the marines, but they are more
-usually called _classiarii milites_. The latter term, however, is
-also applied to the rowers or sailors as well as the marines.
-
-
-ĔPĬBŎLĒ (ἐπιβολή), a fine imposed by a magistrate, or other official
-person or body, for a misdemeanour. The various magistrates at Athens
-had (each in his own department) a summary penal jurisdiction;
-_i.e._ for certain offences they might inflict a pecuniary mulct
-or fine, not exceeding a fixed amount; if the offender deserved
-further punishment, it was their duty to bring him before a judicial
-tribunal. These _epibolae_ are to be distinguished from the
-penalties awarded by a jury or court of law (τιμήματα) upon a formal
-prosecution.
-
-
-ĔPĬCLĒRUS (ἐπίκληρος, heiress), the name given to the daughter of
-an Athenian citizen, who had no son to inherit his estate. It was
-deemed an object of importance at Athens to preserve the family
-name and property of every citizen. This was effected, where a man
-had no child, by adoption (εἰσποίησις); if he had a daughter, the
-inheritance was transmitted through her to a grandson, who would take
-the name of the maternal ancestor. If the father died intestate,
-the heiress had not the choice of a husband, but was bound to marry
-her nearest relation, not in the ascending line. When there was but
-one daughter, she was called ἐπίκληρος ἐπὶ παντὶ τῷ οἴκῳ. If there
-were more, they inherited equally, like our co-parceners; and were
-severally married to relatives, the nearest having the first choice.
-
-
-ĔPĬDŎSEIS (ἐπιδόσεις), voluntary contributions, either in money,
-arms, or ships, which were made by the Athenian citizens in order
-to meet the extraordinary demands of the state. When the expenses
-of the state were greater than its revenue, it was usual for the
-prytaneis to summon an assembly of the people, and after explaining
-the necessities of the state, to call upon the citizens to contribute
-according to their means. Those who were willing to contribute then
-rose and mentioned what they would give; while those who were
-unwilling to give any thing remained silent, or retired privately
-from the assembly.
-
-
-ĔPĬMĔLĒTAE (ἐπιμεληταί), the names of various magistrates and
-functionaries at Athens.--(1) Ἐπιμελητὴς τῆς κοινῆς προσόδου, more
-usually called ταμίας, the treasurer or manager of the public
-revenue. [TAMIAS.]--(2) Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν μοριῶν Ἐλαιῶν, were persons
-chosen from among the Areopagites to take care of the sacred olive
-trees.--(3) Ἐπιμεληταὶ τοῦ Ἐμπορίου, were the overseers of the
-emporium. [EMPORIUM.] They were ten in number, and were elected
-yearly by lot. They had the entire management of the emporium,
-and had jurisdiction in all breaches of the commercial laws.--(4)
-Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν Μυστηρίων, were, in connection with the king archon,
-the managers of the Eleusinian mysteries. They were elected by open
-vote, and were four in number.--(5) Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν νεωρίων, the
-inspectors of the dockyards, were ten in number.--(6) Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν
-φυλῶν, the inspectors of the φυλαὶ or tribes. [TRIBUS.]
-
-
-ĔPISCŎPI (ἐπίσκοποι), inspectors, who were sometimes sent by the
-Athenians to subject states. They were also called φύλακες. It
-appears that these Episcopi received a salary at the cost of the
-cities over which they presided.
-
-
-ĔPISTĂTĒS (ἐπιστάτης).--(1) The chairman of the senate and assembly
-of the people, respecting whose duties see BOULÉ and ECCLESIA.--(2)
-The name of the directors of the public works. (Ἐπισταταὶ τῶν
-δημοσίων ἔργων).
-
-
-ĔPISTŎLEUS (ἐπιστολεύς), the officer second in rank in the Spartan
-fleet, who succeeded to the command if any thing happened to the
-_navarchus_ (ναυάρχος) or admiral. When the Chians and the other
-allies of Sparta on the Asiatic coast sent to Sparta to request that
-Lysander might be again appointed to the command of the navy, he was
-sent with the title of epistoleus, because the laws of Sparta did not
-permit the same person to hold the office of navarchus twice.
-
-
-ĔPISTȲLĬUM (ἐπιστύλιον), properly, as the name implies, the
-architrave, or lower member of an entablature, which lies immediately
-over the columns. The word is sometimes also used for the whole of
-the entablature.
-
-
-ĔPĬTRŎPUS (ἐπίτροπος), the name at Athens of a guardian of orphan
-children. Of such guardians there were at Athens three kinds: first,
-those appointed in the will of the deceased father; secondly, the
-next of kin, whom the law designated as tutores legitimi in default
-of such appointment, and who required the authorization of the
-archon to enable them to act; and lastly, such persons as the archon
-selected if there were no next of kin living to undertake the office.
-The duties of the guardian comprehended the education, maintenance,
-and protection of the ward, the assertion of his rights, and the
-safe custody and profitable disposition of his inheritance during
-his minority, besides making a proper provision for the widow if she
-remained in the house of her late husband.
-
-
-ĔPŌBĔLIA (ἐπωβελία), as its etymology implies, at the rate of one
-obolus for a drachma, or one in six, was payable on the assessment
-(τίμημα) of several private causes, and sometimes in a case of
-phasis, by the litigant that failed to obtain the votes of one-fifth
-of the dicasts.
-
-
-ĔPŌNỸMUS. [ARCHON.]
-
-
-ĔPOPTAE (ἐπόπται). [ELEUSINIA.]
-
-
-ĔPŬLŌNES, who were originally three in number (_triumviri epulones_),
-were first created in B.C. 196, to attend to the Epulum Jovis, and
-the banquets given in honour of the other gods; which duty had
-originally belonged to the pontifices. Their number was afterwards
-increased to seven, and they were called septemviri epulones or
-septemviri epulonum. The epulones formed a collegium, and were one of
-the four great religious corporations at Rome; the other three were
-those of the Pontifices, Augures, and Quindecemviri.
-
-
-ĔPŬLUM JŎVIS. [EPULONES.]
-
-
-ĔQUĪRĬA, horse-races, which are said to have been instituted by
-Romulus in honour of Mars, and were celebrated in the Campus Martius.
-There were two festivals of this name; of which one was celebrated
-A.D. III. Cal. Mart., and the other prid. Id. Mart.
-
-
-ĔQUĬTES, horsemen. Romulus is said to have formed three centuries
-of equites; and these were the same as the 300 Celeres, whom he
-kept about his person in peace and war. A century was taken from
-each of the three tribes, the _Ramnes_, _Titienses_, and _Luceres_.
-Tarquinius Priscus added three more, under the title of Ramnes,
-Titienses, and Luceres _posteriores_. These were the six patrician
-centuries of equites, often referred to under the name of the _sex
-suffragia_. To these Servius Tullius added twelve more centuries, for
-admission into which, property and not birth was the qualification.
-These twelve centuries might therefore contain plebeians, but they
-do not appear to have been restricted to plebeians, since we have
-no reason for believing that the six old centuries contained the
-_whole_ body of patricians. A property qualification was apparently
-also necessary by the Servian constitution for admission into the
-six centuries. We may therefore suppose that those patricians who
-were included in the six old centuries were allowed by the Servian
-constitution to continue in them, if they possessed the requisite
-property; and that all other persons in the state, whether patricians
-or plebeians, who possessed the requisite property, were admitted
-into the twelve new centuries. We are not told the amount of property
-necessary to entitle a person to a place among the equites, but it
-was probably the same as in the latter times of the republic, that
-is, four times that of the first class. [COMITIA, p. 105.] Property,
-however, was not the only qualification; for in the ancient times
-of the republic no one was admitted among the equestrian centuries
-unless his character was unblemished, and his father and grandfather
-had been born freemen. Each of the equites received a horse from
-the state (_equus publicus_), or money to purchase one, as well as
-a sum of money for its annual support; the expense of its support
-was defrayed by the orphans and unmarried females; since, in a
-military state, it could not be esteemed unjust, that the women and
-the children were to contribute largely for those who fought in
-behalf of them and of the commonwealth. The purchase-money for a
-knight’s horse was called _aes equestre_, and its annual provision
-_aes hordearium_. The former amounted, according to Livy, to 10,000
-asses, and the latter to 2000.--All the equites, of whom we have
-been speaking, received a horse from the state, and were included
-in the 18 equestrian centuries of the Servian constitution; but
-in course of time, we read of another class of equites in Roman
-history, who did not receive a horse from the state, and who were not
-included in the 18 centuries. This latter class is first mentioned
-by Livy, in his account of the siege of Veii, B.C. 403. He says that
-during the siege, when the Romans had at one time suffered great
-disasters, all those citizens who had an equestrian fortune, and no
-horse allotted to them, volunteered to serve with their own horses;
-and he adds, that from this time equites first began to serve with
-their own horses. The state paid them, as a kind of compensation for
-serving with their own horses. The foot soldiers had received pay
-a few years before; and two years afterwards, B.C. 401, the pay of
-the equites was made three-fold that of the infantry. From the year
-B.C. 403, there were therefore two classes of Roman knights: one who
-received horses from the state, and are therefore frequently called
-_equites equo publico_, and sometimes _Flexumines_ or _Trossuli_,
-and another class, who served, when they were required, with their
-own horses, but were not classed among the 18 centuries. As they
-served on horseback they were called _equites_; and when spoken of in
-opposition to cavalry, which did not consist of Roman citizens, they
-were also called _equites Romani_; but they had no legal claim to
-the name of equites, since in ancient times this title was strictly
-confined to those who received horses from the state.--The reason of
-this distinction of two classes arose from the fact, that the number
-of equites in the 18 centuries was fixed from the time of Servius
-Tullius. As vacancies occurred in them, the descendants of those
-who were originally enrolled succeeded to their places, provided
-they had not dissipated their property. But in course of time, as
-population and wealth increased, the number of persons who possessed
-an equestrian fortune, also increased greatly; and as the ancestors
-of these persons had not been enrolled in the 18 centuries, they
-could not receive horses from the state, and were therefore allowed
-the privilege of serving with their own horses among the cavalry,
-instead of the infantry, as they would otherwise have been obliged to
-have done.--The inspection of the equites who received horses from
-the state belonged to the censors, who had the power of depriving an
-eques of his horse, and reducing him to the condition of an aerarian,
-and also of giving the vacant horse to the most distinguished of the
-equites who had previously served at their own expense. For these
-purposes they made during their censorship a public inspection, in
-the forum, of all the knights who possessed public horses (_equitatum
-recognoscere_). The tribes were taken in order, and each knight was
-summoned by name. Every one, as his name was called, walked past
-the censors, leading his horse. If the censors had no fault to find
-either with the character of the knight or the equipments of his
-horse, they ordered him to pass on (_traducere equum_); but if on
-the contrary they considered him unworthy of his rank, they struck
-him out of the list of knights, and deprived him of his horse, or
-ordered him to sell it, with the intention no doubt that the person
-thus degraded should refund to the state the money which had been
-advanced to him for its purchase.--This review of the equites by
-the censors must not be confounded with the _Equitum Transvectio_,
-which was a solemn procession of the body every year on the Ides of
-Quintilis (July). The procession started from the temple of Mars
-outside the city, and passed through the city over the forum, and by
-the temple of the Dioscuri. On this occasion the equites were always
-crowned with olive chaplets, and wore their state dress, the trabea,
-with all the honourable distinctions which they had gained in battle.
-According to Livy, this annual procession was first established by
-the censors Q. Fabius and P. Decius, B.C. 304; but according to
-Dionysius it was instituted after the defeat of the Latins near
-the lake Regillus, of which an account was brought to Rome by the
-Dioscuri.--It may be asked how long did the knight retain his public
-horse, and a vote in the equestrian century to which he belonged? On
-this subject we have no positive information; but as those equites,
-who served with their own horses, were only obliged to serve for ten
-years (_stipendia_) under the age of 46, we may presume that the same
-rule extended to those who served with the public horses, provided
-they _wished_ to give up the service. For it is certain that in the
-ancient times of the republic a knight might retain his horse as
-long as he pleased, even after he had entered the senate, provided
-he continued able to discharge the duties of a knight. Thus the two
-censors, M. Livius Salinator and C. Claudius Nero, in B.C. 204, were
-also equites, and L. Scipio Asiaticus, who was deprived of his horse
-by the censors in B.C. 185, had himself been censor in B.C. 191.
-But during the later times of the republic the knights were obliged
-to give up their horses on entering the senate, and consequently
-ceased to belong to the equestrian centuries. It thus naturally
-came to pass, that the greater number of the equites equo publico,
-after the exclusion of senators from the equestrian centuries, were
-young men.--The equestrian centuries, of which we have hitherto been
-treating, were only regarded as a division of the army: they did not
-form a distinct class or ordo in the constitution. The community,
-in a political point of view, was divided only into patricians and
-plebeians, and the equestrian centuries were composed of both. But
-in the year B.C. 123, a new class, called the _Ordo Equestris_, was
-formed in the state by the Lex Sempronia, which was introduced by C.
-Gracchus. By this law, or one passed a few years afterwards, every
-person who was to be chosen judex was required to be above 30 and
-under 60 years of age, to have either an equus publicus, or to be
-qualified by his fortune to possess one, and _not_ to be a senator.
-The number of judices, who were required yearly, was chosen from
-this class by the praetor urbanus. As the name of equites had been
-originally extended from those who possessed the public horses to
-those who served with their own horses, it now came to be applied
-to all those persons who were qualified by their fortune to act as
-judices, in which sense the word is usually used by Cicero. After
-the reform of Sulla, which entirely deprived the equestrian order
-of the right of being chosen as judices, and the passing of the Lex
-Aurelia (B.C. 70), which ordained that the judices should be chosen
-from the senators, equites, and tribuni aerarii, the influence of
-the order, says Pliny, was still maintained by the _publicani_,
-or farmers of the public taxes. We find that the publicani were
-almost always called equites, not because any particular rank was
-necessary in order to obtain from the state the farming of the
-taxes, but because the state was not accustomed to let them to any
-one who did not possess a considerable fortune. Thus the publicani
-are frequently spoken of by Cicero as identical with the equestrian
-order. The consulship of Cicero, and the active part which the
-knights then took in suppressing the conspiracy of Catiline, tended
-still further to increase the power and influence of the equestrian
-order; and “from that time,” says Pliny, “it became a third body
-(_corpus_) in the state, and, to the title of _Senatus Populusque
-Romanus_, there began to be added _Et Equestris Ordo_.” In B.C. 63,
-a distinction was conferred upon them, which tended to separate them
-still further from the plebs. By the Lex Roscia Othonis, passed
-in that year, the first fourteen seats in the theatre behind the
-orchestra were given to the equites. They also possessed the right
-of wearing the Clavus Angustus [CLAVUS], and subsequently obtained
-the privilege of wearing a gold ring, which was originally confined
-to the equites equo publico. The number of equites increased greatly
-under the early emperors, and all persons were admitted into the
-order, provided they possessed the requisite property, without any
-inquiry into their character, or into the free birth of their father
-and grandfather. The order in consequence gradually began to lose all
-the consideration which it had acquired during the later times of the
-republic.--Augustus formed a select class of equites, consisting of
-those equites who possessed the property of a senator, and the old
-requirement of free birth up to the grandfather. He permitted this
-class to wear the _latus clavus_; and also allowed the tribunes of
-the plebs to be chosen from them, as well as the senators, and gave
-them the option, at the termination of their office, to remain in the
-senate or return to the equestrian order. This class of knights was
-distinguished by the special title _illustres_ (sometimes _insignes_
-and _splendidi_) _equites Romani_. The formation of this distinct
-class tended to lower the others still more in public estimation.
-In the ninth year of the reign of Tiberius, an attempt was made
-to improve the order by requiring the old qualifications of free
-birth up to the grandfather, and by strictly forbidding any one to
-wear the gold ring unless he possessed this qualification. This
-regulation, however, was of little avail, as the emperors frequently
-admitted freedmen into the equestrian order. When private persons
-were no longer appointed judices, the necessity for a distinct class
-in the community, like the equestrian order, ceased entirely; and
-the gold ring came at length to be worn by all free citizens. Even
-slaves, after their manumission, were allowed to wear it by special
-permission from the emperor, which appears to have been usually
-granted provided the patronus consented.--Having thus traced the
-history of the equestrian order to its final extinction as a distinct
-class in the community, we must now return to the equites equo
-publico, who formed the 18 equestrian centuries. This class still
-existed during the latter years of the republic, but had entirely
-ceased to serve as horse-soldiers in the army. The cavalry of the
-Roman legions no longer consisted, as in the time of Polybius, of
-Roman equites, but their place was supplied by the cavalry of the
-allied states. It is evident that Caesar in his Gallic wars possessed
-no Roman cavalry. When he went to an interview with Ariovistus,
-and was obliged to take cavalry with him, we are told that he did
-not dare to trust his safety to the Gallic cavalry, and therefore
-mounted his legionary soldiers upon their horses. The Roman equites
-are, however, frequently mentioned in the Gallic and civil wars,
-but never as common soldiers; they were officers attached to the
-staff of the general, or commanded the cavalry of the allies, or
-sometimes the legions.--After the year B.C. 50, there were no censors
-in the state, and it would therefore follow that for some years
-no review of the body took place, and that the vacancies were not
-filled up. When Augustus, however, took upon himself, in B.C. 29,
-the praefectura morum, he frequently reviewed the troops of equites,
-and restored the long neglected custom of the solemn procession
-(_transvectio_). From this time these equites formed an honourable
-corps, from which all the higher officers in the army and the chief
-magistrates in the state were chosen. Admission into this body was
-equivalent to an introduction into public life, and was therefore
-esteemed a great privilege. If a young man was not admitted into
-this body, he was excluded from all civil offices of any importance,
-except in municipal towns; and also from all rank in the army,
-with the exception of centurion. All those equites, who were not
-employed in actual service, were obliged to reside at Rome, where
-they were allowed to fill the lower magistracies, which entitled
-a person to admission into the senate. They were divided into six
-turmae, each of which was commanded by an officer, who is frequently
-mentioned in inscriptions as _Sevir equitum Rom. turmae_ I. II., &c.,
-or commonly _Sevir turmae_ or _Sevir turmarum equitum Romanorum_.
-From the time that the equites bestowed the title of _principes
-juventutis_ upon Caius and Lucius Caesar, the grandsons of Augustus,
-it became the custom to confer this title, as well as that of sevir,
-upon the probable successor to the throne, when he first entered
-into public life, and was presented with an equus publicus. The
-practice of filling all the higher offices in the state from these
-equites appears to have continued as long as Rome was the centre of
-the government and the residence of the emperor. After the time of
-Diocletian, the equites became only a city guard, under the command
-of the praefectus vigilum; but they still retained, in the time of
-Valentinianus and Valens, A.D. 364, the second rank in the city, and
-were not subject to corporal punishment. Respecting the _Magister
-Equitum_, see DICTATOR.
-
-
-ĔQUŬLĔUS or ĔCŬLĔUS, an instrument of torture, which is supposed to
-have been so called because it was in the form of a horse.
-
-
-ĔRĂNI (ἔρανοι), were clubs or societies, established for charitable,
-convivial, commercial, or political purposes. Unions of this kind
-were called by the general name of ἑταιρίαι, and were often converted
-to mischievous ends, such as bribery, overawing the public assembly,
-or influencing courts of justice. In the days of the Roman empire
-friendly societies, under the name of _erani_, were frequent among
-the Greek cities, but were looked on with suspicion by the emperors,
-as leading to political combinations. The _gilds_, or fraternities
-for mutual aid, among the ancient Saxons, resembled the _erani_ of
-the Greeks.
-
-
-ERGASTŬLUM, a private prison attached to most Roman farms, where
-the slaves were made to work in chains. The slaves confined in an
-ergastulum were also employed to cultivate the fields in chains.
-Slaves who had displeased their masters were punished by imprisonment
-in the ergastulum; and in the same place all slaves, who could not be
-depended upon or were barbarous in their habits, were regularly kept.
-
-
-ĒRĪCĬUS, a military engine full of sharp spikes, which was placed by
-the gate of the camp to prevent the approach of the enemy.
-
-
-ĔRŌTĬA or ĔRŌTĬDĬA (ἐρώτια or ἐρωτίδια), the most solemn of all the
-festivals celebrated in the Boeotian town of Thespiae. It took place
-every fifth year, and in honour of Eros, the principal divinity of
-the Thespians. Respecting the particulars nothing is known, except
-that it was solemnised with contests in music and gymnastics.
-
-
-ESSĔDĀRĬI. [ESSEDUM.]
-
-
-ESSĔDA, or ESSĔDUM (from the Celtic _Ess_, a carriage), the name of
-a chariot used, especially in war, by the Britons, the Gauls, and
-the Germans. It was built very strongly, was open before instead of
-behind, like the Greek war-chariot, and had a wide pole, so that the
-owner was able, whenever he pleased, to run along the pole, and even
-to raise himself upon the yoke, and then to retreat with the greatest
-speed into the body of the car, which he drove with extraordinary
-swiftness and skill. It appears also that these cars were purposely
-made as noisy as possible, probably by the creaking and clanging of
-the wheels; and that this was done in order to strike dismay into the
-enemy. The warriors who drove these chariots were called _essedarii_.
-Having been captured, they were sometimes exhibited in the
-gladiatorial shows at Rome, and seem to have been great favourites
-with the people. The essedum was adopted for purposes of convenience
-and luxury among the Romans. As used by the Romans, the essedum may
-have differed from the cisium in this; that the cisium was drawn by
-one horse (see cut, p. 90), the essedum always by a pair.
-
-
-EUMOLPĬDAE (εὐμολπίδαι), the most distinguished and venerable among
-the priestly families in Attica. They were devoted to the service of
-Demeter at Athens and Eleusis, and were said to be the descendants
-of the Thracian bard Eumolpus, who, according to some legends, had
-introduced the Eleusinian mysteries into Attica. The high priest of
-the Eleusinian goddess (ἱεροφάντης or μυσταγωγός), who conducted the
-celebration of her mysteries and the initiation of the mystae, was
-always a member of the family of the Eumolpidae, as Eumolpus himself
-was believed to have been the first hierophant. The hierophant was
-attended by four _epimeletae_ (ἐπιμεληταί), one of whom likewise
-belonged to the family of the Eumolpidae. The Eumolpidae had on
-certain occasions to offer up prayers for the welfare of the state.
-They had likewise judicial power in cases where religion was
-violated. The law according to which they pronounced their sentence,
-and of which they had the exclusive possession, was not written,
-but handed down by tradition; and the Eumolpidae alone had the
-right to interpret it, whence they are sometimes called _Exegetae_
-(ἐξηγηταί). In cases for which the law had made no provisions, they
-acted according to their own discretion. In some cases, when a person
-was convicted of gross violation of the public institutions of his
-country, the people, besides sending the offender into exile, added a
-clause in their verdict that a curse should be pronounced upon him by
-the Eumolpidae. But the Eumolpidae could pronounce such a curse only
-at the command of the people, and might afterwards be compelled by
-the people to revoke it, and purify the person whom they had cursed
-before.
-
-
-EUPATRĬDAE (εὐπατρίδαι), descended from noble ancestors, is the name
-by which in early times the nobility of Attica was designated. In
-the division of the inhabitants of Attica into three classes, which
-is ascribed to Theseus, the Eupatridae were the first class, and
-thus formed a compact order of nobles, united by their interests,
-rights, and privileges. They were in the exclusive possession of all
-the civil and religious offices in the state, ordered the affairs of
-religion, and interpreted the laws human and divine. The king was
-thus only the first among his equals, and only distinguished from
-them by the duration of his office. By the legislation of Solon,
-the political power and influence of the Eupatridae as an order
-was broken, and property instead of birth was made the standard
-of political rights. But as Solon, like all ancient legislators,
-abstained from abolishing any of the religious institutions, those
-families of the Eupatridae, in which certain priestly offices and
-functions were hereditary, retained these distinctions down to a very
-late period of Grecian history.
-
-
-EURĪPUS. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]
-
-
-EUTHȲNĒ (εὐθύνη). All public officers at Athens were accountable for
-their conduct and the manner in which they acquitted themselves of
-their official duties. The judges in the popular court seem to have
-been the only authorities who were not responsible, for they were
-themselves the representatives of the people, and would therefore,
-in theory, have been responsible to themselves. This account, which
-officers had to give after the time of their office was over, was
-called εὐθύνη, and the officers subject to it, ὑπεύθυνοι, and after
-they had gone through the _euthyne_, they became ἀνεύθυνοι. Every
-public officer had to render his account within thirty days after the
-expiration of his office, and at the time when he submitted to the
-_euthyne_ any citizen had the right to come forward and impeach him.
-The officers before whom the accounts were given were at Athens ten
-in number, called εὔθυνοι or λογισταί, in other places ἐξετασταί or
-συνήγοροι.
-
-
-ĒVŎCĀTI. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-EXAUCTŌRĬTAS. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-EXAUGŬRĀTĬO, the act of changing a sacred thing into a profane one,
-or of taking away from it the sacred character which it had received
-by inauguratio, consecratio, or dedicatio. Such an act was performed
-by the augurs, and never without consulting the pleasure of the gods,
-by augurium.
-
-
-EXCŬBĬAE. [CASTRA.]
-
-
-EXCŬBĬTŌRES, which properly means watchmen or sentinels of any kind,
-was the name more particularly given to the soldiers of the cohort
-who guarded the palace of the Roman emperor.
-
-
-EXEDRA (ἐξέδρα), which properly signifies a seat out of doors, came
-to be used for a chamber furnished with seats, and opening into a
-portico, where people met to enjoy conversation; such as the rooms
-attached to a gymnasium, which were used for the lectures and
-disputations of the rhetoricians and philosophers. In old Greek the
-word λέσχη appears to have had a similar meaning; but the ordinary
-use of the word is for a larger and more public place of resort than
-the ἐξέδρα. [LESCHE.] Among the Romans the word had a wider meaning,
-answering to both the Greek terms, ἐξέδρα and λέσχη.
-
-
-EXĒGĒTAE (ἐξηγηταί, interpreters) is the name of the Eumolpidae, by
-which they were designated as the interpreters of the laws relating
-to religion and of the sacred rites. [EUMOLPIDAE.] The name ἐξηγητής
-was also applied to those persons who served as guides (ciceroni) to
-the visitors in the most remarkable towns and places of Greece.
-
-
-EXERCĬTŌRĬA ACTĬO, an action granted by the edict against the
-exercitor navis. By the term navis was understood any vessel, whether
-used for the navigation of rivers, lakes, or the sea. The exercitor
-navis is the person to whom all the ship’s gains and earnings
-(_obventiones et reditus_) belong, whether he is the owner, or has
-hired the ship (_per aversionem_) from the owner for a time definite
-or indefinite.
-
-
-EXERCĬTUS (στρατός), army. (1) GREEK.
-
-1. _Spartan Army._--In all the states of Greece, in the earliest as
-in later times, the general type of their military organisation was
-the _phalanx_, a body of troops in close array with a long spear as
-their principal weapon. It was among the Dorians, and especially
-among the Spartans, that this type was most rigidly adhered to.
-The strength of their military array consisted in the heavy-armed
-infantry (ὁπλίται). They attached comparatively small importance to
-their cavalry, which was always inferior. Indeed, the Thessalians and
-Boeotians were the only Greek people who distinguished themselves
-much for their cavalry; scarcely any other states had territories
-adapted for the evolutions of cavalry. The whole life of a Spartan
-was little else than either the preparation for or the practice of
-war. The result was, that in the strictness of their discipline,
-the precision and facility with which they performed their military
-evolutions, and the skill and power with which they used their
-weapons, the Spartans were unrivalled among the Greeks. The
-heavy-armed infantry of the Spartan armies was composed partly of
-genuine Spartan citizens, partly of Perioeci. Every Spartan citizen
-was liable to military service (ἔμφρουρος) from the age of twenty
-to the age of sixty years. They were divided into six divisions
-called μόραι, under the command or superintendence of a polemarch,
-each mora being subdivided into four λόχοι(commanded by λοχαγοί),
-each λόχος into two πεντηκοστύες (headed by πεντηκοστῆρες), each
-πεντηκοστύς into two ἐνωμοτίαι (headed by enomotarchs). The ἐνωμοτίαι
-were so called from the men composing them being bound together by
-a common oath. These were not merely divisions of troops engaged in
-actual military expeditions. The whole body of citizens at all times
-formed an army, whether they were congregated at head-quarters in
-Sparta, or a portion of them were detached on foreign service. The
-strength of a mora on actual service, of course, varied, according to
-circumstances. To judge by the name pentecostys, the normal number
-of a mora would have been 400; but 500, 600, and 900 are mentioned
-as the number of men in a mora on different occasions. When in the
-field, each mora of infantry was attended by a mora of cavalry,
-consisting at the most of 100 men, and commanded by an hipparmost
-(ἱππαρμοστής). Plutarch mentions squadrons (οὐλαμοί) of fifty, which
-may possibly be the same divisions. The cavalry seems merely to
-have been employed to protect the flanks, and but little regard was
-paid to it. The corps of 300 ἱππεῖς formed a sort of body-guard for
-the king, and consisted of the flower of the young soldiers. Though
-called horsemen, they fought on foot. A Spartan army, divided as
-above described, was drawn up in the dense array of the phalanx, the
-depth of which depended upon circumstances. An ἐνωμοτία sometimes
-made but a single file, sometimes was drawn up in three or six files
-(ζύγα). The enomotarch stood at the head of his file (πρωτοστάτης),
-or at the head of the right-hand file, if the enomotia was broken up
-into more than one. The last man was called οὐραγός. It was a matter
-of great importance that he, like the enomotarch, should be a man of
-strength and skill, as in certain evolutions he would have to lead
-the movements. The commander-in-chief, who was usually the king,
-had his station sometimes in the centre, more commonly on the right
-wing. The commands of the general were issued in the first place
-to the polemarchs, by these to the lochagi, by these again to the
-pentecosteres, by the latter to the enomotarchs, and by these last to
-their respective divisions. From the orderly manner in which this was
-done, commands were transmitted with great rapidity: every soldier,
-in fact, regulating the movements of the man behind him, every two
-being connected together as πρωτοστάτης and ἐπιστάτης. In later times
-the king was usually accompanied by two ephors, as controllers and
-advisers. These, with the polemarchs, the four Pythii, three peers
-(ὅμοιοι), who had to provide for the necessities of the king in war,
-the laphyropolae and some other officers, constituted what was called
-the _damosia_ of the king. The Spartan hoplites were accompanied in
-the field by helots, partly in the capacity of attendants, partly
-to serve as light-armed troops. The number attached to an army was
-probably not uniform. At Plataeae each Spartan was accompanied by
-seven helots; but that was probably an extraordinary case. One helot
-in particular of those attached to each Spartan was called his
-θεράπων, and performed the functions of an armourer or shieldbearer.
-Xenophon calls them ὑπασπισταί. In extraordinary cases, helots
-served as hoplites, and in that case it was usual to give them their
-liberty. A separate troop in the Lacedaemonian army was formed by
-the Sciritae (Σκιρῖται), originally, no doubt, inhabitants of the
-district Sciritis. The arms of the phalanx consisted of the long
-spear and a short sword (ξυήλη). The chief part of the defensive
-armour was the large brazen shield, which covered the body from the
-shoulder to the knee, suspended, as in ancient times, by a thong
-round the neck, and managed by a simple handle or ring (πόρπαξ).
-Besides this, they had the ordinary armour of the hoplite [ARMA]. The
-heavy-armed soldiers wore a scarlet uniform. The Spartan encampments
-were circular. Only the heavy-armed were stationed within them, the
-cavalry being placed to look out, and the helots being kept as much
-as possible outside. Preparatory to a battle the Spartan soldier
-dressed his hair and crowned himself as others would do for a feast.
-The signal for attack was given not by the trumpet, but by the music
-of flutes, and sometimes also of the lyre and cithara, to which the
-men sang the battle song (παιὰν ἐμβατήριος). The object of the music
-was not so much to inspirit the men, as simply to regulate the march
-of the phalanx. This rhythmical regularity of movement was a point to
-which the Spartans attached great importance.
-
-2. _Athenian Army._--In Athens, the military system was in its
-leading principles the same as among the Spartans, though differing
-in detail, and carried out with less exactness; inasmuch as when
-Athens became powerful, greater attention was paid to the navy.
-Of the four classes into which the citizens were arranged by the
-constitution of Solon, the citizens of the first and second served
-as cavalry, or as commanders of the infantry (still it need not be
-assumed that the ἱππεῖς never served as heavy-armed infantry), those
-of the third class (ζευγῖται) formed the heavy-armed infantry. The
-Thetes served either as light-armed troops on land, or on board the
-ships. The same general principles remained when the constitution
-was remodelled by Cleisthenes. The cavalry service continued to
-be compulsory on the wealthier class. Every citizen was liable to
-service from his eighteenth to his sixtieth year. On reaching their
-eighteenth year, the young citizens were formally enrolled εἰς
-τὴν ληξιαρχικὸν γραμματεῖον, and received a shield and spear in a
-public assembly of the people, binding themselves by oath to perform
-rightly the duties of a citizen and a soldier. During the first two
-years, they were only liable to service in Attica itself, chiefly
-as garrison soldiers in the different fortresses in the country.
-During this period, they were called περίπολοι. Members of the senate
-during the period of their office, farmers of the revenue, choreutae
-at the Dionysia during the festival, in later times, traders by sea
-also, were exempted from military service. Any one bound to serve who
-attempted to avoid doing so, was liable to a sentence of ἀτιμία. The
-resident aliens commonly served as heavy-armed soldiers, especially
-for the purpose of garrisoning the city. They were prohibited
-from serving as cavalry. Slaves were only employed as soldiers in
-cases of great necessity. Of the details of the Athenian military
-organisation, we have no distinct accounts as we have of those of
-Sparta. The heavy-armed troops, as was the universal practice in
-Greece, fought in phalanx order. They were arranged in bodies in a
-manner dependent on the political divisions of the citizens. The
-soldiers of each tribe (φυλή) formed a separate body in the army,
-also called a tribe, and these bodies stood in some preconcerted
-order. It seems that the name of one division was τάξις, and of
-another λόχος, but in what relations these stood to the φυλή, and
-to each other, we do not learn. Every hoplite was accompanied by
-an attendant (ὑπηρέτης) to take charge of his baggage, and carry
-his shield on a march. Each horseman also had a servant, called
-ἱπποκόμος, to attend to his horse. For the command of the army, there
-were chosen every year ten generals [STRATEGI], and ten taxiarchs
-[TAXIARCHI], and for the cavalry, two hipparchs (ἵππαρχοι) and ten
-phylarchs (φύλαρχοι). Respecting the military functions of the ἄρχων
-πολέμαρχος, see the article Archon. The number of strategi sent with
-an army was not uniform. Three was a common number. Sometimes one was
-invested with the supreme command; at other times, they either took
-the command in turn (as at Marathon), or conducted their operations
-by common consent (as in the Sicilian expedition). The practice of
-paying the troops when upon service was first introduced by Pericles.
-The pay consisted partly of wages (μισθός), partly of provisions,
-or, more commonly, provision-money (σιτηρέσιον). The ordinary μισθός
-of a hoplite was two obols a day. The σιτηρέσιον amounted to two
-obols more. Hence, the life of a soldier was called, proverbially,
-τετρωβόλου βίος. Officers received twice as much; horsemen, three
-times; generals, four times as much. The horsemen received pay even
-in time of peace, that they might always be in readiness, and also a
-sum of money for their outfit (κατάστασις). As regards the military
-strength of the Athenians, we find 10,000 heavy-armed soldiers at
-Marathon, 8,000 heavy-armed, and as many light-armed at Plataeae;
-and at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war there were 18,000
-heavy-armed ready for foreign service, and 16,000 consisting of those
-beyond the limits of the ordinary military age and of the metoeci,
-for garrison service. It was the natural result of the national
-character of the Athenians and their democratical constitution,
-that military discipline was much less stringent among them than
-among the Spartans, and after defeat especially it was often found
-extremely difficult to maintain it. The generals had some power of
-punishing military offences on the spot, but for the greater number
-of such offences a species of court-martial was held, consisting of
-persons who had served in the army to which the offender belonged,
-and presided over by the strategi. Various rewards also were held
-out for those who especially distinguished themselves for their
-courage or conduct, in the shape of chaplets, statues, &c. The
-Peltastae (πελτασταί), so called from the kind of shield which they
-wore [PELTA], were a class of troops of which we hear very little
-before the end of the Peloponnesian war. The Athenian general
-Iphicrates introduced some important improvements in the mode of
-arming them, combining as far as possible the peculiar advantages
-of heavy (ὁπλῖται) and light armed (ψιλοί) troops. He substituted a
-linen corslet for the coat of mail worn by the hoplites, and lessened
-the shield, while he doubled the length of the spear and sword. He
-even took the pains to introduce for them an improved sort of shoe,
-called after him Ἰφικρατίδες. This equipment proved very effective.
-The almost total destruction of a mora of Lacedaemonian heavy-armed
-troops by a body of peltastae under the command of Iphicrates was an
-exploit that became very famous. When the use of mercenary troops
-became general, Athenian citizens seldom served except as volunteers,
-and then in but small numbers. The employment of mercenaries led
-to considerable alterations in the military system of Greece. War
-came to be studied as an art, and Greek generals, rising above the
-old simple rules of warfare, became tacticians. Epaminondas was the
-first who adopted the method of charging in column, concentrating his
-attack upon one point of the hostile line, so as to throw the whole
-into confusion by breaking through it.
-
-3. MACEDONIAN ARMY.--Philip, king of Macedonia, made several
-improvements in the arms and arrangement of the phalanx. The spear
-(σάρισσα or σάρισα), with which the soldiers of the Macedonian
-phalanx were armed, was 24 feet long; but the ordinary length was 21
-feet, and the lines were arranged at such distances that the spears
-of the fifth rank projected three feet beyond the first, so that
-every man in the front rank was protected by five spears. Besides
-the spear they carried a short sword. The shield was very large
-and covered nearly the whole body, so that on favourable ground an
-impenetrable front was presented to the enemy. The soldiers were
-also defended by helmets, coats of mail, and greaves; so that any
-thing like rapid movement was impossible. The ordinary depth of the
-phalanx was sixteen files, though depths of eight and of thirty-two
-are also mentioned. Each file of sixteen was called λόχος. Two lochi
-made a _dilochia_; two dilochiae made a τετραρχία, consisting of
-sixty-four men; two tetrarchies made a τάξις; two τάξεις a σύνταγμα
-or ξεναγία, to which were attached five supernumeraries, a herald,
-an ensign, a trumpeter, a servant, and an officer to bring up
-the rear (οὐραγός); two syntagmata formed a pentacosiarchia, two
-of which made a χιλιαρχία, containing 1024 men; two chiliarchies
-made a τέλος, and two τέλη made a phalangarchia or phalanx in
-the narrower sense of the word, the normal number of which would
-therefore be 4096. It was commanded by a polemarch or strategus; four
-such bodies formed the larger phalanx, the normal number of which
-would be 16,384. When drawn up, the two middle sections constituted
-what was termed the ὀμφαλός, the others being called κέρατα or
-wings. The phalanx soldiers in the army of Alexander amounted to
-18,000, and were divided not into four, but into six divisions,
-each named after a Macedonian province, from which it was to derive
-its recruits. These bodies are oftener called τάξεις than φάλαγγες
-by the historians, and their leaders taxiarchs or strategi. The
-phalanx of Antiochus consisted of 16,000 men, and was formed into
-ten divisions (μέρη) of 1600 each, arranged 50 broad and 32 deep.
-The phalanx, of course, became all but useless, if its ranks were
-broken. It required, therefore, level and open ground, so that its
-operations were restricted to very narrow limits; and being incapable
-of rapid movement, it became almost helpless in the face of an
-active enemy, unless accompanied by a sufficient number of cavalry
-and light troops. The light-armed troops were arranged in files
-(λόχοι) eight deep. Four lochi formed a σύστασις, and then larger
-divisions were successively formed, each being the double of the one
-below it; the largest (called ἐπίταγμα), consisting of 8192 men.
-The cavalry (according to Aelianus), were arranged in an analogous
-manner, the lowest division or squadron (ἴλη), containing 64 men,
-and the successive larger divisions being each the double of that
-below it; the highest (ἐπίταγμα) containing 4096. Both Philip and
-Alexander attached great importance to the cavalry, which, in their
-armies, consisted partly of Macedonians, and partly of Thessalians.
-The Macedonian horsemen were the flower of the young nobles. They
-amounted to about 1200 in number, forming eight squadrons, and, under
-the name ἕταιροι, formed a sort of body-guard for the king. The
-Thessalian cavalry consisted chiefly of the elite of the wealthier
-class of the Thessalians, but included also a number of Grecian
-youth from other states. There was also a guard of foot soldiers
-(ὑπασπισταί), whom we find greatly distinguishing themselves in
-the campaigns of Alexander. They seem to be identical with the
-πεζέταιροι, of whom we find mention. They amounted to about 3000
-men, arranged in six battalions (τάξεις). There was also a troop
-called Argyraspids, from the silver with which their shields were
-ornamented. They seem to have been a species of peltastae. Alexander
-also organised a kind of troops called διμάχαι, who were something
-intermediate between cavalry and infantry, being designed to fight on
-horseback or on foot, as circumstances required. It is in the time of
-Alexander the Great, that we first meet with artillery in the train
-of a Grecian army. His _balistae_ and _catapeltae_ were frequently
-employed with great effect, as, for instance, at the passage of the
-Jaxartes.
-
-(2) ROMAN. _General Remarks on the Legion._--The name _Legio_ is
-coeval with the foundation of Rome, and denoted a body of troops,
-which, although subdivided into several smaller bodies, was regarded
-as forming an organised whole. It was not equivalent to what we
-call a _regiment_, inasmuch as it contained troops of all arms,
-infantry, cavalry, and, when military engines were extensively
-employed, artillery also; it might thus, so far, be regarded as a
-complete _army_, but on the other hand the number of soldiers in a
-legion was fixed within certain limits, never much exceeding 6000,
-and hence when war was carried on upon a large scale, a single army,
-under the command of one general, frequently contained two, three,
-or more legions, besides a large number of auxiliaries of various
-denominations. The legion for many centuries was composed exclusively
-of Roman citizens. By the ordinances of Servius Tullius those alone
-who were enrolled in the five classes were eligible, and one of the
-greatest changes introduced by Marius (B.C. 107) was the admission of
-all orders of citizens, including the lowest, into the ranks. Up to
-the year B.C. 107, no one was permitted to serve among the regular
-troops of the state, except those who were regarded as possessing a
-strong personal interest in the stability of the commonwealth; but
-the principle having been at this period abandoned, the privilege
-was extended after the close of the Social War (B.C. 87) to nearly
-the whole of the free population of Italy, and by the famous edict
-of Caracalla (or perhaps of M. Aurelius), to the whole Roman world.
-Long before this, however, the legions were raised chiefly in the
-provinces; but it does not appear that the admission of foreigners
-not subjects was ever practised upon a large scale until the reign
-of the second Claudius (A.D. 268-270), who incorporated a large body
-of vanquished Goths, and of Probus (A.D. 276-282), who distributed
-16,000 Germans among legionary and frontier battalions. From this
-time forward what had originally been the leading characteristic
-of the legion was rapidly obliterated, so that under Diocletian,
-Constantine, and their successors, the best soldiers in the Roman
-armies were barbarians. The practice of granting pensions for long
-service in the shape of donations of land was first introduced upon
-a large scale after the Mithridatic wars. Hence, when Augustus, in
-compliance with the advice of Maecenas, determined to provide for
-the security of the distant provinces, and for tranquil submission
-at home by the establishment of a powerful standing army, he found
-the public mind in a great degree prepared for such a measure, and
-the distinction between soldier and civilian unknown, or at least not
-recognised before, became from this time forward as broadly marked
-as in the most pure military despotisms of ancient or modern times.
-The legions were originally numbered according to the order in which
-they were raised. As they became permanent, the same numbers remained
-attached to the same corps, which were moreover distinguished by
-various epithets of which we have early examples in the _Legio
-Martia_, and the _Legio Quinta Alauda_. [ALAUDA.] Several legions
-bore the same number: thus there were four _Firsts_, five _Seconds_,
-and five _Thirds_. The total number of legions under Augustus was
-twenty-five, under Alexander Severus thirty-two, but during the
-civil wars the number was far greater.--The number of soldiers who,
-at different periods, were contained in a legion, does not appear
-to have been absolutely fixed, but to have varied within moderate
-limits. Under Romulus the legion contained 3000 foot soldiers. It
-is highly probable that some change may have been introduced by
-Servius Tullius, but, in so far as numbers are concerned, we have no
-evidence. From the expulsion of the Kings until the second year of
-the second Punic War, the regular number may be fixed at 4000 or 4200
-infantry. From the latter period until the consulship of Marius the
-ordinary number may be fixed at from 5000 to 5200. For some centuries
-after Marius the numbers varied from 5000 to 6200, generally
-approaching to the higher limit. Amid all the variations with regard
-to the infantry, 300 horsemen formed the regular complement (_justus
-equitatus_) of the legion. When troops were raised for a service
-which required special arrangements, the number of horsemen was
-sometimes increased beyond 300. It must be observed, however, that
-these remarks with regard to the cavalry apply only to the period
-before Marius. We now proceed to consider the organisation of the
-legion at five different periods.
-
-_First Period. Servius Tullius._ The legion of Servius is so closely
-connected with the Comitia Centuriata that it has already been
-discussed in a former article [COMITIA], and it is only necessary to
-repeat here that it was a phalanx equipped in the Greek fashion, the
-front ranks being furnished with a complete suit of armour, their
-weapons being long spears, and their chief defence the round Argolic
-shield (_clipeus_).
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  15 Manipuli of Hastati.
-  15 Manipuli of Principes.
-  Triarii proper     } 15 triple
-  Rorarii            } Manipuli of
-  Accensi            } Triarii.]
-
-_Second Period. The Great Latin War_, B.C. 340. Our authority for
-this period is Livy (viii. 8). The legion in B.C. 340 had almost
-entirely discarded the tactics of the phalanx. It was now drawn up in
-three, or perhaps we ought to say, in five lines. The soldiers of the
-first line, called _Hastati_, consisted of youths in the first bloom
-of manhood distributed into 15 companies or maniples (_manipuli_),
-a moderate space being left between each. The maniple contained
-60 privates, 2 centurions (_centuriones_), and a standard bearer
-(_vexillarius_); two-thirds were heavily armed and bore the _scutum_
-or large oblong shield, the remainder carried only a spear (_hasta_)
-and light javelins (_gaesa_), The second line, the _Principes_,
-was composed of men in the full vigour of life, divided in like
-manner into 15 maniples, all heavily armed (_scutati omnes_). The
-two lines of the _Hastati_ and _Principes_ taken together amounted
-to 30 maniples, and formed the _Antepilani_. The third line, the
-_Triarii_, composed of tried veterans, was also in 15 divisions, but
-each of these was triple, containing 3 manipuli, 180 privates, 6
-centurions, and 3 vexillarii. In these triple manipuli the veterans
-or _triarii_ proper formed the front ranks; immediately behind them
-stood the _Rorarii_, inferior in age and prowess, while the _Accensi_
-or supernumeraries, less trustworthy than either, were posted in the
-extreme rear. The battle array may be thus represented. The fight was
-commenced by the _Rorarii_, so called because the light missiles
-which they sprinkled among the foe were like the drops which are the
-forerunners of the thunder shower, who, running forwards between the
-ranks of the antepilani, acted as tirailleurs; when they were driven
-in they returned to their station behind the triarii, and the battle
-began in earnest by the onset of the hastati; if they were unable to
-make any impression they retired between the ranks of the principes,
-who now advanced and bore the brunt of the combat, supported by the
-hastati, who had rallied in their rear. If the principes also failed
-to make an impression, they retired through the openings between the
-maniples of the triarii, who up to this time had been crouched on
-the ground (hence called _subsidiarii_), but now arose to make the
-last effort (whence the phrase _rem ad triarios redisse_). No longer
-retaining the open order of the two first lines, they closed up their
-ranks so as to present an unbroken line of heavy-armed veterans in
-front, while the rorarii and accensi, pressing up from behind, gave
-weight and consistency to the mass,--an arrangement bearing evidence
-to a lingering predilection for the principle of the phalanx, and
-exhibiting, just as we might expect at that period, the Roman tactics
-in their transition state. It must be observed that the words
-_ordo_, _manipulus_, _vexillum_, although generally kept distinct,
-are throughout the chapter used as synonymous. Livy concludes by
-saying, that four legions were commonly levied, each consisting of
-5000 infantry and 300 horse. We must suppose that he speaks in round
-numbers in so far as the infantry are concerned, for according to his
-own calculations the numbers will stand thus:--
-
-  Hastati            15 × 60        =   900
-  Principes          15 × 60        =   900
-  Triarii, &c.       15 × 3 × 60    =  2700
-  Centuriones                       =   150
-  Vexillarii                        =    75
-                                       ----                                     4725
-                                       4725
-
-_Third Period. During the wars of the younger Scipio._ Polybius
-describes minutely the method pursued in raising the four legions
-during this period. Under ordinary circumstances they were levied
-yearly, two being assigned to each consul. It must be observed that
-a regular consular army (_justus consularis exercitus_) no longer
-consisted of Roman legions only, but as Italy became gradually
-subjugated, the various states under the dominion of Rome were
-bound to furnish a contingent, and the number of allies (_socii_)
-usually exceeded that of citizens. They were, however, kept perfectly
-distinct, both in the camp and in the battle field. After the
-election of consuls was concluded, the first step was to choose
-the 24 chief officers of the legions, named _tribuni militum_. The
-consuls then summoned to the Capitol all citizens eligible for
-military service. They first divided the 24 tribunes into 4 parties
-of 6, and the tribes were next summoned in succession by lot. The
-tribe whose lot came out first being called up, they picked out from
-it four youths, as nearly matched as possible in age and form; out of
-these four, the tribunes of the first legion chose one, the tribunes
-of the second legion one of the remaining three; the tribunes of the
-third legion, one of the remaining two, and the last fell to the
-fourth legion. Upon the next tribe being called up, the first choice
-was given to the tribunes of the second legion, the second choice to
-those of the third, and the last man fell to the first legion. On
-the next tribe being called up, the tribunes of the third legion had
-the first choice, and so on in succession, the object in view being
-that the four legions should be as nearly alike as possible, not in
-the number only, but in the quality of the soldiers. This process
-was continued until the ranks were complete. In ancient times, the
-cavalry were not chosen until after the infantry levy was concluded,
-but when Polybius wrote, the cavalry were picked in the first place
-from the list on which they were enrolled by the censor according
-to their fortune, and 300 were apportioned to each legion. The levy
-being completed, the tribunes collected the men belonging to their
-respective legions, and making one individual stand out from the rest
-administered to him an oath “that he would obey orders and execute to
-the best of his ability the command of his officers.” (_Sacramento
-milites adigere s. rogare, sacramentum s. sacramento dicere._) The
-rest of the soldiers then came forward one by one, and swore to do
-what the first had bound himself to perform. At the same time the
-consuls gave notice to the magistrates of those towns in Italy in
-alliance with Rome, from whom they desired to receive a contingent,
-of the number which each would be required to furnish, and of the
-day and place of gathering. The allied cities levied their troops
-and administered the oath much in the same manner as the Romans, and
-then sent them forth after appointing a commander and a paymaster.
-The soldiers having again assembled, the men belonging to each legion
-were separated into four divisions. 1. 1000 of the youngest and
-poorest were set apart to form the _Velites_, the light-armed troops,
-or skirmishers of the legion. 2. 1200 who came next in age (or who
-were of the same age with the preceding but more wealthy), formed
-the _Hastati_. 3. 1200, consisting of those in the full vigour of
-manhood, formed the _Principes_. 4. 600, consisting of the oldest and
-most experienced, formed the _Triarii_. When the number of soldiers
-in the legion exceeded 4000, the first three divisions were increased
-proportionally, but the number of the Triarii remained always the
-same. The Hastati, Principes, and Triarii were each divided into
-ten companies, called _Manipuli_. The Velites were not divided into
-companies, but were distributed equally among the Hastati, Principes,
-and Triarii. Before the division of the three classes into maniples,
-officers were appointed inferior to the tribunes. 30 men were chosen
-by merit, 10 from the Hastati, 10 from the Principes, and 10 from
-the Triarii; and this first choice being completed, 30 more in like
-manner. These 60 officers, of whom 20 were assigned to each of the
-three classes, and distributed equally among the maniples, were named
-_centuriones_, or _ordinum ductores_, and each of the 60 chose for
-himself a Lieutenant (_optio_), who, being posted in the rear of the
-company while the centurion was at the head, was named οὐραγός (i.e.
-_Tergiductor_) by the Greeks, so that in each maniple there were two
-centurions and two optiones. Further, the centurions selected out of
-each maniple two of the bravest and most vigorous men as standard
-bearers (_vexillarii, signiferi_). The first elected centurion of the
-whole had a seat in the military council, and in each maniple the
-first chosen commanded the right division of the maniple, and the
-other the left. Each of these subdivisions of the maniple was called
-_centuria_. The cavalry were divided into 10 troops (_turmae_), and
-out of each of these 3 officers were chosen, named _decuriones_,
-who named 3 lieutenants (_optiones_). In each troop the decurio
-first chosen commanded the whole troop, and failing him, the second.
-The infantry furnished by the _socii_ was for the most part equal
-in number to the Roman legions, the cavalry twice or thrice as
-numerous, and the whole were divided equally between the two consular
-armies. Each consul named twelve superior officers, who were termed
-_Praefecti Sociorum_, and corresponded to the legionary tribunes. A
-selection was then made of the best men, to the extent of one-fifth
-of the infantry and one-third of the cavalry; these were formed into
-a separate corps under the name of _extraordinarii_, and on the
-march and in the camp were always near the person of the consul.
-The remainder were divided into two equal portions, and were styled
-respectively the _Dextera Ala_ and the _Sinistra Ala_ [ALA].--_Agmen_
-or _Line of March_. The Extraordinarii Pedites led the van followed
-by the right wing of the infantry of the allies and the baggage of
-these two divisions; next came one of the Roman legions with its
-baggage following; next the other Roman legion with its own baggage,
-and that of the left wing of the allies, who brought up the rear. The
-different corps of cavalry sometimes followed immediately behind the
-infantry to which they were attached, sometimes rode on the flanks
-of the beasts of burden, at once protecting them and preventing them
-from straggling. Generally, when advancing through a country in which
-it was necessary to guard against a sudden onset, the troops, instead
-of proceeding in a loose straggling column, were kept together in
-close compact bodies ready to act in any direction at a moment’s
-warning, and hence an army under these circumstances was said _agmine
-quadrato incedere_. Some doubt exists with regard to the force of the
-term _Agmen Pilatum_ as distinguished from _Agmen Quadratum_. Varro
-defines the _agmen pilatum_ as a compact body marching without beasts
-of burthen. Where the phrase occurs in poetry, it probably denotes
-merely “columns bristling with spears.” To the preceding particulars
-from Polybius, the following may be added.
-
-1. _The levy (delectus.)_ According to the principles of the
-constitution, none were enrolled in the legion, except freeborn
-citizens (_ingenui_) above the age of 17, and under the age of
-60, possessing not less than 4000 asses: but in times of peculiar
-difficulty, these conditions were not insisted upon. In such times
-all formalities were dispensed with, and every man capable of bearing
-arms was summoned to join in warding off the threatened danger, a
-force raised under such circumstances being termed _subitarius_ s.
-_tumultuarius exercitus_. If citizens between the ages of 17 and 46
-did not appear and answer to their names, they might be punished in
-various ways,--by fine, by imprisonment, by stripes, by confiscation
-of their property, and even, in extreme cases, by being sold
-as slaves. At the same time, causes might be alleged which were
-recognised as forming a legitimate ground for exemption (_vacatio
-justa militiae_). Thus, all who had served for the full period of 20
-years were relieved from further service, although they might still
-be within the regular age; and so, in like manner, when they were
-afflicted by any grievous malady, or disabled by any personal defect,
-or engaged in any sacred or civil offices which required their
-constant attendance; but these and similar pleas, although sustained
-under ordinary circumstances, might be rendered void by a decree
-of the senate “ne vacationes valerent.” While those who had served
-for the stipulated period were entitled to immunity for the future,
-even although within the legal age, and were styled _Emeriti_, so on
-the other hand, it appears from some passages in the classics, that
-persons who had not completed their regular term within the usual
-limits, might be forced, if required, to serve between the ages of
-45 and 50. Towards the close of the republic, and under the empire,
-when the legions became permanent, the soldier who had served his
-full time received a regular discharge (_missio_), together with a
-bounty (_praemium_) in money or an allotment of land. The jurists
-distinguish three kinds of discharge:--1. _Missio honesta_, granted
-for length of service. 2. _Missio causaria_, in consequence of bad
-health. 3. _Missio ignominiosa_, when a man was drummed out for
-bad conduct. It frequently happened that _emeriti_ were induced to
-continue in the ranks, either from attachment to the person of the
-general, or from hopes of profit or promotion, and were then called
-_veterani_, or when they joined an army, in consequence of a special
-invitation, _evocati_.
-
-2. The division of the legion into _Cohortes_, _Manipuli_,
-_Centuriae_, _Signa_, _Ordines_, _Contubernia_.--(i.) _Cohortes._
-Polybius takes no notice of the _Cohort_, a division of the legion
-often mentioned in the Roman writers. When the soldiers of the
-legion were classified as Velites, Hastati, Principes and Triarii,
-the cohort contained one maniple of each of the three latter
-denominations, together with their complement of Velites, so that
-when the legion contained 4000, each cohort would consist of 60
-Triarii, 120 Principes, 120 Hastati, and 100 Velites, in all 400 men.
-The number of cohorts in a legion being always 10, and the cohorts,
-during the republic, being all equal to each other, the strength of
-the cohort varied from time to time with the strength of the legion,
-and thus at different periods ranged between the limits of 300 and
-600. They were regularly numbered from 1 to 10, the centurion of
-the first century of the first maniple of the first cohort was the
-guardian of the eagle, and hence the first cohort seems always to
-have been regarded as superior in dignity to the rest. Late writers,
-instead of _cohortes_, prefer the somewhat vague term _numeri_,
-which appears in Tacitus and Suetonius, and perhaps even in Cicero.
-_Numeri_ seems to have signified strictly the muster roll, whence
-the phrases _referre in numeros_, _distribuere in numeros_, and
-thus served to denote any body of legionaries. Whenever _Cohors_
-occurs in the Latin classics in connection with the legion, it
-always signifies a specific division of the legion; but it is very
-frequently found, in the general sense of _battalion_, to denote
-troops altogether distinct from the legion.--(ii.) _Manipulus._ The
-original meaning of this word, which is derived from _manus_, was _a
-handful or wisp of hay_, _straw_, _fern_, _or the like_, and this,
-according to Roman tradition, affixed to the end of a pole, formed
-the primitive military standard in the days of Romulus. Hence it was
-applied to a body of soldiers serving under the same ensign. When
-the phalanx was resolved into small companies marshalled in open
-order, these were termed _manipuli_, and down to a very late period
-the common soldiers of the legion were designated as _manipulares_
-or _manipularii_, terms equivalent to _gregarii milites_. When the
-phalanx was first broken up, it appears that each of the three
-classes of Hastati, Principes, and Triarii, contained 15 maniples;
-but before the second Punic war the number of maniples in each of
-these classes was reduced to 10. Hence it is easy to calculate the
-number of soldiers in each maniple, according to the varying numbers
-in the legion, it being always borne in mind that the Triarii never
-exceeded 600, and that the Velites were not divided into maniples,
-but distributed equally among the heavy-armed companies.--(iii.)
-_Centuriae._ The distribution of soldiers into _centuriae_ must be
-regarded as coeval with the origin of Rome. Plutarch speaks of the
-force led by Romulus against Amulius as formed of centuries; and from
-the close connections between the centuries of Servius Tullius, and
-the organization of the military force, we cannot hesitate to believe
-that the term was communicated to the ranks of the phalanx. For a
-long period after the establishment of the manipular constitution,
-the legion contained 60 centuries.--(iv.) _Signum._ This word is used
-to denote a division of the legion, but it is doubtful whether it
-signifies a maniple or a century.--(v.) _Ordo_ generally signifies
-a century, and _ordinum ductor_ is synonymous with _centurio_, and
-_ducere honestum ordinem_ means to be one of the principal centurions
-in a legion.--(vi.) _Contubernium._ This was the name given under the
-empire to the body of soldiers who were quartered together in the
-same tent.
-
-3. _Hastati_, _Principes_, _Triarii_, _Pilani_, _Antepilani_,
-_Antesignani_, _Principia_.--The _Hastati_ were so called, from
-having been armed with a _hasta_, the _Principes_ from having
-occupied the front line, the _Triarii_, otherwise named _Pilani_,
-from having been ranged behind the first two lines as a body of
-reserve and armed with the _pilum_, while the first two lines
-were termed collectively _Antepilani_, from standing in front of
-the _Pilani_. In process of time, it came to pass, that these
-designations no longer expressed the actual condition of the
-troops to which they were attached. When Polybius wrote, and long
-before that period, the _Hastati_ were not armed with _hastae_,
-but in common with the _Principes_ bore the heavy _pilum_: on the
-other hand, the _pilani_ carried _hastae_ and not _pila_, while
-the _Principes_ were not drawn up in the front, but formed the
-second line.--_Antesignani_. While the Hastati and Principes, taken
-together, were sometimes termed _Antepilani_, in contradistinction
-to the Triarii, so the Hastati alone were sometimes termed
-_Antesignani_, in contradistinction to the Principes and Triarii
-taken together. The term _Antesignani_ having become established
-as denoting the front ranks in a line of battle, was retained in
-this general sense long after the Hastati, Principes, and Triarii
-had disappeared.--Another term employed to denote the front ranks
-of an army in battle array is _Principia_, and in this sense must
-be carefully distinguished from the _Principia_ or chief street
-in the camp, and from _Principia_, which in the later writers,
-such as Ammianus and Vegetius, is equivalent to _principales
-milites_. _Postsignani_ does not occur in any author earlier than
-Ammianus Marcellinus, and therefore need not be illustrated here;
-the _Subsignanus miles_ of Tacitus seems to be the same with the
-_Vexillarii_.
-
-4. _Rorarii_, _Accensi_, _Ferentarii_, _Velites_,
-_Procubitores_.--When the Hastati had, in a great measure, ceased
-to act as tirailleurs, their place was supplied by the _Rorarii_,
-whose method of fighting has been described above (p. 165). The
-_Accensi_, as described by Livy, were inferior in equipment to the
-rorarii, although employed in a similar manner, and seem to have been
-camp-followers or servants, and hence the name is given to those
-also who attended upon magistrates or other officials. At a later
-period the _accensi_ were supernumeraries, who served to fill up any
-vacancies which occurred in the course of a campaign. Another ancient
-term for light-armed soldiers was _Ferentarii_. The _Velites_, called
-also _Procubitores_, because they were employed on outpost duty when
-the Romans were encamped before an enemy, were first formed into a
-corps at the siege of Capua, B.C. 211.
-
-5. _Officers of the Legion._--_Tribuni Militum_ were the chief
-officers of the legion. Their number (six) did not vary for many
-centuries. They were originally chosen by the commanders-in-chief,
-that is, by the kings in the first instance, and afterwards by the
-consuls, or a dictator, as the case might be. In B.C. 361 the people
-assumed to themselves the right of electing either the whole or a
-certain number; and in B.C. 311 it was ordained that they should
-choose sixteen for the four legions. In subsequent times the choice
-of the tribunes was divided between the consuls and the people; but
-the proportion chosen by each differed at various periods. No one was
-eligible to the office of tribune who had not served for ten years
-in the infantry or five in the cavalry; but this rule admitted of
-exceptions. Augustus introduced certain regulations altogether new.
-He permitted the sons of senators to wear the _tunica laticlavia_ as
-soon as they assumed the manly gown, and to commence their military
-career as tribunes, or as commanders (_praefecti_) of cavalry. Such
-persons were the _Tribuni Laticlavii_.--_Centuriones._ Next in
-rank to the Tribunus was the _Centurio_, who, as the name implies,
-commanded a century; and the century, being termed also _ordo_, the
-centurions were frequently designated _ordinum ductores_ (hence,
-_adimere ordines_, _offerre ordines_, _ordines impetrare_, _ducere
-honestum ordinem_, to be one of the principal centurions, &c.). The
-chief ordinary duties of the centurions were to drill the soldiers,
-to inspect their arms, clothing, and food, to watch the execution
-of the toils imposed, to visit the centinels, and to regulate the
-conduct of their men, both in the camp and in the field. They also
-sat as judges in minor offences, and had the power of inflicting
-corporal punishment, whence their badge of office was a vine sapling,
-and thus _vitis_ is frequently used to denote the office itself. Of
-the two centurions in each maniple the one first chosen took the
-command of the right division, the other of the left. The century
-to the right was considered as the first century of the maniple,
-and its commander took precedence probably with the title _Prior_,
-his companion to the left being called _Posterior_, the _priores_
-in each of the three divisions of Triarii, Principes, and Hastati
-being the ten centurions first chosen. So long as these divisions
-were recognised, all the centurions of the Triarii appear to have
-ranked before those of the Principes, and all the centurions of the
-Principes before those of the Hastati. Moreover, since the maniples
-were numbered in each division from 1 to 10, there was probably a
-regular progression from the first centurion of the first maniple
-down to the second centurion of the tenth maniple. The first
-centurion of the first maniple of the Triarii, originally named
-_Centurio Primus_, and afterwards _Centurio Primipili_, or simply
-_Primipilus_, occupied a very conspicuous position. He stood next in
-rank to the Tribuni militum; he had a seat in the military council;
-to his charge was committed the eagle of the legion, whence he is
-sometimes styled _Aquilifer_, and, under the empire at least, his
-office was very lucrative. A series of terms connected with these
-arrangements are furnished by the narrative which Sp. Ligustinus
-gives of his own career (Liv. xlii. 34). He thus enumerates the
-various steps of his promotion:--“Mihi T. Quinctius Flamininus
-_decumum ordinem hastatum_ adsignavit ... me imperator dignum
-judicavit cui _primum hastatum prioris centuriae_ adsignaret ... a
-M’. Acilio mihi _primus princeps prioris centuriae_ est adsignatus
-... quater intra paucos annos _primum pilum duxi_.” The gradual
-ascent from the ranks being to the post of centurion:--1. In the
-tenth maniple of the Hastati. 2. In the first century of the first
-maniple of the Hastati. 3. In the first century of the first maniple
-of the Principes. 4. In the first century of the first maniple of the
-Triarii.--But even after the distinction between Hastati, Principes,
-and Triarii was altogether abolished, and they were all blended
-together in the cohorts, the same nomenclature with regard to the
-centuries and their commanders was retained, although it is by no
-means easy to perceive how it was applied. That great differences
-of rank existed among the centurions is evident from the phrases
-_primores centurionum_, _primi ordines_ (_i.e._ chief centurions),
-as opposed to _inferiores ordines_, and _infimi ordines_, and that
-promotion from a lower to a higher grade frequently took place,
-is evident from many passages in ancient authors. The election of
-_optiones_, or lieutenants, by the centurions, has been already
-described.
-
-_Fourth Period. From the times of the Gracchi until the downfall
-of the Republic._ After the times of the Gracchi the following
-changes in military affairs may be noticed:--In the first consulship
-of Marius the legions were thrown open to citizens of all grades,
-without distinction of fortune. The whole of the legionaries were
-armed and equipped in the same manner, all being now furnished with
-the pilum; and hence we see in Tacitus the _pila_ and _gladii_
-of the legionaries, opposed to the _hastae_ and _spathae_ of the
-auxiliaries. The legionaries when in battle order were no longer
-arranged in three lines, each consisting of ten maniples, with an
-open space between each maniple, but in two lines, each consisting
-of five cohorts, with a space between each cohort. The younger
-soldiers were no longer placed in the front, but in reserve, the van
-being composed of veterans, as may be seen from various passages
-in Caesar. As a necessary result of the above arrangements, the
-distinction between Hastati, Principes, and Triarii ceased to exist.
-These names, as applied to particular classes of soldiers, are not
-found in Caesar, in Tacitus, nor in any writer upon military affairs
-after the time of Marius. The Velites disappeared. The skirmishers,
-included under the general term _levis armatura_, consisted for
-the most part of foreign mercenaries possessing peculiar skill in
-the use of some national weapon, such as the Balearic slingers,
-(_funditores_), the Cretan archers (_sagittarii_), and the Moorish
-dartmen (_jaculatores_). Troops of this description had, it is true,
-been employed by the Romans even before the second Punic war, and
-were denominated _levium armatorum_ (s. _armorum_) _auxilia_; but now
-the _levis armatura_ consisted exclusively of foreigners, were formed
-into a regular corps under their own officers, and no longer entered
-into the constitution of the legion. When operations requiring
-great activity were undertaken, such as could not be performed by
-mere skirmishers, detachments of legionaries were lightly equipped,
-and marched without baggage, for these special services; and hence
-the frequent occurrence of such phrases as _expediti_, _expediti
-milites_, _expeditae cohortes_, and even _expeditae legiones_. The
-cavalry of the legion underwent a change in every respect analogous
-to that which took place in regard of the light-armed troops. It is
-evident, from the history of Caesar’s campaigns in Gaul, that the
-number of Roman equites attached to his army was very small, and that
-they were chiefly employed as aides-de-camp, and on confidential
-missions. The bulk of Caesar’s cavalry consisted of foreigners, a
-fact which becomes strikingly apparent when we read that Ariovistus
-having stipulated that the Roman general should come to their
-conference attended by cavalry alone, Caesar, feeling no confidence
-in his Gaulish horse, dismounted them, and supplied their place by
-soldiers of the tenth legion. In like manner they ceased to form
-part of the legion, and from this time forward we find the legions
-and the cavalry spoken of as completely distinct from each other.
-After the termination of the Social War, when most of the inhabitants
-of Italy became Roman citizens, the ancient distinction between the
-_Legiones_ and the _Socii_ disappeared, and all who had served as
-_Socii_ became incorporated with the legiones. An army during the
-last years of the republic and under the earlier emperors consisted
-of _Romanae Legiones et Auxilia s. Auxiliares_, the latter term
-comprehending troops of all kinds, except the legions. Whenever the
-word _socii_ is applied to troops after the date of the Social War,
-it is generally to be regarded as equivalent to _auxiliares_. But the
-most important change of all was the establishment of the military
-_profession_, and the distinction now first introduced between the
-civilian and the soldier.
-
-_Fifth Period. From the establishment of the empire until the age of
-the Antonines_, B.C. 31-A.D. 150. Under the empire a regular army
-consisted of a certain number of _Legiones_ and of _Supplementa_,
-the Supplementa being again divided into the imperial guards, which
-appear under several different forms, distinguished by different
-names; and the _Auxilia_, which were subdivided into _Sociae
-Cohortes_ and _Nationes_, the latter being for the most part
-barbarians. The _Legiones_, as already remarked, although still
-composed of persons who enjoyed the privileges of Roman citizens,
-were now raised almost exclusively in the provinces. The legion was
-divided into 10 cohorts, and each cohort into 6 centuries; the first
-cohort, which had the custody of the eagle, was double the size of
-the others, and contained 960 men, the remaining cohorts contained
-each 480 men; and consequently each ordinary century 80 men, the
-total strength of the legion being thus 5280 men.--It is during this
-period that we first meet with the term _Vexillarii_ or _Vexilla_,
-which occurs repeatedly in Tacitus. The _vexillarii_, or _vexilla
-legionum_, were those soldiers who, after having served in the legion
-for sixteen years, became _exauctorati_, but continued to serve in
-company with that legion, under a vexillum of their own, until they
-received their full discharge. The number attached to each legion
-was usually about five or six hundred.--The term _exauctorare_ also
-meant _to discharge from military service_, but does not appear to
-have been in use before the Augustan period. It signified both a
-simple discharge, and a cashiering on account of some crime. During
-the later period of the empire the latter signification began
-almost exclusively to prevail.--As to the Praetorian troops, see
-PRAETORIANI.--From the time when the cavalry were separated from
-the legion they were formed into bodies called _alae_, which varied
-in number according to circumstances. The _Alae_ were raised in
-the Roman provinces and consisted, probably, for the most part, of
-citizens, or at least subjects. But in addition to these every army
-at this period was attended by squadrons of light horse composed
-entirely of barbarians; and the chief duty performed by those named
-above was guiding the pioneers as they performed their labours in
-advance of the army.--_Cohortes peditatae_, were battalions raised
-chiefly in the provinces, composed of Roman citizens, of subjects and
-allies, or of citizens, allies, and subjects indiscriminately. To
-this class of troops belonged the _cohortes auxiliares_, the _auxilia
-cohortium_, and the _sociorum cohortes_, of whom we read in Tacitus,
-together with a multitude of others recorded in inscriptions and
-named for the most part from the nations of which they were composed.
-These cohorts were numbered regularly like the legions.--_Cohortes
-Equitatae_ differed from the _Peditatae_ in this only, that they
-were made up of infantry combined with cavalry.--_Classici_, which
-we may fairly render _Marines_, were employed, according to Hyginus,
-as pioneers. They corresponded to the _Navales Socii_, under the
-republic, who were always regarded as inferior to regular soldiers.
-After the establishment by Augustus of regular permanent fleets at
-Misenum, Ravenna, and on the coast of Gaul, a large body of men
-must have been required to man them, who were sometimes called
-upon to serve as ordinary soldiers.--_Nationes_ were battalions
-composed entirely of barbarians, or of the most uncivilised among the
-subjects of Rome, and were probably chiefly employed upon outpost
-duties.--_Urbanae Cohortes._ Augustus, in addition to the praetorian
-cohorts, instituted a force of city guards, amounting to 6000 men
-divided into four battalions. They are usually distinguished as
-_Cohortes Urbanae_ or _Urbana militia_, their quarters, which were
-within the city, being the _Urbana Castra_.--_Cohortes Vigilum._
-Augustus also organised a large body of night-watchers, whose
-chief duty was to act as firemen. They were divided into seven
-cohorts, in the proportion of one cohort to each two _Regiones_,
-were stationed in fourteen guardhouses (_excubitoria_), and called
-_Cohortes Vigilum_. They were commanded by a _Praefectus_, who was of
-equestrian rank.
-
-
-EXĬLĬUM. [EXSILIUM.]
-
-
-EXŎDĬA (ἐξόδια, from ἐξ and ὁδός) were old-fashioned and laughable
-interludes in verse, inserted in other plays, but chiefly in the
-Atellanae. The exodium seems to have been introduced among the Romans
-from Italian Greece; but after its introduction it became very
-popular among the Romans, and continued to be played down to a very
-late period.
-
-
-EXŌMIS (ἐξωμίς), a dress which had only a sleeve for the left arm,
-leaving the right with the shoulder and a part of the breast free,
-and was for this reason called _exomis_. The exomis was usually worn
-by slaves and working people.
-
-[Illustration: Exomis (Bronze in British Museum).]
-
-
-EXŌMŎSĬA (ἐξωμοσία). Any Athenian citizen when called upon to appear
-as a witness in a court of justice (κλητεύειν or ἐκκλητεύειν), was
-obliged by law to obey the summons, unless he could establish by
-oath that he was unacquainted with the case in question. This oath
-was called ἐξωμοσία, and the act of taking it was expressed by
-ἐξόμνυσθαι. A person appointed to a public office was at liberty to
-decline it, if he could take an oath that the state of his health
-or other circumstances rendered it impossible for him to fulfil the
-duties connected with it (ἐξόμνυσθαι τὴν ἀρχὴν, or τὴν χειροτονίαν):
-and this oath was likewise called ἐξωμοσία, or sometimes ἀπωμοσία.
-
-
-EXOSTRA (ἐξώστρα, from ἐξωθέω), a theatrical machine, by means of
-which things which had been concealed behind the curtain on the stage
-were pushed or rolled forward from behind it, and thus became visible
-to the spectators.
-
-
-EXPĔDĪTUS is opposed to _impeditus_, and signifies unincumbered with
-armour or with baggage (_impedimenta_). Hence the epithet was often
-applied to any portion of the Roman army, when the necessity for
-haste, or the desire to conduct it with the greatest facility from
-place to place, made it desirable to leave behind every weight that
-could be spared.
-
-
-EXPLŌRĀTŌRES. [SPECULATORES.]
-
-
-EXSĔQUĬAE. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-EXSĬLĬUM (φυγή), banishment. (1) GREEK. Banishment among the Greek
-states seldom, if ever, appears as a punishment appointed by law for
-particular offences. We might, indeed, expect this, for the division
-of Greece into a number of independent states would neither admit of
-the establishment of penal colonies, as among us, nor of the various
-kinds of exile which we read of under the Roman emperors. The general
-term φυγή (flight) was for the most part applied in the case of those
-who, in order to avoid some punishment or danger, removed from their
-own country to another. At Athens it took place chiefly in cases of
-homicide, or murder. An action for wilful murder was brought before
-the Areiopagus, and for manslaughter before the court of the Ephetae.
-The accused might, in either case, withdraw himself (φεύγειν) before
-sentence was passed; but when a criminal evaded the punishment to
-which an act of murder would have exposed him had he remained in his
-own land, he was then banished for ever (φεύγει ἀειφυγίαν), and not
-allowed to return home even when other exiles were restored upon a
-general amnesty. Demosthenes says, that the word φεύγειν was properly
-applied to the exile of those who committed murder with malice
-aforethought, whereas the term μεθίστασθαι was used where the act was
-not intentional. The property also was confiscated in the former
-case, but not in the latter. When a verdict of manslaughter was
-returned, it was usual for the convicted party to leave his country
-by a certain road, and to remain in exile till he induced some one
-of the relatives of the slain man to take compassion on him. We are
-not informed what were the consequences if the relatives of the slain
-man refused to make a reconciliation; supposing that there was no
-compulsion, it is reasonable to conclude that the exile was allowed
-to return after a fixed time. Plato, who is believed to have copied
-many of his laws from the constitution of Athens, fixes the period of
-banishment for manslaughter at one year.--Under φυγή, or banishment,
-as a general term, is comprehended _Ostracism_, (ὀστρακισμός). Those
-that were ostracised did not lose their property, and the time, as
-well as place of their banishment, was fixed. This ostracism is
-supposed by some to have been instituted by Cleisthenes, after the
-expulsion of the Peisistratidae; its nature and object are thus
-explained by Aristotle:--“Democratical states (he observes) used to
-ostracise, and remove from the city for a definite time, those who
-appeared to be preeminent above their fellow-citizens, by reason
-of their wealth, the number of their friends, or any other means
-of influence.” Ostracism, therefore, was not a punishment for any
-crime, but rather a precautionary removal of those who possessed
-sufficient power in the state to excite either envy or fear. Thus
-Plutarch says, it was a good-natured way of allaying envy by the
-humiliation of superior dignity and power. The manner of effecting
-it at Athens was as follows:--A space in the _agora_ was enclosed
-by barriers, with ten entrances for the ten tribes. By these the
-tribesmen entered, each with his _ostracon_ (ὄστρακον), or piece of
-tile (whence the name _ostracism_), on which was written the name
-of the individual whom he wished to be ostracised. The nine archons
-and the senate, _i.e._ the presidents of that body, superintended
-the proceedings, and the party who had the greatest number of votes
-against him, supposing that this number amounted to 6000, was obliged
-to withdraw (μεταστῆναι) from the city within ten days; if the number
-of votes did not amount to 6000, nothing was done. Some of the most
-distinguished men at Athens were removed by ostracism, but recalled
-when the city found their services indispensable. Among these were
-Themistocles, Aristeides, and Cimon, son of Miltiades. The last
-person against whom it was used at Athens was Hyperbolus, a demagogue
-of low birth and character; but the Athenians thought their own
-dignity compromised, and ostracism degraded by such an application of
-it, and accordingly discontinued the practice.--From the ostracism
-of Athens was copied the _Petalism_ (πεταλισμός) of the Syracusans,
-so called from the πέταλον, or leaf of the olive, on which was
-written the name of the person whom they wished to remove from the
-city. The removal, however, was only for five years; a sufficient
-time, as they thought, to humble the pride and hopes of the exile.
-In connection with petalism it may be remarked, that if any one were
-falsely registered in a demus, or ward, at Athens, his expulsion was
-called ἐκφυλλοφορία, from the votes being given by leaves. Besides
-those exiled by law, or ostracised, there was frequently a great
-number of political exiles in Greece; men who, having distinguished
-themselves as the leaders of one party, were expelled, or obliged
-to remove from their native city, when the opposite faction became
-predominant. They are spoken of as οἱ φεύγοντες or οἱ ἐκπεσόντες, and
-as οἱ κατελθόντες after their return (ἡ κάθοδος) the word κατάγειν
-being applied to those who were instrumental in effecting it.--(2)
-ROMAN. Banishment as a punishment did not exist in the old Roman
-state. The _aquae et ignis interdictio_, which we so frequently read
-of in the republican period, was in reality not banishment, for
-it was only a ban, pronounced by the people (by a _lex_), or by a
-magistrate in a criminal court, by which a person was deprived of
-water and of fire; that is, of the first necessaries of life; and its
-effect was to incapacitate a person from exercising the rights of a
-citizen; in other words, to deprive him of his citizenship. Such a
-person might, if he chose, remain at Rome, and submit to the penalty
-of being an outcast, incapacitated from doing any legal act, and
-liable to be killed by any one with impunity. To avoid these dangers,
-a person suffering under such an interdict would naturally withdraw
-from Rome, and in the earlier republican period, if he withdrew to
-a state between which and Rome isopolitical relations existed, he
-would become a citizen of that state. This right was called _jus
-exsulandi_ with reference to the state to which the person came;
-with respect to his own state, which he left, he was _exsul_, and
-his condition was _exsilium_; and with respect to the state which
-he entered, he was _inquilinus_.[2] In the same way a citizen of
-such a state had a right of going into exsilium at Rome; and at
-Rome he might attach himself (_applicare se_) to a quasi-patronus.
-Exsilium, instead of being a punishment, would thus rather be a
-mode of evading punishment; but towards the end of the republic the
-_aquae et ignis interdictio_ became a regular banishment, since the
-sentence usually specified certain limits, within which a person
-was interdicted from fire and water. Thus Cicero was interdicted
-from fire and water within 400 miles from the city. The punishment
-was inflicted for various crimes, as _vis publica_, _peculatus_,
-_veneficium_, &c. Under the empire there were two kinds of exsilium;
-_exsilium_ properly so called, and _relegatio_; the great distinction
-between the two was, that the former deprived a person of his
-citizenship, while the latter did not. The distinction between
-_exsilium_ and _relegatio_ existed under the republic. Ovid also
-describes himself, not as _exsul_, which he considers a term of
-reproach, but as _relegatus_. The chief species of exsilium was the
-_deportatio in insulam_ or _deportatio_ simply, which was introduced
-under the emperors in place of the _aquae et ignis interdictio_.
-The _relegatio_ merely confined the person within, or excluded him
-from particular places. In the latter case it was called _fuga
-lata_, _fuga libera_, or _liberum exsilium_. The _relegatus_ went
-into banishment; the _deportatus_ was conducted to his place of
-banishment, sometimes in chains.
-
-
-FOOTNOTE:
-
-[2] This word appears, by its termination _inus_, to denote a person
-who was one of a class, like the word _libertinus_. The prefix _in_
-appears to be the correlative of _ex_ in _exsul_, and the remaining
-part _quil_ is probably related to _col_ in _incola_ and _colonus_.
-
-
-EXTISPEX. [HARUSPEX.]
-
-
-EXTRĂORDĬNĀRĬI. [EXERCITUS, p. 167.]
-
-
-
-
-FABRI are workmen who make anything out of hard materials, as _fabri
-tignarii_, carpenters, _fabri aerarii_, smiths, &c. The different
-trades were divided by Numa into nine collegia, which correspond to
-our companies or guilds. In the constitution of Servius Tullius, the
-_fabri tignarii_ and the _fabri aerarii_ or _ferrarii_ were formed
-into two centuries, which were called the centuriae _fabrum_ (not
-_fabrorum_). They did not belong to any of the five classes into
-which Servius divided the people; but the _fabri tign._ probably
-voted with the first class, and the _fabri aer._ with the second.
-The fabri in the army were under the command of an officer called
-_praefectus fabrûm_.
-
-
-FĂBŬLA. [COMOEDIA.]
-
-
-FĂLĀRĬCA. [HASTA.]
-
-
-FALSUM. The oldest legislative provision at Rome against Falsum
-was that of the Twelve Tables against false testimony. The next
-legislation on Falsum, so far as we know, was a Lex Cornelia, passed
-in the time of the Dictator Sulla against forging, concealing,
-destroying, or committing any other fraudulent act respecting a
-will or other instrument. The offence was a Crimen Publicum, and,
-under the emperors, the punishment was deportatio in insulam for the
-“honestiores;” and the mines or crucifixion for the “humiliores.”
-
-
-FALX, _dim._ FALCŬLA (ἅρπη, δρέπανον, _poet._ δρεπάνη, _dim._
-δρεπάνιον), a sickle; a scythe; a pruning-knife; a falchion, &c. As
-_Culter_ denoted a knife with one straight edge, _falx_ signified
-any similar instrument, the single edge of which was curved. Some of
-its forms are given in the annexed cut. One represents Perseus with
-the falchion in his right hand, and the head of Medusa in his left.
-The two smaller figures are heads of Saturn with the falx in its
-original form; and the fourth represents the same divinity at full
-length.
-
-[Illustration: Falx. (From ancient Cameos.)]
-
-
-FĂMĬLĬA. The word _familia_ contains the same element as the word
-famulus, a slave, and the verb _famulari_. In its widest sense it
-signifies the totality of that which belongs to a Roman citizen
-who is sui juris, and therefore a paterfamilias. Thus, in certain
-cases of testamentary disposition, the word _familia_ is explained
-by the equivalent _patrimonium_; and the person who received the
-familia from the testator was called _familiae emptor_. But the
-word _familia_ is sometimes limited to signify “persons,” that is,
-all those who are in the power of a paterfamilias, such as his sons
-(_filii-familias_), daughters, grandchildren, and slaves. Sometimes
-_familia_ is used to signify the slaves belonging to a person, or to
-a body of persons (_societas_).
-
-
-FĀNUM. [TEMPLUM.]
-
-
-FARTOR, a slave who fattened poultry.
-
-
-FASCES, rods bound in the form of a bundle, and containing an axe
-(_securis_) in the middle, the iron of which projected from them.
-They were usually made of birch, but sometimes also of the twigs of
-the elm. They are said to have been derived from Vetulonia, a city
-of Etruria. Twelve were carried before each of the kings by twelve
-lictors; and on the expulsion of the Tarquins, one of the consuls was
-preceded by twelve lictors with the fasces and secures, and the other
-by the same number of lictors with the fasces only, or, according to
-some accounts, with crowns around them. But P. Valerius Publicola,
-who gave to the people the right of provocatio, ordained that the
-secures should be removed from the fasces, and allowed only one of
-the consuls to be preceded by the lictors while they were at Rome.
-The other consul was attended only by a single accensus [ACCENSUS].
-When they were out of Rome, and at the head of the army, each of
-the consuls retained the axe in the fasces, and was preceded by his
-own lictors, as before the time of Valerius. The fasces and secures
-were, however, carried before the dictator even in the city, and he
-was also preceded by twenty-four lictors, and the magister equitum
-by six. The praetors were preceded in the city by two lictors with
-the fasces; but out of Rome and at the head of an army by six, with
-the fasces and secures. The tribunes of the plebs, the aediles and
-quaestors, had no lictors in the city, but in the provinces the
-quaestors were permitted to have the fasces. The lictors carried the
-fasces on their shoulders; and when an inferior magistrate met one
-who was higher in rank, the lictors lowered their fasces to him.
-This was done by Valerius Publicola, when he addressed the people,
-and hence came the expression _submittere fasces_ in the sense of to
-yield, to confess one’s self inferior to another. When a general had
-gained a victory, and had been saluted as Imperator by his soldiers,
-he usually crowned his fasces with laurel.
-
-[Illustration: Fasces. (From the original in the Capitol at Rome.)]
-
-
-FASCĬA, a band or fillet of cloth, worn, (1) round the head as an
-ensign of royalty;--(2) by women over the breast;--(3) round the legs
-and feet, especially by women. When the toga had fallen into disuse,
-and the shorter pallium was worn in its stead, so that the legs were
-naked and exposed, _fasciae crurales_ became common even with the
-male sex.
-
-
-FASCĬNUM (βασκανία), fascination, enchantment. The belief that
-some persons had the power of injuring others by their looks, was
-prevalent among the Greeks and Romans. The evil eye was supposed
-to injure children particularly, but sometimes cattle also; whence
-Virgil (_Ecl._ iii. 103) says,
-
-      “Nescio quis teneros oculos mihi fascinat agnum.”
-
-Various amulets were used to avert its influence.
-
-
-FASTI. _Fas_ signifies _divine law_: the epithet _fastus_ is
-properly applied to anything in accordance with divine law; and
-hence those days upon which legal business might, without impiety
-(_sine piaculo_), be transacted before the praetor, were technically
-denominated _fasti dies_, i.e. _lawful days_. The sacred books in
-which the _fasti dies_ of the year were marked were themselves
-denominated _fasti_; the term, however, was employed to denote
-registers of various descriptions. Of these the two principal are
-the _Fasti Sacri_ or _Fasti Kalendares_, and _Fasti Annales_ or
-_Fasti Historici_.--I. FASTI SACRI or KALENDARES. For nearly four
-centuries and a half after the foundation of the city a knowledge
-of the calendar was possessed exclusively by the priests. One of
-the pontifices regularly proclaimed the appearance of the new moon,
-and at the same time announced the period which would intervene
-between the Kalends and the Nones. On the Nones the country people
-assembled for the purpose of learning from the rex sacrorum the
-various festivals to be celebrated during the month, and the days
-on which they would fall. In like manner all who wished to go to
-law were obliged to inquire of the privileged few on what day they
-might bring their suit, and received the reply as if from the lips
-of an astrologer. The whole of this lore, so long a source of power
-and profit, and therefore jealously enveloped in mystery, was at
-length made public by a certain Cn. Flavius, scribe to App. Claudius;
-who, having gained access to the pontifical books, copied out all
-the requisite information, and exhibited it in the forum for the
-use of the people at large. From this time forward such tables
-became common, and were known by the name of _Fasti_. They usually
-contained an enumeration of the months and days of the year; the
-Nones, Ides, Nundinae, Dies Fasti, Nefasti, Comitiales, Atri, &c.,
-together with the different festivals, were marked in their proper
-places: astronomical observations on the risings and settings of the
-fixed stars, and the commencement of the seasons were frequently
-inserted. [CALENDARIUM; DIES.]--II. FASTI ANNALES or HISTORICI.
-Chronicles such as the _Annales Maximi_, containing the names of the
-chief magistrates for each year, and a short account of the most
-remarkable events noted down opposite to the days on which they
-occurred, were, from the resemblance which they bore in arrangement
-to the sacred calendars, denominated _fasti_; and hence this word is
-used, especially by the poets, in the general sense of _historical
-records_. In prose writers _fasti_ is commonly employed as the
-technical term for the registers of consuls, dictators, censors, and
-other magistrates, which formed part of the public archives. Some
-most important _fasti_ belonging to this class, executed probably
-at the beginning of the reign of Tiberius, have been partially
-preserved, and are deposited in the Capitol in Rome, where they are
-known by the name of the _Fasti Capitolini_.
-
-
-FASTĬGĬUM. An ancient Greek or Roman temple, of rectangular
-construction, is terminated at its upper extremity by a triangular
-figure, both in front and rear, which rests upon the cornice of the
-entablature as a base, and has its sides formed by the cornices which
-terminate the roof. The whole of this triangle above the trabeation
-is implied in the term _fastigium_, called ἀέτωμα by the Greeks,
-pediment by our architects. The dwelling-houses of the Romans had no
-gable ends; consequently when the word is applied to them, it is not
-in its strictly technical sense, but designates the roof simply, and
-is to be understood of one which rises to an apex, as distinguished
-from a flat one. The fastigium, properly so called, was appropriated
-to the temples of the gods; therefore, when the Romans began to
-bestow divine honours upon Julius Caesar, amongst other privileges
-which they decreed to him, was the liberty of erecting a fastigium to
-his house, that is, a portico and pediment towards the street, like
-that of a temple.
-
-[Illustration: Fastigium. (From a Coin.)]
-
-
-FAX (φανός), a torch. As the principal use of torches was to
-give light to those who went abroad after sunset, the portion of
-the Roman day immediately succeeding sun-set was called _fax_ or
-_prima fax_. The use of torches after sun-set, and the practice of
-celebrating marriages at that time, probably led to the consideration
-of the torch as one of the necessary accompaniments and symbols of
-marriage. Among the Romans the _fax nuptialis_ having been lighted
-at the parental hearth, was carried before the bride by a boy whose
-parents were alive. The torch was also carried at funerals (_fax
-sepulchralis_), both because these were often nocturnal ceremonies,
-and because it was used to set fire to the pile.
-
-
-FĒCIĀLES. [FETIALES.]
-
-
-FĔMĬNĀLĬA, worn in winter by Augustus Caesar, who was very
-susceptible of cold. It seems probable that they were breeches
-resembling ours.
-
-
-FĔNESTRA. [DOMUS.]
-
-
-FĒNUS or FOENUS (τόκος), interest of money.--(1) GREEK. At Athens
-there was no restriction upon the rate of interest. A rate might be
-expressed or represented in two different ways: (1.) by the number
-of oboli or drachmae paid by the _month_ for every _mina_; (2) by
-the part of the principal (τὸ ἀρχαῖον or κεφάλαιον) paid as interest
-either annually or for the whole period of the loan. According to the
-former method, which was generally used when money was lent upon real
-security (τόκοι ἔγγυοι or ἔγγειοι), different rates were expressed as
-follows:--10 per cent. by ἐπὶ πέντε ὀβολοῖς, _i.e._ 5 oboli per month
-for every mina, or 60 oboli a year = 10 drachmae = 1/10 of a mina.
-Similarly,
-
-  12 per cent. by ἐπὶ δραχμῇ         per month.
-  16 per cent.  ” ἐπ’ ὀκτὼ ὀβολοῖς        ”
-  18 per cent.  ” ἐπ’ ἐννέα ὀβολοῖς       ”
-  24 per cent.  ” ἐπὶ δυσὶ δραχμαῖς       ”
-  36 per cent.  ” ἐπὶ τρισὶ δρακμαῖς      ”
-   5 per cent.  ” ἐπὶ τρίτῳ ἡμιοβολίῳ, probably.
-
-Another method was generally adopted in cases of bottomry (τὸ
-ναυτικόν, τόκοι ναυτικοί, or ἔκδοσις), where money was lent upon
-the ship’s cargo or freightage (ἐπὶ τῷ ναύλῳ), or the ship itself,
-for a specified time, commonly that of the voyage. By this method
-the following rates were thus represented:--10 per cent. by τόκοι
-ἐπιδέκατοι, i.e. interest at the rate of a tenth; 12½, 16⅔, 20, 33⅓,
-by τόκοι ἐπόγδοοι, ἔφεκτοι, ἐπίπεμπτοι, and ἐπίτριτοι, respectively.
-The usual rates of interest at Athens about the time of Demosthenes
-varied from 12 to 18 per cent.--(2) ROMAN. Towards the close of
-the republic, and also under the emperors, 12 per cent. was the
-legal rate of interest. The interest became due on the first of
-every month: hence the phrases _tristes_ or _celeres calendae_ and
-_calendarium_, the latter meaning a debt-book or book of accounts.
-The rate of interest was expressed in the time of Cicero, and
-afterwards, by means of the as and its divisions, according to the
-following table:--
-
-  Asses usurae, or one as per
-    month for the use of one
-    hundred                    = 12  per cent.
-  Deunces  usurae                11     ”
-  Dextantes  ”                   10     ”
-  Dodrantes  ”                    9     ”
-  Besses     ”                    8     ”
-  Septunces  ”                    7     ”
-  Semisses   ”                    6     ”
-  Quincunces ”                    5     ”
-  Trientes   ”                    4     ”
-  Quadrantes ”                    3     ”
-  Sextantes  ”                    2     ”
-  Unciae     ”                    1     ”
-
-Instead of the phrase _asses usurae_, a synonyme was used, viz.
-_centesimae usurae_, inasmuch as at this rate of interest there was
-paid in a hundred months a sum equal to the whole principal. Hence
-_binae centesimae_ = 24 per cent., and _quaternae centesimae_ = 48
-per cent. The monthly rate of the centesimae was of foreign origin,
-and first adopted at Rome in the time of Sulla. The old _yearly_
-rate established by the Twelve Tables (B.C. 450) was the _unciarium
-fenus_. The _uncia_ was the twelfth part of the as, and since the
-full (12 oz.) copper coinage was still in use at Rome when the Twelve
-Tables became law, the phrase _unciarium_ fenus would be a natural
-expression for interest of one ounce in the pound; _i.e._ a twelfth
-part of the sum borrowed, or 8⅓ per cent., not per month, but per
-year. This rate, if calculated for the old Roman year of ten months,
-would give 10 per cent. for the civil year of twelve months, which
-was in common use in the time of the decemvirs. If a debtor could
-not pay the principal and interest at the end of the year, he used
-to borrow money from a fresh creditor, to pay off his old debt. This
-proceeding was very frequent, and called a _versura_. It amounted
-to little short of paying compound interest, or an _anatocismus
-anniversarius_, another phrase for which was _usurae renovatae_;
-_e.g._ _centesimae renovatae_ is 12 per cent. compound interest, to
-which Cicero opposes _centesimae perpetuo fenore_ = 12 per cent.
-simple interest. The following phrases are of common occurrence in
-connection with borrowing and lending money at interest:--_Pecuniam
-apud aliquem collocare_, to lend money at interest; _relegere_, to
-call it in again; _cavere_, to give security for it; _opponere_
-or _opponere pignori_, to give as a pledge or mortgage. The word
-_nomen_ is also of extensive use in money transactions. Properly it
-denoted the name of a debtor, registered in a banker’s or any other
-account-book: hence it came to signify the articles of an account, a
-debtor, or a debt itself. Thus we have _bonum nomen_, a good debt;
-_nomina facere_, to lend monies, and also to borrow money.
-
-
-FĒRĀLIA. [FUNUS, p. 191, a.]
-
-
-FERCŬLUM (from _fer-o_) is applied to any kind of tray or platform
-used for carrying anything. Thus it is used to signify the tray or
-frame on which several dishes were brought in at once at dinner; and
-hence _fercula_ came to mean the number of courses at dinner, and
-even the dishes themselves. The ferculum was also used for carrying
-the images of the gods in the procession of the circus, the ashes
-of the dead in a funeral, and the spoils in a triumph; in all which
-cases it appears to have been carried on the shoulders or in the
-hands of men.
-
-
-FĔRĔTRUM. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-FĒRĬAE, holidays, were, generally speaking, days or seasons during
-which free-born Romans suspended their political transactions and
-their law-suits, and during which slaves enjoyed a cessation from
-labour. All feriae were thus _dies nefasti_. The feriae included
-all days consecrated to any deity; consequently all days on which
-public festivals were celebrated were feriae or dies feriati. But
-some of them, such as the feria vindemialis, and the feriae aestivae,
-seem to have had no direct connection with the worship of the gods.
-The nundinae, however, during the time of the kings and the early
-period of the republic, were feriae only for the populus, and days
-of business for the plebeians, until, by the Hortensian law, they
-became fasti or days of business for both orders. All _feriae
-publicae_, _i.e._ those which were observed by the whole nation,
-were divided into _feriae stativae_, _feriae conceptivae_, and
-_feriae imperativae_. _Feriae stativae_ or _statae_ were those which
-were held regularly, and on certain days marked in the calendar. To
-these belonged some of the great festivals, such as the Agonalia,
-Carmentalia, Lupercalia, &c. _Feriae conceptivae_ or _conceptae_
-were held every year, but not on certain or fixed days, the time
-being every year appointed by the magistrates or priests. Among these
-we may mention the feriae Latinae, feriae Sementivae, Paganalia,
-and Compitalia. _Feriae imperativae_ were those which were held on
-certain emergencies at the command of the consuls, praetors, or of
-a dictator. The manner in which all public feriae were kept bears
-great analogy to the observance of our Sunday. The people visited the
-temples of the gods, and offered up their prayers and sacrifices. The
-most serious and solemn seem to have been the feriae imperativae, but
-all the others were generally attended with rejoicings and feasting.
-All kinds of business, especially law-suits, were suspended during
-the public feriae, as they were considered to pollute the sacred
-season. The most important of the holidays designated by the name of
-feriae, are the _Feriae Latinae_, or simply _Latinae_ (the original
-name was _Latiar_), which were said to have been instituted by the
-last Tarquin in commemoration of the alliance between the Romans and
-Latins. This festival, however, was of much higher antiquity; it was
-a panegyris, or a festival, of the whole Latin nation, celebrated on
-the Alban mount; and all that the last Tarquin did was to convert the
-original Latin festival into a Roman one, and to make it the means
-of hallowing and cementing the alliance between the two nations.
-Before the union, the chief magistrate of the Latins had presided
-at the festival; but Tarquin now assumed this distinction, which
-subsequently, after the destruction of the Latin commonwealth,
-remained with the chief magistrates of Rome. The object of this
-panegyris on the Alban mount was the worship of Jupiter Latiaris,
-and, at least as long as the Latin republic existed, to deliberate
-and decide on matters of the confederacy, and to settle any disputes
-which might have arisen among its members. As the feriae Latinae
-belonged to the conceptivae, the time of their celebration greatly
-depended on the state of affairs at Rome, since the consuls were
-never allowed to take the field until they had held the Latinae. This
-festival was a great engine in the hands of the magistrates, who
-had to appoint the time of its celebration (_concipere_, _edicere_,
-or _indicere Latinas_); as it might often suit their purpose either
-to hold the festival at a particular time or to delay it, in order
-to prevent or delay such public proceedings as seemed injurious and
-pernicious, and to promote others to which they were favourably
-disposed. The festival lasted six days.
-
-
-FESCENNINA, scil. _carmina_, one of the earliest kinds of Italian
-poetry, which consisted of rude and jocose verses, or rather
-dialogues of extempore verses, in which the merry country folks
-assailed and ridiculed one another. This amusement seems originally
-to have been peculiar to country people, but it was also introduced
-into the towns of Italy and at Rome, where we find it mentioned as
-one of those in which young people indulged at weddings.
-
-
-FĒTĬĀLES or FĒCĬĀLES, a college of Roman priests, who acted as
-the guardians of the public faith. It was their province, when
-any dispute arose with a foreign state, to demand satisfaction,
-to determine the circumstances under which hostilities might be
-commenced, to perform the various religious rites attendant on the
-solemn declaration of war, and to preside at the formal ratification
-of peace. When an injury had been received from a foreign state,
-four fetiales were deputed to seek redress, who again elected one
-of their number to act as their representative. This individual was
-styled the _pater patratus populi Romani_. A fillet of white wool was
-bound round his head, together with a wreath of sacred herbs gathered
-within the inclosure of the Capitoline hill (_Verbenae_; _Sagmina_),
-whence he was sometimes named _Verbenarius_. Thus equipped, he
-proceeded to the confines of the offending tribe, where he halted,
-and addressed a prayer to Jupiter, calling the god to witness, with
-heavy imprecations, that his complaints were well founded and his
-demands reasonable. He then crossed the border, and the same form was
-repeated in nearly the same words to the first native of the soil
-whom he might chance to meet; again a third time to the sentinel or
-any citizen whom he encountered at the gate of the chief town; and
-a fourth time to the magistrates in the forum in presence of the
-people. If a satisfactory answer was not returned within thirty days,
-after publicly delivering a solemn denunciation of what might be
-expected to follow, he returned to Rome, and, accompanied by the rest
-of the fetiales, made a report of his mission to the senate. If the
-people, as well as the senate, decided for war, the pater patratus
-again set forth to the border of the hostile territory, and launched
-a spear tipped with iron, or charred at the extremity and smeared
-with blood (emblematic doubtless of fire and slaughter), across the
-boundary, pronouncing at the same time a solemn declaration of war.
-The demand for redress, and the proclamation of hostilities, were
-alike termed _clarigatio_. The whole system is said to have been
-borrowed from the Aequicolae or the Ardeates, and similar usages
-undoubtedly prevailed among the Latin states. The number of the
-fetiales cannot be ascertained with certainty, but they were probably
-twenty. They were originally selected from the most noble families,
-and their office lasted for life.
-
-
-FĪBŬLA (περόνη, πόρπη), a brooch or buckle, consisting of a pin
-(_acus_), and of a curved portion furnished with a hook (κλείς).
-
-[Illustration: Fibulae, brooches or buckles. (British Museum.)]
-
-
-FICTĬLE (κεράμος, κεράμιον, ὄστρακον, ὀστράκινον), earthenware, a
-vessel or other article made of baked clay. The instruments used in
-pottery (_ars figulina_) were the following:--1. The wheel (τροχός,
-_orbis_, _rota_, _rota figularis_). 2. Pieces of wood or bone, which
-the potter (κεραμεύς, _figulus_) held in his right hand, and applied
-occasionally to the surface of the clay during its revolution. 3.
-Moulds (_formae_, τύποι), used either to decorate with figures in
-relief vessels which had been thrown on the wheel, or to produce
-foliage, animals, or any other appearances, on Antefixa, on cornices
-of terra cotta, and imitative or ornamental pottery of all other
-kinds, in which the wheel was not adapted to give the first shape. 4.
-Gravers or scalpels, used by skilful modellers in giving to figures
-of all kinds a more perfect finish and a higher relief than could
-be produced by the use of moulds. The earth used for making pottery
-(κεράμικη γῆ), was commonly red, and often of so lively a colour
-as to resemble coral. Other pottery is brown or cream-coloured,
-and sometimes white. Some of the ancient earthenware is throughout
-its substance black, an effect produced by mixing the earth with
-comminuted asphaltum (_gagates_), or with some other bituminous or
-oleaginous substance. It appears also that asphaltum, with pitch and
-tar, both mineral and vegetable, was used to cover the surface like a
-varnish. The best pottery was manufactured at Athens, in the island
-of Samos, and in Etruria. A quarter of Athens was called Cerameicus,
-because it was inhabited by potters. Vessels, before being sent for
-the last time to the furnace, were sometimes immersed in that finely
-prepared mud, now technically called “slip,” by which the surface
-is both smoothed and glazed, and at the same time receives a fresh
-colour. Ruddle, or red ochre (μίλτος, _rubrica_), was principally
-employed for this purpose. To produce a further variety in the
-paintings upon vases the artists employed a few brightly coloured
-earths and metallic ores. [PICTURA.]
-
-
-FĬDEICOMMISSUM may be defined to be a testamentary disposition,
-by which a person who gives a thing to another imposes on him the
-obligation of transferring it to a third person. The obligation was
-not created by words of legal binding force (_civilia verba_), but
-by words of request (_precativè_), such as _fideicommitto_, _peto_,
-_volo dari_, and the like; which were the operative words (_verba
-utilia_).
-
-
-FĪDŪCĬA. If a man transferred his property to another, on condition
-that it should be restored to him, this contract was called Fiducia,
-and the person to whom the property was so transferred was said
-_fiduciam accipere_. The trustee was bound to discharge his trust
-by restoring the thing: if he did not, he was liable to an actio
-fiduciae or fiduciaria, which was an actio bonae fidei. If the
-trustee was condemned in the action, the consequence was infamia.
-
-
-FISCUS, the imperial treasury. Under the republic the public treasury
-was called _Aerarium_. [AERARIUM.] On the establishment of the
-imperial power, there was a division of the provinces between the
-senate, as the representative of the old republic, and the Caesar or
-emperor; and there was consequently a division of the most important
-branches of public income and expenditure. The property of the senate
-retained the name of _Aerarium_, and that of the Caesar, as such,
-received the name of _Fiscus_. The private property of the Caesar
-(_res privata principis, ratio Caesaris_) was quite distinct from
-that of the fiscus. The word fiscus signified a wicker-basket, or
-pannier, in which the Romans were accustomed to keep and carry about
-large sums of money; and hence fiscus came to signify any person’s
-treasure or money chest. The importance of the imperial fiscus soon
-led to the practice of appropriating the name to that property which
-the Caesar claimed as Caesar, and the word fiscus, without any
-adjunct, was used in this sense. Ultimately the word came to signify
-generally the property of the state, the Caesar having concentrated
-in himself all the sovereign power, and thus the word fiscus finally
-had the same signification as aerarium in the republican period.
-Various officers, as Procuratores, Advocati, Patroni, and Praefecti,
-were employed in the administration of the fiscus.
-
-
-FLĀBELLUM, _dim._ FLĀBELLŬLUM, (ῥιπίς), a fan. Fans were of elegant
-forms, of delicate colours, and sometimes of costly and splendid
-materials, such as peacock’s feathers; but they were stiff and of a
-fixed shape, and were held by female slaves (_flabelliferae_), by
-beautiful boys, or by eunuchs, whose duty it was to wave them so as
-to produce a cooling breeze. Besides separate feathers the ancient
-fan was sometimes made of linen, extended upon a light frame.
-
-
-[Illustration: Flagellum, Scourge. (From a Bas-relief at Rome, and
-from a Coin.)]
-
-FLAGRUM, _dim._ FLĂGELLUM (μάστιξ), a whip, a scourge, to the
-handle of which was fixed a lash made of cords (_funibus_), or
-thongs of leather (_loris_), especially thongs made from the ox’s
-hide (_bubulis exuviis_). The _flagellum_ properly so called was
-a dreadful instrument, and is thus put in opposition to the
-_scutica_, which was a simple whip. (Hor. _Sat._ i. 3. 119.) Cicero
-in like manner contrasts the severe _flagella_ with the _virgae_.
-The flagellum was chiefly used in the punishment of slaves. It was
-knotted with bones or heavy indented circles of bronze or terminated
-by hooks, in which case it was aptly denominated a _scorpion_. We
-likewise find that some gladiators fought with the flagella, as in
-the coin here introduced.
-
-
-FLĀMEN, the name for any Roman priest who was devoted to the service
-of one particular god, and who received a distinguishing epithet
-from the deity to whom he ministered. The most dignified were those
-attached to Dijovis, Mars, and Quirinus, the _Flamen Dialis_,
-_Flamen Martialis_, and _Flamen Quirinalis_. They are said to have
-been established by Numa. The number was eventually increased to
-fifteen: the three original flamens were always chosen from among
-the patricians, and styled _Majores_; the rest from the plebeians,
-with the epithet _Minores_. Among the minores, we read of the _Flamen
-Floralis_, the _Flamen Carmentalis_, &c. The flamens were elected
-originally at the Comitia Curiata, but it is conjectured that
-subsequently to the passing of the _Lex Domitia_ (B.C. 104) they
-were chosen in the Comitia Tributa. After being nominated by the
-people, they were received (_capti_) and installed (_inaugurabantur_)
-by the pontifex maximus, to whose authority they were at all times
-subject. The office was understood to last for life; but a flamen
-might be compelled to resign (_flaminio abire_) for a breach of
-duty, or even on account of the occurrence of an ill-omened accident
-while discharging his functions. Their characteristic dress was the
-_apex_ [APEX], the _laena_ [LAENA], and a laurel wreath. The most
-distinguished of all the flamens was the _Dialis_; the lowest in rank
-the _Pomonalis_. The former enjoyed many peculiar honours. When a
-vacancy occurred, three persons of patrician descent, whose parents
-had been married according to the ceremonies of _confarreatio_, were
-nominated by the Comitia, one of whom was selected (_captus_), and
-consecrated (_inaugurabatur_) by the pontifex maximus. From that
-time forward he was emancipated from the control of his father, and
-became sui juris. He alone of all priests wore the _albogalerus_;
-he had a right to a _lictor_, to the _toga praetexta_, the _sella
-curulis_, and to a seat in the senate in virtue of his office. If
-one in bonds took refuge in his house, his chains were immediately
-struck off. To counterbalance these high honours, the dialis was
-subjected to a multitude of restrictions. It was unlawful for him
-to be out of the city for a single night; and he was forbidden to
-sleep out of his own bed for three nights consecutively. He might not
-mount upon horseback, nor even touch a horse, nor look upon an army
-marshalled without the pomoerium, and hence was seldom elected to the
-consulship. The object of the above rules was manifestly to make him
-literally _Jovi adsiduum sacerdotem_; to compel constant attention
-to the duties of the priesthood. _Flaminica_ was the name given to
-the wife of the dialis. He was required to wed a virgin according
-to the ceremonies of _confarreatio_, which regulation also applied
-to the two other flamines majores; and he could not marry a second
-time. Hence, since her assistance was essential in the performance
-of certain ordinances, a divorce was not permitted, and if she died,
-the dialis was obliged to resign. The municipal towns also had their
-flamens. Thus the celebrated affray between Milo and Clodius took
-place while the former was on his way to Lanuvium, of which he was
-then dictator, to declare the election of a flamen (_ad flaminem
-prodendum_).
-
-
-FLAMMEUM. [MATRIMONIUM.]
-
-
-FLŌRĀLĬA, or Florales Ludi, a festival which was celebrated at Rome
-in honour of Flora or Chloris, during five days, beginning on the
-28th of April and ending on the 2nd of May. It was said to have been
-instituted at Rome in 238 B.C., at the command of an oracle in the
-Sibylline books, for the purpose of obtaining from the goddess the
-protection of the blossoms. The celebration was, as usual, conducted
-by the aediles, and was carried on with excessive merriment,
-drinking, and lascivious games.
-
-
-FŌCĀLĔ, a covering for the ears and neck, made of wool, and worn by
-infirm, and delicate persons.
-
-
-FŎCUS, _dim._ FOCŬLUS (ἑστία, ἐσχάρα, ἐσχαρίς), a fire-place; a
-hearth; a brazier. The fire-place possessed a sacred character, and
-was dedicated among the Romans to the Lares of each family. Moveable
-hearths, or braziers, properly called _foculi_, were frequently used.
-
-[Illustration: Foculus, Moveable Hearth. (British Museum.)]
-
-
-FOEDĔRĀTAE CĪVĬTĀTES, FOEDĔRĀTI, SŎCĬI. In the seventh century of
-Rome these names expressed those Italian states which were connected
-with Rome by a treaty (_foedus_). These names did not include Roman
-colonies or Latin colonies, or any place which had obtained the Roman
-civitas or citizenship. Among the _foederati_ were the _Latini_, who
-were the most nearly related to the Romans, and were designated by
-this distinctive name; the rest of the foederati were comprised under
-the collective name of _Socii_ or _Foederati_. They were independent
-states, yet under a general liability to furnish a contingent to the
-Roman army. Thus they contributed to increase the power of Rome, but
-they had not the privileges of Roman citizens. The discontent among
-the foederati, and their claims to be admitted to the privileges
-of Roman citizens, led to the Social War. The Julia Lex (B.C. 90)
-gave the civitas to the Socii and Latini; and a lex of the following
-year contained, among other provisions, one for the admission to the
-Roman civitas of those peregrini who were entered on the lists of the
-citizens of federate states, and who complied with the provisions of
-the lex. [CIVITAS.]
-
-
-FOENUS. [FENUS.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Folles, Bellows. (From a Roman Lamp.)]
-
-FOLLIS--(1) An inflated ball of leather, which boys and old men among
-the Romans threw from one to another as a gentle exercise of the
-body.--(2) A leather purse or bag.--(3) A pair of bellows, consisting
-of two inflated skins, and having valves adjusted to the natural
-apertures at one part for admitting the air, and a pipe inserted into
-another part for its emission.
-
-
-[Illustration: Fountain of Peirene at Corinth.]
-
-FONS (κρήνη), a spring of water, and also an artificial fountain,
-made either by covering and decorating a spring with buildings and
-sculpture, or by making a jet or stream of water, supplied by an
-elevated cistern, play into an artificial basin. Such fountains
-served the double purpose of use and ornament. They were covered
-to keep them pure and cool, and the covering was frequently in the
-form of a monopteral temple: there were also statues, the subjects
-of which were suggested by the circumstance that every fountain was
-sacred to some divinity, or they were taken from the whole range of
-mythological legends. A very large proportion of the immense supply
-of water brought to Rome by the aqueducts was devoted to the public
-fountains, which were divided into two classes; namely, _lacus_,
-ponds or reservoirs, and _salientes_, jets of water, besides which
-many of the castella were so constructed as to be also fountains.
-There were also many small private fountains in the houses and villas
-of the wealthy.
-
-[Illustration: Fountain. (From a Painting at Pompeii.)]
-
-
-FŎRES. [DOMUS.]
-
-
-FORNĀCĀLĬA, a festival in honour of Fornax, the goddess of furnaces,
-in order that the corn might be properly baked. This ancient festival
-is said to have been instituted by Numa. The time for its celebration
-was proclaimed every year by the curio maximus, who announced in
-tablets, which were placed in the forum, the different part which
-each curia had to take in the celebration of the festival. Those
-persons who did not know to what curia they belonged performed the
-sacred rites on the _Quirinalia_, called from this circumstance the
-_Stultorum feriae_, which fell on the last day of the Fornacalia.
-
-
-FORNIX, in its primary sense, is synonymous with ARCUS, but more
-commonly implies an arched vault, constituting both roof and ceiling
-to the apartment which it encloses.
-
-
-FŎRUM. [See CLASSICAL DICT.]
-
-
-FRĂMĔA. [HASTA.]
-
-
-FRĀTRES ARVĀLES. [ARVALES FRATRES.]
-
-
-FRĒNUM (χαλινός), a bridle. That Bellerophon might be enabled to
-perform the exploits required of him by the king of Lycia, he was
-presented by Athena with a bridle as the means of subduing the winged
-horse Pegasus, who submitted to receive it whilst he was slaking
-his thirst at the fountain Peirene. Such was the Grecian account
-of the invention of the bridle, and in reference to it Athena was
-worshipped at Corinth, under the titles Ἵππια and Χαλινῖτις. The bit
-(_orea_, δῆγμα, στόμιον), was commonly made of several pieces, and
-flexible, so as not to hurt the horse’s mouth; although there was
-likewise a bit which was armed with protuberances resembling wolves’
-teeth, and therefore called _lupatum_.
-
-[Illustration: Pegasus receiving the Bridle.]
-
-
-FRĪGĬDĀRĬUM. [BALNEUM.]
-
-
-FRĬTILLUS (φιμός), a dice-box of a cylindrical form, and therefore
-called also _turricula_, or _pyrgus_, and formed with parallel
-indentations (_gradus_) on the inside, so as to make a rattling noise
-when the dice were shaken in it.
-
-
-FRŪMENTĀRĬAE LEGES. The supply of corn at Rome was considered
-one of the duties of the government. The superintendence of the
-corn-market belonged in ordinary times to the aediles, but when
-great scarcity prevailed, an extraordinary officer was appointed
-for the purpose under the title of _Praefectus Annonae_. Even in
-early times it had been usual for the state on certain occasions,
-and for wealthy individuals, to make occasional donations of corn to
-the people (_donatio_, _largitio_, _divisio_; subsequently called
-_frumentatio_). But such donations were only casual; and it was not
-till B.C. 123, that the first legal provision was made for supplying
-the poor at Rome with corn at a price much below its market value.
-In that year C. Sempronius Gracchus brought forward the first _Lex
-Frumentaria_, by which each citizen was entitled to receive every
-month a certain quantity of wheat (_triticum_) at the price of 6⅓
-asses for the modius, which was equal to 1 gallon and nearly 8 pints
-English. This was only a trifle more than half the market price. Each
-person probably received five modii monthly, as in later times. About
-B.C. 91, the tribune M. Octavius brought forward the _Lex Octavia_,
-which modified the law of Gracchus to some extent, so that the public
-treasury did not suffer so much. Sulla went still further, and by his
-_Lex Cornelia_, B.C. 82, did away altogether with these distributions
-of corn; but in B.C. 73, the Lex Sempronia was renewed by the _Lex
-Terentia Cassia_, which enacted that each Roman citizen should
-receive 5 modii a month at the price of 6⅓ asses for each modius. The
-Leges Frumentariae had _sold_ corn to the people; but by the _Lex
-Clodia_ of the tribune Clodius, B.C. 58, the corn was distributed
-without any payment; the abolition of the payment cost the state a
-fifth part of its revenues. When Caesar became master of the Roman
-world, he resolved to remedy the evils attending the system, so
-far as he was able. He did not venture to abolish altogether these
-distributions of corn, but he did the next best thing in his power,
-which was reducing the number of the recipients. During the civil
-wars numbers of persons, who had no claim to the Roman franchise,
-had settled at Rome in order to obtain a share in the distributions.
-Caesar excluded from this privilege every person who could not prove
-that he was a Roman citizen; and thus the 320,000 persons, who had
-previously received the corn, were at once reduced to 150,000. The
-useful regulations of Caesar fell into neglect after his death; and
-in B.C. 5, the number of recipients had amounted to 320,000. But
-in B.C. 2, Augustus reduced the number of recipients to 200,000,
-and renewed many of Caesar’s regulations. The chief of them seem to
-have been: 1. That every citizen should receive monthly a certain
-quantity of corn (probably 5 modii) on the payment of a certain
-small sum. Occasionally, in seasons of scarcity, or in order to
-confer a particular favour, Augustus made these distributions quite
-gratuitous; they then became _congiaria_. [CONGIARIUM.] 2. That those
-who were completely indigent should receive the corn gratuitously,
-and should be furnished for the purpose with _tesserae nummariae_
-or _frumentariae_, which entitled them to the corn without payment.
-The system which had been established by Augustus, was followed by
-his successors; but as it was always one of the first maxims of the
-state policy of the Roman emperors to prevent any disturbance in the
-capital, they frequently lowered the price of the public corn, and
-also distributed it gratuitously as a _congiarium_. Hence, the cry
-of the populace _panem et circenses_. In course of time, the sale
-of the corn by the state seems to have ceased altogether, and the
-distribution became altogether gratuitous. Every corn-receiver was
-therefore now provided with a _tessera_, and this tessera, when
-once granted to him, became his property. Hence it came to pass,
-that he was not only allowed to keep the tessera for life, but even
-to dispose of it by sale, and bequeath it by will. Every citizen
-was competent to hold a tessera, with the exception of senators.
-Further, as the corn had been originally distributed to the people
-according to the thirty-five tribes into which they were divided, the
-corn-receivers in each tribe formed a kind of corporation, which came
-eventually to be looked upon as the tribe, when the tribes had lost
-all political significance. Hence, the purchase of a tessera became
-equivalent to the purchase of a place in a tribe; and, accordingly,
-we find in the Digest the expressions _emere tribum_ and _emere
-tesseram_ used as synonymous. Another change was also introduced at a
-later period, which rendered the bounty still more acceptable to the
-people. Instead of distributing the corn every month, wheaten bread,
-called _annona civica_, was given to the people. It is uncertain at
-what time this change was introduced, but it seems to have been the
-custom before the reign of Aurelian (A.D. 270-275).
-
-
-FRŪMENTĀRĬI, officers under the Roman empire, who acted as spies
-in the provinces, and reported to the emperors anything which
-they considered of importance. They appear to have been called
-_Frumentarii_ because it was their duty to collect information in the
-same way as it was the duty of other officers, called by the same
-name, to collect corn.
-
-
-FŪCUS (φῦκος), the paint which the Greek and Roman ladies employed
-in painting their cheeks, eye-brows, and other parts of their
-faces. The practice of painting the face was very general among
-the Greek ladies, and probably came into fashion in consequence
-of their sedentary mode of life, which robbed their complexions
-of their natural freshness, and induced them to have recourse to
-artificial means for restoring the red and white of nature. The
-eye-brows and eye-lids were stained black with στίμμι or στίμμις,
-a sulphuret of antimony, which is still employed by the Turkish
-ladies for the same purpose. The eye-brows were likewise stained
-with ἄσβολος, a preparation of soot. Among the Romans the art of
-painting the complexion was carried to a still greater extent than
-among the Greeks, and even Ovid did not disdain to write a poem on
-the subject, which he calls (_de Art. Am._ iii. 206) “parvus, sed
-cura grande, libellus, opus;” though the genuineness of the fragment
-of the _Medicamina faciei_, ascribed to this poet, is doubtful.
-The Roman ladies even went so far as to paint with blue the veins
-on the temples. The ridiculous use of patches (_splenia_), which
-were common among the English ladies in the reign of Queen Anne and
-the first Georges, was not unknown to the Roman ladies. The more
-effeminate of the male sex at Rome, and likewise in Greece, also
-employed paint.
-
-[Illustration: Girl painting herself. (From a Gem.)]
-
-
-FŬGA LĀTA. [EXSILIUM.]
-
-
-FŬGA LĪBĔRA. [EXSILIUM.]
-
-
-FŬGĬTĪVUS. [SERVUS.]
-
-
-FULLO (κναφεύς, γναφεύς), also called NACCA, a fuller, a washer or
-scourer of cloth and linen. The fullones not only received the cloth
-as it came from the loom in order to scour and smooth it, but also
-washed and cleansed garments which had been already worn. The clothes
-were first washed, which was done in tubs or vats, where they were
-trodden upon and stamped by the feet of the fullones, whence Seneca
-speaks of _saltus fullonicus_. The ancients were not acquainted with
-soap, but they used in its stead different kinds of alkali, by which
-the dirt was more easily separated from the clothes. Of these, by far
-the most common was the urine of men and animals, which was mixed
-with the water in which the clothes were washed. When the clothes
-were dry, the wool was brushed and carded to raise the nap, sometimes
-with the skin of a hedgehog, and sometimes with some plants of the
-thistle kind. The clothes were then hung on a vessel of basket-work
-(_viminea cavea_), under which sulphur was placed in order to whiten
-the cloth. A fine white earth, called Cimolian by Pliny, was often
-rubbed into the cloth to increase its whiteness. The establishment
-or workshop of the fullers was called _Fullonica_, _Fullonicum_, or
-_Fullonimn_. The Greeks were also accustomed to send their garments
-to fullers to be washed and scoured. The word πλύνειν denoted the
-washing of linen, and κναφεύειν or γναφεύειν the washing of woollen
-clothes.
-
-
-FŪNAMBŬLUS (καλοβάτης σχοινοβάτης), a rope-dancer. The art of
-dancing on the tight-rope was carried to as great perfection among
-the Romans as it is with us. The performers placed themselves in an
-endless variety of graceful and sportive attitudes, and represented
-the characters of bacchanals, satyrs, and other imaginary beings.
-One of the most difficult exploits was running down the rope at the
-conclusion of the performance. It was a strange attempt of Germanicus
-and of the emperor Galba to exhibit elephants walking on the rope.
-
-
-FUNDA (σφενδόνη), a sling. Slingers are not mentioned in the Iliad;
-but the light troops of the Greek and Roman armies consisted in great
-part of slingers (_funditores_, σφενδονήται). The most celebrated
-slingers were the inhabitants of the Balearic islands. Besides
-stones, plummets, called _glandes_ (μολυβδίδες), of a form between
-acorns and almonds, were cast in moulds to be thrown with slings.
-The manner in which the sling was wielded may be seen in the annexed
-figure of a soldier with a provision of stones in the sinus of his
-pallium, and with his arm extended in order to whirl the sling about
-his head.
-
-[Illustration: Funda, Sling. (Column of Trajan.)]
-
-
-FUNDĬTŌRES. [FUNDA.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Coffins. (Stackelberg, ‘Die Gräber der Hellenen,’ pl.
-7, 8.)]
-
-[Illustration: Tomb in Lycia.]
-
-FŪNUS, a funeral.--(1) GREEK. The Greeks attached great importance
-to the burial of the dead. They believed that souls could not enter
-the Elysian fields till their bodies had been buried; and so strong
-was this feeling among the Greeks, that it was considered a religious
-duty to throw earth upon a dead body, which a person might happen
-to find unburied; and among the Athenians, those children who
-were released from all other obligations to unworthy parents, were
-nevertheless bound to bury them by one of Solon’s laws. The neglect
-of burying one’s relatives is frequently mentioned by the orators
-as a grave charge against the moral character of a man; in fact,
-the burial of the body by the relations of the dead was considered
-one of the most sacred duties by the universal law of the Greeks.
-Sophocles represents Antigone as disregarding all consequences in
-order to bury the dead body of her brother Polyneices, which Creon,
-the king of Thebes, had commanded to be left unburied. The common
-expressions for the funeral rites, τὰ δίκαια, νόμιμα or νομιζόμενα,
-προσήκοντα, show that the dead had, as it were, a legal and moral
-claim to burial. After a person was dead, it was the custom first to
-place in his mouth an obolus, called _danace_ (δανάκη), with which
-he might pay the ferryman in Hades. The body was then washed and
-anointed with perfumed oil, the head was crowned with the flowers
-which happened to be in season, and the body dressed in as handsome
-a robe as the family could afford. These duties were not performed
-by hired persons, like the _pollinctores_ among the Romans, but by
-the women of the family, upon whom the care of the corpse always
-devolved. The corpse was then laid out (πρόθεσις, προτίθεσθαι) on a
-bed, which appears to have been of the ordinary kind, with a pillow
-for supporting the head and back. By the side of the bed there
-were placed painted earthen vessels, called λήκυθοι, which were
-also buried with the corpse. Great numbers of these painted vases
-have been found in modern times; and they have been of great use
-in explaining many matters connected with antiquity. A honey-cake,
-called μελιττοῦτα, which appears to have been intended for Cerberus,
-was also placed by the side of the corpse. Before the door a vessel
-of water was placed, called ὄστρακον, ἀρδάλιον or ἀρδάνιον, in order
-that persons who had been in the house might purify themselves by
-sprinkling water on their persons. The relatives stood around the
-bed, the women uttering great lamentations, rending their garments,
-and tearing their hair. On the day after the πρόθεσις, or the third
-day after death, the corpse was carried out (ἐκφορά, ἐκκομιδή)
-for burial, early in the morning and before sunrise. A burial soon
-after death was supposed to be pleasing to the dead. In some places
-it appears to have been usual to bury the dead on the day following
-death. The men walked before the corpse, and the women behind.
-The funeral procession was preceded or followed by hired mourners
-(θρηνῳδοί), who appear to have been usually Carian women, playing
-mournful tunes on the flute. The body was either buried or burnt. The
-word θάπτειν is used in connection with either mode; it is applied to
-the collection of the ashes after burning, and accordingly we find
-the words καίειν and θάπτειν used together. The proper expression
-for interment in the earth is κατορύττειν. In Homer the bodies of
-the dead are burnt; but interment was also used in very ancient
-times. Cicero says that the dead were buried at Athens in the time
-of Cecrops; and we also read of the bones of Orestes being found in
-a coffin at Tegea. The dead were commonly buried among the Spartans
-and the Sicyonians, and the prevalence of this practice is proved
-by the great number of skeletons found in coffins in modern times,
-which have evidently not been exposed to the action of fire. Both
-burning and burying appear to have been always used to a greater or
-less extent at different periods; till the spread of Christianity
-at length put an end to the former practice. The dead bodies were
-usually burnt on piles of wood, called _pyres_ (πυραί). The body
-was placed on the top; and in the heroic times it was customary to
-burn with the corpse animals and even captives or slaves. Oils and
-perfumes were also thrown into the flames. When the pyre was burnt
-down, the remains of the fire were quenched with wine, and the
-relatives and friends collected the bones. The bones were then washed
-with wine and oil, and placed in urns, which were sometimes made of
-gold. The corpses which were not burnt were buried in coffins, which
-were called by various names, as σοροί, πύελοι, ληνοί, λάρνακες,
-δροῖται, though some of these names are also applied to the urns in
-which the bones were collected. They were made of various materials,
-but were usually of baked clay or earthenware. The following woodcut
-contains two of the most ancient kind; the figure in the middle is
-the section of one. The dead were usually buried outside the town,
-as it was thought that their presence in the city brought pollution
-to the living. At Athens none were allowed to be buried within the
-city; but Lycurgus, in order to remove all superstition respecting
-the presence of the dead, allowed of burial in Sparta. Persons who
-possessed lands in Attica were frequently buried in them, and we
-therefore read of tombs in the fields. Tombs, however, were most
-frequently built by the side of roads, and near the gates of the
-city. At Athens, the most common place of burial was outside of the
-Itonian gate, near the road leading to the Peiraeeus, which gate
-was for that reason called the burial gate. Those who had fallen in
-battle were buried at the public expense in the outer Cerameicus, on
-the road leading to the Academia. Tombs were called θῆκαι, τάφοι,
-μνήματα, μνημεῖα, σήματα. Many of these were only mounds of earth
-or stones (χώματα, κολῶναι τύμβοι). Others were built of stone,
-and frequently ornamented with great taste. Some Greek tombs were
-built under ground, and called _hypogea_ (ὑπόγαια or ὑπόγεια). They
-correspond to the Roman _conditoria_. The monuments erected over the
-graves of persons were usually of four kinds: 1. στῆλαι, pillars
-or upright stone tablets; 2. κίονες, columns; 3. ναΐδια or ἡρῷα,
-small buildings in the form of temples; and 4. τράπεζαι, flat square
-stones, called by Cicero _mensae_. The term στῆλαι is sometimes
-applied to all kinds of funeral monuments, but properly designates
-upright stone tablets, which were usually terminated with an oval
-heading, called ἐπίθημα. The epithema was frequently ornamented with
-a kind of arabesque work, as in the preceding specimen. The κίονες,
-or columns, were of various forms, as is shown by the two specimens
-in the annexed cut.
-
-[Illustration: Epithema or Heading of Tombstone. (Stackelberg, pl.
-3.)]
-
-[Illustration: Sepulchral Columns. (Paintings on Vases.)]
-
-The inscriptions upon these funeral monuments usually contain
-the name of the deceased person, and that of the demus to which
-he belonged, as well as frequently some account of his life. The
-following example of an ἡρῷον will give a general idea of monuments
-of this kind.--Orations in praise of the dead were sometimes
-pronounced; but Solon ordained that such orations should be confined
-to persons who were honoured with a public funeral. In the heroic
-ages games were celebrated at the funeral of a great man, as in
-the case of Patroclus; but this practice does not seem to have been
-usual in the historical times.--All persons who had been engaged in
-funerals were considered polluted, and could not enter the temples
-of the gods till they had been purified. After the funeral was over,
-the relatives partook of a feast, which was called περίδειπνον or
-νεκρόδειπνον. This feast was always given at the house of the nearest
-relative of the deceased.
-
-[Illustration: Sepulchral Heroon. (Painting on Vase.)]
-
-Thus the relatives of those who had fallen at the battle of
-Chaeroneia partook of the περίδειπνον at the house of Demosthenes,
-as if he were the nearest relative to them all. On the second day
-after the funeral a sacrifice to the dead was offered, called τρίτα;
-but the principal sacrifice to the dead was on the ninth day, called
-ἔννατα or ἔνατα. The mourning for the dead appears to have lasted
-till the thirtieth day after the funeral, on which day sacrifices
-were again offered. At Sparta the time of mourning was limited to
-eleven days. During the time of mourning it was considered indecorous
-for the relatives of the deceased to appear in public; they were
-accustomed to wear a black dress, and in ancient times they cut
-off their hair as a sign of grief.--The tombs were preserved by
-the family to which they belonged with the greatest care, and were
-regarded as among the strongest ties which attached a man to his
-native land. In the Docimasia of the Athenian archons it was always
-a subject of inquiry whether they had kept in proper repair the
-tombs of their ancestors. On certain days the tombs were crowned
-with flowers, and offerings were made to the dead, consisting of
-garlands of flowers and various other things. The act of offering
-these presents was called ἐναγίζειν, and the offerings themselves
-ἐναγίσματα, or more commonly χοαί. The γενέσια mentioned by Herodotus
-appear to have consisted in offerings of the same kind, which were
-presented on the anniversary of the birth-day of the deceased. The
-νεκύσια were probably offerings on the anniversary of the day of
-the death; though, according to some writers, the νεκύσια were the
-same as the γενέσια. Certain criminals, who were put to death by
-the state, were also deprived of the rights of burial, which was
-considered as an additional punishment. There were certain places,
-both at Athens and Sparta, where the dead bodies of such criminals
-were cast. A person who had committed suicide was not deprived of
-burial, but the hand with which he had killed himself was cut off
-and buried by itself.--(2) ROMAN. When a Roman was at the point of
-death, his nearest relation present endeavoured to catch the last
-breath with his mouth. The ring was taken off the finger of the
-dying person; and as soon as he was dead his eyes and mouth were
-closed by the nearest relation, who called upon the deceased by
-name, exclaiming _have_ or _vale_. The corpse was then washed, and
-anointed with oil and perfumes, by slaves, called _pollinctores_,
-who belonged to the _libitinarii_, or undertakers. The libitinarii
-appear to have been so called because they dwelt near the temple
-of Venus Libitina, where all things requisite for funerals were
-sold. Hence we find the expressions _vitare Libitinam_ and _evadere
-Libitinam_ used in the sense of escaping death. At this temple an
-account (_ratio, ephemeris_) was kept of those who died, and a small
-sum was paid for the registration of their names. A small coin was
-then placed in the mouth of the corpse, in order to pay the ferryman
-in Hades, and the body was laid out on a couch in the vestibule of
-the house, with its feet towards the door, and dressed in the best
-robe which the deceased had worn when alive. Ordinary citizens were
-dressed in a white toga, and magistrates in their official robes.
-If the deceased had received a crown while alive as a reward for
-his bravery, it was now placed on his head; and the couch on which
-he was laid was sometimes covered with leaves and flowers. A branch
-of cypress was also usually placed at the door of the house, if he
-was a person of consequence. Funerals were usually called _funera
-justa_ or _exsequiae_; the latter term was generally applied to
-the funeral procession (_pompa funebris_). There were two kinds
-of funerals, public and private; of which the former was called
-_funus publicum_ or _indictivum_, because the people were invited
-to it by a herald; the latter _funus tacitum_, _translatitium_, or
-_plebeium_. A person appears to have usually left a certain sum of
-money in his will to pay the expenses of his funeral; but if he did
-not do so, nor appoint any one to bury him, this duty devolved upon
-the persons to whom the property was left, and if he died without a
-will, upon his relations, according to their order of succession to
-the property. The expenses of the funeral were in such cases decided
-by an arbiter, according to the property and rank of the deceased,
-whence _arbitria_ is used to signify the funeral expenses.--The
-following description of the mode in which a funeral was conducted
-only applies strictly to the funerals of the great; the same pomp and
-ceremony could not of course be observed in the case of persons in
-ordinary circumstances. All funerals in ancient times were performed
-at night, but afterwards the poor only were buried at night, because
-they could not afford to have any funeral procession. The corpse was
-usually carried out of the house (_efferebatur_) on the eighth day
-after the death. The order of the funeral procession was regulated
-by a person called _designator_ or _dominus funeris_, who was
-attended by lictors dressed in black. It was headed by musicians
-of various kinds (_cornicines, siticines_), who played mournful
-strains, and next came mourning women, called _praeficae_, who were
-hired to lament and sing the funeral song (_naenia_ or _lessus_) in
-praise of the deceased. These were sometimes followed by players and
-buffoons (_scurrae, histriones_), of whom one, called _archimimus_,
-represented the character of the deceased, and imitated his words
-and actions. Then came the slaves whom the deceased had liberated,
-wearing the cap of liberty (_pileati_); the number of whom was
-occasionally very great, since a master sometimes liberated all his
-slaves, in his will, in order to add to the pomp of his funeral.
-Before the corpse the images of the deceased and of his ancestors
-were carried, and also the crowns or military rewards which he had
-gained. The corpse was carried on a couch (_lectica_), to which the
-name of _feretrum_ or _capulum_ was usually given; but the bodies
-of poor citizens and of slaves were carried on a common kind of
-bier or coffin, called _sandapila_. The _sandapila_ was carried by
-bearers, called _vespae_ or _vespillones_, because they carried
-out the corpses in the evening (_vespertino tempore_). The couches
-on which the corpses of the rich were carried were sometimes made
-of ivory, and covered with gold and purple. They were often carried
-on the shoulders of the nearest relations of the deceased, and
-sometimes on those of his freedmen. Julius Caesar was carried by
-the magistrates, and Augustus by the senators. The relations of the
-deceased walked behind the corpse in mourning; his sons with their
-heads veiled, and his daughters with their heads bare and their hair
-dishevelled, contrary to the ordinary practice of both. They often
-uttered loud lamentations, and the women beat their breasts and tore
-their cheeks, though this was forbidden by the Twelve Tables. If the
-deceased was of illustrious rank, the funeral procession went through
-the forum, and stopped before the _rostra_, where a funeral oration
-(_laudatio_) in praise of the deceased was delivered. This practice
-was of great antiquity among the Romans, and is said by some writers
-to have been first introduced by Publicola, who pronounced a funeral
-oration in honour of his colleague Brutus. Women also were honoured
-by funeral orations. From the Forum the corpse was carried to the
-place of burning or burial, which, according to a law of the Twelve
-Tables, was obliged to be outside the city. The Romans in the most
-ancient times buried their dead, though they also early adopted, to
-some extent, the custom of burning, which is mentioned in the Twelve
-Tables. Burning, however, does not appear to have become general
-till the later times of the republic. Marius was buried, and Sulla
-was the first of the Cornelian gens whose body was burned. Under the
-empire burning was almost universally practised, but was gradually
-discontinued as Christianity spread, so that it had fallen into
-disuse in the fourth century. Persons struck by lightning were not
-burnt, but buried on the spot, which was called _Bidental_, and was
-considered sacred. [BIDENTAL.] Children also, who had not cut their
-teeth, were not burnt, but buried in a place called _Suggrundarium_.
-Those who were buried were placed in a coffin (_arca_ or _loculus_),
-which was frequently made of stone, and sometimes of the Assian
-stone, which came from Assos in Troas, and which consumed all the
-body, with the exception of the teeth, in 40 days, whence it was
-called _sarcophagus_. This name was in course of time applied to
-any kind of coffin or tomb. The corpse was burnt on a pile of wood
-(_pyra_ or _rogus_). This pile was built in the form of an altar,
-with four equal sides, whence we find it called _ara sepulcri_ and
-_funeris ara_. The sides of the pile were, according to the Twelve
-Tables, to be left rough and unpolished, but were frequently covered
-with dark leaves. Cypress trees were sometimes placed before the
-pile. On the top of the pile the corpse was placed, with the couch on
-which it had been carried, and the nearest relation then set fire to
-the pile with his face turned away. When the flames began to rise,
-various perfumes were thrown into the fire, though this practice was
-forbidden by the Twelve Tables; cups of oil, ornaments, clothes,
-dishes of food, and other things, which were supposed to be agreeable
-to the deceased, were also thrown upon the flames. The place where
-a person was burnt was called _bustum_, if he was afterwards buried
-on the same spot, and _ustrina_ or _ustrinum_ if he was buried at a
-different place. Sometimes animals were slaughtered at the pile, and
-in ancient times captives and slaves, since the manes were supposed
-to be fond of blood; but afterwards gladiators, called bustuarii,
-were hired to fight round the burning pile. When the pile was burnt
-down, the embers were soaked with wine, and the bones and ashes of
-the deceased were gathered by the nearest relatives, who sprinkled
-them with perfumes, and placed them in a vessel called _urna_, which
-was made of various materials, according to the circumstances of
-individuals.
-
-[Illustration: Sepulchral Urn in British Museum]
-
-The urnae were also of various shapes, but most commonly square or
-round; and upon them there was usually an inscription or epitaph
-(_titulus_ or _epitaphium_), beginning with the letters D. M. S.,
-or only D. M., that is, DIS MANIBUS SACRUM, followed by the name of
-the deceased, with the length of his life, &c. The woodcut opposite
-is a representation of a sepulchral urn in the British Museum. It
-is of an upright rectangular form, richly ornamented with foliage,
-and supported at the sides with pilasters. It is to the memory of
-Cossutia Prima. Its height is 21 inches, and its width at the base 14
-inches 6-8ths. Below the inscription an infant genius is represented
-driving a car drawn by four horses.--After the bones and ashes of
-the deceased had been placed in the urn, the persons present were
-thrice sprinkled by a priest with pure water from a branch of olive
-or laurel for the purpose of purification; after which they were
-dismissed by the _praefica_, or some other person, by the solemn
-word _Ilicet_, that is, _ire licet_. At their departure they were
-accustomed to bid farewell to the deceased by pronouncing the word
-_Vale_. The urns were placed in sepulchres, which, as already stated,
-were outside the city, though in a few cases we read of the dead
-being buried within the city. Thus Valerius Publicola, Tubertus, and
-Fabricius, were buried in the city; which right their descendants
-also possessed, but did not use. The vestal virgins and the emperors
-were buried in the city.--The verb _sepelire_, like the Greek
-θάπτειν, was applied to every mode of disposing of the dead; and
-_sepulcrum_ signified any kind of tomb in which the body or bones of
-a man were placed. The term _humare_ was originally used for burial
-in the earth, but was afterwards applied like _sepelire_ to any mode
-of disposing of the dead: since it appears to have been the custom,
-after the body was burnt, to throw some earth upon the bones.--The
-places for burial were either public or private. The public places
-of burial were of two kinds; one for illustrious citizens, who were
-buried at the public expense, and the other for poor citizens, who
-could not afford to purchase ground for the purpose. The former was
-in the Campus Martius, which was ornamented with the tombs of the
-illustrious dead, and in the Campus Esquilinus; the latter was also
-in the Campus Esquilinus, and consisted of small pits or caverns,
-called _puticuli_ or _puticulae_; but as this place rendered the
-neighbourhood unhealthy, it was given to Maecenas, who converted it
-into gardens, and built a magnificent house upon it. Private places
-for burial were usually by the sides of the roads leading to Rome;
-and on some of these roads, such as the Via Appia, the tombs formed
-an almost uninterrupted street for many miles from the gates of
-the city. They were frequently built by individuals during their
-lifetime; thus Augustus, in his sixth consulship, built the Mausoleum
-for his sepulchre between the Via Flaminia and the Tiber, and planted
-round it woods and walks for public use. The heirs were often ordered
-by the will of the deceased to build a tomb for him; and they
-sometimes did it at their own expense.--Sepulchres were originally
-called _busta_, but this word was afterwards employed in the manner
-mentioned under Bustum. Sepulchres were also frequently called
-_monumenta_, but this term was also applied to a monument erected to
-the memory of a person in a different place from that where he was
-buried. _Conditoria_ or _conditiva_ were sepulchres under ground,
-in which dead bodies were placed entire, in contradistinction to
-those sepulchres which contained the bones and ashes only.--The
-tombs of the rich were commonly built of marble, and the ground
-enclosed with an iron railing or wall, and planted round with trees.
-The extent of the burying-ground was marked by cippi [CIPPUS]. The
-name of mausoleum, which was originally the name of the magnificent
-sepulchre erected by Artemisia to the memory of Mausolus, king of
-Caria, was sometimes given to any splendid tomb. The open space
-before a sepulchre was called forum, and neither this space nor the
-sepulchre itself could become the property of a person by usucapion.
-Private tombs were either built by an individual for himself and
-the members of his family (_sepulcra familiaria_), or for himself
-and his heirs (_sepulcra hereditaria_). A tomb, which was fitted up
-with niches to receive the funeral urns, was called _columbarium_,
-on account of the resemblance of these niches to the holes of a
-pigeon-house. In these tombs the ashes of the freedmen and slaves of
-great families were frequently placed in vessels made of baked clay,
-called _ollae_, which were let into the thickness of the wall within
-these niches, the lids only being seen, and the inscriptions placed
-in front. Tombs were of various sizes and forms, according to the
-wealth and taste of the owner. A sepulchre, or any place in which a
-person was buried, was _religiosus_; all things which were left or
-belonged to the Dii Manes were _religiosae_; those consecrated to
-the Dii Superi were called _sacrae_. Even the place in which a slave
-was buried was considered religiosus. Whoever violated a sepulchre
-was subject to an action termed _sepulcri violati actio_. After the
-bones had been placed in the urn at the funeral, the friends returned
-home. They then underwent a further purification, called _suffitio_,
-which consisted in being sprinkled with water and stepping over a
-fire. The house itself was also swept with a certain kind of broom;
-which sweeping or purification was called _exverrae_, and the
-person who did it _everriator_. The _Denicales Feriae_ were also
-days set apart for the purification of the family. The mourning and
-solemnities connected with the dead lasted for nine days after the
-funeral, at the end of which time a sacrifice was performed, called
-_novendiale_.--A feast was given in honour of the dead, but it is
-uncertain on what day; it sometimes appears to have been given at
-the time of the funeral, sometimes on the novendiale, and sometimes
-later. The name of _silicernium_ was given to this feast. Among the
-tombs at Pompeii there is a funeral triclinium for the celebration
-of these feasts, which is represented in the annexed woodcut. It is
-open to the sky, and the walls are ornamented by paintings of animals
-in the centre of compartments, which have borders of flowers. The
-triclinium is made of stone, with a pedestal in the centre to receive
-the table. After the funeral of great men, there was, in addition to
-the feast for the friends of the deceased, a distribution of raw meat
-to the people, called _visceratio_, and sometimes a public banquet.
-Combats of gladiators and other games were also frequently exhibited
-in honour of the deceased. Thus at the funeral of P. Licinius
-Crassus, who had been Pontifex Maximus, raw meat was distributed to
-the people, 120 gladiators fought, and funeral games were celebrated
-for three days, at the end of which a public banquet was given in
-the forum. Public feasts and funeral games were sometimes given on
-the anniversary of funerals. At all banquets in honour of the dead,
-the guests were dressed in white.--The Romans, like the Greeks, were
-accustomed to visit the tombs of their relatives at certain periods,
-and to offer to them sacrifices and various gifts, which were called
-_inferiae_ and _parentalia_. The Romans appear to have regarded the
-manes or departed souls of their ancestors as gods; whence arose
-the practice of presenting to them oblations, which consisted of
-victims, wine, milk, garlands of flowers, and other things. The
-tombs were sometimes illuminated on these occasions with lamps. In
-the latter end of the month of February there was a festival, called
-_feralia_, in which the Romans were accustomed to carry food to the
-sepulchres for the use of the dead. The Romans were accustomed to
-wear mourning for their deceased friends, which appears to have been
-black under the republic for both sexes. Under the empire the men
-continued to wear black in mourning, but the women wore white. They
-laid aside all kinds of ornaments, and did not cut either their hair
-or beard. Men appear to have usually worn their mourning for only a
-few days, but women for a year when they lost a husband or parent.
-In a public mourning on account of some signal calamity, as, for
-instance, the loss of a battle, or the death of an emperor, there
-was a total cessation from business, called _justitium_, which was
-usually ordained by public appointment. During this period the courts
-of justice did not sit, the shops were shut, and the soldiers freed
-from military duties. In a public mourning the senators did not wear
-the latus clavus and their rings, nor the magistrates their badges of
-office.
-
-[Illustration: Funeral Triclinium at Pompeii. (Mazois, Pomp., 1, pl.
-xx.)]
-
-
-FURCA, which properly means a fork, was also the name of an
-instrument of punishment. It was a piece of wood in the form of
-the letter Λ, which was placed upon the shoulders of the offender,
-whose hands were tied to it. Slaves were frequently punished in
-this way, and were obliged to carry about the furca wherever they
-went; whence the appellation of _furcifer_ was applied to a man
-as a term of reproach. The furca was used in the ancient mode of
-capital punishment among the Romans; the criminal was tied to it, and
-then scourged to death. The _patibulum_ was also an instrument of
-punishment, resembling the furca; it appears to have been in the form
-of the letter Π. Both the furca and patibulum were also employed as
-crosses, to which criminals appear to have been nailed.
-
-
-FURĬŌSUS. [CURATOR.]
-
-
-FUSCĬNA (τρίαινα), a trident, more commonly called _tridens_, meaning
-_tridens stimulus_, because it was originally a three-pronged goad,
-used to incite horses to greater swiftness. Neptune was supposed to
-be armed with it when he drove his chariot, and it thus became his
-usual attribute, perhaps with an allusion also to the use of the same
-instrument in harpooning fish. It is represented in the cut on p.
-84. In the contests of gladiators, the _retiarius_ was armed with a
-trident. [GLADIATORES]
-
-
-FUSTŬĀRĬUM (ξυλοκοπία), was a capital punishment inflicted upon
-Roman soldiers for desertion, theft, and similar crimes. It was
-administered in the following manner:--When a soldier was condemned,
-the tribune touched him slightly with a stick, upon which all the
-soldiers of the legion fell upon him with sticks and stones, and
-generally killed him upon the spot. If, however, he escaped, for he
-was allowed to fly, he could not return to his native country, nor
-did any of his relatives dare to receive him into their houses.
-
-
-FŪSUS (ἄτρακτος), the spindle, was always, when in use, accompanied
-by the distaff (_colus_, ἠλακάτη), as an indispensable part of the
-same apparatus. The wool, flax, or other material, having been
-prepared for spinning, was rolled into a ball (τολύπη, _glomus_),
-which was, however, sufficiently loose to allow the fibres to be
-easily drawn out by the hand of the spinner. The upper part of the
-distaff was then inserted into this mass of flax or wool, and the
-lower part was held under the left arm in such a position as was
-most convenient for conducting the operation. The fibres were drawn
-out, and at the same time spirally twisted, chiefly by the use of
-the fore-finger and thumb of the right hand; and the thread (_filum,
-stamen_, νήμα) so produced was wound upon the spindle until the
-quantity was as great as it would carry. The spindle was a stick,
-10 or 12 inches long, having at the top a slit or catch (_dens_,
-ἄγκιστρον) in which the thread was fixed, so that the weight of the
-spindle might continually carry down the thread as it was formed. Its
-lower extremity was inserted into a small wheel, called the whorl
-(_vorticellum_), made of wood, stone, or metal (see woodcut), the
-use of which was to keep the spindle more steady, and to promote its
-rotation. The accompanying woodcut shows the operation of spinning,
-at the moment when the woman has drawn out a sufficient length of
-yarn to twist it by whirling the spindle with her right thumb and
-fore-finger, and previously to the act of taking it out of the slit
-to wind it upon the bobbin (πήνιον) already formed. It was usual to
-have a basket to hold the distaff and spindle, with the balls of wool
-prepared for spinning, and the bobbins already spun. [CALATHUS.]
-The distaff and spindle, with the wool and thread upon them, were
-carried in bridal processions; and, without the wool and thread, they
-were often suspended by females as offerings of religious gratitude,
-especially in old age, or on relinquishing the constant use of them.
-They were most frequently dedicated to Pallas, the patroness of
-spinning, and of the arts connected with it. They were exhibited in
-the representations of the three Fates, who were conceived, by their
-spinning, to determine the life of every man.
-
-[Illustration: Fusus, spindle.]
-
-
-
-
-GĂBINUS CINCTUS. [TOGA.]
-
-
-GAESUM (γαισός), a term probably of Celtic origin, denoting a kind
-of javelin which was used by the Gauls wherever their ramifications
-extended. It was a heavy weapon, the shaft being as thick as a man
-could grasp, and the iron head barbed, and of an extraordinary length
-compared with the shaft.
-
-
-GĂLĔA (κράνος, _poet_. κόρυς, πήληξ), a helmet; a casque. The
-helmet was originally made of skin or leather, whence is supposed
-to have arisen its appellation, κυνέη, meaning properly a helmet of
-dog-skin, but applied to caps or helmets made of the hide of other
-animals, and even to those which were entirely of bronze or iron.
-The leathern basis of the helmet was also very commonly strengthened
-and adorned by the addition of either bronze or gold. Helmets which
-had a metallic basis were in Latin properly called _cassides_,
-although the terms _galea_ and _cassis_ are often confounded.
-The additions by which the external appearance of the helmet was
-varied, and which served both for ornament and protection, were the
-following:--1. Bosses or plates (φάλος), proceeding either from the
-top or the sides, and varying in number from one to four (ἀμφίφαλος,
-τετράφαλος). The φάλος was often an emblematical figure, referring
-to the character of the wearer. Thus in the colossal statue of
-Athena in the Parthenon at Athens, she bore a sphinx on the top of
-her helmet, and a griffin on each side. 2. The helmet thus adorned
-was very commonly surmounted by the crest (_crista_, λόφος), which
-was often of horse-hair. 3. The two cheek-pieces (_bucculae_,
-παραγναθίδες), which were attached to the helmet by hinges, so as to
-be lifted up and down. They had buttons or ties at their extremities,
-for fastening the helmet on the head. 4. The beaver, or visor,
-a peculiar form of which is supposed to have been the αὐλῶπις
-τρυφάλεια, _i.e._ the perforated beaver. The gladiators wore helmets
-of this kind.
-
-[Illustration: Galeae, helmets. (From ancient Gems,--size of
-originals.)]
-
-
-GĂLĒRUS or GALĒRUM, originally a covering for the head worn by
-priests, especially by the _flamen dialis_. It appears to have been a
-round cap made of leather, with its top ending in an apex or point.
-[APEX.] In course of time the name was applied to any kind of cap
-fitting close to the head like a helmet. _Galerus_ and its diminutive
-_Galericulum_ are also used to signify a covering for the head made
-of hair, and hence a wig.
-
-
-GALLI, the priests of Cybelé, whose worship was introduced at Rome
-from Phrygia. The Galli were, according to an ancient custom, always
-castrated, and it would seem that, impelled by religious fanaticism,
-they performed this operation on themselves. In their wild,
-enthusiastic, and boisterous rites they resembled the Corybantes.
-They seem to have been always chosen from a poor and despised class
-of people, for, while no other priests were allowed to beg, the Galli
-were permitted to do so on certain days. The chief priest among them
-was called _archigallus_.
-
-
-GĂMĒLĬA (γαμηλία). The demes and phratries of Attica possessed
-various means to prevent intruders from assuming the rights of
-citizens. Among other regulations, it was ordained that every bride,
-previous to her marriage, should be introduced by her parents or
-guardians to the phratria of her husband. This introduction of the
-young women was accompanied by presents to their new phratores, which
-were called _gamelia_. The women were enrolled in the lists of the
-phratries, and this enrolment was also called _gamelia_.
-
-
-GAUSĂPA, GAUSĂPE, or GAUSĂPUM, a kind of thick cloth, which was on
-one side very woolly, and was used to cover tables and beds, and by
-persons to wrap themselves up after taking a bath, or in general to
-protect themselves against rain and cold. It was worn by men as well
-as women. The word gausapa is also sometimes used to designate a
-thick wig, such as was made of the hair of Germans, and worn by the
-fashionable people at Rome at the time of the emperors.
-
-
-GĔNĔSIA. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-GĔNOS (γένος). [TRIBUS, GREEK.]
-
-
-GENS. According to the traditional accounts of the old Roman
-constitution, the _Gentes_ were subdivisions of the _curiae_, just
-as the _curiae_ were subdivisions of the three ancient tribes, the
-_Ramnes_, _Titienses_, and _Luceres_. There were ten gentes in
-each curia, and consequently one hundred gentes in each tribe, and
-three hundred in the three tribes. Now if there is any truth in
-the tradition of this original distribution of the population into
-tribes, curiae, and gentes, it follows that there was no necessary
-kinship among those families which belonged to a gens, any more than
-among those families which belonged to one curia. The name of the
-gens was always characterised by the termination _ia_, as Julia,
-Cornelia, Valeria; and the gentiles, or members of a gens, all bore
-the name of the gens to which they belonged. As the gentes were
-subdivisions of the three ancient tribes, the populus (in the ancient
-sense) alone had gentes, so that to be a patrician and to have a gens
-were synonymous; and thus we find the expressions gens and patricii
-constantly united. Yet it appears that some gentes contained plebeian
-familiae, which it is conjectured had their origin in marriages
-between patricians and plebeians before there was connubium between
-them. A hundred new members were added to the senate by the first
-Tarquin. These were the representatives of the _Luceres_, the third
-and inferior tribe; which is indicated by the gentes of this tribe
-being called _minores_, by way of being distinguished from the older
-gentes, _majores_, of the Ramnes and Tities, a distinction which
-appears to have been more than nominal. [SENATUS.] There were certain
-sacred rites (_sacra gentilitia_) which belonged to a gens, to which
-all the members of a gens, as such, were bound. It was the duty of
-the pontifices to look after the due observance of these gentile
-sacra, and to see that they were not lost. Each gens seems to have
-had its peculiar place (_sacellum_) for the celebration of these
-sacra, which were performed at stated times. By the law of the Twelve
-Tables the property of a person who died intestate devolved upon the
-gens to which he belonged.
-
-
-GĔŌMŎRI. [TRIBUS, GREEK.]
-
-
-GĔROUSĬA (γερούσια), or _assembly of elders_, was the aristocratic
-element of the Spartan polity. It was not peculiar to Sparta only,
-but found in other Dorian states, just as a _Boulé_ (βουλή) or
-democratical council was an element of most Ionian constitutions.
-The _Gerousia_ at Sparta, including the two kings, its presidents,
-consisted of thirty members (γέροντες): a number which seems
-connected with the divisions of the Spartan people. Every Dorian
-state, in fact, was divided into three tribes: the Hylleis, the
-Dymanes, and the Pamphyli. The tribes at Sparta were again subdivided
-into _obae_ (ὠβαί), which were, like the _Gerontes_, thirty in
-number, so that each oba was represented by its councillor: any
-inference which leads to the conclusion that two obae at least of
-the Hyllean tribe, must have belonged to the royal house of the
-Heracleids. No one was eligible to the council till he was sixty
-years of age, and the additional qualifications were strictly of
-an aristocratic nature. We are told, for instance, that the office
-of a councillor was the reward and prize of virtue, and that it
-was confined to men of distinguished character and station. The
-election was determined by vote, and the mode of conducting it
-was remarkable for its old-fashioned simplicity. The competitors
-presented themselves one after another to the assembly of electors;
-the latter testified their esteem by acclamations, which varied
-in intensity according to the popularity of the candidates for
-whom they were given. These manifestations of esteem were noted by
-persons in an adjoining building, who could judge of the shouting,
-but could not tell in whose favour it was given. The person whom
-these judges thought to have been most applauded was declared the
-successful candidate. The office lasted for life. The functions of
-the councillors were partly deliberative, partly judicial, and partly
-executive. In the discharge of the first, they prepared measures
-and passed preliminary decrees, which were to be laid before the
-popular assembly, so that the important privilege of initiating all
-changes in the government or laws was vested in them. As a criminal
-court, they could punish with death and civil degradation (ἀτιμία).
-They also appear to have exercised, like the Areiopagus at Athens,
-a general superintendence and inspection over the lives and manners
-of the citizens, and probably were allowed a kind of patriarchal
-authority, to enforce the observance of ancient usage and discipline.
-It is not, however, easy to define with exactness the original
-extent of their functions, especially as respects the last-mentioned
-duty, since the ephors not only encroached upon the prerogatives of
-the king and council, but also possessed, in very early times, a
-censorial power, and were not likely to permit any diminution of its
-extent.
-
-
-GERRHA (γέῤῥα), in Latin, _Gerrae_, properly signified any thing made
-of wicker-work, and was especially used as the name of the Persian
-shields, which were made of wicker-work, and were smaller and shorter
-than the Greek shields.
-
-
-GLĂDĬĀTŌRES (μονομάχοι) were men who fought with swords in the
-amphitheatre and other places, for the amusement of the Roman people.
-They are said to have been first exhibited by the Etrurians, and to
-have had their origin from the custom of killing slaves and captives
-at the funeral pyres of the deceased. [BUSTUM; FUNUS.] A show of
-gladiators was called munus, and the person who exhibited (_edebat_)
-it, _editor_, _munerator_, or _dominus_, who was honoured during the
-day of exhibition, if a private person, with the official signs of
-a magistrate. Gladiators were first exhibited at Rome in B.C. 264,
-in the Forum Boarium, by Marcus and Decimus Brutus, at the funeral
-of their father. They were at first confined to public funerals, but
-afterwards fought at the funerals of most persons of consequence, and
-even at those of women. Combats of gladiators were also exhibited at
-entertainments, and especially at public festivals by the aediles
-and other magistrates, who sometimes exhibited immense numbers, with
-the view of pleasing the people. Under the empire the passion of
-the Romans for this amusement rose to its greatest height, and the
-number of gladiators who fought on some occasions appears almost
-incredible. After Trajan’s triumph over the Dacians, there were more
-than 10,000 exhibited. Gladiators consisted either of captives,
-slaves, and condemned malefactors, or of freeborn citizens who fought
-voluntarily. Freemen, who became gladiators for hire, were called
-_auctorati_, and their hire _auctoramentum_ or _gladiatorium_. Even
-under the republic, free-born citizens fought as gladiators, but
-they appear to have belonged only to the lower orders. Under the
-empire, however, both knights and senators fought in the arena,
-and even women.--Gladiators were kept in schools (_ludi_), where
-they were trained by persons called _lanistae_. The whole body of
-gladiators under one lanista was frequently called _familia_. They
-sometimes were the property of the lanistae, who let them out to
-persons who wished to exhibit a show of gladiators; but at other
-times they belonged to citizens, who kept them for the purpose of
-exhibition, and engaged lanistae to instruct them. Thus we read of
-the ludus Aemilius at Rome, and of Caesar’s ludus at Capua. The
-gladiators fought in these ludi with wooden swords, called _rudes_.
-Great attention was paid to their diet, in order to increase the
-strength of their bodies.--Gladiators were sometimes exhibited at
-the funeral pyre, and sometimes in the forum, but more frequently in
-the amphitheatre. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]--The person who was to exhibit
-a show of gladiators, published some days before the exhibition
-bills (_libelli_), containing the number and frequently the names
-of those who were to fight. When the day came, they were led along
-the arena in procession, and matched by pairs; and their swords
-were examined by the editor to see if they were sufficiently sharp.
-At first there was a kind of sham battle, called _praelusio_, in
-which they fought with wooden swords, or the like, and afterwards
-at the sound of the trumpet the real battle began. When a gladiator
-was wounded, the people called out _habet_ or _hoc habet_; and the
-one who was vanquished lowered his arms in token of submission.
-His fate, however, depended upon the people, who pressed down
-their thumbs if they wished him to be saved, but turned them up if
-they wished him to be killed, and ordered him to receive the sword
-(_ferrum recipere_), which gladiators usually did with the greatest
-firmness. If the life of a vanquished gladiator was spared, he
-obtained his discharge for that day, which was called _missio_;
-and hence in an exhibition of gladiators _sine missione_, the
-lives of the conquered were never spared. This kind of exhibition,
-however, was forbidden by Augustus. Palms were usually given to the
-victorious gladiators. Old gladiators, and sometimes those who had
-only fought for a short time, were discharged from the service by
-the editor, at the request of the people, who presented each of them
-with a rudis or wooden sword; whence those who were discharged were
-called _Rudiarii_.--Gladiators were divided into different classes,
-according to their arms and different mode of fighting, or other
-circumstances. The names of the most important of these classes are
-given in alphabetical order:--_Andabatae_ wore helmets without any
-aperture for the eyes, so that they were obliged to fight blindfold,
-and thus excited the mirth of the spectators.--_Catervarii_ was the
-name given to gladiators when they did not fight in pairs, but when
-several fought together.--_Essedarii_ fought from chariots, like the
-Gauls and Britons. [ESSEDA.]--_Hoplomachi_ appear to have been those
-who fought in a complete suit of armour.--_Laqueatores_ were those
-who used a noose to catch their adversaries.--_Meridiani_ were those
-who fought in the middle of the day, after combats with wild beasts
-had taken place in the morning. These gladiators were very slightly
-armed.--_Mirmillones_ are said to have been so called from their
-having the image of a fish (_mormyr_, μορμύρος) on their helmets.
-Their arms were like those of the Gauls, whence we find that they
-were also called Galli. They were usually matched with the Retiarii
-or Thracians.--_Provocatores_ fought with the Samnites, but we do
-not know any thing respecting them except their name.--_Retiarii_
-carried only a three-pointed lance, called _tridens_ or _fuscina_
-[FUSCINA], and a net (_rete_), which they endeavoured to throw over
-their adversaries, and they then attacked them with the fuscina while
-they were entangled. The retiarius was dressed in a short tunic,
-and wore nothing on his head. If he missed his aim in throwing the
-net, he betook himself to flight, and endeavoured to prepare his net
-for a second cast, while his adversary followed him round the arena
-in order to kill him before he could make a second attempt. His
-adversary was usually a _secutor_ or a _mirmillo_. In the following
-woodcut a combat is represented between a retiarius and a mirmillo;
-the former has thrown his net over the head of the latter, and is
-proceeding to attack him with the fuscina. The lanista stands behind
-the retiarius.--_Samnites_ were so called, because they were armed
-in the same way as that people, and were particularly distinguished
-by the oblong _scutum_.--_Secutores_ are supposed by some writers to
-be so called because the secutor in his combat with the retiarius
-pursued the latter when he failed in securing him by his net.
-
-[Illustration: A Mirmillo and a Retiarius. (Winckelmann, ‘Monum.
-Ined.,’ pl. 197.)]
-
-Other writers think that they were the same as the _supposititii_,
-who were gladiators substituted in the place of those who were
-wearied or were killed.--_Thraces_ or _Threces_ were armed, like the
-Thracians, with a round shield or buckler, and a short sword or
-dagger (_sica_). They were usually matched, as already stated, with
-the mirmillones. The following woodcut represents a combat between
-two Thracians. A lanista stands behind each.
-
-[Illustration: Thracians. (Winckelmann, l. c.)]
-
-
-GLĂDĬUS (ξίφος, _poet._ ἄορ, φάσγανον), a sword or glaive, by the
-Latin poets called _ensis_. The ancient sword had generally a
-straight two-edged blade, rather broad, and nearly of equal width
-from hilt to point. The Greeks and Romans wore them on the left side,
-so as to draw them out of the sheath (_vagina_, κολεός) by passing
-the right hand in front of the body to take hold of the hilt with the
-thumb next to the blade. The early Greeks used a very short sword.
-Iphicrates, who made various improvements in armour about 400 B.C.,
-doubled its length. The Roman sword was larger, heavier, and more
-formidable than the Greek.
-
-
-GLANDES. [FUNDA.]
-
-
-GRAECŎSTĂSIS, a place in the Roman forum, on the right of the
-Comitium, so called because the Greek ambassadors, and perhaps also
-deputies from other foreign or allied states, were allowed to stand
-there to hear the debates. When the sun was seen from the Curia
-coming out between the Rostra and the Graecostasis, it was mid-day;
-and an accensus of the consul announced the time with a clear loud
-voice.
-
-
-GRAMMĂTEUS (γραμματεύς), a clerk or scribe. Among the great number
-of scribes employed by the magistrates and government of Athens,
-there were three of a higher rank, who were real state-officers. One
-of them was appointed by lot, by the senate, to serve the time of
-the administration of each prytany, though he always belonged to a
-different prytany from that which was in power. He was, therefore,
-called γραμματεὺς κατὰ πρυτανείαν. His province was to keep the
-public records, and the decrees of the people which were made during
-the time of his office, and to deliver to the thesmothetae the
-decrees of the senate.--The second _grammateus_ was elected by the
-senate, by χειροτονία, and was entrusted with the custody of the
-laws. His usual name was γραμματεὺς τῆς βουλῆς.--A third _grammateus_
-was called γραμματεὺς τῆς πόλεως, or γραμματεὺς τῆς βουλῆς καὶ
-τοῦ δήμου. He was appointed by the people, by χειροτονία, and the
-principal part of his office was to read any laws or documents which
-were required to be read in the assembly or in the senate.
-
-
-GRĂPHĒ (γραφή). [DICE.]
-
-
-GRĂPHĬĀRĬUM. [STILUS.]
-
-
-GRĂPHIS. [PICTURA.]
-
-
-GRĂPHĬUM. [STILUS.]
-
-
-GŬBERNĀCŬLUM (πηδάλιον). [NAVIS.]
-
-
-GUSTĀTĬO. [COENA.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Guttus on Coin of L. Plancus.]
-
-GUTTUS, a vessel with a narrow mouth or neck, from which the liquid
-was poured in drops, whence its name. It was especially used in
-sacrifices, and hence we find it represented on the Roman coins
-struck by persons who held any of the priestly offices. The guttus
-was also used for keeping the oil, with which persons were anointed
-in the baths. [See p. 56.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Gymnasium, after the description of Vitruvius.]
-
-GYMNĀSIUM (γυμνάσιον). The whole education of a Greek youth was
-divided into three parts,--grammar, music, and gymnastics (γράμματα,
-μουσική, γυμναστική), to which Aristotle adds a fourth, the art
-of drawing or painting. Gymnastics, however, were thought by the
-ancients a matter of such importance, that this part of education
-alone occupied as much time and attention as all the others put
-together; and while the latter necessarily ceased at a certain period
-of life, gymnastics continued to be cultivated by persons of all
-ages, though those of an advanced age naturally took lighter and less
-fatiguing exercises than boys and youths. The ancients, and more
-especially the Greeks, seem to have been thoroughly convinced that
-the mind could not possibly be in a healthy state, unless the body
-was likewise in perfect health, and no means were thought, either
-by philosophers or physicians, to be more conducive to preserve
-or restore bodily health than well-regulated exercise. The word
-gymnastics is derived from γυμνός (naked), because the persons who
-performed their exercises in public or private gymnasia were either
-entirely naked, or merely covered by the short _chiton_. Gymnastic
-exercises among the Greeks seem to have been as old as the Greek
-nation itself; but they were, as might be supposed, of a rude and
-mostly of a warlike character. They were generally held in the open
-air, and in plains near a river, which afforded an opportunity for
-swimming and bathing. It was about the time of Solon that the Greek
-towns began to build their regular gymnasia as places of exercise for
-the young, with baths, and other conveniences for philosophers and
-all persons who sought intellectual amusements. There was probably
-no Greek town of any importance which did not possess its gymnasium.
-Athens possessed three great gymnasia, the Lyceum (Λύκειον),
-Cynosarges (Κυνόσαργες), and the Academia (Ἀκαδημία); to which,
-in later times, several smaller ones were added. Respecting the
-superintendence and administration of the gymnasia at Athens, we know
-that Solon in his legislation thought them worthy of great attention;
-and the transgression of some of his laws relating to the gymnasia
-was punished with death. His laws mention a magistrate, called the
-gymnasiarch (γυμνασίαρχος or γυμνασιάρχης), who was entrusted with
-the whole management of the gymnasia, and with everything connected
-therewith. His office was one of the regular liturgies like the
-choregia and trierarchy, and was attended with considerable expense.
-He had to maintain and pay the persons who were preparing themselves
-for the games and contests in the public festivals, to provide them
-with oil, and perhaps with the wrestlers’ dust. It also devolved upon
-him to adorn the gymnasium, or the place where the agones were held.
-The gymnasiarch was a real magistrate, and invested with a kind of
-jurisdiction over all those who frequented or were connected with the
-gymnasia. Another part of his duties was to conduct the solemn games
-at certain great festivals, especially the torch-race (λαμπαδηφορία),
-for which he selected the most distinguished among the ephebi of
-the gymnasia. The number of gymnasiarchs was ten, one from every
-tribe. An office of very great importance, in an educational point of
-view, was that of the _Sophronistae_ (σωφρονίσται). Their province
-was to inspire the youths with a love of σωφροσύνη, and to protect
-this virtue against all injurious influences. In early times their
-number at Athens was ten, one from every tribe, with a salary of one
-drachma per day. Their duty not only required them to be present at
-all the games of the ephebi, but to watch and correct their conduct
-wherever they might meet them, both within and without the gymnasium.
-The instructions in the gymnasia were given by the _Gymnastae_
-(γυμνασταί) and the _Paedotribae_ (παιδοτριβαί); at a later period
-_Hypopaedotribae_ were added. The Paedotribae were required to
-possess a knowledge of all the various exercises which were performed
-in the gymnasia; the Gymnastes was the practical teacher, and was
-expected to know the physiological effects and influences on the
-constitution of the youths, and therefore assigned to each of them
-those exercises which he thought most suitable. The anointing of
-the bodies of the youths and strewing them with dust, before they
-commenced their exercises, as well as the regulation of their diet,
-was the duty of the aliptae. [ALIPTAE.]--Among all the different
-tribes of the Greeks the exercises which were carried on in a Greek
-gymnasium were either mere games, or the more important exercises
-which the gymnasia had in common with the public contests in the
-great festivals. Among the former we may mention, 1. The game at ball
-(σφαιριστική), which was in universal favour with the Greeks. [PILA.]
-Every gymnasium contained one large room for the purpose of playing
-at ball in it (σφαιριστήριον). 2. Παίζειν ἑλκυστίνδα, διελκυστίνδα,
-or διὰ γραμμῆς, was a game in which one boy, holding one end of a
-rope, tried to pull the boy who held its other end, across a line
-marked between them on the ground. 3. The top (βεμβηξ, βέμβιξ,
-ῥόμβος, στρόβιλος), which was as common an amusement with Greek boys
-as it is with ours. 4. The πεντάλιθος, which was a game with five
-stones, which were thrown up from the upper part of the hand and
-caught in the palm. 5. Σκαπέρδα, which was a game in which a rope was
-drawn through the upper part of a tree or a post. Two boys, one on
-each side of the post, turning their backs towards one another, took
-hold of the ends of the rope and tried to pull each other up. This
-sport was also one of the amusements at the Attic Dionysia. The more
-important games, such as running (δρόμος), throwing of the δίσκος
-and the ἄκων, jumping and leaping (ἅλμα, with and without ἁλτῆρες),
-wrestling (πάλη), boxing (πυγμή), the pancratium (παγκράτιον),
-πένταθλος, λαμπαδηφορία, dancing (ὀρχήσις), &c., are described in
-separate articles. A gymnasium was not a Roman institution. The
-regular training of boys in the Greek gymnastics was foreign to Roman
-manners, and even held in contempt. Towards the end of the republic,
-many wealthy Romans who had acquired a taste for Greek manners,
-used to attach to their villas small places for bodily exercise,
-sometimes called gymnasia, sometimes palaestrae, and to adorn them
-with beautiful works of art. The emperor Nero was the first who built
-a public gymnasium at Rome.
-
-
-GYMNĒSII or GYMNĒTES (γυμνήσιοι, or γυμνῆτες), a class of
-bond-slaves at Argos, who may be compared with the Helots at Sparta.
-Their name shows that they attended their masters on military service
-in the capacity of light-armed troops.
-
-
-GYMNŎPAEDĬA (γυμνοπαιδία), the festival of “naked youths,” was
-celebrated at Sparta every year in honour of Apollo Pythaeus,
-Artemis, and Leto. The statues of these deities stood in a part of
-the agora called χορός, and it was around these statues that, at the
-gymnopaedia, Spartan youths performed their choruses and dances in
-honour of Apollo. The festival lasted for several, perhaps for ten,
-days, and on the last day men also performed choruses and dances in
-the theatre; and during these gymnastic exhibitions they sang the
-songs of Thaletas and Alcman, and the paeans of Dionysodotus. The
-leader of the chorus (προστάτης or χοροποιός) wore a kind of chaplet
-in commemoration of the victory of the Spartans at Thyrea. This
-event seems to have been closely connected with the gymnopaedia, for
-those Spartans who had fallen on that occasion were always praised
-in songs at this festival. The boys in their dances performed such
-rhythmical movements as resembled the exercises of the palaestra and
-the pancration, and also imitated the wild gestures of the worship
-of Dionysus. The whole season of the gymnopaedia, during which
-Sparta was visited by great numbers of strangers, was one of great
-merriment and rejoicings, and old bachelors alone seem to have been
-excluded from the festivities. The introduction of the gymnopaedia is
-generally assigned to the year 665 B.C.
-
-
-GỸNAECONĪTIS. [DOMUS, GREEK.]
-
-
-GỸNAECŎNŎMI or GỸNAECŎCOSMI (γυναικονόμοι or γυναικοκόσμοι),
-magistrates at Athens, originally appointed to superintend the
-conduct of Athenian women. Their power was afterwards extended in
-such a manner that they became a kind of police for the purpose of
-preventing any excesses or indecencies, whether committed by men
-or by women. Hence they superintended the meetings of friends even
-in private houses, for instance, at weddings and on other festive
-occasions.
-
-
-
-
-HALTĒRES (ἁλτῆρες) were certain masses of stone or metal, which were
-used in the gymnastic exercises of the Greeks and Romans. Persons who
-practised leaping frequently performed their exercises with halteres
-in both hands; but they were also frequently used merely to exercise
-the body in somewhat the same manner as our dumb-bells.
-
-[Illustration: Halteres. (Tassie, ‘Catalogue,’ pl. 46.)]
-
-
-HARMĂMAXA (ἁρμάμαξα), a carriage for persons, covered overhead and
-inclosed with curtains. It was in general large, often drawn by four
-horses, and attired with splendid ornaments. It occupied among the
-Persians the same place which the carpentum did among the Romans,
-being used, especially upon state occasions, for the conveyance of
-women and children, of eunuchs, and of the sons of the king with
-their tutors.
-
-
-HARMOSTAE (ἁρμοσταί, from ἁρμόζω, to fit or join together), the name
-of the governors whom the Lacedaemonians, after the Peloponnesian
-war, sent into their subject or conquered towns, partly to keep
-them in submission, and partly to abolish the democratical form of
-government, and establish in its stead one similar to their own.
-Although in many cases they were ostensibly sent for the purpose of
-abolishing the tyrannical government of a town, and to restore the
-people to freedom, yet they themselves acted like kings or tyrants.
-
-
-[Illustration: Flesh-hook. (British Museum.)]
-
-HARPĂGO (ἁρπάγη: λύκος: κρεάγρα), a grappling-iron, a drag, a
-flesh-hook. In war the grappling-iron, thrown at an enemy’s ship,
-seized the rigging, and was then used to drag the ship within reach,
-so that it might be easily boarded or destroyed. These instruments
-appear to have been much the same as the _manus ferreae_. The
-flesh-hook (κρεάγρα) was an instrument used in cookery, resembling a
-hand with the fingers bent inwards, used to take boiled meat out of
-the caldron.
-
-
-HARPASTUM. [PILA.]
-
-
-HĂRUSPĬCES, or ĂRUSPĬCES (ἱεροσκόποι), soothsayers or diviners,
-who interpreted the will of the gods. They originally came to Rome
-from Etruria, whence haruspices were often sent for by the Romans
-on important occasions. The art of the haruspices resembled in many
-respects that of the augurs; but they never acquired that political
-importance which the latter possessed, and were regarded rather
-as means for ascertaining the will of the gods than as possessing
-any religious authority. They did not in fact form any part of the
-ecclesiastical polity of the Roman state during the republic; they
-are never called sacerdotes, they did not form a collegium, and
-had no magister at their head. The art of the haruspices, which
-was called _haruspicina_, consisted in explaining and interpreting
-the will of the gods from the appearance of the entrails (_exta_)
-of animals offered in sacrifice, whence they are sometimes called
-_extispices_, and their art _extispicium_; and also from lightning,
-earthquakes, and all extraordinary phenomena in nature, to which the
-general name of _portenta_ was given. Their art is said to have been
-invented by the Etruscan Tages, and was contained in certain books
-called _libri haruspicini_, _fulgurales_, and _tonitruales_. This
-art was considered by the Romans so important at one time, that the
-senate decreed that a certain number of young Etruscans, belonging
-to the principal families in the state, should always be instructed
-in it. In later times, however, their art fell into disrepute among
-well-educated Romans; and Cicero relates a saying of Cato, that he
-wondered that one haruspex did not laugh when he saw another. The
-name of haruspex is sometimes applied to any kind of soothsayer or
-prophet.
-
-[Illustration: Hastae, spears.]
-
-HASTA (ἔγχος), a spear. The spear is defined by Homer, δόρυ χαλκήρες,
-“a pole fitted with bronze,” and δόρυ χαλκοβάρες, “a pole heavy with
-bronze.” The bronze, for which iron was afterwards substituted,
-was indispensable to form the point (αἰχμή, ἀκωκή, Homer; λόγχη,
-Xenophon; _acies_, _cuspis_, _spiculum_) of the spear. Each of these
-two essential parts is often put for the whole, so that a spear is
-called δόρυ and δοράτιον, αἰχμή, and λόγχη. Even the more especial
-term μελία, meaning an ash-tree, is used in the same manner, because
-the pole of the spear was often the stem of a young ash, stripped
-of its bark and polished. The bottom of the spear was often inclosed
-in a pointed cap of bronze, called by the Ionic writers σαυρωτῆρ
-and οὐρίαχος, and in Attic or common Greek στύραξ. By forcing this
-into the ground the spear was fixed erect. Many of the lancers who
-accompanied the king of Persia, had, instead of this spike at the
-bottom of their spears, an apple or a pomegranate, either gilt or
-silvered. Fig. 1. in the annexed woodcut shows the top and bottom of
-a spear, which is held by one of the king’s guards in the sculptures
-at Persepolis. The spear was used as a weapon of attack in three
-different ways:--1. It was thrown from catapults and other engines
-[TORMENTUM]. 2. It was thrust forward as a pike. 3. It was commonly
-thrown by the hand. The spear frequently had a leathern thong tied
-to the middle of the shaft, which was called ἀγκύλη by the Greeks,
-and _amentum_ by the Romans, and which was of assistance in throwing
-the spear. The annexed figure represents the amentum attached to the
-spear at the centre of gravity, a little above the middle.
-
-[Illustration: Hasta with Amentum. (From a Painting on a Vase.)]
-
-Under the general terms _hasta_ and ἔγχος were included various
-kinds of missiles, of which the principal were as follow:--_Lancea_
-(λόγχη), the lance, a comparatively slender spear commonly used by
-the Greek horsemen. The appendage shown in woodcut, Fig. 2, enabled
-them to mount their horses with greater facility.--_Pilum_ (ὑσσός),
-the javelin, much thicker and stronger than the Grecian lance. Its
-shaft, often made of cornel, was 4½ feet (three cubits) long, and
-the barbed iron head was of the same length, but this extended half
-way down the shaft, to which it was attached with extreme care, so
-that the whole length of the weapon was about 6 feet 9 inches. It
-was used either to throw or to thrust with; it was peculiar to the
-Romans, and gave the name of _pilani_ to the division of the army by
-which it was adopted.--Whilst the heavy-armed Roman soldiers bore the
-long lance and the thick and ponderous javelin, the light-armed used
-smaller missiles, which, though of different kinds, were included
-under the general term _hastae velitares_ (γρόσφοι). The γρόσφος was
-a dart, with a shaft about three feet long and an inch in thickness:
-the iron head was a span long, and so thin and acuminated as to be
-bent by striking against anything, and thus rendered unfit to be
-sent back against the enemy. Fig. 3, in the preceding woodcut, shows
-one which was found in a Roman entrenchment in Gloucestershire.--The
-light infantry of the Roman army used a similar weapon, called _a
-spit_ (_veru_, _verutum_; σαύνιον). It was adopted by them from
-the Samnites and the Volsci. Its shaft was 3½ feet long, its point
-5 inches. Fig. 4, in the preceding woodcut, represents the head
-of a dart in the Royal Collection at Naples; it may be taken as
-a specimen of the _verutum_, and may be contrasted with fig. 5,
-which is the head of a lance in the same collection.--The Romans
-adopted in like manner the _gaesum_, which was properly a Celtic
-weapon; it was given as a reward to any soldier who wounded an
-enemy. [GAESUM.]--_Sparus_ is evidently the same word with the
-English _spar_ and _spear_. It was the rudest missile of the whole
-class.--Besides the terms _jaculum_ and _spiculum_ (ἄκων, ἀκόντιον),
-which probably denoted darts, resembling in form the lance and
-javelin, but much smaller, adapted consequently to the light-armed
-(_jaculatores_), and used in hunting as well as in battle, we find
-in classical authors the names of various other spears, which were
-characteristic of particular nations.--Thus, the _sarissa_ was the
-spear peculiar to the Macedonians. This was used both to throw and
-as a pike. It exceeded in length all other missiles.--The Thracian
-_romphea_, which had a very long point, like the blade of a sword,
-was probably not unlike the sarissa.--With these weapons we may also
-class the Illyrian _sibina_, which resembled a hunting-pole.--The
-iron head of the German spear, called _framea_, was short and narrow,
-but very sharp. The Germans used it with great effect either as a
-lance or a pike: they gave to each youth a framea and a shield on
-coming of age.--The _Falarica_ or _Phalarica_ was the spear of the
-Saguntines, and was impelled by the aid of twisted ropes; it was
-large and ponderous, having a head of iron a cubit in length, and a
-ball of lead at its other end; it sometimes carried flaming pitch and
-tow.--The _matura_ and _tragula_ were chiefly used in Gaul and Spain:
-the tragula was probably barbed, as it required to be cut out of the
-wound.--The _Aclis_ and _Cateia_ were much smaller missiles.--Among
-the decorations which the Roman generals bestowed on their soldiers,
-more especially for saving the life of a fellow-citizen, was a spear
-without a head, called _hasta pura_. The _celibaris hasta_, having
-been fixed into the body of a gladiator lying dead on the arena,
-was used at marriages to part the hair of the bride. A spear was
-erected at auctions [AUCTIO], and when tenders were received for
-public offices (_locationes_). It served both to announce, by a
-conventional sign conspicuous at a distance, that a sale was going
-on, and to show that it was conducted under the authority of the
-public functionaries. Hence an auction was called _hasta_, and an
-auction-room _hastarium_. It was also the practice to set up a spear
-in the court of the CENTUMVIRI.
-
-
-HASTĀTI. [EXERCITUS, p. 168, b.]
-
-
-HĔCĂTOMBĒ. [SACRIFICIUM.]
-
-
-HECTĒ or HECTEUS (ἕκτη, ἑκτεύς), and its half, _Hemiecton_ or
-_Hemiecteon_ (ἡμίεκτον, ἡμιεκτέον). In dry measures, the _hecteus_
-was the sixth part of the _medimnus_, and the _hemiecteon_, of
-course, the twelfth part. The _hecteus_ was equal to the Roman
-_modius_, as each contained 16 ξέσται or sextarii. The _Hecte_ or
-_Hecteus_ and _Hemiecton_ were also the names of coins, but the
-accounts we have of their value are very various. The only consistent
-explanation is, that there were different _hectae_, derived from
-different units; in fact, that these coins were not properly
-_denominations_ of money, but _subdivisions_ of the recognised
-denominations.
-
-
-HĔLĔPŎLIS (ἑλέπολις), “the taker of cities,” a machine constructed
-by Demetrius Poliorcetes, when he besieged the city of Salamis in
-Cyprus. Its form was that of a square tower, each side being 90
-cubits high and 45 wide. It rested on four wheels, each eight cubits
-high. It was divided into nine stories, the lower of which contained
-machines for throwing great stones, the middle large catapults for
-throwing spears, and the highest other machines for throwing smaller
-stones, together with smaller catapults. It was manned with 200
-soldiers, besides those who moved it by pushing the parallel beams
-at the bottom. At the siege of Rhodes, B.C. 306, Demetrius employed
-an helepolis of still greater dimensions and more complicated
-construction. In subsequent ages we find the name of “helepolis”
-applied to moving towers which carried battering rams, as well as
-machines for throwing spears and stones.
-
-
-HELLĀNŎDĬCAE (ἑλλανοδίκαι), the judges in the Olympic games, of whom
-an account is given under OLYMPIA. The same name was also given to
-the judges or court-martial in the Lacedaemonian army, and they were
-probably first called by this name when Sparta was at the head of the
-Greek confederacy.
-
-
-HELLĒNOTĂMĬAE (ἑλληνοταμίαι), or treasurers of the Greeks, were
-magistrates appointed by the Athenians to receive the contributions
-of the allied states. They were first appointed B.C. 477, when
-Athens, in consequence of the conduct of Pausanias, had obtained the
-command of the allied states. The money paid by the different states,
-which was originally fixed at 460 talents, was deposited in Delos,
-which was the place of meeting for the discussion of all common
-interests; and there can be no doubt that the hellenotamiae not only
-received, but were also the guardians of, these monies. The office
-was retained after the treasury was transferred to Athens on the
-proposal of the Samians, but was of course abolished on the conquest
-of Athens by the Lacedaemonians.
-
-
-HĒLŌTES (εἴλωτες), a class of bondsmen peculiar to Sparta. They were
-Achaeans, who had resisted the Dorian invaders to the last, and had
-been reduced to slavery as the punishment of their obstinacy. The
-Helots were regarded as the property of the state, which, while it
-gave their services to individuals, reserved to itself the power of
-emancipating them. They were attached to the land, and could not
-be sold away from it. They cultivated the land, and paid to their
-masters as rent a certain measure of corn, the exact amount of which
-had been fixed at a very early period, the raising of that amount
-being forbidden under heavy imprecations. Besides being engaged in
-the cultivation of the land, the Helots attended on their masters
-at the public meal, and many of them were no doubt employed by the
-state in public works. In war the Helots served as light-armed troops
-(ψίλοι), a certain number of them attending every heavy-armed Spartan
-to the field; at the battle of Plataeae there were seven Helots to
-each Spartan. These attendants were probably called ἀμπίτταρες(i.e.
-ἀμφίσταντες), and one of them in particular, the θεράπων, or
-_servant_. The Helots only served as hoplites in particular
-emergencies; and on such occasions they were generally emancipated.
-The first instance of this kind was in the expedition of Brasidas,
-B.C. 424. The treatment to which the Helots were subjected was marked
-by the most wanton cruelty; and they were regarded by the Spartans
-with the greatest suspicion. Occasionally the ephors selected
-young Spartans for the secret service (κρυπτεία) of wandering over
-the country, in order to kill the Helots. The Helots might be
-emancipated, but there were several steps between them and the free
-citizens, and it is doubtful whether they were ever admitted to all
-the privileges of citizenship. The following classes of emancipated
-Helots are enumerated:--ἀφεταί, ἀδεσπότοι, ἐρυκτῆρες, δεσποσιοναύται,
-and νεοδαμώδεις. Of these the ἀφεταί were probably released from all
-service; the ἐρυκτῆρες were those employed in war; the δεσποσιοναύται
-served on board the fleet; and the νεοδαμώδεις were those who had
-been possessed of freedom for some time. Besides these, there were
-the μόθωνες or μόθακες, who were domestic slaves, brought up with the
-young Spartans, and then emancipated. Upon being emancipated they
-received permission to dwell where they wished.
-
-
-HĒMĔRŎDRŎMI (ἡμεροδρόμοι), couriers in the Greek states, who could
-keep on running all day, and were often employed to carry news of
-important events. They were trained for the purpose, and could
-perform the longest journeys in an almost incredibly short space
-of time. Such couriers were in times of danger stationed on some
-eminence in order to observe anything of importance that might
-happen, and carry the intelligence with speed to the proper quarter.
-Hence we frequently find them called _Hemeroscopi_ (ἡμεροσκόποι).
-
-
-HĒMĬCYCLĬUM (ἡμικύκλιον), a semicircular seat, for the accommodation
-of persons engaged in conversation; also the semicircular seat round
-the tribunal in a basilica.
-
-
-HĒMĬNA (ἡμίνα), the name of a Greek and Roman measure, seems to
-be nothing more than the dialectic form used by the Sicilian and
-Italian Greeks for ἡμίσυ. It was therefore applied to the half of the
-standard fluid measure, the ξέστης, which the other Greeks called
-κοτύλη, and the word passed into the Roman metrical system, where it
-is used with exactly the same force, namely for a measure which is
-half of the _sextarius_, and equal to the Greek _cotylé_.
-
-
-HENDĔCA (οἱ ἕνδεκα), the Eleven, were magistrates at Athens of
-considerable importance. They were annually chosen by lot, one from
-each of the ten tribes, and a secretary (γραμματεύς), who must
-properly be regarded as their servant (ὑπηρέτης), though he formed
-one of their number. The principal duty of the Eleven was the care
-and management of the public prison (δεσμωτήριον), which was entirely
-under their jurisdiction. The prison, however, was seldom used by
-the Athenians as a mere place of confinement, serving generally for
-punishments and executions. When a person was condemned to death he
-was immediately given into the custody of the Eleven, who were then
-bound to carry the sentence into execution according to the laws.
-The most common mode of execution was by hemlock juice (κώνειον),
-which was drunk after sunset. The Eleven had under them gaolers,
-executioners, and torturers. When torture was inflicted in causes
-affecting the state, it was either done in the immediate presence
-of the Eleven, or by their servant (ὁ δήμιος). The Eleven usually
-had only to carry into execution the sentence passed in the courts
-of law and the public assemblies; but in some cases they possessed
-jurisdiction. This was the case in those summary proceedings called
-_apagoge_, _ephegesis_ and _endeixis_, in which the penalty was
-fixed by law, and might be inflicted by the court on the confession
-or conviction of the accused, without appealing to any of the jury
-courts.
-
-HĒPHAESTEIA. [LAMPADEPHORIA.]
-
-
-HĒRAEA (ἡραῖα), the name of festivals celebrated in honour of Hera
-in all the towns of Greece where the worship of this divinity was
-introduced. The original seat of her worship was Argos; whence her
-festivals in other places were, more or less, imitations of those
-which were celebrated at Argos. Her service was performed by the
-most distinguished priestesses of the place; one of them was the
-high-priestess, and the Argives counted their years by the date of
-her office. The Heraea of Argos were celebrated every fifth year.
-One of the great solemnities which took place on the occasion, was
-a magnificent procession to the great temple of Hera, between Argos
-and Mycenae. A vast number of young men assembled at Argos, and
-marched in armour to the temple of the goddess. They were preceded
-by one hundred oxen (ἑκατόμβη, whence the festival is also called
-ἑκατόμβαια). The high-priestess accompanied this procession, riding
-in a chariot drawn by two white oxen. The 100 oxen were sacrificed,
-and their flesh distributed among all the citizens; after which
-games and contests took place. Of the Heraea celebrated in other
-countries, those of Samos, which island derived the worship of Hera
-from Argos, were perhaps the most brilliant of all the festivals
-of this divinity. The Heraea of Elis, which were celebrated in the
-fourth year of every Olympiad, were also conducted with considerable
-splendour.
-
-
-HĒRES.--(1) GREEK. To obtain the right of inheritance as well as
-citizenship at Athens (ἀγχιστεία and πολιτεία), legitimacy was a
-necessary qualification. When an Athenian died leaving legitimate
-sons, they shared the inheritance, like our heirs in gavelkind; the
-only advantage possessed by the eldest son being the first choice
-in the division. Every man of full age and sound mind, not under
-durance or improper influence, was competent to make a will; but if
-he had a son he could not disinherit him, although his will might
-take effect in case the son did not complete his seventeenth year.
-If there was but one son, he took the whole estate; but if he had
-sisters, it was incumbent on him to provide for them, and give them
-suitable marriage portions; they were then called ἐπίπροικοι. On
-failure of sons and their issue, daughters and daughters’ children
-succeeded, and there seems to have been no limit to the succession in
-the descending line. It will assist the student to be informed, that
-ἀνεψιός signifies a first cousin. Ἀνεψιαδοῦς is a first cousin’s son;
-formed in the same manner as ἀδελφιδοῦς from ἀδελφός, and θυγατριδοῦς
-from θυγατήρ. Κλῆρος is the subject-matter of inheritance, or (in one
-sense of the word) the inheritance; κληρόνομος the heir. Ἀγχιστεία,
-proximity of blood in reference to succession, and sometimes right of
-succession. Συγγένεια, natural consanguinity. Συγγενεῖς, collateral
-relations, are opposed to ἔκγονοι, lineal descendants.--(2) ROMAN. A
-person might become an heres by being named as such (_institutus_,
-_scriptus_, _factus_) in a will executed by a competent person,
-according to the forms required by law [TESTAMENTUM]. The testator
-might either name one person as heres, or he might name several
-heredes (_coheredes_), and he might divide the hereditas among
-them as he pleased. The shares of the heredes were generally
-expressed by reference to the divisions of the As: thus, “heres ex
-asse” is heres to the whole property; “heres ex dodrante,” heres
-to three-fourths; “heres ex semuncia,” heir to one twenty-fourth.
-If there were several heredes named, without any definite shares
-being given to them, the property belonged to them in equal shares.
-As a general rule, only Roman citizens could be named as heredes
-in the will of a Roman citizen; but a slave could also be named
-heres, though he had no power to make a will, and a filius-familias
-could also be named heres, though he was under the same incapacity.
-Persons, not Roman citizens, who had received the commercium, could
-take hereditates, legata and fideicommissa by testament.--Heredes
-were either Necessarii, Sui et Necessarii, or Extranei. The heres
-necessarius was a slave of the testator, who was made an heres and
-liber at the same time; and he was called necessarius, because of
-the necessity that he was under of accepting the hereditas. The
-heredes sui et necessarii were sons and daughters, and the sons
-and daughters of a son, who were in the power of a testator. These
-heredes sui were called necessarii, because of the necessity that
-they were under, according to the civil law, of taking the hereditas
-with its incumbrances. But the praetor permitted such persons to
-refuse the hereditas (_abstinere se ab hereditate_), and to allow
-the property to be sold to pay the testator’s debts; and he gave the
-same privilege to a mancipated son (_qui in causa mancipii est_). All
-other heredes are called extranei, and comprehend all persons who
-are not in the power of a testator, such as emancipated children. A
-certain time was allowed to extranei for the _cretio hereditatis_,
-that is, for them to determine whether they would take the hereditas
-or not: hence the phrase, “cernere hereditatem.”--If a man died
-intestate, the hereditas came to the heredes sui, and was then called
-_legitima hereditas_. If an intestate had no sui heredes, the Twelve
-Tables gave the hereditas to the agnati [COGNATI], and if there were
-no agnati, to the gentiles. If a man had a son in his power, he was
-bound either to make him heres, or to exheredate (_exheredare_) him
-expressly (_nominatim_). If he passed him over in silence (_silentio
-praetericrit_), the will was altogether void (_inutile_, _non jure
-factum_). Other liberi could be passed over, and the will would
-still be a valid will; but the liberi so passed over took a certain
-portion of the hereditas _adcrescendo_, as it was termed, or _jure
-adcrescendi_. It was necessary either to institute as heredes, or
-to exheredate posthumous children _nominatim_, otherwise the will,
-which was originally valid, became invalid (_ruptum_); and the will
-became invalid by the birth either of a posthumous son or daughter,
-or, as the phrase was, _adgnascendo rumpitur testamentum_. The heres
-represented the testator and intestate, and had not only a claim to
-all his property and all that was due to him, but was bound by all
-his obligations. He succeeded to the sacra privata, and was bound
-to maintain them, but only in respect of the property, for the
-obligation of the sacra privata was attached to property and to the
-heres only as the owner of it. Hence the expression “sine sacris
-hereditas” meant an hereditas unencumbered with sacra.
-
-
-HERMAE (ἑρμαῖ), and the diminutive Hermuli (ἑρμίδια), statues
-composed of a head, usually that of the god Hermes, placed on a
-quadrangular pillar, the height of which corresponds to the stature
-of the human body. Such statues were very numerous at Athens. So
-great was the demand for these works that the words ἑρμογλύφος,
-ἑρμογλυφικὴ τέχνη, and ἑρμογλυφεῖον, were used as the generic terms
-for a sculptor, his art, and his studio. Houses in Athens had one of
-these statues placed at the door, called ἑρμῆς στροφαῖος or στροφεύς;
-and sometimes also in the peristyle. The great reverence attached to
-them is shown by the alarm and indignation which were felt at Athens
-in consequence of the mutilation of the whole number in a single
-night, just before the sailing of the Sicilian expedition. They were
-likewise placed in front of temples, near to tombs, in the gymnasia,
-palaestrae, libraries, porticoes, and public places, at the corners
-of streets, on high roads as sign-posts, with distances inscribed
-upon them, and on the boundaries of lands and states, and at the
-gates of cities. Small Hermae were also used as pilasters, and as
-supports for furniture and utensils. Many statues existed of other
-deities, of the same form as the Hermae; which no doubt originated
-in the same manner; and which were still called by the generic name
-of _Hermae_; even though the bust upon them was that of another
-deity. Some statues of this kind are described by a name compounded
-of that of Hermes and another divinity: thus we have _Hermanubis_,
-_Hermares_, _Hermathena_, _Hermeracles_, _Hermeros_, _Hermopan_.
-There is another class of these works, in which the bust represented
-no deity at all, but was simply the portrait of a man. Even these
-statues, however, retained the names of _Hermae_ and _Termini_. The
-Hermae were used by the wealthy Romans for the decoration of their
-houses. The following engraving exhibits a Hermes decorated with
-garlands and surrounded with the implements of his worship.
-
-[Illustration: Hermes. (From a Bas-relief.)]
-
-
-HERMAEA (ἕρμαια), festivals of Hermes, celebrated in various parts
-of Greece. As Hermes was the tutelary deity of the gymnasia and
-palaestrae, the boys at Athens celebrated the Hermaea in the gymnasia.
-
-
-HESTIĀSIS (ἑστίασις), was a species of liturgy, and consisted in
-giving a feast to one of the tribes at Athens (τὴν φυλὴν ἑστιᾶν). It
-was provided for each tribe at the expense of a person belonging to
-that tribe, who was called ἑστιάτωρ.
-
-
-HĬĔRODŪLI (ἱερόδουλοι), persons of both sexes, who were devoted like
-slaves to the worship of the gods. They were of Eastern origin, and
-are most frequently met with in connection with the worship of the
-deities of Syria, Phoenicia, and Asia Minor. They consisted of two
-classes; one composed of slaves, properly so called, who attended
-to all the lower duties connected with the worship of the gods,
-cultivated the sacred lands, &c., and whose descendants continued
-in the same servile condition; and the other comprising persons who
-were personally free, but had dedicated themselves as slaves to the
-gods, and who were either attached to the temples, or were dispersed
-throughout the country and brought to the gods the money they had
-gained. To the latter class belonged the women, who prostituted their
-persons, and presented to the gods the money they had obtained by
-this means. This class was only found in Greece, in connection with
-the worship of those divinities who were of Eastern origin, or whose
-religious rites were borrowed from the East. This was the case with
-Aphrodite (Venus), who was originally an Oriental goddess.
-
-
-HĬĔRŎMNĒMŎNES (ἱερομνήμονες), the more honourable of the two classes
-of representatives who composed the Amphictyonic council. An account
-of them is given under AMPHICTYONES.--We also read of hieromnemones
-in Grecian states, distinct from the Amphictyonic representatives
-of this name. Thus the priests of Poseidon, at Megara, were called
-hieromnemones, and at Byzantium, which was a colony of Megara, the
-chief magistrate in the state appears to have been called by this
-name.
-
-
-HĬĔRŎNĪCAE. [ATHLETAE.]
-
-
-HĬĔRŎPOII (ἱεροποιοί), sacrificers at Athens, of whom ten were
-appointed every year, and conducted all the usual sacrifices, as well
-as those belonging to the quinquennial festivals, with the exception
-of those of the Panathenaea.
-
-
-HĬLĂRĬA (ἱλάρια), a Roman festival, celebrated on the 25th of March,
-in honour of Cybelé, the mother of the gods.
-
-
-HIPPŎBŎTAE (ἱπποβόται), the feeders of horses, the name of the
-nobility of Chalcis in Euboea, corresponding to the ἱππεῖς in other
-Greek states.
-
-
-HIPPŎDRŎMUS (ἱππόδρομος), the name by which the Greeks designated
-the place appropriated to the horse-races, both of chariots and of
-single horses, which formed a part of their games. The word was also
-applied to the races themselves. In Homer’s vivid description (_Il._
-xxiii., 262-650) the nature of the contest and the arrangements for
-it are very clearly indicated. There is no artificially constructed
-hippodrome; but an existing land-mark or monument (σῆμα) is chosen
-as the goal (τέρμα), round which the chariots had to pass, leaving
-it on the left hand, and so returning to the Greek ships on the
-sea-shore, from which they had started. The chariots were five in
-number, each with two horses and a single driver, who stood upright
-in his chariot. The critical point of the race was to turn the goal
-as sharp as possible, with the nave of the near wheel almost grazing
-it, and to do this safely: very often the driver was here thrown out,
-and the chariot broken in pieces. The account in Homer will give us
-an equally good idea of a chariot-race at Olympia, or in any other of
-the Greek games of later times. The general form of the hippodrome
-was an oblong, with a semicircular end. For an account of the chariot
-races at Rome see CIRCUS.
-
-
-HISTRĬO (ὑποκριτής), an actor.--(1) GREEK. It is shown in the
-articles CHORUS and DIONYSIA that the Greek drama originated in the
-chorus which at the festivals of Dionysus danced around his altar,
-and that at first one person detached himself from the chorus, and,
-with mimic gesticulation, related his story either to the chorus
-or in conversation with it. If the story thus acted required more
-than one person, they were all represented in succession by the same
-actor, and there was never more than one person on the stage at a
-time. This custom was retained by Thespis and Phrynichus. Aeschylus
-introduced a second and a third actor; and the number of three
-actors was but seldom exceeded in any Greek drama. The three regular
-actors were distinguished by the technical names of πρωταγωνιστής,
-δευτεραγωνιστής, and τριταγωνιστής, which indicated the more or
-less prominent part which an actor had to perform in the drama. The
-female characters of a play were always performed by young men.
-A distinct class of persons, who made acting on the stage their
-profession, was unknown to the Greeks during the period of their
-great dramatists. The earliest and greatest dramatic poets, Thespis,
-Sophocles, and probably Aeschylus also, acted in their own plays, and
-in all probability as protagonistae. It was not thought degrading
-in Greece to perform on the stage. At a later period persons began
-to devote themselves exclusively to the profession of actors, and
-distinguished individuals received even as early as the time of
-Demosthenes exorbitant sums for their performances.--(2) ROMAN. The
-word _histrio_, by which the Roman actor was called, is said to have
-been formed from the Etruscan _hister_, which signified a ludio or
-dancer. In the year 364 B.C. Rome was visited by a plague, and as
-no human means could stop it, the Romans are said to have tried to
-avert the anger of the gods by scenic plays (_ludi scenici_), which,
-until then, had been unknown to them; and as there were no persons at
-Rome prepared for such performances, the Romans sent to Etruria for
-them. The first histriones, who were thus introduced from Etruria,
-were dancers, and performed their movements to the accompaniment of
-a flute. Roman youths afterwards not only imitated these dancers,
-but also recited rude and jocose verses, adapted to the movements
-of the dance and the melody of the flute. This kind of amusement,
-which was the basis of the Roman drama, remained unaltered until the
-time of Livius Andronicus, who introduced a slave upon the stage for
-the purpose of singing or reciting the recitative, while he himself
-performed the appropriate dance and gesticulation. A further step in
-the development of the drama, which is likewise ascribed to Livius,
-was, that the dancer and reciter carried on a dialogue, and acted a
-story with the accompaniment of the flute. The name histrio, which
-originally signified a dancer, was now applied to the actors in
-the drama. The atellanae were played by freeborn Romans, while the
-regular drama was left to the histriones, who formed a distinct class
-of persons. The histriones were not citizens; they were not contained
-in the tribes, nor allowed to be enlisted as soldiers in the Roman
-legions; and if any citizen entered the profession of an histrio, he,
-on this account, was excluded from his tribe. The histriones were
-therefore always either freedmen, strangers, or slaves, and many
-passages of Roman writers show that they were generally held in great
-contempt. Towards the close of the republic it was only such men as
-Cicero, who, by their Greek education, raised themselves above the
-prejudices of their countrymen, and valued the person no less than
-the talents of an Aesopus and a Roscius. But notwithstanding this
-low estimation in which actors were generally held, distinguished
-individuals among them attracted immense crowds to the theatres, and
-were exorbitantly paid. Roscius alone received every day that he
-performed one thousand denarii, and Aesopus left his son a fortune of
-200,000 sesterces, which he had acquired solely by his profession.
-The pay of the actors was called _lucar_, which word was perhaps
-confined originally to the payment made to those who took part in the
-religious services celebrated in groves.
-
-
-HŎMOEI (ὅμοιοι), the Equals, were those Spartans who possessed the
-full rights of citizenship, and are opposed to the ὑπομείονες,
-or those who had undergone some kind of civil degradation. This
-distinction between the citizens was no part of the ancient Spartan
-constitution. In the institution ascribed to Lycurgus, every
-citizen had a certain portion of land; but as in course of time
-many citizens lost their lands through various causes, they were
-unable to contribute to the expenses of the syssitia, and therefore
-ceased to possess the full rights of Spartan citizens. Hence the
-distinction appears to have arisen between the ὅμοιοι and ὑπομείονες,
-the former being those who were in the possession of their land,
-and consequently able to contribute to the syssitia, the latter
-those who through having no land were unable to do so. The Homoei
-were the ruling class in the state. They filled all the public
-offices with the exception of the Ephoralty, and they probably met
-together to determine upon public affairs under the name of ἔκκλητοι
-in an assembly of their own, which is called ἡ μικρὰ ἐκκλησία,
-to distinguish it from the assembly of the whole body of Spartan
-citizens.
-
-
-HŎNŌRES, the high offices of the state to which qualified individuals
-were called by the votes of the Roman citizens. The words
-“magistratus” and “honores” are sometimes coupled together. The
-capacity of enjoying the honores was one of the distinguishing marks
-of citizenship. [CIVITAS.] _Honor_ was distinguished from _munus_.
-The latter was an office connected with the administration of the
-state, and was attended with cost (_sumptus_) but not with rank
-(_dignitas_). Honor was properly said _deferri, dari_; munus was said
-_imponi_. A person who held a magistrates might be said to discharge
-_munera_, but only as incident to the office, for the office itself
-was the _honor_. Such munera as these were public games and other
-things of the kind.
-
-
-HOPLĪTAE. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-HŌRA. [DIES.]
-
-
-HŌRŎLŎGĬUM (ὡρολόγιον), the name of the various instruments by means
-of which the ancients measured the time of the day and night. The
-earliest and simplest horologia of which mention is made, were called
-_polos_ (πόλος) and _gnomon_ (γνώμων). Both divided the day into
-twelve equal parts, and were a kind of sun-dial. The _gnomon_, which
-was also called _stoicheion_ (στοιχεῖον), was the more simple of the
-two, and probably the more ancient. It consisted of a staff or pillar
-standing perpendicular, in a place exposed to the sun (σκιάθηρον),
-so that the length of its shadow might be easily ascertained. The
-shadow of the gnomon was measured by feet, which were probably marked
-on the place where the shadow fell. In later times the name gnomon
-was applied to any kind of sun-dial, especially to its finger which
-threw the shadow, and thus pointed to the hour. The _polos_ or
-_heliotropion_ (ἡλιοτρόπιον), on the other hand, seems to have been a
-more perfect kind of sun-dial; but it appears, nevertheless, not to
-have been much used. It consisted of a basin (λεκανίς), in the middle
-of which the perpendicular staff or finger (γνώμων) was erected, and
-in it the twelve parts of the day were marked by lines.--Another
-kind of horologium, was the _clepsydra_ (κλεψύδρα). It derived its
-name from κλέπτειν and ὕδωρ, as in its original and simple form it
-consisted of a vessel with several little openings (τρυπήματα) at
-the bottom, through which the water contained in it escaped, as it
-were by stealth. This instrument seems at first to have been used
-only for the purpose of measuring the time during which persons were
-allowed to speak in the courts of justice at Athens. It was a hollow
-globe, probably somewhat flat at the top-part, where it had a short
-neck (αὐλός), like that of a bottle, through which the water was
-poured into it. This opening might be closed by a lid or stopper
-(πῶμα), to prevent the water running out at the bottom. As the time
-for speaking in the Athenian courts was thus measured by water, the
-orators frequently use the term ὕδωρ instead of the time allowed to
-them. An especial officer (ὁ ἐφ’ ὕδωρ) was appointed in the courts
-for the purpose of watching the clepsydra, and stopping it when any
-documents were read, whereby the speaker was interrupted. The time,
-and consequently the quantity of water allowed to a speaker, depended
-upon the importance of the case. The clepsydra used, in the courts of
-justice was, properly speaking, no horologium; but smaller ones, made
-of glass, and of the same simple structure, were undoubtedly used
-very early in families for the purposes of ordinary life, and for
-dividing the day into twelve equal parts. In these glass-clepsydrae
-the division into twelve parts must have been visible, either on the
-glass globe itself, or in the basin into which the water flowed.--The
-first horologium with which the Romans became acquainted was a
-sun-dial (_solarium_ or _horologium sciothericum_), and was said to
-have been brought to Rome by Papirius Cursor twelve years before the
-war with Pyrrhus. But as sun-dials were useless when the sky was
-cloudy, P. Scipio Nasica, in his censorship, 159 B.C., established a
-public clepsydra, which indicated the hours both of day and night.
-This clepsydra was in after times generally called solarium. After
-the time of Scipio Nasica several horologia, chiefly solaria, seem
-to have been erected in various public places at Rome. Clepsydrae
-were used by the Romans in their camps, chiefly for the purpose of
-measuring accurately the four vigiliae into which the night was
-divided. The custom of using clepsydrae as a check upon the speakers
-in the courts of justice at Rome, was introduced by a law of Cn.
-Pompeius, in his third consulship. Before that time the speakers had
-been under no restrictions, but spoke as long as they deemed proper.
-At Rome, as at Athens, the time allowed to the speakers depended upon
-the importance of the case.
-
-
-HORRĔUM (ὡρεῖον, σιτοφυλακεῖον, ἀποθήκη) was, according to its
-etymological signification, a place in which ripe fruits, and
-especially corn, were kept, and thus answered to our granary. During
-the empire the name horreum was given to any place destined for the
-safe preservation of things of any kind. Thus we find it applied
-to a place in which beautiful works of art were kept, to cellars
-(_horrea subterranea_, _horrea vinaria_), to depôts for merchandise,
-and all sorts of provisions (_horreum penarium_). Seneca even calls
-his library a horreum. But the more general application of the word
-horreum was to places for keeping fruit and corn; and as some kinds
-of fruit required to be kept more dry than others, the ancients had
-besides the horrea subterranea, or cellars, two other kinds, one of
-which was built like every other house upon the ground; but others
-(_horrea pensilia_ or _sublimia_) were erected above the ground,
-and rested upon posts or stone pillars, that the fruits kept in
-them might remain dry.--From about the year 140 after Christ, Rome
-possessed two kinds of public horrea. The one class consisted of
-buildings in which the Romans might deposit their goods, and even
-their money, securities, and other valuables. The second and more
-important class of horrea, which may be termed public granaries, were
-buildings in which a plentiful supply of corn was constantly kept at
-the expense of the state, and from which, in seasons of scarcity, the
-corn was distributed among the poor, or sold at a moderate price.
-
-
-HORTUS (κῆπος), garden. Our knowledge of the horticulture of the
-Greeks is very limited. In fact the Greeks seem to have had no
-great taste for landscape beauties, and the small number of flowers
-with which they were acquainted afforded but little inducement to
-ornamental horticulture. At Athens the flowers most cultivated
-were probably those used for making garlands, such as violets and
-roses. In the time of the Ptolemies the art of gardening seems to
-have advanced in the favourable climate of Egypt so far, that a
-succession of flowers was obtained all the year round. The Romans,
-like the Greeks, laboured under the disadvantage of a very limited
-flora. This disadvantage they endeavoured to overcome, by arranging
-the materials they did possess in such a way as to produce a striking
-effect. We have a very full description of a Roman garden in a letter
-of the younger Pliny, in which he describes his Tuscan villa. In
-front of the _porticus_ there was generally a _xystus_, or flat piece
-of ground, divided into flower-beds of different shapes by borders
-of box. There were also such flower-beds in other parts of the
-garden. Sometimes they were raised so as to form terraces, and their
-sloping sides planted with evergreens or creepers. The most striking
-features of a Roman garden were lines of large trees, among which
-the plane appears to have been a great favourite, planted in regular
-order; alleys or walks (_ambulationes_) formed by closely clipped
-hedges of box, yew, cypress, and other evergreens; beds of acanthus,
-rows of fruit-trees, especially of vines, with statues, pyramids,
-fountains, and summer-houses (_diaetae_). The trunks of the trees
-and the parts of the house or any other buildings which were visible
-from the garden, were often covered with ivy. In one respect the
-Roman taste differed most materially from that of the present day,
-namely, in their fondness for the _ars topiaria_, which consisted in
-tying, twisting, or cutting trees and shrubs (especially the box)
-into the figures of animals, ships, letters, &c. Their principal
-garden-flowers seem to have been violets and roses, and they also
-had the crocus, narcissus, lily, gladiolus, iris, poppy, amaranth,
-and others. Conservatories and hot-houses are frequently mentioned
-by Martial. Flowers and plants were also kept in the central place
-of the peristyle [DOMUS], on the roofs and in the windows of houses.
-An ornamental garden was also called _viridarium_, and the gardener
-_topiarius_ or _viridarius_. The common name for a gardener is
-villicus or cultor hortorum.
-
-[Illustration: Hortus, Garden. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)]
-
-
-HOSPĬTĬUM (ξενία, προξενία), hospitality, was in Greece, as well as
-at Rome, of a two-fold nature, either private or public, in so far as
-it was either established between individuals, or between two states.
-(_Hospitium privatum_ and _hospitium publicum_, ξενία and προξενία.)
-In ancient Greece the stranger, as such (ξένος and _hostis_), was
-looked upon as an enemy; but whenever he appeared among another tribe
-or nation without any sign of hostile intentions, he was considered
-not only as one who required aid, but as a suppliant, and Zeus was
-the protecting deity of strangers and suppliants (Ζεὺς ξένιος).
-On his arrival, therefore, the stranger was kindly received, and
-provided with every thing necessary to make him comfortable. It
-seems to have been customary for the host, on the departure of the
-stranger, to break a die (ἀστράγαλος) in two, one half of which he
-himself retained, while the other half was given to the stranger;
-and when at any future time they or their descendants met, they had
-a means of recognising each other, and the hospitable connection was
-renewed. Hospitality thus not only existed between the persons who
-had originally formed it, but was transferred as an inheritance from
-father to son. What has been said hitherto, only refers to _hospitium
-privatum_; but of far greater importance was the _hospitium publicum_
-(προξενία, sometimes simply ξενία) or public hospitality, which
-existed between two states, or between an individual or a family on
-the one hand, and a whole state on the other. Of the latter kind of
-public hospitality many instances are recorded, such as that between
-the Peisistratids and Sparta, in which the people of Athens had no
-share. The hospitium publicum among the Greeks arose undoubtedly from
-the hospitium privatum, and it may have originated in two ways. When
-the Greek tribes were governed by chieftains or kings, the private
-hospitality existing between the ruling families of two tribes may
-have produced similar relations between their subjects, which, after
-the abolition of the kingly power, continued to exist between the new
-republics as a kind of political inheritance of former times. Or a
-person belonging to one state might have either extensive connections
-with the citizens of another state, or entertain great partiality
-for the other state itself, and thus offer to receive all those who
-came from that state either on private or public business, and to
-act as their patron in his own city. This he at first did merely
-as a private individual, but the state to which he offered this
-kind service would naturally soon recognise and reward him for it.
-When two states established public hospitality, and no individuals
-came forward to act as the representatives of their state, it was
-necessary that in each state persons should be appointed to show
-hospitality to, and watch over the interests of, all persons who
-came from the state connected by hospitality. The persons who were
-appointed to this office as the recognised agents of the state
-for which they acted were called _proxeni_ (πρόξενοι), but those
-who undertook it voluntarily _etheloproxeni_ (ἐθελοπρόξενοι). The
-office of _proxenus_, which bears great resemblance to that of a
-modern consul or minister-resident, was in some cases hereditary in
-a particular family. When a state appointed a proxenus, it either
-sent out one of its own citizens to reside in the other state, or it
-selected one of the citizens of this state, and conferred upon him
-the honour of proxenus. The former was, in early times, the custom
-of Sparta, where the kings had the right of selecting from among the
-Spartan citizens those whom they wished to send out as proxeni to
-other states. But in subsequent times this custom seems to have been
-given up, for we find that at Athens the family of Callias were the
-proxeni of Sparta, and at Argos, the Argive Alciphron. The principal
-duties of a proxenus were to receive those persons, especially
-ambassadors, who came from the state which he represented; to procure
-for them admission to the assembly, and seats in the theatre; to
-act as the patron of the strangers, and to mediate between the two
-states if any disputes arose. If a stranger died in the state, the
-proxenus of his country had to take care of the property of the
-deceased.--The hospitality of the Romans was, as in Greece, either
-hospitium privatum or publicum. Private hospitality with the Romans,
-however, seems to have been more accurately and legally defined than
-in Greece. The character of a _hospes_, _i.e._ a person connected with
-a Roman by ties of hospitality, was deemed even more sacred, and to
-have greater claims upon the host, than that of a person connected by
-blood or affinity. The relation of a hospes to his Roman friend was
-next in importance to that of a cliens. The obligations which the
-connection of hospitality with a foreigner imposed upon a Roman, were
-to receive in his house his hospes when travelling; and to protect,
-and, in case of need, to represent him as his patron in the courts of
-justice. Private hospitality thus gave to the hospes the claims upon
-his host which the client had on his patron, but without any degree
-of the dependence implied in the clientele. Private hospitality
-was established between individuals by mutual presents, or by the
-mediation of a third person, and hallowed by religion; for Jupiter
-hospitalis was thought to watch over the jus hospitii, as Zeus xenios
-did with the Greeks, and the violation of it was as great a crime and
-impiety at Rome as in Greece. When hospitality was formed, the two
-friends used to divide between themselves a _tessera hospitalis_,
-by which, afterwards, they themselves or their descendants--for the
-connection was hereditary as in Greece--might recognise one another.
-Hospitality, when thus once established, could not be dissolved
-except by a formal declaration (_renuntiatio_), and in this case the
-tessera hospitalis was broken to pieces. Public hospitality seems
-likewise to have existed at a very early period among the nations
-of Italy; but the first direct mention of public hospitality being
-established between Rome and another city, is after the Gauls had
-departed from Rome, when it was decreed that Caere should be rewarded
-for its good services by the establishment of public hospitality
-between the two cities. The public hospitality after the war with the
-Gauls gave to the Caerites the right of isopolity with Rome, that is,
-the civitas without the suffragium and the honores. [COLONIA.] In
-the later times of the republic we no longer find public hospitality
-established between Rome and a foreign state; but a relation which
-amounted to the same thing was introduced in its stead, that is,
-towns were raised to the rank of municipia, and thus obtained the
-civitas without the suffragium and the honores; and when a town was
-desirous of forming a similar relation with Rome, it entered into
-clientela to some distinguished Roman, who then acted as patron of
-the client-town. But the custom of granting the honour of hospes
-publicus to a distinguished foreigner by a decree of the senate,
-seems to have existed down to the end of the republic. His privileges
-were the same as those of a municeps, that is, he had the civitas,
-but not the suffragium or the honores. Public hospitality was, like
-the hospitium privatum, hereditary in the family of the person to
-whom it had been granted.
-
-
-HỸĂCINTHĬA (ὑακίνθια), a great national festival, celebrated every
-year at Amyclae by the Amyclaeans and Spartans, probably in honour of
-the Amyclaean Apollo and Hyacinthus together. This Amyclaean Apollo,
-however, with whom Hyacinthus was assimilated in later times, must
-not be confounded with Apollo, the national divinity of the Dorians.
-The festival was called after the youthful hero Hyacinthus, who
-evidently derived his name from the flower hyacinth (the emblem of
-death among the ancient Greeks), and whom Apollo accidentally struck
-dead with a quoit. The Hyacinthia lasted for three days, and began
-on the longest day of the Spartan month Hecatombeus, at the time
-when the tender flowers, oppressed by the heat of the sun, drooped
-their languid heads. On the first and last day of the Hyacinthia
-sacrifices were offered to the dead, and the death of Hyacinthus was
-lamented. During these two days, nobody wore any garlands at the
-repasts, nor took bread, but only cakes and similar things, and when
-the solemn repasts were over, everybody went home in the greatest
-quiet and order. The second day, however, was wholly spent in public
-rejoicings and amusements, such as horse-races, dances, processions,
-&c. The great importance attached to this festival by the Amyclaeans
-and Lacedaemonians is seen from the fact, that the Amyclaeans, even
-when they had taken the field against an enemy, always returned home
-on the approach of the season of the Hyacinthia, that they might not
-be obliged to neglect its celebration; and that in a treaty with
-Sparta, B.C. 421, the Athenians, in order to show their good-will
-towards Sparta, promised every year to attend the celebration of this
-festival.
-
-
-HYBRĔŌS GRĂPHĒ (ὕβρεως γραφή), an action prescribed by the Attic law
-for wanton and contumelious injury to the person, whether in the
-nature of indecent (δι’ αἰσχρουργίας) or other assaults (διὰ πληγῶν).
-The severity of the sentence extended to confiscation or death.
-
-
-HYDRAULIS (ὕδραυλις), an hydraulic organ, invented by Ctesibius
-of Alexandria, who lived about B.C. 200. Its pipes were partly of
-bronze, and partly of reed. The number of its stops, and consequently
-of its rows of pipes, varied from one to eight. It continued in use
-so late as the ninth century of our era. The organ was well adapted
-to gratify the Roman people in the splendid entertainments provided
-for them by the emperors and other opulent persons. Nero was very
-curious about organs, both in regard to their musical effect and
-their mechanism. A contorniate coin of this emperor, in the British
-Museum, shows an organ with a sprig of laurel on one side, and a man
-standing on the other.
-
-[Illustration: Hydraulis, water-organ. (Coin of Nero in British
-Museum.)]
-
-
-HYDRĬAPHŎRĬA (ὑδριαφορία), was the carrying of a vessel with water
-(ὑδρία), which service the married alien (μέτοικοι) women had to
-perform to the married part of the female citizens of Athens, when
-they walked to the temple of Athena in the great procession at the
-Panathenaea.
-
-
-HỸPORCHĒMA (ὑπόρχημα), a lively kind of mimic dance which accompanied
-the songs used in the worship of Apollo, especially among the
-Dorians. A chorus of singers at the festivals of Apollo usually
-danced around the altar, while several other persons were appointed
-to accompany the action of the song with an appropriate mimic
-performance (ὑπορχεῖσθαι). The hyporchema was thus a lyric dance, and
-often passed into the playful and comic.
-
-
-
-
-IDUS. [CALENDARIUM.]
-
-
-IGNŌMĬNĬA. [CENSOR; INFAMIA.]
-
-
-IGNŌBĬLES. [NOBILES.]
-
-
-ĬMĀGO, a representation or likeness, an image or figure of a person.
-Among the Romans those persons, who had filled any of the higher or
-curule magistracies of the state, had the right of having images of
-themselves. Respecting this _jus imaginum_ see NOBILES.
-
-
-IMMŪNĬTAS (from _in_ and _munus_), signifies, (1) A freedom from
-taxes. (2) A freedom from services which other citizens had to
-discharge. With respect to the first kind of immunitas we find that
-the emperors frequently granted it to separate persons, or to certain
-classes of persons, or to whole states. The second kind of immunitas
-was granted to all persons who had a valid excuse (_excusatio_)
-to be released from such, services, and also to other persons as
-a special favour. The immunitas might be either general, from all
-services which a citizen owed to the state, or special, such as from
-military service, from taking the office of tutor or guardian, and
-the like.
-
-
-IMPĔRĀTOR. [IMPERIUM.]
-
-
-IMPĔRĬUM, was under the republic a power, without which no military
-operation could be carried on as in the name and on the behalf of the
-state. It was not incident to any office, and was always specially
-conferred by a lex curiata, that is, a lex passed in the comitia
-curiata. Consequently, not even a consul could act as commander of
-an army, unless he were empowered by a lex curiata. It could not be
-held or exercised within the city in the republican period; but it
-was sometimes conferred specially upon an individual for the day
-of his triumph within the city, and at least, in some cases, by a
-plebiscitum. As opposed to _potestas, imperium_ is the power which
-was conferred by the state upon an individual who was appointed to
-command an army. The phrases _consularis potestas_ and _consulare
-imperium_ might both be properly used; but the expression _tribunitia
-potestas_ only could be used, as the tribuni never received the
-imperium. In respect of his imperium, he who received it was styled
-_imperator_. After a victory it was usual for the soldiers to salute
-their commander as imperator, but this salutation neither gave nor
-confirmed the title, since the title as a matter of course was given
-with the imperium. Under the republic the title came properly after
-the name; thus Cicero, when he was proconsul in Cilicia, could
-properly style himself M. Tullius Cicero Imperator, for the term
-merely expressed that he had the imperium. The emperors Tiberius and
-Claudius refused to assume the praenomen of imperator, but the use
-of it as a praenomen became established among their successors. The
-term imperium was applied in the republican period to express the
-sovereignty of the Roman state. Thus Gaul is said by Cicero to have
-come under the imperium and ditio of the populus Romanus.
-
-
-IMPLŬVĬUM. [DOMUS.]
-
-
-IMPŪBES. An infans was incapable of doing any legal act. An impubes,
-who had passed the limits of infantia, could do any legal act with
-the auctoritas of his tutor. With the attainment of pubertas, a
-person obtained the full power over his property, and the tutela
-ceased: he could also dispose of his property by will; and he could
-contract marriage. Pubertas, in the case of a male, was attained
-with the completion of the fourteenth, and, in a female, with the
-completion of the twelfth year. Upon attaining the age of puberty a
-Roman youth assumed the toga virilis, but until that time he wore the
-toga praetexta, the broad purple hem of which (_praetexta_) at once
-distinguished him from other persons. The toga virilis was assumed
-at the Liberalia in the month of March, and though no age appears to
-have been positively fixed for the ceremony, it probably took place
-as a general rule on the feast which next followed the completion of
-the fourteenth year; though it is certain that the completion of the
-fourteenth year was not always the time observed. Still, so long as a
-male wore the praetexta, he was impubes, and when he assumed the toga
-virilis, he was pubes.
-
-
-INAUGŬRĀTĬO, was in general the ceremony by which the augurs
-obtained, or endeavoured to obtain, the sanction of the gods to
-something which had been decreed by man; in particular, however,
-it was the ceremony by which things or persons were consecrated
-to the gods, whence the terms _dedicatio_ and _consecratio_ were
-sometimes used as synonymous with inauguratio. Not only were priests
-inaugurated, but also the higher magistrates, who for this purpose
-were summoned by the augurs to appear on the capitol, on the third
-day after their election. This inauguratio conferred no priestly
-dignity upon the magistrates, but was merely a method of obtaining
-the sanction of the gods to their election, and gave them the right
-to take auspicia; and on important emergencies it was their duty to
-make use of this privilege.
-
-
-INAURIS, an ear-ring; called in Greek ἐνώτιον, because it was worn in
-the ear (οὗς), and ἐλλόβιον, because it was inserted into the lobe
-of the ear (λοβός), which was bored for the purpose. Ear-rings were
-worn by both sexes in oriental countries. Among the Greeks and Romans
-they were worn only by females. This ornament consisted of the ring
-(κρίκος), and of the drops (_stalagmia_). The ring was generally
-of gold, although the common people also wore ear-rings of bronze.
-Instead of a ring a hook was often used. The drops were sometimes of
-gold, very finely wrought, and sometimes of pearls.
-
-
-INCENDĬUM, the crime of setting any object on fire, by which
-the property of a man is endangered. A law of the Twelve Tables
-inflicted a severe punishment on the person who set fire to property
-maliciously (_sciens_, _prudens_); but if it was done by accident
-(_casu_, _id est_, _negligentia_), the law obliged the offender to
-repair the injury he had committed. Sulla, in his _Lex Cornelia
-de Sicariis_, punished malicious (_dolo malo_) incendium, but only
-in the city, or within a thousand paces of it, with aquae et ignis
-interdictio. Cn. Pompeius, in B.C. 52, made incendium a crime of
-_Vis_ by his _Lex Pompeia de Vi_, in consequence of the burning of
-the Curia and the Porcia Basilica on the burial of Clodius; and
-Julius Caesar also included it in his _Lex Julia de Vi_. Besides the
-two criminal prosecutions given by the Lex Cornelia and Lex Julia,
-a person could also bring actions to recover compensation for the
-injury done to his property.
-
-
-INCESTUM or INCESTUS. Incestum is non castum, and signifies generally
-all immoral and irreligious acts. In a narrower sense it denotes the
-unchastity of a Vestal, and sexual intercourse of persons within
-certain degrees of consanguinity. Incest with a Vestal was punished
-with the death of both parties. [VESTALES.]
-
-
-INCŪNĀBŬLA or CŪNABŬLA (σπάργανον), swaddling-clothes, in which a
-new-born child was wrapped. It was one of the peculiarities of the
-Lacedaemonian education to dispense with the use of incunabula, and
-to allow children to enjoy the free use of their limbs.
-
-[Illustration: Incunabula, swaddling-clothes. (From a Bas-relief at
-Rome.)]
-
-
-INDUTUS. [AMICTUS.]
-
-
-INFĀMĬA, was a consequence of condemnation for certain crimes,
-and also a direct consequence of certain acts, such as adultery,
-prostitution, appearing on the public stage as an actor, &c. A
-person who became _infamis_ lost the suffragium and honores, and
-was degraded to the condition of an aerarian. Infamia should be
-distinguished from the _Nota Censoria_, the consequence of which was
-only _ignominia_. [CENSOR.]
-
-
-INFANS, INFANTIA. In the Roman law there were several distinctions of
-age which were made with reference to the capacity for doing legal
-acts:--1. The first period was from birth to the end of the seventh
-year, during which time persons were called _Infantes_, or _Qui fari
-non possunt_. 2. The second period was from the end of seven years
-to the end of fourteen or twelve years, according as the person was
-a male or a female, during which persons were defined as those _Qui
-fari possunt_. The persons included in these first two classes were
-_Impuberes_. 3. The third period was from the end of the twelfth or
-fourteenth to the end of the twenty-fifth year, during which period
-persons were _Adolescentes_, _Adulti_. The persons included in these
-three classes were minores xxv annis or annorum, and were often,
-for brevity’s sake, called minores only [CURATOR]; and the persons
-included in the third and fourth class were _Puberes_. 4. The fourth
-period was from the age of twenty-five, during which persons were
-_Majores_.
-
-
-INFĔRĬAE. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-INFŬLA, a flock of white and red wool, which was slightly twisted,
-drawn into the form of a wreath or fillet, and used by the Romans for
-ornament on festive and solemn occasions. In sacrificing it was tied
-with a white band [VITTA] to the head of the victim and also of the
-priest.
-
-
-INGĔNŬI, were those freemen who were born free. Consequently,
-freedmen (_libertini_) were not ingenui, though the sons of libertini
-were ingenui; nor could a libertinus by adoption become ingenuus.
-The words _ingenuus_ and _libertinus_ are often opposed to one
-another; and the title of freeman (_liber_), which would comprehend
-_libertinus_, is sometimes limited by the addition of _ingenuus_
-(_liber et ingenuus_.) Under the empire a person, not ingenuus by
-birth, could be made ingenuus by the emperor.
-
-
-INJŪRĬA. _Injuria_, in the general sense, is opposed to _Jus_. In a
-special sense _injuria_ was done by striking or beating a man either
-with the hand or with anything; by abusive words (_convicium_); by
-the proscriptio bonorum, when the claimant knew that the alleged
-debtor was not really indebted to him; by libellous writings or
-verses; by soliciting a materfamilias, &c. The Twelve Tables had
-various provisions on the subject of Injuria. Libellous songs or
-verses were followed by capital punishment. In the case of a limb
-being mutilated the punishment was Talio. In the case of a broken
-bone, the penalty was 300 asses if the injury was done to a freeman,
-and 150 if it was done to a slave. In other cases the Tables fixed
-the penalty at 25 asses. These penalties were afterwards considered
-to be insufficient; and the injured person was allowed by the praetor
-to claim such damages as he thought that he was entitled to, and the
-judex might give the full amount or less. Infamia was a consequence
-of condemnation in an actio Injuriarum.
-
-
-ĪNŌA (ἰνῶα), festivals celebrated in several parts of Greece, in
-honour of Ino.
-
-
-INQUĬLĪNUS. [EXSILIUM.]
-
-
-INSTĬTA (περιπόδιον), a flounce; a fillet. The Roman matrons
-sometimes wore a broad fillet with ample folds, sewed to the bottom
-of the tunic and reaching to the instep. The use of it indicated a
-superior regard to decency and propriety of manners.
-
-
-INSŬLA was, properly, a house not joined to the neighbouring houses
-by a common wall. An insula, however, generally contained several
-separate houses, or at least separate apartments or shops, which
-were let to different families; and hence the word _domus_ under
-the emperors seems to be applied to the house where a family lived,
-whether it were an insula or not, and insula to any hired lodgings.
-
-
-INTERCESSĬO was the interference of a magistrates to whom an appeal
-[APPELLATIO] was made. The object of the intercessio was to put a
-stop to proceedings, on the ground of informality or other sufficient
-cause. Any magistratus might _intercedere_, who was of equal rank
-with or of rank superior to the magistratus from or against whom
-the appellatio was. Cases occur in which one of the praetors
-interposed (_intercessit_) against the proceedings of his colleague.
-The intercessio is most frequently spoken of with reference to
-the tribunes, who originally had not jurisdictio, but used the
-intercessio for the purpose of preventing wrong which was offered to
-a person in their presence. The intercessio of the tribunes of the
-plebs was auxilium, and it might be exercised either _in jure_ or
-_in judicio_. The tribune _qui intercessit_ could prevent a judicium
-from being instituted. The tribunes could also use the intercessio
-to prevent execution of a judicial sentence. A single tribune could
-effect this, and against the opinion of his colleagues.
-
-
-INTERCĪSI DĬES. [DIES.]
-
-
-INTERDICTUM. “In certain cases (_certis ex causis_) the praetor or
-proconsul, in the first instance (_principaliter_), exercises his
-authority for the termination of disputes. This he chiefly does
-when the dispute is about possession or quasi-possession; and the
-exercise of his authority consists in ordering something to be done,
-or forbidding something to be done. The formulae and the terms,
-which he uses on such occasions, are called either _interdicta_ or
-_decreta_. They are called _decreta_ when he orders something to be
-done, as when he orders something to be produced (_exhiberi_) or to
-be restored: they are called _interdicta_ when he forbids something
-to be done, as when he orders that force shall not be used against
-a person who is in possession rightfully (_sine vitio_), or that
-nothing shall be done on a piece of sacred ground. Accordingly all
-interdicta are either restitutoria, or exhibitoria, or prohibitoria.”
-This passage, which is taken from Gaius, the Roman jurist, contains
-the essential distinction between an _actio_ and an _interdictum_.
-In the case of an actio, the praetor pronounces no order or decree,
-but he gives a judex, whose business it is to investigate the
-matter in dispute, and to pronounce a sentence consistently with
-the formula, which is his authority for acting. In the case of an
-actio, therefore, the praetor neither orders nor forbids a thing to
-be done, but he says, _Judicium dabo_. In the case of an interdict,
-the praetor makes an order that something shall be done or shall not
-be done, and his words are accordingly words of command; _Restituas,
-Exhibeas, Vim fieri veto_. This _immediate_ interposition of the
-praetor is appropriately expressed by the word _principaliter_.
-
-
-INTERPRES, an interpreter. This class of persons became very numerous
-and necessary to the Romans as their empire extended. In large
-mercantile towns the interpreters, who formed a kind of agents
-through whom business was done, were sometimes very numerous. All
-Roman praetors, proconsuls, and quaestors, who were entrusted with
-the administration of a province, had to carry on all their official
-proceedings in the Latin language, and as they could not be expected
-to be acquainted with the language of the provincials, they had
-always among their servants [APPARITORES] one or more interpreters,
-who were generally Romans, but in most cases undoubtedly freedmen.
-These interpreters had not only to officiate at the conventus
-[CONVENTUS], but also explained to the Roman governor everything
-which the provincials might wish to be laid before him.
-
-
-INTERREGNUM. [INTERREX.]
-
-
-INTERREX. This office is said to have been instituted on the death of
-Romulus, when the senate wished to share the sovereign power among
-themselves, instead of electing a king. For this purpose, according
-to Livy, the senate, which then consisted of one hundred members,
-was divided into ten decuries; and from each of these decuries one
-senator was nominated. These together formed a board of ten, with the
-title of _Interreges_, each of whom enjoyed in succession the regal
-power and its badges for five days; and if no king was appointed at
-the expiration of fifty days, the rotation began anew. The period
-during which they exercised their power was called an _Interregnum_.
-These ten interreges were the _Decem Primi_, or ten leading senators,
-of whom the first was chief of the whole senate. The interreges
-agreed among themselves who should be proposed as king, and if the
-senate approved of their choice, they summoned the assembly of the
-curiae, and proposed the person whom they had previously agreed
-upon; the power of the curiae was confined to accepting or rejecting
-him. Interreges were appointed under the republic for holding the
-comitia for the election of the consuls, when the consuls, through
-civil commotions or other causes, had been unable to do so in their
-year of office. Each held the office for only five days, as under
-the kings. The comitia were hardly ever held by the first interrex;
-more usually by the second or third; but in one instance we read of
-an eleventh, and in another of a fourteenth interrex. The interreges
-under the republic, at least from B.C. 482, were elected by the
-senate from the whole body, and were not confined to the decem primi
-or ten chief senators, as under the kings. Plebeians, however, were
-not admissible to this office; and consequently, when plebeians were
-admitted into the senate, the patrician senators met without the
-plebeian members to elect an interrex. For this reason, as well as on
-account of the influence which the interrex exerted in the election
-of the magistrates, we find that the tribunes of the plebs were
-strongly opposed to the appointment of an interrex. The interrex had
-jurisdictio. Interreges continued to be appointed occasionally till
-the time of the second Punic war, but after that time we read of no
-interrex, till the senate, by command of Sulla, created an interrex
-to hold the comitia for his election as dictator, B.C. 82. In B.C. 55
-another interrex was appointed, to hold the comitia in which Pompey
-and Crassus were elected consuls; and we also read of interreges in
-B.C. 53 and 52, in the latter of which years an interrex held the
-comitia in which Pompey was appointed sole consul.
-
-
-ISTHMĬA (ἴσθμια), the Isthmian games, one of the four great national
-festivals of the Greeks. This festival derived its name from the
-Corinthian isthmus, where it was held. Subsequent to the age of
-Theseus the Isthmia were celebrated in honour of Poseidon; and this
-innovation is ascribed to Theseus himself. The celebration of the
-Isthmia was conducted by the Corinthians, but Theseus had reserved
-for his Athenians some honourable distinctions: those Athenians who
-attended the Isthmia sailed across the Saronic gulf in a sacred
-vessel (θεωρίς), and an honorary place (προεδρία), as large as the
-sail of their vessel, was assigned to them during the celebration
-of the games. In times of war between the two states a sacred truce
-was concluded, and the Athenians were invited to attend at the
-solemnities. These games were celebrated regularly every other year,
-in the first and third years of each Olympiad. After the fall of
-Corinth, in 146 B.C., the Sicyonians were honoured with the privilege
-of conducting the Isthmian games; but when the town of Corinth was
-rebuilt by Julius Caesar, the right of conducting the solemnities
-was restored to the Corinthians. The season of the Isthmian
-solemnities was, like that of all the great national festivals,
-distinguished by general rejoicings and feasting. The contests and
-games of the Isthmia were the same as those at Olympia, and embraced
-all the varieties of athletic performances, such as wrestling,
-the pancratium, together with horse and chariot racing. Musical
-and poetical contests were likewise carried on, and in the latter
-women were also allowed to take part. The prize of a victor in the
-Isthmian games consisted at first of a garland of pine-leaves, and
-afterwards of a wreath of ivy. Simple as such a reward was, a victor
-in these games gained the greatest distinction and honour among
-his countrymen; and a victory not only rendered the individual who
-obtained it a subject of admiration, but shed lustre over his family,
-and the whole town or community to which he belonged. Hence Solon
-established by a law, that every Athenian who gained the victory at
-the Isthmian games should receive from the public treasury a reward
-of one hundred drachmae. His victory was generally celebrated in
-lofty odes, called Epinikia, or triumphal odes, of which we still
-possess some beautiful specimens among the poems of Pindar.
-
-
-
-
-JĂCŬLUM. [HASTA.]
-
-
-JĀNŬA (θύρα), a door. Besides being applicable to the doors of
-apartments in the interior of a house, which were properly called
-_ostia_, this term more especially denoted the first entrance into
-the house, _i.e._ the front or street door, which was also called
-_anticum_, and in Greek θύρα αὔλειος, αὐλεία, αὔλιος, or αὐλία. The
-houses of the Romans commonly had a back door, called _posticum_,
-_postica_, or _posticula_, and in Greek παράθυρα, _dim._ παραθύριον.
-The door-way, when complete, consisted of four indispensable
-parts; the threshold, or sill (_limen_, βηλός, οὖδας); the lintel
-(_jugumentum, limen superum_); and the two jambs (_postes_, σταθμοί).
-The door itself was called _foris_ or _valva_, and in Greek σανίς,
-κλισιάς, or θύρετρον. These words are commonly found in the plural,
-because the door-way of every building of the least importance
-contained two doors folding together. When _foris_ is used in the
-singular, it denotes one of the folding doors only. The fastenings
-of the door (_claustra_, _obices_) commonly consisted of a bolt
-(_pessulus_; μάνδαλος, κατοχεύς, κλεῖθρον) placed at the base of each
-_foris_, so as to admit of being pushed into a socket made in the
-sill to receive it. By night, the front-door of the house was further
-secured by means of a wooden and sometimes an iron bar (_sera_,
-_repagula_, μοχλός) placed across it, and inserted into sockets on
-each side of the door-way. Hence it was necessary to remove the bar
-(τὸν μοχλὸν παράφερειν) in order to open the door (_reserare_). It
-was considered improper to enter a house without giving notice to its
-inmates. This notice the Spartans gave by shouting; the Athenians and
-all other nations by using the knocker, or more commonly by rapping
-with the knuckles or with a stick (κρούειν, κόπτειν). In the houses
-of the rich a porter (_janitor_, _custos_, θυρωρός) was always in
-attendance to open the door. He was commonly an eunuch or a slave,
-and was chained to his post. To assist him in guarding the entrance,
-a dog was universally kept near it, being also attached by a chain
-to the wall; and in reference to this practice, the warning _cave
-canem_, εὐλαβοῦ τὴν κύνα, was sometimes written near the door. The
-appropriate name for the portion of the house immediately behind the
-door (θυρών) denotes that it was a kind of apartment; it corresponded
-to the hall or lobby of our houses. Immediately adjoining it, and
-close to the front door, there was in many houses a small room for
-the porter.
-
-
-JENTĀCŬLUM. [COENA.]
-
-
-JŪDEX, JŪDĬCĬUM. A Roman magistratus generally did not investigate
-the facts in dispute in such matters as were brought before him:
-he appointed a judex for that purpose, and gave him instructions.
-[ACTIO.] Accordingly, the whole of civil procedure was expressed
-by the two phrases _Jus_ and _Judicium_, of which the former
-comprehended all that took place before the magistratus (_in
-jure_), and the latter all that took place before the judex (_in
-judicio_). In many cases a single judex was appointed: in others,
-several were appointed, and they seem to have been sometimes
-called recuperatores, as opposed to the single judex. Under certain
-circumstances the judex was called arbiter: thus judex and arbiter
-are named together in the Twelve Tables. A judex when appointed was
-bound to discharge the functions of the office, unless he had some
-valid excuse (_excusatio_). There were certain seasons of the year
-when legal business was done at Rome, and at these times the services
-of the judices were required. These legal terms were regulated
-according to the seasons, so that there were periods of vacation.
-When the judex was appointed, the proceedings _in jure_ or before the
-praetor were terminated. The parties appeared before the judex on
-the third day (_comperendinatio_), unless the praetor had deferred
-the judicium for some sufficient reason. The judex was generally
-aided by advisers (_jurisconsulti_) learned in the law, who were
-said _in consilio adesse_; but the judex alone was empowered to give
-judgment. The matter was first briefly stated to the judex (_causae
-conjectio, collectio_), and the advocates of each party supported
-his cause in a speech. Witnesses were produced on both sides, and
-examined orally: the witnesses on one side were also cross-examined
-by the other. After all the evidence was given and the advocates had
-finished, the judex gave sentence: if there were several judices, a
-majority decided. If the matter was one of difficulty, the hearing
-might be adjourned as often as was necessary (_ampliatio_); and if
-the judex could not come to a satisfactory conclusion, he might
-declare this upon oath, and so release himself from the difficulty.
-This was done by the form of words _non liquere_ (N. L.). The
-sentence was pronounced orally, and was sometimes first written on a
-tablet. If the defendant did not make his appearance after being duly
-summoned, judgment might be given against him.--According to Cicero,
-all judicia had for their object, either the settlement of disputes
-between individuals (_controversiae_), or the punishment of crimes
-(_maleficia_). This refers to a division of judicia, which appears
-in the jurists, into _judicia publica_ and _judicia privata_. The
-former, the _judicia publica_, succeeded to the _judicia populi_ of
-the early republican period: the latter were so called because in
-them the populus acted as judices. Originally the kings presided in
-all criminal cases, and the consuls succeeded to their authority. But
-after the passing of the Lex Valeria (B.C. 507), which gave an appeal
-to the populus (that is, the comitia curiata) from the magistratus,
-the consul could not sit in judgment on the caput of a Roman
-citizen, but such cases were tried in the comitia, or persons were
-appointed to preside at such inquiries, who were accordingly called
-_Quaesitores_ or _Quaestores parricidii_ or _rerum capitalium_. In
-course of time, as such cases became of more frequent occurrence,
-such quaestiones were made perpetual, that is, particular magistrates
-were appointed for the purpose. It was eventually determined,
-that while the _praetor urbanus_ and _peregrinus_ should continue
-to exercise their usual jurisdictions, the other praetors should
-preside at public trials. In such trials any person might be an
-accuser (_accusator_). The praetor generally presided as quaesitor,
-assisted by a judex quaestionis, and a body of judices called his
-consilium. The judices were generally chosen by lot out of those who
-were qualified to act; but in some cases the accuser and the accused
-(_reus_) had the privilege of choosing (_edere_) a certain number of
-judices out of a large number, who were thence called _Edititii_.
-Both the accusator and the reus had the privilege of rejecting or
-challenging (_rejicere_) such judices as they did not like. In many
-cases a lex was passed for the purpose of regulating the mode of
-procedure.--The judices voted by ballot, at least generally, and a
-majority determined the acquittal or condemnation of the accused.
-Each judex was provided with three tablets (_tabulae_), on one of
-which was marked A, _Absolvo_; on a second C, _Condemno_; and on
-a third N. L., _Non liquet_. The judices voted by placing one of
-these tablets in the urns, which were then examined for the purpose
-of ascertaining the votes. It was the duty of the magistratus to
-pronounce the sentence of the judices; in the case of condemnation,
-to adjudge the legal penalty; of acquittal, to declare the accused
-acquitted; and of doubt, to declare that the matter must be further
-investigated (_amplius cognoscendum_).--A _judicium populi_, properly
-so called, was one in which the case was tried in the comitia
-curiata, but afterwards in the comitia centuriata and tributa.
-The accuser, who must be a magistratus, commenced by declaring in
-a contio that he would on a certain day accuse a certain person,
-whom he named, of some offence, which he also specified. This was
-expressed by the phrase _diem dicere_. If the offender held any
-high office, it was necessary to wait till his time of service had
-expired, before proceedings could be thus commenced against him. The
-accused was required to give security for his appearance on the day
-of trial; the security was called _vades_ in a causa capitalis, and
-_praedes_ when the penalty for the alleged offence was pecuniary. If
-such security was not given, the accused was kept in confinement. If
-nothing prevented the inquiry from taking place at the time fixed for
-it, the trial proceeded, and the accuser had to prove his case by
-evidence. The investigation of the facts was called _anquisitio_ with
-reference to the proposed penalty: accordingly, the phrases _pecunia,
-capite_ or _capitis anquirere_, are used. When the investigation was
-concluded, the magistratus promulgated a rogatio, which comprehended
-the charge and the punishment or fine. It was a rule of law that a
-fine should not be imposed together with another punishment in the
-same rogatio. The rogatio was made public during three nundinae, like
-any other lex, and proposed at the comitia for adoption or rejection.
-The accused sometimes withdrew into exile before the votes were
-taken; or he might make his defence. The offences which were the
-chief subject of judicia populi and publica were majestas, adulteria
-and stupra, parricidium, falsum, vis publica and privata, peculatus,
-repetundae, ambitus.--With the passing of special enactments for
-the punishment of particular offences, was introduced the practice
-of forming a body of judices for the trial of such offences as the
-enactments were directed against. The _Album Judicum_ was the body
-out of which judices were to be chosen. It is not known what was
-the number of the body so constituted, but it has been conjectured
-that the number was 350, and that ten were chosen from each tribe,
-and thus the origin of the phrase _Decuriae Judicum_ is explained.
-It is easy to conceive that the judicia populi, properly so called,
-would be less frequent, as special leges were framed for particular
-offences, the circumstances of which could be better investigated
-by a smaller body of judices than by the assembled people. The Lex
-Servilia (B.C. 104) enacted that the judices should not be under
-thirty nor above sixty years of age, that the accuser and accused
-should severally propose one hundred judices, and that each might
-reject fifty from the list of the other, so that one hundred would
-remain for the trial. Up to B.C. 122 the judices were always
-senators, but in this year the Sempronia Lex of C. Gracchus took the
-judicia from the senators and gave them to the equites. This state
-of things lasted nearly fifty years, till Sulla (B.C. 80) restored
-the judicia to the senate, and excluded the equites from the album
-judicum. A Lex Aurelia (B.C. 70) enacted that the judices should be
-chosen from the three classes--of senators, equites, and tribuni
-aerarii; and accordingly the judicia were then said to be divided
-between the senate and the equites. The tribuni aerarii were taken
-from the rest of the citizens, and were, or ought to have been,
-persons of some property. Thus the three decuriae of judices were
-formed; and it was either in consequence of the Lex Aurelia or the
-Lex Fufia that, instead of one urn for all the tablets, the decuriae
-had severally their balloting urn, so that the votes of the three
-classes were known. It is not known if the Lex Aurelia determined the
-number of judices in any given case. The Lex Pompeia de Vi and De
-Ambitu (B.C. 52) determined that eighty judices were to be selected
-by lot, out of whom the accuser and the accused might reject thirty.
-In the case of Clodius, in the matter of the Bona Dea, there were
-fifty-six judices. It is conjectured that the number fixed for a
-given case, by the Lex Aurelia, was seventy judices. Augustus added
-to the existing three decuriae judicum a fourth decuria, called that
-of the _Ducenarii_, who had a lower pecuniary qualification, and only
-decided in smaller matters. Caligula added a fifth decuria, in order
-to diminish the labours of the judices.
-
-
-JŪGĔRUM, a Roman measure of surface, 240 feet in length and 120 in
-breadth, containing therefore 28,800 square feet. It was the double
-of the _Actus Quadratus_, and from this circumstance, according to
-some writers, it derived its name. [ACTUS.] The uncial division [AS]
-was applied to the _jugerum_, its smallest part being the _scrupulum_
-of 10 feet square, = 100 square feet. Thus the _jugerum_ contained
-288 scrupula. The jugerum was the common measure of land among the
-Romans. Two _jugera_ formed an _heredium_, a hundred _heredia_ a
-_centuria_, and four _centuriae_ a _saltus_. These divisions were
-derived from the original assignment of landed property, in which two
-_jugera_ were given to each citizen as heritable property.
-
-
-JŬGUM (ζυγός, ζυγόν), signified in general that which joined two
-things together, such as the transverse beam which united the upright
-posts of a loom, the cross-bar of a lyre, a scale-beam, &c., but
-it denoted more especially the yoke by which ploughs and carriages
-were drawn. The following woodcut shows two examples of the yoke:
-the upper one is provided with two collars, the lower one with
-excavations cut in the yoke, in order to give more ease and freedom
-to the animals. The latter figure shows the method of tying the
-yoke to the pole (_temo_, ῥυμός) by means of a leathern strap. The
-word jugum is often used to signify _slavery_, or the condition in
-which men are compelled, against their will, like oxen or horses, to
-labour for others. Hence, to express symbolically the subjugation
-of conquered nations, the Romans made their captives pass under a
-yoke (_sub jugum mittere_), which, however, was not made like the
-yoke used in drawing carriages or ploughs, but consisted of a spear
-supported transversely by two others placed upright.
-
-[Illustration: Jugum, yoke.]
-
-
-JŪRISCONSULTI or JŪRĔCONSULTI arose among the Romans after the
-separation of the Jus Civile from the Jus Pontificium. Such a body
-certainly existed before the time of Cicero, and the persons who
-professed to expound the law were called by the various names of
-_jurisperiti_, _jurisconsulti_, or _consulti_ simply. They were also
-designated by other names, as _jurisprudentes_, _prudentiores_,
-_peritiores_, and _juris auctores_. The business of the early
-jurisconsulti consisted both in advising and acting on behalf of
-their clients (_consultores_) gratuitously. They gave their advice
-or answers (_responsa_) either in public places which they attended
-at certain times, or at their own houses; and not only on matters
-of law, but on any thing else that might be referred to them. The
-words _scribere_ and _cavere_ referred to their employment in
-drawing up formal instruments, such as contracts or wills, &c. At a
-later period, many of these functions were performed by persons who
-were paid by a fee, and thus there arose a body of practitioners
-distinct from those who gave responsa and who were writers and
-teachers. Tiberius Coruncanius, a plebeian, who was consul B.C. 281,
-and also the first plebeian Pontifex Maximus, is mentioned as the
-first who publicly professed (_publice professus est_), and he was
-distinguished both for his knowledge of the law and his eloquence.
-
-
-JŪRISDICTIO, signifies generally the authority of the magistrate “qui
-jus dicit,” and is mostly applied to the authority of the praetor in
-civil cases, such as the giving of the formula in an actio and the
-appointment of a judex. [ACTIO.]
-
-
-JŪS. The law peculiar to the Roman state is sometimes called _Jus
-Civile Romanorum_, but more frequently _Jus Civile_ only. The _Jus
-Quiritium_ is equivalent to the _Jus Civile Romanorum_. The _jus
-civil_e of the Romans is divisible into two parts, _jus civile_ in
-the narrower sense, and _jus pontificium_, or the law of religion.
-This opposition is sometimes expressed by the words _Jus_ and _Fas_.
-The law of religion, or the _Jus Pontificium_, was under the control
-of the pontifices, who in fact originally had the control of the
-whole mass of the law; and it was only after the separation of the
-jus civile in its wider sense into the two parts of the jus civile,
-in its narrower sense, and the jus pontificium, that each part had
-its proper and peculiar limits. Still, even after the separation,
-there was a mutual relation between these two branches of law; for
-instance, an adrogatio was not valid by the jus civile unless it was
-valid by the jus pontificium. Again, jus pontificium, in its wider
-sense, as the law of religion, had its subdivisions, as into jus
-augurum, pontificium, &c.
-
-
-JŪS CĪVĪLE. [JUS.]
-
-
-JŪS LĂTĪI. [CIVITAS; LATINITAS.]
-
-
-JUS PONTĬFĬCĬUM. [JUS.]
-
-
-JUS QUĬRĪTĬUM. [JUS.]
-
-
-JUSJŪRANDUM (ὅρκος), an oath. (1) GREEK. An oath is an appeal to
-some superior being, calling on him to bear witness that the swearer
-speaks the truth, or intends to perform the promise which he makes.
-We find early mention in the Greek writers of oaths being taken
-on solemn and important occasions, as treaties, alliances, vows,
-compacts, and agreements, both between nations and individuals.
-The Greeks paid high regard to the sanctity of oaths. The poets
-frequently allude to the punishment of perjury after death, which
-they assign to the infernal gods or furies, and we find many proofs
-of a persuasion that perjurers would not prosper in this world.
-Anciently the person who took an oath stood up, and lifted his hands
-to heaven, as he would in prayer; for an oath was a species of
-prayer, and required the same sort of ceremony. Oaths were frequently
-accompanied with sacrifice or libation. The parties used also to
-lay their hands upon the victims, or on the altar or some other
-sacred thing, as if by so doing they brought before them the deity
-by whom the oath was sworn, and made him witness of the ceremony.
-Hence the expressions πρὸς τὸν βωμὸν ἐξορκίζειν, ὀμνύναι καθ’
-ἱερῶν. The hand especially was regarded as a pledge of fidelity,
-and the allusions to the junction of hands in making contracts and
-agreements abound in the ancient writers. The different nations of
-Greece swore by their own peculiar gods and heroes; as the Thebans
-by Hercules, Iolaus, &c., the Lacedaemonians by Castor and Pollux,
-the Corinthians by Poseidon; the Athenians swore principally by Zeus,
-Athena, Apollo (their πατρῷος θεὸς), Demeter, and Dionysus. The
-office or character of the party, or the place, or the occasion often
-suggested the oath to be taken. As swearing became a common practice
-with men upon trivial occasions, and in ordinary conversation, they
-used to take oaths by any god, person, or thing, as their peculiar
-habits or predilections, or the fancy of the moment, dictated. Women
-also had their favourite oaths. As the men preferred swearing by
-Hercules, Apollo, &c., so the other sex used to swear by Aphrodite,
-Demeter, and Persephone, Hera, Hecate, Artemis; and Athenian women by
-Aglauros, Pandrosus, &c.--(2) ROMAN. I. _Oaths taken by magistrates
-and other persons who entered the service of the republic._--After
-the establishment of the republic the consuls, and subsequently all
-the other magistrates, were obliged, within five days after their
-appointment, to promise on oath that they would protect and observe
-the laws of the republic (_in leges jurare_). Vestal virgins and the
-flamen dialis were not allowed to swear on any occasion. During the
-later period of the republic we also find that magistrates, when the
-time of their office had expired, addressed the people and swore that
-during their office they had undertaken nothing against the republic,
-but had done their utmost to promote its welfare. All Roman soldiers
-after they were enlisted for a campaign, had to take the military
-oath (_sacramentum_). It may here be remarked that any oath might be
-taken in two ways: the person who took it, either framed it himself,
-or it was put to him in a set form, and in this case he was said
-in _verba jurare_, or _jurare verbis conceptis_.--II. _Oaths taken
-in transactions with foreign nations in the name of the republic._
-According to the most ancient form the pater patratus pronounced
-the oath in the name of his country, and struck the victim with a
-flint-stone, calling on Jupiter to destroy the Roman nation in like
-manner, as he (the pater patratus) destroyed the animal, if the
-people should violate the oath. The chiefs or priests of the other
-nation then swore in a similar manner by their own gods. In swearing
-to a treaty with a foreign nation, a victim (a pig or a lamb) was
-in the early times always sacrificed by the fetialis (whence the
-expressions _foedus icere_, ὅρκια τέμνειν), and the priest while
-pronouncing the oath probably touched the victim or the altar. The
-jus fetiale, however, fell into disuse as the Romans extended their
-conquests; and as in most cases of treaties with foreign nations, the
-Romans were not the party that chose to promise anything on oath, we
-hear no more of oaths on their part. At first the Romans were very
-scrupulous in observing their oaths in contracts or treaties with
-foreigners, and even with enemies; but from the third Punic war to
-the end of the republic, perjury was common among the Romans in their
-dealings with foreigners as well as among themselves.--III. _Oaths or
-various modes of swearing in common life._ The practice of swearing
-in ordinary conversations, was as common among the Romans as among
-the Greeks. The forms used were sometimes simple invocations of one
-or more gods, as _Hercle_ or _Mehercle_, that is, ita me Hercules
-juvet, amet, or servet; _Pol_, _Perpol_ or _Aedepol_, that is, per
-Pollucem; _per Jovem Lapidem_ or simply _per Jovem_; _per superos_;
-_per deos immortales_; _medius fidius_, that is, ita me Dius (Δίος)
-filius juvet; _ita me deus amet_, or _dii ament_. Women as well as
-men swore by most of the gods; but some oaths were peculiar to one
-of the sexes. Thus women never swore by Hercules, and men never by
-Castor. Sometimes oaths were accompanied with an execration, in case
-the swearer was stating a falsehood: as _Dii me perdant_; _dii me
-interficiant_; _dispeream_; _ne vivam_; _ne salvus sim_, &c.--IV.
-_Oaths taken before the praetor or in courts of justice._ There might
-be a _jusjurandum_ either _in jure_ or _in judicio_. The _jusjurandum
-in jure_ is the oath which one party proposed to his adversary
-(_detulit_) that he should make about the matter in dispute; and
-the effect of the oath being taken or refused was equivalent to a
-judicium. The _jusjurandum in judicio (jusjurandum judiciale)_ was
-required by the judex, and not by either of the parties, though
-either of the parties might suggest it.
-
-
-JUSTĬTĬUM, a cessation of public business of every kind. Thus the
-courts of law and the treasury were shut up, no ambassadors were
-received in the senate, and no auctions took place. The _Justitium_
-was proclaimed (_edicere_, _indicere_) by the senate and the
-magistrates in times of public alarm and danger; and after confidence
-and tranquillity had been restored, the Justitium was removed
-(_remittere_, _exuere_) by the same authorities. As such times of
-alarm are usually accompanied with general sorrow, a _Justitium_
-came in course of time to be ordained as a mark of public mourning,
-and under the empire was only employed for this reason.
-
-
-JŬVĔNĀLĬA, or JŬVĔNĀLES LŪDI, scenic games instituted by Nero, in
-A.D. 59, in commemoration of his shaving his beard for the first
-time, thus intimating that he had passed from youth to manhood. He
-was then in the twenty-second year of his age. These games were not
-celebrated in the circus, but in a private theatre erected in a
-pleasure-ground (_nemus_), and consisted of every kind of theatrical
-performance, Greek and Roman plays, mimetic pieces, and the like. The
-Juvenalia continued to be celebrated by subsequent emperors, but not
-on the same occasion. The name was given to those games which were
-exhibited by the emperors on the 1st of January in each year. They no
-longer consisted of scenic representations, but of chariot races and
-combats of wild beasts.
-
-
-
-
-LĂBĂRUM. [SIGNA MILITARIA.]
-
-
-LĂBRUM. [BALNEUM.]
-
-
-LĂBỸRINTHUS (λαβύρινθος), a labyrinth, a large and complicated
-subterraneous cavern with numerous and intricate passages, similar
-to those of a mine. The earliest and most renowned labyrinth was
-that of Egypt, which lay beyond lake Moeris. It had 3000 apartments,
-1500 under ground, and the same number above it, and the whole was
-surrounded by a wall. It was divided into courts, each of which
-was surrounded by colonnades of white marble. The second labyrinth
-mentioned by the ancients was that of Crete, in the neighbourhood
-of Cnossus, where the Minotaur is said to have dwelt. Although the
-Cretan labyrinth is very frequently mentioned by ancient authors,
-yet none of them speaks of it as an eyewitness. It was probably some
-natural cavern in the neighbourhood of Cnossus. A third labyrinth,
-the construction of which belongs to a more historical age, was
-that in the island of Lemnos. A fabulous edifice in Etruria is also
-mentioned, to which Pliny applies the name of labyrinth. It is
-described as being in the neighbourhood of Clusium, and as the tomb
-of Lar Porsena; but no writer says that he ever saw it, or remains of
-it.
-
-
-LĂCERNA (μανδύας, μανδύη), a cloak worn by the Romans over the toga.
-It differed from the paenula in being an open garment like the Greek
-pallium, and fastened on the right shoulder by means of a buckle
-(_fibula_), whereas the paenula was what is called a _vestimentum
-clausum_ with an opening for the head. The Lacerna appears to have
-been commonly used in the army. In the time of Cicero it was not
-usually worn in the city, but it soon afterwards became quite common
-at Rome. The lacerna was sometimes thrown over the head for the
-purpose of concealment; but a _cucullus_ or cowl was generally used
-for that purpose, which appears to have been frequently attached to
-the lacerna, and to have formed a part of the dress.
-
-
-LĂCĬNĬAE, the angular extremities of the toga, one of which was
-brought round over the left shoulder. It was generally tucked into
-the girdle, but sometimes was allowed to hang down loose.
-
-
-LĂCŌNĬCUM. [BALNEUM.]
-
-
-LĂCŪNAR. [DOMUS.]
-
-
-LĂCUS. [FONS.]
-
-
-LAENA (χλαῖνα), a woollen cloak, the cloth of which was twice the
-ordinary thickness, shaggy upon both sides, and worn over the pallium
-or the toga for the sake of warmth. In later times the laena seems,
-to a certain extent, to have been worn as a substitute for the toga.
-
-
-LAMPĂDĒPHŎRĬA (λαμπαδηφορία), _torch-bearing_, LAMPADEDROMIA
-(λαμπαδηδρομία), _torch-race_, and often simply LAMPAS (λαμπάς),
-was a game common throughout Greece. At Athens we know of five
-celebrations of this game: one to Prometheus at the Prometheia, a
-second to Athena at the Panathenaca, a third to Hephaestos at the
-Hephaesteia, a fourth to Pan, and a fifth to the Thracian Artemis
-or Bendis. The first three are of unknown antiquity; the fourth was
-introduced soon after the battle of Marathon; the last in the time of
-Socrates. The race was usually run on foot, horses being first used
-in the time of Socrates; sometimes also at night. The preparation for
-it was a principal branch of the _Gymnasiarchia_, so much so indeed
-in later times, that the _Lampadarchia_ (λαμπαδαρχία) seems to have
-been pretty much equivalent to the _Gymnasiarchia_. The gymnasiarch
-had to provide the lampas, which was a candlestick with a kind of
-shield set at the bottom of the socket, so as to shelter the flame of
-the candle; as is seen in the following woodcut, taken from a coin.
-He had also to provide for the training of the runners, which was
-of no slight consequence, for the race was evidently a severe one,
-with other expenses, which on the whole were very heavy, so that
-Isaeus classes this office with the _choregia_ and _trierarchia_, and
-reckons that it had cost him 12 minae.
-
-[Illustration: Lampae. (From a Coin.)]
-
-
-LAMPAS. [LAMPADEPHORIA.]
-
-
-LANCĔA. [HASTA.]
-
-
-LĂNISTA. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-
-LANX, a large dish, made of silver or some other metal, and sometimes
-embossed, used at splendid entertainments to hold meat or fruit; and
-consequently at sacrifices and funeral banquets.
-
-
-LAPHRĬA (Λάφρια), an annual festival, celebrated at Patrae in Achaia,
-in honour of Artemis, surnamed Laphria.
-
-
-LĂPĬCĪDĪNAE. [LAUTUMIAE.]
-
-
-LĂQUĔAR. [DOMUS, p. 144, _b._]
-
-
-LĂQŬEĀTŌRES. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-
-LĂQUĔUS, a rope, was used to signify the punishment of death by
-strangling. This mode of execution was never performed in public,
-but only in prison and generally in the Tullianum. Hence we find the
-words _carcer_ and _laqueus_ frequently joined together. Persons
-convicted of treason were most frequently put to death by strangling,
-as for instance the Catilinarian conspirators (_laqueo gulam
-fregere_).
-
-
-LĂRĀRĬUM, a place in the inner part of a Roman house, which was
-dedicated to the Lares, and in which their images were kept and
-worshipped. It seems to have been customary for religious Romans in
-the morning, immediately after they rose, to perform their prayers in
-the lararium.
-
-
-LĀRENTĀLĬA, sometimes written LĀRENTINĀLIA and LAURENTĀLIA, a Roman
-festival in honour of Acca Larentia, the wife of Faustulus and the
-nurse of Romulus and Remus. It was celebrated in December, on the
-10th before the calends of January.
-
-
-LARGĪTĬO. [AMBITUS.]
-
-
-LĂTER πλίνθος, a brick. The Romans distinguished between those bricks
-which were merely dried by the sun and air (_lateres crudi_), and
-those which were burnt in the kiln (_cocti_ or _coctiles_). They
-preferred for brick making clay which was either whitish or decidedly
-red. Pliny calls the brickfield _lateraria_, and to make bricks
-_lateres ducere_, corresponding to the Greek πλίνθους ἕλκειν or
-ἔρυειν.
-
-
-LĀTĬCLĀVĬI. [CLAVUS.]
-
-
-LĂTĪNAE FĔRĬAE. [FERIAE.]
-
-
-LĂTĪNĬTAS, LĂTĬUM, JUS LĂTĬI. All these expressions are used to
-signify a certain status intermediate between that of cives and
-peregrini. Before the passing of the Lex Julia de Civitate (B.C.
-90) the above expressions denoted a certain nationality, and as part
-of it a certain legal status with reference to Rome; but after the
-passing of that lex, these expressions denoted only a certain status,
-and had no reference to any national distinction. About the year
-B.C. 89, a Lex Pompeia gave the jus Latii to all the Transpadani,
-and consequently the privilege of obtaining the Roman civitas by
-having filled a magistratus in their own cities. To denote the status
-of these Transpadani, the word Latinitas was used, which since the
-passing of the Lex Julia had lost its proper signification; and this
-was the origin of that Latinitas which thenceforth existed to the
-time of Justinian. This new Latinitas or jus Latii was given to whole
-towns and countries; as, for instance, by Vespasian to the whole of
-Spain. It is not certain wherein this new Latinitas differed from
-that Latinitas which was the characteristic of the Latini before the
-passing of the Lex Julia. It is, however, clear that all the old
-Latini had not the same right with respect to Rome; and that they
-could acquire the civitas on easier terms than those by which the new
-Latinitas was acquired.
-
-
-LĂTRUNCŬLI (πεσσοί, ψήφοι), draughts. The invention of a game
-resembling draughts was attributed by the Greeks to Palamedes;
-and it is mentioned by Homer. There were two sets of men, one set
-being black, the other white or red. Being intended to represent
-a miniature combat between two armies, they were called soldiers
-(_milites_), foes (_hostes_), and marauders (_latrones_, dim.
-_latrunculi_); also _calculi_, because stones were often employed for
-the purpose. The Romans often had twelve lines on the draught-board,
-whence the game so played was called _duodecim scripta_.
-
-
-LAUDĀTĬO. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-LAURENTĀLĬA. [LARENTALIA.]
-
-
-LAUTŬMĬAE, LAUTŎMIAE, LĀTOMIAE, Or LĀTUMIAE (λιθοτομίαι,
-λατομίαι,Lat. _Lapicidinae_), literally places where stones are cut,
-or quarries, and more particularly the public prison of Syracuse. It
-lay in the steep and almost inaccessible part of the town which was
-called Epipolae, and had been built by Dionysius the tyrant. It was
-cut to an immense depth into the solid rock, so that nothing could be
-imagined to be a safer or stronger prison, though it had no roof, and
-thus left the prisoners exposed to the heat of the sun, the rain, and
-the coldness of the nights. The Tullianum at Rome was also sometimes
-called lautumiae. [CARCER.]
-
-
-LECTICA (κλίνη, κλινίδιον, or φορεῖον), was a kind of couch or
-litter, in which persons, in a lying position, were carried from one
-place to another. Lecticae were used for carrying the dead [FUNUS] as
-well as the living. The Greek lectica consisted of a bed or mattress,
-and a pillow to support the head, placed upon a kind of bedstead or
-couch. It had a roof, consisting of the skin of an ox, extending over
-the couch and resting on four posts. The sides of this lectica were
-covered with curtains. In the republican period it appears to have
-been chiefly used by women, and by men only when they were in ill
-health. When this kind of lectica was introduced among the Romans,
-it was chiefly used in travelling, and very seldom in Rome itself.
-But towards the end of the republic, and under the empire, it was
-commonly used in the city, and was fitted up in the most splendid
-manner. Instead of curtains, it was frequently closed on the sides
-with windows made of transparent stone (_lapis specularis_), and was
-provided with a pillow and bed. When standing, it rested on four
-feet, generally made of wood. Persons were carried in a lectica by
-slaves (_lecticarii_), by means of poles (_asseres_) attached to it,
-but not fixed, so that they might easily be taken off when necessary.
-The number of lecticarii employed in carrying one lectica varied
-according to its size, and the display of wealth which a person
-might wish to make. The ordinary number was probably two; but it
-varied from two to eight, and the lectica is called _hexaphoron_ or
-_octophoron_, accordingly as it was carried by six or eight persons.
-
-
-LECTISTERNIUM. Sacrifices being of the nature of feasts, the Greeks
-and Romans, on occasion of extraordinary solemnities, placed images
-of the gods reclining on couches, with tables and viands before them,
-as if they were really partaking of the things offered in sacrifice.
-This ceremony was called a _lectisternium_. The woodcut here
-introduced exhibits one of these couches, which is represented with
-a cushion covered by a cloth hanging in ample folds down each side.
-This beautiful _pulvinar_ is wrought altogether in white marble, and
-is somewhat more than two feet in height.
-
-[Illustration: Pulvinar used at Lectisternium. (From the Glyptothek
-at Munich.)]
-
-
-LECTUS (λέχος, κλίνη, εὐνή), a bed. The complete bed (εὐνή) of a
-wealthy Greek in later times generally consisted of the following
-parts:--κλίνη, ἐπίτονοι, τυλεῖον or κνέφαλον, προσκεφάλειον, and
-στρώματα. The κλίνη is, properly speaking, merely the bedstead, and
-seems to have consisted only of posts fitted into one another and
-resting upon four feet. At the head part alone there was a board
-(ἀνάκλιντρον or ἐπίκλιντρον) to support the pillow and prevent its
-falling out. Sometimes, however, the bottom part of a bedstead
-was likewise protected by a board, so that in this case a Greek
-bedstead resembled what we call a French bedstead. The bedstead was
-provided with girths (τόνοι, ἐπίτονοι, κειρία) on which the bed or
-mattress (κνέφαλον, τυλεῖον, or τύλη) rested. The cover or ticking
-of a mattress was made of linen or woollen cloth, or of leather,
-and the usual material with which it was filled was either wool
-or dried weeds. At the head part of the bed, and supported by the
-ἐπίκλιντρον, lay a round pillow (προσκεφάλειον) to support the head.
-The bed-covers (στρώματα) were generally made of cloth, which was
-very thick and woolly, either on one or on both sides. The beds
-of the Romans (_lecti cubiculares_) in the earlier periods of the
-republic were probably of the same description as those used in
-Greece; but towards the end of the republic and during the empire,
-the richness and magnificence of the beds of the wealthy Romans far
-surpassed every thing we find described in Greece. The bedstead was
-generally rather high, so that persons entered the bed (_scandere_,
-_ascendere_) by means of steps placed beside it (_scamnum_). It was
-sometimes made of metal, and sometimes of costly kinds of wood,
-or veneered with tortoise-shell or ivory; its feet (_fulcra_)
-were frequently of silver or gold. The bed or mattress (_culcita_
-and _torus_) rested upon girths or strings (_restes_, _fasciae_,
-_institae_, or _funes_), which connected the two horizontal
-side-posts of the bed. In beds destined for two persons the two sides
-are distinguished by different names; the side at which persons
-entered was open, and bore the name _sponda_; the other side, which
-was protected by a board, was called _pluteus_. The two sides of such
-a bed are also distinguished by the names _torus exterior_ and _torus
-interior_, or _sponda exterior_ and _sponda interior_; and from these
-expressions it is not improbable that such lecti had two beds or
-mattresses, one for each person. Mattresses were in the earlier times
-filled with dry herbs or straw, and such beds continued to be used
-by the poor. But in subsequent times wool, and, at a still later
-period, feathers, were used by the wealthy for the beds as well as
-the pillows. The cloth or ticking (_operimentum_ or _involucrum_)
-with which the beds or mattresses were covered, was called _toral_,
-_torale_, _linteum_, or _segestre_. The blankets or counterpanes
-(_vestes stragulae_, _stragula_, _peristromata_, _peripetasmata_)
-were in the houses of wealthy Romans of the most costly description,
-and generally of a purple colour, and embroidered with beautiful
-figures in gold. Covers of this sort were called _peripetasmata
-Attalica_, because they were said to have been first used at the
-court of Attalus. The pillows were likewise covered with magnificent
-casings. The _lectus genialis_ or _adversus_ was the bridal bed,
-which stood in the atrium, opposite the janua, whence it derived
-the epithet _adversus_. It was generally high, with steps by its
-side, and in later times beautifully adorned. Respecting the lectus
-funebris see FUNUS. An account of the disposition of the couches used
-at entertainments is given under TRICLINIUM.
-
-
-LĒGĀTĬO LĪBĔRA. [LEGATUS.]
-
-
-LĒGĀTUM, a part of the hereditas which a testator gives out of it,
-from the heres (_ab herede_); that is, it is a gift to a person out
-of that whole (_universum_) which is diminished to the heres by
-such gift. There were several laws limiting the amount of property
-which a person might give in legacies; and it was at last fixed by
-the Lex Falcidia (B.C. 40), that he should not bequeath more than
-three-fourths of his property in legacies, and thus a fourth was left
-to the heres. By the Law of the Twelve Tables a man could dispose
-of his property as he pleased, and he might exhaust (_erogare_) the
-whole hereditas by legacies and bequests of freedom to slaves, so as
-to leave the heres nothing. The consequence was that in such cases
-the scripti heredes refused to take the hereditas, and there was of
-course an intestacy. Legata were inutilia or void, if they were given
-before a heres was instituted by the will, for the will derived all
-its legal efficacy from such institution; there was the same rule as
-to a gift of freedom.
-
-
-LĒGĀTUS, from _lego_, a person commissioned or deputed to do certain
-things. They may be divided into three classes:--1. Legati or
-ambassadors sent to Rome by foreign nations; 2. Legati or ambassadors
-sent from Rome to foreign nations and into the provinces; 3. Legati
-who accompanied the Roman generals into the field, or the proconsuls
-and praetors into the provinces. 1. Foreign legati at Rome, from
-whatever country they came, had to go to the temple of Saturn, and
-deposit their names with the quaestors. Previous to their admission
-into the city, foreign ambassadors seem to have been obliged to give
-notice from what nation they came and for what purpose; for several
-instances are mentioned, in which ambassadors were prohibited from
-entering the city, especially in case of a war between Rome and the
-state from which they came. In such cases the ambassadors were either
-not heard at all, and obliged to quit Italy, or an audience was given
-to them by the senate (_senatus legatis datur_) outside the city,
-in the temple of Bellona. This was evidently a sign of mistrust,
-but the ambassadors were nevertheless treated as public guests, and
-some public villa outside the city was sometimes assigned for their
-reception. In other cases, however, as soon as the report of the
-landing of foreign ambassadors on the coast of Italy was brought to
-Rome, especially if they were persons of great distinction, or if
-they came from an ally of the Roman people, some one of the inferior
-magistrates, or a legatus of a consul, was despatched by the senate
-to receive, and conduct them to the city at the expense of the
-republic. When they were introduced into the senate by the praetor
-or consul, they first explained what they had to communicate, and
-then the praetor invited the senators to put their questions to the
-ambassadors. The whole transaction was carried on by interpreters,
-and in the Latin language. [INTERPRES.] After the ambassadors had
-thus been examined, they were requested to leave the assembly of the
-senate, who now began to discuss the subject brought before them. The
-result was communicated to the ambassadors by the praetor. In some
-cases ambassadors not only received rich presents on their departure,
-but were at the command of the senate conducted by a magistrate, and
-at the public expense, to the frontier of Italy, and even farther.
-By the Lex Gabinia it was decreed, that from the 1st of February
-to the 1st of March, the senate should every day give audience to
-foreign ambassadors. There was a place on the right-hand side of
-the senate-house, called Graecostasis, in which foreign ambassadors
-waited. All ambassadors, whencesoever they came, were considered by
-the Romans throughout the whole period of their existence as sacred
-and inviolable. 2. Legati to foreign nations in the name of the Roman
-republic were always sent by the senate; and to be appointed to such
-a mission was considered a great honour, which was conferred only
-on men of high rank or eminence: for a Roman ambassador had the
-powers of a magistrate and the venerable character of a priest. If
-a Roman during the performance of his mission as ambassador died or
-was killed, his memory was honoured by the republic with a public
-sepulchre and a statue in the Rostra. The expenses during the journey
-of an ambassador were, of course, paid by the republic; and when he
-travelled through a province, the provincials had to supply him with
-every thing he wanted. 3. The third class of legati, to whom the name
-of ambassadors cannot be applied, were persons who accompanied the
-Roman generals on their expeditions, and in later times the governors
-of provinces also. They are mentioned at a very early period as
-serving along with the tribunes, under the consuls. They were
-nominated (_legabantur_) by the consul or the dictator under whom
-they served, but the sanction of the senate was an essential point,
-without which no one could be legally considered a legatus. The
-persons appointed to this office were usually men of great military
-talents, and it was their duty to advise and assist their superior
-in all his undertakings, and to act in his stead both in civil
-and military affairs. The legati were thus always men in whom the
-consul placed great confidence, and were frequently his friends or
-relations: but they had no power independent of the command of their
-general. Their number varied according to the greatness or importance
-of the war, or the extent of the province: three is the smallest
-number that we know of, but Pompey, when in Asia, had fifteen legati.
-Whenever the consuls were absent from the army, or when a proconsul
-left his province, the legati or one of them took his place, and then
-had the insignia as well as the power of his superior. He was in
-this case called legatus pro praetore, and hence we sometimes read
-that a man governed a province as legatus without any mention being
-made of the proconsul whose vicegerent he was. During the latter
-period of the republic, it sometimes happened that a consul carried
-on a war, or a proconsul governed his province, through his legati,
-while he himself remained at Rome, or conducted some other more
-urgent affairs. When the provinces were divided at the time of the
-empire [PROVINCIA], those of the Roman people were governed by men
-who had been either consuls or praetors, and the former were always
-accompanied by three legati, the latter by one. The provinces of the
-emperor, who was himself the proconsul, were governed by persons whom
-the emperor himself appointed, and who had been consuls or praetors,
-or were at least senators. These vicegerents of the emperor were
-called _legati augusti pro praetore_, _legati praetorii_, _legati
-consulares_, or simply _legati_, and they, like the governors of
-the provinces of the Roman people, had one or three legati as their
-assistants. During the latter period of the republic it had become
-customary for senators to obtain from the senate the permission
-to travel through or stay in any province at the expense of the
-provincials, merely for the purpose of managing and conducting their
-own personal affairs. There was no restraint as to the length of time
-the senators were allowed to avail themselves of this privilege,
-which was a heavy burden upon the provincials. This mode of
-sojourning in a province was called _legatio libera_, because those
-who availed themselves of it enjoyed all the privileges of a public
-legatus or ambassador, without having any of his duties to perform.
-At the time of Cicero the privilege of legatio libera was abused to
-a very great extent. Cicero, therefore, in his consulship (B.C. 63)
-endeavoured to put an end to it, but, owing to the opposition of a
-tribune, he only succeeded in limiting the time of its duration to
-one year. Julius Caesar afterwards extended the time during which a
-senator might avail himself of the legatio libera to five years.
-
-
-LĔGĬO. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-LEITURGIA (λειτουργία, from λεῖτον, Ion. λήϊτον, _i.e._ δημόσιον, or,
-according to others, πρυτανεῖον), a liturgy, is the name of certain
-personal services which, at Athens, every citizen who possessed
-a certain amount of property had to perform towards the state.
-These personal services, which in all cases were connected with
-considerable expenses, were at first a natural consequence of the
-greater political privileges enjoyed by the wealthy, who, in return,
-had also to perform heavier duties towards the republic; but when the
-Athenian democracy was at its height the original character of these
-liturgies became changed, for, as every citizen now enjoyed the same
-rights and privileges as the wealthiest, they were simply a tax upon
-property connected with personal labour and exertion. All liturgies
-may be divided into two classes: 1, ordinary or encyclic liturgies
-(ἐγκύκλιοι λειτουργίαι); and 2, extraordinary liturgies. The former
-were called encyclic, because they recurred every year at certain
-festive seasons, and comprised the _Choregia_, _Gymnasiarchia_,
-_Lampadarchia_, _Architheoria_, and _Hestiasis_. Every Athenian who
-possessed three talents and above was subject to them, and they were
-undertaken in turns by the members of every tribe who possessed the
-property qualification just mentioned, unless some one volunteered to
-undertake a liturgy for another person. But the law did not allow any
-one to be compelled to undertake more than one liturgy at a time, and
-he who had in one year performed a liturgy was free for the next, so
-that legally a person had to perform a liturgy only every other year.
-Those whose turn it was to undertake any of the ordinary liturgies
-were always appointed by their own tribe. The persons who were exempt
-from all kinds of liturgies were the nine archons, heiresses, and
-orphans until after the commencement of the second year of their
-coming of age. Sometimes the exemption from liturgies (ἀτελεία) was
-granted to persons for especial merits towards the republic. The only
-kind of extraordinary liturgy to which the name is properly applied
-is the _trierarchia_ (τριηραρχία); in the earlier times, however, the
-service in the armies was in reality no more than an extraordinary
-liturgy. [See EISPHORA and TRIERARCHIA.] In later times, during and
-after the Peloponnesian war, when the expenses of a liturgy were
-found too heavy for one person, we find that in many instances two
-persons combined to defray its expenses. Such was the case with the
-choragia and the trierarchy.
-
-
-LEMBUS, a skiff or small boat, used for carrying a person from a ship
-to the shore. The name was also given to the light boats which were
-sent ahead of a fleet to obtain information of the enemy’s movements.
-
-
-LEMNISCUS (λημνίσκος), a kind of coloured ribbon which hung down
-from crowns or diadems at the back part of the head. Coronae adorned
-with lemnisci were a greater distinction than those without them.
-This serves to explain an expression of Cicero (_palma lemniscata,
-pro Rosc. Am._ 35), where palma means a victory, and the epithet
-lemniscata indicates the contrary of infamis, and at the same time
-implies an honourable as well as lucrative victory. Lemnisci were
-also worn alone and without being connected with crowns, especially
-by ladies, as an ornament for the head.
-
-
-LĔMŬRĬA, a festival for the souls of the departed, which was
-celebrated at Rome every year in the month of May. It was said to
-have been instituted by Romulus to appease the spirit of Remus,
-whom he had slain, and to have been called originally Remuria. It
-was celebrated at night and in silence, and during three alternate
-days, that is, on the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth of May. During
-this season the temples of the gods were closed, and it was thought
-unlucky for women to marry at this time and during the whole month
-of May, and those who ventured to marry were believed to die soon
-after, whence the proverb, _mense Maio malae nubent_. Those who
-celebrated the Lemuria walked barefooted, washed their hands three
-times, and threw black beans nine times behind their backs, believing
-by this ceremony to secure themselves against the Lemures. As regards
-the solemnities on each of the three days, we only know that on the
-second there were games in the circus in honour of Mars, and that on
-the third day the images of the thirty Argei, made of rushes, were
-thrown from the Pons Sublicius into the Tiber by the Vestal virgins
-[ARGEI]. On the same day there was a festival of the merchants,
-probably because on this day the temple of Mercury had been dedicated
-in the year 495 B.C.
-
-
-LĒNAEA. [DIONYSIA.]
-
-
-LESCHĒ (λέσχη), an Ionic word, signifying _council_ or
-_conversation_, and _a place for council or conversation_. There is
-frequent mention of places of public resort, in the Greek cities, by
-the name of _Leschae_, some set apart for the purpose, and others so
-called because they were so used by loungers; to the latter class
-belong the agora and its porticoes, the gymnasia, and the shops
-of various tradesmen. The former class were small buildings or
-porticoes, furnished with seats, and exposed to the sun, to which
-the idle resorted to enjoy conversation, and the poor to obtain
-warmth and shelter: at Athens alone there were 360 such. In the
-Dorian states the word retained the meaning of a place of meeting for
-deliberation and intercourse, a council-chamber or club-room. There
-were generally chambers for council and conversation, called by this
-name, attached to the temples of Apollo. The _Lesche_ at Delphi was
-celebrated through Greece for the paintings with which it was adorned
-by Polygnotus.
-
-
-LEX. Of Roman leges, viewed with reference to the mode of enactment,
-there were properly two kinds, _Leges Curiatae_ and _Leges
-Centuriatae_. Plebiscita are improperly called leges, though they
-were laws, and in the course of time had the same effect as leges.
-[PLEBISCITUM.] Originally the leges curiatae were the only leges,
-and they were passed by the populus in the comitia curiata. After
-the establishment of the comitia centuriata, the comitia curiata
-fell almost into disuse; but so long as the republic lasted, and
-even under Augustus, a shadow of the old constitution was preserved
-in the formal conferring of the imperium by a lex curiata only,
-and in the ceremony of adrogation being effected only in these
-comitia. [ADOPTIO.] Those leges, properly so called, with which
-we are acquainted, were passed in the comitia centuriata, and were
-proposed (_rogabantur_) by a magistratus of senatorial rank, after
-the senate had approved of them by a decretum. Such a lex was
-also designated by the name _Populi Scitum_.--The word _rogatio_
-(from the verb _rogo_) properly means any measure proposed to the
-legislative body, and therefore is equally applicable to a proposed
-lex and a proposed plebiscitum. It corresponds to our word _bill_,
-as opposed to _act_. When the measure was passed, it became a lex
-or plebiscitum; though rogationes, after they had become laws, were
-sometimes, but improperly, called rogationes. A rogatio began with
-the words _velitis_, _jubeatis_, &c., and ended with the words _ita
-vos Quirites rogo_. The corresponding expression of assent to the
-rogatio on the part of the sovereign assembly was _uti rogas_. The
-phrases for proposing a law are _rogare legem_, _legem ferre_, and
-_rogationem promulgare_; the phrase _rogationem accipere_ applies
-to the enacting body. The terms relating to legislation are thus
-explained by Ulpian the jurist:--“A lex is said either _rogari_ or
-_ferri_; it is said _abrogari_, when it is repealed; it is said
-_derogari_, when a part is repealed; it is said _subrogari_, when
-some addition is made to it; and it is said _obrogari_, when some
-part of it is changed.”--A _privilegium_ is an enactment that had
-for its object a single person, which is indicated by the form of
-the word (_privilegium_), _privae res_ being the same as _singulae
-res_. The word privilegium did not convey any notion of the character
-of the legislative measures; it might be beneficial to the party to
-whom it referred, or it might not. Under the empire, the word is
-used in the sense of a special grant proceeding from the imperial
-favour.--The title of a lex was generally derived from the gentile
-name of the magistratus who proposed it, as the _Lex Hortensia_ from
-the dictator Hortensius. Sometimes the lex took its name from the
-two consuls or other magistrates, as the _Acilia Calpurnia_, _Aelia_
-or _Aelia Sentia_, _Papia_ or _Papia Poppaea_, and others. It seems
-to have been the fashion to omit the word _et_ between the two
-names, though instances occur in which it was used. A lex was also
-designated, with reference to its object, as the _Lex Cincia de Donis
-et Muneribus_, _Lex Furia Testamentaria_, _Lex Julia Municipalis_,
-and many others. Leges which related to a common object, were often
-designated by a collective name, as _Leges Agrariae_, _Judiciariae_,
-and others. A lex sometimes took its name from the chief contents
-of its first chapter, as _Lex Julia de Maritandis Ordinibus_.
-Sometimes a lex comprised very various provisions, relating to
-matters essentially different, and in that case it was called _Lex
-Satura_.--The number of leges was greatly increased in the later
-part of the republican period, and Julius Caesar is said to have
-contemplated a revision of the whole body. Under him and Augustus
-numerous enactments were passed, which are known under the general
-name of Juliae Leges. It is often stated that no leges, properly so
-called, or plebiscita, were passed after the time of Augustus; but
-this is a mistake. Though the voting might be a mere form, still
-the form was kept. Besides, various leges are mentioned as having
-been passed under the Empire, such as the Lex Junia under Tiberius,
-the Lex Visellia, the Lex Mamilia under Caligula, and a Lex Claudia
-on the tutela of women. It does not appear when the ancient forms
-of legislation were laid aside. A particular enactment is always
-referred to by its name. The following is a list of the principal
-leges, properly so called; but the list includes also various
-plebiscita and privilegia:--
-
-  ACĪLĬA, De Coloniis Deducendis. (Liv. xxxii. 29.)
-
-
-  ACĪLIA. [REPETUNDAE.]
-
-
-  ACĪLIA CALPURNĬA or CALPURNIA. [AMBITUS.]
-
-
-  AEBUTĬA, of uncertain date, which with two Juliae Leges put an end
-  to the Legis Actiones, except in certain cases. This or another
-  lex of the same name prohibited the proposer of a lex, which
-  created any office or power (_curatio ac potestas_), from having
-  such office or power, and even excluded his collegae, cognati, and
-  affines.
-
-
-  AELIA. This lex and a Fufia Lex, passed about the end of the sixth
-  century of the city, gave to all the magistrates the obnunciatio,
-  or power of preventing or dissolving the comitia, by observing the
-  omens and declaring them to be unfavourable.
-
-
-  AELĬA, De Coloniis Deducendis. (Liv. xxxiv. 53.)
-
-
-  AELĬA SENTĬA, passed in the time of Augustus (about A.D. 3). This
-  lex contained various provisions as to the manumission of slaves.
-
-
-  AEMĬLĬA. A lex passed in the dictatorship of Mamercus Aemilius
-  (B.C. 433), by which the censors were elected for a year and
-  a half, instead of a whole lustrum. After this lex they had
-  accordingly only a year and a half allowed them for holding the
-  census and letting out the public works to farm.
-
-
-  AEMĬLĬA BAEBĬA. [CORNELIA BAEBIA.]
-
-
-  AEMĬLĬA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.]
-
-
-  AGRĀRÏAE, the name of laws which had relation to the ager
-  publicus. [AGER PUBLICUS.] The most important of these are
-  mentioned under the names of their proposers. [APPULEIA; CASSIA;
-  CORNELIA; FLAMINIA; FLAVIA; JULIA; LICINIA; SEMPRONIA; SERVILIA;
-  THORIA.]
-
-
-  AMBĬTUS. [AMBITUS.]
-
-
-  AMPĬA, to allow Cn. Pompeius to wear a crown of bay at the Ludi
-  Circenses, &c. Proposed by T. Ampius and T. Labienus, tr. pl. B.C.
-  64.
-
-
-  ANNĀLIS or VILLĬA, proposed by L. Villius Tapulus in B.C. 179,
-  fixed the age at which a Roman citizen might become a candidate for
-  the higher magistracies. It appears that until this law was passed,
-  any office might be enjoyed by a citizen after completing his
-  twenty-seventh year. The Lex Annalis fixed 31 as the age for the
-  quaestorship, 37 for the aedileship, 40 for the praetorship, and 43
-  for the consulship.
-
-
-  ANTĬA. [SUMPTUARIAE LEGES.]
-
-
-  ANTŌNĬA DE THERMENSIBUS, about B.C. 72, by which Thermessus in
-  Pisidia was recognised as Libera.
-
-
-  ANTŌNĬAE, the name of various enactments proposed or passed by the
-  influence of M. Antonius, after the death of the dictator J. Caesar.
-
-
-  APPŬLĒIA, respecting sureties.
-
-
-  APPŬLĒIA AGRĀRĬA, proposed by the tribune L. Appuleius Saturninus,
-  B.C. 101.
-
-
-  APPŬLĒIA FRŪMENTĀRĬA, proposed about the same time by the same
-  tribune.
-
-
-  APPŬLĒIA, DE COLONIIS DEDUCENDIS. (Cic. _pro Balbo_, 21.)
-
-
-  APPŬLĒIA MAJESTĀTIS. [MAJESTAS.]
-
-
-  ATERNIA TARPĒIA, B.C. 455. This lex empowered all magistrates to
-  fine persons who resisted their authority; but it fixed the highest
-  fine at two sheep and thirty cows, or two cows and thirty sheep,
-  for the authorities vary in this.
-
-
-  ĂTĬA DE SĂCERDŌTIIS (B.C. 63), proposed by the tribune T. Atius
-  Labienus, repealed the Lex Cornelia de Sacerdotiis.
-
-
-  ĂTĪLĬA MARCĬA, B.C. 312, empowered the populus to elect 16 tribuni
-  militum for each of four legions.
-
-
-  ĂTĪLĬA, respecting tutores.
-
-
-  ĂTĪNĬA, respecting thefts.
-
-
-  ĂTĪNĬA, of uncertain date, was a plebiscitum which gave the rank
-  of senator to a tribune. This measure probably originated with C.
-  Atinius, who was tribune B.C. 130.
-
-
-  AUFĬDĬA. [AMBITUS.]
-
-
-  AURĒLĬA (B.C. 70), enacted that the judices should be chosen from
-  the senators, equites, and tribuni aerarii. [JUDEX.]
-
-
-  AURĒLĬA TRĬBŪNĬCĬA, respecting the tribunes.
-
-
-  BAEBĬA (B.C. 192 or 180), enacted that four praetors and six
-  praetors should be chosen alternately; but the law was not observed.
-
-
-  BAEBĬA CORNĒLĬA. [AMBITUS.]
-
-
-  CAECĬLĬA DE CENSŌRĬBUS or CENSŌRIA (B.C. 54), proposed by Metellus
-  Scipio, repealed a Clodia Lex (B.C. 58), which had prescribed
-  certain regular forms of proceeding for the censors in exercising
-  their functions as inspectors of mores, and had required the
-  concurrence of both censors to inflict the nota censoria. When
-  a senator had been already convicted before an ordinary court,
-  the lex permitted the censors to remove him from the senate in a
-  summary way.
-
-
-  CAECĬLĬA DE VECTĪGĀLĬBUS (B.C. 62), released lands and harbours in
-  Italy from the payment of taxes and dues (_portoria_). The only
-  vectigal remaining after the passing of this lex was the Vicesima.
-
-
-  CAECĬLĬA DĪDĬA (B.C. 98) forbade the proposing of a Lex Satura, on
-  the ground that the people might be compelled either to vote for
-  something which they did not approve, or to reject something which
-  they did approve, if it was proposed to them in this manner. This
-  lex was not always operative.
-
-
-  CAELIA. [LEGES TABELLARIAE.]
-
-
-  CĂLĬGŬLAE LEX AGUĀRĬA. [MAMILIA.]
-
-
-  CALPURNĬA DE AMBĬTU. [AMBITUS.]
-
-
-  CALPURNĬA DE RĔPĔTUNDIS. [REPETUNDAE.]
-
-
-  CĂNŬLĒIA. (B.C. 445) established connubium between the patres and
-  plebs, which had been taken away by the law of the Twelve Tables.
-
-
-  CASSĬA (B.C. 104), proposed by the tribune L. Cassius Longinus,
-  did not allow a person to remain a senator who had been convicted
-  in a judicium populi, or whose imperium had been abrogated by the
-  populus.
-
-
-  CASSĬA empowered the dictator Caesar to add to the number of the
-  patricii, to prevent their extinction.
-
-
-  CASSĬA AGRĀRĬA, proposed by the consul Sp. Cassius, B.C. 486. This
-  is said to have been the first agrarian law. It enacted that of
-  the land taken from the Hernicans, half should be given to the
-  Latins, and half to the plebs, and likewise that part of the public
-  land possessed by the patricians should be distributed among the
-  plebeians. This law met with the most violent opposition, and
-  appears not to have been carried. Cassius was accused of aiming at
-  the sovereignty, and was put to death. [AGER PUBLICUS.]
-
-
-  CASSĬA TĂBELLĀRĬA. [LEGES TABELLARIAE.]
-
-
-  CASSĬA TĔRENTĬA FRŪMENTĀRĬA (B.C. 73) for the distribution of corn
-  among the poor citizens and the purchasing of it.
-
-
-  CINCĬA DE DŌNIS ET MŪNĔRĬBUS, a plebiscitum passed in the time of
-  the tribune M. Cincius Alimentus (B.C. 204). It forbade a person
-  to take any thing for his pains in pleading a cause. In the time
-  of Augustus, the Lex Cincia was confirmed by a senatus-consultum,
-  and a penalty of four times the sum received was imposed on the
-  advocate. The law was so far modified in the time of Claudius, that
-  an advocate was allowed to receive ten sestertia; if he took any
-  sum beyond that, he was liable to be prosecuted for repetundae.
-  It appears that this permission was so far restricted in Trajan’s
-  time, that the fee could not be paid till the work was done.
-
-
-  CLAUDĬA, passed under the emperor Claudius, took away the agnatorum
-  tutela in case of women.
-
-
-  CLAUDĬA DE SENATORIBUS, B.C. 218 (Liv. xxi. 63), the provisions of
-  which are alluded to by Cicero as antiquated and dead in his time.
-
-
-  CLŌDIAE, the name of various plebiscita, proposed by Clodius, when
-  tribune, B.C. 58.
-
-    CLODIA DE AUSPICIIS prevented the magistratus from dissolving the
-    comitia tributa, by declaring that the auspices were unfavourable.
-    This lex therefore repealed the Aelia and Fufia. It also enacted
-    that a lex might be passed on the dies fasti. [AELIA LEX.]
-
-    CLODIA DE CENSORIBUS. [CAECILIA.]
-
-    CLODIA DE CIVIBUS ROMANIS INTEREMPTIS, to the effect that
-    “qui civem Romanum indemnatum interemisset, ei aqua et igni
-    interdiceretur.” It was in consequence of this lex that the
-    interdict was pronounced against Cicero, who considers the whole
-    proceeding as a privilegium.
-
-    CLODIA FRUMENTARIA, by which the corn, which had formerly been sold
-    to the poor citizens at a low rate, was given.
-
-    CLODIA DE SODALITATIBUS or DE COLLEGIIS restored the Sodalitia,
-    which had been abolished by a senatus-consultum of the year B.C.
-    80, and permitted the formation of new Sodalitia.
-
-    CLODIA DE LIBERTINORUM SUFFRAGIIS. (Cic. _pro Mil._ 12, 33.)
-
-    CLODIA DE REGE PTOLEMAEO ET DE EXSULIBUS BYZANTINIS. (Vell. Pat.
-    ii. 45.)
-
-    There were other so-called Leges Clodiae, which were however
-    privilegia.
-
-
-  COMMISSORĬA LEX, respecting sales.
-
-
-  CORNĒLĬAE. Various leges passed in the dictatorship of Sulla, and
-  by his influence, are so called.
-
-    AGRARIA, by which many of the inhabitants of Etruria and Latium
-    were deprived of the complete civitas, and retained only the
-    commercium, and a large part of their lands were made public, and
-    given to military colonists.
-
-    DE CIVITATE. (Liv., _Epit._ 86.)
-
-    DE FALSIS, against those who forged testaments or other deeds, and
-    against those who adulterated or counterfeited the public coin,
-    whence Cicero calls it _testamentaria_ and _nummaria_.
-
-    DE INJURIIS. [INJURIA.]
-
-    JUDICIARIA. [JUDEX.]
-
-    DE MAGISTRATIBUS, partly a renewal of old plebiscita. (Appian, B.C.
-    i. 100, 101.)
-
-    MAJESTATIS. [MAJESTAS.]
-
-    DE PARRICIDIO. [See below: DE SICARIIS.]
-
-    DE PROSCRIPTIONE ET PROSCRIPTIS. [PROSCRIPTIO.]
-
-    DE PROVINCIIS ORDINANDIS. (Cic. _ad Fam._ i. 9; iii. 6, 8, 10.)
-
-    DE REPETUNDIS. [REPETUNDAE.]
-
-    DE SACERDOTIIS. [SACERDOS.]
-
-    DE SICARIIS ET VENEFICIS, contained provisions as to death or fire
-    caused by _dolus malus_, and against persons going about armed with
-    the intention of killing or thieving. The law not only provided
-    for cases of poisoning, but contained provisions against those who
-    made, sold, bought, possessed, or gave poison for the purpose of
-    poisoning; also against a magistratus or senator who conspired in
-    order that a person might be condemned in a _judicium publicum_, &c.
-
-    SUMPTUARIAE. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.]
-
-    TRIBUNICIA, which diminished the power of the Tribuni Plebis.
-
-    UNCIARIA appears to have been a lex which lowered the rate of
-    interest, and to have been passed about the same time with the
-    Leges Sumptuariae of Sulla.
-
-
-  CORNĒLĬAE, which were proposed by the tribune C. Cornelius about
-  B.C. 67. One limited the edictal power by compelling the praetors
-  _Jus dicere ex edictis suis perpetuis_.--Another lex of the same
-  tribune enacted that no one _legibus solveretur_, unless such a
-  measure was agreed on in a meeting of the senate at which two
-  hundred members were present, and afterwards approved by the
-  people; and it enacted that no tribune should put his veto on such
-  a senatus-consultum.--There was also a Lex Cornelia concerning the
-  wills of those Roman citizens who died in captivity (_apud hostes_).
-
-
-  CORNĒLIA DE NOVIS TABELLIS, proposed by P. Corn. Dolabella, B.C. 47.
-
-
-  CORNĒLIA ET CAECĬLĪA, B.C. 57, gave Cn. Pompeius the
-  superintendence of the Res Frumentaria for five years.
-
-
-  CORNĒLĬA BAEBĬA DE AMBĬTU, proposed by the consuls P. Cornelius
-  Cethegus and M. Baebius Tamphilus, B.C. 181. This law is sometimes,
-  but erroneously, attributed to the consuls of the preceding year,
-  L. Aemilius and Cn. Baebius. [AMBITUS.]
-
-
-  CŪRIĀTA LEX DE IMPERIO. [IMPERIUM.]
-
-
-  CŪRIĀTA LEX DE ADOPTIONE. [ADOPTIO.]
-
-
-  DĔCEMVĬRĀLIS. [LEX DUODECIM TABULARUM.]
-
-
-  DĔCĬA DE DUUMVIRIS NAVALIBUS. (Liv. ix. 30.)
-
-
-  DĪDĬA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.]
-
-
-  DOMĬTĬA DE SĂCERDŌTIIS. [SACERDOS.]
-
-
-  DUĪLĬA (B.C. 449), a plebiscitum proposed by the tribune Duilius,
-  which enacted that whoever left the people without tribunes, or
-  created a magistrate from whom there was no appeal (_provocatio_),
-  should be scourged and beheaded.
-
-
-  DUĪLĬA MAENĬA, proposed by the tribunes Duilius and Maenius
-  (B.C. 357), restored the old uncial rate of interest (_unciarium
-  fenus_), which had been fixed by the Twelve Tables. [FENUS.] The
-  same tribunes carried a measure which was intended, in future, to
-  prevent such unconstitutional proceedings as the enactment of a lex
-  by the soldiers out of Rome, on the proposal of the consul.
-
-
-  DŬŎDĔCIM TĂBŬLĀRUM. In the year B.C. 454 the Senate assented to a
-  Plebiscitum, pursuant to which commissioners were to be sent to
-  Athens and the Greek cities generally, in order to make themselves
-  acquainted with their laws. Three commissioners were appointed
-  for the purpose. On the return of the commissioners, B.C. 452,
-  it was agreed that persons should be appointed to draw up the
-  code of laws (decemviri Legibus scribundis), but they were to be
-  chosen only from the Patricians, with a provision that the rights
-  of the Plebeians should be respected by the decemviri in drawing
-  up the laws. In the following year (B.C. 451) the Decemviri were
-  appointed in the Comitia Centuriata, and during the time of their
-  office no other magistratus were chosen. The body consisted of
-  ten Patricians, including the three commissioners who had been
-  sent abroad: Appius Claudius, Consul designatus, was at the head
-  of the body. Ten Tables of Laws were prepared during the year,
-  and after being approved by the Senate were confirmed by the
-  Comitia Centuriata. As it was considered that some further Laws
-  were wanted, Decemviri were again elected B.C. 450, consisting of
-  Appius Claudius and his friends. Two more Tables were added by
-  these Decemviri, which Cicero calls “Duae tabulae iniquarum legum.”
-  The provision which allowed no connubium between the Patres and
-  the Plebs is referred to the Eleventh Table. The whole Twelve
-  Tables were first published in the consulship of L. Valerius and
-  M. Horatius after the downfall of the Decemviri, B.C. 449. This
-  the first attempt to make a code remained also the only attempt
-  for near one thousand years, until the legislation of Justinian.
-  The Twelve Tables are mentioned by the Roman writers under a great
-  variety of names: _Leges Decemvirales_, _Lex Decemviralis_, _Leges
-  XII._, _Lex XII. tabularum_ or _Duodecim_, and sometimes they are
-  referred to under the names of _Leges_ and _Lex_ simply, as being
-  pre-eminently The Law. The Laws were cut on bronze tablets and
-  put up in a public place. They contained matters relating both to
-  the Jus Publicum and the Jus Privatum (_fons publici privatique
-  juris_). The Jus Publicum underwent great changes in the course of
-  years, but the Jus Privatum of the Twelve Tables continued to be
-  the fundamental law of the Roman State. The Roman writers speak
-  in high terms of the precision of the enactments contained in the
-  Twelve Tables, and of the propriety of the language in which they
-  were expressed.
-
-
-  FĂBĬA DE PLĂGIO. [PLAGIUM.]
-
-
-  FĂBĬA DE NUMERO SECTATORUM. (Cic. _pro Murena_, 34.)
-
-
-  FALCIDIA. [LEX VOCONIA.]
-
-
-  FANNĬA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.]
-
-
-  FANNĬA. [JUNIA DE PEREGRINIS.]
-
-
-  FLĀMĬNĬA was an Agraria Lex for the distribution of lands in
-  Picenum, proposed by the tribune C. Flaminius, in B.C. 228
-  according to Cicero, or in B.C. 232 according to Polybius. The
-  latter date is the more probable.
-
-
-  FLĀVĬA AGRĀRĬA, B.C. 60, for the distribution of lands among
-  Pompey’s soldiers, proposed by the tribune L. Flavius, who
-  committed the consul Caecilius Metellus to prison for opposing it.
-
-
-  FRŪMENTĀRĬAE. Various leges were so called which had for their
-  object the distribution of grain among the people, either at a low
-  price or gratuitously. [FRUMENTARIAE LEGES, p. 182.]
-
-
-  FŪFĬA DE RĒLĬGĬŌNE, B.C. 61, was a privilegium which related to the
-  trial of Clodius.
-
-
-  FŪFĬA JŪDĬCĬĀRĬA. [JUDEX, p. 217.]
-
-
-  FŪRIA or FŪSĬA CĂNĪNĬA limited the number of slaves to be
-  manumitted by testament.
-
-
-  FŪRIA or FŪSĬA TESTĂMENTĀRĬA, enacted that a testator should not
-  give more than three-fourths of his property in legacies, thus
-  securing one-fourth to the heres.
-
-
-  GĂBĪNĬA TĂBELLĀRĬA. [LEGES TABELLARIAE.] There were various
-  Gabiniae Leges, some of which were privilegia, as that for
-  conferring extraordinary power on Cn. Pompeius for conducting the
-  war against the pirates. A Gabinia Lex, B.C. 58, forbade all loans
-  of money at Rome to legationes from foreign parts. The object of
-  the lex was to prevent money being borrowed for the purpose of
-  bribing the senators at Rome.
-
-
-  GALLĬAE CISALPĪNAE. [RUBRIA.]
-
-
-  GELLIA CORNĒLĬA, B.C. 72, which gave to Cn. Pompeius the
-  extraordinary power of conferring the Roman civitas on Spaniards in
-  Spain, with the advice of his consilium.
-
-
-  GENUCĬA, B.C. 341, forbade altogether the taking of interest for
-  the use of money.
-
-
-  HĬĔRŎNĬCA was not a lex properly so called. Before the Roman
-  conquest of Sicily, the payment of the tenths of wine, oil, and
-  other produce had been fixed by Hiero; and the Roman quaestors,
-  in letting these tenths to farm, followed the practice which they
-  found established.
-
-
-  HŎRĀTĬAE ET VALĔRĬAE. [LEGES VALERIAE.]
-
-
-  HORTENSIA DE PLĒBISCĪTIS. [LEGES PUBLILIAE; PLEBISCITUM.] Another
-  Lex Hortensia enacted that the nundinae, which had hitherto been
-  feriae, should be dies fasti. This was done for the purpose of
-  accommodating the inhabitants of the country.
-
-
-  ICILĬA, B.C. 456, by which the Aventinus was assigned to the plebs.
-  This was the first instance of the ager publicus being assigned to
-  the plebs. Another Lex Icilia, proposed by the tribune Sp. Icilius,
-  B.C. 470, had for its object to prevent all interruption to the
-  tribunes while acting in the discharge of their duties. In some
-  cases the penalty was death.
-
-
-  JŪLĬAE. Most of the Juliae Leges were passed in the time of C.
-  Julius Caesar and Augustus.
-
-    DE ADULTERIIS. [ADULTERIUM.]
-
-    AGRARIA, B.C. 59, in the consulship of Caesar, for distributing the
-    ager publicus in Campania among 20,000 poor citizens, who had each
-    three children or more.
-
-    DE AMBITU. [AMBITUS.]
-
-    DE BONIS CEDENDIS. This lex provided that a debtor might escape all
-    personal molestation from his creditors by giving up his property
-    to them for the purpose of sale and distribution. It is doubtful if
-    this lex was passed in the time of Julius Caesar or of Augustus,
-    though probably of the former.
-
-    DE CAEDE ET VENEFICIO (Suet. _Ver._ 33), perhaps the same as the
-    Lex De Vi Publica.
-
-    DE CIVITATE was passed in the consulship of L. Julius Caesar and P.
-    Rutilius Lupus, B.C. 90. [CIVITAS; FOEDERATAE CIVITATES.]
-
-    DE FENORE, or rather De Pecuniis Mutuis or Creditis (B.C. 47),
-    passed in the time of Julius Caesar. The object of it was to make
-    an arrangement between debtors and creditors, for the satisfaction
-    of the latter. The possessiones and res were to be estimated at the
-    value which they had before the civil war, and to be surrendered to
-    the creditors at that value; whatever had been paid for interest
-    was to be deducted from the principal. The result was, that the
-    creditor lost about one-fourth of his debt; but he escaped the loss
-    usually consequent on civil disturbance, which would have been
-    caused by novae tabulae.
-
-    JUDICIARIAE. [JUDEX.]
-
-    DE LIBERIS LEGATIONIBUS. [LEGATUS.]
-
-    DE MAJESTATE. [MAJESTAS.]
-
-    DE MARITANDIS ORDINIBUS. [See below: JULIA ET PAPIA POPPAEA.]
-
-    MUNICIPALIS, commonly called the Table of Heraclea. In the year
-    1732 there were found near the Gulf of Tarentum and in the
-    neighbourhood of the city of ancient Heraclea, large fragments of a
-    bronze table, which contained on one side a Roman lex, and on the
-    other a Greek inscription. The whole is now in the Museo Borbonico
-    at Naples. The lex contains various provisions as to the police
-    of the city of Rome, and as to the constitution of communities of
-    Roman citizens (_municipia_, _coloniae_, _praefecturae_, _fora_,
-    _conciliabula civium Romanorum_). It was accordingly a lex of that
-    kind which is called Satura. It was probably passed in B.C. 45.
-
-    JULIA ET PAPIA POPPAEA. Augustus appears to have caused a lex to
-    be enacted about B.C. 18, which is cited as the _Lex Julia de
-    Maritandis Ordinibus_, and is referred to in the Carmen Seculare of
-    Horace, which was written in the year B.C. 17. The object of this
-    lex was to regulate marriages, as to which it contained numerous
-    provisions; but it appears not to have come into operation till
-    the year B.C. 13. In the year A.D. 9, and in the consulship of
-    M. Papius Mutilus and Q. Poppaeus Secundus (consules suffecti),
-    another lex was passed as a kind of amendment and supplement to
-    the former lex, and hence arose the title of Lex Julia et Papia
-    Poppaea, by which this lex is often quoted. The lex is often
-    variously quoted, according as reference is made to its various
-    provisions; sometimes it is called _Lex Julia_, sometimes _Papia
-    Poppaea_, sometimes _Lex Julia et Papia_, sometimes _Lex de
-    Maritandis Ordinibus_, from the chapter which treated of the
-    marriages of the senators, sometimes _Lex Caducaria, Decimaria_,
-    &c. from the various chapters. The Lex Julia forbade the marriage
-    of a senator or senator’s children with a libertina, with a woman
-    whose father or mother had followed an ars ludicra, and with a
-    prostitute; and also the marriage of a libertinus with a senator’s
-    daughter. In order to promote marriage, various penalties were
-    imposed on those who lived in a state of celibacy (_caelibatus_)
-    after a certain age, and various privileges were given to those who
-    had three or more children. A candidate for the public offices who
-    had several children was preferred to one who had fewer. After the
-    passing of this lex, it became usual for the senate, and afterwards
-    the emperor (_princeps_), to give occasionally, as a privilege to
-    certain persons who had not children, the same advantage that the
-    lex secured to those who had children. This was called the _Jus
-    Liberorum_, and sometimes the _Jus trium Liberorum_.
-
-    PECULATUS, cited in the Digest, related to sacrilege as well as
-    peculatus.
-
-    JULIA ET PLAUTIA, respecting stolen things.
-
-    JULIA PAPIRIA. [PAPIRIA.]
-
-    DE PROVINCIIS. [PROVINCIAE.]
-
-    REPETUNDARUM. [REPETUNDAE.]
-
-    SACRILEGIS. [See above: JULIA PECULATUS.]
-
-    SUMPTUARIAE. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.]
-
-    THEATRALIS, which permitted Roman equites, in case they or their
-    parents had ever had a census equestris, to sit in the fourteen
-    rows (_quatuordecim ordines_) fixed by the Lex Roscia Theatralis,
-    B.C. 69.
-
-    JULIA ET TITIA, respecting Tutors.
-
-    DE VI PUBLICA AND PRIVATA. [VIS.]
-
-    VICESIMARIA. [VICESIMA.]
-
-
-  JŪNĬA DE PĔRĔGRĪNIS, proposed B.C. 126, by M. Junius Pennus, a
-  tribune, banished peregrini from the city. A lex of C. Fannius,
-  consul B.C. 122, contained the same provisions respecting the
-  Latini and Italici; and a lex of C. Papius, perhaps B.C. 65,
-  contained the same respecting all persons who were not domiciled in
-  Italy.
-
-
-  JŪNĬA LĬCĬNĬA. [LICINIA JUNIA.]
-
-
-  JŪNIA NORBĀNA, of uncertain date, but probably about A.D. 17,
-  enacted that when a Roman citizen had manumitted a slave without
-  the requisite formalities, the manumission should not in all cases
-  be ineffectual, but the manumitted person should have the status of
-  a Latinus.
-
-
-  JŪNIA RĒPĔTUNDĀRUM. [REPETUNDAE.]
-
-
-  LAETŌRIA, the false name of the Lex Plaetoria. [CURATOR.] Sometimes
-  the lex proposed by Volero for electing plebeian magistrates at the
-  comitia tributa is cited as a Lex Laetoria.
-
-
-  LĬCĬNĬA DE SŎDĀLĬTIIS. [AMBITUS.]
-
-
-  LĬCĬNIA. [AEBUTIA.]
-
-
-  LĬCĬNIA DE LŪDIS ĂPOLLĬNĀRĬBUS. (Liv. xxvii. 23.)
-
-
-  LĬCĬNIA JŪNIA, or, as it is sometimes called, Junia et Licinia,
-  passed in the consulship of L. Licinius Murena and Junius Silanus,
-  B.C. 62, enforced the Caecilia Didia, in connection with which it
-  is sometimes mentioned.
-
-
-  LĬCĬNIA MŪCĬA DE CĪVĬBUS RĔGUNDIS, passed in the consulship of L.
-  Licinius Crassus and Q. Mucius Scaevola, B.C. 95, enacted a strict
-  examination as to the title to citizenship, and deprived of the
-  exercise of civic rights all those who could not make out a good
-  title to them. This measure partly led to the Marsic war.
-
-
-  LĬCĬNIA SUMPTUĀRIA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.]
-
-
-  LĬCĬNIAE, proposed by C. Licinius, who was tribune of the people
-  from B.C. 376 to 367, and who brought the contest between the
-  patricians and plebeians to a happy termination. He was supported
-  in his exertions by his colleague L. Sextius. The laws which he
-  proposed were: 1. That in future no more consular tribunes should
-  be appointed, but that consuls should be elected as in former
-  times, one of whom should always be a plebeian. 2. That no one
-  should possess more than 500 jugera of the public land, nor keep
-  upon it more than 100 head of large, or 500 of small cattle. It
-  is related that Licinius was accused and condemned for violating
-  his own law. Livy states that Licinius, together with his son,
-  held 1000 jugera of the public land, and by emancipating his son
-  had acted in fraud of the law. The son thus possessed 500 jugera
-  in his own name, while his father had the actual enjoyment. 3.
-  A law regulating the affairs between debtor and creditor, which
-  ordained that the interest already paid for borrowed money should
-  be deducted from the capital, and that the remainder of the
-  latter should be paid back in three yearly instalments. 4. That
-  the Sibylline books should be entrusted to a college of ten men
-  (_decemviri_), half of whom should be plebeians, in order that no
-  falsifications might be introduced in favour of the patricians.
-  These rogations were passed after a most vehement opposition on the
-  part of the patricians, and L. Sextius was the first plebeian who,
-  in accordance with the first of them, obtained the consulship for
-  the year B.C. 366.
-
-
-  LĬCĬNIA, also called MANLĬA, B.C. 196, created the triumviri
-  epulones.
-
-
-  LĪVĬAE, various enactments proposed by the tribune M. Livius
-  Drusus, B.C. 91, for establishing colonies in Italy and Sicily,
-  distributing corn among the poor citizens at a low rate, and
-  admitting the foederatae civitates to the Roman civitas. He is also
-  said to have been the mover of a law for adulterating silver by
-  mixing with it an eighth part of brass. Drusus was assassinated,
-  and the senate declared that all his laws were passed _contra
-  auspicia_, and were therefore not leges.
-
-
-  LUTĀTIA DE VI, proposed by the consul Q. Lutatius Catulus, with the
-  assistance of Plautius the tribune: usually called Lex Plautia or
-  Plotia. [VIS.]
-
-
-  MAENĬA LEX, is only mentioned by Cicero, who says that M. Curius
-  compelled the patres _ante auctores fieri_ in the case of the
-  election of a plebeian consul, “which,” adds Cicero, “was a great
-  thing to accomplish, as the Lex Maenia was not yet passed.” The lex
-  therefore required the patres to give their consent at least to the
-  election of a magistratus, or, in other words, to confer or agree
-  to confer the imperium on the person whom the comitia should elect.
-  It was probably proposed by the tribune Maenius B.C. 287.
-
-
-  MAJESTĀTIS. [MAJESTAS.]
-
-
-  MAMILĬA DE JŬGURTHAE FAUTŌRĬBUS. (Sall. _Jug._ 40.)
-
-
-  MAMILIA FINIUM RĔGUNDŌRUM, B.C. 239 or 165, respecting boundaries.
-
-
-  MĀNĪLĬA, proposed by the tribune C. Manilius, B.C. 66, was a
-  privilegium by which was conferred on Pompey the command in the war
-  against Mithridates. The lex was supported by Cicero when praetor.
-
-
-  MANLĬA. [LICINIA.]
-
-
-  MANLIA DE VĪCĒSĬMA, B.C. 357, imposed the tax of five per cent.
-  (_vicesima_) on the value of manumitted slaves.
-
-
-  MARCĬA, probably about the year B.C. 352, _adversus feneratores_.
-
-
-  MARCĬA, an agrarian law proposed by the tribune L. Marcius
-  Philippus, B.C. 104.
-
-
-  MĂRĬA, proposed by Marius when tribune, B.C. 119, for narrowing the
-  pontes at elections.
-
-
-  MEMMIA or REMMĬA. [CALUMNIA.]
-
-
-  MENSĬA, respecting the marriage of a Roman woman with a peregrinus,
-  declared the offspring of such marriages peregrini.
-
-
-  MĬNŬCĬA, B.C. 216, created the triumviri mensarii.
-
-
-  NERVAE AGRĀRIA, the latest known instance of a lex.
-
-
-  OCTĀVĬA, B.C. 91, one of the numerous leges frumentariae which
-  repealed a Sempronia Frumentaria. It is mentioned by Cicero as a
-  more reasonable measure than the Sempronia, which was too profuse.
-
-
-  OGULNĬA, proposed by the tribunes, B.C. 300, increased the number
-  of pontifices to eight, and that of the augurs to nine; it also
-  enacted that four of the pontifices and five of the augurs should
-  be taken from the plebes.
-
-
-  OPPĬA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.]
-
-
-  ORCHĬA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.]
-
-
-  ŎVĪNĬA, of uncertain date, was a plebiscitum which gave the censors
-  certain powers in regulating the lists of the senators (_ordo
-  senatorius_): the main object seems to have been to exclude all
-  improper persons from the senate, and to prevent their admission,
-  if in other respects qualified.
-
-
-  PĀPĬA DE PĔRĔGRĪNIS. [LEX JUNIA DE PEREGRINIS.]
-
-
-  PĀPIA POPPAEA. [LEX JULIA ET PAPIA POPPAEA.]
-
-
-  PĂPĪRĬA or JŪLIA PĂPĪRIA DE MULCTĀRUM AESTĬMĀTIŌNE (B.C. 430),
-  fixed a money value according to which fines were paid, which
-  formerly were paid in sheep and cattle. Some writers make this
-  valuation part of the Aternian law [ATERNIA TARPEIA], but in this
-  they appear to have been mistaken.
-
-
-  PĂPĪRIA, by which the as was made semuncialis, one of the various
-  enactments which tampered with the coinage.
-
-
-  PĂPĪRĬA, B.C. 332, proposed by the praetor Papirius, gave the
-  Acerrani the civitas without the suffragium. It was properly a
-  privilegium, but is useful as illustrating the history of the
-  extension of the civitas Romana.
-
-
-  PĂPĪRĬA, of uncertain date, enacted that no _aedes_ should be
-  declared _consecratae_ without a plebiscitum.
-
-
-  PĂPĪRIA PLAUTĬA, a plebiscitum of the year B.C. 89, proposed by
-  the tribunes C. Papirius Carbo and M. Plautius Silvanus, in the
-  consulship of Cn. Pompeius Strabo and L. Porcius Cato, is called
-  by Cicero a lex of Silvanus and Carbo. [See CIVITAS; FOEDERATAE
-  CIVITATES.]
-
-
-  PĂPĪRIA POETELĬA. [LEX POETELIA.]
-
-
-  PĂPĪRIA TĂBELLĀRĬA. [LEGES TABELLARIAE.]
-
-
-  PĔDĬA, relating to the murderers of Caesar.
-
-
-  PĒDŪCAEA, B.C. 113, a plebiscitum, seems to have been merely a
-  privilegium, and not a general law against incestum.
-
-
-  PESULĀNĬA, provided that if an animal did any damage, the owner
-  should make it good, or give up the animal.
-
-
-  PĔTILLĬA, DE PECUNIA REGIS ANTIOCHI. (Liv. xxxviii. 54.)
-
-
-  PETRĒIA, _de decimatione militum_, in case of mutiny.
-
-
-  PETRŌNĬA, probably passed in the time of Augustus, and subsequently
-  amended by various senatusconsulta, forbade a master to deliver up
-  his slave to fight with wild beasts.
-
-
-  PĪNĀRĬ, related to the giving of a judex within a limited time.
-
-
-  PLAETŌRĬA. [CURATOR.]
-
-
-  PLAUTĬA or PLŎTIA DE VI. [VIS.]
-
-
-  PLAUTIA or PLŌTIA JŪDĬCĬĀRIA, enacted that fifteen persons should
-  be annually taken from each tribe to be placed in the Album Judicum.
-
-
-  PLAUTIA ET PLŌTIA DE RĔDĬTU LĔPĬDĀNORUM. (Suet. Caes. 5.)
-
-
-  POETELĬA, B.C. 358, a plebiscitum, was the first lex against
-  ambitus.
-
-
-  POETELIA PĂPĪRIA, B.C. 326, made an important change in the
-  liabilities of the Nexi.
-
-
-  POMPĒIAE. There were various leges so called.
-
-    DE CIVITATE, proposed by Cn. Pompeius Strabo, the father of Cn.
-    Pompeius Magnus, probably in his consulship B.C. 89, gave the
-    jus Latii or Latinitas to all the towns of the Transpadani, and
-    probably the civitas to the Cispadani.
-
-    DE AMBITU. [AMBITUS.]
-
-    DE IMPERIO CAESARI PROROGANDO. (Vell. Pat. ii. 46; Appian, B.C. ii.
-    18.)
-
-    JUDICIARIA. [JUDEX, p. 217, _a_.]
-
-    DE JURE MAGISTRATUUM, forbade a person to be a candidate for public
-    offices (_petitio honorum_) who was not at Rome; but J. Caesar was
-    excepted. This was doubtless the old law, but it had apparently
-    become obsolete.
-
-    DE PARRICIDIIS. [PARRICIDIUM.]
-
-    TRIBUNITIA (B.C. 70), restored the old tribunitia potestas, which
-    Sulla had nearly destroyed. [TRIBUNI.]
-
-    DE VI, was a privilegium, and only referred to the case of Milo.
-
-
-  PORCĬAE DE CĂPĬTE CĪVĬUM, or DE PRŌVŎCĀTIŌNE, enacted that no Roman
-  citizen should be scourged or put to death.
-
-
-  PORCIA DE PRŌVINCIIS, about B.C. 198, the enactments of which are
-  doubtful.
-
-
-  PUBLĬCĬA, permitted betting at certain games which required
-  strength.
-
-
-  PUBLĪLĬA. In the consulship of L. Pinarius and P. Furius, B.C.
-  471, the tribune Publilius Volero proposed, in the assembly of the
-  tribes, that the tribunes should in future be appointed in the
-  comitia of the tribes (_ut plebeii magistratus tributis comitiis
-  fierent_), instead of by the centuries, as had formerly been the
-  case; since the clients of the patricians were so numerous in the
-  centuries, that the plebeians could not elect whom they wished.
-  This measure was violently opposed by the patricians, who prevented
-  the tribes from coming to any resolution respecting it throughout
-  this year; but in the following year, B.C. 471, Publilius was
-  re-elected tribune, and together with him C. Laetorius, a man
-  of still greater resolution than Publilius. Fresh measures were
-  added to the former proposition: the aediles were to be chosen by
-  the tribes, as well as the tribunes, and the tribes were to be
-  competent to deliberate and determine on all matters affecting the
-  whole nation, and not such only as might concern the plebes. This
-  proposition, though still more violently resisted by the patricians
-  than the one of the previous year, was carried. Some said that the
-  number of the tribunes was now for the first time raised to five,
-  having been only two previously.
-
-
-  PUBLĪLĬAE, proposed by the dictator Q. Publilius Philo, B.C. 339.
-  According to Livy, there were three Publiliae Leges. 1. The first
-  is said to have enacted, that plebiscita should bind all Quirites,
-  which is to the same purport as the Lex Hortensia of B.C. 286. It
-  is probable, however, that the object of this law was to render the
-  approval of the senate a sufficient confirmation of a plebiscitum,
-  and to make the confirmation of the curiae unnecessary. 2. The
-  second law enacted, _ut legum quae comitiis centuriatis ferrerentur
-  ante initum suffragium patres auctores fierent_. By patres
-  Livy here means the curiae; and accordingly this law made the
-  confirmation of the curiae a mere formality in reference to all
-  laws submitted to the comitia centuriata, since every law proposed
-  by the senate to the centuries was to be considered to have the
-  sanction of the curiae also. 3. The third law enacted that one of
-  the two censors should necessarily be a plebeian. It is probable
-  that there was also a fourth law, which applied the Licinian law to
-  the praetorship as well as to the censorship, and which provided
-  that in each alternate year the praetor should be a plebeian.
-
-
-  PŪPĬA, mentioned by Cicero, seems to have enacted that the senate
-  could not meet on comitiales dies.
-
-
-  QUINTĬA, was a lex proposed by T. Quintius Crispinus, consul B.C.
-  9, for the preservation of the aquaeductus.
-
-
-  RĒGĬA. A _Lex Regia_ during the kingly period of Roman history
-  might have a two-fold meaning. In the first place it was a law
-  which had been passed by the comitia under the presidency of the
-  king, and was thus distinguished from a _Lex Tribunicia_, which was
-  passed by the comitia under the presidency of the tribunus celerum.
-  In later times all laws, the origin of which was attributed to
-  the time of the kings, were called _Leges Regiae_, though it by no
-  means follows that they were all passed under the presidency of the
-  kings, and much less, that they were enacted by the kings without
-  the sanction of the curies. Some of these laws were preserved and
-  followed at a very late period of Roman history. A collection
-  of them was made, though at what time is uncertain, by Papisius
-  or Papirius, and this compilation was called the _Jus Civile
-  Papirianum_ or _Papisianum_. The second meaning of _Lex Regia_
-  during the kingly period was undoubtedly the same as that of the
-  _Lex Curiata de Imperio_. [IMPERIUM.] This indeed is not mentioned
-  by any ancient writer, but must be inferred from the _Lex Regia_
-  which we meet with under the empire, for the name could scarcely
-  have been invented then; it must have come down from early times,
-  when its meaning was similar, though not nearly so extensive.
-  During the empire the curies continued to hold their meetings,
-  though they were only a shadow of those of former times; and after
-  the election of a new emperor, they conferred upon him the imperium
-  in the ancient form by a _Lex Curiata de Imperio_, which was now
-  usually called _Lex Regia_. The imperium, however, which this
-  _Regia Lex_ conferred upon an emperor, was of a very different
-  nature from that which in former times it had conferred upon the
-  kings. It now embraced all the rights and powers which the populus
-  Romanus had formerly possessed, so that the emperor became what
-  formerly the populus had been, that is, the sovereign power in the
-  state. A fragment of such a lex regia, conferring the imperium upon
-  Vespasian, engraved upon a brazen table, is still extant in the
-  Lateran at Rome.
-
-
-  REMNĬA. [CALUMNIA.]
-
-
-  RĔPĔTUNDĀRUM. [REPETUNDAE.]
-
-
-  RHŎDĬA. The Rhodians had a maritime code which was highly esteemed.
-  Some of its provisions were adopted by the Romans, and have thus
-  been incorporated into the maritime law of European states. It was
-  not, however, a lex in the proper sense of the term.
-
-
-  ROSCĬA THEĀTRĀLIS, proposed by the tribune L. Roscius Otho, B.C.
-  67, which gave the equites a special place at the public spectacles
-  in fourteen rows or seats (_in quatuordecim gradibus sive
-  ordinibus_) next to the place of the senators, which was in the
-  orchestra. This lex also assigned a certain place to spendthrifts.
-  The phrase _sedere in quatuordecim ordinibus_ is equivalent to
-  having the proper census equestris which was required by the lex.
-  There are numerous allusions to this lex, which is sometimes
-  simply called the Lex of Otho, or referred to by his name. It is
-  erroneously supposed by some writers to have been enacted in the
-  consulship of Cicero, B.C. 63.
-
-
-  RUBRĬA. The province of Gallia Cisalpina ceased to be a
-  provincia, and became a part of Italia, about the year B.C. 43.
-  When this change took place, it was necessary to provide for
-  the administration of justice, as the usual modes of provincial
-  administration would cease with the determination of the provincial
-  form of government. This was effected by a lex, a large part of
-  which, on a bronze tablet, is preserved in the Museum at Parma. The
-  name of this lex is not known, but it is supposed by some to be the
-  Lex Rubria.
-
-
-  RŬPĬLĬAE LĒGES (B.C. 131), were the regulations established by P.
-  Rupilius, and ten legati, for the administration of the province of
-  Sicily, after the close of the first servile war. They were made
-  in pursuance of a consultum of the senate. Cicero speaks of these
-  regulations as a decretum of Rupilius, which he says they call
-  Lex Rupilia; but it was not a lex proper. The powers given to the
-  commissioners by the Lex Julia Municipalis were of a similar kind.
-
-
-  SĂCRĀTAE. Leges were properly so called which had for their object
-  to make a thing or person _sacer_. A lex sacrata militaris is also
-  mentioned by Livy.
-
-
-  SAENĬA DE PATRICIORUM NUMERO AUGENDO, enacted in the 5th consulship
-  of Augustus.
-
-
-  SĂTŬRA. [LEX, p. 226, _a_.]
-
-
-  SCANTĪNĬA, proposed by a tribune; the date and contents are not
-  known, but its object was to suppress unnatural crimes. It existed
-  in the time of Cicero.
-
-
-  SCRĪBŌNĬA. The date and whole import of this lex are not known; but
-  it enacted that a right to servitutes should not be acquired by
-  usucapion.
-
-
-  SCRĪBŌNIA VĬĀRIA or DE VIIS MUNIENDIS, B.C. 51.
-
-
-  SEMPRŌNĬAE, the name of various laws proposed by Tiberius and Caius
-  Sempronius Gracchus.
-
-    AGRARIA. In B.C. 133 the tribune Tib. Gracchus revived the Agrarian
-    law of Licinius [LEGES LICINIAE]: he proposed that no one should
-    possess more than 500 jugera of the public land, and that the
-    surplus land should be divided among the poor citizens, who were
-    not to have the power of alienating it: he also proposed, as a
-    compensation to the possessors deprived of the land on which they
-    had frequently made improvements, that the former possessors should
-    have the full ownership of 500 jugera, and each of their sons, if
-    they had any, half that quantity: finally, that three commissioners
-    (_triumviri_) should be appointed every year to carry the law into
-    effect. This law naturally met with the greatest opposition, but
-    it was eventually passed in the year in which it was proposed, and
-    Tib. Gracchus, C. Gracchus, and Appius Claudius were the three
-    commissioners appointed under it. It was, however, never carried
-    fully into effect, in consequence of the murder of Tib. Gracchus.
-    Owing to the difficulties which were experienced in carrying his
-    brother’s agrarian law into effect, it was again brought forward by
-    C. Gracchus, B.C. 123.
-
-    DE CAPITE CIVIUM ROMANORUM, proposed by C. Gracchus B.C. 123,
-    enacted that the people only should decide respecting the caput or
-    civil condition of a citizen. This law continued in force till the
-    latest times of the republic.
-
-    FRUMENTARIA, proposed by C. Gracchus B.C. 123, enacted that corn
-    should be sold by the state to the people once a month at the price
-    of 6⅓ asses for each modius, which was equal to 1 gallon and nearly
-    8 pints English. This was only a trifle more than half the market
-    price.
-
-    JUDICIARIA. [JUDEX, p. 216.]
-
-    MILITARIS, proposed by C. Gracchus B.C. 123, enacted that the
-    soldiers should receive their clothing gratis, and that no one
-    should be enrolled as a soldier under the age of seventeen.
-    Previously a fixed sum was deducted from the pay for all clothes
-    and arms issued to the soldiers.
-
-    NE QUIS JUDICIO CIRCUMVENIRETUR, proposed by C. Gracchus, B.C. 123,
-    punished all who conspired to obtain the condemnation of a person
-    in a judicium publicum. One of the provisions of the Lex Cornelia
-    de Sicariis was to the same effect.
-
-    DE PROVINCIIS CONSULARIBUS, proposed by C. Gracchus B.C. 123,
-    enacted that the senate should fix each year, before the comitia
-    for electing the consuls were held, the two provinces which were to
-    be allotted to the two new consuls. There was also a Sempronian law
-    concerning the province of Asia, which probably did not form part
-    of the Lex de Provinciis Consularibus: it enacted that the taxes
-    of this province should be let out to farm by the censors at Rome.
-    This law was afterwards repealed by J. Caesar.
-
-
-  SEMPRŌNIA DE FĒNŎRE, B.C. 193, was a plebiscitum proposed by a
-  tribune, M. Sempronius, which enacted that the law (_jus_) about
-  money lent (_pecunia credita_) should be the same for the Socii and
-  Latini (_Socii ac nomen Latinum_) as for Roman citizens. The object
-  of the lex was to prevent Romans from lending money in the name of
-  the Socii, who were not bound by the fenebres leges. The lex could
-  obviously only apply within the jurisdiction of Rome.
-
-
-  SERVĪLĬA AGRĀRIA, proposed by the tribune P. S. Rullus in the
-  consulship of Cicero, B.C. 63, was a very extensive agrarian
-  rogatio. It was successfully opposed by Cicero; but it was in
-  substance carried by J. Caesar, B.C. 59 [LEX JULIA AGRARIA], and is
-  the lex called by Cicero _Lex Campana_, from the public land called
-  ager campanus being assigned under this lex.
-
-
-  SERVĪLĬA GLAUCIA DE CĪVĬTĀTE. [REPETUNDAE.]
-
-
-  SERVĪLIA GLAUCIA DE RĔPĔTUNDIS. [REPETUNDAE.]
-
-
-  SERVĪLIA JŪDĬCĬĀRIA, B.C. 106. [JUDEX, p. 216.] It is assumed by
-  some writers that a lex of the tribune Servius Glaucia repealed the
-  Servilia Judiciaria two years after its enactment.
-
-
-  SĪLĬA, relating to Publica Pondera.
-
-
-  SILVĀNI ET CARBŌNIS. [LEX PAPIRIA PLAUTIA.]
-
-
-  SULPĬCĬAE, proposed by the tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus, a
-  supporter of Marius, B.C. 88, enacted the recall of the exiles,
-  the distribution of the new citizens and the libertini among the
-  thirty-five tribes, that the command in the Mithridatic war should
-  be taken from Sulla and given to Marius, and that a senator should
-  not contract debt to the amount of more than 2000 denarii. The last
-  enactment may have been intended to expel persons from the senate
-  who should get in debt. All these leges were repealed by Sulla.
-
-
-  SULPĬCĬA SEMPRŌNĬA, B.C. 304. No name is given to this lex by Livy,
-  but it was probably proposed by the consuls. It prevented the
-  dedicatio of a templum or altar without the consent of the senate
-  or a majority of the tribunes.
-
-
-  SUMPTUĀRĬAE, the name of various laws passed to prevent inordinate
-  expense (_sumptus_) in banquets, dress, &c. In the states of
-  antiquity it was considered the duty of government to put a check
-  upon extravagance in the private expenses of persons, and among the
-  Romans in particular we find traces of this in the laws attributed
-  to the kings, and in the Twelve Tables. The censors, to whom
-  was entrusted the _disciplina_ or _cura morum_, punished by the
-  _nota censoria_ all persons guilty of what was then regarded as
-  a luxurious mode of living; a great many instances of this kind
-  are recorded. But as the love of luxury greatly increased with
-  the foreign conquests of the republic and the growing wealth of
-  the nation, various leges sumptuariae were passed at different
-  times with the object of restraining it. These, however, as may be
-  supposed, rarely accomplished their object, and in the latter times
-  of the republic they were virtually repealed. The following list of
-  them is arranged in chronological order:--
-
-    OPPIA, proposed by the tribune C. Oppius in B.C. 215, enacted
-    that no woman should have above half an ounce of gold, nor wear a
-    dress of different colours, nor ride in a carriage in the city or
-    in any town, or within a mile of it, unless on account of public
-    sacrifices. This law was repealed twenty years afterwards, whence
-    we frequently find the Lex Orchia mentioned as the first lex
-    sumptuaria.
-
-    ORCHIA, proposed by the tribune C. Orchius in B.C. 181, limited the
-    number of guests to be present at entertainments.
-
-    FANNIA, proposed by the consul C. Fannius, B.C. 61, limited the
-    sums which were to be spent on entertainments, and enacted that not
-    more than 100 asses should be spent on certain festivals named in
-    the lex, whence it is called _centussis_ by Lucilius; that on ten
-    other days in each month not more than 30 asses, and that on all
-    other days not more than 10 asses, should be expended; also that no
-    other fowl but one hen should be served up, and that not fattened
-    for the purpose.
-
-    DIDIA, passed B.C. 143, extended the Lex Fannia to the whole of
-    Italy, and enacted that not only those who gave entertainments
-    which exceeded in expense what the law had prescribed, but also
-    all who were present at such entertainments, should be liable to
-    the penalties of the law. We are not, however, told in what these
-    consisted.
-
-    LICINIA, agreed in its chief provisions with the Lex Fannia, and
-    was brought forward, we are told, that there might be the authority
-    of a new law upon the subject, inasmuch as the Lex Fannia was
-    beginning to be neglected. It allowed 200 asses to be spent on
-    entertainments upon marriage days, and on other days the same as
-    the Lex Fannia; also, that on ordinary days there should not be
-    served up more than three pounds of fresh, and one pound of salt
-    meat. It was probably passed in B.C. 103.
-
-    CORNELIA, a law of the dictator Sulla, B.C. 81, was enacted on
-    account of the neglect of the Fannian and Licinian Laws. Like
-    these, it regulated the expenses of entertainments. Extravagance in
-    funerals, which had been forbidden even in the Twelve Tables, was
-    also restrained by a law of Sulla.
-
-    AEMILIA, proposed by the consul Aemilius Lepidus, B.C. 78, did not
-    limit the expenses of entertainments, but the kind and quantity of
-    food that was to be used.
-
-    ANTIA, of uncertain date, proposed by Antius Resto, besides
-    limiting the expenses of entertainments, enacted that no actual
-    magistrate, or magistrate elect, should dine abroad anywhere except
-    at the houses of certain persons. This law however was little
-    observed; and we are told that Antius never dined out afterwards,
-    that he might not see his own law violated.
-
-    JULIA, proposed by the dictator C. Julius Caesar, enforced the
-    former sumptuary laws respecting entertainments which had fallen
-    into disuse. He stationed officers in the provision market to seize
-    upon all eatables forbidden by the law, and sometimes sent lictors
-    and soldiers to banquets to take everything which was not allowed
-    by the law.
-
-    JULIA, a lex of Augustus, allowed 200 sesterces to be expended
-    upon festivals on dies profesti, 300 on those of the calends,
-    ides, nones, and some other festive days, and 1000 upon marriage
-    feasts. There was also an edict of Augustus or Tiberius, by which
-    as much as from 300 to 2000 sesterces were allowed to be expended
-    upon entertainments, the increase being made with the hope of
-    securing thereby the observance of the law. Tiberius attempted to
-    check extravagance in banquets; and a senatusconsultum was passed
-    in his reign for the purpose of restraining luxury, which forbade
-    gold vases to be employed, except for sacred purposes, and also
-    prohibited the use of silk garments to men. This sumptuary law,
-    however, was but little observed. Some regulations on the subject
-    were also made by Nero and by succeeding emperors, but they appear
-    to have been of little or no avail in checking the increasing love
-    of luxury in dress and food.
-
-
-    TĂBELLĀRĬAE, the laws by which the ballot was introduced in voting
-    in the comitia. As to the ancient mode of voting at Rome, see
-    COMITIA, p. 107.
-
-    GABINIA, proposed by the tribune Gabinius B.C. 139, introduced the
-    ballot in the election of magistrates; whence Cicero calls the
-    tabella _vindex tacitae libertatis_.
-
-    CASSIA, proposed by the tribune L. Cassius Longinus B.C. 137,
-    introduced the ballot in the _judicium populi_, or cases tried in
-    the comitia by the whole body of the people, with the exception of
-    cases of perduellio.
-
-    PAPIRIA, proposed by the tribune C. Papirius Carbo, B.C. 131,
-    introduced the ballot in the enactment and repeal of laws.
-
-    CAELIA, proposed by C. Caelius Caldus, B.C. 107, introduced the
-    ballot in cases of perduellio, which had been excepted in the
-    Cassian law. There was also a law brought forward by Marius, B.C.
-    119, which, was intended to secure freedom and order in voting.
-
-
-  TARPĒIA ATERNĬA. [ATERNIA TARPEIA.]
-
-
-  TĔRENTĪLĬA, proposed by the tribune C. Terentilius, B.C. 462, but
-  not carried, was a rogatio which had for its object an amendment of
-  the constitution, though in form it only attempted a limitation of
-  the imperium consulare. This rogatio probably led to the subsequent
-  legislation of the decemviri.
-
-
-  TESTĀMENTĀRĬAE. Various leges, such as the Cornelia, Falcidia,
-  Furia, and Voconia, regulated testamentary dispositions.
-
-
-  THŎRĬA, passed B.C. 121, concerned the public land in Italy as
-  far as the rivers Rubico and Macra, or all Italy except Cisalpine
-  Gaul, the public land in the province of Africa, the public land in
-  the territory of Corinth, and probably other public land besides.
-  It relieved a great part of the public land of the land-tax
-  (_vectigal_). Some considerable fragments of this lex have come
-  down to us, engraved on the back part of the same bronze tablet
-  which contained the Servilia Lex Judiciaria, and on Repetundae.
-
-
-  TĬTĬA, similar in its provisions to the Lex Publicia.
-
-
-  TĬTĬA, DE TUTORIBUS. [JULIA ET TITIA.]
-
-
-  TRĒBONĬA, a plebiscitum proposed by L. Trebonius, B.C. 448, which
-  enacted that if the ten tribunes were not chosen before the comitia
-  were dissolved, those who were elected should not fill up the
-  number (_co-optare_), but that the comitia should be continued till
-  the ten were elected.
-
-
-  TRĒBŌNĬA DE PRŌVINCIIS CONSULĀRĬBUS. (Plut. _Cat. Min._ 43; Liv.
-  _Epit._ 105.)
-
-
-  TRĬBŪNĬTĬA. (1) A law passed in the times of the kings under
-  the presidency of the tribunus celerum, and was so called to
-  distinguish it from one passed under the presidency of the king.
-  [LEX REGIA.]--(2) Any law proposed by a tribune of the plebs.--(3)
-  The law proposed by Pompey in B.C. 70, restoring to the tribunes of
-  the plebs the power of which they had been deprived by Sulla.
-
-
-  TULLĬA DE AMBĬTU. [AMBITUS.]
-
-
-  TULLIA DE LĒGĀTIŌNE LĪBĔRA. [LEGATUS, p. 224.]
-
-
-  VĂLĔRĬAE, proposed by the consul P. Valerius Publicola, B.C. 508,
-  enacted, 1. That whoever attempted to obtain possession of royal
-  power should be devoted to the gods, together with his substance.
-  2. That whoever was condemned by the sentence of a magistrate to
-  be put to death, to be scourged, or to be fined, should possess
-  the right of appeal (_provocatio_) to the people. The patricians
-  possessed previously the right of appeal from the sentence of a
-  magistrate to their own council the curiae, and therefore this
-  law of Valerius probably related only to the plebeians, to whom
-  it gave the right of appeal to the plebeian tribes, and not to
-  the centuries. Hence the laws proposed by the Valerian family
-  respecting the right of appeal are always spoken of as one of
-  the chief safeguards of the liberty of the plebs. The right of
-  appeal did not extend beyond a mile from the city, where unlimited
-  imperium began, to which the patricians were just as much subject
-  as the plebeians.
-
-
-  VĂLĔRĬAE ET HŎRĀTĬAE, three laws proposed by the consuls L.
-  Valerius and M. Horatius, B.C. 449, in the year after the
-  decemvirate, enacted, 1. That a plebiscitum should be binding on
-  the whole people, respecting the meaning of which expression, see
-  PLEBISCITUM. 2. That whoever should procure the election of a
-  magistrate without appeal should be outlawed, and might be killed
-  by any one with impunity. 3. Renewed the penalty threatened against
-  any one who should harm the tribunes and the aediles, to whom were
-  now added the judices and decemviri. There is considerable doubt as
-  to who are meant by the _judices_ and _decemviri_.
-
-
-  VĂLĔRĬA, proposed by the consul M. Valerius, B.C. 300, re-enacted
-  for the third time the celebrated law of his family respecting
-  appeal (_provocatio_) from the decision of a magistrate. The law
-  specified no fixed penalty for its violation, leaving the judges to
-  determine what the punishment should be.
-
-
-  VĂRĬA. [MAJESTAS.]
-
-
-  VĂTĪNĬA DE PRŌVINCIIS, was the enactment by which Julius Caesar
-  obtained the province of Gallia Cisalpina with Illyricum for
-  five years, to which the senate added Gallia Transalpina. This
-  plebiscitum was proposed by the tribune Vatinius. A Trebonia Lex
-  subsequently prolonged Caesar’s imperium for five years.
-
-
-  VĂTĪNĬA DE CŎLŌNIS, under which the Latina Colonia [LATINITAS] of
-  Novum-Comum in Gallia Cisalpina was planted, B.C. 59.
-
-
-  VĂTĪNIA DE REJECTIŌNE JŪDĬCUM. (Cic. _in Vatin._ 11.)
-
-
-  DE VI. [VIS.]
-
-
-  VĬĀRĬA. A viaria lex which Cicero says the tribune C. Curio
-  talked of; but nothing more seems to be known of it. Some modern
-  writers speak of leges viariae, but there do not appear to be any
-  leges properly so called. The provisions as to roads in many of
-  the Agrarian laws were parts of such leges, and had no special
-  reference to roads.
-
-
-  VISELLĬA, made a Latinus who assumed the rights of an ingenuus
-  liable to prosecution.
-
-
-  VILLĬA ANNĀLIS. [LEX ANNALIS.]
-
-
-  VŎCŌNIA, enacted on the proposal of Q. Voconius Saxa, a tribunus
-  plebis, B.C. 169. One provision of the lex was, that no person
-  who should be rated in the census at 100,000 sesterces (_centum
-  millia aeris_) after the census of that year, should make any
-  female (_virginem neve mulierem_) his heres. The lex allowed no
-  exceptions, even in favour of an only daughter. It applied simply
-  to testaments, and therefore a daughter or other female could
-  inherit ab intestato to any amount. The vestal virgins could make
-  women their heredes in all cases, which was the only exception to
-  the provisions of the lex. Another provision of the lex forbade
-  a person who was included in the census to give more in amount,
-  in the form of a legacy to any person, than the heres or heredes
-  should take. This provision secured something to the heres or
-  heredes, but still the provision was ineffectual, and the object of
-  the lex was only accomplished by the Lex Falcidia, B.C. 44, which
-  enacted that a testator should not give more than three-fourths in
-  legacies, thus securing a fourth to the heres.
-
-
-LĪBELLA, a small Roman silver coin, which existed in the early age
-of the city. The name was retained later as a proverbial expression
-for a very small value. The _libella_ was equal in value to the old
-full-weight _as_; and it seems most probable that the coin ceased
-being struck at the time of the reduction of the _as_, on account
-of the inconveniently small size which it would have assumed.
-The _libella_ was subdivided into the _sembella_, its half, and
-the _teruncius_, its quarter. Cicero uses these words to express
-fractions of an estate, with reference to the _denarius_ as the unit,
-the _libella_ signifying 1-10th, and the _teruncius_ 1-40th of the
-whole.
-
-
-LĬBELLUS, the diminutive form of liber, signifies properly a little
-book. It was distinguished from other kinds of writings, by being
-written like our books by pages, whereas other writings were written
-_transversa charta_. It was used by the Romans as a technical term
-in the following cases:--1. _Libelli accusatorum_ or _accusatorii_,
-the written accusations which in some cases a plaintiff, after having
-received the permission to bring an action against a person, drew up,
-signed, and sent to the judicial authorities. 2. _Libelli famosi_,
-libels or pasquinades, intended to injure the character of persons.
-A law of the Twelve Tables inflicted very severe punishments on
-those who composed defamatory writings. 3. _Libellus memorialis_,
-a pocket or memorandum book. 4. _Libellus_ is used by the Roman
-jurists as equivalent to _Oratio Principis_. 5. The word libellus was
-also applied to a variety of writings, which in most cases probably
-consisted of one page only; such as short letters, advertisements, &c.
-
-
-[Illustration: Ancient Writing Materials. (From a Painting at
-Herculaneum.)]
-
-LĬBER (βιβλίον), a book. The most common material on which books
-were written by the Greeks and Romans, was the thin coats or rind
-(_liber_, whence the Latin name for a book) of the Egyptian papyrus.
-This plant was called by the Egyptians Byblos (βύβλος), whence the
-Greeks derived their name for a book (βιβλίον). The papyrus-tree
-grows in swamps to the height of ten feet and more, and paper
-(_charta_) was prepared from the thin coats or pellicles which
-surround the plant. Next to the papyrus, parchment (_membrana_)
-was the most common material for writing upon. It is said to have
-been invented by Eumenes II. king of Pergamus, in consequence of
-the prohibition of the export of papyrus from Egypt by Ptolemy
-Epiphanes. It is probable, however, that Eumenes introduced only
-some improvement in the manufacture of parchment, as Herodotus
-mentions writing on skins as common in his time, and says that the
-Ionians had been accustomed to give the name of skins (διφθέραι) to
-books. The ancients wrote usually on only one side of the paper or
-parchment. The back of the paper, instead of being written upon, was
-usually stained with saffron colour or the cedrus, which produced a
-yellow colour. As paper and parchment were dear, it was frequently
-the custom to erase or wash out writing of little importance, and
-to write upon the paper or parchment again, which was then called
-_Palimpsestus_ (παλιμψήστος). The paper or parchment was joined
-together so as to form one sheet, and when the work was finished, it
-was rolled on a staff, whence it was called a _volumen_; and hence we
-have the expression _evolvere librum_. When an author divided a work
-into several books, it was usual to include only one book in a volume
-or roll, so that there was generally the same number of volumes as
-of books. In the papyri rolls found at Herculaneum, the stick on
-which the papyrus is rolled does not project from the papyrus, but
-is concealed by it. Usually, however, there were balls or bosses,
-ornamented or painted, called _umbilici_ or _cornua_, which were
-fastened at each end of the stick and projected from the papyrus. The
-ends of the roll were carefully cut, polished with pumice-stone and
-coloured black; they were called the _geminae frontes_. The way in
-which a book was held while reading is shown in the following cut,
-taken from a painting at Herculaneum. To protect the roll from injury
-it was frequently put into a parchment case, which was stained with
-a purple colour or with the yellow of the Lutum. The title of the
-book (_titulus_, _index_) was written on a small strip of papyrus or
-parchment with a light red colour (_coccum_ or _minium_).
-
-[Illustration: Book held by a crowned Poet. (From a Painting at
-Herculaneum.)]
-
-
-LĪBĔRĀLĬA. [DIONYSIA.]
-
-
-LĪBĔRI. [INGENUI; LIBERTUS.]
-
-
-LĪBERTUS, LĪBERTĪNUS. Freemen (_liberi_) were either _Ingenui_
-[INGENUI] or _Libertini_. _Libertini_ were those persons who
-had been released from legal servitude. A manumitted slave was
-_Libertus_ (that is, _liberatus_) with reference to his master; with
-reference to the class to which he belonged after manumission, he was
-_Libertinus_. Respecting the mode in which a slave was manumitted,
-and his status after manumission, see MANUMISSIO.--At Athens, a
-liberated slave was called ἀπελεύθερος. When manumitted he did not
-obtain the citizenship, but was regarded as a _metoicus_ [METOICUS],
-and, as such, he had to pay not only the _metoicion_ μετοίκιον but
-a triobolon in addition to it. His former master became his patron
-προστάτης to whom he owed certain duties.
-
-
-LĬBĬTĪNĀRĬI. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-LĪBRA, _dim._ LĪBELLA σταθμός, a balance, a pair of scales. The
-principal parts of this instrument were, 1. The beam (_jugum_). 2.
-The two scales, called in Greek τάλαντα, and in Latin _lances_.
-The beam was made without a tongue, being held by a ring or other
-appendage (_ligula_, ῥῦμα) fixed in the centre.
-
-
-LĪBRA or AS, a pound, the unit of weight among the Romans and
-Italians. The uncial division, which has been noticed in speaking
-of the coin As, was also applied to the weight.--(See Tables at the
-end.) The divisions of the ounce are given under UNCIA. Where the
-word _pondo_, or its abbreviations P. or POND., occur with a simple
-number, the weight understood is the _libra_. The name _libra_ was
-also given to a measure of horn, divided into twelve equal parts
-(_unciae_) by lines marked on it, and used for measuring oil.
-
-
-LIBRĀRĬI, the name of slaves, who were employed by their masters
-in writing or copying, sometimes called _antiquarii_. They must be
-distinguished from the Scribae publici, who were freemen [SCRIBAE],
-and also from the booksellers [BIBLIOPOLA], to both of whom this name
-was also applied.
-
-
-LĪBRĀTOR, in general a person who examines things by a LIBRA;
-but specially applied to two kinds of persons.--(1) _Libratores
-aquae_, persons whose knowledge of hydrostatics was indispensable
-in the construction of aquaeducts, sewers, and other structures for
-the purpose of conveying a fluid from one place to another.--(2)
-_Libratores_ in the armies were probably soldiers who attacked the
-enemy by hurling with their own hands (_librando_) lances or spears
-against them.
-
-
-LIBRĬPENS. [MANCIPIUM.]
-
-
-LĬBURNA, LĬBURNĬCA, a light vessel, which derived its name from
-the Liburni. The ships of this people were of great assistance to
-Augustus at the battle of Actium; and experience having shown their
-efficiency, vessels of a similar kind were built and called by the
-name of the people.
-
-
-LICTOR, a public officer, who attended on the chief Roman
-magistrates. The number which waited on the different magistrates
-is stated in the article FASCES. The office of lictor is said to
-have been derived by Romulus from the Etruscans. The lictors went
-before the magistrates one by one in a line; he who went last or
-next to the magistrate was called _proximus lictor_, to whom the
-magistrate gave his commands; and as this lictor was always the
-principal one, we also find him called _primus lictor_. The lictors
-had to inflict punishment on those who were condemned, especially
-in the case of Roman citizens; for foreigners and slaves were
-punished by the Carnifex; and they also probably had to assist in
-some cases in the execution of a decree or judgment in a civil suit.
-The lictors likewise commanded persons to pay proper respect to a
-magistrate passing by, which consisted in dismounting from horseback,
-uncovering the head, standing out of the way, &c. The lictors were
-originally chosen from the plebs, but afterwards appear to have been
-generally freedmen, probably of the magistrate on whom they attended.
-Lictors were properly only granted to those magistrates who had the
-Imperium. Consequently, the tribunes of the plebs never had lictors,
-nor several of the other magistrates. Sometimes, however, lictors
-were granted to persons as a mark of respect or for the sake of
-protection. Thus by a law of the Triumvirs every vestal virgin was
-accompanied by a lictor, whenever she went out, and the honour of
-one or two lictors was usually granted to the wives and other female
-members of the Imperial family. There were also thirty lictors called
-_Lictores Curiati_, whose duty it was to summon the curiae to the
-comitia curiata; and when these meetings became little more than a
-form, their suffrages were represented by the thirty lictors.
-
-
-LĬGŬLA, a Roman measure of fluid capacity, containing one-fourth
-of the CYATHUS. It signifies _a spoonful_, like _cochlear_; only
-the _ligula_ was larger than the _cochlear_. The spoon which was
-called _ligula_, or _lingula_ (dim. of _lingua_) from its shape, was
-used for various purposes, especially to clean out small and narrow
-vessels, and to eat jellies and such things. The word is also used
-for the leather tongue of a shoe.
-
-
-LĪMEN. [JANUA.]
-
-
-LINTER, a light boat, frequently formed of the trunk of a tree, and
-drawing little water.
-
-
-LĬTHOSTRŌTA. [DOMUS, p. 144.]
-
-
-LITRA λίτρα, a Sicilian silver coin, equal in value to the Aeginetan
-obol.
-
-
-[Illustration: Lituus, Augur’s Staff. (Centre figure from an Etruscan
-sculpture; the two others are Roman coins.)]
-
-LĬTUUS, probably an Etruscan word signifying _crooked_.--(1)
-The crooked staff borne by the augurs, with which they divided
-the expanse of heaven, when viewed with reference to divination
-(_templum_), into regions (_regiones_).--(2) A sort of trumpet
-slightly curved at the extremity. It differed both from the _tuba_
-and the _cornu_, the former being straight, while the latter was bent
-round into a spiral shape. Its tones are usually characterised as
-harsh and shrill. The Liticines, or blowers on the Lituus, formed a
-Collegium along with the Cornicines. [CORNU.]
-
-[Illustration: Lituus, Trumpet. (From Fabretti.)]
-
-
-LIXAE. [CALONES.]
-
-
-LŎCŬPLĒTES or ASSĬDŬI, the name of the Roman citizens included in
-the five classes of the Servian constitution, and opposed to the
-_Proletarii_.
-
-
-LŌDIX, a small shaggy blanket. It was also used as a carpet.
-
-
-LOGISTAE. [EUTHYNE.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Lorica, as worn by a Greek Warrior. (From a Vase.)
-
-Lorica, as worn by a Roman Emperor. (Statue of
-Caligula in Louvre.)]
-
-LŌRĪCA (θώραξ), a cuirass. The cuirass was worn by the heavy-armed
-infantry both among the Greeks and Romans. The soldiers commonly
-wore cuirasses made of flexible bands of steel, or cuirasses of
-chain mail; but those of generals and officers usually consisted of
-two γύαλα, the breast-piece and back-piece, made of bronze, iron,
-&c., which were joined by means of buckles (περόναι). The epithets
-λεπιδωτός and φολιδωτός are applied to a cuirass; the former on
-account of its resemblance to the scales of fish (λεπίσιν), the
-latter to the scales of serpents (φολίσιν). Among the Asiatic nations
-the cuirass was frequently made of cotton, and among the Sarmatians
-and other northern nations of horn.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Lorica. λεπιδωτός.
-  Lorica. φολιδωτός.
-  (Bartoli, ‘Arcus Triumph.’)]
-
-
-LŪCAR. [HISTRIO.]
-
-
-LŪCĔRES. [TRIBUS.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Lucerna, lamp. (Museo Borbonico, vol. iv. pl. 10.)]
-
-LŬCERNA (λύχνος), an oil lamp. The Greeks and Romans originally used
-candles; but in later times candles were chiefly confined to the
-houses of the lower classes. [CANDELA.] A great number of ancient
-lamps has come down to us; the greater part of which are made of
-terra cotta, but also a considerable number of bronze. Most of the
-lamps are of an oval form, and flat upon the top, on which there are
-frequently figures in relief. In the lamps there are one or more
-round holes, according to the number of wicks (_ellychnia_) burnt
-in them; and as these holes were called from an obvious analogy,
-μυκτῆρες or μύξαι, literally nostrils or nozzles, the lamp was also
-called _Monomyxos_, _Dimyxos_, _Trimyxos_, or _Polymyxos_, according
-as it contained one, two, three, or a greater number of nozzles
-or holes for the wicks. The following is an example of a _dimyxos
-lucerna_, upon which there is a winged boy with a goose. The next
-woodcut represents one of the most beautiful bronze lamps which has
-yet been found. Upon it is the figure of a standing Silenus. The
-lamps sometimes hung in chains from the ceiling of the room, but
-they generally stood upon a stand. [CANDELABRUM.]
-
-[Illustration: Lucerna lamp. (Museo Borbonico, vol. i. pl 10.)]
-
-
-LUCTA, LUCTĀTĬO (πάλη, πάλαισμα, παλαισμοσύνη, or καταβλητική),
-wrestling. The Greeks ascribed the invention of wrestling to mythical
-personages, and Hermes, the god of all gymnastic exercises, also
-presided over wrestling. In the Homeric age wrestling was much
-practised: during this period wrestlers contended naked, and only
-the loins were covered with the perizoma (περίζωμα), and this custom
-probably remained throughout Greece until Ol. 15, from which time the
-perizoma was no longer used, and wrestlers contended entirely naked.
-In the Homeric age the custom of anointing the body for the purpose
-of wrestling does not appear to have been known, but in the time of
-Solon it was quite general, and was said to have been adopted by the
-Cretans and Lacedaemonians at a very early period. After the body was
-anointed, it was strewed over with sand or dust, in order to enable
-the wrestlers to take a firm hold of each other. If one combatant
-threw the other down three times, the victory was decided. Wrestling
-was practised in all the great games of the Greeks. The most renowned
-wrestler was Milon, of Croton. [PANCRATIUM.]
-
-
-LŪDI, the common name for the whole variety of games and contests
-which were held at Rome on various occasions, but chiefly at the
-festivals of the gods; and as the ludi at certain festivals formed
-the principal part of the solemnities, these festivals themselves are
-called ludi. Sometimes ludi were also held in honour of a magistrate
-or a deceased person, in which case they may be considered as ludi
-privati. All ludi were divided by the Romans into two classes, _ludi
-circenses_ and _ludi scenici_, accordingly as they were held in
-the circus or in the theatre; in the latter case they were mostly
-theatrical representations with their various modifications; in the
-former they consisted of all or of a part of the games enumerated
-in the articles CIRCUS and GLADIATORES. Another division of the
-ludi into _stati_, _imperativi_, and _votivi_, is analogous to the
-division of the feriae. [FERIAE.] The superintendence of the games,
-and the solemnities connected with them, was in most cases intrusted
-to the aediles. [AEDILES.] If the lawful rites were not observed in
-the celebration of the ludi, it depended upon the decision of the
-pontiffs whether they were to be held again (_instaurari_) or not. An
-alphabetical list of the principal ludi is subjoined.
-
-LUDI APOLLINARES were instituted at Rome during the second Punic
-war, after the battle of Cannae (212 B.C.), at the command of an
-oracle contained in the books of the ancient seer Marcius, in order
-to obtain the aid of Apollo. They were held every year under the
-superintendence of the praetor urbanus, and ten men sacrificed to
-Apollo, according to Greek rites, a bull with gilt horns and two
-white goats also with gilt horns, and to Latona a heifer with gilt
-horns. The games themselves were held in the Circus Maximus, the
-spectators were adorned with chaplets, and each citizen gave a
-contribution towards defraying the expenses. In B.C. 208, it was
-ordained that they should always be celebrated on the 6th of July.
-
-LUDI AUGUSTALES. [AUGUSTALES.]
-
-LUDI CAPITOLINI were instituted B.C. 387, after the departure
-of the Gauls from Rome, as a token of gratitude towards Jupiter
-Capitolinus, who had saved the Capitol in the hour of danger. The
-superintendence of the games was entrusted to a college of priests
-called _Capitolini_.
-
-LUDI CIRCENSES, ROMANI or MAGNI, were celebrated every year during
-several days, from the fourth to the twelfth of September, in
-honour of the three great divinities, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva,
-or, according to others, in honour of Jupiter, Consus, and Neptunus
-Equestris. They were superintended by the curule aediles. For further
-particulars see CIRCUS.
-
-LUDI COMPITALICII. [COMPITALIA.]
-
-LUDI FLORALES. [FLORALIA.]
-
-LUDI FUNEBRES were games celebrated at the funeral pyre of
-illustrious persons. Such games are mentioned in the very early
-legends of the history of Greece and Rome, and they continued with
-various modifications until the introduction of Christianity. It was
-at such a ludus funebris, in B.C. 264, that gladiatorial fights were
-exhibited at Rome for the first time, which henceforwards were the
-most essential part in all funeral games. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-LUDI LIBERALES. [DIONYSIA.]
-
-LUDI MEGALENSES. [MEGALESIA.]
-
-LUDI PLEBEII were instituted probably in commemoration of the
-reconciliation between the patricians and plebeians after the
-first secession to the Mons Sacer, or, according to others, to the
-Aventine. They were held on the 16th, 17th, and 18th of November, and
-were conducted by the plebeian aediles.
-
-LUDI SAECULARES. During the time of the republic these games were
-called _ludi Tarentini_, _Terentini_, or _Taurii_, and it was
-not till the time of Augustus that they bore the name of _ludi
-saeculares_. The names _Tarenti_ or _Taurii_ are perhaps nothing but
-different forms of the same word, and of the same root as Tarquinius.
-There were various accounts respecting the origin of the games,
-yet all agree in stating that they were celebrated for the purpose
-of averting from the state some great calamity by which it had been
-afflicted, and that they were held in honour of Dis and Proserpina.
-From the time of the consul Valerius Publicola down to that of
-Augustus, the Tarentine games were held only three times, and again
-only on certain emergencies, and not at any fixed period, so that
-we must conclude that their celebration was in no way connected
-with certain cycles of time (_saecula_). Not long after Augustus
-had assumed the supreme power in the republic, the quindecimviri
-announced that according to their books _ludi saeculares_ ought to
-be held, and at the same time tried to prove from history that in
-former times they had not only been celebrated repeatedly, but almost
-regularly once in every century. The festival, however, which was
-now held, was in reality very different from the ancient Tarentine
-games; for Dis and Proserpina, to whom formerly the festival belonged
-exclusively, were now the last in the list of the divinities in
-honour of whom the ludi saeculares were celebrated. The festival
-took place in summer, and lasted for three days and three nights.
-On the first day the games commenced in that part of the Campus
-Martius, Which had belonged to the last Tarquin, from whom it derived
-its name Tarentum, and sacrifices were offered to Jupiter, Juno,
-Neptune, Minerva, Venus, Apollo, Mercury, Ceres, Vulcan, Mars, Diana,
-Vesta, Hercules, Latona, the Parcae, and to Dis and Proserpina. The
-solemnities began at the second hour of the night, and the emperor
-opened them by the river side with the sacrifice of three lambs to
-the Parcae upon three altars erected for the purpose, and which
-were sprinkled with the blood of the victims. The lambs themselves
-were burnt. A temporary scene like that of a theatre was erected in
-the Tarentum, and illuminated with lights and fires. In this scene
-festive hymns were sung by a chorus, and various other ceremonies,
-together with theatrical performances, took place. During the morning
-of the first day the people went to the Capitol to offer solemn
-sacrifices to Jupiter; thence they returned to the Tarentum, to sing
-choruses in honour of Apollo and Diana. On the second day the noblest
-matrons, at an hour fixed by an oracle, assembled in the Capitol,
-offered supplications, sang hymns to the gods, and also visited the
-altar of Juno. The emperor and the quindecimviri offered sacrifices
-which had been vowed before, to all the great divinities. On the
-third day Greek and Latin choruses were sung in the sanctuary of
-Apollo by three times nine boys and maidens of great beauty, whose
-parents were still alive. The object of these hymns was to implore
-the protection of the gods for all cities, towns, and officers
-of the empire. One of these hymns was the _carmen saeculare_ by
-Horace, which was especially composed for the occasion and adapted
-to the circumstances of the time. During the whole of the three
-days and nights, games of every description were carried on in all
-the circuses and theatres, and sacrifices were offered in all the
-temples. The first celebration of the ludi saeculares in the reign of
-Augustus took place in the summer of B.C. 17.
-
-LUDI TARENTINI or TAURII. [LUDI SAECULARES.]
-
-
-LŪDUS. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-
-LŪDUS TRŌJAE. [CIRCUS.]
-
-
-LŬPERCĀLĬA, one of the most ancient Roman festivals, which was
-celebrated every year in honour of Lupercus, the god of fertility.
-It was originally a shepherd-festival, and hence its introduction at
-Rome was connected with the names of Romulus and Remus, the kings of
-shepherds. It was held every year, on the 15th of February, in the
-Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus were said to have been nurtured
-by the she-wolf; the place contained an altar and a grove sacred
-to the god Lupercus. Here the Luperci assembled on the day of the
-Lupercalia, and sacrificed to the god goats and young dogs. Two
-youths of noble birth were then led to the Luperci, and one of the
-latter touched their foreheads with a sword dipped in the blood of
-the victims; other Luperci immediately after wiped off the bloody
-spots with wool dipped in milk. Hereupon the two youths were obliged
-to break out into a shout of laughter. This ceremony was probably a
-symbolical purification of the shepherds. After the sacrifice was
-over, the Luperci partook of a meal, at which they were plentifully
-supplied with wine. They then cut the skins of the goats which they
-had sacrificed, into pieces: with some of which they covered parts of
-their body in imitation of the god Lupercus, who was represented half
-naked and half covered with goatskin. The other pieces of the skins
-they cut in the shape of thongs, and holding them in their hands they
-ran with them through the streets of the city, touching or striking
-with them all persons whom they met in their way, and especially
-women, who even used to come forward voluntarily for the purpose,
-since they believed that this ceremony rendered them fruitful,
-and procured them an easy delivery in child-bearing. This act of
-running about with thongs of goatskin was a symbolic purification
-of the land, and that of touching persons a purification of men,
-for the words by which this act is designated are _februare_ and
-_lustrare_. The goatskin itself was called _februum_, the festive
-day _dies februata_, the month in which it occurred _Februarius_,
-and the god himself _Februus_. The festival of the Lupercalia,
-though it necessarily lost its original import at the time when the
-Romans were no longer a nation of shepherds, was yet always observed
-in commemoration of the founders of the city. M. Antonius, in his
-consulship, was one of the Luperci, and not only ran with them half
-naked and covered with pieces of goatskin through the city, but even
-addressed the people in the forum in this rude attire.
-
-
-LŬPERCI, the priests of the god Lupercus. They formed a college,
-the members of which were originally youths of patrician families,
-and which was said to have been instituted by Romulus and Remus.
-The college was divided into two classes, the one called _Fabii_
-or _Fabiani_, and the other _Quinctilii_ or _Quinctiliani_. The
-office was not for life, but how long it lasted is not known. Julius
-Caesar added to the two classes of the college a third with the
-name of _Julii_ or _Juliani_, and made Antonius their high-priest.
-He also assigned to them certain revenues (_vectigalia_) which were
-afterwards withdrawn from them.
-
-
-LŬPUS FERREUS, the iron wolf used by the besieged in repelling the
-attacks of the besiegers, and especially in seizing the battering-ram
-and diverting its blows.
-
-
-LUSTRĀTĬO (κάθαρσις) was originally a purification by ablution in
-water. But the lustrations of which we possess direct knowledge are
-always connected with sacrifices and other religious rites, and
-consisted in the sprinkling of water by means of a branch of laurel
-or olive, and at Rome sometimes by means of the aspergillum, and in
-the burning of certain materials, the smoke of which was thought to
-have a purifying effect. Whenever sacrifices were offered, it seems
-to have been customary to carry them around the person or thing to be
-purified. Lustrations were made in ancient Greece, and probably at
-Rome also, by private individuals when they had polluted themselves
-by any criminal action. Whole cities and states also sometimes
-underwent purifications to expiate the crime or crimes committed by
-a member of the community. The most celebrated purification of this
-kind was that of Athens, performed by Epimenides of Crete, after the
-Cylonian massacre. Purification also took place when a sacred spot
-had been unhallowed by profane use, as by burying dead bodies in
-it, as was the case with the island of Delos. The Romans performed
-lustrations on many occasions, on which the Greeks did not think of
-them; and the object of most Roman lustrations was not to atone for
-the commission of crime, but to obtain the blessing of the gods upon
-the persons or things which were lustrated. Thus fields were purified
-after the business of sowing was over, and before the sickle was put
-to the corn. [ARVALES FRATRES.] Sheep were purified every year at the
-festival of the Palilia. All Roman armies before they took the field
-were lustrated; and as the solemnity was probably always connected
-with a review of the troops, the word lustratio is also used in the
-sense of the modern review. The establishment of a new colony was
-always preceded by a lustratio with solemn sacrifices. The city of
-Rome itself, as well as other towns within its dominion, always
-underwent a lustratio after they had been visited by some great
-calamity, such as civil bloodshed, awful prodigies, and the like. A
-regular and general lustratio of the whole Roman people took place
-after the completion of every lustrum, when the censor had finished
-his census and before he laid down his office. This lustratio (also
-called lustrum) was conducted by one of the censors, and held with
-sacrifices called _Suovetaurilia_, because the sacrifices consisted
-of a pig (or ram), a sheep, and an ox. It took place in the Campus
-Martius, where the people assembled for the purpose. The sacrifices
-were carried three times around the assembled multitude.
-
-
-LUSTRUM (from _luo_, Gr. λούω) is properly speaking a lustration or
-purification, and in particular the purification of the whole Roman
-people performed by one of the censors in the Campus Martius, after
-the business of the census was over. [CENSUS; LUSTRATIO.] As this
-purification took place only once in five years, the word lustrum
-was also used to designate the time between two lustra. The first
-lustrum was performed in B.C. 566, by king Servius, after he had
-completed his census, and it is said to have taken place subsequently
-every five years, after the census was over. The census might be held
-without the lustrum, and indeed two cases of this kind are recorded
-which happened in B.C. 459 and 214. In these cases the lustrum was
-not performed on account of some great calamities which had befallen
-the republic. The time when the lustrum took place has been very
-ingeniously defined by Niebuhr. Six ancient Romulian years of 304
-days each were, with the difference of one day, equal to five solar
-years of 365 days each, or the six ancient years made 1824 days,
-while the five solar years contained 1825 days. The lustrum, or the
-great year of the ancient Romans, was thus a cycle, at the end of
-which the beginning of the ancient year nearly coincided with that
-of the solar year. As the coincidence, however, was not perfect, a
-month of 24 days was intercalated in every eleventh lustrum. Now
-it is highly probable that the recurrence of such a cycle or great
-year was, from the earliest times, solemnised with sacrifices and
-purifications, and that Servius Tullius did not introduce them, but
-merely connected them with his census, and thus set the example for
-subsequent ages. Many writers of the latter period of the republic
-and during the empire, use the word lustrum for any space of five
-years, and without any regard to the census, while others even apply
-it in the sense of the Greek pentaeteris or an Olympiad, which
-contained only four years.
-
-
-LỸCAEA (λύκαια), a festival with contests, celebrated by the
-Arcadians in honour of Zeus surnamed Λυκαῖος. It was said to have
-been instituted by the ancient hero Lycaon, the son of Pelasgus, who
-is also said, instead of the cakes which had formerly been offered to
-the god, to have sacrificed a child to Zeus, and to have sprinkled
-the altar with its blood.
-
-
-[Illustration: Lyre with four strings, from a Lycian coin. (Cabinet
-of Sir Charles Fellows.)]
-
-[Illustration: Lyre with seven strings, from a coin of Chalcis.
-(British Museum.)]
-
-LỸRA (λύρα, Lat. _fides_), a lyre, one of the most ancient musical
-instruments of the stringed kind. The Greeks attributed the invention
-of the lyre to Hermes, who is said to have formed the instrument of
-a tortoise-shell, over which he placed gut-strings. The name λύρα,
-however, does not occur in the Homeric poems, and the ancient lyre,
-called in Homer _phorminx_ (φόρμιγξ) and _citharis_ (κίθαρις), seems
-rather to have resembled the _cithara_ of later times, which was in
-some respects like a modern guitar. In the cithara the strings were
-drawn across the bottom, whereas in the lyra of ancient times they
-were free on both sides. The lyre is also called χέλυς or χελώνη, and
-in Latin _testudo_, because it was made of a tortoise-shell. The lyre
-had originally three or four strings, but after the time of Terpander
-of Antissa (about B.C. 650), who is said to have added three more, it
-was generally made with seven. The ancients, however, made use of a
-variety of lyres; and about the time of Sappho and Anacreon several
-stringed instruments, such as _magadis_, _barbiton_, and others, were
-used in Greece, and especially in Lesbos. They had been introduced
-from Asia Minor, and their number of strings far exceeded that of the
-lyre, for we know that some had even twenty strings, so that they
-must have more resembled a modern harp than a lyre. But the lyra and
-cithara had in most cases no more than seven strings. The lyre had
-a great and full-sounding bottom, which continued as before to be
-made generally of tortoise-shell, from which the horns rose as from
-the head of a stag. A transverse piece of wood connecting the two
-horns at or near their top-ends served to fasten the strings, and
-was called ζύγον, and in Latin _transtillum_. The horns were called
-πήχεις or _cornua_. These instruments were often adorned in the
-most costly manner with gold and ivory. The lyre was considered as
-a more manly instrument than the cithara, which, on account of its
-smaller-sounding bottom, excluded full-sounding and deep tones, and
-was more calculated for the middle tones. The lyre when played stood
-in an upright position between the knees, while the cithara stood
-upon the knees of the player. Both instruments were held with the
-left hand, and played with the right. It has generally been supposed
-that the strings of these instruments were always touched with a
-little staff called _plectrum_ (πλῆκτρον), but among the paintings
-discovered at Herculaneum we find several instances where the persons
-play the lyre with their fingers. The lyre was at all times only
-played as an accompaniment to songs. The Latin name _fides_, which
-was used for a lyre as well as a cithara, is probably the same as
-the Greek σφίδες, which signifies gut-string. The lyre (_cithara_
-or _phorminx_) was at first used in the recitations of epic poetry,
-though it was probably not played during the recitation itself, but
-only as a prelude before the minstrel commenced his story, and in the
-intervals or pauses between the several parts. The lyre has given its
-name to a species of poetry called lyric; this kind of poetry was
-originally never recited or sung without the accompaniment of the
-lyre, and sometimes also of an appropriate dance.
-
-[Illustration: Anacreon playing the lyre. (Vase-painting in the
-British Museum.)]
-
-
-
-
-MAENIĀNUM, signified, originally, a projecting balcony, which was
-erected round the Roman forum, by the censor, C. Maenius, B.C.
-318, in order to give more accommodation to the spectators of the
-gladiatorial combats. Hence balconies in general came to be called
-_maeniana_.
-
-
-MĂGĂDIS. [LYRA.]
-
-
-MĂGISTER., which contains the same root as _mag-is_ and _mag-nus_,
-was applied at Rome to persons possessing various kinds of offices,
-and especially to the leading person in a collegium or corporation
-[COLLEGIUM]; thus the _magister societatis_ was the president of the
-corporation of equites, who farmed the taxes at Rome.
-
-
-MĂGISTER ĔQUITUM. [DICTATOR.]
-
-
-MĂGISTRĀTUS was a person _qui juri dicundo praeerat_. The King was
-originally the sole Magistratus; he had all the Potestas. On the
-expulsion of the Kings, two Consuls were annually appointed, and they
-were Magistratus. In course of time other Magistratus were appointed;
-namely, dictators, censors, praetors, aediles, tribunes of the plebs,
-and the decemviri litibus judicandis. The governors of provinces with
-the title of propraetor or proconsul were also Magistratus. The word
-Magistratus contains the same element as _mag(ister)_ and _mag(nus)_;
-and it signifies both the person and the office, as we see in the
-phrase _se magistratu abdicare_. The auspicia maxima belonged to the
-consuls, praetors, and censors, and the minora auspicia to the other
-magistrates; accordingly the consuls, praetors, and censors were
-called _Majores_, and they were elected at the comitia centuriata;
-the other magistratus were called _Minores_. The former had the
-imperium, the latter had not. The magistratus were also divided into
-curules and those who were not curules: the magistratus curules were
-the dictator, consuls, praetors, censors, and the curule aediles,
-who were so called, because they had the jus sellae curulis. The
-magistrates were chosen only from the patricians in the early
-republic, but in course of time the plebeians shared these honours,
-with the exception of that of the Interrex: the plebeian magistratus,
-properly so called, were the plebeian aediles and the tribuni plebis.
-
-
-MAJESTAS pretty nearly corresponds to treason in English law; but
-all the offences included under majestas comprehend more than the
-English treason. One of the offences included in majestas was the
-effecting, aiding in, or planning the death of a magistratus populi
-Romani, or of one who had imperium or potestas. Though the phrase
-_crimen majestatis_ was used, the complete expression was _crimen
-laesae_, _imminutae_, _diminutae_, or _minutae majestatis_. The word
-majestas, consistently with its relation to _mag(nus)_, signifies
-the magnitude or greatness of a thing. Accordingly, the phrases
-_majestas populi Romani_, _imperii majestas_, signify the whole of
-that which constituted the Roman state; in other words, the sovereign
-power of the Roman state. The expression _minuere majestatem_
-consequently signifies any act by which this majestas is impaired.
-In the republican period the term _majestas laesa_ or _minuta_ was
-most commonly applied to cases of a general betraying or surrendering
-his army to the enemy, exciting sedition, and generally by his bad
-conduct in administration impairing the majestas of the state. The
-old punishment of majestas was perpetual interdiction from fire and
-water. In the later imperial period, persons of low condition were
-thrown to wild beasts, or burnt alive; persons of better condition
-were simply put to death. In the early times of the republic, every
-act of a citizen which was injurious to the state or its peace was
-called _perduellio_, and the offender (_perduellis_) was tried before
-the populus (_populi judicio_), and, if convicted, put to death.
-_Perduellis_ originally signified _hostis_; and thus the old offence
-of perduellio was equivalent to making war on the Roman state. The
-trial for perduellio (_perduellionis judicium_) existed to the later
-times of the republic; but the name seems to have almost fallen into
-disuse, and various leges were passed for the purpose of determining
-more accurately what should be majestas. These were a lex Apuleia,
-probably passed in the fifth consulship of Marius, the exact contents
-of which are unknown, a lex Varia B.C. 91, a lex Cornelia passed by
-L. Cornelius Sulla, and the lex Julia, which continued under the
-empire to be the fundamental enactment on this subject. This lex
-Julia is by some attributed to C. Julius Caesar, and assigned to
-the year B.C. 48. Under the empire the term majestas was applied to
-the person of the reigning Caesar, and we find the phrases majestas
-Augusta, imperatoria, and regia. It was, however, nothing new to
-apply the term to the emperor, considered in some of his various
-capacities, for it was applied to the magistratus under the republic,
-as to the consul and praetor. Horace even addresses Augustus in the
-terms _majestas tua_, but this can hardly be viewed otherwise than as
-a personal compliment, and not as said with reference to any of the
-offices which he held.
-
-
-MALLĔŎLUS, a hammer, the transverse head of which was formed for
-holding pitch and tow, which, having been set on fire, was projected
-slowly, so that it might not be extinguished during its flight, upon
-houses and other buildings in order to set them on fire: it was
-therefore commonly used in sieges together with torches and falaricae.
-
-
-MĀLUS. [NAVIS.]
-
-
-MANCEPS has the same relation to Mancipium that Auspex has to
-Auspicium. It is properly _qui manu capit_. But the word has several
-special significations. Mancipes were they who bid at the public
-lettings of the censors for the purpose of farming any part of the
-public property. Sometimes the chief of the publicani generally are
-meant by this term, as they were no doubt the bidders and gave
-the security, and then they shared the undertaking with others or
-underlet it. The mancipes would accordingly have distinctive names
-according to the kind of revenue which they took on lease, as
-_Decumani_, _Portitores_, _Pecuarii_.
-
-
-MANCĬPĀTĬO. [MANCIPIUM.]
-
-
-MANCĬPĬUM, MANCĬPĀTIO. These words are used to indicate the
-formal transfer of the ownership of a thing, and are derived from
-the fact that the person who received the thing took hold of it
-(_mancipatio dicitur quia manu res capitur_). It was not a simple
-corporeal apprehension, but one which was accompanied with certain
-forms described by Gaius the jurist:--“Mancipatio is effected in
-the presence of not less than five witnesses, who must be Roman
-citizens and of the age of puberty (_puberes_), and also in the
-presence of another person of the same status, who holds a pair of
-brazen scales, and hence is called _Libripens_. The purchaser (_qui
-mancipio accipit_), taking hold of the thing, says: I affirm that
-this slave (_homo_) is mine Ex Jure Quiritium, and he is purchased
-by me with this piece of money (_aes_) and brazen scales. He then
-strikes the scales with the piece of money, and gives it to the
-seller as a symbol of the price (_quasi pretii loco_).” This mode of
-transfer applied to all free persons or slaves, animals or lands,
-all of which persons and things were called _Res Mancipi_; other
-things were called _Nec Mancipi_. Lands (_praedia_) might be thus
-transferred, though the parties to the mancipatio were not on the
-lands; but all other things, which were objects of mancipatio, were
-only transferable in the presence of the parties, because corporeal
-apprehension was a necessary part of the ceremony. The party who
-transferred the ownership of a thing pursuant to these forms was
-said _mancipio dare_; he who thus acquired the ownership was said
-_mancipio accipere_. The verb _mancipare_ is sometimes used as
-equivalent to _mancipio dare_. Mancipium may be used as equivalent
-to complete ownership, and may thus be opposed to _usus_ and to
-_fructus_. Sometimes the word mancipium signifies a slave, as being
-one of the res mancipi.
-
-
-MANDĀTUM, often signifies a command from a superior to an inferior.
-Under the empire the mandata principum were the commands and
-instructions given to governors of provinces and others.
-
-
-MĂNĬPŬLUS. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-MANSĬO σταθμός, a post-station at the end of a day’s journey. The
-word is derived from _manere_, signifying to pass the night at a
-place in travelling. On the great Roman roads the mansiones were
-at the same distance from one another as on those of the Persian
-empire, where such resting-places (khans or caravanseras) were first
-provided, viz. at intervals of about 20 English miles. They were
-originally called _castra_, being probably mere places of encampment
-formed by making earthen entrenchments. In process of time they
-included, not only barracks and magazines of provisions (_horrea_)
-for the troops, but commodious buildings adapted for the reception
-of travellers of all ranks, and even of the emperor himself, if he
-should have occasion to visit them. At those stations the cisiarii
-kept gigs for hire and for conveying government despatches. [CISIUM;
-ESSEDUM.] The _mansio_ was under the superintendence of an officer
-called _mansionarius_.
-
-
-MĂNŬBĬAE. [SPOLIA.]
-
-
-MĂNŪMISSĬO was the form by which slaves were released from slavery.
-There were three modes by which this was effected, namely, Vindicta,
-Census, and Testamentum. Of these the manumissio by vindicta
-is probably the oldest, and perhaps was once the only mode of
-manumission. It is mentioned by Livy as in use at an early period;
-and, indeed, he states that some persons refer the origin of the
-vindicta to the event which he relates, and derive its name from
-Vindicius; the latter part, at least, of the supposition is of
-no value. The ceremony of the manumissio by the vindicta was as
-follows:--The master brought his slave before the magistratus, and
-stated the grounds (_causa_) of the intended manumission. The lictor
-of the magistratus laid a rod (_festuca_) on the head of the slave,
-accompanied with certain formal words, in which he declared that he
-was a freeman ex jure quiritium, that is, _vindicavit in libertatem_.
-The master in the meantime held the slave, and after he had
-pronounced the words _hunc hominem liberum volo_, he turned him round
-and let him go (_emisit e manu_), whence the general name of the
-act of manumission. The word vindicta itself, which is properly the
-res _vindicata_, is used for festuca by Horace. In the case of the
-census the slave was registered by the censors as a citizen with his
-master’s consent. The third mode of manumission was, when a master
-gave liberty to a slave by his will (_testamentum_). The act of
-manumission established the relation of patronus and libertus between
-the manumissor and the manumitted. When manumitted by a citizen, the
-libertus took the praenomen and the gentile name of the manumissor,
-and became in a sense a member of the gens of his patron. To these
-two names he added some other name as a cognomen, either some name by
-which he was previously known, or some name assumed on the occasion:
-thus we find the names M. Tullius Tiro, P. Terentius Afer, and other
-like names. The relation between a patronus and libertus is stated
-under PATRONUS. Before the year B.C. 311, the libertini had not the
-suffragium, but in that year the censor Appius Claudius gave the
-libertini a place in the tribes, and from this time the libertini
-had the suffragium after they were duly admitted on the censors’
-roll. In the year B.C. 304, they were placed in the tribus urbanae,
-and not allowed to perform military service. In the censorship of
-Tiberius Gracchus, B.C. 169, they were placed in one of the tribus
-urbanae, determined by lot. Subsequently, by a law of Aemilius
-Scaurus, about B.C. 116, they were restored to the four city tribes,
-and this remained their condition to the end of the republic, though
-various attempts were made to give them a better suffrage. A tax was
-levied on manumission by a lex Manlia, B.C. 357: it consisted of the
-twentieth part of the value of the slave, hence called _Vicesima_.
-
-
-MĂNUS FERREA. [HARPAGO.]
-
-
-MARSŪPĬUM (μαρσύπιον, βαλάντιον), a purse. The purse used by the
-ancients was commonly a small leathern bag, and was often closed by
-being drawn together at the mouth (σύσπαστα βαλάντια). Mercury is
-commonly represented holding one in his hand. (See cut, p. 63.)
-
-
-MARTỸRĬA (μαρτύρια), signifies strictly the deposition of a witness
-in a court of justice, though the word is applied metaphorically
-to all kinds of testimony. At Athens none but freemen could be
-witnesses. The incapacity of women may be inferred from the general
-policy of the Athenian law, and the absence of any example in the
-orators where a woman’s evidence is produced. The same observation
-applies to minors. Slaves were not allowed to give evidence, unless
-upon examination by torture (βάσανος). Citizens who had been
-disfranchised (ἠτιμωμένοι) could not appear as witnesses (any more
-than as jurors or plaintiffs) in a court of justice; for they had
-lost all honourable rights and privileges. But there was no objection
-to alien freemen. The party who desired the evidence of a witness,
-summoned him to attend for that purpose. The summons was called
-πρόσκλησις. If the witness promised to attend and failed to do so,
-he was liable to an action called δίκη λειπομαρτυρίου. Whether he
-promised or not, he was bound to attend, and if his absence caused
-injury to the party, he was liable to an action (δίκη βλάβης). The
-attendance of the witness was first required at the ἀνάκρισις, where
-he was to make his deposition before the superintending magistrate
-(ἡγεμὼν δικαστηρίου). The party in whose favour he appeared,
-generally wrote the deposition at home upon a whitened board or
-tablet (λελευκωμένον γραμματεῖον), which he brought with him to the
-magistrate’s office, and, when the witness had deposed thereto, put
-into the box (ἐχῖνος) in which all the documents in the cause were
-deposited. An oath was usually taken by the witness at the ἀνάκρισις,
-where he was sworn by the opposite party at an altar. The witness,
-whether he had attended before the magistrate or not, was obliged to
-be present at the trial, in order to confirm his testimony. The only
-exception was, when he was ill or out of the country, in which case a
-commission might be sent to examine him. [ECMARTYRIA.] All evidence
-was produced by the party during his own speech, the κλεψύδρα being
-stopped for that purpose. The witness was called by an officer of the
-court, and mounted on the raised platform (βῆμα.) of the speaker,
-while his deposition was read over to him by the clerk; he then
-signified his assent, either by express words, or bowing his head in
-silence.--We conclude by noticing a few expressions. Μαρτυρεῖν τινι
-is to testify in favour of a man, καταμαρτυρεῖν τινος to testify
-against. Μαρτύρεσθαι to call to witness (a word used poetically),
-διαμαρτύρεσθαι and sometimes ἐπιμαρτύρεσθαι τοὺς παρόντας, to call
-upon those who are present to take notice of what passes, with a
-view to give evidence. Ψευδομαρτυρεῖν and ἐπιορκεῖν are never used
-indifferently, which affords some proof that testimony was not
-necessarily on oath. The μάρτυς (witness in the cause) is to be
-distinguished from the κλητὴρ or κλήτωρ, who merely gave evidence of
-the summons to appear.
-
-
-MASTĪGŎPHŎRI or MASTĪGŎNOMI (μαστιγοφόροι or μαστιγονόμοι), the
-name of the lower police officers in the Greek states, who carried
-into execution the corporal punishments inflicted by the higher
-magistrates. In the theatre the mastigophori preserved order, and
-were stationed for this purpose in the orchestra, near the thymele.
-In the Olympic games the ῥαβδοῦχοι performed the same duties. At
-Athens they were discharged by the public slaves, called bowmen
-(τοξόται), or Scythians (Σκύθαι). [DEMOSII.]
-
-
-MĀTERFĂMĬLĬAS. [MATRIMONIUM.]
-
-
-MATRĀLĬA, a festival celebrated at Rome every year on the 11th of
-June, in honour of the goddess Mater Matuta, whose temple stood in
-the Forum Boarium. It was celebrated only by Roman matrons, and
-the sacrifices offered to the goddess consisted of cakes baked in
-pots of earthenware. Slaves were not allowed to take part in the
-solemnities, or to enter the temple of the goddess. One slave,
-however, was admitted by the matrons, but only to be exposed to a
-humiliating treatment, for one of the matrons gave her a blow on the
-cheek, and then sent her away from the temple. The matrons on this
-occasion took with them the children of their sisters, but not their
-own, held them in their arms, and prayed for their welfare.
-
-
-MĀTRŌNĀLĬA, a festival celebrated on the Kalends of March in honour
-of Juno Lucina. Hence Horace says, “Martiis _caelebs_ quid agam
-Kalendis.”
-
-
-MĀTRĬMŌNĬUM NUPTĬAE (γάμος), marriage. (1) GREEK. The ancient Greek
-legislators considered the relation of marriage as a matter not
-merely of private, but also of public or general interest. This
-was particularly the case at Sparta, where proceedings might be
-taken against those who married too late or unsuitably, as well as
-against those who did not marry at all. But independent of public
-considerations, there were also private or personal reasons, peculiar
-to the ancients, which made marriage an obligation. One of these was
-the duty incumbent upon every individual to provide for a continuance
-of representatives to succeed himself as ministers of the Divinity;
-and another was the desire felt by almost every one, not merely to
-perpetuate his own name, but to leave some one who might make the
-customary offerings at his grave. We are told that with this view
-childless persons sometimes adopted children. The choice of a wife
-among the ancients was but rarely grounded upon affection, and
-scarcely ever could have been the result of previous acquaintance
-or familiarity. In many cases a father chose for his son a bride
-whom the latter had never seen, or compelled him to marry for the
-sake of checking his extravagances. By the Athenian laws a citizen
-was not allowed to marry with a foreign woman, nor conversely,
-under very severe penalties, but proximity by blood (ἀγχιστεία), or
-consanguinity (συγγένεια), was not, with some few exceptions, a bar
-to marriage in any part of Greece; direct lineal descent was. At
-Athens the most important preliminary to marriage was the betrothal
-(ἐγγύησις), which was in fact indispensable to the complete validity
-of a marriage contract. It was made by the natural or legal guardian
-(ὁ κύριος) of the bride elect, and attended by the relatives of
-both parties as witnesses. The wife’s dowry was settled at the
-betrothal. On the day before the _gamos_, or marriage, or sometimes
-on the day itself, certain sacrifices or offerings (προτέλεια γάμων
-or προγάμεια) were made to the gods who presided over marriage.
-Another ceremony of almost general observance on the wedding day,
-was the bathing of both the bride and bridegroom in water fetched
-from some particular fountain, whence, as some think, the custom
-of placing the figure of a λουτροφόρος or “water carrier” over the
-tombs of those who died unmarried. After these preliminaries, the
-bride was generally conducted from her father’s to the house of the
-bridegroom at nightfall, in a chariot (ἐφ’ ἁμάξης) drawn by a pair
-of males or oxen, and furnished with a kind of couch (κλινίς) as a
-seat. On either side of her sat the bridegroom and one of his most
-intimate friends or relations, who from his office was called the
-_paranymph_ (παράνυμφος or νυμφευτής); but as he rode in the carriage
-(ὄχημα) with the bride and bridegroom, he was sometimes called the
-πάροχος. The nuptial procession was probably accompanied, according
-to circumstances, by a number of persons, some of whom carried the
-nuptial torches. Both bride and bridegroom (the former veiled) were
-decked out in their best attire, with chaplets on their heads,
-and the doors of their houses were hung with festoons of ivy and
-bay. As the bridal procession moved along, the hymenaean song was
-sung to the accompaniment of Lydian flutes, even in olden times,
-as beautifully described by Homer, and the married pair received
-the greetings and congratulations of those who met them. After
-entering the bridegroom’s house, into which the bride was probably
-conducted by his mother, bearing a lighted torch, it was customary
-to shower sweetmeats upon them (καταχύσματα), as emblems of plenty
-and prosperity. After this came the nuptial feast, to which the
-name _gamos_ was particularly applied; it was generally given in
-the house of the bridegroom or his parents; and besides being a
-festive meeting, served other and more important purposes. There
-was no public rite, whether civil or religious, connected with the
-celebration of marriage amongst the ancient Greeks, and therefore no
-public record of its solemnisation. This deficiency then was supplied
-by the marriage feast, for the guests were of course competent to
-prove the fact of a marriage having taken place. To this feast,
-contrary to the usual practice amongst the Greeks, women were invited
-as well as men; but they seem to have sat at a separate table, with
-the bride still veiled amongst them. At the conclusion of this feast
-she was conducted by her husband into the bridal chamber; and a
-law of Solon required that on entering it they should eat a quince
-together, as if to indicate that their conversation ought to be
-sweet and agreeable. The song called the _Epithalamium_ was then sung
-before the doors of the bridal chamber. The day after the marriage,
-the first of the bride’s residence in her new abode, was called
-the _epaulia_ (ἐπαύλια); on which their friends sent the customary
-presents to the newly married couple. On another day, the _apaulia_
-(ἀπαύλια), perhaps the second after marriage, the bridegroom left
-his house, to lodge apart from his wife at his father’s-in-law.
-Some of the presents made to the bride by her husband and friends
-were called _anacalypteria_ (ἀνακαλυπτήρια), as being given on the
-occasion of the bride first appearing unveiled: they were probably
-given on the _epaulia_, or day after the marriage. Another ceremony
-observed after marriage was the sacrifice which the husband offered
-up on the occasion of his bride being registered amongst his own
-phratores. The above account refers to Athenian customs.--At Sparta
-the betrothal of the bride by her father or guardian (κύριος) was
-requisite as a preliminary of marriage, as well as at Athens. Another
-custom peculiar to the Spartans, and a relic of ancient times, was
-the seizure of the bride by her intended husband, but of course with
-the sanction of her parents or guardians. She was not, however,
-immediately domiciled in her husband’s house, but cohabited with him
-for some time clandestinely, till he brought her, and frequently
-her mother also, to his home.--The Greeks, generally speaking,
-entertained little regard for the female character. They considered
-women, in fact, as decidedly inferior to men, qualified to discharge
-only the subordinate functions in life, and rather necessary as
-helpmates than agreeable as companions. To these notions female
-education for the most part corresponded, and in fact confirmed
-them; it did not supply the elegant accomplishments and refinement
-of manners which permanently engage the affections, when other
-attractions have passed away. Aristotle states, that the relation of
-man to woman is that of the governor to the subject; and Plato, that
-a woman’s virtue may be summed up in a few words, for she has only
-to manage the house well, keeping what there is in it, and obeying
-her husband. Among the Dorians, however, and especially at Sparta,
-women enjoyed much more estimation than in the rest of Greece.--(2)
-ROMAN. A legal Roman marriage was called _justae nuptiae_, _justum
-matrimonium_, as being conformable to _jus_ (_civile_) or to law. A
-legal marriage was either _Cum conventione uxoris in manum viri_ or
-it was without this convention. But both forms of marriage agreed
-in this: there must be connubium between the parties, and consent.
-The legal consequences as to the power of the father over his
-children were the same in both. _Connubium_ is merely a term which
-comprehends all the conditions of a legal marriage. Generally it may
-be stated, that there was only connubium between Roman citizens;
-the cases in which it at any time existed between parties, not both
-Roman citizens, were exceptions to the general rule. Originally,
-or at least at one period of the republic, there was no connubium
-between the patricians and the plebeians; but this was altered by the
-Lex Canuleia (B.C. 445.), which allowed connubium between persons
-of those two classes. There were various degrees of consanguinity
-and affinity, within which there was no connubium. An illegal union
-of a male and female, though affecting to be, was not a marriage:
-the man had no legal wife, and the children had no legal father:
-consequently they were not in the power of their reputed father. The
-marriage _Cum conventione_ differed from that _Sine conventione_,
-in the relationship which it effected between the husband and the
-wife; the marriage _cum conventione_ was a necessary condition to
-make a woman a _materfamilias_. By the marriage cum conventione,
-the wife passed into the familia of her husband, and was to him
-in the relation of a daughter, or, as it was expressed, _in manum
-convenit_. In the marriage sine conventione, the wife’s relation
-to her own familia remained as before, and she was merely _uxor_.
-“_Uxor_,” says Cicero, “is a genus of which there are two species;
-one is _materfamilias, quae in manum convenit_; the other is _uxor_
-only.” Accordingly, a materfamilias is a wife who is in manu, and
-in the familia of her husband. A wife not in manu was not a member
-of her husband’s familia, and therefore the term could not apply
-to her. _Matrona_ was properly a wife not in manu, and equivalent
-to uxor; and she was called matrona before she had any children.
-But these words are not always used in these their original and
-proper meanings. It does not appear that any forms were requisite
-in the marriage sine conventione; and apparently the evidence of
-such marriage was cohabitation matrimonii causa. The matrimonii
-causa might be proved by various kinds of evidence. In the case of
-a marriage cum conventione, there were three forms, 1. _Usus_, 2.
-_Farreum_, and 3. _Coemptio_.--1. Marriage was effected by _usus_,
-if a woman lived with a man for a whole year as his wife; and this
-was by analogy to usucaption of movables generally, in which usus
-for one year gave ownership. The Law of the Twelve Tables provided,
-that if a woman did not wish to come into the manus of her husband
-in this manner, she should absent herself from him annually for
-three nights (_trinoctium_) and so break the usus of the year.
-2. _Farreum_ was a form of marriage, in which certain words were
-used in the presence of ten witnesses, and were accompanied by a
-certain religious ceremony, in which panis farreus was employed;
-and hence this form of marriage was also called _confarreatio_.
-It appears that certain priestly offices, such as that of Flamen
-Dialis, could only be held by those who were born of parents who
-had been married by this ceremony (_confarreati parentes_). 3.
-_Coemptio_ was effected by mancipatio, and consequently the wife was
-in mancipio. [MANCIPIUM.] A woman who was cohabiting with a man as
-uxor, might come into his manus by this ceremony, in which case the
-coemptio was said to be matrimonii causa, and she who was formerly
-uxor became _apud maritum filiae loco_. _Sponsalia_ were not an
-unusual preliminary of marriage, but they were not necessary.--The
-sponsalia were an agreement to marry, made in such form as to give
-each party a right of action in case of non-performance, and the
-offending party was condemned in such damages as to the judex seemed
-just. The woman who was promised in marriage was accordingly called
-_sponsa_, which is equivalent to promissa; the man who was engaged
-to marry was called _sponsus_.--The sponsalia were of course not
-binding, if the parties consented to waive the contract. Sometimes
-a present was made by the future husband to the future wife by way
-of earnest (_arrha_, _arrha sponsalitia_), or, as it was called,
-_propter nuptias donatio_.--The consequences of marriage were--1.
-The power of the father over the children of the marriage, which was
-a completely new relation, an effect indeed of marriage, but one
-which had no influence over the relation of the husband and wife.
-[PATRIA POTESTAS.] 2. The liabilities of either of the parties to
-the punishments affixed to the violation of the marriage union.
-[ADULTERIUM; DIVORTIUM.] 3. The relation of husband and wife with
-respect to property. [DOS.] When marriage was dissolved, the parties
-to it might marry again; but opinion considered it more decent for a
-woman not to marry again. A woman was required by usage (_mos_) to
-wait a year before she contracted a second marriage, on the pain of
-infamia.--It remains to describe the customs and rites which were
-observed by the Romans at marriages. After the parties had agreed to
-marry and the persons in whose potestas they were had consented, a
-meeting of friends was sometimes held at the house of the maiden for
-the purpose of settling the marriage-contract, which was written on
-tablets, and signed by both parties. The woman after she had promised
-to become the wife of a man was called _sponsa_, _pacta_, _dicta_,
-or _sperata_. It appears that, at least during the imperial period,
-the man put a ring on the finger of his betrothed, as a pledge of
-his fidelity. This ring was probably, like all rings at this time,
-worn on the left hand, and on the finger nearest to the smallest.
-The last point to be fixed was the day on which the marriage was to
-take place. The Romans believed that certain days were unfortunate
-for the performance of the marriage rites, either on account of
-the religious character of those days themselves, or on account of
-the days by which they were followed, as the woman had to perform
-certain religious rites on the day after her wedding, which could
-not take place on a dies ater. Days not suitable for entering upon
-matrimony were the calends, nones, and ides of every month, all dies
-atri, the whole months of May and February, and a great number of
-festivals. On the wedding-day, which in the early times was never
-fixed upon without consulting the auspices, the bride was dressed
-in a long white robe with a purple fringe, or adorned with ribands.
-This dress was called _tunica recta_, and was bound round the waist
-with a girdle (_corona_, _cingulum_, or _zona_), which the husband
-had to untie in the evening. The bridal veil, called _flammeum_,
-was of a bright yellow colour, and her shoes likewise. Her hair was
-divided on this occasion with the point of a spear. The bride was
-conducted to the house of her husband in the evening. She was taken
-with apparent violence from the arms of her mother, or of the person
-who had to give her away. On her way she was accompanied by three
-boys dressed in the praetexta, and whose fathers and mothers were
-still alive (_patrimi et matrimi_). One of them carried before her
-a torch of white thorn (_spina_), or, according to others, of pine
-wood; the two others walked by her side, supporting her by the arm.
-The bride herself carried a distaff and a spindle, with wool. A boy
-called _camillus_ carried in a covered vase (_cumera_, _cumerum_, or
-_camillum_), the so-called utensils of the bride and playthings for
-children (_crepundia_). Besides these persons who officiated on the
-occasion, the procession was attended by a numerous train of friends,
-both of the bride and the bridegroom. When the procession arrived
-at the house of the bridegroom, the door of which was adorned with
-garlands and flowers, the bride was carried across the threshold by
-_pronubi_, _i.e._ men who had been married to only one woman, that
-she might not knock against it with her foot, which would have been
-an evil omen. Before she entered the house, she wound wool around the
-door-posts of her new residence, and anointed them with lard (_adeps
-suillus_) or wolf’s fat (_adeps lupinus_). The husband received her
-with fire and water, which the woman had to touch. This was either a
-symbolic purification, or a symbolic expression of welcome, as the
-interdicere aqua et igni was the formula for banishment. The bride
-saluted her husband with the words: _ubi tu Caius, ego Caia_. After
-she had entered the house with distaff and spindle, she was placed
-upon a sheep-skin, and here the keys of the house were delivered
-into her hands. A repast (_coena nuptialis_) given by the husband
-to the whole train of relatives and friends who accompanied the
-bride, generally concluded the solemnity of the day. Many ancient
-writers mention a very popular song, _Talasius_ or _Talassio_, which
-was sung at weddings; but whether it was sung during the repast or
-during the procession is not quite clear, though we may infer from
-the story respecting the origin of the song, that it was sung while
-the procession was advancing towards the house of the husband. It may
-easily be imagined that a solemnity like that of marriage did not
-take place among the merry and humorous Italians without a variety
-of jests and railleries, and the ancient writers mention songs which
-were sung before the door of the bridal apartment by girls, after
-the company had left. These songs were probably the old Fescennina
-[FESCENNINA], and are frequently called _Epithalamia_. At the end of
-the repast the bride was conducted by matrons who had not had more
-than one husband (_pronubae_), to the lectus genialis in the atrium,
-which was on this occasion magnificently adorned and strewed with
-flowers. On the following day the husband sometimes gave another
-entertainment to his friends, which was called _repotia_, and the
-woman, who on this day undertook the management of the house of her
-husband, had to perform certain religious rites; on which account,
-as was observed above, it was necessary to select a day for the
-marriage which was not followed by a dies ater. These rites probably
-consisted of sacrifices to the Dii Penates. The position of a Roman
-woman after marriage was very different from that of a Greek woman.
-The Roman presided over the whole household; she educated her
-children, watched over and preserved the honour of the house, and as
-the materfamilias she shared the honours and respect shown to her
-husband. Far from being confined like the Greek women to a distinct
-apartment, the Roman matron, at least during the better centuries
-of the republic, occupied the most important part of the house, the
-atrium.
-
-
-MAUSŌLĒUM Μαυσωλεῖον, signified originally _the sepulchre of
-Mausolus_, which was a magnificent monument erected at Halicarnassus
-B.C. 353, by Artemisia, the widow of Mausolus. (See _Classical
-Dict., art. Artemisia_.) It was adorned with beautiful works of
-art, and was regarded as one of the seven wonders of the world.
-The word _Mausoleum_ was used by the Romans as a generic name for
-any magnificent sepulchral edifice. Mausolus, the dynast of Caria,
-having died in B.C. 353, his queen Artemisia evinced her sorrow
-by observing his funeral rites with the most expensive splendour,
-and by commencing the erection of a sepulchral monument to him at
-Halicarnassus, which should surpass any thing the world had yet seen.
-The building extended 63 feet from north to south, being shorter on
-the fronts, and its whole circuit was 411 feet (or, according to the
-Bamberg MS., 440); it rose to the height of 25 cubits (37½ feet);
-and was surrounded by 36 columns. This part of the building was
-called _Pteron_. It was adorned with sculptures in relief, on its
-eastern face by Scopas, on the northern by Bryaxis, on the southern
-by Timotheus, on the western by Leochares. Above this _pteron_ was
-a pyramid equal to it in height, diminishing by 24 steps to its
-summit, which was surmounted by the marble quadriga made by Pythis.
-The total height, including this ornament, was 140 feet. In the Roman
-_Mausolea_ the form chiefly employed was that of a succession of
-terraces in imitation of the _rogus_. Of these the most celebrated
-were those of Augustus and of Hadrian; the latter of which, stripped
-of its ornaments, still forms the fortress of modern Rome (the castle
-of S. Angelo); but of the other, which was on a still larger scale,
-and which was considered as one of the most magnificent buildings of
-Augustus, there are only some insignificant ruins.
-
-
-MĔDĬASTĪNI, the name given to slaves, used for any common purpose.
-The name is chiefly given to certain slaves belonging to the familia
-rustica, but it is also applied sometimes to slaves in the city.
-
-
-MĔDIMNUS μέδιμνος, the principal dry measure of the Greeks. It was
-used especially for measuring corn. The Attic medimnus was equal
-to six Roman modii. For its subdivisions see Tables at the end.
-[METRETES; CHOENIX; XESTES; COTYLA.]
-
-
-MĒDIX TUTICUS, the name of the supreme magistrate among the Oscan
-people. _Medix_ appears to have signified a magistrate of any kind,
-and _tuticus_ to have been equivalent to _magnus_ or _summus_. Livy,
-therefore, in calling the medix tuticus the _summus magistratus_,
-gives a literal translation of the word.
-
-
-MĔGĂLĒSĬA, MĔGĂLENSĬA, or MĔGĂLENSES LŪDI, a festival with games,
-celebrated at Rome in the month of April and in honour of the great
-mother of the gods (Cybelé, μεγάλη θεός, whence the festival derived
-its name). The statue of the goddess was brought to Rome from
-Pessinus in B.C. 203, and the day of its arrival was solemnised with
-a magnificent procession, lectisternia, and games, and great numbers
-of people carried presents to the goddess on the Capitol. The regular
-celebration of the Megalesia, however, did not begin till twelve
-years later (B.C. 191), when the temple, which had been vowed and
-ordered to be built in B.C. 203, was completed and dedicated by M.
-Junius Brutus. The festival lasted for six days, beginning on the 4th
-of April. The season of this festival, like that of the whole month
-in which it took place, was full of general rejoicings and feasting.
-It was customary for the wealthy Romans on this occasion to invite
-one another mutually to their repasts. The games which were held at
-the Megalesia were purely scenic, and not circenses. They were at
-first held on the Palatine, in front of the temple of the goddess,
-but afterwards also in the theatres. The day which was especially
-set apart for the performance of scenic plays was the third of the
-festival. Slaves were not permitted to be present at the games, and
-the magistrates appeared dressed in a purple toga and praetexta,
-whence the proverb, _purpura Megalensis_. The games were under the
-superintendence of the curule aediles, and we know that four of the
-extant plays of Terence were performed at the Megalesia.
-
-
-MEMBRĀNA. [LIBER.]
-
-
-MENSA (τράπεζα), a table. The simplest kind of table was a round
-one with three legs, called in Greek τρίπους. Tables, however, must
-usually have had four legs, as the etymology of τράπεζα, the common
-word for table, indicates. For the houses of the opulent, tables were
-made of the most valuable and beautiful kinds of wood, especially of
-maple, or of the citrus of Africa, which was a species of cypress
-or juniper. As the table was not large, it was usual to place the
-dishes and the various kinds of meat upon it, and then to bring it
-thus furnished to the place where the guests were reclining. On many
-occasions, indeed, each guest either had a small table to himself,
-or the company was divided into parties of two or three, with a
-separate table for each party, as is distinctly represented in the
-cut under SYMPOSIUM. Hence we have such phrases as _mensam apponere_
-or _opponere_, and _mensam auferre_ or _removere_. The two principal
-courses of a _deipnon_ and _coena_, or a Greek and Roman dinner,
-were called respectively πρώτη τράπεζα, δεύτερα τράπεζα, and _mensa
-prima_, _mensa secunda_. [COENA; DEIPNON.]
-
-
-MENSĀRĬI, MENSŬLĀRĬI, or NŪMŬLĀRĬI, a kind of public bankers at
-Rome who were appointed by the state; they were distinct from the
-argentarii, who were common bankers, and did business on their
-own account. [ARGENTARII.] The mensarii had their tables or banks
-(_mensae_) like ordinary bankers, in the forum, and in the name of
-the aerarium they offered ready money to debtors who could give
-security to the state for it. Such an expediency was devised by the
-state only in times of great distress. The first time that mensarii
-(_quinqueviri mensarii_) were appointed was in B.C. 352, at the time
-when the plebeians were so deeply involved in debt, that they were
-obliged to borrow money from new creditors in order to pay the old
-ones, and thus ruined themselves completely. On this occasion they
-were also authorised to ordain that cattle or land should be received
-as payment at a fair valuation. With the exception of this first
-time, they appear during the time of the republic to have always
-been _triumviri mensarii_. One class of mensarii, however (perhaps
-an inferior order), the _mensularii_ or _numularii_, seem to have
-been permanently employed by the state, and these must be meant when
-we read, that not only the aerarium, but also private individuals,
-deposited in their hands sums of money which they had to dispose of.
-
-
-MENSIS. [CALENDARIUM.]
-
-
-MĔRENDA. [COENA.]
-
-
-MĔTAE. [CIRCUS.]
-
-
-MĔTALLUM (μέταλλον), a _mine_ and _metal_. The metals which have been
-known from the earliest period of which we have any information are
-those which were long distinguished as the seven principal metals,
-namely, gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, lead, and mercury. If to
-this list we add the compound of gold and silver called _electrum_,
-the compound of copper and tin called χαλκός and _aes_ (bronze), and
-steel, we have, in all probability, a complete list of the metals
-known to the Greeks and Romans, with the exception of zinc, which
-they do not seem to have known as a metal, but only in its ores, and
-of brass, which, they regarded as a sort of bronze. The early Greeks
-were no doubt chiefly indebted for a supply of the various metals to
-the commerce of the Phoenicians, who procured them principally from
-Arabia and Spain, and tin from our own island and the East. They were
-perfectly acquainted with the processes of smelting the metal from
-the ore, and of forging heated masses into the required shapes, by
-the aid of the hammer and tongs. The smith’s instruments were the
-anvil (ἄκμων) with the block on which it rested (ἀκμόθετον), the
-tongs (πυράγρη) and the hammer (ῥαιστήρ, σφῦρα). The advances made in
-the art of metallurgy in subsequent times are chiefly connected with
-the improvements in the art of statuary. The method of working, as
-described in Homer, seems to have long prevailed, namely by beating
-out lumps of the material into the form proposed, and afterwards
-fitting the pieces together by means of pins or keys. It was called
-σφυρήλατον, from σφῦρα, a hammer. The next mode, among the Greeks, of
-executing metal works seems to have been by plating upon a nucleus,
-or general form, of wood--a practice which was employed also by the
-Egyptians. It is extremely difficult to determine at what date the
-casting of metal was introduced. According to the statements of
-Pausanias and Pliny, the art of casting in bronze and in iron was
-invented by Rhoecus and Theodorus of Samos, who probably lived in the
-sixth and fifth centuries before our era.
-
-
-MĔTOICI (μέτοικοι), the name by which, at Athens and in other
-Greek states, the _resident aliens_ were designated. They must be
-distinguished from such strangers as made only a transitory stay
-in a place, for it was a characteristic of a _metoicus_, that he
-resided permanently in the city. No city of Greece perhaps had
-such a number of resident aliens as Athens, since none afforded to
-strangers so many facilities for carrying on mercantile business,
-or a more agreeable mode of living. In the census instituted by
-Demetrius Phalereus (B.C. 309), the number of resident aliens at
-Athens was 10,000, in which number women and children were probably
-not included. The jealousy with which the citizens of the ancient
-Greek republics kept their body clear of intruders, is also manifest
-in their regulations concerning aliens. However long they might
-have resided in Athens, they were always regarded as strangers,
-whence they are sometimes called ξένοι, and to remind them of their
-position, they had on some occasions to perform certain degrading
-services for the Athenian citizens [HYDRIAPHORIA]. These services
-were, however, in all probability not intended to hurt the feelings
-of the aliens, but were simply acts symbolical of their relation to
-the citizens. Aliens were not allowed to acquire landed property in
-the state they had chosen for their residence, and were consequently
-obliged to live in hired houses or apartments. As they did not
-constitute a part of the state, and were yet in constant intercourse
-and commerce with its members, every alien was obliged to select a
-citizen for his patron (προστάτης), who was not only the mediator
-between them and the state, through whom alone they could transact
-any legal business, whether private or public, but was at the same
-time answerable (ἐγγυητής) to the state for the conduct of his
-client. On the other hand, however, the state allowed the aliens to
-carry on all kinds of industry and commerce under the protection of
-the law; in fact, at Athens nearly all business was in the hands
-of aliens, who on this account lived for the most part in the
-Peiraeeus. Each family of aliens, whether they availed themselves of
-the privilege of carrying on any mercantile business or not, had to
-pay an annual tax (μετοίκιον or ξενικά) of twelve drachmae, or if
-the head of the family was a widow, of only six drachmae. If aliens
-did not pay this tax, or if they assumed the right of citizens,
-and probably also in case they refused to select a patron, they
-not only forfeited the protection of the state, but were sold as
-slaves. Extraordinary taxes and liturgies (εἰσφοραί and λειτουργίαι)
-devolved upon aliens no less than upon citizens. The aliens were also
-obliged, like citizens, to serve in the regular armies and in the
-fleet, both abroad and at home, for the defence of the city. Those
-aliens who were exempt from the burthens peculiar to their class were
-called _isoteles_ (ἰσοτελεῖς). They had not to pay the μετοίκιον
-(ἀτέλια μετοικίου), were not obliged to choose a προστάτης, and in
-fact enjoyed all the rights of citizens, except those of a political
-nature. Their condition was termed ἰσοτέλεια and ἰσοπολιτεία.
-
-
-MĔTOPA or MĔTŎPE (μετόπη), the name applied to each of the spaces
-between the triglyphs in the frieze of the Doric order, and by
-metonymy to the sculptured ornament with which those spaces were
-filled up. In the original significance of the parts the triglyphs
-represent the ends of the cross-beams or joists which rested on the
-architrave; the beds of these beams were called ὀπαί, and hence the
-spaces between them μετόπαι. Originally they were left open; next
-they were filled up with plain slabs, as in the propylaea at Eleusis,
-and many other buildings, and lastly, but still at an early period,
-they were adorned with sculptures either in low or high relief. The
-metopes from the Parthenon in the British Museum are adorned with
-sculptures in high relief.
-
-
-MĔTRĒTES (μετρητής), the principal Greek liquid measure. The Attic
-metretes was equal in capacity to the amphora, containing 8 galls.
-7·365 pints, English. See the Tables. [CHOUS; CHOENIX; XESTES;
-COTYLA.]
-
-
-MĒTRŎPŎLIS. [COLONIA.]
-
-
-MĬLIĀRE, MILLĬĀRĬUM, or MILLE PASSUUM (μίλιον), the Roman mile,
-consisted of 1000 paces (_passus_) of 5 feet each, and was therefore
-= 5000 feet. Taking the Roman foot at 11·6496 English inches [PES],
-the Roman mile would be 1618 English yards, or 142 yards less than
-the English statute mile. The most common term for the mile is
-_mille passuum_, or only the initials M. P.; sometimes the word
-_passuum_ is omitted. The Roman mile contained 8 Greek stadia. The
-mile-stones along the Roman roads were called _milliaria_. They were
-also called _lapides_; thus we have _ad tertium lapidem_ (or without
-the word _lapidem_) for 3 miles from Rome. Augustus erected a gilt
-pillar in the Forum, where the principal roads terminated, which was
-called _milliarium aureum_; but the miles were not reckoned from
-it, but from the gates of the city. Such central marks appear to
-have been common in the principal cities of the Roman empire. The
-“London-stone” in Cannon-street is supposed to have marked the centre
-of the Roman roads in Britain.
-
-
-MĪMUS (μῖμος), the name by which, in Greece and at Rome, a species
-of the drama was designated, though the Roman mimus differed
-essentially from the Greek. The Greek mimus seems to have originated
-among the Greeks of Sicily and southern Italy, and to have consisted
-originally of extemporary representations or imitations of ridiculous
-occurrences of common life at certain festivals. At a later period
-these rude representations acquired a more artistic form, which was
-brought to a high degree of perfection by Sophron of Syracuse (about
-B.C. 420). He wrote his pieces in the popular dialect of the Dorians
-and a kind of rhythmical prose. Among the Romans the word mimus was
-applied to a species of dramatic plays as well as to the persons who
-acted in them. It is certain that the Romans did not derive their
-mimus from the Greeks in southern Italy, but that it was of native
-growth. The Greek mimes were written in prose, and the name μῖμος
-was never applied to an actor, but if used of a person it signified
-one who made grimaces. The Roman mimes were imitations of foolish
-and mostly indecent occurrences, and scarcely differed from comedy
-except in consisting more of gestures and mimicry than of spoken
-dialogue. At Rome such mimes seem originally to have been exhibited
-at funerals, where one or more persons (_mimi_) represented in a
-burlesque manner the life of the deceased. If there were several
-mimi, one of them, or their leader, was called _archimimus_. These
-coarse and indecent performances had greater charms for the Romans
-than the regular drama. They were performed on the stage as farces
-after tragedies, and during the empire they gradually supplanted the
-place of the Atellanae. It was peculiar to the actors in these mimes,
-to wear neither masks, the cothurnus, nor the soccus, whence they are
-sometimes called planipedes.
-
-
-MĬNA. [TALENTUM.]
-
-
-MIRMILLŌNES. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-
-MISSĬO. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-MISSĬO. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-
-MITRA (μίτρα), in general a band of any kind, and specifically, (1) A
-belt or girdle worn by warriors round the waist. [ZONA.]--(2) A broad
-band of cloth worn round the head, to which the name of _anadema_ was
-sometimes given. [COMA.]
-
-
-MODĬUS, the principal dry measure of the Romans, was equal to
-one-third of the amphora, and therefore contained nearly two gallons
-English. (See the Tables.) The modius was one-sixth of the medimnus.
-
-
-MŎLA (μύλος), a mill. All mills were anciently made of stone, the
-kind used being a volcanic trachyte or porous lava (_pyrites_,
-_silices_, _pumiceas_). Every mill consisted of two essential parts,
-the upper mill-stone, which was moveable (_catillus_, ὄνος, τὸ
-ἐπιμύλιον), and the lower, which was fixed and by much the larger of
-the two. Hence a mill is sometimes called _molae_ in the plural. The
-principal mills mentioned by ancient authors are the following:--I.
-The hand-mill, or quern, called _mola manuaria, versatilis_, or
-_trusatilis_. The hand-mills were worked among the Greeks and Romans
-by slaves. Their pistrinum was consequently proverbial as a place of
-painful and degrading labour; and this toil was imposed principally
-on women. II. The cattle-mill, _mola asinaria_, in which human labour
-was supplied by the use of an ass or some other animal. III. The
-water-mill (_mola aquaria_, ὑδραλέτης). A cogged wheel, attached to
-the axis of the water wheel, turned another which was attached to the
-axis of the upper mill-stone: the corn to be ground fell between the
-stones out of a hopper (_infundibulum_), which was fixed above them.
-IV. The floating-mill. V. The saw-mill. VI. The pepper-mill.
-
-
-MŎNARCHĬA (μοναρχία), a general name for any form of government
-in which the supreme functions of political administration are in
-the hands of a single person. The term μοναρχία is applied to such
-governments, whether they are hereditary or elective, legal or
-usurped. In its commonest application, it is equivalent to βασιλεία,
-whether absolute or limited. But the rule of an _aesymnetes_ or a
-_tyrant_ would equally be called a μοναρχία. Hence Plutarch uses it
-to express the Latin _dictatura_. It is by a somewhat rhetorical use
-of the word that it is applied now and then to the δῆμος.
-
-
-MŎNĒTA, the mint, or the place where money was coined. The mint of
-Rome was a building on the Capitoline, and attached to the temple
-of Juno Moneta, as the aerarium was to the temple of Saturn. The
-officers who had the superintendence of the mint were the _Triumviri
-Monetales_, who were perhaps first appointed about B.C. 269. Under
-the republic, the coining of money was not a privilege which belonged
-exclusively to the state. The coins struck in the time of the
-republic mostly bear the names of private individuals; and it would
-seem that every Roman citizen had the right of having his own gold
-and silver coined in the public mint, and under the superintendence
-of its officers. Still no one till the time of the empire had the
-right of putting his own image upon a coin; Julius Caesar was the
-first to whom this privilege was granted.
-
-
-MŎNĪLE (ὅρμος), a necklace. Necklaces were worn by both sexes
-among the most polished of those nations which the Greeks called
-barbarous, especially the Indians, the Egyptians, and the Persians.
-Greek and Roman females adopted them more particularly as a bridal
-ornament. They were of various forms, as may be seen by the following
-specimens:--
-
-[Illustration: Monilia, necklaces. (British Museum.)]
-
-
-MŎNŬMENTUM. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-MŎRA. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-MORTĀRIUM, also called PĪLA and PILUM (ὄλμος, ἴγδη, ἴγδις), a mortar.
-Before the invention of mills [MOLA] corn was pounded and rubbed in
-mortars (_pistum_), and hence the place for making bread, or the
-bake-house, was called _pistrinum_. Also long after the introduction
-of mills this was an indispensable article of domestic furniture.
-Those used in pharmacy were sometimes made of Egyptian alabaster.
-The mortar was also employed in pounding charcoal, rubbing it with
-glue, in order to make black paint (_atramentum_), in making plaster
-for the walls of apartments, in mixing spices and fragrant herbs
-and flowers for the use of the kitchen, and in metallurgy, as in
-triturating cinnabar to obtain mercury from it by sublimation.
-
-
-MULSUM. [VINUM.]
-
-
-MŪNĔRĀTOR. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-
-MŪNĬCEPS, MŪNĬCĬPĬUM. [COLONIA; FOEDERATAE CIVITATES.]
-
-
-MŪNUS. [HONORES.]
-
-
-MŪNUS. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-
-MŪRĀLIS CŎRŌNA. [CORONA.]
-
-
-MURRHĬNA VĀSA, or MURRĔA VĀSA, were first introduced into Rome by
-Pompey, who dedicated cups of this kind to Jupiter Capitolinus. Their
-value was very great. Nero gave 300 talents for a capis or drinking
-cup. These murrhine vessels came from the East, principally from
-places within the Parthian empire, and chiefly from Caramania. They
-were made of a substance formed by a moisture thickened in the earth
-by heat, and were chiefly valued on account of the variety of their
-colours. Modern writers differ much respecting the material of which
-they were composed, and some think they may have been true Chinese
-porcelain.
-
-
-MŪRUS, MOENĬA (τεῖχος), the wall of a city, in contradistinction to
-PARIES (τοῖχος), the wall of a house, and _Maceria_, a boundary wall.
-We find cities surrounded by massive walls at the earliest periods
-of Greek and Roman history. Homer speaks of the chief cities of the
-Argive kingdom as “the walled Tiryns,” and “Mycenae the well-built
-city,” attesting the great antiquity of those identical gigantic
-walls which still stand at Tiryns and Mycenae, and which have been
-frequently attributed to the Cyclopes and Pelasgians. Three principal
-species can be clearly distinguished:--1. That in which the masses of
-stone are of irregular shape and are put together without any attempt
-to fit them into one another, the interstices being loosely filled in
-with smaller stones. An example is given in the annexed engraving.
-
-[Illustration: Ancient Wall at Tiryns.]
-
-2. In other cases we find the blocks still of irregular polygonal
-shapes, but their sides are sufficiently smoothed to make each fit
-accurately into the angles between the others, and their faces are
-cut so as to give the whole wall a tolerably smooth surface. An
-example is given in the annexed engraving.
-
-[Illustration: Ancient Wall of Larissa, the Acropolis of Argos.]
-
-3. In the third species, the blocks are laid in horizontal courses,
-more or less regular (sometimes indeed so irregular, that none of
-the horizontal joints are continuous), and with vertical joints
-either perpendicular or oblique, and with all the joints more or less
-accurately fitted. The walls of Mycenae present one of the ruder
-examples of this sort of structure; and the following engraving
-of the “Lion Gate” of that fortress (so called from the rudely
-sculptured figures of lions) shows also the manner in which the gates
-of these three species of walls were built, by supporting an immense
-block of stone, for the lintel, upon two others, for jambs, the
-latter inclining inwards, so as to give more space than if they were
-upright.--
-
-[Illustration: Ancient Wall at Mycenae.]
-
-The materials employed in walls about the time of Pericles were
-various sorts of stone, and, in some of the most magnificent temples,
-marble. The practice of putting a facing of marble over a wall of a
-commoner material was introduced in the next period of architectural
-history. For buildings of a common sort, the materials employed were
-smaller stones, rough or squared, or flints, as well as bricks. These
-were bound together with various kinds of mortar or cement, composed
-of lime mixed with different sands and volcanic earths. The history
-of Roman masonry is not very different from that of the Greek.--The
-most ancient works at Rome, such as the _Carcer Mamertinus_, the
-_Cloaca Maxima_, and the Servian Walls, were constructed of massive
-quadrangular hewn stones, placed together without cement. [CLOACA.]
-Five species of Roman masonry may be distinguished; namely, 1. when
-the blocks of stone are laid in alternate courses, lengthwise in one
-course, and crosswise in the next; this is the most common; 2. when
-the stones in each course are laid alternately along and across; this
-construction was usual when the walls were to be faced with slabs
-of marble; 3. when they are laid entirely lengthwise; 4. entirely
-crosswise; and 5. when the courses are alternately higher and lower
-than each other. As by the Greeks, so by the Romans, walls of a
-commoner sort were built of smaller quarried stones (_caementa_) or
-of bricks. The excellence of the cement which the Romans used enabled
-them to construct walls of very small rough stones, not laid in
-courses, but held together by the mortar; this structure was called
-_opus incertum_. Another structure of which the Romans made great
-use, and which was one of the most durable of all, was that composed
-of courses of flat tiles. Such courses were also introduced in the
-other kinds of stone and brick walls, in which they both served as
-bond-courses, and, in the lower part of the wall, kept the damp
-from rising from the ground. Brick walls covered with stucco were
-exceedingly common with the Romans: even columns were made of brick
-covered with stucco.
-
-
-MUSCŬLUS was a kind of vinea, one of the smaller military machines,
-by which the besiegers of a town were protected.
-
-
-MŪSĒUM (μουσεῖον), the name of an institution founded by Ptolemy
-Philadelphus, about B.C. 280, for the promotion of learning and the
-support of learned men. The museum formed part of the palace, and
-contained cloisters or porticoes (περίπατος), a public theatre or
-lecture-room (ἐξέδρα), and a large hall (οἶκος μέγας), where the
-learned men dined together. The museum was supported by a common
-fund, supplied apparently from the public treasury; and the whole
-institution was under the superintendence of a priest, who was
-appointed by the king, and after Egypt became a province of the Roman
-empire, by the Caesar. Botanical and zoological gardens appear to
-have been attached to the museum.
-
-
-MȲRĬI (μυρίοι), the name given to the popular assembly of the
-Arcadians, which was established after the overthrow of the Spartan
-supremacy by the battle of Leuctra, and which used to meet at
-Megalopolis in order to determine upon matters affecting the whole
-people.
-
-
-MYSĬA (μύσια), a festival celebrated by the inhabitants of Pellene in
-Achaia in honour of Demeter Mysia, which lasted for 7 days.
-
-
-MYSTĒRĬA. The names by which mysteries or mystic festivals were
-designated in Greece, are μυστήρια, τελεταί, and ὄργια. The name
-ὄργια (from ἔοργα) originally signified only sacrifices accompanied
-by certain ceremonies, but it was afterwards applied especially
-to the ceremonies observed in the worship of Dionysus, and at a
-still later period to mysteries in general. Τελετή signifies, in
-general, a religious festival, but more particularly a lustration or
-ceremony performed in order to avert some calamity, either public
-or private. Μυστήριον signifies, properly speaking, the secret part
-of the worship, but was also used in the same sense as τελετή, and
-for mystic worship in general. Mysteries in general may be defined
-as sacrifices and ceremonies which took place at night or in secret
-within some sanctuary, which the uninitiated were not allowed
-to enter. What was essential to them, were objects of worship,
-sacred utensils, and traditions with their interpretation, which
-were withheld from all persons not initiated. The most celebrated
-mysteries in Greece were those of Samothrace and Eleusis, which are
-described in separate articles. [CABEIRIA; ELEUSINIA.]
-
-
-
-
-NAENĬA. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-NĂTĀTĬO, NĂTĀTŌRĬUM. [BALNEUM.]
-
-
-NĀVĀLIA, docks at Rome where ships were built, laid up, and refitted.
-They were attached to the emporium outside of the Porta Trigemina,
-and were connected with the Tiber. The emporium and navalia were
-first included within the walls of the city by Aurelian.--The docks
-(νεώσοικοι or νεώρια) in the Peiraeeus at Athens cost 1000 talents,
-and having been destroyed in the anarchy were again restored and
-finally completed by Lycurgus, the contemporary of Demosthenes. They
-were under the superintendence of regular officers, called ἐπιμεληταὶ
-τῶν νεωρίων.
-
-
-NĀVĀLIS CŎRŌNA. [CORONA.]
-
-
-NĀVARCHUS (ναύαρχος), the name by which the Greeks designated both
-the captain of a single ship, and the admiral of a fleet. The office
-itself was called ναυαρχία. The admiral of the Athenian fleet was
-always one of the ten generals (στρατηγοί) elected every year, and
-he had either the whole or the chief command of the fleet. The
-chief officers who served under him were the trierarchs and the
-pentecontarchs, each of whom commanded one vessel; the inferior
-officers in the vessels were the κυβερνῆται or helmsmen, the
-κελευσταί or commanders of the rowers, and the πρωρᾶται, who must
-have been employed at the prow of the vessels. Other Greek states
-who kept a navy had likewise their navarchs. The chief admiral of
-the Spartan fleet was called navarchus, and the second in command
-_epistoleus_ (ἐπιστολεύς). The same person was not allowed to hold
-the office of navarchus two successive years at Sparta. [EPISTOLEUS.]
-
-
-NAUCRĀRĬA (ναυκραρία), the name of a division of the inhabitants
-of Attica. The four ancient phylae were each divided into three
-phratries, and each of these twelve phratries into four naucraries,
-of which there were thus forty-eight. What the naucraries were
-previous to the legislation of Solon is not stated anywhere, but it
-is not improbable that they were political divisions similar to the
-demes in the constitution of Cleisthenes, and were made perhaps at
-the time of the institution of the nine archons, for the purpose of
-regulating the liturgies, taxes, or financial and military affairs
-in general. At any rate, however, the naucraries before the time of
-Solon can have had no connection with the navy, for the Athenians
-then had no navy; the word ναύκραρος therefore cannot be derived
-from ναῦς, ship, but must come from ναιω, and ναύκραρος is thus only
-another form for ναύκληρος in the sense of a householder, as ναῦλον
-was used for the rent of a house. Solon in his legislation retained
-the old institution of the naucraries, and charged each of them with
-the equipment of one trireme and with the mounting of two horsemen.
-All military affairs, as far as regards the defraying of expenses,
-probably continued as before to be regulated according to naucraries.
-Cleisthenes, in his change of the Solonian constitution, retained
-the division into naucraries for military and financial purposes;
-but he increased their number to fifty, making five for each of his
-ten tribes; so that now the number of their ships was increased from
-forty-eight to fifty, and that of horsemen from ninety-six to one
-hundred. The statement of Herodotus, that the Athenians in their war
-against Aegina had only fifty ships of their own, is thus perfectly
-in accordance with the fifty naucraries of Cleisthenes. The functions
-of the former ναύκραροι, or the heads of their respective naucraries,
-were now transferred to the demarchs. [DEMARCHI.] The obligation of
-each naucrary to equip a ship of war for the service of the republic
-may be regarded as the first form of trierarchy. As the system of
-trierarchy became developed and established, this obligation of the
-naucraries appears to have gradually ceased, and to have fallen into
-disuse. [TRIERARCHIA.]
-
-
-NAUCRĀRUS. [NAUCRARIA.]
-
-
-NĀVIS, NĀVĬGIUM (ναῦς, πλοῖον), a ship. The numerous fleet, with
-which the Greeks are said to have sailed to the coast of Asia Minor,
-must on the whole be regarded as sufficient evidence of the extent
-to which navigation was carried on in those times, however much
-of the detail in the Homeric description may have arisen from the
-poet’s own imagination. In the Homeric catalogue it is stated that
-each of the fifty Boeotian ships carried 120 warriors, and a ship
-which carried so many cannot have been of very small dimensions. What
-Homer states of the Boeotian vessels applies more or less to the
-ships of other Greeks. These boats were provided with a mast (ἱστός)
-which was fastened by two ropes (πρότονοι) to the two ends of the
-ship, so that when the rope connecting it with the prow broke, the
-mast would fall towards the stern, where it might kill the helmsman.
-The mast could be erected or taken down as necessity required. They
-also had sails (ἱστία), but no deck; each vessel however appears to
-have had only one sail, which was used in favourable winds; and the
-principal means of propelling the vessel lay in the rowers, who sat
-upon benches (κληΐδες). The oars were fastened to the side of the
-ship with leathern thongs (τροποὶ δερμάτινοι), in which they were
-turned as a key in its hole. The ships in Homer are mostly called
-black (μέλαιναι), probably because they were painted or covered with
-a black substance, such as pitch, to protect the wood against the
-influence of the water and the air; sometimes other colours, such
-as μίλτος, _minium_ (a red colour), were used to adorn the sides
-of the ships near the prow, whence Homer occasionally calls ships
-μιλτοπάρῃοι, i.e. red-cheeked; they were also painted occasionally
-with a purple colour (φοινικοπάρῃοι). When the Greeks had landed on
-the coast of Troy, the ships were drawn on land, and fastened at
-the poop to large stones with a rope which served as anchors. The
-Greeks then surrounded the fleet with a fortification to secure it
-against the attacks of the enemy. This custom of drawing the ships
-upon the shore, when they were not used, was followed in later times
-also, as every one will remember from the accounts in Caesar’s
-Commentaries. In the Odyssey (v. 243, &c.) the building of a boat
-(σχεδία) is described, though not with the minuteness which an
-actual ship-builder might wish for. Ulysses first cuts down with his
-axe twenty trees, and prepares the wood for his purpose by cutting
-it smooth and giving it the proper shape. He then bores the holes
-for nails and hooks, and fits the planks together and fastens them
-with nails. He rounds the bottom of the ship like that of a broad
-transport vessel, and raises the bulwark (ἴκρια), fitting it upon
-the numerous ribs of the ship. He afterwards covers the whole of the
-outside with planks, which are laid across the ribs from the keel
-upwards to the bulwark: next the mast is made, and the sail-yard
-attached to it, and lastly the rudder. When the ship is thus far
-completed, he raises the bulwark still higher by a wicker-work which
-goes all around the vessel, as a protection against the waves. This
-raised bulwark of wicker-work and the like was used in later times
-also. For ballast Ulysses throws into the ship ὕλη, which according
-to the Scholiast consisted of wood, stones, and sand. Calypso then
-brings him materials to make a sail of, and he fastens the ὑπέραι or
-ropes which run from the top of the mast to the two ends of the yard,
-and also the κάλοι with which the sail is drawn up or let down. The
-πόδες mentioned in this passage were undoubtedly, as in the later
-times, the ropes attached to the two lower corners of the square
-sail. The ship of which the building is thus described was a small
-boat, a σχεδία, as Homer calls it; but it had like all the Homeric
-ships a round or flat bottom. Greater ships must have been of a more
-complicated structure, as ship-builders are praised as artists. Below
-(p. 266), a representation of two boats is given which appear to
-bear great resemblance to the one of which the building is described
-in the Odyssey.--The Corinthians were the first who brought the art
-of ship-building nearest to the point at which we find it in the
-time of Thucydides, and they were the first who introduced ships
-with three ranks of rowers (τριήρεις, _Triremes_). About B.C. 700,
-Ameinocles the Corinthian, to whom this invention is ascribed, made
-the Samians acquainted with it; but it must have been preceded by
-that of the _Biremes_, that is, ships with two ranks of rowers, which
-Pliny attributes to the Erythraeans.[3] These innovations however
-do not seem to have been generally adopted for a long time; for we
-read that about the time of Cyrus the Phocaeans introduced long
-sharp-keeled ships called πεντηκόντοροι. These belonged to the class
-of long war-ships (νῆες μακραί), and had fifty rowers, twenty-five on
-each side of the ship, who sat in one row. It is further stated that
-before this time vessels called στρογγύλαι, with large round or
-rather flat bottoms, had been used exclusively by all the Ionians in
-Asia. At this period most Greeks seem to have adopted the long ships
-with only one rank of rowers on each side (Moneris).
-
-[Illustration: Moneris. (Montfaucon, vol. IV. pt. II. pl. 142.)]
-
-Their name varied accordingly as they had fifty (πεντηκόντοροι), or
-thirty (τριακόντοροι), or even a smaller number of rowers. A ship
-of war of this class is represented in the preceding woodcut. The
-following cut contains a beautiful fragment of a Biremis with a
-complete deck. Another specimen of a small Biremis is given further
-on.--
-
-[Illustration: Biremis. (Winckelmann, pl. 207.)]
-
-[Illustration: Navis Aperta. (Coin of Corcyra.)]
-
-The first Greek people whom we know to have acquired a navy of
-importance were the Corinthians, Samians, and Phocaeans. About the
-time of Cyrus and Cambyses the Corinthian Triremes were generally
-adopted by the Sicilian tyrants and by the Corcyraeans, who soon
-acquired the most powerful navies among the Greeks. In other parts of
-Greece and even at Athens and in Aegina the most common vessels about
-this time were long ships with only one rank of rowers on each side.
-Athens, although the foundation of its maritime power had been laid
-by Solon [NAUCRARIA], did not obtain a fleet of any importance until
-the time of Themistocles, who persuaded the Athenians to build 200
-Triremes for the purpose of carrying on the war against Aegina. But
-even then ships were not provided with complete decks (καταστρώματα)
-covering the whole of the vessel. Ships with only a partial deck or
-with no deck at all, were called ἄφρακτοι νῆες, and in Latin _naves
-apertae_. Even at the time of the Persian war, the Athenian ships
-were without a complete deck. Ships which had a complete deck were
-called κατάφρακτοι, and the deck itself κατάστρωμα. At the time when
-Themistocles induced the Athenians to build a fleet of 200 sail he
-also carried a decree, that every year twenty new Triremes should
-be built from the produce of the mines of Laurium. After the time
-of Themistocles as many as twenty Triremes must have been built
-every year both in times of war and of peace, as the average number
-of Triremes which was always ready amounted to between three and
-four hundred. Such an annual addition was the more necessary, as
-the vessels were of a light structure and did not last long. The
-whole superintendence of the building of new Triremes was in the
-hands of the senate of the Five Hundred, but the actual business was
-entrusted to a committee called the τριηροποιοί, one of whom acted
-as their treasurer, and had in his keeping the money set apart for
-the purpose. Under the Macedonian supremacy the Rhodians became the
-greatest maritime power in Greece. The navy of Sparta was never of
-great importance. Navigation remained for the most part what it had
-been before; the Greeks seldom ventured out into the open sea, and
-it was generally considered necessary to remain in sight of the
-coast or of some island, which also served as guides in daytime: in
-the night the position, rising and setting of the different stars
-answered the same purpose. In winter navigation generally ceased
-altogether. In cases where it would have been necessary to coast
-around a considerable extent of country, which was connected with the
-main land by a narrow neck, the ships were sometimes drawn across the
-neck of land from one sea to the other, by machines called ὁλκοί.
-This was done most frequently across the isthmus of Corinth.--The
-various kinds of ships used by the Greeks might be divided, according
-to the number of ranks of rowers employed in them, into Moneres,
-Biremes, Triremes, Quadriremes, Quinqueremes, &c., up to the enormous
-ship with forty ranks of rowers, built by Ptolemaeus Philopator. But
-all these appear to have been constructed on the same principle,
-and it is more convenient to divide them into _ships of war_ and
-_ships of burden_ (φορτικὰ, φορτηγοὶ, ὁλκάδες, πλοῖα, στρογγύλαι,
-_naves onerariae_, _naves actuariae_). Ships of the latter kind were
-not calculated for quick movement or rapid sailing, but to carry the
-greatest possible quantity of goods. Hence their structure was bulky,
-their bottom round, and although they were not without rowers, yet
-the chief means by which they were propelled were their sails. The
-most common ships of war in the earlier times were the pentecontori
-(πεντηκόντοροι), but afterwards they were chiefly Triremes, and
-the latter are frequently designated only by the name νῆες, while
-all the others are called by the name indicating their peculiar
-character. Triremes however were again divided into two classes:
-the one consisting of real men-of-war, which were quick-sailing
-vessels (ταχεῖαι), and the other of transports either for soldiers
-(στρατιώτιδες or ὁπλιταγωγοί) or for horses (ἱππηγοί, ἱππαγωγοί).
-Ships of this class were more heavy and awkward, and were therefore
-not used in battle except in cases of necessity. The ordinary size of
-a war galley may be inferred from the fact that the average number of
-men engaged in it, including the crew and marines, was two hundred,
-to whom on some occasions as many as thirty epibatae were added.
-[EPIBATAE.]--Vessels with more than three ranks of rowers on each
-side were not constructed in Greece till about the year 400 B.C.,
-when Dionysius I., tyrant of Syracuse, who bestowed great care upon
-his navy, built the first Quadriremes (τετρήρεις), and Quinqueremes
-(πεντήρεις). In the reign of Dionysius II., Hexeres (ἑξήρεις) are
-also mentioned. After the time of Alexander the Great the use of
-vessels with four, five, and more ranks of rowers became very
-general, and it is well known that the first Punic war was chiefly
-carried on with Quinqueremes. Ships with twelve, thirty, or even
-forty ranks of rowers, such as they were built by Alexander and the
-Ptolemies, appear to have been mere curiosities, and did not come
-into common use. The Athenians at first did not adopt vessels larger
-than Triremes, probably because they thought that with rapidity and
-skill they could do more than with large and unwieldy ships. In the
-year B.C. 356 they continued to use nothing but Triremes; but in
-B.C. 330 the republic had already a number of Quadriremes, which was
-afterwards increased. The first Quinqueremes at Athens are mentioned
-in a document belonging to the year B.C. 325.--Among the smaller
-vessels we may mention the ἄκατος or ἀκάτιον, which seems to have
-been sometimes used as a ship of burden. The name Scapha (σκάφη)
-denotes a small skiff or life-boat, which was commonly attached to
-merchantmen for the purpose of saving the crew in danger.--_Liburna_,
-or _Liburnica_, in Greek λιβυρνίς or λιβυρνόν, is a name given
-apparently to every war-ship, from a bireme up to those with six
-lines of rowers on each side, but in the time of Augustus, liburnae
-even with six lines of rowers were considered small and swift in
-comparison with the unwieldy ships of Antony at Actium. They were
-usually provided with a beak, whence a _navis rostrata_ is generally
-the same as a Liburna. They were first constructed by the Liburnians
-(whence they derived their name), and formed the main part of the
-fleet of Augustus in the battle of Actium.--Every vessel at Athens,
-as in modern times, had a name given to it, which was generally
-of the feminine gender. The Romans sometimes gave to their ships
-masculine names. The Greek names were either taken from ancient
-heroines such as Nausicaa, or they were abstract words such as
-_Forethought_, _Safety_, _Guidance_, &c. In many cases the name of
-the builder also was added.--The Romans appear to have first become
-aware of the importance of a fleet during the second Samnite war,
-in the year B.C. 311: when _duumviri navales_ were for the first
-time appointed by the people. The ships which the Romans now built
-were undoubtedly Triremes. This fleet, however insignificant it may
-have been, continued to be kept up until the time when Rome became a
-real maritime power. In the year B.C. 260, when the Romans saw that
-without a navy they could not carry on the war against Carthage with
-any advantage, the senate ordained that a fleet should be built.
-Triremes would now have been of no avail against the high-bulwarked
-vessels (Quinqueremes) of the Carthaginians. But the Romans would
-have been unable to build others had not fortunately a Carthaginian
-Quinquereme been wrecked on the coast of Bruttium, and fallen into
-their hands. This wreck the Romans took as their model, and after it
-built 120, or according to others 130 ships. From this time forward
-the Romans continued to keep up a powerful navy. Towards the end of
-the Republic they also increased the size of their ships, and built
-war vessels of from six to ten ranks of rowers. The construction of
-their ships, however, scarcely differed from that of Greek vessels;
-the only great difference was that the Roman galleys were provided
-with a greater variety of destructive engines of war than those of
-the Greeks. They even erected turres and tabulata upon the decks of
-their great men-of-war (_naves turritae_), and fought upon them as if
-they were standing upon the walls of a fortress (see cut, p. 260).
-
-[Illustration: BIREMIS.
-
-  A. _Prora_, πρώρα.
-  B. _Oculus_, ὀφθαλμός.
-  C. _Rostrum_, ἔμβολος.
-  D. _Cheniscus_, χηνίσκος.
-  E. _Puppis_, πρύμνη.
-  F. _Aplustre_, ἄφλαστον, with the pole containing the _fascia_ or _taenia_.
-  G. τράφηξ.
-  H. _Remi_, κώπαι.
-  I. _Gubernaculum_, πηδάλιον.
-  K. _Malus_, ἱστός.
-  L. _Velum_, ἱστός.
-  M. _Antenna_, κεραία, κέρας.
-  N. _Cornua_, ἀκροκέραιαι.
-  O. _Ceruchi_, κεροῦχοι.
-  P. _Carchesium_, καρχήσιον.
-  Q. κάλοι, καλῴδια.
-  R. πρότονος.
-  S. _Pedes_, πόδες.
-  T. _Opifera_, ὑπέραι.]
-
-We now proceed to describe the parts of ancient vessels.--1. The prow
-(πρώρα or μέτωπον, prora) was generally ornamented on both sides
-with figures, which were either painted upon the sides or laid in.
-It seems to have been very common to represent an eye on each side
-of the prow. Upon the prow or fore-deck there was always some emblem
-(παράσημον, insigne, figura) by which the ship was distinguished from
-others. At the head of the prow there projected the στόλος, and its
-extremity was termed ἀκροστόλιον, which was frequently made in the
-shape of an animal or a helmet. It appears to have been sometimes
-covered with brass and to have served as an embole (ἐμβολή) against
-the enemy’s vessels. The ἀκροστόλιον is sometimes designated by
-the name of χηνίσκος(from χήν, a goose), because it was formed
-in the shape of the head or neck of a goose or swan, as in the
-accompanying woodcut.
-
-[Illustration: Cheniscus. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)]
-
-The cheniscus was often gilt and made of bronze. Just below the prow
-and projecting a little above the keel was the _Rostrum_ (ἔμβολος,
-ἔμβολον) or beak, which consisted of a beam, to which were attached
-sharp and pointed irons, or the head of a ram and the like. This
-ἔμβολος was used for the purpose of attacking another vessel and of
-breaking its sides. These beaks were at first always above the water
-and visible; afterwards they were attached lower, so that they were
-invisible, and thus became still more dangerous to other ships. The
-annexed woodcuts represent three different beaks of ships.
-
-[Illustration: Rostra, Beaks of Ships. (Montfaucon, pl. 133.)]
-
-The command in the prow of a vessel was exercised by an officer
-called πρωρεύς, who seems to have been next in rank to the steersman,
-and to have had the care of the gear, and the command over the
-rowers.--2. _The stern_ (πρύμνη, _puppis_) was generally above the
-other parts of the deck, and in it the helmsman had his elevated
-seat. It is seen in the representations of ancient vessels to be
-rounder than the prow, though its extremity is likewise sharp. The
-stern was, like the prow, adorned in various ways, but especially
-with the image of the tutelary deity of the vessel (_tutela_). In
-some representations a kind of roof is formed over the head of the
-steersman, and the upper part of the stern frequently has an elegant
-ornament called _aplustre_, and in Greek ἄφλαστον, which constituted
-the highest part of the poop. It formed a corresponding ornament to
-the ἀκροστόλιον at the prow. At the junction of the aplustre with
-the stern on which it was based, we commonly observe an ornament
-resembling a circular shield: this was called ἀσπιδεῖον or ἀσπιδίσκη.
-It is seen on the two aplustria here represented. The aplustre rose
-immediately behind the gubernator, and served in some degree to
-protect him from wind and rain. Sometimes there appears, beside the
-aplustre, a pole, to which a fillet or pennon (ταινία) was attached,
-which served both to distinguish and adorn the vessel, and also to
-show the direction of the wind.--3. The τράφηξ is the bulwark of the
-vessel, or rather the uppermost edge of it. In small boats the pegs
-(σκαλμοί, _scalmi_) between which the oars move, and to which they
-are fastened by a thong (τροπωτήρ), were upon the τράφηξ. In all
-other vessels the oars passed through holes in the side of the vessel
-(ὀφθαλμοί, τρήματα, or τρυπήματα).--
-
-[Illustration: Aphlaston, Aplustre.]
-
-4. The middle part of the deck in most ships of war appears to have
-been raised above the bulwark, or at least to a level with its upper
-edge, and thus enabled the soldiers to occupy a position from which
-they could see far around and hurl their darts against the enemy.
-Such an elevated deck appears in the annexed woodcut representing a
-_Moneris_.
-
-[Illustration: Moneris. (From a Painting at Pompeii.)]
-
-In this instance the flag is standing upon the hind-deck.--5. One of
-the most interesting, as well as important parts in the arrangements
-of the Biremes, Triremes, &c., is the position of the ranks of
-rowers, from which the ships themselves derive their names. Various
-opinions have been entertained by those who have written upon this
-subject. Thus much is certain, that the different ranks of rowers,
-who sat along the sides of a vessel, were placed one above the
-other. In ordinary vessels, from the Moneris up to the Quinqueremis,
-each oar was managed by one man. The rowers sat upon little benches
-attached to the ribs of the vessel, and called ἑδώλια, and in Latin
-_fori_ and _transtra_. The lowest row of rowers was called θαλάμος,
-the rowers themselves, θαλαμῖται or θαλάμιοι. The uppermost ordo of
-rowers was called θράνος, and the rowers themselves θρανῖται. The
-middle ordo or ordines of rowers were called ζυγὰ, ζύγιοι or ζυγῖται.
-Each of this last class of rowers had likewise his own seat, and
-did not, as some have supposed, sit upon benches running across the
-vessel. The gear of a vessel was divided into _wooden_ and _hanging
-gear_ (σκεύη ξύλινα, and σκεύη κρεμαστά).
-
-I. WOODEN GEAR.--1. _Oars_ (κώπαι, remi). The collective term for
-oars is ταῤῥός, which properly signified only the blade or flat
-part of the oar, but was afterwards used as a collective expression
-for all the oars, with the exception of the rudder. The oars varied
-in size accordingly as they were used by a lower or higher ordo of
-rowers, and from the name of the ordo by which they were used, they
-also received their special names, viz., κώπαι θαλάμιαι, ζύγιαι, and
-θρανίτιδες. Each Trireme had on an average 170 rowers. In a Roman
-Quinquereme during the first Punic war, the average number of rowers
-was 300; in later times we even find as many as 400. The lower part
-of the holes through which the oars passed appears to have been
-covered with leather (ἄσκωμα), which also extended a little way
-outside the hole.--2. _The rudder_ (πηδάλιον, _gubernaculum_).
-
-[Illustration: Gubernacula, rudders. (From an ancient Lamp and Gems.)]
-
-Before the invention of the rudder, vessels must have been propelled
-and guided by the oars alone. This circumstance may account for the
-form of the ancient rudder, as well as for the mode of using it. It
-was like an oar with a very broad blade, and was commonly placed on
-each side of the stern, not at its extremity. The annexed woodcut
-presents examples of its appearance as it is frequently exhibited on
-gems, coins, and other works of art. The figure in the centre shows a
-Triton blowing the buccina, and holding a rudder over his shoulder.
-The left-hand figure represents a rudder with its helm or tiller
-crossed by the cornucopia. In the third figure Venus leans with her
-left arm upon a rudder to indicate her origin from the sea. The
-rudder was managed by the gubernator (κυβερνήτης), who is also called
-the _rector navis_ as distinguished from the _magister_. A ship had
-sometimes one, but more commonly two rudders; but they were managed
-by the steersman to prevent confusion. In larger ships the two
-rudders were joined by a pole, which was moved by the gubernator,
-and kept the rudders parallel. The contrivances for attaching the
-two rudders to one another and to the sides of the ship, are called
-ζεῦγλαι or ζευκτηρίαι.--3. _Ladders_ (κλιμακίδες, _scalae_). Each
-Trireme had two wooden ladders, and the same seems to have been the
-case in τριακόντοροι.--4. _Poles_ or punt poles (κοντοί, _conti_).
-Three of these, of different lengths, belonged to every Trireme.--5.
-Παραστάται or supports for the masts. They seem to have been a kind
-of props placed at the foot of the masts.--6. The _mast_ (ἱστός,
-_malus_). The ancients had vessels with one, two, or three masts.
-The fore-mast was called ἀκάτειος, the mainmast, ἱστὸς μέγας. A
-triaconter, or a vessel with 30 rowers, had likewise two masts, and
-the smaller mast here, as well as in a trireme, was near the prow.
-In three-masted vessels the largest mast was nearest the stern. The
-masts as well as the yards were usually of fir. The part of the mast
-immediately above the yard (_antenna_), formed a structure similar to
-a drinking-cup, and bore the name of _carchesium_ (καρχήσιον). Into
-it the mariners ascended in order to manage the sail, to obtain a
-distant view, or to discharge missiles. Breastworks (θωράκια) were
-fixed to these structures, so as to supply the place of defensive
-armour; and pulleys (τροχηλίαι, _trochleae_) for hoisting up stones
-and weapons from below. The continuation of the mast above the
-carchesium was called the “distaff” (ἠλακάτη), corresponding to
-our top-mast or top-gallant mast.--7. The _yards_ (κέρα, κεραίαι,
-_antennae_).
-
-[Illustration: Ceruchi. (From an ancient Lamp.)]
-
-The mainyard was fastened to the top of the mast by ropes termed
-_ceruchi_, as seen in the preceding woodcut. To the mainyard was
-attached the mainsail, which was hoisted or let down as the occasion
-might require. In the two extremities of the yard (_cornua_,
-ἀκροκέραιαι), ropes (_ceruchi_, κηροῦχοι) were attached, which passed
-to the top of the mast; and by means of these ropes and the pulleys
-connected with them, the yard and sail, guided by the hoop, were
-hoisted to the height required. There are numerous representations of
-ancient ships in which the antenna is seen, as in the two woodcuts
-here appended. In the second of them there are ropes hanging down
-from the antenna, the object of which was to enable the sailors to
-turn the antenna and the sail according to the wind.
-
-[Illustration: Antennae. (From ancient Gems.)]
-
-II. HANGING GEAR.--1. _Hypozomata_ (Ὑποζώματα), thick and broad ropes
-running in a horizontal direction around the ship from the stern to
-the prow, and intended to keep the whole fabric together. They ran
-round the vessel in several circles, and at certain distances from
-one another. The Latin name for ὑπόζωμα is _tormentum_. Sometimes
-they were taken on board when a vessel sailed, and not put on till
-it was thought necessary. The act of putting them on was called
-ὑποζωννύναι, or διαζωννύναι, or ζῶσαι. A Trireme required four
-ὑποζώματα.--2. _The sail_ (Ἱστίον, _velum_). Most ancient ships had
-only one sail, which was attached with the yard to the great mast. In
-a Trireme also one sail might be sufficient, but the trierarch might
-nevertheless add a second. As each of the two masts of a Trireme
-had two sail-yards, it further follows that each mast might have
-two sails, one of which was placed lower than the other. The two
-belonging to the mainmast were called ἱστία μεγάλα, and those of the
-fore-mast ἱστία ἀκάτεια. The former were used on ordinary occasions,
-but the latter probably only in cases when it was necessary to sail
-with extraordinary speed. The sails of the Attic war-galleys, and
-of most ancient ships in general, were of a square form. Whether
-triangular sails were ever used by the Greeks, as has been frequently
-supposed, is very doubtful. The Romans, however, used triangular
-sails, which they called _Suppara_, and which had the shape of an
-inverted Greek Δ (⛛), the upper side of which was attached to the
-yard.--3. _Cordage_ (τοπεῖα) differed from the σχοινία or κάλοι.
-The σχοινία (_funes_) are the strong ropes to which the anchors
-were attached, and by which a ship was fastened to the land; while
-the τοπεῖα were a lighter kind of ropes and made with greater care,
-which were attached to the masts, yards, and sails. Each rope of this
-kind was made for a distinct purpose and place (τόπος, whence the
-name τοπεῖα). The following kinds are most worthy of notice:--_a_.
-καλῴδια or κάλοι, were probably the ropes by which the mast was
-fastened to both sides of the ship, so that the πρότονοι in the
-Homeric ships were only an especial kind of καλῴδια, or the καλῴδια
-themselves differently placed. In later times the πρότονος was the
-rope which went from the top of the mainmast (καρχήσιον) to the prow
-of the ship, and thus was what is now called the main-stay. _b_.
-_Ceruchi_ (κεροῦχοι, ἱμάντες), ropes which ran from the two ends
-of the sail-yard to the top of the mast. In more ancient vessels
-the ἱμὰς consisted of only one rope; in later times it consisted of
-two, and sometimes four, which uniting at the top of the mast, and
-there passing through a ring, descended on the other side, where it
-formed the ἐπίτονος, by means of which the sail was drawn up or let
-down. _c_. ἄγκοινα, Latin _anquina_, was the rope which went from
-the middle of a yard to the top of the mast, and was intended to
-facilitate the drawing up and letting down of the sail. _d_. Πόδες
-(_pedes_) were in later times, as in the poems of Homer, the ropes
-attached to the two lower corners of a square sail. These πόδες ran
-from the ends of the sail to the sides of the vessel towards the
-stern, where they were fastened with rings attached to the outer
-side of the bulwark. _e_. Ὑπέραι were the two ropes attached to the
-two ends of the sail-yard, and thence came down to a part of the
-ship near the stern. Their object was to move the yard according to
-the wind. In Latin they are called _opifera_, which is, perhaps,
-only a corruption of _hypera_.--4. Παραῤῥύματα. The ancients as
-early as the time of Homer had various preparations raised above
-the edge of a vessel, which were made of skins and wicker-work, and
-which were intended as a protection against high waves, and also to
-serve as a kind of breast-work behind which the men might be safe
-against the darts of the enemy. These elevations of the bulwark are
-called παραῤῥύματα. They were probably fixed upon the edge on both
-sides of the vessel, and were taken off when not wanted. Each galley
-appears to have had several παραῤῥύματα, two made of hair and two
-white ones, these four being regularly mentioned as belonging to one
-ship.--5. Σχοινία are the stronger and heavier kinds of ropes. There
-were two kinds of these, viz. the σχοινία ἀγκύρεια, to which the
-anchor was attached, and σχοινία ἐπίγυα or ἐπίγεια (_retinacula_),
-by which the ship was fastened to the shore or drawn upon the
-shore.--6. The _anchor_ (ἀγκύρα, _ancora_). We have already remarked
-that in the Homeric age anchors were not known, and large stones
-(εὐναὶ, _sleepers_) used in their stead. When anchors came to be
-used, they were generally made of iron, and their form resembled
-that of a modern anchor. Such an anchor was often termed _bidens_,
-διπλῆ, ἀμφίβολος or ἀμφίστομος, because it had two teeth or flukes;
-but sometimes it had only one, and was then called ἑτεροστόμος.
-The technical expressions in the use of the anchor are: _ancoram
-solvere_, ἀγκύραν χαλᾷν, to loose the anchor; _ancoram jacere_,
-ἀγκύραν βάλλειν or ῥίπτειν, to cast anchor; and _ancoram tollere_,
-ἀγκύραν αἴρειν or ἀναίρεσθαι, to weigh anchor, whence αἴρειν by
-itself means “to set sail,” ἀγκύραν being understood. The following
-figure shows the cable (_funis_), passing through a hole in the
-prow (_oculus_). Each ship of course had several anchors. The last
-or most powerful anchor, “the last hope,” was called ἱερά, _sacra_,
-and persons trying their last hope were said _sacram solvere_.--The
-preceding account of the different parts of the ship will be rendered
-still clearer by the drawing on p. 263.
-
-[Illustration: Biremis. (From a Marble at Rome.)]
-
-
-FOOTNOTE:
-
-[3] Biremes are sometimes called by the Greeks δίκροτα. The name
-biremis is also applied to a little boat managed by only two oars.
-
-
-NAUMĂCHIA, the name given to the representation of a sea-fight
-among the Romans, and also to the place where such engagements
-were exhibited. These fights sometimes took place in the circus or
-amphitheatre, sufficient water being introduced to float ships, but
-more generally in buildings especially devoted to this purpose.
-The combatants in these sea-fights, called _Naumachiarii_, were
-usually captives, or criminals condemned to death, who fought as in
-gladiatorial combats, until one party was killed, unless preserved
-by the clemency of the emperor. The ships engaged in the sea fights
-were divided into two parties, called respectively by the names of
-different maritime nations, as Tyrians and Egyptians, Rhodians and
-Sicilians, Persians and Athenians, Corcyraeans and Corinthians,
-Athenians and Syracusans, &c. These sea-fights were exhibited with
-the same magnificence and lavish expenditure of human life as
-characterised the gladiatorial combats and other public games of the
-Romans. In Nero’s naumachia there were sea-monsters swimming about in
-the artificial lake. In the sea-fight exhibited by Titus there were
-3000 men engaged, and in that exhibited by Domitian the ships were
-almost equal in number to two real fleets.
-
-
-NAUTŎDĬCAE (ναυτόδικαι), magistrates at Athens, who had jurisdiction
-in matters belonging to navigation and commerce, and in matters
-concerning such persons as had entered their names as members of
-a phratria without both their parents being citizens of Athens,
-or in other words, in the δίκαι ἐμπόρων and δίκαι ξενίας. The time
-when nautodicae were first instituted is not mentioned, but it must
-have been previous to Pericles, and perhaps as early as the time of
-Cleisthenes. The nautodicae were appointed every year by lot in the
-month of Gamelion, and probably attended to the δίκαι ἐμπόρων only
-during the winter, when navigation ceased, whereas the δίκαι ξενίας
-might be brought before them all the year round.
-
-
-NĔFASTI DIES. [DIES.]
-
-
-NĔGŌTĬĀTŌRES, signified specially during the later times of the
-republic Roman citizens settled in the provinces, who lent money
-upon interest or bought up corn on speculation, which they sent to
-Rome as well as to other places. Their chief business however was
-lending money upon interest, and hence we find the words _negotia_,
-_negotiatio_, and _negotiari_ used in this sense. The _negotiatores_
-are distinguished from the _publicani_, and from the _mercatores_.
-The _negotiatores_ in the provinces corresponded to the _argentarii_
-and _feneratores_ at Rome.
-
-
-NĔMEA (νέμεα, νεμεῖα, or νεμαῖα), the Nemean games, one of the four
-great national festivals of the Greeks. It was held at Nemea, a
-place near Cleonae in Argolis, and is said to have been originally
-instituted by the Seven against Thebes in commemoration of the death
-of Opheltes, afterwards called Archemorus. The games were revived
-by Hercules, after he had slain the Nemean lion; and were from this
-time celebrated in honour of Zeus. They were at first of a warlike
-character, and only warriors and their sons were allowed to take part
-in them; subsequently, however, they were thrown open to all the
-Greeks. The various games were horse-racing, running in armour in the
-stadium, wrestling, chariot-racing and the discus, boxing, throwing
-the spear and shooting with the bow, to which we may add musical
-contests. The prize given to the victors was at first a chaplet
-of olive-branches, but afterwards a chaplet of green parsley. The
-presidency of these games, and the management of them, belonged at
-different times to Cleonae, Corinth, and Argos. They were celebrated
-twice in every Olympiad, viz. at the commencement of every second
-Olympic year, in the winter, and soon after the commencement of every
-fourth Olympic year, in the summer.
-
-
-NĒNIA. [FUNUS, p. 188, _a._]
-
-
-NĔŌCŎRI (νεωκόροι), signified originally temple-sweepers, but was
-applied even in early times to priestly officers of high rank, who
-had the supreme superintendence of temples and their treasures.
-Under the Roman emperors the word was especially applied to those
-cities in Asia, which erected temples to the Roman emperors, since
-the whole city in every such case was regarded as the guardian of the
-worship of the emperor. Accordingly we frequently find on the coins
-of Ephesus, Smyrna, and other cities, the epithet Νεωκόρος, which
-also occurs on the inscriptions of these cities.
-
-
-NEPTŪNĀLĬA, a festival of Neptune, celebrated at Rome, of which very
-little is known. The day on which it was held was probably the 23rd
-of July. In the ancient calendaria this day is marked as _Nept. ludi
-et feriae_, or _Nept. ludi_, from which we see that the festival was
-celebrated with games.
-
-
-NEXUM, was either the transfer of the ownership of a thing, or the
-transfer of a thing to a creditor as a security; accordingly in
-one sense Nexum included Mancipium [MANCIPIUM]; in another sense,
-Mancipium and Nexum are opposed in the same way in which Sale and
-Mortgage or Pledge are opposed. The formal part of both transactions
-consisted in a transfer _per aes et libram_. The person who became
-_nexus_ by the effect of a _nexum_ or _nexus_ (for this form of
-the word also is used) was said _nexum inire_. The phrases _nexi
-datio_, _nexi liberatio_, respectively express the contracting and
-the release from the obligation. The Roman law as to the payment of
-borrowed money was very strict. By a law of the Twelve Tables, if the
-debtor admitted the debt, or had been condemned in the amount of the
-debt by a judex, he had thirty days allowed him for payment. At the
-expiration of this time, he was liable to be assigned over to the
-creditor (_addictus_) by the sentence of the praetor. The creditor
-was required to keep him for sixty days in chains, during which time
-he publicly exposed the debtor on three nundinae, and proclaimed the
-amount of his debt. If no person released the prisoner by paying the
-debt, the creditor might sell him as a slave or put him to death.
-If there were several creditors, the letter of the law allowed them
-to cut the debtor in pieces, and to take their share of his body in
-proportion to their debt. There is no instance of a creditor ever
-having adopted this extreme mode of satisfying his debt. But the
-creditor might treat the debtor, who was addictus, as a slave, and
-compel him to work out his debt; and the treatment was often very
-severe. The Lex Poetilia (B.C. 326) alleviated the condition of the
-nexi. So far as we can understand its provisions, it set all the nexi
-free, or made them _soluti_, and it enacted that for the future there
-should be no nexum, and that no debtor should for the future be put
-in chains.
-
-
-NŌBILES, NŌBĬLĬTAS. In the early periods of the Roman state the
-Patricians were the Nobles as opposed to the Plebs. In B.C. 366, the
-plebeians obtained the right of being eligible to the consulship,
-and finally they obtained access to all the curule magistracies.
-Thus the two classes were put on the same footing as to political
-capacity; but now a new order of nobility arose. The descendants of
-plebeians who had filled curule magistracies, formed a class called
-Nobiles or men “known,” who were so called by way of distinction
-from “Ignobiles” or people who were not known. The Nobiles had no
-legal privileges as such; but they were bound together by a common
-distinction derived from a legal title and by a common interest;
-and their common interest was to endeavour to confine the election
-to all the high magistracies to the members of their body, to the
-Nobilitas. Thus the descendants of those Plebeians who had won their
-way to distinction combined to exclude other Plebeians from the
-distinction which their own ancestors had transmitted to them. The
-external distinction of the Nobiles was the Jus Imaginum, a right or
-privilege which was apparently established on usage only, and not on
-any positive enactments. These Imagines were figures with painted
-masks of wax, made to resemble the person whom they represented; and
-they were placed in the Atrium of the house, apparently in small
-wooden receptacles or cases somewhat in the form of temples. The
-Imagines were accompanied with the tituli or names of distinction
-which the deceased had acquired; and the tituli were connected in
-some way by lines or branches so as to exhibit the pedigree (stemma)
-of the family. These Imagines were generally enclosed in their cases,
-but they were opened on festival days and other great ceremonials,
-and crowned with bay (laureatae): they also formed part of a solemn
-funeral procession. It seems probable that the Roman Nobilitas, in
-the strict sense of that term, and the Jus Imaginum, originated
-with the admission of the Plebeians to the consulship B.C. 366. A
-plebeian who first attained a Curule office was the founder of his
-family’s Nobilitas (princeps nobilitatis; auctor generis). Such a
-person could have no imagines of his ancestors; and he could have
-none of his own, for such imagines of a man were not made till after
-he was dead. Such a person then was not nobilis in the full sense of
-the term, nor yet was he ignobilis. He was called by the Romans a
-“novus homo” or a new man; and his status or condition was called
-Novitas. The term novus homo was never applied to a Patrician. The
-two most distinguished “novi homines” were C. Marius and M. Tullius
-Cicero, both natives of an Italian municipium. The Patricians would
-of course be jealous of the new nobility; but this new nobility once
-formed would easily unite with the old aristocracy of Rome to keep
-the political power in their hands, and to prevent more novi homines
-from polluting this exclusive class. As early as the second Punic war
-this new class, compounded of Patricians or original aristocrats,
-and Nobiles or newly-engrafted aristocrats, was able to exclude novi
-homines from the consulship. They maintained this power to the end
-of the republican period, and the consulship continued almost in
-the exclusive possession of the Nobilitas. The _Optimates_ were the
-Nobilitas and the chief part of the Equites, a rich middle class,
-and also all others whose support the Nobilitas and Equites could
-command, in fact all who were opposed to change that might affect the
-power of the Nobilitas and the interests of those whom the Nobilitas
-allied with themselves. Optimates in this sense are opposed to
-Plebs, to the mass of the people; and Optimates is a wider term than
-Nobilitas, inasmuch as it would comprehend the Nobilitas and all who
-adhered to them.
-
-
-NŌMEN (ὄνομα), a name. The Greeks bore only one name, and it was
-one of the especial rights of a father to choose the names for his
-children, and to alter them if he pleased. It was customary to give
-to the eldest son the name of the grandfather on his father’s side;
-and children usually received their names on the tenth day after
-their birth.--Originally every Roman citizen belonged to a gens, and
-derived his name (_nomen_ or _nomen gentilicium_) from his gens,
-which _nomen gentilicium_ generally terminated in _ius_. Besides
-this, every Roman had a name, called _praenomen_, which preceded the
-nomen gentilicium, and which was peculiar to him as an individual,
-_e.g._ Caius, Lucius, Marcus, Cneius, Sextus, &c. This praenomen
-was at a later time given to boys on the ninth day after their
-birth, and to girls on the eighth day. This day was called _dies
-lustricus_, _dies nominum_, or _nominalia_. The praenomen given to
-a boy was in most cases that of the father, but sometimes that of
-the grandfather or great-grandfather. These two names, a _praenomen_
-and a _nomen gentilicium_, or simply _nomen_, were indispensable
-to a Roman, and they were at the same time sufficient to designate
-him; hence the numerous instances of Romans being designated only
-by these two names, even in cases where a third or fourth name was
-possessed by the person. Every Roman citizen, besides belonging to
-a gens, was also frequently a member of a familia, contained in a
-gens, and accordingly might have a third name or _cognomen_. Such
-cognomina were derived by the Romans from a variety of mental or
-bodily peculiarities, or from some remarkable event in the life of
-the person who was the founder of the familia. Such cognomina are,
-Asper, Imperiosus, Magnus, Maximus, Publicola, Brutus, Capito, Cato,
-Naso, Labeo, Caecus, Cicero, Scipio, Sulla, Torquatus, &c. These
-names were in most cases hereditary, and descended to the latest
-members of a familia; in some cases they ceased with the death of the
-person to whom they were given for special reasons. Many Romans had a
-second cognomen (_cognomen secundum_ or _agnomen_), which was given
-to them as an honorary distinction, and in commemoration of some
-memorable deed or event of their life, _e.g._ Africanus, Asiaticus,
-Hispallus, Cretensis, Macedonicus, Allobrogicus, &c. Such agnomina
-were sometimes given by one general to another, sometimes by the army
-and confirmed by the chief-general, sometimes by the people in the
-comitia, and sometimes they were assumed by the person himself, as
-in the case of L. Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus. The regular order in
-which these names followed one another was:--1. praenomen; 2. nomen
-gentilicium; 3. cognomen primum; 4. cognomen secundum or agnomen.
-Sometimes the name of the tribe to which a person belonged, was added
-to his name, in the ablative case, as Q. Verres Romilia, C. Claudius
-Palatina. If a person by adoption passed from one gens into another,
-he assumed the praenomen, nomen, and cognomen of his adoptive father,
-and added to these the name of his former gens, with the termination
-_anus_. Thus C. Octavius, after being adopted by his uncle C. Julius
-Caesar, was called C. Julius Caesar Octavianus, and the son of L.
-Aemilius Paullus, when adopted by P. Cornelius Scipio, was called P.
-Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus. [ADOPTIO.] Slaves had only one name,
-and usually retained that which they had borne before they came
-into slavery. If a slave was restored to freedom, he received the
-praenomen and nomen gentilicium of his former master, and to these
-was added the name which he had had as a slave. Instances of such
-freedmen are, T. Ampius Menander, a freedman of T. Ampius Balbus,
-L. Cornelius Chrysogonus, a freedman of L. Cornelius Sulla, and M.
-Tullius Tiro, freedman of M. Tullius Cicero.
-
-
-NŎMŎPHỸLĂCES (νομοφύλακες), certain magistrates or official persons
-of high authority, who exercised a control over other magistrates,
-and indeed over the whole body of the people, it being their duty to
-see that the laws were duly administered and obeyed. Mention is made
-of such officers at Sparta and elsewhere, but no such body existed at
-Athens, for they must have had a power too great for the existence of
-a democracy. The Senate of 500, or the Areopagitic council, performed
-in some measure the office of law-guardians; but the only persons
-designated by this name appear to have been inferior functionaries (a
-sort of police), whose business it was to prevent irregularities and
-disturbances in the public assemblies.
-
-
-NŎMOS (νόμος). This word comprehends the notion not only of
-established or statute law, but likewise of all customs and opinions
-to which long prescription or natural feeling gives the force of
-law. Before any written codes appeared, law was promulgated by the
-poets or wise men, who sang the great deeds of their ancestors, and
-delivered their moral and political lessons in verse. As civilisation
-advanced, laws were reduced to writing, in the shape either of
-regular codes or distinct ordinances, and afterwards publicly
-exhibited, engraved on tablets, or hewn on columns. The first
-written laws we hear of are those of Zaleucus. The first at Athens
-were those of Draco, called θεσμοὶ, and by that name distinguished
-from the νόμοι of Solon. The laws of Lycurgus were not written. He
-enjoined that they should never be inscribed on any other tablet
-than the hearts of his countrymen. Those of Solon were inscribed on
-wooden tablets, arranged in pyramidal blocks, turning on an axis,
-called ἄξονες and κύρβεις. They were first hung in the Acropolis, but
-afterwards brought down to the Prytaneum.
-
-
-NŎMŎTHĔTAE (νομόθεται), movers or proposers of laws, the name of a
-legislative committee at Athens, which, by an institution of Solon,
-was appointed to amend and revise the laws. At the first κυρία
-ἐκκλησία in every year, any person was at liberty to point out
-defects in the existing code or propose alterations. If his motion
-was deemed worthy of attention, the third assembly might refer
-the matter to the Nomothetae. They were selected by lot from the
-Heliastic body; it being the intention of Solon to limit the power
-of the popular assembly by means of a superior board emanating from
-itself, composed of citizens of mature age, bound by a stricter oath,
-and accustomed to weigh legal principles by the exercise of their
-judicial functions. The number of the committee so appointed varied
-according to the exigency of the occasion. The people appointed
-five advocates (σύνδικοι) to attend before the board and maintain
-the policy of the existing institution. If the proposed measure
-met the approval of the committee, it passed into law forthwith.
-Besides this, the Thesmothetae were officially authorised to review
-the whole code, and to refer to the _Nomothetae_ all statutes which
-they considered unworthy of being retained. Hence appears the
-difference between _Psephisma_ (ψήφισμα) and _Nomos_ (νόμος). The
-mere resolution of the people in assembly was a _psephisma_, and only
-remained in force a year, like a decree of the senate. Nothing was a
-_law_ that did not pass the ordeal of the Nomothetae.
-
-
-NŌNAE. [CALENDARIUM.]
-
-
-NŎTA, which signified a mark or sign of any kind, was also employed
-for an abbreviation. Hence _notae_ signified the marks or signs
-used in taking down the words of a speaker, and was equivalent to
-our short-hand writing, or stenography; and _notarii_ signified
-short-hand writers. It must be borne in mind, however, that _notae_
-also signified writing in cipher; and many passages in the ancient
-reciters which are supposed to refer to short-hand, refer in reality
-to writing in cipher. Among the Greeks it is said to have been
-invented by Xenophon, and their short-hand writers were called
-ταχυγράφοι, ὀξυγράφοι and σημειογράφοι. The first introduction of
-the art among the Romans is ascribed to Cicero. He is said to have
-caused the debate in the senate on the punishment of the Catilinarian
-conspirators to be taken down in short-hand. Eusebius ascribes it to
-Tiro, the freedman of Cicero, and hence the system of abbreviated
-writing, in which some manuscripts are written, has received the name
-of _Notae Tironianae_; but there is no evidence to show whether this
-species of short-hand was really the invention of Tiro. The system of
-short-hand employed in the time of the Roman empire must have been of
-a much simpler and more expeditious kind than the _Notae Tironianae_,
-which were merely abbreviations of the words. Many of the wealthy
-Romans kept slaves, who were trained in the art. It was also
-learnt even by the Roman nobles, and the emperor Titus was a great
-proficient in it. At a later time, it seems to have been generally
-taught in the schools. There were, moreover, short-hand writers
-(_notarii_) by profession, who were chiefly employed in taking down
-(_notare_, _excipere_) the proceedings in the courts of justice. At a
-later period, they were called _exceptores_. These short-hand writers
-were also employed on some occasions to take down a person’s will.
-
-
-NOTĀRĬI, short-hand writers, spoken of under NOTA. They were likewise
-called _Actuarii_. They were also employed by the emperors, and in
-course of time the title of _Notarii_ was exclusively applied to the
-private secretaries of the emperors, who, of course, were no longer
-slaves, but persons of high rank. The short-hand writers were now
-called _exceptores_, as is remarked under NOTA.
-
-
-NŎTA CENSŌRĬA. [CENSOR.]
-
-
-NŎVENDĬĀLE (sc. _sacrum_).--(1) A festival lasting nine days,
-which was celebrated as often as stones rained from heaven. It was
-originally instituted by Tullus Hostilius, when there was a shower of
-stones upon the Mons Albanus, and was frequently celebrated in later
-times.--(2) This name was also given to the sacrifice performed nine
-days after a funeral. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-NŎVI HŎMĬNES. [NOBILES.]
-
-
-NŪDUS (γυμνός). These words, besides denoting absolute nakedness,
-were applied to any one who, being without an AMICTUS, wore only his
-tunic or indutus. In this state of nudity the ancients performed the
-operations of ploughing, sowing, and reaping. This term applied to
-the warrior expressed the absence of some part of his armour. Hence
-the light-armed were called γυμνῆτες. [ARMA.]
-
-
-NUMMŬLĀRĬI or NŪMŬLĀRII. [MENSARII.]
-
-
-NUMMUS or NŪMUS. [SESTERTIUS.]
-
-
-NUNDĬNAE is derived by all the ancient writers from _novem_ and
-_dies_, so that it literally signifies the ninth day. Every eighth
-day, according to our mode of speaking, was a nundinae, and there
-were thus always seven ordinary days between two nundinae. The Romans
-in their peculiar mode of reckoning added these two nundinae to the
-seven ordinary days, and consequently said that the nundinae recurred
-every ninth day, and called them _nundinae_, as it were _novemdinae_.
-The number of nundinae in the ancient year of ten months was 38.
-They were originally market-days for the country folk, on which they
-came to Rome to sell the produce of their labour, and on which the
-king settled the legal disputes among them. When, therefore, we read
-that the nundinae were feriae, or dies nefasti, and that no comitia
-were allowed to be held, we have to understand this of the populus
-or patricians, and not of the plebes; and while for the populus
-the nundinae were feriae, they were real days of business (_dies
-fasti_ or _comitiales_) for the plebeians, who on these occasions
-pleaded their causes with members of their own order, and held their
-public meetings (the ancient comitia of the plebeians). Afterwards
-the nundinae became fasti for both orders, and this innovation
-facilitated the attendance of the plebeians at the comitia
-centuriata. The subjects to be laid before the comitia, whether they
-were proposals for new laws, or the appointment of officers, were
-announced to the people three nundinae beforehand (_trinundino die
-proponere_). Instead of _nundinae_ the form _nundinum_ is sometimes
-used, but only when it is preceded by a numeral, as in _trinundinum_,
-or _trinum nundinum_.
-
-
-NUPTĬAE. [MATRIMONIUM.]
-
-
-
-
-ŎBOLUS. [DRACHMA.]
-
-
-OCRĔA (κνημίς), a greave, a leggin. A pair of greaves (κνημῖδες)
-was one of the six articles of armour which formed the complete
-equipment of a Greek warrior [ARMA], and likewise of a Roman soldier
-as fixed by Servius Tullius. They were made of various metals, with
-a lining probably of leather, felt, or cloth. Their form is shown in
-the accompanying cut. The figure is that of a fallen warrior, and
-in consequence of the bending of the knees, the greaves are seen to
-project a little above them. This statue also shows the ankle-rings
-(ἐπισφύρια), which were used to fasten the greaves immediately above
-the feet.
-
-[Illustration: Ocreae, Greaves. (From the Aeginetan Marbles.)]
-
-
-ŌDĒUM (ᾠδεῖον), a species of public building for contests in vocal
-and instrumental music. In its general form and arrangements it was
-very similar to the theatre; and it is sometimes called θέατρον.
-There were, however, some characteristic differences: the Odeum was
-much smaller than the theatre; and it was roofed over, in order to
-retain the sound. The earliest building of this kind was that erected
-by Pericles at Athens, for the purpose of celebrating the musical
-contests at the Panathenaea. Its proximity to the theatre suggested
-some of the uses made of it, namely, as a refuge for the audience
-when driven out of the theatre by rain, and also as a place in which
-the chorus could be prepared. Another Odeum was built at Athens by
-Herodes Atticus, and was the most magnificent edifice of the sort in
-the whole empire. The length of its largest diameter was 248 feet,
-and it is calculated to have furnished accommodation for about 8000
-persons. There were also Odea in other Greek towns. The first Odeum,
-properly so called, at Rome, was built by Domitian, and the second by
-Trajan. There are ruins of such buildings in the villa of Hadrian at
-Tivoli, at Pompeii, and at Catana.
-
-
-ŎLĔA, ŎLĪVA (ἐλαία); ŎLĔUM, OLĪVUM (ἔλαιον). The importance of
-the olive was recognised from the most remote period of antiquity
-in all civilised countries where the temperature admitted of its
-cultivation: and it was widely adopted as an emblem of industry and
-peace. Hence the honour paid to it at Athens, and hence the title
-of “prima omnium arborum,” bestowed upon it by Columella. The fruit
-(_bacca_) of the olive was for the most part employed for one of
-two purposes. 1. It was eaten as a fruit, either fresh, pickled, or
-preserved in various ways. 2. It was pressed so as to yield the oil
-and other juices which it contained. And again, the oil was employed
-for a variety of purposes, but chiefly 1. As an article of food.
-2. For anointing the body, and in this case was frequently made a
-vehicle for perfumes (_unguenta_). 3. For burning in lamps.
-
-
-OLĬGARCHĬA (ὀλιγαρχια), the government of a few: a term applied to
-that perversion (παρέκβασις) of an _Aristocratia_ into which the
-latter passed, when, owing to the rise of the _demus_ [DEMOCRATIA],
-and the vanishing of those substantial grounds of pre-eminence
-which rendered an Aristocratia not unjust, the rule of the dominant
-portion of the community became the ascendancy of a faction, whose
-efforts were directed chiefly towards their own aggrandisement. The
-preservation of power under such circumstances of course depended
-chiefly upon the possession of superior wealth and the other
-appliances of wealth which were its concomitants. Thus it came to be
-regarded as essentially characteristic of an oligarchy, that the main
-distinction between the dominant faction and the subject portion of
-the community was the possession of greater wealth on the part of the
-former. Hence the term _Oligarchia_ would not have been applied, if a
-small section of the community, consisting of _poor_ persons, by any
-means got the reins of government into their hands.
-
-
-OLLA (λέβης, χύτρος), a vessel of any material, round and plain, and
-having a wide mouth; a pot; a jar.
-
-
-ŎLYMPĬA (ὀλύμπια), the Olympic games, the greatest of the national
-festivals of the Greeks. It was celebrated at Olympia in Elis, the
-name given to a small plain to the west of Pisa, which was bounded
-on the north and north-east by the mountains Cronius and Olympus,
-on the south by the river Alpheus, and on the west by the Cladeus,
-which flows into the Alpheus. Olympia does not appear to have been a
-town, but rather a collection of temples and public buildings. The
-origin of the Olympic games is buried in obscurity, but the festival
-was of very great antiquity. The first historical fact connected with
-this festival is its revival by Iphitus, king of Elis, who is said
-to have accomplished it with the assistance of Lycurgus, the Spartan
-lawgiver, and Cleosthenes of Pisa. The date of this event is given
-by some writers as B.C. 884, and by others as B.C. 828. The interval
-of four years between each celebration of the festival was called
-an Olympiad; but the Olympiads were not employed as a chronological
-aera till the victory of Coroebus in the foot-race, B.C. 776.
-[OLYMPIAS.] The most important point in the renewal of the festival
-by Iphitus was the establishment of the _Ececheiria_ (ἐκεχειρία),
-or sacred armistice. The proclamation was made by peace-heralds
-(σπονδοφόροι), first in Elis and afterwards in the other parts of
-Greece; it put a stop to all warfare for the month in which the games
-were celebrated, and which was called the _sacred month_ (ἱερομηνία).
-The territory of Elis itself was considered especially sacred during
-the games, and no armed force could enter it without incurring the
-guilt of sacrilege. The Olympic festival was probably confined at
-first to the Peloponnesians; but as its celebrity extended, the
-other Greeks took part in it, till at length it became a festival
-for the whole nation. No one was allowed to contend in the games
-but persons of pure Hellenic blood: barbarians might be spectators,
-but slaves were entirely excluded. After the conquest of Greece by
-the Romans, the latter were permitted to take part in the games. No
-women were allowed to be present or even to cross the Alpheus during
-the celebration of the games, under penalty of being hurled down
-from the Typaean rock, but women could send chariots to the races.
-The number of spectators at the festival was very great; and these
-were drawn together not merely by the desire of seeing the games,
-but partly through the opportunity it afforded them of carrying on
-commercial transactions with persons from distant places, as is the
-case with the Mohammedan festivals at Mecca and Medina. Many of the
-persons present were also deputies (θεωροί) sent to represent the
-various states of Greece; and we find that these embassies vied with
-one another in the number of their offerings, and the splendour of
-their general appearance, in order to support the honour of their
-native cities. The Olympic festival was a Pentaëteris (πενταετηρίς),
-that is, according to the ancient mode of reckoning, a space of four
-years elapsed between each festival, in the same way as there was
-only a space of two years between a Trieteris. It was celebrated on
-the first full moon after the summer solstice. It lasted, after all
-the contests had been introduced, five days, from the 11th to the
-15th days of the month inclusive. The fourth day of the festival
-was the 14th of the month, which was the day of the full moon, and
-which divided the month into two equal parts. The festival was under
-the immediate superintendence of the Olympian Zeus, whose temple at
-Olympia, adorned with the statue of the god made by Phidias, was one
-of the most splendid works of art in Greece. There were also temples
-and altars to most of the other gods. The festival itself may be
-divided into two parts, the games or contests (ἀγὼν Ολυμπιακός),
-and the festive rites (ἑορτή) connected with the sacrifices, with
-the processions, and with the public banquets in honour of the
-conquerors.--The contests consisted of various trials of strength
-and skill, which were increased in number from time to time. There
-were in all twenty-four contests, eighteen in which men took part,
-and six in which boys engaged, though they were never all exhibited
-at one festival, since some were abolished almost immediately after
-their institution, and others after they had been in use only a
-short time. We subjoin a list of these from Pausanias, with the
-date of the introduction of each, commencing from the Olympiad of
-Coroebus:--1. The foot-race (δρόμος), which was the only contest
-during the first 13 Olympiads. 2. The δίαυλος, or foot-race, in which
-the stadium was traversed twice, first introduced in Ol. 14. 3. The
-δόλιχος, a still longer foot-race than the δίαυλος, introduced in Ol.
-15. For a more particular account of the δίαυλος and δόλιχος, see
-STADIUM. 4. Wrestling (πάλη), and, 5. The Pentathlum (πένταθλον),
-which consisted of five exercises [PENTATHLUM], both introduced
-in Ol. 18. 6. Boxing (πυγμή) introduced in Ol. 23. [PUGILATUS.]
-7. The chariot-race, with four full-grown horses (ἵππων τελείων
-δρόμος, ἅρμα), introduced in Ol. 25. 8. The Pancratium (παγκράτιον)
-[PANCRATIUM], and 9. The horse-race (ἵππος κέλης), both introduced
-in Ol. 33. 10 and 11. The foot-race and wrestling for boys, both
-introduced in Ol. 37. 12. The Pentathlum for boys, introduced in
-Ol. 38., but immediately afterwards abolished. 13. Boxing for boys,
-introduced in Ol. 41. 14. The foot-race, in which men ran with the
-equipments of heavy-armed soldiers (τῶν ὁπλιτῶν δρόμος), introduced
-in Ol. 65., on account of its training men for actual service in war.
-15. The chariot-race with mules (ἀπήνη), introduced in Ol. 70.; and
-16. The horse-race with mares (κάλπη), introduced in Ol. 71., both
-of which were abolished in Ol. 84. 17. The chariot-race with two
-full-grown horses (ἵππων τελείων συνωρίς), introduced in Ol. 93. 18,
-19. The contest of heralds (κήρυκες) and trumpeters (σαλπιγκταί),
-introduced in Ol. 96. 20. The chariot-race with four foals (πώλων
-ἅρμασιν), introduced in Ol. 99. 21. The chariot-race with two foals
-(πώλων συνωρίς), introduced in Ol. 128. 22. The horse-race with
-foals (πῶλος κέλης), introduced in Ol. 131. 23. The Pancratium
-for boys, introduced in Ol. 145. 24. There was also a horse-race
-(ἵππος κέλης) in which boys rode, but we do not know the time of its
-introduction.--The judges in the Olympic Games, called _Hellanodicae_
-(Ἑλλανοδίκαι), were appointed by the Eleans, who had the regulation
-of the whole festival. It appears to have been originally under the
-superintendence of Pisa, in the neighbourhood of which Olympia was
-situated, but after the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians
-on the return of the Heraclidae, the Aetolians, who had been of
-great assistance to the Heraclidae, settled in Elis, and from this
-time the Aetolian Eleans obtained the regulation of the festival,
-and appointed the presiding officers. The Hellanodicae were chosen
-by lot from the whole body of the Eleans. Their number varied at
-different periods, but at a later time there were eight Hellanodicae.
-Their office probably lasted for only one festival. They had to
-see that all the laws relating to the games were observed by the
-competitors and others, to determine the prizes, and to give them
-to the conquerors. An appeal lay from their decision to the Elean
-senate. Under the direction of the Hellanodicae was a certain number
-of _Alytae_ (ἀλύται) with an _Alytarches_ (ἀλυτάρχης) at their head,
-who formed a kind of police, and carried into execution the commands
-of the Hellanodicae. There were also various other minor officers
-under the control of the Hellanodicae.--All free Greeks were allowed
-to contend in the games, who had complied with the rules prescribed
-to candidates. The equestrian contests were necessarily confined to
-the wealthy; but the poorest citizens could contend in the athletic
-games. This, however, was far from degrading the games in public
-opinion; and some of the noblest as well as meanest citizens of the
-state took part in these contests. The owners of the chariots and
-horses were not obliged to contend in person; and the wealthy vied
-with one another in the number and magnificence of the chariots and
-horses which they sent to the games. All persons, who were about to
-contend, had to prove to the Hellanodicae that they were freemen, and
-of pure Hellenic blood, that they had not been branded with atimia,
-nor guilty of any sacrilegious act. They further had to prove that
-they had undergone the preparatory training (προγυμνάσματα) for ten
-months previous. All competitors were obliged, thirty days before
-the festival, to undergo certain exercises in the Gymnasium at Elis,
-under the superintendence of the Hellanodicae. The competitors took
-their places by lot. The herald then proclaimed the name and country
-of each competitor. When they were all ready to begin the contest,
-the judges exhorted them to acquit themselves nobly, and then gave
-the signal to commence.--The only prize given to the conqueror was
-a garland of wild olive (κότινος), cut from a sacred olive tree,
-which grew in the sacred grove of Altis in Olympia. The victor was
-originally crowned upon a tripod covered over with bronze, but
-afterwards upon a table made of ivory and gold. Palm branches, the
-common tokens of victory on other occasions, were placed in his
-hands. The name of the victor, and that of his father and of his
-country, were then proclaimed by a herald before the representatives
-of assembled Greece. The festival ended with processions and
-sacrifices, and with a public banquet given by the Eleans to the
-conquerors in the Prytaneium. The most powerful states considered an
-Olympic victory, gained by one of their citizens, to confer honour
-upon the state to which he belonged; and a conqueror usually had
-immunities and privileges conferred upon him by the gratitude of
-his fellow-citizens. On his return home the victor entered the city
-in a triumphal procession, in which his praises were celebrated,
-frequently in the loftiest strains of poetry. [ATHLETAE.] As persons
-from all parts of the Hellenic world were assembled together at the
-Olympic Games, it was the best opportunity which the artist and the
-writer possessed of making their works known. It answered, to some
-extent, the same purpose as the press does in modern times. Before
-the invention of printing, the reading of an author’s works to as
-large an assembly as could be obtained, was one of the easiest and
-surest modes of publishing them; and this was a favourite practice of
-the Greeks and Romans. Accordingly we find many instances of literary
-works thus published at the Olympic festival. Herodotus is said to
-have read his history at this festival; but though there are some
-reasons for doubting the correctness of this statement, there are
-numerous other writers who thus published their works, as the sophist
-Hippias, Prodicus of Ceos, Anaximenes, the orator Lysias, Dion
-Chrysostom, &c. It must be borne in mind that these recitations were
-not contests, and that they formed properly no part of the festival.
-In the same way painters and other artists exhibited their works at
-Olympia.
-
-
-OLYMPĬAS (ὀλυμπιάς), an Olympiad, the most celebrated chronological
-aera among the Greeks, was the period of four years which elapsed
-between each celebration of the Olympic Games. The Olympiads began
-to be reckoned from the victory of Coroebus in the foot-race, which
-happened in the year B.C. 776. Timaeus of Sicily, however, who
-flourished B.C. 264, was the first writer who regularly arranged
-events according to the conquerors in each Olympiad. His practice
-of recording events by Olympiads was followed by Polybius, Diodorus
-Siculus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, &c. The writers who make use of
-the aera of the Olympiads, usually give the number of the Olympiad
-(the first corresponding to B.C. 776), and then the name of the
-conqueror in the foot-race. Some writers also speak of events as
-happening in the first, second, third, or fourth year, as the case
-may be, of a certain Olympiad; but others do not give the separate
-years of each Olympiad. The rules for converting Olympiads into the
-year B.C., and _vice versa_, are given under CHRONOLOGIA; but as this
-is troublesome, the student will find at the end of the book a list
-of the Olympiads, with the years of the Christian aera corresponding
-to them from the beginning of the Olympiads to A.D. 301. To save
-space, the separate years of each Olympiad, with the corresponding
-years B.C., are only given from the 47th to the 126th Olympiad, as
-this is the most important period of Grecian history; in the other
-Olympiads the first year only is given. In consulting the table it
-must be borne in mind that the Olympic Games were celebrated about
-midsummer, and that the Attic year commenced at about the same time.
-If, therefore, an event happened in the second half of the Attic
-year, the year B.C. must be reduced by 1. Thus Socrates was put to
-death in the 1st year of the 95th Olympiad, which corresponds in the
-table to B.C. 400; but as his death happened in Thargelion, the 11th
-month of the Attic year, the year B.C. must be reduced by 1, which
-gives us B.C. 399, the true date of his death.
-
-
-ŎPĀLĬA, a Roman festival in honour of Opis, celebrated on the 19th of
-December, being the third day of the Saturnalia. It was believed that
-Opis was the wife of Saturnus, and for this reason the festivals were
-celebrated at the same time.
-
-
-OPSŌNĬUM, or OBSŌNĬUM (ὄψον, _dim._ ὀψάριον; ὀψήμα), denoted
-everything which was eaten with bread, the principal substance of
-every meal. Those numerous articles of diet called _opsonia_ or
-_pulmentaria_ were designed to give nutriment, but still more to
-add a relish to food. Some of these articles were taken from the
-vegetable kingdom, but were much more pungent and savoury than bread,
-such as olives, either fresh or pickled, radishes, and sesamum. Of
-animal food by much the most common kind was fish, whence the terms
-under explanation were in the course of time used in a confined and
-special sense to denote fish only, but fish variously prepared, and
-more especially salt fish, which was most extensively employed to
-give a relish to the vegetable diet. The Athenians were in the habit
-of going to markets (εἰς τοῦψον) themselves in order to purchase
-their opsonia (ὀψωνεῖν, _opsonare_). But the opulent, Romans had a
-slave, called _opsonator_ (ὀψώνης), whose office it was to purchase
-for his master.
-
-
-OPTĬO. [CENTURIO.]
-
-
-OPTĬMĀTES. [NOBILES.]
-
-
-ŌRĀCŬLUM (μαντεῖον, χρηστήριον) was used by the ancients to designate
-both the revelations made by the deity to man, as well as the place
-in which such revelations were made. The deity was in none of these
-places believed to appear in person to man, and to communicate to him
-his will or knowledge of the future, but all oracular revelations
-were made through some kind of medium, which was different in the
-different places where oracles existed. It may, at first sight, seem
-strange that there were, comparatively speaking, so few oracles of
-Zeus, the father and ruler of gods and men. But although, according
-to the belief of the ancients, Zeus himself was the first source
-of all oracular revelations, yet he was too far above men to enter
-with them into any close relation; other gods therefore, especially
-Apollo, and even heroes, acted as mediators between Zeus and men,
-and were, as it were, the organs through which he communicated his
-will. The ancients consulted the will of the gods on all important
-occasions of public and private life, since they were unwilling to
-undertake anything of importance without their sanction.--The most
-celebrated oracle was that of Apollo at Delphi. Its ancient name was
-Pytho. In the centre of the temple there was a small opening (χάσμα)
-in the ground, from which, from time to time, an intoxicating smoke
-arose, which was believed to come from the well of Cassotis, which
-vanished into the ground close by the sanctuary. Over this chasm
-there stood a high tripod, on which the Pythia, led into the temple
-by the prophetes (προφήτης), took her seat whenever the oracle was
-to be consulted. The smoke rising from under the tripod affected
-her brain in such a manner that she fell into a state of delirious
-intoxication, and the sounds which she uttered in this state were
-believed to contain the revelations of Apollo. These sounds were
-carefully written down by the prophetes, and afterwards communicated
-to the persons who had come to consult the oracle. The Pythia (the
-προφῆτις) was always a native of Delphi, and when she had once
-entered the service of the god she never left it, and was never
-allowed to marry. In early times she was always a young girl, but
-subsequently no one was elected as prophetess who had not attained
-the age of fifty years. The Delphians, or, more properly speaking,
-the noble families of Delphi, had the superintendence of the oracle.
-Among the Delphian aristocracy, however, there were five families
-which traced their origin to Deucalion, and from each of these one of
-the five priests, called _Hosioi_ (ὅσιοι), was taken. The _Hosioi_,
-together with the high-priest or prophetes, held their offices for
-life, and had the control of all the affairs of the sanctuary and of
-the sacrifices. That these noble families had an immense influence
-upon the oracle is manifest from numerous instances, and it is not
-improbable that they were its very soul, and that it was they who
-dictated the pretended revelations of the god. Most of the oracular
-answers which are extant are in hexameters, and in the Ionic dialect.
-Sometimes, however, Doric forms also were used.--No religious
-institution in all antiquity obtained such a paramount influence in
-Greece as the oracle of Delphi. When consulted on a subject of a
-religious nature, the answer was invariably of a kind calculated not
-only to protect and preserve religious institutions, but to command
-new ones to be established, so that it was the preserver and promoter
-of religion throughout the ancient world. Colonies were seldom or
-never founded without having obtained the advice and the directions
-of the Delphic god. The Delphic oracle had at all times a leaning in
-favour of the Greeks of the Doric race, but the time when it began
-to lose its influence must be dated from the period when Athens and
-Sparta entered upon their struggle for the supremacy in Greece; for
-at this time the partiality for Sparta became so manifest that the
-Athenians and their party began to lose all reverence and esteem
-for it, and the oracle became a mere instrument in the hands of a
-political party. Of the other oracles, the most celebrated were that
-of Apollo at Didyma, usually called the oracle of the Branchidae, in
-the territory of Miletus; that of Zeus, at Dodona, where the oracle
-was given from sounds produced by the wind; that of Zeus Ammon, in
-an oasis in Libya, not far from the boundaries of Egypt; that of
-Amphiaraus, between Potniae and Thebes, where the hero was said to
-have been swallowed up by the earth; and that of Trophonius, at
-Lebadeia in Boeotia.
-
-
-ŌRĀRĬUM was a small handkerchief used for wiping the face, and
-appears to have been employed for much the same purposes as our
-pocket-handkerchief. It was made of silk or linen. Aurelian
-introduced the practice of giving _Oraria_ to the Roman people to use
-_ad favorem_, which appears to mean for the purpose of waving in the
-public games in token of applause.
-
-
-ŌRĀTOR. The profession of the Roman orator, who with reference to
-his undertaking a client’s case is also called patronus, was quite
-distinct from that of the Jurisconsultus [JURISCONSULTI], and also
-from that of the Advocatus, at least in the time of Cicero, and even
-later. An orator who possessed a competent knowledge of the Jus
-Civile would, however, have an advantage. Some requisites of oratory,
-such as voice and gesture, could only be acquired by discipline,
-whereas a competent knowledge of the law of a case (_juris utilitas_)
-could be got at any time from the jurisconsulti (_periti_) or from
-books. Oratory was a serious study among the Romans. Cicero tells
-us by what painful labour he attained to excellence. Roman oratory
-reached its perfection in the century which preceded the Christian
-aera. Its decline dates from the establishment of the Imperial power.
-The old orators learned their art by constant attendance on some
-eminent orator and by actual experience of business: the orators of
-Messala’s time were formed in the schools of Rhetoric, and their
-powers were developed in exercises on fictitious matters. But the
-immediate causes of the former nourishing condition of eloquence
-were the political power which oratory conferred on the orator under
-the Republic, and the party struggles and even the violence that are
-incident to such a state of society.
-
-
-ORCHESTRA. [THEATRUM.]
-
-
-ORCĪNUS SĔNĀTOR. [SENATUS.]
-
-
-ORDO is applied to any body of men who form a distinct class in
-the community, either by possessing distinct privileges, pursuing
-certain trades or professions, or in any other way. Thus the whole
-body of sacerdotes at Rome is spoken of as an ordo, and separate
-ecclesiastical corporations are called by the same title. The
-libertini and scribae also formed separate ordines. The senate and
-the equites are also spoken of respectively as the ordo senatorius
-and ordo equestris, but this name is never applied to the plebes.
-Accordingly we find the expression, _uterque ordo_, used without
-any further explanation to designate the senatorial and equestrian
-ordines. The senatorial ordo, as the highest, is sometimes
-distinguished as _amplissimus ordo_.--The senate in colonies and
-municipia was called _ordo decurionum_ [COLONIA], and sometimes
-simply _ordo_.--The term ordo is also applied to a company or troop
-of soldiers, and is used as equivalent to centuria: thus centurions
-are sometimes called _qui ordines duxerunt_, and the first centuries
-in a legion _primi ordines_. Even the centurions of the first
-centuries are occasionally called _primi ordines_.
-
-
-ORGIA. [MYSTERIA.]
-
-
-ORGYIA (ὀργυιά), a Greek measure of length, derived from the
-human body, was the distance from extremity to extremity of the
-outstretched arms, whence the name, from ὀρέγω. It was equal to 6
-feet or to 4 cubits, and was 1-100th of the stadium.
-
-
-ŎRĬCHALCUM, a metallic compound, akin to copper and bronze, which
-was highly prized by the ancients. It probably denotes _brass_, with
-which the ancients became acquainted by fusing zinc ore (_cadmium_,
-calamine) with copper, although they appear to have had scarcely
-any knowledge of zinc as a metal. The word is derived from ὄρος and
-χαλκός, that is, _mountain-bronze_.
-
-
-OSCHOPHŎRIA (ὠσχοφόρια, ὀσχοφόρια), an Attic festival, which,
-according to some writers, was celebrated in honour of Athena and
-Dionysus, and according to others in honour of Dionysus and Ariadne.
-It is said to have been instituted by Theseus. It was a vintage
-festival, and its name is derived from ὦσχος, ὄσχος, or ὄσχη, a
-branch of vines with grapes.
-
-
-[Illustration: Oscillum. (From a Marble in the British Museum.)]
-
-OSCILLUM, a diminutive through _osculum_ from _os_, meaning “a little
-face,” was the term applied to faces or heads of Bacchus, which
-were suspended in the vineyards to be turned in every direction
-by the wind. Whichsoever way they looked, they were supposed to
-make the vines in that quarter fruitful. The first cut represents
-the countenance of Bacchus with a beautiful, mild, and propitious
-expression. The other cut represents a tree with four oscilla hung
-upon its branches. A syrinx and a pedum are placed at the root of the
-tree.
-
-[Illustration: Oscillum. (From an ancient Gem.)]
-
-
-OSTĬĀRĬUM, a tax upon the doors of houses, which appears to have been
-sometimes levied in the provinces. There was a similar tax, called
-_columnarium_, imposed upon every pillar that supported a house.
-
-
-OSTĬUM. [JANUA.]
-
-
-ŎVĀTĬO, a lesser triumph. The circumstances by which it was
-distinguished from the more imposing solemnity [TRIUMPHUS] were the
-following:--The general did not enter the city in a chariot drawn
-by four horses, but on foot: he was not arrayed in the gorgeous
-gold-embroidered robe, but in the simple toga praetexta of a
-magistrate; his brows were encircled with a wreath, not of laurel
-but of myrtle; he bore no sceptre in his hand; the procession was
-not heralded by trumpets, headed by the senate, and thronged with
-victorious troops, but was enlivened by a crowd of flute players,
-attended chiefly by knights and plebeians, frequently without
-soldiers: the ceremonies were concluded by the sacrifice, not of a
-bull but of a sheep. The word _ovatio_ seems clearly to be derived
-from the kind of victim offered. An ovation was granted when the
-advantage gained, although considerable, was not sufficient to
-constitute a legitimate claim to the higher distinction of a triumph,
-or when the victory had been achieved with little bloodshed; or when
-hostilities had not been regularly proclaimed; or when the war had
-not been completely terminated; or when the contest had been carried
-on against base and unworthy foes; and hence when the servile bands
-of Athenion and Spartacus were destroyed by Perperna and Crassus,
-these leaders celebrated ovations only.
-
-
-ŎVĪLE. [COMITIA.]
-
-
-
-
-PAEAN (παιήων, παιάν, παιών), a hymn or song, which was originally
-sung in honour of Apollo. It was always of a joyous nature, and
-its tune and sounds expressed hope and confidence. It was a song
-of thanksgiving, when danger was passed, and also a hymn to
-propitiate the god. It was sung at the solemn festivals of Apollo,
-and especially at the Hyacinthia. The paean was also sung as a
-battle-song, both before an attack on the enemy and after the battle
-was finished. It is certain that the paean was in later times sung to
-the honour of other gods besides Apollo. Thus Xenophon relates that
-the Greek army in Asia sung a paean to Zeus.
-
-
-PAEDĂGŌGUS (παιδαγωγός), a tutor. The office of tutor in a Grecian
-family of rank and opulence was assigned to one of the most
-trustworthy of the slaves. The sons of his master were committed to
-his care on attaining their sixth or seventh year, their previous
-education having been conducted by females. They remained with the
-tutor until they attained the age of puberty. His duty was rather to
-guard them from evil, both physical and moral, than to communicate
-instruction. He went with them to and from the school or the
-GYMNASIUM; he accompanied them out of doors on all occasions; he was
-responsible for their personal safety, and for their avoidance of bad
-company. In the Roman empire the name _paedagogi_ or _paedagogia_
-was given to beautiful young slaves, who discharged in the imperial
-palace the duties of the modern _page_, which is in fact a corruption
-of the ancient name.
-
-
-PAEDŎNŎMUS (παιδονόμος), a magistrate at Sparta, who had the general
-superintendence of the education of the boys.
-
-
-PAENŬLA, a thick cloak, chiefly used by the Romans in travelling,
-instead of the toga, as a protection against the cold and rain. It
-appears to have had no sleeves, and only an opening for the head, as
-shown in the following figure.
-
-[Illustration: Paenula, travelling cloak. (From Bartholini.)]
-
-
-PĀGĀNĀLĬA. [PAGI.]
-
-
-PĀGĀNI. [PAGI.]
-
-
-PĀGI were fortified places in the neighbourhood of Rome, to which
-the country-people might retreat in case of a hostile inroad. Each
-of the country tribes is said to have been divided by Numa into a
-certain number of pagi; which name was given to the country adjoining
-the fortified village, as well as to the village itself. There was
-a magistrate at the head of each pagus, who kept a register of the
-names and of the property of all persons in the pagus, raised the
-taxes, and summoned the people, when necessary, to war. Each pagus
-had its own sacred rites, and an annual festival called _Paganalia_.
-The _pagani_, or inhabitants of the pagi, had their regular meetings,
-at which they passed resolutions. The division of the country-people
-into pagi continued to the latest times of the Roman empire. The term
-Pagani is often used in opposition to milites, and is applied to all
-who were not soldiers, even though they did not live in the country.
-The Christian writers gave the name of pagani to those persons who
-adhered to the old Roman religion, because the latter continued to be
-generally believed by the country-people, after Christianity became
-the prevailing religion of the inhabitants of the towns.
-
-
-PĂLAESTRA (παλαίστρα), properly means a place for wrestling
-(παλαίειν, πάλη), and appears to have originally formed a part of
-the gymnasium. At Athens, however, there was a considerable number
-of palaestrae, quite distinct from the gymnasia. It appears most
-probable that the palaestrae were chiefly appropriated to the
-exercises of wrestling and of the pancratium, and were principally
-intended for the athletae, who, it must be recollected, were persons
-that contended in the public games, and therefore needed special
-training. The Romans had originally no places corresponding to the
-Greek gymnasia and palaestrae; and when towards the close of the
-republic wealthy Romans, in imitation of the Greeks, began to build
-places for exercise in their villas, they called them indifferently
-gymnasia and palaestrae.
-
-
-PĂLĪLIA, a festival celebrated at Rome every year on the 21st of
-April, in honour of Pales, the tutelary divinity of shepherds. The
-21st of April was the day on which, according to the early traditions
-of Rome, Romulus had commenced the building of the city, so that
-the festival was at the same time solemnised as the dies natalitius
-of Rome. It was originally a shepherd-festival, and continued to
-be so among country people till the latest times, but in the city
-it lost its original character, and was only regarded as the dies
-natalitius of Rome. The first part of the solemnities was a public
-purification by fire and smoke. The things burnt in order to produce
-this purifying smoke were the blood of the _October-horse_, the ashes
-of the calves sacrificed at the festival of Ceres, and the shells of
-beans. The people were also sprinkled with water, they washed their
-hands in spring-water, and drank milk mixed with must. As regards the
-_October-horse_ (_equus October_) it must be observed that in early
-times no bloody sacrifice was allowed to be offered at the palilia,
-and the blood of the October-horse mentioned above, was the blood
-which had dropped from the tail of the horse sacrificed in the month
-of October to Mars in the Campus Martius. This blood was preserved by
-the vestal virgins in the temple of Vesta for the purpose of being
-used at the palilia. The sacrifices consisted of cakes, millet, milk,
-and other kinds of eatables. The shepherds then offered a prayer to
-Pales. After these solemn rites were over, the cheerful part of the
-festival began: bonfires were made of heaps of hay and straw, and
-the festival was concluded by a feast in the open air, at which the
-people sat or lay upon benches of turf, and drank plentifully.
-
-
-PALLĬUM, _dim._ PALLIŎLUM, _poet._ PALLA (ἱμάτιον, _dim._ ἱματίδιον;
-_Ion._ and _poet._ φᾶρος), an outer garment. The English _cloak_,
-though commonly adopted as the translation of these terms, conveys
-no accurate conception of the form, material, or use of that which
-they denoted. The article designated by them was always a rectangular
-piece of cloth, exactly, or at least nearly square. It was indeed
-used in the very form in which it was taken from the loom, being made
-entirely by the weaver, without any aid from the tailor, except to
-repair the injuries which it sustained by time. Whatever additional
-richness and beauty it received from the art of the dyer, was
-bestowed upon it before its materials were woven into cloth or even
-spun into thread. Most commonly it was used without having undergone
-any process of this kind. The raw material, such as wool, flax, or
-cotton, was manufactured in its natural state, and hence pallia were
-commonly white, although from the same cause brown, drab, and grey
-were also prevailing colours. As the pallium was the most common
-outer garment, we find it continually mentioned in conjunction with
-the tunica, which constituted the indutus. Such phrases as “coat and
-waistcoat,” or “shoes and stockings,” are not more common with us
-than the following expressions, which constantly occur in ancient
-authors: _tunica palliumque_, ἱμάτιον καὶ χιτών, τὸ ἱμάτιον καὶ ὁ
-χιτωνίσκος, φᾶρος ἠδὲ χιτών, &c. To wear the pallium without the
-underclothing indicated poverty or severity of manners, as in the
-case of Socrates. One of the most common modes of wearing the pallium
-was to fasten it with a brooch over the right shoulder, leaving the
-right arm at liberty, and to pass the middle of it either under the
-left arm so as to leave that arm at liberty also, or over the left
-shoulder so as to cover the left arm. The figure in the preceding cut
-is attired in the last-mentioned fashion.
-
-[Illustration: Pallium. (Museo Pio-Clement., vol. i. tav. 48.)]
-
-
-PALMA. [PES.]
-
-
-PALMĬPES, a Roman measure of length, equal to a foot and a palm.
-
-
-PALMUS, properly the width of the open hand, or, more exactly, of the
-four fingers, was used by the Romans for two different measures of
-length, namely, as the translation of the Greek παλαιστή, or δῶρον in
-old Greek, and σπιθαμή respectively. In the former sense it is equal
-to 4 digits, or 3 inches, or 1-4th of a foot, or 1-6th of the cubit.
-The larger palm of 9 inches only occurs in later Roman writers. From
-this large _palmus_ the modern Roman _palmo_ is derived.
-
-
-[Illustration: Paludamentum, Military Cloak. (Statue of a Roman
-Emperor.)]
-
-PĂLŪDĀMENTUM, the cloak worn by a Roman general commanding an army,
-his principal officers and personal attendants, in contradistinction
-to the _sagum_ of the common soldiers, and the _toga_ or garb of
-peace. It was the practice for a Roman magistrate, after he had
-received the _imperium_ from the comitia curiata and offered up
-his vows in the Capitol, to march out of the city arrayed in the
-paludamentum (_exire paludatus_), attended by his lictors in similar
-attire (_paludatis lictoribus_), nor could he again enter the gates
-until he had formally divested himself of this emblem of military
-power. The paludamentum was open in front, reached down to the
-knees or a little lower, and hung loosely over the shoulders, being
-fastened across the chest by a clasp. The colour of the paludamentum
-was commonly white or purple, and hence it was marked and remembered
-that Crassus on the morning of the fatal battle of Carrhae went forth
-in a dark-coloured mantle. In the cut below, representing the head of
-a warrior, we see the paludamentum flying back in the charge, and the
-clasp nearly in front.
-
-[Illustration: Paludamentum, Military Cloak. (From a Mosaic at
-Pompeii.)]
-
-
-PAMBOEŌTĬA (παμβοιώτια), a festive panegyris of all the Boeotians,
-like the Panathenaea of the Atticans, and the Panionia of the
-Ionians. The principal object of the meeting was the common worship
-of Athena Itonia, who had a temple in the neighbourhood of Coronea,
-near which the panegyris was held.
-
-
-PĂNĂTHĒNAEA (παναθήναια), the greatest and most splendid of the
-festivals celebrated in Attica in honour of Athena, in the character
-of Athena Polias, or the protectress of the city. It was said to
-have been instituted by Erichthonius, and its original name, down
-to the time of Theseus, was believed to have been Athenaea; but
-when Theseus united all the Atticans into one body, this festival,
-which then became the common festival of all the Attic tribes,
-was called Panathenaea. There were two kinds of Panathenaea, the
-greater and the lesser; the former were held every fourth year
-(πενταετηρίς), the latter every year. The lesser Panathenaea were
-probably celebrated on the 17th of the month Hecatombaeon; the
-great Panathenaea in the third year of every Olympiad, and probably
-commenced on the same day as the lesser Panathenaea. The principal
-difference between the two festivals was, that the greater one was
-more solemn, and that on this occasion the peplus of Athena was
-carried to her temple in a most magnificent procession, which was
-not held at the lesser Panathenaea. The solemnities, games, and
-amusements of the Panathenaea were, rich sacrifices of bulls, foot,
-horse, and chariot races, gymnastic and musical contests, and the
-lampadephoria; rhapsodists recited the poems of Homer and other epic
-poets, philosophers disputed, cock-fights were exhibited, and the
-people indulged in a variety of other amusements and entertainments.
-The prize in these contests was a vase filled with oil from the
-ancient and sacred olive tree of Athena on the Acropolis. A great
-many of such vases, called Panathenaic vases, have in late years
-been found in Etruria, southern Italy, Sicily, and Greece. They
-represent on one side the figure of Athena, and on the other the
-various contests and games in which these vases were given as prizes
-to the victors. Of the discussions of philosophers and orators at the
-Panathenaea we still possess two specimens, the λόγος Παναθηναικός of
-Isocrates, and that of Aristeides. Herodotus is said to have recited
-his history to the Athenians at the Panathenaea. The management of
-the games and contests was entrusted to persons called _Athlothetae_
-(ἀθλοθέται), whose number was ten, one being taken from every tribe.
-Their office lasted from one great Panathenaic festival to the other.
-The chief solemnity of the great Panathenaea was the magnificent
-procession to the temple of Athena Polias, which probably took place
-on the last day of the festive season. The whole of the procession
-is represented in the frieze of the Parthenon, the work of Phidias
-and his disciples, now deposited in the British Museum. The chief
-object of the procession was to carry the peplus of the goddess
-to her temple. This peplus was a crocus-coloured garment for the
-goddess, and made by maidens, called ἐργαστῖναι. In it were woven
-Enceladus and the giants, as they were conquered by the goddess. The
-peplus was not carried to the temple by men, but suspended from the
-mast of a ship. The procession proceeded from the Ceramicus, near a
-monument called Leocorium, to the temple of Demeter at Eleusis, and
-thence along the Pelasgic wall and the temple of Apollo Pythius to
-the Pnyx, and thence to the Acropolis, where the statue of Minerva
-Polias was adorned with the peplus. In this procession nearly the
-whole population of Attica appears to have taken part, either on
-foot, on horseback, or in chariots, as may be seen in the frieze
-of the Parthenon. Aged men carried olive branches, and were called
-_Thallophori_ (θαλλοφόροι); young men attended, at least in earlier
-times, in armour, and maidens who belonged to the noblest families of
-Athens carried baskets, containing offerings for the goddess, whence
-they were called _Canephori_ (κανηφόροι). Respecting the part which
-aliens took in this procession, and the duties they had to perform,
-see HYDRIAPHORIA. Men who had deserved well of the republic were
-rewarded with a gold crown at the great Panathenaea, and the herald
-had to announce the event during the gymnastic contests.
-
-[Illustration: Pancratiastae. (Krause, Gymnastik und Agonistik der
-Hellen, tav. 21.)]
-
-
-PANCRĂTĬUM (παγκράτιον), is derived from πάν and κράτος, and
-accordingly signifies an athletic game, in which all the powers of
-the fighter were called into action. The pancratium was one of the
-games or gymnastic contests which were exhibited at all the great
-festivals of Greece; it consisted of boxing and wrestling (πυγμή and
-πάλη), and was reckoned to be one of the heavy or hard exercises
-(ἀγωνίσματα βαρέα or βαρύτερα), on account of the violent exertions
-it required, and for this reason it was not much practised in the
-gymnasia. In Homer we find neither the game nor the name of the
-pancratium mentioned, and as it was not introduced at the Olympic
-games until Ol. 33, we may presume that the game, though it may
-have existed long before in a rude state, was not brought to any
-degree of perfection until a short time before that event. The name
-of the combatants was _Pancratiastae_ (παγκρατιασταί) or _Pammachi_
-(πάμμαχοι). They fought naked, and had their bodies anointed and
-covered with sand, by which they were enabled to take hold of one
-another. When the contest began, each of the fighters might commence
-by boxing or by wrestling, accordingly as he thought he should be
-more successful in the one than in the other. The victory was not
-decided until one of the parties was killed, or lifted up a finger,
-thereby declaring that he was unable to continue the contest either
-from pain or fatigue.
-
-
-PĂNĒGỸRIS (πανήγυρις), signifies a meeting or assembly of a whole
-people for the purpose of worshipping at a common sanctuary. The word
-is used in three significations:--1. For a meeting of the inhabitants
-of one particular town and its vicinity; 2. For a meeting of the
-inhabitants of a whole district, a province, or of the whole body
-of people belonging to a particular tribe [DELIA; PANIONIA]; and 3.
-For great national meetings, as the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and
-Nemean games. Although in all panegyreis which we know, the religious
-character forms the most prominent feature, other subjects, political
-discussions and resolutions, as well as a variety of amusements,
-were not excluded, though they were perhaps more a consequence of
-the presence of many persons than objects of the meeting. Every
-panegyris, moreover, was made by tradespeople a source of gain, and
-it may be presumed that such a meeting was never held without a fair,
-at which all sorts of things were exhibited for sale.
-
-
-PĂNIŌNĬA (πανιώνια), the great national panegyris of the Ionians on
-mount Mycalé, where the national god Poseidon Heliconius had his
-sanctuary called the Panionium. One of the principal objects of this
-national meeting was the common worship of Poseidon, to whom splendid
-sacrifices were offered on the occasion. But religious worship was
-not the only object for which they assembled at the Panionium; on
-certain emergencies, especially in case of any danger threatening
-their country, the Ionians discussed at their meetings political
-questions, and passed resolutions which were binding upon all.
-
-
-PĂNOPLĬA (πανοπλία), a panoply or suit of armour. The articles of
-which it consisted both in the Greek and in the Roman army, are
-enumerated under ARMA.
-
-
-PANTŎMĪMUS, the name of a kind of actors peculiar to the Romans, who
-very nearly resembled in their mode of acting the modern dancers in
-the ballet. They did not speak on the stage, but merely acted by
-gestures, movements, and attitudes. All movements, however, were
-rhythmical like those in the ballet, whence the general term for them
-is _saltatio_, _saltare_; the whole art was called _musica muta_;
-and to represent Niobe or Leda was expressed by _saltare Nioben_ and
-_saltare Ledam_. During the time of the republic the name pantomimus
-does not occur, though the art itself was known to the Romans at an
-early period; for the first histriones said to have been introduced
-from Etruria were in fact nothing but pantomimic dancers [HISTRIO],
-whence we find that under the empire the names histrio and pantomimus
-were used as synonymous. The pantomimic art, however, was not carried
-to any degree of perfection until the time of Augustus. The greatest
-pantomimes of this time were Bathyllus, a freedman and favourite
-of Maecenas, and Pylades and Hylas. Mythological love-stories were
-from the first the favourite subjects of the pantomimes, which were
-disgraced by the most licentious scenes. In Sicily pantomimic dances
-were called _ballismi_ (βαλλισμοί), whence perhaps the modern words
-ball and ballet.
-
-
-PĂPȲRUS. [LIBER.]
-
-
-PĂRĂDĪSUS (παράδεισος), the name given by the Greeks to the parks
-or pleasure-grounds, which surrounded the country residences of the
-Persian kings and satraps. They were generally stocked with animals
-for the chase, were full of all kinds of trees, watered by numerous
-streams, and enclosed with walls.
-
-
-PĂRĂGRĂPHĒ (παραγραφή). This word does not exactly correspond with
-any term in our language, but may without much impropriety be
-called _a plea_. It is an objection raised by the defendant to the
-admissibility of the plaintiff’s action. The _paragraphé_, like every
-other answer (ἀντιγραφή) made by the defendant to the plaintiff’s
-charge, was given in writing; as the word itself implies. If the
-defendant merely denied the plaintiff’s allegations, a court was
-at once held for the trial of the cause. If, however, he put in a
-_paragraphé_, a court was to be held to try the preliminary question,
-whether the cause could be brought into court or not. Upon this
-previous trial the defendant was considered the _actor_. If he
-succeeded, the whole cause was at an end; unless the objection was
-only to the form of action, or some other such technicality, in which
-case it might be recommenced in the proper manner. If, however, the
-plaintiff succeeded, the original action, which in the mean time had
-been suspended, was proceeded with.
-
-
-PĂRĂLUS (πάραλος), and SĂLAMĪNĬA (σαλαμινία). The Athenians from very
-early times kept for public purposes two sacred or state vessels,
-the one of which was called _Paralus_ and the other _Salaminia_:
-the crew of the one bore the name of παραλῖται or πάραλοι, and that
-of the other σαλαμίνιοι. The Salaminia was also called Δηλία or
-Θεωρίς, because it was used to convey the θεωροὶ to Delos, on which
-occasion the ship was adorned with garlands by the priest of Apollo.
-Both these vessels were quick-sailing triremes, and were used for a
-variety of state purposes: they conveyed theories, despatches, &c.
-from Athens, carried treasures from subject countries to Athens,
-fetched state criminals from foreign parts to Athens, and the like.
-In battles they were frequently used as the ships in which the
-admirals sailed. These vessels and their crews were always kept in
-readiness to act, in case of any necessity arising; and the crew,
-although they could not for the greater part of the year be in
-actual service, received their regular pay of four oboli per day all
-the year round. The names of the two ships seem to point to a very
-early period of the history of Attica, when there was no navigation
-except between Attica and Salamis, for which the Salaminia was
-used, and around the coast of Attica, for which purpose the Paralus
-was destined. In later times the names were retained, although the
-destination of the ships was principally to serve the purposes of
-religion, whence they are frequently called the sacred ships.
-
-
-PĂRĂNOIĀS GRĂPHĒ (παρανοίας γραφή). This proceeding may be compared
-to our commission of lunacy, or writ _de lunatico inquirendo_. It
-was a suit at Athens that might be instituted by a son or other
-relation against one who, by reason of madness or mental imbecility,
-had become incapable of managing his own affairs. If the complaint
-was well grounded, the court decreed that the next heir should take
-possession of the lunatic’s property, and probably also made some
-provision for his being put in confinement, or under proper care and
-guardianship. The celebrated tale of Iophon, the son of Sophocles,
-accusing his father of lunacy, is related in the life of Sophocles in
-the _Classical Dictionary_.
-
-
-PĂRĂNŎMŌN GRĂPHĒ (παρανόμων γραφή), an indictment at Athens for
-propounding an illegal, or rather unconstitutional measure or law.
-In order to check rash and hasty legislation, the mover of any law
-or decree, though he succeeded in causing it to be passed, was
-still amenable to criminal justice, if his enactment was found to
-be inconsistent with other laws that remained in force, or with
-the public interest. Any person might institute against him the
-γραφὴ παρανόμων within a year from the passing of the law. If he was
-convicted, not only did the law become void, but any punishment
-might be inflicted on him, at the discretion of the judges before
-whom he was tried. A person thrice so convicted lost the right of
-proposing laws in future. The cognizance of the cause belonged to the
-Thesmothetae.
-
-
-PĂRAPRESBEIA (παραπρεσβεία), signifies any corrupt conduct,
-misfeasance, or neglect of duty on the part of an ambassador; for
-which he was liable to be called to account and prosecuted on his
-return home. Demosthenes accused Aeschines of _Parapresbeia_ on
-account of his conduct in the embassy to Philip.
-
-
-PĂRĂPHERNA. [DOS.]
-
-
-PĂRĂSANGA (ὁ παρασάγγης), a Persian measure of length, frequently
-mentioned by the Greek writers. It is still used by the Persians, who
-call it _ferseng_. According to Herodotus the parasang was equal to
-30 Greek stadia. Xenophon must also have calculated it at the same,
-as he says that 16,050 stadia are equal to 535 parasangs. (16,050
-÷ 535 = 30.) Other ancient writers give a different length for the
-parasang. Modern English travellers estimate it variously at from
-3½ to 4 English miles, which nearly agrees with the calculation of
-Herodotus.
-
-
-PĂRĂSĪTI (παράσιτοι) properly denotes persons who dine with others.
-In the early history of Greece the name had a very different
-meaning, being given to distinguished persons, who were appointed as
-assistants to certain priests and to the highest magistrates. Their
-services appear to have been rewarded with a third of the victims
-sacrificed to their respective gods. Such officers existed down to a
-late period of Greek history. Solon in his legislation called the act
-of giving public meals to certain magistrates and foreign ambassadors
-in the prytaneum παρασιτεῖν, and it may be that the parasites were
-connected with this institution. The class of persons whom we call
-parasites was very numerous in ancient Greece, and appears to have
-existed from early times. The characteristic features common to all
-parasites are importunity, love of sensual pleasures, and above all
-the desire of getting a good dinner without paying for it. During the
-time of the Roman emperors a parasite seems to have been a constant
-guest at the tables of the wealthy.
-
-
-PĂRĔDRI (πάρεδροι). Each of the three superior archons was at liberty
-to have two assessors (πάρεδροι) chosen by himself, to assist him by
-advice and otherwise in the performance of his various duties. The
-assessor, like the magistrate himself, had to undergo a _docimasia_
-(δοκιμασία) in the Senate of Five Hundred and before a judicial
-tribunal, before he could be permitted to enter upon his labours. He
-was also to render an account (εὐθύνη) at the end of the year. The
-duties of the archons, magisterial and judicial, were so numerous,
-that one of the principal objects of having assessors must have been
-to enable them to get through their business. From the _paredri_ of
-the archons we must distinguish those who assisted the _euthyni_ in
-examining and auditing magistrates’ accounts.
-
-
-PĂRENTĀLĬA. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-PĂRĬES. [DOMUS.]
-
-
-PARMA, _dim._ PARMŬLA, a round shield, three feet in diameter,
-carried by the _velites_ in the Roman army. Though small, compared
-with the CLIPEUS, it was so strongly made as to be a very effectual
-protection. This was probably owing to the use of iron in its
-frame-work. The parma was also worn by the cavalry. We find the term
-_parma_ often applied to the target [CETRA], which was also a small
-round shield, and therefore very similar to the parma.
-
-[Illustration: Parma. (From the Columna Trajana.)]
-
-
-PĂROCHI, certain people paid by the state to supply the Roman
-magistrates, ambassadors, and other official persons, when
-travelling, with those necessaries which they could not conveniently
-carry with them. They existed on all the principal stations on the
-Roman roads in Italy and the provinces, where persons were accustomed
-to pass the night. Of the things which the parochi were bound to
-supply, hay, fire-wood, salt, and a certain number of beds appear to
-have been the most important.
-
-
-PĂROPSIS (παροψίς), any food eaten with the ὅψον as the μάζα, a kind
-of frumenty or soft cake, broth, or any kind of condiment or sauce.
-It was, likewise, the name of the dish or plate, on which such food
-was served up, and it is in this latter signification that the Roman
-writers use the word.
-
-
-PARRĬCĪDA, PARRĬCĪDĬUM. A parricida signified originally a murderer
-generally, and is hence defined to be a person who kills another
-_dolo malo_. It afterwards signified the murderer of a parent, and by
-an ancient law such a parricide was sewed up in a sack (_culleus_),
-and thrown into a river. A law of the dictator Sulla contained some
-provisions against parricide, and probably fixed the same punishment
-for the parricide, as the Lex Pompeia de Parricidiis, passed in the
-time of Cn. Pompeius. This law extended the crime of parricide to the
-killing of a brother, sister, uncle, aunt, and many other relations,
-and enacted that he who killed a father or mother, grandfather or
-grandmother, should be punished (_more majorum_) by being whipped
-till he bled, sewed up in a sack with a dog, cock, viper, and ape,
-and thrown into the sea. Other parricides were simply put to death.
-
-
-PASSUS, a measure of length, which consisted of five Roman feet.
-[PES.] The passus was not the step, or distance from heel to heel,
-when the feet were at their utmost ordinary extension, but the
-distance from the point which the heel leaves to that in which it is
-set down. The _mille passuum_, or thousand paces, was the common name
-of the Roman mile. [MILLIARE.]
-
-
-PĂTER FĂMĬLIAE. [FAMILIA; MATRIMONIUM.]
-
-
-PĂTER PĂTRĀTUS. [FETIALES.]
-
-
-PĂTĔRA, _dim._ PĂTELLA (φιάλη), a round plate or dish. The paterae
-of the most common kind were small plates of the common red
-earthenware, on which an ornamental pattern was drawn, and which were
-sometimes entirely black. The more valuable paterae were metallic,
-being chiefly of bronze; but every family, raised above poverty,
-possessed one of silver, together with a silver salt-cellar. The
-accompanying cut exhibits a highly ornamented patera, made of bronze.
-The view of the upper surface is accompanied by a side-view, showing
-the form and depth of the vessel.
-
-[Illustration: Patera. (From Pompeii.)]
-
-
-PĂTĬBŬLUM. [FURCA.]
-
-
-PĂTĬNA (λεκάνη), a basin or bowl of earthenware, rarely of bronze or
-silver. The patina was of a form intermediate between the _patera_
-and the _olla_, not so flat as the former, nor so deep as the latter.
-The most frequent use of the _patina_ was in cookery.
-
-
-PATRES. [PATRICII.]
-
-
-PĂTRĬA POTESTAS. Potestas signifies generally a power or faculty of
-any kind by which we do anything. “Potestas,” says Paulus, a Roman
-jurist, “has several significations: when applied to magistrates,
-it is Imperium; in the case of children, it is the patria potestas;
-in the case of slaves, it is Dominium.” According to Paulus then,
-potestas, as applied to magistrates, is equivalent to imperium.
-Thus we find potestas associated with the adjectives praetoria,
-consularis. But potestas is applied to magistrates who had not the
-imperium, as for instance to quaestors and tribuni plebis; and
-potestas and imperium are often opposed in Cicero. [IMPERIUM.] Thus
-it seems that this word potestas, like many other Roman terms,
-had both a wider signification and a narrower one. In its wider
-signification it might mean all the power that was delegated to any
-person by the state, whatever might be the extent of that power.
-In its narrower significations, it was on the one hand equivalent
-to imperium; and on the other, it expressed the power of those
-functionaries who had not the imperium. Sometimes it was used to
-express a magistratus, as a person; and hence in the Italian language
-the word podestà signifies a magistrate. Potestas is also one of
-the words by which is expressed the power that one private person
-has over another, the other two being manus and mancipium. The
-potestas is either dominica, that is, ownership as exhibited in the
-relation of master and slave [SERVUS]; or patria as exhibited in the
-relation of father and child. The mancipium was framed after the
-analogy of the potestas dominica. [MANCIPIUM.] Patria potestas then
-signifies the power which a Roman father had over the persons of his
-children, grandchildren, and other descendants (_filii-familias_,
-_filiae-familias_), and generally all the rights which he had by
-virtue of his paternity. The foundation of the patria potestas was
-a legal marriage, and the birth of a child gave it full effect.
-[MATRIMONIUM.] It does not seem that the patria potestas was ever
-viewed among the Romans as absolutely equivalent to the dominica
-potestas, or as involving ownership of the child; and yet the
-original notion of the patria came very near to that of the dominica
-potestas. Originally the father had the power of life and death over
-his son as a member of his familia; and he could sell him, and so
-bring him into the mancipii causa. He could also give his daughter in
-marriage, or give a wife to his son, divorce his child, give him in
-adoption, and emancipate him at his pleasure.
-
-
-PATRĬCĬI. This word is evidently a derivative from _pater_, which
-frequently occurs in the Roman writers as equivalent to senator.
-_Patricii_ therefore signifies those who belonged to the _patres_,
-but it is a mistake to suppose that the patricii were only the
-offspring of the patres in the sense of senators. On the contrary,
-the patricians were, in the early history of Rome, the whole body
-of Roman citizens, the _populus Romanus_, and there were no real
-citizens besides them. The other parts of the Roman population,
-namely clients and slaves, did not belong to the populus Romanus,
-and were not burghers or patricians. The senators or patres (in
-the narrower sense of the word) were a select body of the populus
-or patricians, which acted as their representatives. The burghers
-or patricians consisted originally of three distinct tribes, which
-afterwards became united into the sovereign populus. These tribes had
-founded settlements upon several of the hills which were subsequently
-included within the precincts of the city of Rome. Their names were
-Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, or Ramnenses, Titienses, and Lucerenses.
-Each of these tribes consisted of ten curiae, and each curia of ten
-gentes, and of the same number of decuries, which were established
-for representative and military purposes. [SENATUS.] The first
-tribe, or the Ramnes, were a Latin colony on the Palatine hill,
-said to have been founded by Romulus. As long as it stood alone, it
-contained only one hundred gentes, and had a senate of one hundred
-members. When the Tities, or Sabine settlers on the Quirinal and
-Viminal hills, under king Tatius, became united with the Ramnes,
-the number of gentes, as well as that of senators, was increased
-to 200. These two tribes after their union continued probably for
-a considerable time to be the patricians of Rome, until the third
-tribe, the Luceres, which chiefly consisted of Etruscans, who had
-settled on the Caelian hill, also became united with the other two as
-a third tribe. The amalgamation of these three tribes did not take
-place at once: the union between Latins and Sabines is ascribed to
-the reign of Romulus, though it does not appear to have been quite
-perfect, since the Latins on some occasions claimed a superiority
-over the Sabines. The Luceres existed for a long time as a separate
-tribe without enjoying the same rights as the two other tribes, until
-Tarquinius Priscus, himself an Etruscan, caused them to be placed on
-a footing of equality with the others. For this reason he is said to
-have increased the number of senators to 300. The Luceres, however,
-are, notwithstanding this equalisation, sometimes distinguished
-from the other tribes by the name _patres_ or _patricii minorum
-gentium_. During the time of the republic, distinguished strangers
-and wealthy plebeians were occasionally made Roman patricians; for
-instance, Appius Claudius and his gens, and Domitius Ahenobarbus.
-When the plebeians became a distinct class of citizens [PLEBES], the
-patricians, of course, ceased to be the only class of citizens, but
-they still retained the exclusive possession of all the power in the
-state. All civil and religious offices were in their possession, and
-they continued as before to be the populus, the nation now consisting
-of the populus and the plebes. In their relation to the plebeians
-or the commonalty, the patricians were a real aristocracy of birth.
-A person born of a patrician family was and remained a patrician,
-whether he was rich or poor, whether he was a member of the senate,
-or an eques, or held any of the great offices of the state, or not:
-there was no power that could make a patrician a plebeian. As regards
-the census, he might indeed not belong to the wealthy classes, but
-his rank remained the same. The only way in which a patrician might
-become a plebeian was when of his own accord he left his gens and
-curia, gave up the sacra, &c. A plebeian, on the other hand, or even
-a stranger, might be made a patrician by a lex curiata. But this
-appears to have been done very seldom; and the consequence was, that
-in the course of a few centuries the number of patrician families
-became so rapidly diminished, that towards the close of the republic
-there were not more than fifty such families. Although the patricians
-throughout this whole period had the character of an aristocracy of
-birth, yet their political rights were not the same at all times.
-During the first centuries of the republic there was an almost
-uninterrupted struggle between patricians and plebeians, in which
-the former exerted every means to retain their exclusive rights, but
-which ended in the establishment of the political equality of the
-two orders. [PLEBES.] Only a few insignificant priestly offices, and
-the performance of certain ancient religious rites and ceremonies,
-remained the exclusive privilege of the patricians; of which they
-were the prouder, as in former days their religious power and
-significance were the basis of their political superiority. At the
-time when the struggle between patricians and plebeians ceased, a new
-kind of aristocracy began to arise at Rome, which was partly based
-upon wealth, and partly upon the great offices of the republic, and
-the term nobiles was given to all persons whose ancestors had held
-any of the curule offices. (Compare NOBILES.) This aristocracy of
-nobiles threw the old patricians as a body still more into the shade,
-though both classes of aristocrats united as far as was possible to
-monopolise all the great offices of the state. In their dress and
-appearance the patricians were scarcely distinguished from the rest
-of the citizens, unless they were senators, curule magistrates, or
-equites, in which case they wore like others the ensigns peculiar
-to these classes. The only thing by which they seem to have been
-distinguished in their appearance from other citizens was a peculiar
-kind of shoe, which covered the whole foot and part of the leg,
-though it was not as high as the shoes of senators and curule
-magistrates. These shoes were fastened with four strings (_corrigiae_
-or _lora patricia_) and adorned with a lunula on the top.
-
-
-PĂTRĪMI ET MĀTRĪMI were children born of parents, who had been
-married by the religious ceremony called confarreatio: they are
-almost always mentioned in connection with religious rites and
-ceremonies.
-
-
-PĂTRŎNŎMI (πατρονόμοι), magistrates at Sparta, who exercised, as it
-were, a paternal power over the whole state. They did not exist till
-a late period, and they succeeded to the powers which the ephori
-formerly possessed.
-
-
-PĂTRŌNUS. The act of manumission created a new relation between
-the manumissor and the slave, which was analogous to that between
-father and son. The manumissor became with respect to the manumitted
-person his patronus, and the manumitted person became the libertus
-of the manumissor. The word patronus (from pater) indicates the
-nature of the relation. If the manumissor was a woman, she became
-patrona. The libertus adopted the gentile name of the manumissor.
-Cicero’s freedman Tiro was called M. Tullius Tiro. The libertus owed
-respect and gratitude to his patron, and in ancient times the patron
-might punish him in a summary way for neglecting those duties. This
-obligation extended to the children of the libertus, and the duty was
-due to the children of the patron. It was the duty of the patron to
-support his freedman in case of necessity, and if he did not, he lost
-his patronal rights; the consequence was the same if he brought a
-capital charge against him. The most important of the patronal rights
-related to the property of liberti, as in certain cases the patronus
-had a right to the whole or a part of the property of a libertus.
-
-
-PAUPĔRĬES, the legal term for mischief done by an animal
-(_quadrupes_) contrary to the nature of the animal, as if a man’s ox
-gored another man. In such cases the law of the Twelve Tables gave
-the injured person an action against the owner of the animal for the
-amount of the damage sustained. The owner was bound either to pay the
-full amount of damages or to give up the animal to the injured person
-(_noxae dare_).
-
-
-PĂVĪMENTUM. [DOMUS, p. 144, _b_.]
-
-
-PECTEN (κτείς), a comb. The Greeks and Romans used combs made of
-box-wood. The Egyptians had ivory combs, which also came into use by
-degrees among the Romans. The wooden combs, found in Egyptian tombs,
-are toothed on one side only; but the Greeks used them with teeth on
-both sides. The principal use of the comb was for dressing the hair,
-in doing which the Greeks of both sexes were remarkably careful and
-diligent. To go with uncombed hair was a sign of affliction.
-
-
-PĔCŬLĀTUS, is properly the misappropriation or theft of public
-property. The person guilty of this offence was _peculator_. The
-origin of the word appears to be _pecus_, a term which originally
-denoted that kind of moveable property which was the chief sign of
-wealth. Originally trials for _peculatus_ were before the populus or
-the senate. In the time of Cicero matters of _peculatus_ had become
-one of the quaestiones perpetuae.
-
-
-PĔCŪLĬUM. [SERVUS.]
-
-
-PĔCŪNĬA. [AES; ARGENTUM; AURUM.]
-
-
-PĔDĀRĬI. [SENATUS.]
-
-
-PĔDĬSĔQUI, a class of slaves, whose duty was to follow their master
-when he went out of his house. There was a similar class of female
-slaves, called _Pedisequae_.
-
-
-PĔDUM (κορώνη), a shepherd’s crook. On account of its connection
-with pastoral life, the crook is often seen in works of ancient art,
-in the hands of Pan, Satyrs, Fauns, and shepherds. It was also the
-usual attribute of Thalia, as the muse of pastoral poetry.
-
-[Illustration: Pedum, Shepherd’s Crook. (From a Painting found at
-Civita Vecchia.)]
-
-
-PEGMA (πῆγμα), a pageant, _i.e._ an edifice of wood, consisting of
-two or more stages (_tabulata_), which were raised or depressed at
-pleasure by means of balance weights. These great machines were used
-in the Roman amphitheatres, the gladiators who fought upon them
-being called _pegmares_. They were supported upon wheels so as to
-be drawn into the circus, glittering with silver and a profusion of
-wealth. When Vespasian and Titus celebrated their triumph over the
-Jews, the procession included pageants of extraordinary magnitude
-and splendour, consisting of three or four stages above one another,
-hung with rich tapestry, and inlaid with ivory and gold. By the aid
-of various contrivances they represented battles and their numerous
-incidents, and the attack and defence of the cities of Judaea. The
-pegma was also used in sacrifices. A bull having been slain in one of
-the stages, the high priest placed himself below in a cavern, so as
-to receive the blood upon his person and his garments, and in this
-state he was produced by the flamines before the worshippers.
-
-
-PĔLĂTAE (πελάται), were free labourers working for hire, like the
-_thetes_, in contra-distinction to the helots and penestae, who were
-bondsmen or serfs. In the later Greek writers, such as Dionysius of
-Halicarnassus, and Plutarch, the word is used for the Latin cliens,
-though the relations expressed by the two terms are by no means
-similar.
-
-
-PELTA (πέλτη), a small shield. Iphicrates, observing that the ancient
-CLIPEUS was cumbrous and inconvenient, introduced among the Greeks a
-much smaller and lighter shield, from which those who bore it took
-the name of _peltastae_. It consisted principally of a frame of wood
-or wicker-work, covered with skin or leather.
-
-
-PĔNESTAE (πενέσται), a class of serfs in Thessaly, who stood in
-nearly the same relation to their Thessalian lords as the helots of
-Laconia did to the Dorian Spartans, although their condition seems
-to have been on the whole superior. They were the descendants of the
-old Pelasgic or Aeolian inhabitants of Thessaly Proper. They occupied
-an intermediate position between freemen and purchased slaves, and
-they cultivated the land for their masters, paying by way of rent
-a portion of the produce of it. The Penestae sometimes accompanied
-their masters to battle, and fought on horseback as their vassals:
-a circumstance which need not excite surprise, as Thessaly was so
-famous for cavalry. There were Penestae among the Macedonians also.
-
-
-PĔNĔTRĀLE. [TEMPLUM.]
-
-
-PĒNĬCILLUS. [PICTURA, p. 295 _a_.]
-
-
-PENTĂCOSĬŎMĔDIMNI. [CENSUS.]
-
-
-PENTATHLON (πένταθλον, _quinquertium_), was next to the pancratium
-the most beautiful of all athletic performances. The persons engaged
-in it were called _Pentathli_ (πένταθλοι). The pentathlon consisted
-of five distinct kinds of games, viz. leaping (ἅλμα), the foot-race
-(δρόμος), the throwing of the discus (δίσκος), the throwing of the
-spear (σίγυννος or ἀκόντιον), and wrestling (πάλη), which were all
-performed in one day and in a certain order, one after the other, by
-the same athletae. The pentathlon was introduced in the Olympic games
-in Ol. 18.
-
-
-PENTĒCOSTĒ (πεντηκοστή), a duty of two per cent, levied upon all
-exports and imports at Athens. The money was collected by persons
-called πεντηκοστολόγοι. The merchant who paid the duty was said
-πεντηκοντεύεσθαι. All the customs appear to have been let to farm,
-and probably from year to year. They were let to the highest bidders
-by the ten _Poletae_, acting under the authority of the senate. The
-farmers were called τελῶναι, and were said ὠνεῖσθαι τὴν πεντηκοστήν.
-
-
-PEPLUM or PEPLUS (πέπλος), an outer garment or shawl, strictly worn
-by females, and thus corresponding to the himation or pallium, the
-outer garment worn by men. Like all other pieces of cloth used for
-the AMICTUS, it was often fastened by means of a brooch. It was,
-however, frequently worn without a brooch. The shawl was also often
-worn so as to cover the head while it enveloped the body, and more
-especially on occasion of a funeral or of a marriage, when a very
-splendid shawl (παστός) was worn by the bride. The following woodcut
-may be supposed to represent the moment when the bride, so veiled, is
-delivered to her husband at the door of the nuptial chamber. He wears
-the PALLIUM only; she has a long shift beneath her shawl, and is
-supported by the pronuba. Of all the productions of the loom, pepli
-were those on which the greatest skill and labour were bestowed.
-So various and tasteful were the subjects which they represented,
-that poets delighted to describe them. The art of weaving them was
-entirely oriental; and those of the most splendid dyes and curious
-workmanship were imported from Tyre and Sidon. They often constituted
-a very important part of the treasures of a temple, having been
-presented to the divinity by suppliants and devotees.
-
-[Illustration: Peplum. (Bartoli, ‘Admir. Rom. Ant.,’ pl. 57.)]
-
-
-PĒRA (πήρα), a wallet, made of leather, worn suspended at the side by
-rustics and by travellers to carry their provisions, and adopted in
-imitation of them by the Cynic philosophers.
-
-
-PERDŬELLĬO was in the ancient times of the republic nearly the same
-as the _Majestas_ of the later times. [MAJESTAS.] _Perduellis_
-originally signified _hostis_, and thus the offence was equivalent
-to making war on the Roman state. Offenders were tried by two
-judges called _Perduellionis Duumviri_. In the time of the kings
-the duumviri perduellionis and the quaestores parricidii appear
-to have been the same persons; but after the establishment of
-the republic, the offices were distinct, for the quaestores were
-appointed regularly every year, whereas the duumviri were appointed
-very rarely, as had been the case during the kingly period. Livy
-represents the duumviri perduellionis as being appointed by the
-kings, but they were really proposed by the king and appointed by the
-populus. During the early part of the republic they were appointed
-by the comitia curiata, and afterwards by the comitia centuriata,
-on the proposal of the consuls. In the case of Rabirius (B.C. 63),
-however, this custom was violated, as the duumviri were appointed
-by the praetor instead of by the comitia centuriata. The punishment
-for those who were found guilty of perduellio was death; they were
-either hanged on the _arbor infelix_, or thrown from the Tarpeian
-rock. But when the duumviri found a person guilty, he might appeal
-to the people (in early times the populus, afterwards the comitia
-centuriata), as was done in the first case which is on record, that
-of Horatius, and in the last, which is that of Rabirius, whom Cicero
-defended before the people in the oration still extant.
-
-
-PĔRĔGRĪNUS, a stranger or foreigner. In ancient times the word
-_peregrinus_ was used as synonymous with _hostis_; but in the times
-of which we have historical records, a peregrinus was any person who
-was not a Roman citizen. In B.C. 247, a second praetor (_praetor
-peregrinus_) was appointed for the purpose of administering justice
-in matters between Romans and peregrini, and in matters between such
-peregrini as had taken up their abode at Rome. [PRAETOR.] The number
-of peregrini who lived in the city of Rome appears to have had an
-injurious influence upon the poorer classes of Roman citizens, whence
-on some occasions they were driven out of the city. The first example
-of this kind was set in B.C. 127, by the tribune M. Junius Pennus.
-They were expelled a second time by the tribune C. Papius, in B.C.
-66. During the last period of the republic and the first centuries
-of the empire, all the free inhabitants of the Roman world were, in
-regard to their political rights, either Roman citizens, or Latins,
-or peregrini, and the latter had, as before, neither commercium nor
-connubium with the Romans. They were either free provincials, or
-citizens who had forfeited their civitas, and were degraded to the
-rank of peregrini, or a certain class of freedmen, called peregrini
-dediticii.
-
-
-PĔRĬOECI (περίοικοι). This word properly denotes the inhabitants of
-a district lying around some particular locality, but is generally
-used to describe a dependent population, living without the walls or
-in the country provinces of a dominant city, and although personally
-free, deprived of the enjoyment of citizenship, and the political
-rights conferred by it. A political condition such as that of the
-_perioeci_ of Greece, and like the vassalage of the Germanic nations,
-could hardly have originated in anything else than foreign conquest,
-and the _perioeci_ of Laconia furnish a striking illustration
-of this. Their origin dates from the Dorian conquest of the
-Peloponnesus, when the old inhabitants of the country, the Achaeans,
-submitted to their conquerors on certain conditions, by which they
-were left in possession of their private rights of citizenship.
-They suffered indeed a partial deprivation of their lands, and were
-obliged to submit to a king of foreign race, but still they remained
-equal in law to their conquerors, and were eligible to all offices
-of state except the sovereignty. But this state of things did not
-last long: in the next generation after the conquest the relation
-between the two parties was changed. The Achaeans were reduced from
-citizens to vassals; they were made tributary to Sparta; their lands
-were subjected to a tax; and they lost their rights of citizenship,
-the right of voting in the general assembly, and their eligibility
-to important offices in the state, such as that of a senator, &c.
-It does not, however, appear that the _perioeci_ were generally an
-oppressed people, though kept in a state of political inferiority
-to their conquerors. On the contrary, the most distinguished among
-them were admitted to offices of trust, and they sometimes served as
-heavy-armed soldiers; as, for instance, at the battle of Plataea. The
-Norman conquest of England presents a striking parallel to the Dorian
-conquest of Laconia, both in its achievement and consequences. The
-Saxons, like the old Achaeans, were deprived of their lands, excluded
-from all offices of trust and dignity, and reduced, though personally
-free, to a state of political slavery. The Normans, on the contrary,
-of whatever rank in their own country, were all nobles and warriors,
-compared with the conquered Saxons, and for a long time enjoyed
-exclusively the civil and ecclesiastical administration of the land.
-
-
-PĔRISCĔLIS (περισκελίς), an anklet or bangle, worn by the Orientals,
-the Greeks, and the Roman ladies also. It decorated the leg in the
-same manner as the bracelet adorns the wrist and the necklace the
-throat. The word, however, is sometimes used in the same sense as the
-Latin _feminalia_, that is, drawers reaching from the navel to the
-knees.
-
-[Illustration: Periscelis, Anklet, worn by a Nereid. (Museo
-Borbonico, vol. VI. tav. 34.)]
-
-
-PĔRISTRŌMA, a coverlet large enough to hang round the sides of the
-bed or couch.
-
-
-PĔRISTȲLĬUM. [DOMUS.]
-
-
-PĒRO (ἀρβύλη), a low boot of untanned hide worn by ploughmen
-(_peronatus arator_), shepherds, and others employed in rural
-occupations. The term ἀρβύλη is applied to an appendage to the Greek
-chariot. It seems to have been a shoe fastened to the bottom of the
-chariot, into which the driver inserted his foot, to assist him in
-driving, and to prevent him from being thrown out.
-
-
-[Illustration: Masks. (From a Tomb at Sidyma in Lycia.)]
-
-PERSŌNA (_larva_, πρόσωπον or προσωπεῖον), a mask. Masks were worn
-by Greek and Roman actors in nearly all dramatic representations.
-This custom arose undoubtedly from the practice of smearing the
-face with certain juices and colours, and of appearing in disguise,
-at the festivals of Dionysus. [DIONYSIA.] Now, as the Greek drama
-arose out of these festivals, it is highly probable that some mode
-of disguising the face was as old as the drama itself. Choerilus
-of Samos, however, (about B.C. 500) is said to have been the first
-who introduced regular masks. Other writers attribute the invention
-of masks to Thespis or Aeschylus, though the latter had probably
-only the merit of perfecting and completing the whole theatrical
-apparatus and costume. Some masks covered, like the masks of modern
-times, only the face, but they appear more generally to have covered
-the whole head down to the shoulders, for we always find the hair
-belonging to a mask described as being a part of it; and this must
-have been the case in tragedy more especially, as it was necessary
-to make the head correspond to the stature of an actor, which was
-heightened by the cothurnus.
-
-[Illustration: Comic Mask. (Statue of Davus in British Museum.)]
-
-
-PES (ποῦς), a foot, the standard measure of length among the Greeks
-and Romans, as well as among nearly all other nations, both ancient
-and modern. The Romans applied the uncial division [AS] to the foot,
-which thus contained 12 _unciae_, whence our _inches_; and many of
-the words used to express certain numbers of unciae are applied
-to the parts of the foot. It was also divided into 16 _digiti_
-(finger-breadths): this mode of division was used especially by
-architects and land-surveyors, and is found on all the foot-measures
-that have come down to us. From the analogy of the as, we have
-also _dupondium_ for 2 feet, and _pes sestertius_ for 2½ feet. The
-probable value of the Roman foot is 11.6496 inches English. (See
-Tables at the end.)
-
-
-PESSI. [LATRUNCULI.]
-
-
-PESSŬLUS. [JANUA.]
-
-
-PĔTĂLISMUS. [EXSILIUM.]
-
-
-PĔTĂSUS. [PILEUS.]
-
-
-PĔTĪTOR. [ACTOR.]
-
-
-PĔTAURISTAE. [PETAURUM.]
-
-
-PĔTAURUM (πέταυρον, πέτευρον), used in the Roman games, seems to
-have been a board moving up and down, with a person at each end, and
-supported in the middle, something like our see-saw; only it appears
-to have been much longer, and consequently went to a greater height
-than is common amongst us. The persons who took part in this game,
-were called _Petauristae_ or _Petauristarii_.
-
-
-PĔTORRĬTUM, a four-wheeled carriage, which, like the ESSEDUM, was
-adopted by the Romans in imitation of the Gauls. It differed from
-the HARMAMAXA in being uncovered. Its name is compounded of _petor_,
-four, and _rit_, a wheel.
-
-
-PHĂLANX. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-PHĂLĂRĬCA. [HASTA.]
-
-
-PHĂLĔRAE (φάλαρον), a boss, disc, or crescent of metal, in many cases
-of gold, and beautifully wrought so as to be highly prized. They were
-usually worn in pairs; and we most commonly read of them as ornaments
-attached to the harness of horses, especially about the head, and
-often worn as pendants (_pensilia_), so as to produce a terrific
-effect when shaken by the rapid motions of the horse. These ornaments
-were often bestowed upon horsemen by the Roman generals, in the
-same manner as the ARMILLA, the TORQUES, the hasta pura [HASTA], and
-the crown of gold [CORONA], in order to make a public and permanent
-acknowledgment of bravery and merit.
-
-
-PHĂRETRA (φαρέτρα), a quiver, was principally made of hide or
-leather, and was adorned with gold, painting, and braiding. It had
-a lid (πῶμα), and was suspended from the right shoulder by a belt
-passing over the breast and behind the back. Its most common position
-was on the left hip, and is so seen in the annexed figures, the
-right-hand one representing an Amazon, and the left-hand an Asiatic
-archer.
-
-[Illustration: Pharetrae, Quivers. (Left-hand figure from the
-Aeginetan Marbles; right-hand figure from a Greek Vase.)]
-
-
-PHARMĂCŌN GRĂPHĒ (φαρμάκων or φαρμακείας γραφή), an indictment at
-Athens against one who caused the death of another by poison, whether
-given with intent to kill or to obtain undue influence. It was tried
-by the court of Areiopagus.
-
-
-PHĂROS or PHĂRUS (φάρος), a light-house. The most celebrated
-light-house of antiquity was that situated at the entrance to the
-port of Alexandria, on an island which bore the name of Pharos. It
-contained many stories, and the upper stories had windows looking
-seawards, and torches or fires were kept burning in them by night in
-order to guide vessels into the harbour. The name of Pharos was given
-to other light-houses, in allusion to that at Alexandria, which was
-the model for their construction.
-
-
-PHĂSĒLUS (φάσηλος), a vessel rather long and narrow, apparently
-so called from its resemblance to the shape of a phaselus or
-kidney-bean. It was chiefly used by the Egyptians, and was of various
-sizes, from a mere boat to a vessel adapted for long voyages. The
-phaselus was built for speed, to which more attention seems to have
-been paid than to its strength: whence the epithet _fragilis_ is
-given to it by Horace. These vessels were sometimes made of clay, to
-which the epithet of Horace may perhaps also refer.
-
-
-PHASIS (φάσις, from φαίνω), one of the various methods by which
-public offenders at Athens might be prosecuted; but the word is
-often used to denote any kind of information; and we do not know in
-what respects the _Phasis_ was distinguished from other methods of
-prosecution. The word _sycophantes_ (συκοφάντης) is derived from
-the practice of laying information against those who exported figs.
-[SYCOPHANTES.]
-
-
-PHORMINX. [LYRA.]
-
-
-PHRATRĬA. [TRIBUS.]
-
-
-PHỸLARCHI (φύλαρχοι) were at Athens after the age of Cleisthenes ten
-officers, one for each of the tribes, and were specially charged with
-the command and superintendence of the cavalry. There can be but
-little doubt that each of the phylarchs commanded the cavalry of his
-own tribe, and they were themselves collectively and individually
-under the control of the two hipparchs, just as the taxiarchs
-were subject to the two strategi. Herodotus informs us that when
-Cleisthenes increased the number of the tribes from four to ten,
-he also made ten phylarchs instead of four. It has been thought,
-however, that the historian should have said ten phylarchs in the
-place of the old phylobasileis, who were four in number, one for each
-of the old tribes.
-
-
-PHỸLŎBĂSĬLEIS (φυλοβασιλεῖς) were four in number, representing
-each one of the four ancient Athenian tribes, and probably elected
-(but not for life) from and by them. They were nominated from the
-Eupatridae, and during the continuance of royalty at Athens these
-“kings of the tribes” were the constant assessors of the sovereign,
-and rather as his colleagues than counsellors. Though they were
-originally connected with the four ancient tribes, still they were
-not abolished by Cleisthenes when he increased the number of tribes,
-probably because their duties were mainly of a religious character.
-They appear to have existed even after his time, and acted as judges,
-but in unimportant or merely formal matters.
-
-
-PICTŪRA (γραφή, γραφική, ζωγραφία), painting. I. _History of the
-Art._ It is singular that the poems of Homer do not contain any
-mention of painting as an imitative art. This is the more remarkable,
-since Homer speaks of rich and elaborate embroidery as a thing not
-uncommon. This embroidery is actual painting in principle, and is
-a species of painting in practice, and it was considered such by
-the Romans, who termed it “pictura textilis.” The various allusions
-also to other arts, similar in nature to painting, are sufficient to
-prove that painting must have existed in some degree in Homer’s time,
-although the only kind of painting he notices is the “red-cheeked”
-and “purple-cheeked ships,” and an ivory ornament for the faces
-of horses, which a Maeonian or Carian woman colours with purple.
-Painting seems to have made considerable progress in Asia Minor
-while it was still in its infancy in Greece, for Candaules, king
-of Lydia (B.C. 716), is said to have purchased at a high price a
-painting of Bularchus, which represented a battle of the Magnetes.
-The old Ionic painting probably flourished at the same time with the
-Ionian architecture, and continued as an independent school until
-the sixth century B.C., when the Ionians lost their liberty, and
-with their liberty their art. Herodotus (i. 164) mentions that when
-Harpagus besieged the town of Phocaea (B.C. 544), the inhabitants
-collected all their valuables, their statues and votive offerings
-from the temples, leaving only their _paintings_, and such works in
-metal or of stone as could not easily be removed, and fled with them
-to the island of Chios; from which we may conclude that paintings
-were not only valued by the Phocaeans, but also common among them.
-Herodotus (iv. 88) also informs us that Mandrocles of Samos, who
-constructed for Darius Hystaspis the bridge of boats across the
-Bosporus (B.C. 508), had a picture painted, representing the passage
-of Darius’s army, and the king seated on a throne reviewing the
-troops as they passed, which he dedicated in the temple of Hera at
-Samos. After the conquest of Ionia, Samos became the seat of the
-arts. The Heraeum at Samos, in which the picture of Mandrocles was
-placed, was a general depository for works of art, and in the time
-of Strabo appears to have been particularly rich in paintings, for
-he terms it a “picture-gallery” (πινακοθήκη). The first painter in
-Greece itself, whose name is recorded, is Cimon of Cleonae. His exact
-period is uncertain, but he was probably a contemporary of Solon, and
-lived at least a century before Polygnotus. It was with Polygnotus
-of Thasos that painting reached its full development (about B.C.
-463). Previous to this time the only cities that had paid any
-considerable attention to painting were Aegina, Sicyon, Corinth, and
-Athens. Sicyon and Corinth had long been famous for their paintings
-upon vases and upon articles of furniture; the school of Athens had
-attained no celebrity whatever until the arrival of Polygnotus from
-Thasos raised it to that pre-eminence which it continued to maintain
-for more than two centuries, although very few of the great painters
-of Greece were natives of Athens. The principal contemporaries of
-Polygnotus were Dionysius of Colophon, Plistaenetus and Panaenus of
-Athens, brothers (or the latter perhaps a nephew) of Phidias, and
-Micon, also of Athens. The works of Polygnotus and his contemporaries
-were conspicuous for expression, character, and design; the more
-minute discriminations of tone and local colour, united with
-dramatic composition and effect, were accomplished in the succeeding
-generation, about 420 B.C., through the efforts of Apollodorus of
-Athens and Zeuxis of Heraclea. The contemporaries of Apollodorus and
-Zeuxis, and those who carried out their principles, were Parrhasius
-of Ephesus, Eupompus of Sicyon, and Timanthes of Cythnus, all
-painters of the greatest fame. Athens and Sicyon were the principal
-seats of the art at this period. Eupompus of Sicyon was the founder
-of the celebrated Sicyonian school of painting which was afterwards
-established by Pamphilus. The Alexandrian period was the last of
-progression or acquisition; but it only added variety of effect to
-the tones it could not improve, and was principally characterised
-by the diversity of the styles of so many contemporary artists. The
-most eminent painters of this period were Protogenes, Pamphilus,
-Melanthius, Antiphilus, Theon of Samos, Apelles, Euphranor, Pausias,
-Nicias, Nicomachus, and his brother Aristides. Of all these Apelles
-was the greatest. The quality in which he surpassed all other
-painters will scarcely bear a definition; it has been termed grace,
-elegance, beauty, χάρις, _venustas_. His greatest work was perhaps
-his Venus Anadyomene, Venus rising out of the waters. He excelled in
-portrait, and indeed all his works appear to have been portraits in
-an extended sense; for his pictures, both historical and allegorical,
-consisted nearly all of single figures. He enjoyed the exclusive
-privilege of painting the portraits of Alexander.--The works of Greek
-art brought from Sicily by Marcellus were the first to inspire the
-Romans with the desire of adorning their public edifices with statues
-and paintings, which taste was converted into a passion when they
-became acquainted with the great treasures and almost inexhaustible
-resources of Greece, and their rapacity knew no bounds. Mummius,
-after the destruction of Corinth, B.C. 146, carried off or destroyed
-more works of art than all his predecessors put together. Scaurus, in
-his aedileship, B.C. 58, had all the public pictures still remaining
-in Sicyon transported to Rome, on account of the debts of the former
-city, and he adorned the great temporary theatre which he erected
-upon that occasion with 3000 bronze statues. Verres ransacked Asia
-and Achaia, and plundered almost every temple and public edifice in
-Sicily of whatever was valuable in it. Amongst the numerous robberies
-of Verres, Cicero mentions particularly twenty-seven beautiful
-pictures taken from the temple of Minerva at Syracuse, consisting of
-portraits of the kings and tyrants of Sicily. Yet Rome was, about
-the end of the republic, full of painters, who appear, however, to
-have been chiefly occupied in portrait, or decorative and arabesque
-painting. Among the Romans the earliest painter mentioned is a member
-of the noble house of the Fabii, who received the surname of Pictor
-through some paintings which he executed in the temple of Salus at
-Rome, B.C. 304, which lasted till the time of the emperor Claudius,
-when they were destroyed by the fire that consumed that temple.
-Pacuvius also, the tragic poet, and nephew of Ennius, distinguished
-himself by some paintings in the temple of Hercules in the Forum
-Boarium, about 180 B.C. But generally speaking the artists at Rome
-were Greeks. Julius Caesar, Agrippa, and Augustus were among the
-earliest great patrons of artists. Caesar expended great sums in
-the purchase of pictures by the old masters. He gave as much as 80
-talents for two pictures by his contemporary Timomachus of Byzantium,
-one an Ajax, and the other a Medea meditating the murder of her
-children. These pictures, which were painted in encaustic, were very
-celebrated works; they are alluded to by Ovid (_Trist._ ii. 525),
-and are mentioned by many other ancient writers.--There are three
-distinct periods observable in the history of painting in Rome. The
-first or great period of Graeco-Roman art may be dated from the
-conquest of Greece until the time of Augustus, when the artists
-were chiefly Greeks. The second, from the time of Augustus to the
-so-called Thirty Tyrants and Diocletian, or from the beginning of the
-Christian era until about the latter end of the third century, during
-which time the great majority of Roman works of art were produced.
-The third comprehends the state of the arts during the exarchate,
-when Rome, in consequence of the foundation of Constantinople, and
-the changes it involved, suffered similar spoliations to those which
-it had previously inflicted upon Greece. This was the period of the
-total decay of the imitative arts amongst the ancients. About the
-beginning of the second period is the earliest age in which we have
-any notice of portrait painters (_imaginum pictores_) as a distinct
-class. Portraits must have been exceedingly numerous amongst the
-Romans; Varro made a collection of the portraits of 700 eminent
-men. The portraits or statues of men who had performed any public
-service were placed in the temples and other public places; and
-several edicts were passed by the emperors of Rome respecting the
-placing of them. The portraits of authors also were placed in the
-public libraries; they were apparently fixed above the cases which
-contained their writings, below which chairs were placed for the
-convenience of readers. They were painted also at the beginning of
-manuscripts. Several of the most celebrated ancient artists were both
-sculptors and painters; Phidias and Euphranor were both; Zeuxis and
-Protogenes were both modellers; Polygnotus devoted some attention to
-statuary; and Lysippus consulted Eupompus upon style in sculpture.
-Moreover scene-painting shows that the Greeks were acquainted with
-perspective at a very early period; for when Aeschylus was exhibiting
-tragedies at Athens, Agatharchus made a scene, and left a treatise
-upon it.--II. _Methods of Painting._ There were two distinct classes
-of painting practised by the ancients--in water colours, and in
-wax, both of which were practised in various ways. Of the former
-the principal were fresco, al fresco; and the various kinds of
-distemper (a tempera), with glue, with the white of egg, or with gums
-(a guazzo); and with wax or resins when these were rendered by any
-means vehicles that could be worked with water. Of the latter the
-principal was through fire (διὰ πυρὸς), termed encaustic (ἐγκαυστική,
-_encaustica_). The painting in wax (κηρογραφία), or ship painting
-(_inceramenta navium_), was distinct from encaustic. It does not
-appear that the Greeks or Romans ever painted in oil; the only
-mention of oil in ancient writers in connection with painting is
-the small quantity which entered into the composition of encaustic
-varnish to temper it. They painted upon wood, clay, plaster, stone,
-parchment, and canvas. The use of canvas must have been of late
-introduction, as there is no mention of it having been employed
-by the Greek painters of the best periods. They generally painted
-upon panels or tablets (πίνακες, πινόκια, _tabulae_, _tabellae_),
-which when finished were fixed into frames of various descriptions
-and materials, and encased in walls. The style or cestrum used in
-drawing, and for spreading the wax colours, pointed at one end
-and broad and flat at the other, was termed γραφίς by the Greeks
-and cestrum by the Romans; it was generally made of metal. The
-hair pencil (_penicillus_, _penicillum_) was termed ὑπογραφίς, and
-apparently also ῥαβδίον. The ancients used also a palette very
-similar to that used by the moderns. Encaustic was a method very
-frequently practised by the Roman and later Greek painters; but it
-was in very little use by the earlier painters, and was not generally
-adopted until after the time of Alexander. Pliny defines the term
-thus: “ceris pingere ac picturam inurere,” to paint with wax or wax
-colours, and to _burn in_ the picture afterwards with the cauterium;
-it appears therefore to have been the simple addition of the
-process of _burning in_ to the ordinary method of painting with wax
-colours. Cerae (waxes) was the ordinary term for painters’ colours
-amongst the Romans, but more especially encaustic colours, and they
-kept them in partitioned boxes, as painters do at present.--III.
-_Polychromy._ Ancient statues were often painted, and what is now
-termed polychrome sculpture was very common in Greece. The practice
-of colouring statues is undoubtedly as ancient as the art of statuary
-itself; although they were perhaps originally coloured more from a
-love of colour than from any design of improving the resemblance
-of the representation. The Jupiter of the Capitol, placed by
-Tarquinius Priscus, was coloured with minium. In later times the
-custom seems to have been reduced to a system, and was practised
-with more reserve. The practice also of colouring architecture
-seems to have been universal amongst the Greeks, and very general
-amongst the Romans.--IV. _Vase Painting._ The fictile-vase painting
-of the Greeks was an art of itself, and was practised by a distinct
-class of artists. The designs upon these vases (which the Greeks
-termed λήκυθοι) have been variously interpreted, but they have been
-generally considered to be in some way connected with the initiation
-into the Eleusinian and other mysteries. They were given as prizes
-to the victors at the Panathenaea and other games, and seem to have
-been always buried with their owners at their death, for they have
-been discovered only in tombs. Even in the time of the Roman empire
-painted vases were termed “operis antiqui,” and were then sought for
-in the ancient tombs of Campania and other parts of Magna Graecia.
-We may form some idea of their immense value from the statement
-of Pliny, that they were more valuable than the Murrhine vases.
-[MURRHINA VASA.] The paintings on the vases, considered as works of
-art, vary exceedingly in the detail of the execution, although in
-style of design they may be arranged in two principal classes, the
-black and the yellow; for those which do not come strictly under
-either of these heads are either too few or vary too slightly to
-require a distinct classification. The black are the most ancient,
-the yellow the most common.--V. _Mosaic_, or _pictura de musivo_,
-_opus musivum_, was very general in Rome in the time of the early
-emperors. It was also common in Greece and Asia Minor at an earlier
-period, but at the time of the Roman empire it began to a great
-extent even to supersede painting. It was used chiefly for floors,
-but walls and also ceilings were sometimes ornamented in the same
-way. There are still many great mosaics of the ancients extant. The
-most valuable is the one discovered in Pompeii a few years ago,
-which is supposed to represent the battle of Issus. The composition
-is simple, forcible, and beautiful, and the design exhibits in many
-respects merits of the highest order.
-
-
-PĪLA (σφαῖρα), a ball. The game at ball (σφαιριστική) was one of the
-most favourite gymnastic exercises of the Greeks and Romans, from
-the earliest times to the fall of the Roman empire. It is mentioned
-in the Odyssey, where it is played by the Phaeacian damsels to the
-sound of music, and also by two celebrated performers at the court
-of Alcinous in a most artistic manner accompanied with dancing. The
-various movements of the body required in the game of ball gave
-elasticity and grace to the figure; whence it was highly esteemed
-by the Greeks. The Athenians set so high a value on it, that they
-conferred upon Aristonicus of Carystus the right of citizenship on
-account of his skill in this game. It was equally esteemed by the
-other states of Greece; the young Spartans, when they were leaving
-the condition of ephebi, were called σφαιρεῖς, probably because
-their chief exercise was the game at ball. Every complete gymnasium
-had a room (σφαιριστήριον, σφαίριστρα) devoted to this exercise
-[GYMNASIUM], where a special teacher (σφαιριστικός) gave instruction
-in the art. Among the Romans the game at ball was generally played
-at by persons before taking the bath, in a room (_sphaeristerium_)
-attached to the baths for the purpose. _Pila_ was used in a general
-sense for any kind of ball: but the balls among the Romans seem to
-have been of three kinds; the _pila_ in its narrower sense, a small
-ball; the _follis_, a great ball filled with air; and the _paganica_,
-of which we know scarcely anything, but which appears to have been
-smaller than the follis and larger than the pila. The _Harpastum_
-(from ἁρπάζω) seems to have been the name of a ball, which was thrown
-among the players, each of whom endeavoured to catch it.
-
-[Illustration: Pila, Game at Ball. (From the Baths of Titus.)]
-
-
-PĪLĀNI. [EXERCITUS, p. 168 _b_.]
-
-
-PĪLENTUM, a splendid four-wheeled carriage, furnished with soft
-cushions, which conveyed the Roman matrons in sacred processions and
-in going to the Circensian and other games. The pilentum was probably
-very like the HARMAMAXA and CARPENTUM, but open at the sides, so that
-those who sat in it might both see and be seen.
-
-
-PĪLĔUS or PĪLĔUM (πϊλος, πίλημα, πιλωτόν), any piece of felt; more
-especially a skull-cap of felt, a hat. There seems no reason to doubt
-that felting is a more ancient invention than weaving [TELA], nor
-that both of these arts came into Europe from Asia. From the Greeks,
-who were acquainted with this article as early as the age of Homer,
-the use of felt passed together with its name to the Romans. Its
-principal use was to make coverings of the head for the male sex,
-and the most common one was a simple skull-cap.--Among the Romans
-the cap of felt was the emblem of liberty. When a slave obtained
-his freedom he had his head shaven, and wore instead of his hair an
-undyed pileus. This change of attire took place in the temple of
-Feronia, who was the goddess of freedmen. Hence the phrase _servos
-ad pileum vocare_ is a summons to liberty, by which slaves were
-frequently called upon to take up arms with a promise of liberty.
-The figure of Liberty on some of the coins of Antoninus Pius,
-struck A.D. 145, holds this cap in the right hand. The _Petasus_
-(πέτασος) differed from the pileus or simple skull-cap in having a
-wide brim: the etymology of the word, from πετάννυμι, expresses the
-distinctive shape of these hats. It was preferred to the skull-cap as
-a protection from the sun.
-
-[Illustration: Petasus, Cap, worn by a Greek Soldier. (From a Greek
-Vase.)]
-
-
-PĪLUM. [HASTA.]
-
-
-PISCĪNA. [BALNEUM.]
-
-
-PISTOR (ἀρτοποιός), a baker, from _pinsere_, to pound, since corn was
-pounded in mortars before the invention of mills. At Rome bread was
-originally made at home by the women of the house; and there were
-no persons at Rome who made baking a trade, or any slaves specially
-kept for this purpose in private houses, till B.C. 173. The name was
-also given to pastry-cooks and confectioners, in which case they
-were usually called _pistores dulciarii_ or _candidarii_. Bread was
-often baked in moulds called _artoptae_, and the loaves thus baked
-were termed ARTOPTICII. Bread was not generally made at home at
-Athens, but was sold in the market-place, chiefly by women, called
-ἀρτοπώλιδες. These women seem to have been what the fish-women of
-London are at present; they excelled in abuse.
-
-
-PLĂGĬĀRĬUS. [PLAGIUM.]
-
-
-PLĂGĬUM, the offence of kidnapping, concealing, and selling freemen
-and other persons’ slaves was the subject of a Fabia Lex (B.C. 183).
-The penalty of the lex was pecuniary; but this fell into disuse,
-and persons who offended against the lex were punished according to
-the nature of their offence; under the empire they were generally
-condemned to the mines. The word _Plagium_ is said to come from the
-Greek πλάγιος, oblique, indirect, dolosus. He who committed _plagium_
-was _plagiarius_, a word which Martial applies to a person who
-falsely gave himself out as the author of a book; and in this sense
-the word has come into common use in our language.
-
-
-PLAUSTRUM or PLOSTRUM (ἅμαξα), a cart or waggon. It had commonly two
-wheels, but sometimes four, and it was then called the _plaustrum
-majus_. Besides the wheels and axle the plaustrum consisted of a
-strong pole (_temo_), to the hinder part of which was fastened a
-table of wooden planks. The blocks of stone, or other things to be
-carried, were either laid upon this table without any other support,
-or an additional security was obtained by the use either of boards
-at the sides, or of a large wicker basket tied upon the cart. The
-annexed cut exhibits a cart, the body of which is supplied by a
-basket. The commonest kind of cart-wheel was that called _tympanum_,
-“the drum,” from its resemblance to the musical instrument of the
-same name. It was nearly a foot in thickness, and was made either by
-sawing the trunk of a tree across in a horizontal direction, or by
-nailing together boards of the requisite shape and size. (See the
-cut.) These wheels advanced slowly, and made a loud creaking, which
-was heard to a great distance.
-
-[Illustration: Plaustrum, Waggon. (From a Bas-Relief at Rome.)]
-
-
-PLĒBES or PLEBS. PLĒBĒII. This word contains the same root as
-_im-pleo_, _com-pleo_, &c., and is therefore etymologically
-connected with πλῆθος, a term which was applied to the plebeians
-by the more correct Greek writers on Roman history, while others
-wrongly called them δῆμος or οἱ δημοτικοί. The plebeians were the
-body of commons or the commonalty of Rome, and thus constituted
-one of the two great elements of which the Roman nation consisted,
-and which has given to the earlier periods of Roman history its
-peculiar character and interest. The time when the plebeians first
-appear as a distinct class of Roman citizens in contradistinction
-to the patricians, is in the reign of Tullus Hostilius. Alba, the
-head of the Latin confederacy, was in his reign taken by the Romans
-and razed to the ground. The most distinguished of its inhabitants
-were transplanted to Rome and received among the patricians; but
-the great bulk of Alban citizens, who were likewise transferred to
-Rome, received settlements on the Caelian hill, and were kept in
-a state of submission to the populus Romanus or the patricians.
-This new population of Rome, which in number is said to have been
-equal to the old inhabitants of the city or the patricians, were
-the plebeians. They were Latins, and consequently of the same
-blood as the Ramnes, the noblest of the three patrician tribes.
-After the conquest of Alba, Rome, in the reign of Ancus Martius,
-acquired possession of a considerable extent of country, containing
-a number of dependent Latin towns, as Medullia, Fidenae, Politorium,
-Tellenae, and Ficana. Great numbers of the inhabitants of these
-towns were again transplanted to Rome, and incorporated with the
-plebeians already settled there, and the Aventine was assigned to
-them as their habitation. Some portions of the land which these
-new citizens had possessed were given back to them by the Romans,
-so that they remained free land-owners as much as the conquerors
-themselves, and thus were distinct from the clients.--The plebeians
-were citizens, but not _optimo jure_; they were perfectly distinct
-from the patricians, and were neither contained in the three tribes,
-nor in the curiae, nor in the patrician gentes. The only point of
-contact between the two estates was the army. The plebeians were
-obliged to fight and shed their blood in the defence of their
-new fellow-citizens, without being allowed to share any of their
-rights or privileges, and without even the right of intermarriage
-(_connubium_). In all judicial matters they were entirely at the
-mercy of the patricians, and had no right of appeal against any
-unjust sentence, though they were not, like the clients, bound to
-have a patronus. They continued to have their own sacra, which
-they had had before the conquest, but these were regulated by the
-patrician pontiffs. Lastly, they were free land-owners, and had
-their own gentes.--The population of the Roman state thus consisted
-of two opposite elements; a ruling class or an aristocracy, and the
-commonalty, which, though of the same stock as the noblest among
-the rulers, and exceeding them in numbers, yet enjoyed none of the
-rights which might enable them to take a part in the management of
-public affairs, religious or civil. Their citizenship resembled the
-relation of aliens to a state, in which they are merely tolerated on
-condition of performing certain services, and they are, in fact,
-sometimes called peregrini. That such a state of things could not
-last, is a truth which must have been felt by every one who was not
-blinded by his own selfishness and love of dominion. Tarquinius
-Priscus was the first who conceived the idea of placing the plebeians
-on a footing of equality with the old burghers, by dividing them
-into three tribes, which he intended to call after his own name and
-those of his friends. But this noble plan was frustrated by the
-opposition of the augur Attus Navius, who probably acted the part
-of a representative of the patricians. All that Tarquinius could do
-was to effect the admission of the noblest plebeian families into
-the three old tribes, who were distinguished from the old patrician
-families by the names of Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres secundi, and
-their gentes are sometimes distinguished by the epithet minores,
-as they entered into the same relation in which the Luceres had
-been to the first two tribes, before the time of Tarquinius. It
-was reserved to his successor, Servius Tullius, to give to the
-commonalty a regular internal organisation, and to determine their
-relations to the patricians. He first divided the city into four, and
-then the subject country around, which was inhabited by plebeians,
-into twenty-six regions or local tribes, and in these regions he
-assigned lots of land to those plebeians who were yet without landed
-property. [TRIBUS.] Each tribe had its praefect, called tribunus. The
-tribes had also their own sacra, festivals, and meetings (_comitia
-tributa_), which were convoked by their tribunes. This division into
-tribes with tribunes at their heads was no more than an internal
-organisation of the plebeians, analogous to the division of the
-patricians into thirty curiae, without conferring upon them the right
-to interfere in any way in the management of public affairs, or in
-the elections, which were left entirely to the senate and the curiae.
-These rights, however, they obtained by another regulation of Servius
-Tullius, which was made wholly independent of the thirty tribes. For
-this purpose he instituted a census, and divided the whole body of
-Roman citizens, plebeians as well as patricians, into five classes,
-according to the amount of their property. Taxation and the military
-duties were arranged according to these classes in such a manner,
-that the heavier burdens fell upon the wealthier classes. The whole
-body of citizens thus divided was formed into a great national
-assembly called comitiatus maximus, or comitia centuriata. [COMITIA.]
-In this assembly the plebeians now met the patricians apparently on
-a footing of equality, but the votes were distributed in such a way
-that it was always in the power of the wealthiest classes, to which
-the patricians naturally belonged, to decide a question before it
-was put to the vote of the poorer classes. A great number of such
-noble plebeian families, as after the subjugation of the Latin towns
-had not been admitted into the curies by Tarquinius Priscus, were
-now constituted by Servius into a number of equites, with twelve
-suffragia in the comitia centuriata. [EQUITES.] In this constitution,
-the plebeians, as such, did not obtain admission to the senate, nor
-to the highest magistracy, nor to any of the priestly offices. To
-all these offices the patricians alone thought themselves entitled
-by divine right. The plebeians also continued to be excluded from
-occupying any portion of the public land, which as yet was possessed
-only by the patricians, and they were only allowed to keep their
-cattle upon the common pasture.--In the early times of the republic
-there was a constant struggle between the two orders, the history
-of which belongs to a history of Rome, and cannot be given here.
-Eventually the plebeians gained access to all the civil and religious
-offices, until at last the two hostile elements became united into
-one great body of Roman citizens with equal rights, and a state of
-things arose, totally different from what had existed before. After
-the first secession, in B.C. 494, the plebeians gained several great
-advantages. First, a law was passed to prevent the patricians from
-taking usurious interest of money, which they frequently lent to
-impoverished plebeians; secondly, tribunes were appointed for the
-protection of the plebeians [TRIBUNI]; and lastly, plebeian aediles
-were appointed. [AEDILES.] Shortly after, they gained the right to
-summon before their own comitia tributa any one who had violated the
-rights of their order, and to make decrees (_plebiscita_), which,
-however, did not become binding upon the whole nation, free from
-the control of the curies, until the year B.C. 286. In B.C. 445,
-the tribune Canuleius established, by his rogations, the connubium
-between patricians and plebeians. He also attempted to divide the
-consulship between the two orders, but the patricians frustrated the
-realisation of this plan by the appointment of six military tribunes,
-who were to be elected from both orders. [TRIBUNI.] But that the
-plebeians might have no share in the censorial power, with which the
-consuls had been invested, the military tribunes did not obtain that
-power, and a new curule dignity, the censorship, was established,
-with which patricians alone were to be invested. [CENSOR.] In B.C.
-421 the plebeians were admitted to the quaestorship, which opened
-to them the way into the senate, where henceforth their number
-continued to increase. [QUAESTOR; SENATUS.] In B.C. 367 the tribunes
-L. Licinius Stolo and L. Sextius placed themselves at the head of the
-commonalty, and resumed the contest against the patricians. After
-a fierce struggle, which lasted for several years, they at length
-carried a rogation, according to which decemvirs were to be appointed
-for keeping the Sibylline books instead of duumvirs, of whom half
-were to be plebeians. The next great step was the restoration of
-the consulship, on condition that one consul should always be a
-plebeian. A third rogation of Licinius, which was only intended to
-afford momentary relief to the poor plebeians, regulated the rate
-of interest. From this time forward the plebeians also appear in
-the possession of the right to occupy parts of the ager publicus.
-In B.C. 366, L. Sextius Lateranus was the first plebeian consul.
-The patricians, however, who always contrived to yield no more than
-what it was absolutely impossible for them to retain, stripped the
-consulship of a considerable part of its power, and transferred
-it to two new curule offices, viz. that of praetor and of curule
-aedile. [AEDILES; PRAETOR.] But after such great advantages had
-been once gained by the plebeians, it was impossible to stop them
-in their progress towards a perfect equality of political rights
-with the patricians. In B.C. 356, C. Marcius Rutilus was the first
-plebeian dictator; in B.C. 351 the censorship was thrown open to
-the plebeians, and in B.C. 336 the praetorship. The Ogulnian law,
-in B.C. 300, also opened to them the offices of pontifex and augur.
-These advantages were, as might be supposed, not gained without the
-fiercest opposition of the patricians, and even after they were
-gained and sanctioned by law, the patricians exerted every means to
-obstruct the operation of the law. Such fraudulent attempts led,
-in B.C. 286, to the last secession of the plebeians, after which,
-however, the dictator Q. Hortensius successfully and permanently
-reconciled the two orders, secured to the plebeians all the rights
-they had acquired until then, and procured for their plebiscita the
-full power of leges binding upon the whole nation. After the passing
-of the Hortensian law, the political distinction between patricians
-and plebeians ceased, and, with a few unimportant exceptions, both
-orders were placed on a footing of perfect equality. Henceforth
-the name populus is sometimes applied to the plebeians alone, and
-sometimes to the whole body of Roman citizens, as assembled in the
-comitia centuriata or tributa. The term plebs or plebecula, on
-the other hand, was applied, in a loose manner of speaking, to the
-multitude or populace, in opposition to the nobiles or the senatorial
-party.--A person who was born a plebeian could only be raised to
-the rank of a patrician by a lex curiata, as was sometimes done
-during the kingly period, and in the early times of the republic.
-It frequently occurs in the history of Rome that one and the same
-gens contains plebeian as well as patrician families. In the gens
-Cornelia, for instance, we find the plebeian families of the Balbi,
-Mammulae, Merulae, &c., along with the patrician Scipiones, Sullae,
-Lentuli, &c. The occurrence of this phenomenon may be accounted for
-in different ways. It may have been, that one branch of a plebeian
-family was made patrician while the others remained plebeians. It may
-also have happened that two families had the same nomen gentilicium
-without being actual members of the same gens. Again, a patrician
-family might go over to the plebeians, and as such a family continued
-to bear the name of its patrician gens, this gens apparently
-contained a plebeian family. When a peregrinus obtained the civitas
-through the influence of a patrician, or when a slave was emancipated
-by his patrician master, they generally adopted the nomen gentilicium
-of their benefactor, and thus appear to belong to the same gens with
-him.
-
-
-PLĒBISCĪTUM, a name properly applied to a law passed at the comitia
-tributa on the rogation of a tribune. Originally, a plebiscitum
-required confirmation by the comitia curiata and the senate; but a
-Lex Hortensia was passed B.C. 286, to the effect that plebiscita
-should bind all the populus (_universus populus_), and this lex
-rendered confirmation unnecessary. The Lex Hortensia is always
-referred to as the lex which put plebiscita as to their binding force
-exactly on the same footing as leges. The principal plebiscita are
-mentioned under the article LEX.
-
-
-PLECTRUM. [LYRA.]
-
-
-PLETHRON (πλέθρον), the fundamental land measure in the Greek system,
-being the square of 100 feet, that is, 10,000 square feet. The later
-Greek writers use it as the translation of the Roman _jugerum_,
-probably because the latter was the standard land measure in the
-Roman system; but, in size, the _plethron_ answered more nearly to
-the Roman _actus_, or half-jugerum, which was the older unit of land
-measures. As frequently happened with the ancient land measures,
-the side of the _plethron_ was taken as a measure of length, with
-the same name. This _plethron_ was equal to 100 feet (or about
-101 English feet) = 66⅔ πήχεις = 10 ἄκαιναι or κάλαμοι. It was also
-introduced into the system of itinerary measures, being 1-6th of the
-_stadium_.
-
-
-PLŬTĔUS, was applied in military affairs to two different objects.
-(1) A kind of shed made of hurdles, and covered with raw hides, which
-could be moved forward by small wheels attached to it, and under
-which the besiegers of a town made their approaches. (2) Boards or
-planks placed on the vallum of a camp, on moveable towers or other
-military engines, as a kind of roof or covering for the protection of
-the soldiers.
-
-
-PLYNTĒRĬA (πλυντήρια, from πλύνειν, to wash), a festival celebrated
-at Athens every year, on the 25th of Thargelion, in honour of Athena,
-surnamed Aglauros, whose temple stood on the Acropolis. The day of
-this festival was at Athens among the ἀποφράδες or _dies nefasti_;
-for the temple of the goddess was surrounded by a rope to preclude
-all communication with it; her statue was stripped of its garments
-and ornaments for the purpose of cleaning them, and was in the
-meanwhile covered over, to conceal it from the sight of man. The
-city was therefore, so to speak, on this day without its protecting
-divinity, and any undertaking commenced on it was believed to be
-necessarily unsuccessful.
-
-
-PNYX. [ECCLESIA.]
-
-
-PŌCŬLUM, any kind of drinking-cup, to be distinguished from the
-_Crater_ or vessel in which the wine was mixed [CRATER], and from the
-_Cyathus_, a kind of ladle or small cup, used to convey the wine from
-the Crater to the Poculum or drinking-cup.
-
-
-PŎDĬUM. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]
-
-
-POENA (ποινή), a general name for any punishment of any offence.
-Multa is the penalty of a particular offence. A Poena was only
-inflicted when it was imposed by some lex or some other legal
-authority (_quo alio jure_). When no poena was imposed, then a multa
-or penalty might be inflicted.
-
-
-PŎLĔMARCHUS (πολέμαρχος). Respecting the polemarchus at Athens,
-see ARCHON. We read also of polemarchs at Sparta, and in various
-cities of Boeotia. As their name denotes, they were originally and
-properly connected with military affairs, being entrusted either
-with the command of armies abroad, or the superintendence of the war
-department at home; sometimes with both. The polemarchs of Sparta
-appear to have ranked next to the king, when on actual service
-abroad, and were generally of the royal kindred or house (γένος).
-They commanded single morae, so that they would appear to have been
-six in number, and sometimes whole armies. They also formed part of
-the king’s council in war, and of the royal escort called _damosia_.
-At Thebes there appear to have been two polemarchs, perhaps elected,
-annually; and in times of peace they seem to have been invested with
-the chief executive power of the state, and the command of the city,
-having its military force under their orders. They are not, however,
-to be confounded with the Boeotarchs.
-
-
-PŌLĒTAE (πωλῆται), a board of ten officers, or magistrates, whose
-duty it was to grant leases of the public lands and mines, and also
-to let the revenues arising from the customs, taxes, confiscations,
-and forfeitures. Of such letting the word πωλεῖν (not μισθοῦν) was
-generally used, and also the correlative words ὠνεῖσθαι and πρίασθαι.
-One was chosen from each tribe. In the letting of the revenue they
-were assisted by the managers of the theoric fund (τὸ θεωρικόν), and
-they acted under the authority of the senate of Five Hundred, who
-exercised a general control over the financial department of the
-administration. Resident aliens, who did not pay their residence
-tax (μετοίκιον), were summoned before them, and, if found to have
-committed default, were sold.
-
-
-POLLINCTŌRES. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-PŌMOĒRĬUM. This word is compounded of _post_ and _moerium_ (_murus_),
-in the same manner as _pomeridiem_ of _post_ and _meridiem_, and thus
-signifies a line running by the walls of a town (_pone_ or _post
-muros_). But the walls of a town here spoken of are not its actual
-walls or fortifications, but symbolical walls, and the course of the
-pomoerium itself was marked by stone pillars, erected at certain
-intervals. The sacred line of the Roman pomoerium did not prevent the
-inhabitants from building upon or taking into use any place beyond
-it, but it was necessary to leave a certain space on each side of it
-unoccupied, so as not to unhallow it by profane use. Thus we find
-that the Aventine, although inhabited from early times, was for many
-centuries not included within the pomoerium. The pomoerium was not
-the same at all times; as the city increased the pomoerium also was
-extended; but this extension could, according to ancient usage, only
-be made by such men as had by their victories over foreign nations
-increased the boundaries of the empire, and neither could a pomoerium
-be formed nor altered without the augurs previously consulting the
-will of the gods by augury: hence the _jus pomoerii_ of the augurs.
-
-
-POMPA (πομπή), a solemn procession, as on the occasion of a funeral,
-triumph, &c. It is, however, more particularly applied to the grand
-procession with which the games of the circus commenced (_Pompa
-Circensis_). [CIRCUS.]
-
-
-PONS (γέφυρα), a bridge. As the rivers of Greece were small, and
-the use of the arch known to them only to a limited extent, it is
-probable that the Greek bridges were built entirely of wood, or,
-at best, were nothing more than a wooden platform supported upon
-stone piers at each extremity. Pliny mentions a bridge over the
-Acheron 1000 feet in length; we also know that the island Euboea was
-joined to Boeotia by a bridge; but the only existing specimen of a
-Greek bridge is the one over a tributary of the Eurotas. The Romans
-regularly applied the arch to the construction of bridges, by which
-they were enabled to erect structures of great beauty and solidity,
-as well as utility. The width of the passage-way in a Roman bridge
-was commonly narrow, as compared with modern structures of the same
-kind, and corresponded with the road (_via_) leading to and from
-it. It was divided into three parts. The centre one, for horses
-and carriages, was denominated _agger_ or _iter_; and the raised
-footpaths on each side _decursoria_, which were enclosed by parapet
-walls similar in use and appearance to the _pluteus_ in the basilica.
-There were eight bridges across the Tiber. I. Of these the most
-celebrated, as well as the most ancient, was the PONS SUBLICIUS, so
-called because it was built of wood; _sublices_, in the language of
-the Formiani, meaning wooden beams. It was built by Ancus Martius,
-when he united the Janiculum to the city, and was situated at the
-foot of the Aventine.--II. PONS PALATINUS formed the communication
-between the Palatine and its vicinities and the Janiculum.--III. IV.
-_Pons Fabricius_ and PONS CESTIUS were the two which connected the
-Insula Tiberina with the opposite sides of the river; the first with
-the city, and the latter with the Janiculum.
-
-[Illustration: Pons Cestius, and Pons Fabricius, at Rome, with the
-buildings between restored.]
-
-Both are still remaining. They are represented in the preceding
-woodcut: that on the right hand is the pons Fabricius, and that on
-the left the pons Cestius.--V. PONS JANICULENSIS, which led direct to
-the Janiculum.--VI. PONS VATICANUS, so called because it formed the
-communication between the Campus Martius and Campus Vaticanus.--
-
-[Illustration: Pons Aelius at Rome.]
-
-VII. PONS AELIUS, built by Hadrian, which led from the city to
-the mausoleum of that emperor, now the bridge and castle of St.
-Angelo.--VIII. PONS MILVIUS, on the Via Flaminia, now Ponte Molle,
-was built by Aemilius Scaurus the censor.--The Roman bridges without
-the city were too many to be enumerated here.
-
-[Illustration: Bridge at Arimmum.]
-
-They formed one of the chief embellishments in all the public roads;
-and their frequent and stupendous remains, still existing in Italy,
-Portugal, and Spain, attest, even to the present day, the scale of
-grandeur with which the Roman works of national utility were always
-carried on.--When the comitia were held, the voters, in order to
-reach the enclosure called _septum_ and _ovile_, passed over a
-wooden platform, elevated above the ground, which was called _pons
-suffragiorum_, in order that they might be able to give their votes
-without confusion or collusion. [COMITIA.] _Pons_ is also used to
-signify the platform (ἐπιβάθρα, ἀποβάθρα), used for embarking in, or
-disembarking from, a ship.
-
-
-PONTĬFEX (ἱεροδιδάσκαλος, ἱερονόμος, ἱεροφύλαξ, ἱεροφάντης). The
-origin of this word is explained in various ways; but it is probably
-formed from _pons_ and _facere_ (in the signification of the Greek
-ῥέζειν, to perform a sacrifice), and consequently signifies the
-priests who offered sacrifices upon the bridge. The ancient sacrifice
-to which the name thus alludes, is that of the Argei on the sacred
-or sublician bridge. [ARGEI.] The Roman pontiffs formed the most
-illustrious among the great colleges of priests. Their institution,
-like that of all important matters of religion, was ascribed to
-Numa. The number of pontiffs appointed by this king was four, and at
-their head was the pontifex maximus, who is generally not included
-when the number of pontiffs is mentioned. It is probable that the
-original number of four pontiffs (not including the pontifex maximus)
-had reference to the two earliest tribes of the Romans, the Ramnes
-and Tities, so that each tribe was represented by two pontiffs. In
-the year B.C. 300 the Ogulnian law raised the number of pontiffs to
-eight, or, including the pontifex maximus, to nine, and four of them
-were to be plebeians. The pontifex maximus, however, continued to
-be a patrician down to the year B.C. 254, when Tib. Coruncanius was
-the first plebeian who was invested with this dignity. This number
-of pontiffs remained for a long time unaltered, until in B.C. 81 the
-dictator Sulla increased it to fifteen, and J. Caesar to sixteen. In
-both these changes the pontifex maximus is included in the number.
-During the empire the number varied, though on the whole fifteen
-appears to have been the regular number. The mode of appointing the
-pontiffs was also different at different times. It appears that after
-their institution by Numa, the college had the right of co-optation,
-that is, if a member of the college died (for all the pontiffs held
-their office for life), the members met and elected a successor, who,
-after his election, was inaugurated by the augurs. This election was
-sometimes called _captio_. In B.C. 104 a Lex Domitia was passed,
-which transferred the right of electing the members of the great
-colleges of priests to the people (probably in the comitia tributa);
-that is, the people elected a candidate, who was then made a member
-of the college by the co-optatio of the priests themselves, so that
-the co-optatio, although still necessary, became a mere matter of
-form. The Lex Domitia was repealed by Sulla in a Lex Cornelia de
-Sacerdotiis (B.C. 81), which restored to the great priestly colleges
-their full right of co-optatio. In B.C. 63 the law of Sulla was
-abolished, and the Domitian law was restored, but not in its full
-extent; for it was now determined, that in case of a vacancy the
-college itself should nominate two candidates, and the people elect
-one of them. M. Antonius again restored the right of co-optatio to
-the college. The college of pontiffs had the supreme superintendence
-of all matters of religion, and of things and persons connected with
-public as well as private worship. They had the judicial decision
-in all matters of religion, whether private persons, magistrates,
-or priests were concerned, and in cases where the existing laws or
-customs were found defective or insufficient, they made new laws and
-regulations (_decreta pontificum_), in which they always followed
-their own judgment as to what was consistent with the existing
-customs and usages. The details of these duties and functions were
-contained in books called _libri pontificii_ or _pontificales_,
-_commentarii sacrorum_ or _sacrorum pontificalium_, which they were
-said to have received from Numa, and which were sanctioned by Ancus
-Martius. As to the rights and duties of the pontiffs, it must first
-of all be borne in mind, that the pontiffs were not priests of any
-particular divinity, but a college which stood above all other
-priests, and superintended the whole external worship of the gods.
-One of their principal duties was the regulation of the sacra, both
-publica and privata, and to watch that they were observed at the
-proper times (for which purpose the pontiffs had the whole regulation
-of the calendar, see CALENDARIUM), and in their proper form. In the
-management of the sacra publica they were in later times assisted in
-certain duties by the Triumviri Epulones. [EPULONES.] The pontiffs
-convoked the assembly of the curies (_comitia calata_ or _curiata_)
-in cases where priests were to be appointed, and flamines or a
-rex sacrorum were to be inaugurated; also when wills were to be
-received, and when a detestatio sacrorum and adoption by adrogatio
-took place. [ADOPTIO.] In most cases the sentence of the pontiffs
-only inflicted a fine upon the offenders; but the person fined had
-the right of appealing to the people, who might release him from the
-fine. In regard to the vestal virgins, and the persons who committed
-incest with them, the pontiffs had criminal jurisdiction, and might
-pronounce sentence of death. A man who had violated a vestal virgin
-was, according to an ancient law, scourged to death by the pontifex
-maximus in the comitium, and it appears that originally neither the
-vestal virgins nor the male offenders in such a case had any right
-of appeal. In later times we find that, even when the pontiffs had
-passed sentence upon vestal virgins, a tribune interfered, and
-induced the people to appoint a quaestor for the purpose of making
-a fresh inquiry into the case; and it sometimes happened that after
-this new trial the sentence of the pontiffs was modified or annulled.
-Such cases, however, seem to have been mere irregularities, founded
-upon an abuse of the tribunitian power. In the early times the
-pontiffs were in the exclusive possession of the civil as well as
-religious law, until the former was made public by Cn. Flavius. The
-regulations which served as a guide to the pontiffs in their judicial
-proceedings, formed a large collection of laws, which was called
-the _jus pontificium_, and formed part of the Libri Pontificii. The
-meetings of the college of pontiffs, to which in some instances the
-famines and the rex sacrorum were summoned, were held in the curia
-regia on the Via Sacra, to which was attached the residence of the
-pontifex maximus and of the rex sacrorum. As the chief pontiff was
-obliged to live in a domus publica, Augustus, when he assumed this
-dignity, changed part of his own house into a domus publica. All
-the pontiffs were in their appearance distinguished by the conic
-cap, called tutulus or galerus, with an apex upon it, and the toga
-praetexta. The pontifex maximus was the president of the college, and
-acted in its name, whence he alone is frequently mentioned in cases
-in which he must be considered only as the organ of the college. He
-was generally chosen from among the most distinguished persons, and
-such as had held a curule magistracy, or were already members of
-the college. Two of his especial duties were to appoint (_capere_)
-the vestal virgins and the flamines [VESTALES; FLAMEN], and to be
-present at every marriage by confarreatio. When festive games were
-vowed, or a dedication made, the chief pontiff had to repeat over,
-before the persons who made the vow or the dedication, the formula
-in which it was to be performed (_praeire verba_). During the period
-of the republic, when the people exercised sovereign power in every
-respect, we find that if the pontiff, on constitutional or religious
-grounds, refused to perform this solemnity, he might be compelled by
-the people. The pontifex maximus wrote down what occurred in his year
-on tablets, which were hung up in his dwelling for the information of
-the people, and called _Annales Maximi_. A pontifex might, like all
-the members of the great priestly colleges, hold any other military,
-civil, or priestly office, provided the different offices did not
-interfere with one another. Thus we find one and the same person
-being pontiff, augur, and decemvir sacrorum; instances of a pontifex
-maximus being at the same time consul are very numerous. But whatever
-might be the civil or military office which a pontifex maximus held
-beside his pontificate, he was not allowed originally to leave Italy.
-The college of pontiffs continued to exist until the overthrow of
-paganism. The emperors themselves were always chief pontiffs, and
-as such the presidents of the college; hence the title of pontifex
-maximus (P. M. or PON. M.) appears on several coins of the emperors.
-If there were several emperors at a time, only one bore the title of
-pontifex maximus; but in the year A.D. 238 we find that each of the
-two emperors Maximus and Balbinus assumed this dignity. From the
-time of Theodosius the emperors no longer appear with the dignity of
-pontiff; but at last the title was assumed by the Christian bishop
-of Rome.--There were other pontiffs at Rome, who were distinguished
-by the epithet _Minores_. They appear to have been originally only
-the secretaries of the pontiffs; and when the real pontiffs began to
-neglect their duties, and to leave the principal business to be done
-by their secretaries, it became customary to designate these scribes
-by the name of Pontifices Minores. The number of these secretaries is
-uncertain.
-
-
-PŎPA. [SACRIFICIUM.]
-
-
-PŎPĪNA. [CAUPONA.]
-
-
-POPŬLĀRĬA. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]
-
-
-PŎPŬLUS. [PATRICII.]
-
-
-PŎPŬLĬFŬGĬA or POPLĬFŬGĬA, the day of the people’s flight, was
-celebrated on the nones of July, according to an ancient tradition,
-in commemoration of the flight of the people, when the inhabitants
-of Ficulae, Fidenae, and other places round about, appeared in arms
-against Rome shortly after the departure of the Gauls, and produced
-such a panic that the Romans suddenly fled before them. Other writers
-say that the Populifugia was celebrated in commemoration of the
-flight of the people before the Tuscans; while others again refer its
-origin to the flight of the people on the death of Romulus.
-
-
-PŎRISTAE (πορισταί), magistrates at Athens, who probably levied the
-extraordinary supplies.
-
-
-PORTA (πύλη, _dim._ πυλίς), the gate of a city, citadel, or other
-open space inclosed by a wall, in contradistinction to JANUA, which
-was the door of a house or any covered edifice. The terms _porta_ and
-πύλη are often found in the plural, even when applied to a single
-gate, because it consisted of two leaves. The gates of a city were of
-course various in their number and position. Thus Megara had 5 gates;
-Thebes, in Boeotia, had 7; Athens had 8; and Rome 20, or perhaps
-even more. The jambs of the gate were surmounted, 1. by a lintel,
-which was large and strong in proportion to the width of the gate.
-2. By an arch, as we see exemplified at Pompeii, Paestum, Sepianum,
-Volterra, Suza, Autun, Besançon, and Treves. 3. At Arpinum, one of
-the gates now remaining is arched, whilst another is constructed with
-the stones projecting one beyond another. Gates sometimes had two
-passages close together, the one designed for carriages entering, and
-the other for carriages leaving the city. In other instances we find
-only one gate for carriages, but a smaller one on each side of it
-(παραπυλίς) for foot-passengers. When there were no sideways, one of
-the valves of the large gate sometimes contained a wicket (_portula_,
-πυλίς: ῥινοπύλη), large enough to admit a single person. The gateway
-had commonly a chamber (called πυλών) either on one side or on both,
-which served as the residence of the porter or guard. Statues of
-the gods were often placed near the gate, or even within it in the
-barbican, so as to be ready to receive the adoration of those who
-entered the city.
-
-
-PORTĬCUS (στοά), a walk covered with a roof, and supported by
-columns, at least on one side. Such shaded walks and places of
-resort are almost indispensable in the southern countries of
-Europe, where people live much in the open air, as a protection
-from the heat of the sun and from rain. The porticoes attached to
-the temples were either constructed only in front of them, or went
-round the whole building, as is the case in the so-called Temple
-of Theseus at Athens. They were originally intended as places for
-those persons to assemble and converse in who visited the temple
-for various purposes. As such temple-porticoes, however, were
-found too small, or not suited for the various purposes of private
-and public life, most Grecian towns had independent porticoes,
-some of which were very extensive; and in most of these _stoae_,
-seats (_exedrae_) were placed, that those who were tired might sit
-down. They were frequented not only by idle loungers, but also by
-philosophers, rhetoricians, and other persons fond of intellectual
-conversation. The Stoic school of philosophy derived its name from
-the circumstance, that the founder of it used to converse with his
-disciples in a stoa. The Romans derived their great fondness for
-such covered walks from the Greeks; and as luxuries among them were
-carried in everything to a greater extent than in Greece, wealthy
-Romans had their private porticoes, sometimes in the city itself,
-and sometimes in their country-seats. In the public porticoes of
-Rome, which were exceedingly numerous and very extensive (as those
-around the Forum and the Campus Martius), a variety of business was
-occasionally transacted: we find that law-suits were conducted here,
-meetings of the senate held, goods exhibited for sale, &c.
-
-
-PORTISCŬLUS (κελευστής), an officer in a ship, who gave the signal
-to the rowers, that they might keep time in rowing. This officer is
-sometimes called _Hortator_ or _Pausarius_.
-
-
-PORTĬTŌRES. [PUBLICANI.]
-
-
-PORTŌRĬUM, a branch of the regular revenues of the Roman state,
-consisting of the duties paid on imported and exported goods. A
-portorium, or duty upon imported goods, appears to have been paid at
-a very early period, for it is said that Valerius Publicola exempted
-the plebes from the portoria at the time when the republic was
-threatened with an invasion by Porsena. The time of its introduction
-is uncertain; but the abolition of it, ascribed to Publicola, can
-only have been a temporary measure; and as the expenditure of the
-republic increased, new portoria must have been introduced. In
-conquered places, and in the provinces, the import and export duties,
-which had been paid there before, were generally not only retained,
-but increased, and appropriated to the aerarium. Sicily, and above
-all, Asia, furnished to the Roman treasury large sums, which were
-raised as portoria. In B.C. 60 all the portoria in the ports of Italy
-were done away with by a Lex Caecilia, but were restored by Julius
-Caesar and the subsequent emperors. Respecting the amount of the
-import or export duties we have but little information. In the time
-of Cicero the portorium in the ports of Sicily was one-twentieth
-(_vicesima_) of the value of taxable articles; and it is probable
-that this was the average sum raised in all the other provinces.
-In the times of the emperors the ordinary rate of the portorium
-appears to have been the fortieth part (_quadragesima_) of the value
-of imported goods; and at a later period the exorbitant sum of
-one-eighth (_octava_) is mentioned. The portorium was, like all other
-vectigalia, farmed out by the censors to the publicani, who collected
-it through the _portitores_. [VECTIGALIA; PUBLICANI.]
-
-
-POSSESSĬO. [AGER PUBLICUS.]
-
-
-POSTĪCUM. [JANUA.]
-
-
-POSTLĪMĬNĬUM, POSTLĪMĬNII JUS. If a Roman citizen during war came
-into the possession of an enemy, he sustained a _diminutio capitis
-maxima_ [CAPUT], and all his civil rights were in abeyance. Being
-captured by the enemy, he became a slave; but his rights over his
-children, if he had any, were not destroyed, but were said to be in
-abeyance (_pendere_) by virtue of the _Jus Postliminii_: when he
-returned, his children were again in his power; and if he died in
-captivity, they became sui juris. Sometimes by an act of the state
-a man was given up bound to an enemy, and if the enemy would not
-receive him, it was a question whether he had the Jus Postliminii.
-This was the case with Sp. Postumius, who was given up to the
-Samnites, and with C. Hostilius Mancinus, who was given up to the
-Numantines; but the better opinion was, that they had no _Jus
-Postliminii_, and Mancinus was restored to his civic rights by a lex.
-It appears that the Jus Postliminii was founded on the fiction of the
-captive having never been absent from home; a fiction which was of
-easy application, for, as the captive during his absence could not
-do any legal act, the interval of captivity was a period of legal
-non-activity, which was terminated by his showing himself again.
-
-
-PŎTESTAS. [PATRIA POTESTAS.]
-
-
-PRACTŎRES (πράκτορες), subordinate officers at Athens, who collected
-the fines and penalties (ἐπιβολάς and τιμήματα) imposed by
-magistrates and courts of justice, and payable to the state.
-
-
-PRAECINCTĬO. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]
-
-
-PRAECŌNES, criers, were employed for various purposes: 1. In
-sales by auction, they frequently advertised the time, place, and
-conditions of sale: they seem also to have acted the part of the
-modern auctioneer, so far as calling out the biddings and amusing
-the company, though the property was knocked down by the _magister
-auctionis_. [AUCTIO.] 2. In all public assemblies they ordered
-silence. 3. In the comitia they called the centuries one by one to
-give their votes, pronounced the vote of each century, and called
-out the names of those who were elected. They also recited the laws
-that were to be passed. 4. In trials, they summoned the accuser and
-the accused, the plaintiff and defendant. 5. In the public games,
-they invited the people to attend, and proclaimed the victors. 6.
-In solemn funerals they also invited people to attend by a certain
-form; hence these funerals were called _funera indictiva_. 7. When
-things were lost, they cried them and searched for them. 8. In
-the infliction of capital punishment, they sometimes conveyed the
-commands of the magistrates to the lictors. Their office, called
-_Praeconium_, appears to have been regarded as rather disreputable:
-in the time of Cicero a law was passed preventing all persons who
-had been praecones from becoming decuriones in the municipia. Under
-the early emperors, however, it became very profitable, which was no
-doubt partly owing to fees, to which they were entitled in the courts
-of justice, and partly to the bribes which they received from the
-suitors, &c.
-
-
-PRAEDA signifies moveable things taken by an enemy in war. Such
-things were either distributed by the Imperator among the soldiers or
-sold by the quaestors, and the produce was brought into the Aerarium.
-The difference between Praeda and Manubiae is this:--Praeda is the
-things themselves that are taken in war, and Manubiae is the money
-realized by their sale. It was the practice to set up a spear at
-such sales, which was afterwards used at all sales of things by a
-magistrates in the name of the people. [SECTIO.]
-
-
-PRAEFECTŪRA. [COLONIA.]
-
-
-PRAEFECTUS AERĀRĬI. [AERARIUM.]
-
-
-PRAEFECTUS ANNŌNAE, the praefect of the provisions, especially of the
-corn-market, was not a regular magistrate under the republic, but
-was only appointed in cases of extraordinary scarcity, when he seems
-to have regulated the prices at which corn was to be sold. Augustus
-created an officer under the title of _Praefectus Annonae_, who had
-jurisdiction over all matters appertaining to the corn-market, and,
-like the _Praefectus Vigilum_, was chosen from the equites, and was
-not reckoned among the ordinary magistrates.
-
-
-PRAEFECTUS ĂQUĀRUM. [AQUAE DUCTUS.]
-
-
-PRAEFECTUS CASTRŌRUM, praefect of the camp, is first mentioned in the
-reign of Augustus. There was one to each legion.
-
-
-PRAEFECTUS CLASSIS, the commander of a fleet. This title was
-frequently given in the times of the republic to the commander of a
-fleet; but Augustus appointed two permanent officers with this title,
-one of whom was stationed at Ravenna on the Adriatic, and the other
-at Misenum on the Tuscan sea, each having the command of a fleet.
-
-
-PRAEFECTUS FABRUM. [FABRI.]
-
-
-PRAEFECTUS JŪRI DĪCUNDO. [COLONIA.]
-
-
-PRAEFECTUS LĔGĬŌNIS. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-PRAEFECTUS PRAETŌRĬO, was the commander of the troops who guarded
-the emperor’s person. [PRAETORIANI.] This office was instituted by
-Augustus, and was at first only military, and had comparatively
-small power attached to it; but under Tiberius, who made Sejanus
-commander of the praetorian troops, it became of much greater
-importance, till at length the power of these praefects became only
-second to that of the emperors. From the reign of Severus to that
-of Diocletian, the praefects, like the vizirs of the east, had the
-superintendence of all departments of the state, the palace, the
-army, the finances, and the law: they also had a court in which
-they decided cases. The office of praefect of the praetorium was
-not confined to military officers; it was filled by Ulpian and
-Papinian, and other distinguished jurists. Originally there were two
-praefects; afterwards sometimes one and sometimes two; from the time
-of Commodus sometimes three, and even four. They were, as a regular
-rule, chosen only from the equites; but from the time of Alexander
-Severus the dignity of senator was always joined with their office.
-
-
-PRAEFECTUS VĬGĬLUM. [EXERCITUS, p. 171, _a_.]
-
-
-PRAEFECTUS URBI, praefect or warden of the city, was originally
-called _Custos Urbis_. The name _praefectus urbi_ does not seem to
-have been used till after the time of the decemvirs. The dignity of
-_custos urbis_, being combined with that of _princeps senatus_, was
-conferred by the king, as he had to appoint one of the decem primi as
-princeps senatus. The functions of the _custos urbis_, however, were
-not exercised except in the absence of the king from Rome; and then
-he acted as the representative of the king: he convoked the senate,
-held the comitia, if necessary, and on any emergency, might take
-such measures as he thought proper; in short, he had the imperium in
-the city. During the kingly period, the office of _custos urbis_ was
-probably for life. Under the republic, the office, and its name of
-_custos urbis_, remained unaltered; but in B.C. 487 it was elevated
-into a magistracy, to be bestowed by election. The _custos urbis_
-was, in all probability, elected by the curiae. Persons of consular
-rank were alone eligible. In the early period of the republic the
-_custos urbis_ exercised within the city all the powers of the
-consuls, if they were absent: he convoked the senate, held the
-comitia, and, in times of war, even levied civic legions, which were
-commanded by him. When the office of praetor urbanus was instituted,
-the wardenship of the city was swallowed up in it; but as the Romans
-were at all times averse to dropping altogether any of their old
-institutions, a praefectus urbi, though a mere shadow of the former
-office, was henceforth appointed every year, only for the time that
-the consuls were absent from Rome for the purpose of celebrating the
-Feriae Latinae. This praefectus had neither the power of convoking
-the senate nor the right of speaking in it; in most cases he was a
-person below the senatorial age, and was not appointed by the people,
-but by the consuls. An office very different from this, though
-bearing the same name, was instituted by Augustus on the suggestion
-of Maecenas. This new praefectus urbi was a regular and permanent
-magistrate, whom Augustus invested with all the powers necessary to
-maintain peace and order in the city. He had the superintendence of
-butchers, bankers, guardians, theatres, &c.; and to enable him to
-exercise his power, he had distributed throughout the city a number
-of milites stationarii, whom we may compare to a modern police. His
-jurisdiction, however, became gradually extended; and as the powers
-of the ancient republican praefectus urbi had been swallowed up by
-the office of the praetor urbanus, so now the power of the praetor
-urbanus was gradually absorbed by that of the praefectus urbi; and at
-last there was no appeal from his sentence, except to the person of
-the princeps himself, while any body might appeal from the sentence
-of any other city magistrate, and, at a later period, even from that
-of a governor of a province, to the tribunal of the praefectus urbi.
-
-
-PRAEFĬCAE. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-PRAEJŪDĬCĬUM is used both in the sense of a precedent, in which case
-it is rather _exemplum_ than _praejudicium_ (_res ex paribus causis
-judicatae_); and also in the sense of a preliminary inquiry and
-determination about something which belongs to the matter in dispute
-(_judiciis ad ipsam causam pertinentibus_), from whence also comes
-the name Praejudicium.
-
-
-PRAELŪSĬO. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-
-PRAENŌMEN. [NOMEN.]
-
-
-PRAERŎGĀTĪVA TRIBUS. [COMITIA, p. 109.]
-
-
-PRAES, is a surety for one who buys of the state. The goods of a
-Praes were called _Praedia_. The _Praediator_ was a person who bought
-a _praedium_, that is, a thing given to the state as a security by a
-praes.
-
-
-PRAESCRIPTĬO, or rather TEMPŎRIS PRAESCRIPTĬO, signifies the Exceptio
-or answer which a defendant has to the demand of a plaintiff, founded
-on the circumstance of the lapse of time. The word has properly no
-reference to the plaintiff’s loss of right, but to the defendant’s
-acquisition of a right by which he excludes the plaintiff from
-prosecuting his suit. This right of a defendant did not exist in the
-old Roman law.
-
-
-PRAESES. [PROVINCIA.]
-
-
-PRAESUL. [SALII.]
-
-
-PRAETEXTA. [TOGA.]
-
-
-PRAETOR (στρατηγός), was originally a title which designated the
-consuls as the leaders of the armies of the state. The period
-and office of the command of the consuls might appropriately be
-called _Praetorium_. Praetor was also a title of office among the
-Latins. The first praetor specially so called was appointed in B.C.
-366, and he was chosen only from the patricians, who had this new
-office created as a kind of indemnification to themselves for being
-compelled to share the consulship with the plebeians. No plebeian
-praetor was appointed till the year B.C. 337. The praetor was called
-_collega consulibus_, and was elected with the same auspices at the
-comitia centuriata. The praetorship was originally a kind of third
-consulship, and the chief functions of the praetor (_jus in urbe
-dicere_, _jura reddere_) were a portion of the functions of the
-consuls. The praetor sometimes commanded the armies of the state; and
-while the consuls were absent with the armies, he exercised their
-functions within the city. He was a magistratus curulis, and he had
-the imperium, and consequently was one of the magistratus majores:
-but he owed respect and obedience to the consuls. His insignia of
-office were six lictors; but at a later period he had only two
-lictors in Rome. The praetorship was at first given to a consul of
-the preceding year.--In B.C. 246 another praetor was appointed, whose
-business was to administer justice in matters in dispute between
-peregrini, or peregrini and Roman citizens; and accordingly he was
-called _praetor peregrinus_. The other praetor was then called
-_praetor urbanus, qui jus inter cives dicit_, and sometimes simply
-_praetor urbanus_ and _praetor urbis_. The two praetors determined by
-lot which functions they should respectively exercise. If either of
-them was at the head of the army, the other performed all the duties
-of both within the city. Sometimes the military imperium of a praetor
-was prolonged for a second year. When the territories of the state
-were extended beyond the limits of Italy, new praetors were made.
-Thus, two praetors were created B.C. 227, for the administration of
-Sicily and Sardinia, and two more were added when the two Spanish
-provinces were formed, B.C. 197. When there were six praetors, two
-stayed in the city, and the other four went abroad. The senate
-determined their provinces, which were distributed among them by
-lot. After the discharge of his judicial functions in the city, a
-praetor often had the administration of a province, with the title
-of _propraetor_. Sulla increased the number of praetors to eight,
-which Julius Caesar raised successively to ten, twelve, fourteen,
-and sixteen. Augustus, after several changes, fixed the number
-at twelve. Under Tiberius there were sixteen. Two praetors were
-appointed by Claudius for matters relating to fideicommissa, when
-the business in this department of the law had become considerable,
-but Titus reduced the number to one; and Nerva added a praetor for
-the decision of matters between the fiscus and individuals. Thus
-there were eventually eighteen praetors, who administered justice
-in the state.--The praetor urbanus was specially named praetor, and
-he was the first in rank. His duties confined him to Rome, as is
-implied by the name, and he could only leave the city for ten days at
-a time. It was part of his duty to superintend the Ludi Apollinares.
-He was also the chief magistrate for the administration of justice;
-and to the edicta of the successive praetors the Roman law owes in
-a great degree its development and improvement. Both the praetor
-urbanus and the praetor peregrinus had the jus edicendi, and their
-functions in this respect do not appear to have been limited on
-the establishment of the imperial power, though it must have been
-gradually restricted, as the practice of imperial constitutions and
-rescripts became common. [EDICTUM.] The chief judicial functions of
-the praetor in civil matters consisted in giving a judex. [JUDEX.] It
-was only in the case of interdicts that he decided in a summary way.
-[INTERDICTUM.] Proceedings before the praetor were technically said
-to be _in jure_. The praetors also presided at trials of criminal
-matters. These were the quaestiones perpetuae, or the trials for
-repetundae, ambitus, majestas, and peculatus, which, when there were
-six praetors, were assigned to four out of the number. Sulla added
-to these quaestiones those of falsum, de sicariis et veneficis, and
-de parricidis, and for this purpose he added two, or, according
-to some accounts, four praetors. On these occasions the praetor
-presided, but a body of judices determined by a majority of votes the
-condemnation or acquittal of the accused. [JUDEX.] The praetor, when
-he administered justice, sat on a sella curulis in a tribunal, which
-was that part of the court which was appropriated to the praetor and
-his assessors and friends, and is opposed to the subsellia, or part
-occupied by the judices, and others who were present.
-
-
-PRAETŌRĬA CŎHORS. [PRAETORIANI.]
-
-
-PRAETŌRĬĀNI, sc. _milites_, or _praetoriae cohortes_, a body of
-troops instituted by Augustus to protect his person and his power,
-and called by that name in imitation of the _praetoria cohors_, or
-select troops which attended the person of the praetor or general of
-the Roman army. They originally consisted of nine or ten cohorts,
-each comprising a thousand men, horse and foot. Augustus, in
-accordance with his general policy of avoiding the appearance of
-despotism, stationed only three of these cohorts in the capital, and
-dispersed the remainder in the adjacent towns of Italy. Tiberius,
-however, under pretence of introducing a stricter discipline among
-them, assembled them all at Rome in a permanent camp, which was
-strongly fortified. Their number was increased by Vitellius to
-sixteen cohorts, or 16,000 men. The praetorians were distinguished
-by double pay and especial privileges. Their term of service was
-originally fixed by Augustus at twelve years, but was afterwards
-increased to sixteen years; and when they had served their time, each
-soldier received 20,000 sesterces. They soon became the most powerful
-body in the state, and, like the janissaries at Constantinople,
-frequently deposed and elevated emperors according to their pleasure.
-Even the most powerful of the emperors were obliged to court their
-favour; and they always obtained a liberal donation upon the
-accession of each sovereign. After the death of Pertinax (A.D. 193)
-they even offered the empire for sale, which was purchased by Didius
-Julianus; but upon the accession of Severus in the same year they
-were disbanded, on account of the part they had taken in the death
-of Pertinax, and banished from the city. The emperors, however,
-could not dispense with guards, and accordingly the praetorians were
-restored on a new model by Severus, and increased to four times their
-ancient number. Diocletian reduced their numbers and abolished their
-privileges; they were still allowed to remain at Rome, but had no
-longer the guard of the emperor’s person, as he never resided in the
-capital. Their numbers were again increased by Maxentius; but after
-his defeat by Constantine, A.D. 312, they were entirely suppressed
-by the latter, their fortified camp destroyed, and those who had
-not perished in the battle between Constantine and Maxentius were
-dispersed among the legions. The commander of the praetorians was
-called PRAEFECTUS PRAETORIO.
-
-
-PRAETŌRĬUM, the name of the general’s tent in the camp, and so
-called because the name of the chief Roman magistrate was originally
-praetor, and not consul. [CASTRA.] The officers who attended on the
-general in the _praetorium_, and formed his council of war, were
-called by the same name. The word was also used in several other
-significations, which were derived from the original one. Thus the
-residence of a governor of a province was called the _praetorium_;
-and the same name was also given to any large house or palace. The
-camp of the praetorian troops at Rome, and frequently the praetorian
-troops themselves, were called by this name. [PRAETORIANI.]
-
-
-PRANDĬUM. [COENA, p. 96, _b_.]
-
-
-PRĒLUM. [VINUM.]
-
-
-PRĪMĬPĪLUS. [CENTURIO.]
-
-
-PRINCEPS JŬVENTŪTIS. [EQUITES.]
-
-
-PRINCEPS SĔNĀTUS. [SENATUS.]
-
-
-PRINCĬPES. [EXERCITUS, p. 168, _b_.]
-
-
-PRINCĬPĬA, PRINCĬPĀLIS VIA. [CASTRA.]
-
-
-PRĪVĬLĒGĬUM. [LEX.]
-
-
-PRŎBŎLĒ (προβολή), an accusation of a criminal nature, preferred
-before the people of Athens in assembly, with a view to obtain their
-sanction for bringing the charge before a judicial tribunal. The
-_probolé_ was reserved for those cases where the public had sustained
-an injury, or where, from the station, power, or influence of the
-delinquent, the prosecutor might deem it hazardous to proceed in the
-ordinary way without being authorised by a vote of the sovereign
-assembly. In this point it differed from the _eisangelia_, that in
-the latter the people were called upon either to pronounce final
-judgment, or to direct some peculiar method of trial; whereas, in the
-_probolé_ after the judgment of the assembly, the parties proceeded
-to trial in the usual manner. The cases to which the _probolé_ was
-applied were, complaints against magistrates for official misconduct
-of oppression; against those public informers and mischief-makers who
-were called _sycophantae_ (συκοφάνται); against those who outraged
-public decency at the religious festivals; and against all such as by
-evil practices exhibited disaffection to the state.
-
-
-PRŎBOULEUMA. [BOULE.]
-
-
-PRŎBOULI (πρόβουλοι), a name applicable to any persons who are
-appointed to consult or take measures for the benefit of the
-people. Ten _probouli_ were appointed at Athens, after the end of
-the Sicilian war, to act as a committee of public safety. Their
-authority did not last much longer than a year; for a year and a half
-afterwards Pisander and his colleagues established the council of
-Four Hundred, by which the democracy was overthrown.
-
-
-PRŌCONSUL (ἀνθύπατος), an officer who acted in the place of a
-consul, without holding the office of consul itself. The proconsul,
-however, was generally one who had held the office of consul, so
-that the proconsulship was a continuation, though a modified one,
-of the consulship. The first time when the imperium of a consul
-was prolonged, was in B.C. 327, in the case of Q. Publilius Philo,
-whose return to Rome would have been followed by the loss of most of
-the advantages that had been gained in his campaign. The power of
-proconsul was conferred by a senatusconsultum and plebiscitum, and
-was nearly equal to that of a regular consul, for he had the imperium
-and jurisdictio, but it differed inasmuch as it did not extend over
-the city and its immediate vicinity, and was conferred, without the
-auspicia, by a mere decree of the senate and people, and not in the
-comitia for elections. When the number of Roman provinces had become
-great, it was customary for the consuls, who during the latter
-period of the republic spent the year of their consulship at Rome,
-to undertake at its close the conduct of a war in a province, or its
-peaceful administration, with the title of proconsuls. There are some
-extraordinary cases on record in which a man obtained a province with
-the title of proconsul without having held the consulship before. The
-first case of this kind occurred in B.C. 211, when young P. Cornelius
-Scipio was created proconsul of Spain in the comitia centuriata.
-
-
-PRŌCŪRĀTOR, a person who has the management of any business committed
-to him by another. Thus it is applied to a person who maintains
-or defends an action on behalf of another, or, as we should say,
-an attorney [ACTIO]: to a steward in a family [CALCULATOR]: to an
-officer in the provinces belonging to the Caesar, who attended to the
-duties discharged by the quaestor in the other provinces [PROVINCIA]:
-to an officer engaged in the administration of the fiscus [FISCUS]:
-and to various other officers under the empire.
-
-
-PRŌDĬGĬUM, in its widest acceptation, denotes any sign by which the
-gods indicated to men a future event, whether good or evil, and thus
-includes omens and auguries of every description. It is, however,
-generally employed in a more restricted sense, to signify some
-strange incident or wonderful appearance which was supposed to herald
-the approach of misfortune, and happened under such circumstances as
-to announce that the calamity was impending over a whole community
-or nation rather than over private individuals. The word may be
-considered synonymous with _ostentum_, _monstrum_, _portentum_.
-Since prodigies were viewed as direct manifestations of the wrath of
-heaven, it was believed that this wrath might be appeased by prayers
-and sacrifices duly offered to the offended powers. This being a
-matter which deeply concerned the public welfare, the necessary rites
-were in ancient times regularly performed, under the direction of the
-pontifices, by the consuls before they left the city, the solemnities
-being called _procuratio prodigiorum_.
-
-
-PRODŎSĬA (προδοσία) included not only every species of treason,
-but also every such crime as (in the opinion of the Greeks) would
-amount to a betraying or desertion of the interest of a man’s
-country. The highest sort of treason was the attempt to establish a
-despotism (τυραννίς), or to subvert the constitution (καταλύειν τὴν
-πολιτείαν), and in democracies καταλύειν τὸν δῆμον or τὸ πλῆθος.
-Other kinds of treason were a secret correspondence with a foreign
-enemy; a betraying of an important trust, such, as a fleet, army,
-or fortress, a desertion of post, a disobedience of orders, or any
-other act of treachery, or breach of duty in the public service. But
-not only would _overt acts_ of disobedience or treachery amount to
-the crime of προδοσία, but also the neglect to perform those active
-duties which the Greeks in general expected of every good citizen.
-Cowardice in battle (δειλία) would be an instance of this kind; so
-would any breach of the oath taken by the ἔφηβοι at Athens; or any
-line of conduct for which a charge of disaffection to the people
-(μισοδημία) might be successfully maintained. The regular punishment
-appointed by the law for most kinds of treason appears to have been
-death, which, no doubt, might be mitigated by decree of the people,
-as in the case of Miltiades and many others. The goods of traitors,
-who suffered death, were confiscated, and their houses razed to the
-ground; nor were they permitted to be buried in the country, but had
-their bodies cast out in some place on the confines of Attica and
-Megara. Therefore it was that the bones of Themistocles, who had been
-condemned for treason, were brought over and buried secretly by his
-friends. The posterity of a traitor became ἄτιμοι, and those of a
-tyrant were liable to share the fate of their ancestor.
-
-
-PRŎĔDRI. [BOULE.]
-
-
-PRŌFESTI DĬES. [DIES.]
-
-
-PRŌLĒTĀRĬI. [CAPUT.]
-
-
-PRŎMĒTHEIA (προμήθεια), a festival celebrated at Athens in honour
-of Prometheus. It was one of the five Attic festivals, which were
-held with a torch-race in the Ceramicus [comp. LAMPADEPHORIA], for
-which the gymnasiarchs had to supply the youths from the gymnasia.
-Prometheus himself was believed to have instituted this torch-race,
-whence he was called the torch-bearer.
-
-
-PRŌMULSIS. [COENA, p. 96, _b_.]
-
-
-PRŌNŬBAE, PRŌNŬBI. [MATRIMONIUM.]
-
-
-PROPRAETOR. [PRAETOR.]
-
-
-PRŎPỸLAEA (προπύλαια), the entrance to a temple, or sacred enclosure,
-consisted of a gateway flanked by buildings, whence the plural
-form of the word. The Egyptian temples generally had magnificent
-_propylaea_, consisting of a pair of oblong truncated pyramids of
-solid masonry, the faces of which were sculptured with hieroglyphics.
-In Greek, except when the Egyptian temples are spoken of, the word is
-generally used to signify the entrance to the Acropolis of Athens,
-which was executed under the administration of Pericles.
-
-
-PRŌQUAESTOR. [QUAESTOR.]
-
-
-PRŌRA. [NAVIS, p. 263.]
-
-
-PRŌSCĒNĬUM. [THEATRUM.]
-
-
-PRŌSCRIPTĬO. The verb _proscribere_ properly signifies to exhibit a
-thing for sale by means of a bill or advertisement. But in the time
-of Sulla it assumed a very different meaning, for he applied it to
-a measure of his own invention (B.C. 82), namely, the sale of the
-property of those who were put to death at his command, and who were
-themselves called _proscripti_. After this example of a proscription
-had once been set, it was readily adopted by those in power during
-the civil commotions of subsequent years. In the proscription of
-Antonius, Caesar, and Lepidus (B.C. 43), Cicero and some of the most
-distinguished Romans were put to death.
-
-
-PRŎSTĂTĒS (προστάτης). [LIBERTUS.]
-
-
-PRŎSTĂTĒS TOU DĒMOU (προστάτης τοῦ δήμου), a leader of the people,
-denoted at Athens and in other democratical states, a person who
-by his character and eloquence placed himself at the head of the
-people, and whose opinion had the greatest sway amongst them: such
-was Pericles. It appears, however, that προστάτης τοῦ δήμου was also
-the title of a public officer in those Dorian states in which the
-government was democratical.
-
-
-PRŎTHESMĬA (προθεσμία), the term limited for bringing actions and
-prosecutions at Athens. The Athenian expression προθεσμίας νόμος
-corresponds to our _statute of limitations_. The time for commencing
-actions to recover debts, or compensation for injuries, appears to
-have been limited to five years at Athens.
-
-
-PRŌVINCĬA. This word is merely a shortened form of _providentia_, and
-was frequently used in the sense of “a duty” or “matter entrusted
-to a person.” But it is ordinarily employed to denote a part of
-the Roman dominion beyond Italy, which had a regular organisation,
-and was under Roman administration. Livy likewise uses the word
-to denote a district or enemy’s country, which was assigned to a
-general as the field of his operations, before the establishment
-of any provincial governments.--The Roman state in its complete
-development consisted of two parts with a distinct organisation,
-_Italia_ and the _Provinciae_. There were no Provinciae in this
-sense of the word till the Romans had extended their conquests
-beyond Italy; and Sicily was the first country that was made a Roman
-province: Sardinia was made a province B.C. 235. The Roman province
-of Gallia Ulterior in the time of Caesar was sometimes designated
-simply by the term Provincia, a name which has been perpetuated in
-the modern Provence. A conquered country received its provincial
-organisation either from the Roman commander, whose acts required
-the approval of the senate; or the government was organised by the
-commander and a body of commissioners appointed by the senate out
-of their own number. The mode of dealing with a conquered country
-was not uniform. When constituted a provincia, it did not become to
-all purposes an integral part of the Roman state; it retained its
-national existence, though it lost its sovereignty. The organisation
-of Sicily was completed by P. Rupilius with the aid of ten legates.
-The island was formed into two districts, with Syracuse for the
-chief town of the eastern and Lilybaeum of the western district:
-the whole island was administered by a governor annually sent from
-Rome. He was assisted by two quaestors, and was accompanied by a
-train of praecones, scribae, haruspices, and other persons, who
-formed his cohors. The quaestors received from the Roman aerarium
-the necessary sums for the administration of the island, and they
-also collected the taxes, except those which were farmed by the
-censors at Rome. One quaestor resided at Lilybaeum, and the other
-with the governor or praetor at Syracuse. For the administration of
-justice the island was divided into _Fora_ or _Conventus_, which
-were territorial divisions. [CONVENTUS.] The island was bound to
-furnish and maintain soldiers and sailors for the service of Rome,
-and to pay tributum for the carrying on of wars. The governor could
-take provisions for the use of himself and his cohors on condition
-of paying for them. The Roman state had also the portoria which were
-let to farm to Romans at Rome. The governor had complete jurisdictio
-in the island, with the imperium and potestas. He could delegate
-these powers to his quaestors, but there was always an appeal to
-him, and for this and other purposes he made circuits through the
-different conventus.--Such was the organisation of Sicilia as a
-province, which may be taken as a sample of the general character
-of Roman provincial government. The governor, upon entering on his
-duties, published an edict, which was often framed upon the Edictum
-Urbanum. Cicero, when proconsul of Cilicia, says that on some matters
-he framed an edict of his own, and that as to others he referred to
-the Edicta Urbana. There was one great distinction between Italy
-and the provinces as to the nature of property in land. Provincial
-land could not be an object of Quiritarian ownership, and it was
-accordingly appropriately called Possessio. Provincial land could be
-transferred without the forms required in the case of Italian land,
-but it was subject to the payment of a land-tax (_vectigal_).--The
-Roman provinces up to the battle of Actium are: Sicilia, Sardinia
-et Corsica; Hispania Citerior et Ulterior; Gallia Citerior; Gallia
-Narbonensis et Comata; Illyricum; Macedonia; Achaia; Asia; Cilicia;
-Syria; Bithynia et Pontus; Cyprus; Africa; Cyrenaica et Creta;
-Numidia; Mauritania. Those of a subsequent date, which were either
-new or arose from division, are: Rhaetia; Noricum; Pannonia; Moesia;
-Dacia; Britannia; Mauritania Caesariensis and Tingitana; Aegyptus;
-Cappadocia; Galatia; Rhodus; Lycia; Commagene; Judaea; Arabia;
-Mesopotamia; Armenia; Assyria.--At first praetors were appointed
-as governors of provinces, but afterwards they were appointed to
-the government of provinces, upon the expiration of their year of
-office at Rome, and with the title of propraetores. In the later
-times of the republic, the consuls also, after the expiration of
-their year of office, received the government of a province, with
-the title of proconsules: such provinces were called consulares. The
-provinces were generally distributed by lot, but the distribution
-was sometimes arranged by agreement among the persons entitled to
-them. By a Sempronian Lex the proconsular provinces were annually
-determined before the election of the consuls, the object of which
-was to prevent all disputes. A senatus consultum of the year 55 B.C.
-provided that no consul or praetor should have a province till after
-the expiration of five years from the time of his consulship or
-praetorship. A province was generally held for a year, but the time
-was often prolonged. When a new governor arrived in his province, his
-predecessor was required to leave it within thirty days. The governor
-of a province had originally to account at Rome (_ad urbem_) for his
-administration, from his own books and those of his quaestors; but
-after the passing of a Lex Julia, B.C. 61, he was bound to deposit
-two copies of his accounts (_rationes_) in the two chief cities of
-his province, and to forward one (_totidem verbis_) to the aerarium.
-If the governor misconducted himself in the administration of the
-province, the provincials applied to the Roman senate, and to the
-powerful Romans who were their patroni. The offences of repetundae
-and peculatus were the usual grounds of complaint by the provincials;
-and if a governor had betrayed the interests of the state, he was
-also liable to the penalties attached to majestas. Quaestiones were
-established for inquiries into these offences; yet it was not always
-an easy matter to bring a guilty governor to the punishment that
-he deserved.--With the establishment of the imperial power under
-Augustus, a considerable change was made in the administration of
-the provinces. Augustus took the charge of those provinces where a
-large military force was required; the rest were left to the care of
-the senate and the Roman people. Accordingly we find in the older
-jurists the division of provinciae into those which were _propriae
-populi Romani_, and those which were _propriae Caesaris_; and this
-division, with some modifications, continued to the third century.
-The senatorian provinces were distributed among consulares and those
-who had filled the office of praetor, two provinces being given to
-the consulares and the rest to the praetorii: these governors were
-called _proconsules_, or _praesides_, which latter is the usual
-term employed by the old jurists for a provincial governor. The
-praesides had the jurisdictio of the praetor urbanus and the praetor
-peregrinus: and their quaestors had the same jurisdiction that the
-curule aediles had at Rome. The imperial provinces were governed
-by _legati Caesaris_, with praetorian power, the proconsular power
-being in the Caesar himself, and the legati being his deputies and
-representatives. The legati were selected from those who had been
-consuls or praetors, or from the senators. They held their office and
-their power at the pleasure of the emperor; and he delegated to them
-both military command and jurisdictio, just as a proconsul in the
-republican period delegated these powers to his legati. These legati
-had also legati under them. No quaestors were sent to the provinces
-of the Caesar. In place of the quaestors, there were _procuratores
-Caesaris_, who were either equites or freedmen of the Caesar.
-Egypt was governed by an eques with the title of praefectus. The
-procuratores looked after the taxes, paid the troops, and generally
-were intrusted with the interests of the fiscus. Judaea, which was a
-part of the province of Syria, was governed by a procurator, who had
-the powers of a legatus. It appears that there were also procuratores
-Caesaris in the senatorian provinces, who collected certain dues of
-the fiscus, which were independent of what was due to the aerarium.
-The regular taxes, as in the republican period, were the poll-tax
-and land-tax. The taxation was founded on a census of persons and
-property, which was established by Augustus. The portoria and other
-dues were farmed by the publicani, as in the republican period.
-
-
-PRŌVŎCĀTĬO. [APPELLATIO.]
-
-
-PRŌVŎCĀTŌRES. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-
-PROXĔNUS (πρόξενος). [HOSPITIUM.]
-
-
-PRỸTĂNEIUM (πρυτανεῖον), the public hall or town-hall in a Greek
-state. The _prytaneia_ of the ancient Greek states and cities were
-to the communities living around them, what private houses were to
-the families which occupied them. Just as the house of each family
-was its home, so was the _prytaneium_ of every state or city the
-common home of its members or inhabitants. This correspondence
-between the _prytaneium_ or home of the city, and the private home of
-a man’s family, was at Athens very remarkable. A perpetual fire was
-kept burning on the public altar of the city in the prytaneium, just
-as in private houses a fire was kept up on the domestic altar in the
-inner court of the house. Moreover, the city of Athens exercised in
-its prytaneium the duties of hospitality, both to its own citizens
-and to strangers. Thus foreign ambassadors were entertained here,
-as well as Athenian envoys, on their return home from a successful
-or well-conducted mission. Here, too, were entertained from day to
-day the successive prytanes or presidents of the senate, together
-with those citizens who, whether from personal or ancestral services
-to the state, were honoured with what was called the σίτησις ἐν
-πρυτανείῳ, or the privilege of taking their meals there at the public
-cost. This was granted sometimes for a limited period, sometimes
-for life, in which latter case the parties enjoying it were called
-ἀείσιτοι. Moreover, from the ever-burning fire of the prytaneium, or
-home of a mother state, was carried the sacred fire which was to be
-kept burning in the prytaneia of her colonies; and if it happened
-that this was ever extinguished, the flame was rekindled from the
-prytaneium of the parent city. Lastly, a prytaneium was also a
-distinguishing mark of an independent state. The prytaneium of Athens
-lay under the Acropolis on its northern side (near the ἀγορά), and
-was, as its name denotes, originally the place of assembly of the
-_prytanes_; in the earliest times it probably stood on the Acropolis.
-Officers called _prytanes_ (πρυτανεῖς) were entrusted with the chief
-magistracy in several states of Greece, as Corcyra, Corinth, Miletus.
-At Athens they were in early times probably a magistracy of the
-second rank in the state (next to the archon), acting as judges in
-various cases (perhaps in conjunction with him), and sitting in the
-prytaneium. That this was the case is rendered probable by the fact,
-that even in after-times the fees paid into court by plaintiff and
-defendant, before they could proceed to trial, and received by the
-dicasts, were called _prytaneia_.
-
-
-PRỸTĂNES. [PRYTANEIUM; BOULE.]
-
-
-PSĒPHISMA. [BOULE; NOMOTHETES.]
-
-
-PSĒPHUS (ψῆφος), a ball of stone, used by the Athenian dicasts in
-giving their verdict. [CADISCUS.] Hence ψηφίζεσθαι and its various
-derivatives are used so often to signify _voting_, _determining_, &c.
-
-
-PSEUDENGRĂPHĒS GRĂPHĒ (ψευδεγγραφῆς γραφή). The name of every state
-debtor at Athens was entered in a register by the praetores, whose
-duty it was to collect the debts, and erase the name of the party
-when he had paid it. If they made a false entry, either wilfully,
-or upon the suggestion of another person, the aggrieved party might
-institute a prosecution against them, or against the person upon
-whose suggestion it was made. Such prosecution was called γραφὴ
-ψευδεγγραφῆς. It would lie also, where a man was registered as debtor
-for more than was really due from him.
-
-
-PSEUDŎCLĒTEIAS GRĂPHĒ (ψευδοκλητείας γραφή), a prosecution against
-one, who had appeared as a witness (κλητήρ or κλήτωρ) to prove that a
-defendant had been duly summoned, and thereby enabled the plaintiff
-to get a judgment by default. The false witness (κλητήρ) was liable
-to be criminally prosecuted, and punished at the discretion of the
-court. The γραφὴ ψευδοκλητείας came before the Thesmothetae, and the
-question at the trial simply was, whether the defendant in the former
-cause had been summoned or not.
-
-
-PSĪLI (ψιλοί). [ARMA.]
-
-
-PSYCTĒR (ψυκτήρ, _dim._ ψυκτηρίδιον), a wine-cooler, was sometimes
-made of bronze or silver. One of earthenware is preserved in the
-Museum of Antiquities at Copenhagen. It consists of one deep vessel
-for holding ice, which is fixed within another for holding wine. The
-wine was poured in at the top. It thus surrounded the vessel of ice
-and was cooled by the contact. It was drawn off so as to fill the
-drinking-cups by means of a cock at the bottom.
-
-
-PŪBES, PŪBERTAS. [IMPUBES; INFANS.]
-
-
-PUBLĬCĀNI, farmers of the public revenues of the Roman state
-(_vectigalia_). Their name is formed from _publicum_, which signifies
-all that belongs to the state, and is sometimes used by Roman writers
-as synonymous with _vectigal_. The revenues which Rome derived from
-conquered countries, consisting chiefly of tolls, tithes, harbour
-duties, the scriptura, or the tax which was paid for the use of the
-public pasture lands, and the duties paid for the use of mines and
-salt-works (_salinae_), were let out, or, as the Romans expressed it,
-were sold by the censors in Rome itself to the highest bidder. This
-sale generally took place in the month of Quinctilis, and was made
-for a lustrum. The terms on which the revenues were let, were fixed
-by the censors in the so-called _leges censoriae_. The people or the
-senate, however, sometimes modified the terms fixed by the censors,
-in order to raise the credit of the publicani; and in some cases
-even the tribunes of the people interfered in this branch of the
-administration. The tithes raised in the province of Sicily alone,
-with the exception of those of wine, oil, and garden produce, were
-not sold at Rome, but in the districts of Sicily itself, according
-to a practice established by Hiero. The persons who undertook the
-farming of the public revenue of course belonged to the wealthiest
-Romans, and during the latter period of the republic they belonged
-almost exclusively to the equestrian order. Their wealth and
-consequent influence may be seen from the fact, that as early as the
-second Punic war, after the battle of Cannae, when the aerarium was
-entirely exhausted, the publicani advanced large sums of money to the
-state, on condition of repayment after the end of the war. The words
-equites and publicani are sometimes used as synonymous. The publicani
-had to give security to the state for the sum at which they bought
-one or more branches of the revenue in a province; but as for this
-reason the property of even the wealthiest individual must have been
-inadequate, a number of equites generally united together, and formed
-a company (_socii_, _societas_, or _corpus_), which was recognised
-by the state, and by which they were enabled to carry on their
-undertakings upon a large scale. Such companies appear as early as
-the second Punic war. The shares which each partner of such a company
-took in the business were called _partes_, and if they were small,
-_particulae_. The responsible person in each company, and the one who
-contracted with the state, was called _manceps_ [MANCEPS]; but there
-was also a _magister_ to manage the business of each society, who
-resided at Rome, and kept an extensive correspondence with the agents
-in the provinces. He seems to have held his office only for one
-year; his representative in the provinces was called _sub magistro_,
-who had to travel about, and superintend the actual business of
-collecting the revenues. Nobody but a Roman citizen was allowed to
-become a member of a company of publicani; freedmen and slaves were
-excluded. No Roman magistrate, however, or governor of a province,
-was allowed to take any share whatever in a company of publicani,
-a regulation which was chiefly intended as a protection against
-the oppression of the provincials. The collection of the taxes in
-the provinces was performed by an inferior class of men, who were
-said _operas publicanis dare_, or _esse in operis societatis_. They
-were engaged by the publicani, and consisted of freemen as well as
-slaves, Romans as well as provincials. The separate branches of the
-public revenue in the provinces (_decumae_, _portoria_, _scriptura_,
-and the revenues from the mines and salt-works) were mostly leased
-to separate companies of publicani; whence they were distinguished
-by names derived from that particular branch which they had taken in
-farm; _e.g._ _decumani_, _pecuarii_ or _scripturarii_, _salinarii_ or
-_mancipes salinarum_, &c. [DECUMAE; PORTORIUM; SALINAS; SCRIPTURA.]
-The _portitores_ were not publicani properly so called, but only
-their servants engaged in examining the goods imported or exported,
-and levying the custom-duties upon them. They belonged to the same
-class as the publicans of the New Testament.
-
-
-PUBLĬCUM. [PUBLICANI.]
-
-
-PŬGĬLĀTUS (πύξ, πυγμή, πυγμαχία, πυγμοσύνη), boxing, was one of the
-earliest athletic games among the Greeks, and is frequently mentioned
-in Homer. In the earliest times boxers (_pugiles_, πύκται) fought
-naked, with the exception of a girdle (ζῶμα) round their loins; but
-this was not used when boxing was introduced at Olympia, as the
-contests in wrestling and racing had been carried on there by persons
-entirely naked ever since Ol. 15. Respecting the leathern thongs
-with which pugilists surrounded their fists, see Cestus, where its
-various forms are illustrated by woodcuts. The Ionians, especially
-those of Samos, were at all times more distinguished pugilists than
-the Dorians, and at Sparta boxing is said to have been forbidden by
-the laws of Lycurgus. But the ancients generally considered boxing as
-a useful training for military purposes, and a part of education no
-less important than any other gymnastic exercise.
-
-
-PŬGILLĀRES. [TABULAE.]
-
-
-PŬGĬO (μάχαιρα), a dagger; a two-edged knife, commonly of bronze,
-with the hand in many cases variously ornamented or enriched.
-
-
-PULLĀRĬUS. [AUSPICIUM.]
-
-
-PULPĬTUM. [THEATRUM.]
-
-
-PULVĪNAR, a couch provided with cushions or pillows (_pulvini_),
-on which the Romans placed the statues of the gods at the
-_Lectisternia_. [EPULONES; LECTISTERNIUM.] There was also a
-_pulvinar_, on which the images of the gods were laid, in the Circus.
-
-
-PŪPILLA, PŪPILLUS, the name given to every _impubes_ not in the power
-of their father, but subject to a guardian. [IMPUBES; TUTELA.]
-
-
-PUPPIS. [NAVIS.]
-
-
-PŬTĔAL, properly means the enclosure surrounding the opening of a
-well, to protect persons from falling into it. It was either round
-or square, and seems usually to have been of the height of three
-or four feet from the ground. It was the practice in some cases to
-surround a sacred place with an enclosure open at the top, and such
-enclosures, from the great similarity they bore to _putealia_, were
-called by this name. There were two such places in the Roman forum;
-one of these was called _Puteal Libonis_ or _Scribonianum_, because
-a chapel (_sacellum_) in that place had been struck by lightning,
-and Scribonius Libo expiated it by proper ceremonies, and erected
-a puteal around it, open at the top, to preserve the memory of the
-place. The form of this puteal is preserved on several coins of the
-Scribonian gens. This puteal seems to have been near the atrium of
-Vesta, and was a common place of meeting for usurers. The other
-puteal was in the comitium, on the left side of the senate-house, and
-in it were deposited the whetstone and razor of ATTUS NAVIUS.
-
-[Illustration: Puteal on a Coin of the Scribonia Gens. (British
-Museum.)]
-
-
-PUTĬCŬLI. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-PỸANEPSIA (πυανέψια), a festival celebrated at Athens every year on
-the seventh of Pyanepsion, in honour of Apollo, said to have been
-instituted by Theseus after his return from Crete. The festival, as
-well as the month in which it took place, are said to have derived
-their names from πύαμος, another form for κύαμος, _i.e._ pulse or
-beans, which were cooked at this season and carried about.
-
-
-PỸLĂGŎRAE. [AMPHICTYONES.]
-
-
-PỸRA. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-PYRRHĬCA. [SALTATIO.]
-
-
-PȲTHĬA (πύθια), one of the four great national festivals of the
-Greeks. It was celebrated in the neighbourhood of Delphi, anciently
-called Pytho, in honour of Apollo, Artemis, and Leto. The place of
-this solemnity was the Crissaean plain, which for this purpose
-contained a hippodromus or race-course, a stadium of 1000 feet in
-length, and a theatre, in which the musical contests took place.
-The Pythian games were, according to most legends, instituted by
-Apollo himself. They were originally perhaps nothing more than a
-religious panegyris, occasioned by the oracle of Delphi, and the
-sacred games are said to have been at first only a musical contest,
-which consisted in singing a hymn to the honour of the Pythian god,
-with the accompaniment of the cithara. They must, on account of the
-celebrity of the Delphic oracle, have become a national festival
-for all the Greeks at a very early period, and gradually all the
-various contests were introduced which occur in the Olympic games.
-[OLYMPIA.] Down to Ol. 48. the Delphians had been the agonothetae at
-the Pythian games; but in the third year of this Olympiad, after the
-Crissaean war, the Amphictyons took the management under their care,
-and appointed certain persons, called _Epimeletae_ (ἐπιμεληταί),
-to conduct them. Some of the ancients date the institution of the
-Pythian games from this time. Previous to Ol. 48. the Pythian games
-had been an ἐνναετηρίς, that is, they had been celebrated at the
-end of every eighth year; but in Ol. 48. 3. they became, like the
-Olympia, a πενταετηρίς, _i.e._ they were held at the end of every
-fourth year; and a Pythiad, therefore, from the time that it was
-used as an aera, comprehended a space of four years, commencing
-with the third year of every Olympiad. They were in all probability
-held in the spring, and took place in the month of Bucatius, which
-corresponded to the Attic Munychion.
-
-
-PȲTHĬI (πύθιοι), four persons appointed by the Spartan kings, two by
-each, as messengers to the temple of Delphi. Their office was highly
-honourable and important; they were always the messmates of the
-Spartan kings.
-
-
-PYXIS, _dim._ PYXĬDŬLA (πύξις, dim. πυξίδιον), a casket; a
-jewel-box. The caskets in which the ladies of ancient times kept
-their jewels and other ornaments, were made of gold, silver, ivory,
-mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, &c. They were also much enriched
-with sculpture. The annexed woodcut represents a very plain
-jewel-box, out of which a dove is extracting a riband or fillet.
-
-[Illustration: Pyxis, jewel-box. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)]
-
-
-
-
-QUADRĀGĒSĬMA, the fortieth part of the imported goods, was the
-ordinary rate of the Portorium under the empire. [PORTORIUM.]
-
-
-QUADRANS. [AS.]
-
-
-QUADRANTAL, or AMPHŎRA QUADRANTAL, or AMPHŎRA only, was the principal
-Roman measure of capacity for fluids. A standard model of the
-_Amphora_ was kept with great care in the temple of Jupiter in the
-Capitol, and was called _amphora Capitolina_. It contained 5·77
-imperial gallons, or a little more than 5¾ gallons, or than 5 gallons
-and 6 pints.
-
-
-QUADRĪGA. [CURRUS.]
-
-
-QUADRĪGĀTUS. [DENARIUS.]
-
-
-QUADRŬPLĀTŌRES: public informers or accusers were so called, either
-because they received a fourth part of the criminal’s property, or
-because those who were convicted were condemned to pay fourfold
-(_quadrupli damnari_), as in cases of violation of the laws
-respecting gambling, usury, &c.
-
-
-QUAESTIŌNES, QUAESTIŌNES PERPĔTUAE. [JUDEX: PRAETOR.]
-
-
-QUAESTOR (ταμίας), a name given to two distinct classes of Roman
-officers. It is derived from _quaero_, and Varro gives a definition
-which embraces the principal functions of both classes of officers:
-_Quaestores a quaerendo, qui conquirerent publicas pecunias et
-maleficia_. The one class, therefore, had to do with the collecting
-and keeping of the public revenues, and the others were a kind of
-public accusers. The former bore the name of _Quaestores Classici_,
-the latter of _Quaestores Parricidii_.--The _Quaestores Parricidii_
-were public accusers, two in number, who conducted the accusation of
-persons guilty of murder or any other capital offence, and carried
-the sentence into execution. In the early period of the republic
-the quaestores parricidii appear to have become a standing office,
-which, like others, was held only for one year. They were appointed
-by the populus or the curies on the presentation of the consuls.
-When these quaestores discovered that a capital offence had been
-committed, they had to bring the charge before the comitia for trial.
-When the sentence had been pronounced by the people, the quaestores
-parricidii executed it; thus they threw Spurius Cassius from the
-Tarpeian rock. They were mentioned in the laws of the Twelve Tables,
-and after the time of the decemvirate they still continued to be
-appointed, though probably no longer by the curies, but either in
-the comitia centuriata or tribute, which they therefore must have had
-the right of assembling in cases of emergency. From the year B.C. 366
-they are no longer mentioned in Roman history, as their functions
-were gradually transferred to the triumviri capitales. [TRIUMVIRI
-CAPITALES.]--The _Quaestores Classici_, usually called _Quaestores_
-simply, were officers entrusted with the care of the public money.
-They were elected by the centuries, and the office is said to have
-been first instituted by Valerius Publicola. They were at first
-only two in number, and of course taken only from the patricians.
-As the senate had the supreme administration of the finances, the
-quaestors were in some measure only its agents or paymasters, for
-they could not dispose of any part of the public money without being
-directed by the senate. Their duties consequently consisted in making
-the necessary payments from the aerarium, and receiving the public
-revenues. Of both they had to keep correct accounts in their _tabulae
-publicae_. Demands which any one might have on the aerarium, and
-outstanding debts, were likewise registered by them. Fines to be paid
-to the public treasury were registered and exacted by them. Another
-branch of their duties, which, however, was likewise connected with
-the treasury, was to provide the proper accommodation for foreign
-ambassadors, and such persons as were connected with the republic
-by ties of public hospitality.--In B.C. 421 the number of quaestors
-was doubled, and the tribunes tried to effect, by an amendment of
-the law, that a part (probably two) of the quaestores should be
-plebeians. This attempt was indeed frustrated, but the interrex L.
-Papirius effected a compromise, that the election should not be
-restricted to either order. After this law was carried, eleven years
-passed without any plebeian being elected to the office: at last, in
-B.C. 409, three of the four quaestors were plebeians. A person who
-had held the office of quaestor had undoubtedly, as in later times,
-the right to take his seat in the senate, unless he was excluded as
-unworthy by the next censors. And this was probably the reason why
-the patricians so resolutely opposed the admission of plebeians to
-this office. Henceforth the consuls, whenever they took the field
-against an enemy, were accompanied by one quaestor each, who at
-first had only to superintend the sale of the booty, the produce of
-which was either divided among the legion, or was transferred to
-the aerarium. Subsequently, however, we find that these quaestors
-also kept the funds of the army, which they had received from the
-treasury at Rome, and gave the soldiers their pay; they were in fact
-the paymasters of the army. The two other quaestors, who remained
-at Rome, continued to discharge the same duties as before, and
-were distinguished from those who accompanied the consuls by the
-epithet _urbani_. In B.C. 265, after the Romans had made themselves
-masters of Italy, and when, in consequence, the administration of
-the treasury and the raising of the revenues became more laborious
-and important, the number of quaestors was again doubled to eight;
-and it is probable that henceforth their number continued to be
-increased in proportion as the empire became extended. One of the
-eight quaestors was appointed by lot to the _Quaestura Ostiensis_,
-a most laborious and important post, as he had to provide Rome with
-corn. Besides the quaestor Ostiensis, who resided at Ostia, three
-other quaestors were distributed in Italy, to raise those parts of
-the revenue which were not farmed by the publicani, and to control
-the latter. One of them resided at Cales, and the two others probably
-in towns on the Upper Sea. The two remaining quaestors were sent to
-Sicily.--Sulla, in his dictatorship, raised the number of quaestors
-to twenty, that he might have a large number of candidates for the
-senate, and J. Caesar even to forty. In the year B.C. 49 no quaestors
-were elected, and Caesar transferred the keeping of the aerarium
-to the aediles. From this time forward the treasury was sometimes
-entrusted to the praetors, sometimes to the praetorii, and sometimes
-again to quaestors. [AERARIUM.] Quaestors, however, both in the city
-and in the provinces, occur down to the latest period of the empire.
-The proconsul or praetor, who had the administration of a province,
-was attended by a quaestor. This quaestor had undoubtedly to perform
-the same functions as those who accompanied the armies into the
-field; they were in fact the same officers, with the exception that
-the former were stationary in their province during the time of
-their office, and had consequently rights and duties which those who
-accompanied the armies could not have. In the provinces the quaestors
-had the same jurisdiction as the curule aediles at Rome. The relation
-existing between a praetor or proconsul of a province and his
-quaestor was, according to ancient custom, regarded as resembling
-that between a father and his son. When a quaestor died in his
-province, the praetors had the right of appointing a _proquaestor_ in
-his stead; and when the praetor was absent, the quaestor supplied his
-place, and was then attended by lictors. In what manner the provinces
-were assigned to the quaestors after their election at Rome, is
-not mentioned, though it was probably by lot, as in the case of the
-quaestor Ostiensis.
-
-
-QUAESTŌRĬUM. [CASTRA.]
-
-
-QUĀLUS. [CALATHUS.]
-
-
-QUARTĀRĬUS. [SEXTARIUS.]
-
-
-QUĂSILLĀRĬAE. [CALATHUS.]
-
-
-QUĂSILLUM. [CALATHUS.]
-
-
-QUĂTŬORVĬRI JŪRI DĪCUNDO. [COLONIA.]
-
-
-QUĂTŬORVĬRI VĬĀRUM CŪRANDĀRUM, four officers who had the
-superintendence of the roads (_viae_), were first appointed after the
-war with Pyrrhus, when so many public roads were made by the Romans.
-
-
-QUĪNĀRĬUS. [DENARIUS.]
-
-
-QUINCUNX. [AS.]
-
-
-QUINDĔCIMVĬRI. [DECIMVIRI.]
-
-
-QUINQUATRUS or QUINQUATRĬA, a festival sacred to Minerva, which was
-celebrated on the 19th of March. Ovid says that it was celebrated
-for five days, that on the first day no blood was shed, but that on
-the last four there were contests of gladiators. It would appear,
-however, that only the first day was the festival properly so called,
-and that the last four were merely an addition made perhaps in the
-time of Caesar, to gratify the people, who became so passionately
-fond of gladiatorial combats. On the fifth day of the festival,
-according to Ovid, the trumpets used in sacred rites were purified;
-but this seems to have been originally a separate festival called
-_Tubilustrium_, which was celebrated, as we know from the ancient
-calendars, on the 23rd of March, and would of course, when the
-Quinquatrus was extended to five days, fall on the last day of that
-festival. There was also another festival of this name, called
-_Quinquatrus Minusculae_ or _Quinquatrus Minores_, celebrated on
-the Ides of June, on which the tibicines went through the city in
-procession to the temple of Minerva.
-
-
-QUINQUENNĀLĬA, were games instituted by Nero, A.D. 60, in imitation
-of the Greek festivals, and celebrated like the Greek πενταετηρίδες,
-at the end of every four years: they consisted of musical, gymnastic,
-and equestrian contests.
-
-
-QUINQUENNĀLIS. [COLONIA, p. 101, _a_.]
-
-
-QUINQUĔRĒMIS. [NAVIS.]
-
-
-QUINQUERTĬUM. [PENTATHLON.]
-
-
-QUINQUĔVĬRI, or five commissioners, were frequently appointed under
-the republic as extraordinary magistrates to carry any measure into
-effect.
-
-
-QUINTĀNA. [CASTRA.]
-
-
-QUĬRĪNĀLĬA, a festival sacred to Quirinus, which was celebrated on
-the 17th of February, on which day Romulus (Quirinus) was said
-to have been carried up to heaven. This festival was also called
-_Stultorum feriae_, respecting the meaning of which see FORNACALIA.
-
-
-QUĬRĪTĬUM JUS. [JUS.]
-
-
-
-
-RAMNES. [PATRICII.]
-
-
-RĂPĪNA. [FURTUM.]
-
-
-RĔCŬPĔRĀTŌRES. [JUDEX.]
-
-
-RĔDEMPTOR, the general name for a contractor, who undertook the
-building and repairing of public works, private houses, &c., and in
-fact of any kind of work. The farmers of the public taxes were also
-called _Redemptores_.
-
-
-RĔDĬMĪCULUM (καθετήρ), a fillet attached to the _calautica_,
-_diadema_, _mitra_, or other head-dress at the occiput, and passed
-over the shoulders, so as to hang on each side over the breast.
-_Redimicula_ were properly female ornaments.
-
-
-RĒGĬFŬGĬUM or FŬGĀLIA, the king’s flight, a festival which was held
-by the Romans every year on the 24th of February, and, according
-to some ancient writers, in commemoration of the flight of king
-Tarquinius Superbus from Rome. The day is marked in the Fasti as
-nefastus. In some ancient calendars the 24th of May is likewise
-called Regifugium. It is doubtful whether either of these days had
-anything to do with the flight of king Tarquinius: they may have
-derived their name from the symbolical flight of the Rex Sacrorum
-from the comitium; for this king-priest was generally not allowed to
-appear in the comitium, which was destined for the transaction of
-political matters in which he could not take part. But on certain
-days in the year, and certainly on the two days mentioned above,
-he had to go to the comitium for the purpose of offering certain
-sacrifices, and immediately after he had performed his functions
-there, he hastily fled from it; and this symbolical flight was called
-Regifugium.
-
-
-RĔLĒGĀTĬO. [EXSILIUM.]
-
-
-RĔMANCĬPĀTIO. [EMANCIPATIO.]
-
-
-RĔMULCUM (ῥυμουλκηῖν τὰς ναῦς), a rope for towing a ship, and
-likewise a tow-barge.
-
-
-RĔMŪRĬA. [LEMURIA.]
-
-
-RĒMUS. [NAVIS.]
-
-
-RĔPĔTUNDAE, or PĔCŪNĬAE RĔPĔTUNDAE, was the term used to designate
-such sums of money as the socii of the Roman state or individuals
-claimed to recover from magistratus, judices, or publici curatores,
-which they had improperly taken or received in the Provinciae, or
-in the Urbs Roma, either in the discharge of their jurisdictio,
-or in their capacity of judices, or in respect of any other public
-function. Sometimes the word Repetundae was used to express the
-illegal act for which compensation was sought, as in the phrase
-_repetundarum insimulari, damnari_; and Pecuniae meant not only
-money, but anything that had value. The first lex on the subject
-was the Calpurnia, which was proposed and carried by the tribunus
-plebis L. Calpurnius Piso (B.C. 149). By this lex a praetor was
-appointed for trying persons charged with this crime. It seems that
-the penalties of the Lex Calpurnia were merely pecuniary, and at
-least did not comprise exsilium. Various leges de repetundis were
-passed after the Lex Calpurnia, and the penalties were continually
-made heavier. The Lex Junia was passed probably about B.C. 126, on
-the proposal of M. Junius Pennus, tribunus plebis. The Lex Servilia
-Glaucia was proposed and carried by C. Servilius Glaucia, praetor,
-in the sixth consulship of Marius, B.C. 100. This lex applied to
-any magistratus who had improperly taken or received money from
-any private person; but a magistratus could not be accused during
-the term of office. The lex enacted that the praetor peregrinus
-should annually appoint 450 judices for the trial of this offence:
-the judices were not to be senators. The penalties of the lex were
-pecuniary and exsilium; the law allowed a comperendinatio. [JUDEX.]
-Before the Lex Servilia, the pecuniary penalty was simply restitution
-of what had been wrongfully taken; this lex seems to have raised
-the penalty to double the amount of what had been wrongfully taken;
-and subsequently it was made quadruple. Exsilium was only the
-punishment in case a man did not abide his trial, but withdrew from
-Rome. The lex gave the civitas to any person on whose complaint a
-person was convicted of repetundae. The Lex Acilia, which seems
-to be of uncertain date, was proposed and carried by M’. Acilius
-Glabrio, a tribune of the plebs, and enacted that there should be
-neither ampliatio nor comperendinatio. The Lex Cornelia was passed
-in the dictatorship of Sulla, and continued in force to the time of
-C. Julius Caesar. It extended the penalties of repetundae to other
-illegal acts committed in the provinces, and to judices who received
-bribes, to those to whose hands the money came, and to those who did
-not give into the aerarium their proconsular accounts (_proconsulares
-rationes_). The praetor who presided over this quaestio chose the
-judges by lot from the senators, whence it appears that the Servilia
-Lex was repealed by this lex, at least so far as related to the
-constitution of the court. This lex also allowed ampliatio and
-comperendinatio. The penalties were pecuniary (_litis aestimatio_)
-and the _aquae et ignis interdictio_. Under this lex were tried
-L. Dolabella, Cn. Piso, C. Verres, C. Macer, M. Fonteius, and L.
-Flaccus, the two last of whom were defended by Cicero. In the Verrine
-Orations Cicero complains of the comperendinatio or double hearing
-of the cause, which the Lex Cornelia allowed, and refers to the
-practice under the Lex Acilia, according to which the case for the
-prosecution, the defence, and the evidence were only heard once, and
-so the matter was decided. The last lex de repetundis was the Lex
-Julia, passed in the first consulship of C. Julius Caesar, B.C. 59.
-This lex repealed the penalty of exsilium, but in addition to the
-litis aestimatio, it enacted that persons convicted under this lex
-should lose their rank, and be disqualified from being witnesses,
-judices, or senators. The lex had been passed when Cicero made his
-oration against Piso, B.C. 55. A. Gabinius was convicted under this
-lex. Under the empire the offence was punishable with exile.
-
-
-RĔPŌTĬA. [MATRIMONIUM.]
-
-
-RĔPŬDĬUM. [DIVORTIUM.]
-
-RĒTĬĀRĬI. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-
-RĒTĬCŬLUM. [COMA.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Retia, Nets (From a Bas-Relief at Ince-Blundell.)]
-
-RĒTIS and RĒTE; _dim._ RĒTĬCŬLUM (δίκτυον), a net. Nets were made
-most commonly of flax or hemp, whence they are sometimes called
-_lina_ (λίνα). The meshes (_maculae_, βρόχοι, _dim._ βροχίδες) were
-great or small according to the purposes intended. By far the most
-important application of net-work was to the three kindred arts
-of fowling, hunting, and fishing. In fowling the use of nets was
-comparatively limited. In hunting it was usual to extend nets in
-a curved line of considerable length, so as in part to surround a
-space into which the beasts of chace, such as the hare, the boar,
-the deer, the lion, and the bear, were driven through the opening
-left on one side. This range of nets was flanked by cords, to which
-feathers dyed scarlet and of other bright colours were tied, so as to
-flare and flutter in the wind. The hunters then sallied forth with
-their dogs, dislodged the animals from their coverts, and by shouts
-and barking drove them first within the _formido_, as the apparatus
-of string and feathers was called, and then, as they were scared
-with this appearance, within the circuit of the nets. In the drawing
-below three servants with staves carry on their shoulders a large
-net, which is intended to be set up as already described. In the
-lower figure the net is set up. At each end of it stands a watchman
-holding a staff. Being intended to take such large quadrupeds as
-boars and deer (which are seen within it), the meshes are very wide
-(_retia rara_). The net is supported by three stakes (στάλικες,
-_ancones_, _vari_). To dispose the nets in this manner was called
-_retia ponere_, or _retia tendere_. Comparing it with the stature of
-the attendants, we perceive the net to be between five and six feet
-high. The upper border of the net consists of a strong rope, which
-was called σαρδών. Fishing-nets (ἁλιευτικὰ δίκτυα) were of different
-kinds. Of these the most common were the ἀμφίβληστρον, or casting-net
-(_funda_, _jaculum_, _retinaculum_) and the σαγήνη, _i.e._ the
-drag-net, or sean (_tragum_, _tragula_, _verriculum_).
-
-[Illustration: Retia, Nets. (From the same.)]
-
-
-RĔUS. [ACTOR.]
-
-
-REX (βασιλεύς, ἄναξ), king.--(1) GREEK. In the heroic age, as
-depicted in the poems of Homer, the kingly form of government was
-universal. The authority of these kings and its limitations were
-derived not from any definite scheme, or written code, but from
-the force of traditionary usage, and the natural influence of the
-circumstances in which the kings were placed, surrounded as they were
-by a body of chiefs or nobles, whose power was but little inferior
-to that of the kings themselves. Even the title βασιλῆες is applied
-to them as well as to the king. The maintenance of regal authority
-doubtless depended greatly on the possession of personal superiority
-in bravery, military prowess, wisdom in council and eloquence in
-debate. When old age had blunted his powers and activity, a king
-ran a great chance of losing his influence. There was, however, an
-undefined notion of a sort of divine right connected with the kingly
-office, whence the epithet διοτρεφής, so commonly applied to kings
-in Homer. The characteristic emblem of the kingly office was the
-σκῆπτρον. [SCEPTRUM.] Our information respecting the Grecian kings
-in the more historical age is not ample or minute enough to enable
-us to draw out a detailed scheme of their functions. Respecting the
-kings of Sparta the reader is referred to the article EPHORI. As
-an illustration of the gradual limitation of the prerogatives of
-the king or chief magistrate, the reader may consult the article
-ARCHON. The title _Basileus_ was sometimes applied to an officer
-who discharged the priestly functions of the more ancient kings,
-as in Athens. [ARCHON.]--(2) ROMAN. Rome was originally governed
-by kings. All the ancient writers agree in representing the king
-as elected by the people for life, and as voluntarily entrusted by
-them with the supreme power in the state. No reference is made to
-the hereditary principle in the election of the first four kings;
-and it is not until the fifth king Tarquinius Priscus obtained the
-sovereignty, that anything is said about the children of the deceased
-king. Since the people had conferred the regal power, it returned
-to them upon the death of the king. But as a new king could not
-be immediately appointed, an Interrex forthwith stepped into his
-place. The necessity for an immediate successor to the king arose
-from the circumstance that he alone had had the power of taking the
-auspicia on behalf of the state; and as the auspicia devolved upon
-the people at his death, it was imperative upon them to create a
-magistrate, to whom they could delegate the auspicia, and who would
-thus possess the power of mediating between the gods and the state.
-Originally the people consisted only of the patres or patricii;
-and accordingly on the death of the king, we read _res ad patres
-redit_, or, what is nearly the same thing, _auspicia ad patres
-redeunt_. [AUGUR.] The interrex was elected by the whole body of
-the patricians, and he appointed (_prodebat_) his successor, as it
-was a rule that the first interrex could not hold the comitia for
-the election; but it frequently happened that the second interrex
-appointed a third, the third a fourth, and so on, till the election
-took place. The Interrex presided over the comitia curiata, which
-were assembled for the election of the king. The person whom the
-senate had selected was proposed by the interrex to the people in
-a regular _rogatio_, which the people could only accept or reject,
-for they had not the initiative and could not themselves propose
-any name. If the people voted in favour of the rogation, they were
-said _creare regem_, and their acceptance of him was called _jussus
-populi_. But the king did not immediately enter upon his office. Two
-other acts had still to take place before he was invested with the
-full regal authority and power. First, his _inauguratio_ had to be
-performed, as it was necessary to obtain the divine will respecting
-his appointment by means of the auspices, since he was the high
-priest of the people. This ceremony was performed by an augur, who
-conducted the newly-elected king to the _arx_, or citadel, and there
-placed him on a stone seat with his face turned to the south, while
-the people waited below in anxious suspense until the augur announced
-that the gods had sent the favourable tokens confirming the king
-in his priestly character. The inauguratio did not confer upon him
-the auspicia; for these he obtained by his election to the royalty,
-as the comitia were held _auspicato_. The second act which had to
-be performed was the conferring of the imperium upon the king. The
-curiae had only determined by their previous vote who was to be
-king, and had not by that act bestowed the necessary power upon him;
-they had, therefore, to grant him the imperium by a distinct vote.
-Accordingly the king himself proposed to the curiae a _lex curiata
-de imperio_, and the curiae by voting in favour of it gave him the
-imperium. Livy in his first book makes no mention of the _lex curiata
-de imperio_, but he uses the expressions _patres auctores fierent_,
-_patres auctores facti_; but these expressions are equivalent to the
-_lex curiata de imperio_ in the kingly period.--The king possessed
-the supreme power in the earliest times, and the senate and the
-comitia of the curiae were very slight checks upon its exercise. In
-the first place, the king alone possessed the right of taking the
-auspices on behalf of the state; and as no public business of any
-kind could be performed without the approbation of the gods expressed
-by the auspices, the king stood as mediator between the gods and
-the people, and in an early stage of society must necessarily have
-been regarded with religious awe. [AUGUR.] Secondly, the people
-surrendered to the king the supreme military and judicial authority
-by conferring the _imperium_ upon him. The king was not only the
-commander in war, but the supreme judge in peace. Seated on his
-throne in the comitium, he administered justice to all comers,
-and decided in all cases which were brought before him, civil as
-well as criminal. Again, all the magistrates in the kingly period
-appear to have been appointed by the king and not elected by the
-curiae. Further, the king was not dependent upon the people for his
-support; but a large portion of the ager publicus belonged to him,
-which was cultivated at the expense of the state on his behalf. He
-had also the absolute disposal of the booty taken in war and of
-the conquered lands. It must not, however, be supposed that the
-authority of the king was absolute. The senate and the assembly of
-the people must have formed some check upon his power. But these were
-not independent bodies possessing the right of meeting at certain
-times and discussing questions of state. They could only be called
-together when the king chose, and further could only determine upon
-matters which the king submitted to them. The only public matter in
-which the king could not dispense with the co-operation of the senate
-and the curiae was in declarations of war. There is no trace of the
-people having had anything to do with the conclusion of treaties
-of peace.--The insignia of the king were the fasces with the axes
-(_secures_), which twelve lictors carried before him as often as he
-appeared in public, the _trabea_, the _sella curulis_, and the _toga
-praetexta_ and _picta_. The _trabea_ appears to have been the most
-ancient official dress, and is assigned especially to Romulus: it
-was of Latin origin, and is therefore represented by Virgil as worn
-by the Latin kings. The _toga praetexta_ and _picta_ were borrowed,
-together with the _sella curulis_, from the Etruscans, and their
-introduction is variously ascribed to Tullus Hostilius or Tarquinius
-Priscus.
-
-
-REX SACRĬFĬCŬLUS, REX SACRĬFĬCUS, or REX SACRORUM. When the civil
-and military powers of the king were transferred to two praetors
-or consuls, upon the establishment of the republican government at
-Rome, these magistrates were not invested with that part of the royal
-dignity by virtue of which the king had been the high priest of his
-nation and had conducted several of the sacra publica, but this
-priestly part of his office was transferred to a priest called Rex
-Sacrificulus or Rex Sacrorum. The first rex sacrorum was designated,
-at the command of the consuls, by the college of pontiffs, and
-inaugurated by the augurs. He was always elected and inaugurated
-in the comitia curiata under the presidency of the pontiffs,
-and as long as a rex sacrificulus was appointed at Rome, he was
-always a patrician, for as he had no influence upon the management
-of political affairs, the plebeians never coveted this dignity.
-Considering that this priest was the religious representative of
-the kings, he ranked indeed higher than all other priests, and even
-higher than the pontifex maximus, but in power and influence he was
-far inferior to him. He held his office for life, was not allowed to
-hold any civil or military dignity, and was at the same time exempted
-from all military and civil duties. His principal functions were: 1.
-To perform those sacra publica which had before been performed by the
-kings; and his wife, who bore the title of _regina sacrorum_, had
-also, like the queens of former days, to perform certain priestly
-functions. These sacra publica he or his wife had to perform on
-all the Calends, Ides, and the Nundines; he to Jupiter, and she to
-Juno in the regia. 2. On the days called regifugium he had to offer
-a sacrifice in the comitium. [REGIFUGIUM.] 3. When extraordinary
-portenta seemed to announce some general calamity, it was his duty to
-try to propitiate the anger of the gods. 4. On the nundines, when the
-people assembled in the city, the rex sacrorum announced (_edicebat_)
-to them the succession of the festivals for the month. This part
-of his functions, however, must have ceased after the time of Cn.
-Flavius. He lived in a domus publica on the via sacra, near the regia
-and the house of the vestal virgins.
-
-
-RHĒDA or RĒDA, a travelling carriage with four wheels. Like the
-COVINUS and the ESSEDUM it was of Gallic origin, and may perhaps
-contain the same root as the German _reiten_ and our _ride_. It
-was the common carriage used by the Romans for travelling, and was
-frequently made large enough not only to contain many persons, but
-also baggage and utensils of various kinds. The word _Epirhedium_,
-which was formed by the Romans from the Greek preposition ἐπι and
-the Gallic _rheda_, is explained by the Scholiast on Juvenal as
-“Ornamentum rhedarum aut plaustrum.”
-
-
-RHĒTRAE (ῥῆτραι), specially the name of the ordinances of Lycurgus.
-The word _Rhetra_ means a solemn compact, either originally emanating
-from, or subsequently sanctioned by the gods, who are always parties
-to such agreements. The Rhetra of Lycurgus emanated from the Delphian
-god: but the kings, senators, and people all bound themselves, both
-to each other and to the gods, to obey it.
-
-
-RHYTON (ῥυτόν), a drinking-horn (κέρας). Its original form was
-probably the horn of the ox, but one end of it was afterwards
-ornamented with the heads of various animals and birds. The _rhyton_
-had a small opening at the bottom, which the person who drank put
-into his mouth, and allowed the wine to run in: hence it derived its
-name.
-
-[Illustration: Rhyton, drinking-horn. (Museo Borbonico.)]
-
-
-RĪCA. [FLAMEN.]
-
-
-RĪCĪNĬUM, an article of female dress, appears to have been a kind of
-mantle, with a sort of cowl attached to it, in order to cover the
-head. The _mavortium_, _mavorte_, or _mavors_ of later times was
-thought to be only another name for what had formerly been called
-ricinium.
-
-
-RŌBĪGĀLĬA, a public festival in honour of the god Robigus, to
-preserve the fields from mildew, is said to have been instituted by
-Numa, and was celebrated April 25th. The sacrifices offered on this
-occasion consisted of the entrails of a dog and a sheep, accompanied
-with frankincense and wine: a prayer was presented by a flamen in the
-grove of the ancient deity, whom Ovid and Columella make a goddess. A
-god Robigus or a goddess Robigo is a mere invention from the name of
-this festival, for the Romans paid no divine honours to evil deities.
-
-
-RŎGĀTĬO. [LEX, p. 225.]
-
-
-RŎGĀTŌRES. [COMITIA, p. 107.]
-
-
-RŎGUS. [FUNUS, p. 188, _b_.]
-
-
-ROMPHEA. [HASTA.]
-
-
-RŌRĀRĬI. [EXERCITUS, p. 165.]
-
-
-ROSTRA, or The Beaks, was the name applied to the stage (_suggestus_)
-in the Forum, from which the orators addressed the people. This
-stage was originally called _templum_, because it was consecrated by
-the augurs, but obtained its name of _Rostra_ at the conclusion of
-the great Latin war, when it was adorned with the beaks (_rostra_)
-of the ships of the Antiates. The Greeks also mutilated galleys in
-the same way for the purpose of trophies: this was called by them
-ἀκρωτηριάζειν. [ACROTERIUM.] The rostra lay between the Comitium or
-place of meeting for the curies, and the Forum or place of meeting
-for the tribes, so that the speaker might turn either to the one or
-the other; but down to the time of C. Gracchus, even the tribunes
-in speaking used to front the Comitium; he first turned his back
-to it and spoke with his face towards the forum. The rostra was a
-circular building, raised on arches, with a stand or platform on the
-top, bordered by a parapet, the access to it being by two flights of
-steps, one on each side. It fronted towards the comitium, and the
-rostra were affixed to the front of it, just under the arches. Its
-form has been in all the main points preserved in the ambones or
-circular pulpits of the most ancient churches, which also had two
-flights of steps leading up to them, one on the east side, by which
-the preacher ascended, and another on the west side, for his descent.
-The speaker was thus enabled to walk to and fro, while addressing his
-audience. The suggestus or rostra was transferred by Julius Caesar
-to a corner of the Forum, but the spot where the ancient rostra had
-stood still continued to be called _Rostra Vetera_, while the other
-was called _Rostra Nova_ or _Rostra Julia_. Both the rostra contained
-statues of illustrious men.
-
-[Illustration: Rostra on Coin of M. Lollius Palicanus. (British
-Museum.)]
-
-
-ROSTRUM. [NAVIS.]
-
-
-RŎTA. [CURRUS.]
-
-
-RŬDĬĀRĬI. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-
-RŬDIS. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-
-
-
-SACCUS (σάκκος) signified in general any kind of sack or bag made
-of hair, cloth, or other materials. We have only to notice here its
-meaning as--(1) A head-dress. [COMA.]--(2) A sieve for straining
-wine. [COLUM.]--(3) A purse for holding money. Hence the phrase in
-Plautus _ire ad saccum_, “to go a begging.”
-
-
-SĂCELLUM is a diminutive of _sacer_, and signifies a small place
-consecrated to a god, containing an altar, and sometimes also a
-statue of the god to whom it was dedicated, but it was without a
-roof. It was therefore a sacred inclosure surrounded by a fence or
-wall, and thus answered to the Greek περίβολος.
-
-
-SĂCERDOS, SĂCERDŌTĬUM. As all the different kinds of priests are
-treated of separately in this work, it is only necessary here to
-make some general remarks. In comparison with the civil magistrates,
-all priests at Rome were regarded as _homines privati_, though all
-of them, as priests, were sacerdotes publici, in as far as their
-office (_sacerdotium_) was connected with any worship recognised
-by the state. The appellation of _sacerdos publicus_ was, however,
-given principally to the chief pontiff and the flamen dialis, who
-were at the same time the only priests who were members of the senate
-by virtue of their office. All priestly offices or sacerdotia were
-held for life, without responsibility to any civil magistrate. A
-priest was generally allowed to hold any other civil or military
-office besides his priestly dignity; some priests, however, formed an
-exception, for the duumviri, the rex sacrorum, and the flamen dialis
-were not allowed to hold any state office, and were also exempt
-from service in the armies. Their priestly character was, generally
-speaking, inseparable from their person as long as they lived: hence
-the augurs and fratres arvales retained their character even when
-sent into exile, or when they were taken prisoners. It also occurs
-that one and the same person held two or three priestly offices at a
-time. Thus we find the three dignities of pontifex maximus, augur,
-and decemvir sacrorum united in one individual. Bodily defects
-incapacitated a person at Rome, as among all ancient nations, from
-holding any priestly office. All priests were originally patricians,
-but from the year B.C. 367 the plebeians also began to take part
-in the sacerdotia [PLEBES]; and those priestly offices which down
-to the latest times remained in the hands of the patricians alone,
-such as that of the rex sacrorum, the flamines, salii, and others,
-had no influence upon the affairs of the state. As regards the
-appointment of priests, the ancients unanimously state, that at first
-they were appointed by the kings, but after the sacerdotia were
-once instituted, each college of priests--for nearly all priests
-constituted certain corporations called collegia--had the right of
-filling up, by cooptatio, the vacancies which occurred. [PONTIFEX.]
-Other priests, on the contrary, such as the vestal virgins and the
-flamines, were appointed (_capiebantur_) by the pontifex maximus, a
-rule which appears to have been observed down to the latest times;
-others again, such as the duumviri sacrorum, were elected by the
-people, or by the curiae, as the curiones. But in whatever manner
-they were appointed, all priests after their appointment required
-to be inaugurated by the pontiffs and the augurs, or by the latter
-alone. Those priests who formed colleges had originally, as we have
-already observed, the right of cooptatio; but in the course of
-time they were deprived of this right, or at least the cooptatio
-was reduced to a mere form, by several leges, called leges de
-sacerdotiis, such as the Lex Domitia, Cornelia, and Julia; their
-nature is described in the article PONTIFEX, and what is there said
-in regard to the appointment of pontiffs applies equally to all the
-other colleges. All priests had some external distinction, as the
-apex, tutulus, or galerus, the toga praetexta, as well as honorary
-seats in the theatres, circuses, and amphitheatres. Most of the
-priestly colleges possessed landed property, and some priests had
-also a regular annual salary (_stipendium_), which was paid to them
-from the public treasury. This is expressly stated in regard to the
-vestal virgins, the augurs, and the curiones, and may therefore be
-supposed to have been the case with other priests also. The pontifex
-maximus, the rex sacrorum, and the vestal virgins had moreover a
-domus publica as their place of residence.
-
-
-SACRA. This word, in its widest sense, expresses what we call
-divine worship. In ancient times, the state, as well as all its
-subdivisions, had their own peculiar forms of worship, whence at
-Rome we find sacra of the whole Roman people, of the curies, gentes,
-families, and even of private individuals. All these sacra, however,
-were divided into two great classes, the public and private sacra
-(_sacra publica et privata_), that is, they were performed either on
-behalf of the whole nation, and at the expense of the state, or on
-behalf of individuals, families, or gentes, which had also to defray
-their expenses. This division is ascribed to Numa. All sacra, publica
-as well as privata, were superintended and regulated by the pontiffs.
-
-
-SACRĀMENTUM, the military oath, which was administered in the
-following manner:--Each tribunus militum assembled his legion, and
-picked out one of the men, to whom he put the oath, that he would
-obey the commands of his generals, and execute them punctually. The
-other men then came forward, one after another, and repeated the same
-oath, saying that they would do like the first.
-
-
-SACRĀRĬUM was any place in which sacred things were deposited and
-kept, whether this place was a part of a temple or of a private house.
-
-
-SACRIFĬCĬUM (ἱερεῖον), a sacrifice. Sacrifices or offerings formed
-the chief part of the worship of the ancients. They were partly
-signs of gratitude, partly a means of propitiating the gods, and
-partly also intended to induce the deity to bestow some favour
-upon the sacrificer, or upon those on whose behalf the sacrifice
-was offered. Sacrifices in a wider sense would also embrace the
-DONARIA; in a narrower sense sacrificia were things offered to the
-gods, which merely afforded momentary gratification, and which
-were burnt upon their altars, or were believed to be consumed by
-the gods. All sacrifices may be divided into bloody sacrifices and
-unbloody sacrifices.--_Bloody sacrifices._ In the early times of
-Greece we find mention of human sacrifices, but with a few exceptions
-these had ceased in the historical ages. Owing to the influence
-of civilisation, in many cases animals were substituted for human
-beings; in others, a few drops of human blood were thought sufficient
-to propitiate the gods. The custom of sacrificing human life to the
-gods arose from the belief that the nobler the sacrifice and the
-dearer to its possessor, the more pleasing it would be to the gods.
-Hence the frequent instances in Grecian story of persons sacrificing
-their own children, or of persons devoting themselves to the gods of
-the lower world. That the Romans also believed human sacrifices to
-be pleasing to the gods, might be inferred from the story of Curtius
-and from the self-sacrifice of the Decii. The symbolic sacrifice
-of human figures made of rushes at the Lemuralia [LEMURALIA] also
-shows that in the early history of Italy human sacrifices were not
-uncommon. For another proof of this practice, see VER SACRUM. A
-second kind of bloody sacrifices were those of animals of various
-kinds, according to the nature and character of the divinity. The
-sacrifices of animals were the most common among the Greeks and
-Romans. The victim was called ἱερεῖον, and in Latin _hostia_ or
-_victima_. In the early times it appears to have been the general
-custom to burn the whole victim (ὁλοκαυτεῖν) upon the altars of the
-gods, and the same was in some cases also observed in later times.
-But as early as the time of Homer it was the almost general practice
-to burn only the legs (μηροί, μηρία, μῆρα) enclosed in fat, and
-certain parts of the intestines, while the remaining parts of the
-victim were consumed by men at a festive meal. The gods delighted
-chiefly in the smoke arising from the burning victims, and the
-greater the number of victims, the more pleasing was the sacrifice.
-Hence it was not uncommon to offer a sacrifice of one hundred bulls
-(ἑκατόμβη) at once, though it must not be supposed that a hecatomb
-always signifies a sacrifice of a hundred bulls, for the name was
-used in a general way to designate any great sacrifice. Such great
-sacrifices were not less pleasing to men than to the gods, for in
-regard to the former they were in reality a donation of meat. Hence
-at Athens the partiality for such sacrifices rose to the highest
-degree. The animals which were sacrificed were mostly of the domestic
-kind, as bulls, cows, sheep, rams, lambs, goats, pigs, dogs, and
-horses; and each god had his favourite animals which he liked best
-as sacrifices. The head of the victim, before it was killed, was in
-most cases strewed with roasted barley meal (οὐλόχυτα or οὐλοχύται)
-mixed with salt (_mola salsa_). The persons who offered the sacrifice
-wore generally garlands round their heads, and sometimes also carried
-them in their hands, and before they touched anything belonging to
-the sacrifice they washed their hands in water. The victim itself
-was likewise adorned with garlands, and its horns were sometimes
-gilt. Before the animal was killed, a bunch of hair was cut from its
-forehead, and thrown into the fire as primitiae (κατάρχεσθαι). In the
-heroic ages the princes, as the high priests of their people, killed
-the victim; in later times this was done by the priests themselves.
-When the sacrifice was to be offered to the Olympic gods, the head
-of the animal was drawn heavenward; when to the gods of the lower
-world, to heroes, or to the dead, it was drawn downwards. While the
-flesh was burning upon the altar, wine and incense were thrown upon
-it, and prayers and music accompanied the solemnity. The most common
-animal sacrifices at Rome were the _suovetaurilia_ or _solitaurilia_,
-consisting of a pig, a sheep, and an ox. They were performed in all
-cases of a lustration, and the victims were carried around the thing
-to be lustrated, whether it was a city, a people, or a piece of land.
-[LUSTRATIO.] The Greek _trittya_ (τριττύα), which likewise consisted
-of an ox, a sheep, and a pig, was the same sacrifice as the Roman
-suovetaurilia. The customs observed before and during the sacrifice
-of an animal were on the whole the same as those observed in Greece.
-But the victim was in most cases not killed by the priests who
-conducted the sacrifice, but by a person called _popa_, who struck
-the animal with a hammer before the knife was used. The better parts
-of the intestines (_exta_) were strewed with barley meal, wine, and
-incense, and were burnt upon the altar. Those parts of the animal
-which were burnt were called _prosecta_, _prosiciae_, or _ablegmina_.
-When a sacrifice was offered to gods of rivers, or of the sea, these
-parts were not burnt, but thrown into the water. Respecting the use
-which the ancients made of sacrifices to learn the will of the gods,
-see HARUSPEX and DIVINATIO.--_Unbloody sacrifices._ Among these we
-may first mention the libations (_libationes_, λοιβαί or σπονδαί).
-Bloody sacrifices were usually accompanied by libations, as wine was
-poured upon them. The wine was usually poured out in three separate
-streams. Libations always accompanied a sacrifice which was offered
-in concluding a treaty with a foreign nation, and that here they
-formed a prominent part of the solemnity, is clear from the fact that
-the treaty itself was called σπονδαί. But libations were also made
-independent of any other sacrifice, as in solemn prayers, and on
-many other occasions of public and private life, as before drinking
-at meals, and the like. Libations usually consisted of unmixed wine
-(ἔνσπονδος, _merum_), but sometimes also of milk, honey, and other
-fluids, either pure or diluted with water. The libations offered
-to the Furies were always without wine. Incense was likewise an
-offering which usually accompanied bloody sacrifices, but it was
-also burned as an offering for itself. A third class of unbloody
-sacrifices consisted of fruit and cakes. The former were mostly
-offered to the gods as primitiae or tithes of the harvest, and as
-a sign of gratitude. They were sometimes offered in their natural
-state, sometimes also adorned or prepared in various ways. Cakes were
-peculiar to the worship of certain deities, as to that of Apollo.
-They were either simple cakes of flour, sometimes also of wax, or
-they were made in the shape of some animal, and were then offered as
-symbolical sacrifices in the place of real animals, either because
-they could not easily be procured, or were too expensive for the
-sacrificer.
-
-
-SACRĬLĔGĬUM, the crime of stealing things consecrated to the gods,
-or things deposited in a consecrated place. A Lex Julia appears to
-have placed the crime of sacrilegium on an equality with peculatus.
-[PECULATUS.]
-
-
-SAECŬLUM was, according to the calculation of the Etruscans, which
-was adopted by the Romans, a space of time containing 110 lunar
-years. The return of each saeculum at Rome was announced by the
-pontiffs, who also made the necessary intercalations in such a
-manner, that at the commencement of a new saeculum the beginning of
-the ten months’ year, of the twelve months’ year, and of the solar
-year coincided. But in these arrangements the greatest caprice and
-irregularity appear to have prevailed at Rome, as may be seen from
-the unequal intervals at which the ludi saeculares were celebrated.
-[LUDI SAECULARES.] This also accounts for the various ways in which a
-saeculum was defined by the ancients; some believed that it contained
-thirty, and others that it contained a hundred years: the latter
-opinion appears to have been the most common in later times, so that
-saeculum answered to our century.
-
-
-SĂGITTĀRĬI. [ARCUS.]
-
-
-SAGMĬNA, were the same as the _verbenae_, namely, herbs torn up by
-their roots from within the inclosure of the Capitoline, which were
-always carried by the Fetiales or ambassadors, when they went to a
-foreign people to demand restitution for wrongs committed against
-the Romans, or to make a treaty. [FETIALES.] They served to mark the
-sacred character of the ambassadors, and answered the same purpose as
-the Greek κηρύκεια.
-
-
-SĂGUM, the cloak worn by the Roman soldiers and inferior officers,
-in contradistinction to the paludamentum of the general and superior
-officers. [PALUDAMENTUM.] It is used in opposition to the toga or
-garb of peace, and we accordingly find, that when there was a war
-in Italy, all citizens put on the sagum even in the city, with the
-exception of those of consular rank (_saga sumere_, _ad saga ire_,
-_in sagis esse_). The sagum was open in the front, and usually
-fastened across the shoulders by a clasp: it resembled in form the
-paludamentum (see cut, p. 281). The cloak worn by the general and
-superior officers is sometimes called _sagum_, but the diminutive
-_sagulum_ is more commonly used in such cases. The cloak worn by the
-northern nations of Europe is also called sagum. The German sagum is
-mentioned by Tacitus: that worn by the Gauls seems to have been a
-species of plaid (_versicolor sagum_).
-
-
-SĂLĂMINĬA. [PARALUS.]
-
-
-SĂLĬI, priests of Mars Gradivus, said to have been instituted by
-Numa. They were twelve in number, chosen from the patricians even
-in the latest times, and formed an ecclesiastical corporation. They
-had the care of the twelve Ancilia, which were kept in the temple of
-Mars on the Palatine hill, whence these priests were sometimes called
-Salii Palatini, to distinguish them from the other Salii mentioned
-below. The distinguishing dress of the Salii was an embroidered tunic
-bound with a brazen belt, the trabea, and the apex, also worn by the
-Flamines. [APEX.] Each had a sword by his side, and in his right hand
-a spear or staff. The festival of Mars was celebrated by the Salii on
-the 1st of March and for several successive days; on which occasion
-they were accustomed to go through the city in their official dress,
-carrying the ancilia in their left hands or suspended from their
-shoulders, and at the same time singing and dancing, whence comes
-their name. The songs or hymns which they sang on this occasion were
-called _Asamenta, ssamenta_, or _Axamenta_, and were chiefly in
-praise of Mamurius Veturius, generally said to be the armourer, who
-made eleven ancilia like the one that was sent from heaven (ancile),
-though some modern writers suppose it to be merely another name of
-Mars. The praises of the gods were also celebrated in the songs
-of the Salii. In later times these songs were scarcely understood
-even by the priests themselves. At the conclusion of the festival
-the Salii were accustomed to partake of a splendid entertainment in
-the temple of Mars, which was proverbial for its excellence. The
-members of the collegium were elected by co-optation. We read of the
-dignities of praesul, vates, and magister in the collegium. The shape
-of the ancile is exhibited in the annexed cut, which illustrates the
-accounts of the ancient writers that its form was oval, but with the
-two sides receding inwards with an even curvature, and so as to make
-it broader at the ends than in the middle. The persons engaged in
-carrying these ancilia on their shoulders, suspended from a pole, are
-probably servants of the Salii. At the top of the cut is represented
-one of the rods with which the Salii were accustomed to beat the
-shield in their dance, as already described.
-
-[Illustration: Salii carrying the Ancilia. (From an ancient Gem.)]
-
-Tullus Hostilius established another collegium of Salii, in
-fulfilment of a vow which he made in a war with the Sabines. These
-Salii were also twelve in number, chosen from the patricians, and
-appear to have been dedicated to the service of Quirinus. They were
-called the Salii Collini, Agonales or Agonenses. It is supposed that
-the oldest and most illustrious college, the Palatine Salii, were
-chosen originally from the oldest tribe, the Ramnes, and the one
-instituted by Tullus Hostilius, or the Quirinalian, from the Tities
-alone: a third college for the Luceres was never established.
-
-
-SĂLĪNAE (ἁλαὶ, ἁλοπήγιον), a salt-work. Throughout the Roman empire
-the salt-works were commonly public property, and were let by the
-government to the highest bidder. The first salt-works are said to
-have been established by Ancus Marcius at Ostia. The publicani who
-farmed these works appear to have sold this most necessary of all
-commodities at a very high price, whence the censors M. Livius and
-C. Claudius (B.C. 204) fixed the price at which those who took the
-lease of them were obliged to sell the salt to the people. At Rome
-the medius was, according to this regulation, sold for a sextans,
-while in other parts of Italy the price was higher and varied. The
-salt-works in Italy and in the provinces were very numerous.
-
-
-SĂLĪNUM, a salt-cellar. All Romans who were raised above poverty
-had one of silver, which descended from father to son, and was
-accompanied by a silver plate, which was used together with the
-salt-cellar in the domestic sacrifices. [PATERA.] These two articles
-of silver were alone compatible with the simplicity of Roman manners
-in the early times of the republic.
-
-
-[Illustration: A Dance. (Lamberti, Villa Borghese.)]
-
-SALTĀTĬO (ὄρχησις, ὀρχηστύς), dancing. The dancing of the Greeks as
-well as of the Romans had very little in common with the exercise
-which goes by that name in modern times. It may be divided into two
-kinds, gymnastic and mimetic; that is, it was intended either to
-represent bodily activity, or to express by gestures, movements,
-and attitudes certain ideas or feelings, and also single events, or
-a series of events, as in the modern ballet. All these movements,
-however, were accompanied by music; but the terms ὄρχησις and
-_saltatio_ were used in so much wider a sense than our word dancing,
-that they were applied to designate gestures, even when the body did
-not move at all. We find dancing prevalent among the Greeks from the
-earliest times. It was originally closely connected with religion.
-In all the public festivals, which were so numerous among the Greeks,
-dancing formed a very prominent part. We find from the earliest times
-that the worship of Apollo was connected with a religious dance,
-called _Hyporchema_ (ὑπόρχημα). All the religious dances, with the
-exception of the Bacchic and the Corybantian, were very simple, and
-consisted of gentle movements of the body, with various turnings and
-windings around the altar: such a dance was the _Geranus_ (γέρανος),
-which Theseus is said to have performed at Delos on his return from
-Crete. The Dionysiac or Bacchic, and the Corybantian, were of a very
-different nature.
-
-[Illustration: Corybantian Dance. (Visconti, Mus. Pio Clem., vol. iv.
-tav. 9.)]
-
-In the former the life and adventures of the god were represented
-by mimetic dancing. [DIONYSIA.] The Corybantian was of a very wild
-character: it was chiefly danced in Phrygia and in Crete; the dancers
-were armed, struck their swords against their shields, and displayed
-the most extravagant fury; it was accompanied chiefly by the flute.
-Respecting the dances in the theatre, see CHORUS. Dancing was applied
-to gymnastic purposes and to training for war, especially in the
-Doric states, and was believed to have contributed very much to the
-success of the Dorians in war, as it enabled them to perform their
-evolutions simultaneously and in order. There were various dances
-in early times, which served as a preparation for war: hence Homer
-calls the Hoplites πρυλέες, a war-dance having been called πρύλις by
-the Cretans. Of such dances the most celebrated was the Pyrrhic (ἡ
-πυῤῥίχη), of which the πρύλις was probably only another name. It was
-danced to the sound of the flute, and its time was very quick and
-light, as is shown by the name of the Pyrrhic foot (˘˘), which must
-be connected with this dance. In the non-Doric states it was probably
-not practised as a training for war, but only as a mimetic dance:
-thus we read of its being danced by women to entertain a company. It
-was also performed at Athens at the greater and lesser Panathenaea
-by ephebi, who were called Pyrrhichists (πυῤῥιχισταί), and were
-trained at the expense of the choragus. In the mountainous parts of
-Thessaly and Macedon dances are performed at the present day by men
-armed with muskets and swords. The Pyrrhic dance was introduced in
-the public games at Rome by Julius Caesar, when it was danced by the
-children of the leading men in Asia and Bithynia. There were other
-dances, besides the PYRRHIC, in which the performers had arms; but
-these seem to have been entirely mimetic, and not practised with any
-view to training for war. Such was the _Carpaea_ (καρπαία), peculiar
-to the Aenianians and Magnetes, and described by Xenophon in the
-Anabasis. Such dances were frequently performed at banquets for the
-entertainment of the guests, where also the tumblers (κυβιστῆρες)
-were often introduced, who in the course of their dance flung
-themselves on their head and alighted again upon their feet. These
-tumblers were also accustomed to make their somersets over knives and
-swords, which was called κυβιστάν εἰς μαχαίρας. We learn from Tacitus
-that the German youths also used to dance among swords and spears
-pointed at them. Other kinds of dances were frequently performed at
-entertainments, in Rome as well as in Greece, by courtezans, many of
-which were of a very indecent and lascivious nature. Among the dances
-performed without arms one of the most important was the _Hormos_
-(ὅρμος), which was danced at Sparta by youths and maidens together:
-the youth danced first some movements suited to his age, and of a
-military nature; the maiden followed in measured steps and with
-feminine gestures. Another common dance at Sparta was the _bibasis_
-(βίβασις), in which the dancer sprang rapidly from the ground and
-struck the feet behind.--Dancing was common among the Romans in
-ancient times, in connection with religious festivals and rites,
-because the ancients thought that no part of the body should be free
-from the influence of religion. The dances of the Salii, which were
-performed by men of patrician families, are described elsewhere.
-[ANCILE.] Dancing, however, was not performed by any Roman citizens
-except in connection with religion, and it was considered disgraceful
-for any freeman to dance. The mimetic dances of the Romans, which
-were carried to such perfection under the empire, are described under
-PANTOMIMUS. The dancers on the tight-rope (_funambuli_) under the
-empire were as skilful as they are in the present day.
-
-[Illustration: Tumbler. (Museo Borbonico, vol. VII. tav. 58.)]
-
-
-SĂLŪTATŌRES, the name given in the later times of the republic, and
-under the empire, to a class of men who obtained their living by
-visiting the houses of the wealthy early in the morning, to pay their
-respects to them (_salutare_), and to accompany them when they went
-abroad. This arose from the visits which the clients were accustomed
-to pay to their patrons, and degenerated in later times into the
-above-mentioned practice: such persons seem to have obtained a good
-living among the great number of wealthy and vain persons at Rome,
-who were gratified by this attention. [SPORTULA.]
-
-
-SAMBŪCA (σαμβύκη), a harp, was of oriental origin. The performances
-of _sambucistriae_ (σαμβυκίστριαι) were only known to the early
-Romans as luxuries brought over from Asia. _Sambuca_ was also the
-name of a military engine, used to scale the walls and towers of
-besieged cities. It was called by this name on account of its general
-resemblance to the form of a harp.
-
-
-SAMNĪTES. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-
-SANDĂLĬUM (σανδάλιον or σάνδαλον), a kind of shoe worn only by women.
-The sandalium must be distinguished from the _hypodema_ (ὑπόδημα),
-which was a simple sole bound under the foot, whereas the sandalium
-was a sole with a piece of leather covering the toes, so that it
-formed the transition from the _hypodema_ to real shoes. The piece of
-leather over the toes was called ζυγός or ζυγόν.
-
-
-SANDĂPĬLA. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-SARCŎPHĂGUS. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-SARISSA. [HASTA.]
-
-
-SARRĀCUM, a kind of common cart or waggon, which was used by the
-country-people of Italy for conveying the produce of their fields,
-trees, and the like, from one place to another.
-
-
-SĂTŬRA, the root of which is _sat_, literally means a mixture of
-all sorts of things. The name was accordingly applied by the Romans
-in many ways, but always to things consisting of various parts or
-ingredients, _e.g._ _lanx satura_, an offering consisting of various
-fruits, such as were offered at harvest festivals and to Ceres; _lex
-per saturam lata_, a law which contained several distinct regulations
-at once, and to a species of poetry, afterwards called _Satira_.
-
-
-SĀTURNĀLĬA, the festival of Saturnus, to whom the inhabitants of
-Latium attributed the introduction of agriculture and the arts of
-civilized life. Falling towards the end of December, at the season
-when the agricultural labours of the year were fully completed, it
-was celebrated in ancient times by the rustic population as a sort
-of joyous harvest-home, and in every age was viewed by all classes
-of the community as a period of absolute relaxation and unrestrained
-merriment. During its continuance no public business could be
-transacted, the law courts were closed, the schools kept holiday,
-to commence a war was impious, to punish a malefactor involved
-pollution. Special indulgences were granted to the slaves of each
-domestic establishment; they were relieved from all ordinary toils,
-were permitted to wear the _pileus_, the badge of freedom, were
-granted full freedom of speech, and partook of a banquet attired in
-the clothes of their masters, and were waited upon by them at table.
-All ranks devoted themselves to feasting and mirth, presents were
-interchanged among friends, _cerei_ or wax tapers being the common
-offering of the more humble to their superiors, and crowds thronged
-the streets, shouting, _Io Saturnalia_ (this was termed _clamare
-Saturnalia_), while sacrifices were offered with uncovered head,
-from a conviction that no ill-omened sight would interrupt the rites
-of such a happy day. Many of the peculiar customs of this festival
-exhibit a remarkable resemblance to the sports of our own Christmas
-and of the Italian Carnival. Thus on the Saturnalia public gambling
-was allowed by the aediles, just as in the days of our ancestors the
-most rigid were wont to countenance card-playing on Christmas-eve;
-the whole population threw off the toga, wore a loose gown, called
-_synthesis_, and walked about with the pileus on their heads, which
-reminds us of the dominos, the peaked caps, and other disguises worn
-by masques and mummers; the _cerei_ were probably employed as the
-_moccoli_ now are on the last night of the Carnival; and lastly,
-one of the amusements in private society was the election of a mock
-king, which at once calls to recollection the characteristic ceremony
-of Twelfth-night. During the republic, although the whole month of
-December was considered as dedicated to Saturn, only one day, the
-XIV. Kal. Jan., was set apart for the sacred rites of the divinity.
-When the month was lengthened by the addition of two days upon the
-adoption of the Julian Calendar, the Saturnalia fell on the XVI.
-Kal. Jan., which gave rise to confusion and mistakes among the more
-ignorant portion of the people. To obviate this inconvenience, and
-allay all religious scruples, Augustus enacted that three whole days,
-the 17th, 18th, and 19th of December, should in all time coming be
-hallowed, thus embracing both the old and new style. Under the empire
-the merry-making lasted for seven days, and three different festivals
-were celebrated during this period. First came the _Saturnalia_
-proper, commencing on XVI. Kal. Dec., followed by the _Opalia_,
-anciently coincident with the Saturnalia, on XIV. Kal. Jan.; these
-two together lasted for five days, and the sixth and seventh were
-occupied with the _Sigillaria_, so called from little earthenware
-figures (_sigilla_, _oscilla_) exposed for sale at this season, and
-given as toys to children.
-
-
-SCALPTŪRA or SCULPTŪRA, originally signified cutting figures out of
-a solid material, but was more particularly applied to the art of
-cutting figures into the material (intaglios), which was chiefly
-applied to producing seals and matrices for the mints; and 2. the
-art of producing raised figures (cameos), which served for the most
-part as ornaments. _Sculpture_ in our sense of the word was usually
-designated by the term STATUARIA. The first artist who is mentioned
-as an engraver of stones is Theodoras, the son of Telecles, the
-Samian, who engraved the stone in the ring of Polycrates. The most
-celebrated among them was Pyrgoteles, who engraved the seal-rings
-for Alexander the Great. Several of the successors of Alexander and
-other wealthy persons adopted the custom of adorning their gold and
-silver vessels, craters, candelabras, and the like, with precious
-stones on which raised figures (cameos) were worked. The art was
-in a particularly flourishing state at Rome under Augustus and his
-successors, in the hands of Dioscurides and other artists, many of
-whose works are still preserved. Numerous specimens of intaglios and
-cameos are still preserved in the various museums of Europe.
-
-
-SCAMNUM, _dim._ SCĂBELLTUM, a step which was placed before the beds
-of the ancients in order to assist persons in getting into them, as
-some were very high: others which were lower required also lower
-steps, which were called _scabella_. A scamnum was also used as a
-footstool. A scamnum extended in length becomes a bench, and in
-this sense the word is frequently used. The benches in ships were
-sometimes called scamna.
-
-
-SCĒNA. [THEATRUM.]
-
-
-SCEPTRUM (σκῆπτρον), which originally denoted a simple staff or
-walking-stick, was emblematic of station and authority. In ancient
-authors the sceptre is represented as belonging more especially
-to kings, princes, and leaders of tribes: but it is also borne by
-judges, by heralds, and by priests and seers. The sceptre descended
-from father to son, and might be committed to any one in order to
-express the transfer of authority. Those who bore the sceptre swore
-by it, solemnly taking it in the right hand and raising it towards
-heaven. The ivory sceptre of the kings of Rome, which descended to
-the consuls, was surmounted by an eagle.
-
-
-SCHOENUS (ὁ, ἡ, σχοῖνος), an Egyptian and Persian measure, the length
-of which is stated by Herodotus at 60 stadia, or 2 parasangs. It was
-used especially for measuring land.
-
-
-SCORPĬO. [TORMENTUM.]
-
-
-SCRĪBAE, public notaries or clerks, in the pay of the Roman state.
-They were chiefly employed in making up the public accounts,
-copying out laws, and recording the proceedings of the different
-functionaries of the state. The phrase _scriptum facere_ was used
-to denote their occupation. Being very numerous, they were divided
-into companies or classes (_decuriae_), and were assigned by lot to
-different magistrates, whence they were named Quaestorii, Aedilicii,
-or Praetorii, from the officers of state to whom they were attached.
-The appointment to the office of a “scriba” seems to have been
-either made on the nomination of a magistrate, or purchased. Horace,
-for instance, bought for himself a “patent place as clerk in the
-treasury” (_scriptum quaestorium comparavit_). In Cicero’s time,
-indeed, it seems that any one might become a scriba or public clerk
-by purchase, and consequently, as freedmen and their sons were
-eligible, and constituted a great portion of the public clerks at
-Rome, the office was not highly esteemed, though frequently held by
-ingenui or free-born citizens. Very few instances are recorded of
-the scribae being raised to the higher dignities of the state. Cn.
-Flavius, the scribe of Appius Claudius, was raised to the office of
-curule aedile in gratitude for his making public the various forms
-of actions, which had previously been the exclusive property of the
-patricians [ACTIO]; but the returning officer refused to acquiesce in
-his election till he had given up his books and left his profession.
-
-
-SCRĪNĬUM. [CAPSA.]
-
-
-SCRIPTA DUŎDĔCIM. [LATRUNCULI.]
-
-
-SCRIPTŪRA, that part of the revenue of the Roman Republic which was
-derived from letting out, as pasture land, those portions of the
-ager publicus which were not taken into cultivation. The names for
-such parts of the ager publicus were, _pascua publica_, _saltus_,
-or _silvae_. They were let by the censors to the publicani, like
-all other vectigalia; and the persons who sent their cattle to
-graze on such public pastures had to pay a certain tax or duty to
-the publicani, which of course varied according to the number and
-quality of the cattle which they kept upon them. The publicani had
-to keep the lists of persons who sent their cattle upon the public
-pastures, together with the number and quality of the cattle. From
-this registering (_scribere_) the duty itself was called _scriptura_,
-the public pasture land _ager scripturarius_, and the publicani, or
-their agents who raised the tax, _scripturarii_. The Lex Thoria (B.C.
-111) did away with the scriptura in Italy, where the public pastures
-were very numerous and extensive, especially in Apulia, and the lands
-themselves were now sold or distributed. In the provinces, where the
-public pastures were also let out in the same manner, the practice
-continued until the time of the empire; but afterwards the scriptura
-is no longer mentioned.
-
-
-SCRŪPŬLUM, or more properly SCRIPULUM or SCRIPLUM (γράμμα), the
-smallest denomination of weight among the Romans. It was the 24th
-part of the UNCIA, or the 288th of the LIBRA, and therefore = 18·06
-grains English, which is about the average weight of the scrupular
-aurei still in existence. [AURUM.] As a square measure, it was the
-smallest division of the jugerum, which contained 288 scrupula.
-[JUGERUM.]
-
-
-SCŪTUM (θυρεός), the Roman shield worn by the heavy-armed infantry,
-instead of being round, like the Greek CLIPEUS, was adapted to the
-form of the human body, by being made either oval or of the shape
-of a door, (θύρα), which it also resembled in being made of wood or
-wicker-work, and from which consequently its Greek name was derived.
-Polybius says that the dimensions of the scutum were 4 feet by 2½.
-
-[Illustration: Scuta, shields. (Bartoli, Arcus Triumph.)]
-
-
-SCỸTĂLĒ (σκυτάλη) is the name applied to a secret mode of writing, by
-which the Spartan ephors communicated with their kings and generals
-when abroad. When a king or general left Sparta, the ephors gave to
-him a staff of a definite length and thickness, and retained for
-themselves another of precisely the same size. When they had any
-communications to make to him, they cut the material upon which they
-intended to write into the shape of a narrow riband, wound it round
-their staff, and then wrote upon it the message which they had to
-send to him. When the strip of writing material was taken from the
-staff, nothing but single letters appeared, and in this state the
-strip was sent to the general, who, after having wound it round his
-staff, was able to read the communication.
-
-
-SCỸTHAE (Σκύθαι). [DEMOSII.]
-
-
-SĔCESPĬTA, an instrument used by the Roman priests in killing the
-victims at sacrifices, probably an axe. In the annexed coin, the
-reverse represents a culter, a simpuvium, and a secespita.
-
-[Illustration: Secespita, Culter, and Simpuvium. (Coin of Sulpicia
-Gens.)]
-
-
-SECTĬO, the sale of a man’s property by the state (_publice_). This
-was done in consequence of a condemnatio, and for the purpose of
-repayment to the state of such sums of money as the condemned person
-had improperly appropriated; or in consequence of a proscriptio.
-Sometimes the things sold were called _sectio_. Those who bought the
-property were called _sectores_. The property was sold _sub hasta_.
-
-
-SECTOR. [SECTIO.]
-
-
-SĔCŪRIS (ἀξινη, πέλεκυς), an axe or hatchet. The axe was either made
-with a single edge, or with a blade or head on each side of the haft,
-the latter kind being denominated _bipennis_. The axe was used as a
-weapon of war chiefly by the Asiatic nations. It was a part of the
-Roman fasces. [FASCES.]
-
-
-SĔCŪTŌRES. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Sellae Curules. (The top figure from the Vatican
-collection; the two bottom figures from the Museum at Naples.)]
-
-SELLA, the general term for a seat or chair of any description.--(1)
-SELLA CURULIS, the chair of state. _Curulis_ is derived by the
-ancient writers from _currus_, but it more probably contains the
-same root as _curia_. The sella curulis is said to have been used at
-Rome from a very remote period as an emblem of kingly power, having
-been imported, along with various other insignia of royalty, from
-Etruria. Under the republic the right of sitting upon this chair
-belonged to the consuls, praetors, curule aediles, and censors; to
-the flamen dialis; to the dictator, and to those whom he deputed to
-act under himself, as the _magister equitum_, since he might be said
-to comprehend all magistracies within himself. After the downfall of
-the constitution, it was assigned to the emperors also, or to their
-statues in their absence; to the augustales, and perhaps, to the
-praefectus urbi. It was displayed upon all great public occasions,
-especially in the circus and theatre; and it was the seat of the
-praetor when he administered justice. In the provinces it was
-assumed by inferior magistrates, when they exercised proconsular or
-propraetorian authority. We find it occasionally exhibited on the
-medals of foreign monarchs likewise, as on those of Ariobarzanes
-II. of Cappadocia, for it was the practice of the Romans to present
-a curule chair, an ivory sceptre, a toga praetexta, and such-like
-ornaments, as tokens of respect and confidence to those rulers whose
-friendship they desired to cultivate. The sella curulis appears
-from the first to have been ornamented with ivory; and at a later
-period it was overlaid with gold. In shape it was extremely plain,
-closely resembling a common folding camp-stool with crooked legs. The
-sella curulis is frequently represented upon the denarii of Roman
-families. In the following cut are represented two pair of bronze
-legs, belonging to a sella curulis, and likewise a sella curulis
-itself.--(2) SELLA GESTATORIA, or FERTORIA, a sedan used both in
-town and country, and by men as well as by women. It is expressly
-distinguished from the LECTICA, a portable bed or sofa, in which the
-person carried lay in a recumbent position, while the _sella_ was
-a portable chair, in which the occupant sat upright. It differed
-from the _cathedra_ also, but in what the difference consisted,
-it is not easy to determine. [CATHEDRA.] It appears not to have
-been introduced until long after the lectica was common, since we
-scarcely, if ever, find any allusion to it until the period of the
-empire. The sella was sometimes entirely open, but more frequently
-shut in. It was made sometimes of plain leather, and sometimes
-ornamented with bone, ivory, silver, or gold, according to the
-fortune of the proprietor. It was furnished with a pillow to support
-the head and neck (_cervical_); the motion was so easy that one might
-study without inconvenience, while at the same time it afforded a
-healthful exercise.--(3) Chairs for ordinary domestic purposes have
-been discovered in excavations, or are seen represented in ancient
-frescoes, many displaying great taste.
-
-[Illustration: Sellae, Chairs. (The right-hand figure from the
-Vatican collection; the left-hand figure from a Painting at Pompeii.)]
-
-
-SĒMIS, SĒMISSIS. [AS.]
-
-
-SĒMUNCĬA. [UNCIA.]
-
-
-SĒMUNCIĀRĬUM FĒNUS. [FENUS.]
-
-
-SĔNĀTUS. In all the republics of antiquity the government was divided
-between a senate and a popular assembly; and in cases where a king
-stood at the head of affairs, as at Sparta and in early Rome, the
-king had little more than the executive. A senate in the early times
-was always regarded as an assembly of elders, which is in fact the
-meaning of the Roman senatus, as of the Spartan (γερουσία), and its
-members were elected from among the nobles of the nation. The number
-of senators in the ancient republics always bore a distinct relation
-to the number of tribes of which the nation was composed. [BOULE;
-GEROUSIA.] Hence in the earliest times, when Rome consisted of only
-one tribe, its senate consisted of one hundred members (_senatores_
-or _patres_; compare PATRICII), and when the Sabine tribe or the
-Tities became united with the Latin tribe or the Ramnes, the number
-of senators was increased to two hundred. This number was again
-augmented to three hundred by Tarquinius Priscus, when the third
-tribe or the Luceres became incorporated with the Roman state. The
-new senators added by Tarquinius Priscus were distinguished from
-those belonging to the two older tribes by the appellation _patres
-minorum gentium_, as previously those who represented the Tities had
-been distinguished, by the same name, from those who represented
-the Ramnes. Under Tarquinius Superbus the number of senators is
-said to have become very much diminished, as he is reported to have
-put many to death and sent others into exile. This account however
-appears to be greatly exaggerated, and it is probable that several
-vacancies in the senate arose from many of the senators accompanying
-the tyrant into his exile. The vacancies which had thus arisen were
-filled up immediately after the establishment of the republic, when
-several noble plebeians of equestrian rank were made senators. These
-new senators were distinguished from the old ones by the name of
-_Conscripti_; and hence the customary mode of addressing the whole
-senate henceforth always was: _Patres Conscripti_, that is, _Patres
-et Conscripti_.--The number of 300 senators appears to have remained
-unaltered for several centuries. The first permanent increase to
-their number was made by Sulla, and the senate seems henceforth
-to have consisted of between five and six hundred. Julius Caesar
-augmented the number to 900, and raised to this dignity even common
-soldiers, freedmen, and peregrini. Augustus cleared the senate of
-the unworthy members, who were contemptuously called by the people
-_Orcini senatores_, and reduced its number to 600.--In the time
-of the kings the senate was probably elected by the gentes, each
-gens appointing one member as its representative; and as there
-were 300 gentes, there were consequently 300 senators. The whole
-senate was divided into decuries, each of which corresponded to a
-curia. When the senate consisted of only one hundred members, there
-were accordingly only ten decuries of senators; and ten senators,
-one being taken from each decury, formed the _Decem Primi_, who
-represented the ten curies. When subsequently the representatives
-of the two other tribes were admitted into the senate, the Ramnes
-with their decem primi retained for a time their superiority over
-the two other tribes, and gave their votes first. The first among
-the decem primi was the _princeps senatus_, who was appointed by
-the king, and was at the same time custos urbis. [PRAEFECTUS URBI.]
-Respecting the age at which a person might be elected into the senate
-during the kingly period, we know no more than what is indicated
-by the name senator itself, that is, that they were persons of
-advanced age.--Soon after the establishment of the republic, though
-at what time is uncertain, the right of appointing senators passed
-from the gentes into the hands of the consuls, consular tribunes,
-and subsequently of the censors. At the same time, the right which
-the magistrates possessed of electing senators was by no means an
-arbitrary power, for the senators were usually taken from among
-those whom the people had previously invested with a magistracy,
-so that in reality the people themselves always nominated the
-candidates for the senate, which on this account remained, as before,
-a representative assembly. After the institution of the censorship,
-the censors alone had the right of introducing new members into
-the senate from among the ex-magistrates, and of excluding such
-as they deemed unworthy. [CENSOR.] The exclusion was effected by
-simply passing over the names, and not entering them on the lists of
-senators, whence such men were called _Praeteriti Senatores_. On one
-extraordinary occasion the eldest among the ex-censors was invested
-with dictatorial power for the purpose of filling up vacancies in
-the senate.--As all curule magistrates, and also the quaestors, had
-by virtue of their office a seat in the senate, even if they had not
-been elected senators, we must distinguish between two classes of
-senators, viz., real senators, or such as had been regularly raised
-to their dignity by the magistrates or the censors, and such as had,
-by virtue of the office which they held or had held, a right to
-take their seats in the senate and to speak (_sententiam dicere_,
-_jus sententiae_), but not to vote. To this ordo senatorius also
-belonged the pontifex maximus and the flamen dialis. Though these
-senators had no right to vote, they might, when the real senators
-had voted, step over or join the one or the other party, whence they
-were called _Senatores Pedarii_, an appellation which had in former
-times been applied to those juniores who were not consulars. When at
-length all the state offices had become equally accessible to the
-plebeians and the patricians, and when the majority of offices were
-held by the former, their number in the senate naturally increased in
-proportion. The senate had gradually become an assembly representing
-the people, as formerly it had represented the populus, and down to
-the last century of the republic the senatorial dignity was only
-regarded as one conferred by the people. But notwithstanding this
-apparently popular character of the senate, it was never a popular
-or democratic assembly, for now its members belonged to the nobiles,
-who were as aristocratic as the patricians. [NOBILES.] The office of
-princeps senatus, which had become independent of that of praetor
-urbanus, was now given by the censors, and at first always to the
-eldest among the ex-censors, but afterwards to any other senator
-whom they thought most worthy; and unless there was any charge to
-be made against him, he was re-elected at the next lustrum. This
-distinction, however, great as it was, afforded neither power nor
-advantages, and did not even confer the privilege of presiding at the
-meetings of the senate, which only belonged to those magistrates who
-had the right of convoking the senate.--During the republican period
-no senatorial census existed, although senators naturally always
-belonged to the wealthiest classes. The institution of a census for
-senators belongs to the time of the empire. Augustus first fixed
-it at 400,000 sesterces, afterwards increased it to double this
-sum, and at last even to 1,200,000 sesterces. Those senators whose
-property did not amount to this sum received grants from the emperor
-to make it up. As regards the age at which a person might become a
-senator, we have no express statement for the time of the republic,
-although it appears to have been fixed by some custom or law, as
-the aetas senatoria is frequently mentioned, especially during the
-latter period of the republic. But we may by induction discover the
-probable age. We know that, according to the lex annalis of the
-tribune Villius, the age fixed for the quaestorship was 31. Now as
-it might happen that a quaestor was made a senator immediately after
-the expiration of his office, we may presume that the earliest age
-at which a man could become a senator was 32. Augustus at last fixed
-the senatorial age at 25, which appears to have remained unaltered
-throughout the time of the empire.--No senator was allowed to carry
-on any mercantile business. About the commencement of the second
-Punic war, some senators appear to have violated this law or custom,
-and in order to prevent its recurrence a law was passed, with the
-vehement opposition of the senate, that none of its members should
-be permitted to possess a ship of more than 300 amphorae in tonnage,
-as this was thought sufficiently large to convey to Rome the produce
-of their estates abroad. It is clear, however, that this law was
-frequently violated.--Regular meetings of the senate (_senatus
-legitimus_) took place during the republic, and probably during the
-kingly period also, on the calends, nones, and ides of every month:
-extraordinary meetings (_senatus indictus_) might be convoked on any
-other day, with the exception of those which were atri, and those on
-which comitia were held. The right of convoking the senate during the
-kingly period belonged to the king, or to his vicegerent, the custos
-urbis. This right was during the republic transferred to the curule
-magistrates, and at last to the tribunes also. If a senator did not
-appear on a day of meeting, he was liable to a fine, for which a
-pledge was taken (_pignoris captio_) until it was paid. Towards the
-end of the republic it was decreed, that during the whole month of
-February the senate should give audience to foreign ambassadors on
-all days on which the senate could lawfully meet, and that no other
-matters should be discussed until these affairs were settled.--The
-places where the meetings of the senate were held (_curiae_,
-_senacula_) were always inaugurated by the augurs. [TEMPLUM.] The
-most ancient place was the Curia Hostilia, in which alone originally
-a senatus-consultum could be made. Afterwards, however, several
-temples were used for this purpose, such as the temple of Concordia,
-a place near the temple of Bellona [LEGATUS], and one near the porta
-Capena. Under the emperors the senate also met in other places: under
-Caesar, the Curia Julia, a building of extraordinary splendour, was
-commenced; but subsequently meetings of the senate were frequently
-held in the house of a consul.--The subjects laid before the senate
-belonged partly to the internal affairs of the state, partly to
-legislation, and partly to finance; and no measure could be brought
-before the populus without having previously been discussed and
-prepared by the senate. The senate was thus the medium through which
-all affairs of the whole government had to pass: it considered and
-discussed whatever measures the king thought proper to introduce,
-and had, on the other hand, a perfect control over the assembly
-of the populus, which could only accept or reject what the senate
-brought before it. When a king died, the royal dignity, until a
-successor was elected, was transferred to the Decem Primi, each of
-whom in rotation held this dignity for five days. Under the republic,
-the senate had at first the right of proposing to the comitia the
-candidates for magistracies, but this right was subsequently lost:
-the comitia centuriata became quite free in regard to elections, and
-were no longer dependent upon the proposal of the senate. The curies
-only still possessed the right of sanctioning the election; but in
-the year B.C. 299 they were compelled to sanction any election of
-magistrates which the comitia might make, before it took place, and
-this soon after became law by the Lex Maenia. When at last the curies
-no longer assembled for this empty show of power, the senate stepped
-into their place, and henceforth in elections, and soon after also
-in matters of legislation, the senate had previously to sanction
-whatever the comitia might decide. After the Lex Hortensia a decree
-of the comitia tributa became law, even without the sanction of
-the senate. The original state of things had thus gradually become
-reversed, and the senate had lost very important branches of its
-power, which had all been gained by the comitia tributa. In its
-relation to the comitia centuriata, however, the ancient rules were
-still in force, as laws, declarations of war, conclusions of peace,
-treaties, &c., were brought before them, and decided by them on the
-proposal of the senate.--The powers of the senate, after both orders
-were placed upon a perfect equality, may be thus briefly summed up.
-The senate continued to have the supreme superintendence in all
-matters of religion; it determined upon the manner in which a war was
-to be conducted, what legions were to be placed at the disposal of a
-commander, and whether new ones were to be levied; it decreed into
-what provinces the consuls and praetors were to be sent [PROVINCIA],
-and whose imperium was to be prolonged. The commissioners who were
-generally sent out to settle the administration of a newly-conquered
-country, were always appointed by the senate. All embassies for the
-conclusion of peace or treaties with foreign states were sent out by
-the senate, and such ambassadors were generally senators themselves,
-and ten in number. The senate alone carried on the negotiations with
-foreign ambassadors, and received the complaints of subject or allied
-nations, who always regarded the senate as their common protector.
-By virtue of this office of protector it also settled all disputes
-which might arise among the municipia and colonies of Italy, and
-punished all heavy crimes committed in Italy, which might endanger
-the public peace and security. Even in Rome itself, the judices to
-whom the praetor referred important cases, both public and private,
-were taken from among the senators, and in extraordinary cases the
-senate appointed especial commissions to investigate them; but
-such a commission, if the case in question was a capital offence
-committed by a citizen, required the sanction of the people. When
-the republic was in danger, the senate might confer unlimited power
-upon the magistrates by the formula, _Videant consules, ne quid
-respublica detrimenti capiat_, which was equivalent to a declaration
-of martial law within the city. This general care for the internal
-and external welfare of the republic included, as before, the right
-of disposing of the finances requisite for these purposes. Hence all
-the revenue and expenditure of the republic were under the direct
-administration of the senate, and the censors and quaestors were
-only its ministers or agents. [CENSOR; QUAESTOR.] All the expenses
-necessary for the maintenance of the armies required the sanction
-of the senate, before anything could be done, and it might even
-prevent the triumph of a returning general, by refusing to assign the
-money necessary for it. There are, however, instances of a general
-triumphing without the consent of the senate.--How many members were
-required to be present in order to constitute a legal assembly, is
-uncertain, though it appears that there existed some regulations on
-this point, and there is one instance on record, in which at least
-one hundred senators were required to be present. The presiding
-magistrate opened the business with the words _Quod bonum, faustum,
-felix fortunatumque sit populo Romano Quiritibus_, and then laid
-before the assembly (_referre_, _relatio_) what he had to propose.
-Towards the end of the republic the order in which the question was
-put to the senators appears to have depended upon the discretion of
-the presiding consul, who called upon each member by pronouncing his
-name; but he usually began with the princeps senatus, or if consules
-designati were present, with them. The consul generally observed
-all the year round the same order in which he had commenced on the
-first of January. A senator when called upon to speak might do so
-at full length, and even introduce subjects not directly connected
-with the point at issue. It depended upon the president which of the
-opinions expressed he would put to the vote, and which he would pass
-over. The majority of votes always decided a question. The majority
-was ascertained either by _numeratio_ or _discessio_; that is, the
-president either counted the votes, or the members who voted on the
-same side separated from those who voted otherwise. The latter mode
-seems to have been the usual one. What the senate determined was
-called _senatus consultum_, because the consul, who introduced the
-business, was said _senatum consulere_. In the enacting part of a
-lex the populus were said _jubere_, and in a plebiscitum _scire_;
-in a senatusconsultum the senate was said _censere_. Certain forms
-were observed in drawing up a senatusconsultum, of which there is an
-example in Cicero: “S. C. Auctoritates Pridie Kal. Octob. in Aede
-Apollinis, scribendo adfuerunt L. Domitius Cn. Filius Ahenobarbus,
-&c. Quod M. Marcellus Consul V. F. (_verba fecit_) de prov. Cons. D.
-E. R. I. C. (_de ea re ita censuerunt Uti, &c._)” The names of the
-persons who were witnesses to the drawing up of the senatusconsultum
-were called the _auctoritates_, and these auctoritates were cited
-as evidence of the fact of the persons named in them having been
-present at the drawing up of the S.C. There can be no doubt that
-certain persons were required to be present _scribendo_, but others
-might assist if they chose, and a person in this way might testify
-his regard for another on behalf of whom or with reference to whom
-the S. C. was made. Besides the phrase _scribendo adesse_, there are
-_esse ad scribendum_ and _poni ad scribendum_. When a S. C. was made
-on the motion of a person, it was said to be made _in sententiam
-ejus_. If the S. C. was carried, it was written on tablets, and
-placed in the Aerarium. Senatusconsulta were, properly speaking,
-laws, for it is clear that the senate had legislative power even
-in the republican period; but it is difficult to determine how far
-their legislative power extended. A _decretum_ of the senate was a
-rule made by the senate as to some matter which was strictly within
-its competence, and thus differed from a _senatusconsultum_, which
-was a law; but these words are often used indiscriminately and with
-little precision. Many of the senatusconsulta of the republican
-period were only determinations of the senate, which became leges
-by being carried in the comitia. One instance of this kind occurred
-on the occasion of the trial of Clodius for violating the mysteries
-of the Bona Dea. A rogatio on the subject of the trial was proposed
-to the comitia ex senatusconsulto, which is also spoken of as the
-_auctoritas_ of the senate. A senate was not allowed to be held
-before sunrise or to be prolonged after sunset: on extraordinary
-emergencies, however, this regulation was set aside.--During the
-latter part of the republic the senate was degraded in various ways
-by Sulla, Caesar, and others, and on many occasions it was only an
-instrument in the hands of the men in power. In this way it became
-prepared for the despotic government of the emperors, when it was
-altogether the creature and obedient instrument of the princeps. The
-emperor himself was generally also princeps senatus, and had the
-power of convoking both ordinary and extraordinary meetings, although
-the consuls, praetors and tribunes continued to have the same right.
-The ordinary meetings, according to a regulation of Augustus, were
-held twice in every month. In the reign of Tiberius the election of
-magistrates was transferred from the people to the senate, which,
-however, was enjoined to take especial notice of those candidates who
-were recommended to it by the emperor. At the demise of an emperor
-the senate had the right of appointing his successor, in case no one
-had been nominated by the emperor himself; but the senate very rarely
-had an opportunity of exercising this right, as it was usurped by the
-soldiers. The aerarium at first still continued nominally to be under
-the control of the senate, but the emperors gradually took it under
-their own exclusive management, and the senate retained nothing but
-the administration of the funds of the city (_arca publica_), which
-were distinct both from the aerarium and from the fiscus. Augustus
-ordained that no accusations should any longer be brought before the
-comitia, and instead of them he raised the senate to a high court
-of justice, upon which he conferred the right of taking cognisance
-of capital offences committed by senators, of crimes against the
-state and the person of the emperors, and of crimes committed by the
-provincial magistrates in the administration of their provinces.
-Respecting the provinces of the senate, see PROVINCIA. Under the
-empire, senatusconsulta began to take the place of leges, properly so
-called, and as the senate was, with the exception of the emperor, the
-only legislating body, such senatusconsulta are frequently designated
-by the name of the consuls in whose year of office they were
-passed.--The distinctions and privileges enjoyed by senators were:
-1. The tunica with a broad purple stripe (_latus clavus_) in front,
-which was woven in it, and not, as is commonly believed, sewed upon
-it. 2. A kind of short boot, with the letter C. on the front of the
-foot. This C. is generally supposed to mean _centum_, and to refer
-to the original number of 100 (_centum_) senators. 3. The right of
-sitting in the orchestra in the theatres and amphitheatres. This
-distinction was first procured for the senators by Scipio Africanus
-Major, 194 B.C. 4. On a certain day in the year a sacrifice was
-offered to Jupiter in the Capitol, and on this occasion the senators
-alone had a feast in the Capitol; the right was called the _jus
-publice epulandi_. 5. The _jus liberae legationis_. [LEGATUS, p. 224.]
-
-
-SĔNĬŌRES. [COMITIA.]
-
-
-SEPTEMVĬRI ĔPŬLŌNES. [EPULONES.]
-
-
-SEPTĬMONTĬUM, a Roman festival which was held in the month of
-December. It was celebrated by the montani, or the inhabitants of the
-seven ancient hills or rather districts of Rome, who offered on this
-day sacrifices to the gods in their respective districts. These sacra
-were, like the Paganalia, not sacra publica, but privata. They were
-believed to have been instituted to commemorate the enclosure of the
-seven hills of Rome within the walls of the city, and must certainly
-be referred to a time when the Capitoline, Quirinal, and Viminal were
-not yet incorporated with Rome.
-
-
-SEPTUM. [COMITIA, p. 107.]
-
-
-SEPTUNX. [AS.]
-
-
-SĔPULCRUM. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-SĔRA. [JANUA.]
-
-
-SĒRĬCUM (σηρικόν), silk, also called _bombycinum_. Raw silk was
-brought from the interior of Asia, and manufactured in Cos, as early
-as the fourth century B.C. From this island it appears that the Roman
-ladies obtained their most splendid garments [COA VESTIS], which
-were remarkably thin, sometimes of a fine purple dye, and variegated
-with transverse stripes of gold. Silk was supposed to come from
-the country of the Seres in Asia, whence a silk garment is usually
-called _Serica vestis_. Under the empire the rage for such garments
-was constantly on the increase. Even men aspired to be adorned with
-silk, and hence the senate, early in the reign of Tiberius, enacted
-_ne vestis Serica viros fœdaret_. The eggs of the silkworm were first
-brought into Europe in the age of Justinian, A.D. 530, in the hollow
-stem of a plant from “Serinda,” which was probably Khotan in Little
-Bucharia, by some monks who had learnt the method of hatching and
-rearing them.
-
-
-SERTA. [CORONA.]
-
-
-SERVUS (δοῦλος), a slave. (1) GREEK. Slavery existed almost
-throughout the whole of Greece; and Aristotle says that a complete
-household is that which consists of slaves and freemen, and he
-defines a slave to be a living working-tool and possession. None of
-the Greek philosophers ever seem to have objected to slavery as a
-thing morally wrong; Plato in his perfect state only desires that
-no Greeks should be made slaves by Greeks, and Aristotle defends
-the justice of the institution on the ground of a diversity of
-race, and divides mankind into the free and those who are slaves by
-nature; under the latter description he appears to have regarded
-all barbarians in the Greek sense of the word, and therefore
-considers their slavery justifiable. In the most ancient times
-there are said to have been no slaves in Greece, but we find them
-in the Homeric poems, though by no means so generally as in later
-times. They are usually prisoners taken in war, who serve their
-conquerors: but we also read as well of the purchase and sale of
-slaves. They were, however, at that time mostly confined to the
-houses of the wealthy. There were two kinds of slavery among the
-Greeks. One species arose when the inhabitants of a country were
-subdued by an invading tribe, and reduced to the condition of serfs
-or bondsmen. They lived upon and cultivated the land which their
-masters had appropriated to themselves, and paid them a certain
-rent. They also attended their masters in war. They could not be
-sold out of the country or separated from their families, and could
-acquire property. Such were the Helots of Sparta [HELOTES], and
-the Penestae of Thessaly [PENESTAE]. The other species of slavery
-consisted of domestic slaves acquired by purchase, who were entirely
-the property of their masters, and could be disposed of like any
-other goods and chattels: these were the δοῦλοι properly so called,
-and were the kind of slaves that existed at Athens and Corinth. In
-commercial cities slaves were very numerous, as they performed the
-work of the artisans and manufacturers of modern towns. In poorer
-republics, which had little or no capital, and which subsisted
-wholly by agriculture, they would be few: thus in Phocis and Locris
-there are said to have been originally no domestic slaves. The
-majority of slaves was purchased; few comparatively were born in the
-family of the master, partly because the number of female slaves
-was very small in comparison with the male, and partly because the
-cohabitation of slaves was discouraged, as it was considered cheaper
-to purchase than to rear slaves. It was a recognised rule of Greek
-national law that the persons of those who were taken prisoners in
-war became the property of the conqueror, but it was the practice
-for Greeks to give liberty to those of their own nation on payment
-of a ransom. Consequently almost all slaves in Greece, with the
-exception of the serfs above-mentioned, were barbarians. The chief
-supply seems to have come from the Greek colonies in Asia Minor,
-which had abundant opportunities of obtaining them from their own
-neighbourhood and the interior of Asia. A considerable number of
-slaves also came from Thrace, where the parents frequently sold
-their children.--At Athens, as well as in other states, there was a
-regular slave-market, called the κύκλος, because the slaves stood
-round in a circle. They were also sometimes sold by auction, and were
-then placed on a stone, as is now done when slaves are sold in the
-United States of North America: the same was also the practice in
-Rome, whence the phrase _homo de lapide emtus_. [AUCTIO.] At Athens
-the number of slaves was far greater than the free population. Even
-the poorest citizen had a slave for the care of his household, and
-in every moderate establishment many were employed for all possible
-occupations, as bakers, cooks, tailors, &c.--Slaves either worked on
-their masters’ account or their own (in the latter case they paid
-their masters a certain sum a day); or they were let out by their
-master on hire, either for the mines or any other kind of labour,
-or as hired servants for wages. The rowers on board the ships were
-usually slaves, who either belonged to the state or to private
-persons, who let them out to the state on payment of a certain sum.
-It appears that a considerable number of persons kept large gangs
-of slaves merely for the purpose of letting out, and found this
-a profitable mode of investing their capital. Great numbers were
-required for the mines, and in most cases the mine-lessees would
-be obliged to hire some, as they would not have sufficient capital
-to purchase as many as they wanted. The rights of possession with
-regard to slaves differed in no respect from any other property;
-they could be given or taken as pledges. The condition, however, of
-Greek slaves was upon the whole better than that of Roman ones, with
-the exception perhaps of Sparta, where, according to Plutarch, it is
-the best place in the world to be a freeman, and the worst to be a
-slave. At Athens especially the slaves seem to have been allowed a
-degree of liberty and indulgence which was never granted to them at
-Rome. The life and person of a slave at Athens were also protected
-by the law: a person who struck or maltreated a slave was liable
-to an action; a slave too could not be put to death without legal
-sentence. He could even take shelter from the cruelty of his master
-in the temple of Theseus, and there claim the privilege of being
-sold by him. The person of a slave was, of course, not considered
-so sacred as that of a freeman: his offences were punished with
-corporal chastisement, which was the last mode of punishment
-inflicted on a freeman; he was not believed upon his oath, but
-his evidence in courts of justice was always taken with torture.
-Notwithstanding the generally mild treatment of slaves in Greece,
-their insurrection was not unfrequent: but these insurrections in
-Attica were usually confined to the mining slaves, who were treated
-with more severity than the others. Slaves were sometimes manumitted
-at Athens, though not so frequently as at Rome. Those who were
-manumitted (ἀπελεύθεροι) did not become citizens, as they might at
-Rome, but passed into the condition of _metoici_. They were obliged
-to honour their former master as their patron (προστάτης), and to
-fulfil certain duties towards him, the neglect of which rendered them
-liable to the δίκη ἀποστασίου, by which they might again be sold
-into slavery. Respecting the public slaves at Athens, see DEMOSII.
-It appears that there was a tax upon slaves at Athens, which was
-probably three oboli a year for each slave.--(2) ROMAN. The Romans
-viewed liberty as the natural state, and slavery as a condition which
-was contrary to the natural state. The mutual relation of slave and
-master among the Romans was expressed by the terms _Servus_ and
-_Dominus_; and the power and interest which the dominus had over and
-in the slave was expressed by _Dominium_. Slaves existed at Rome
-in the earliest times of which we have any record; but they do not
-appear to have been numerous under the kings and in the earliest
-ages of the republic. The different trades and the mechanical arts
-were chiefly carried on by the clients of the patricians, and the
-small farms in the country were cultivated for the most part by
-the labours of the proprietor and of his own family. But as the
-territories of the Roman state were extended, the patricians obtained
-possession of large estates out of the ager publicus, since it was
-the practice of the Romans to deprive a conquered people of part
-of their land. These estates probably required a larger number of
-hands for their cultivation than could readily be obtained among the
-free population, and since the freemen were constantly liable to be
-called away from their work to serve in the armies, the lands began
-to be cultivated almost entirely by slave labour. Through war and
-commerce slaves could easily be obtained, and at a cheap rate, and
-their number soon became so great, that the poorer class of freemen
-was thrown almost entirely out of employment. This state of things
-was one of the chief arguments used by Licinius and the Gracchi for
-limiting the quantity of public land which a person might possess.
-In Sicily, which supplied Rome with so great a quantity of corn,
-the number of agricultural slaves was immense: the oppressions to
-which they were exposed drove them twice to open rebellion, and
-their numbers enabled them to defy for a time the Roman power. The
-first of these servile wars began in B.C. 134 and ended in B.C. 132,
-and the second commenced in B.C. 102 and lasted almost four years.
-Long, however, after it had become the custom to employ large gangs
-of slaves in the cultivation of the land, the number of those who
-served as personal attendants still continued to be small. Persons
-in good circumstances seem usually to have had one only to wait upon
-them, who was generally called by the name of his master with the
-word _por_ (that is, _puer_) affixed to it, as _Caipor_, _Lucipor_,
-_Marcipor_, _Publipor_, _Quintipor_, &c. But during the latter times
-of the republic and under the empire the number of domestic slaves
-greatly increased, and in every family of importance there were
-separate slaves to attend to all the necessities of domestic life. It
-was considered a reproach to a man not to keep a considerable number
-of slaves. The first question asked respecting a person’s fortune
-was _Quot pascit servos_, “How many slaves does he keep?” Ten slaves
-seem to have been the lowest number which a person could keep in the
-age of Augustus, with a proper regard to respectability in society.
-The immense number of prisoners taken in the constant wars of the
-republic, and the increase of wealth and luxury, augmented the number
-of slaves to a prodigious extent. A freedman under Augustus, who had
-lost much property in the civil wars, left at his death as many as
-4,116. Two hundred was no uncommon number for one person to keep. The
-mechanical arts, which were formerly in the hands of the clients,
-were now entirely exercised by slaves: a natural growth of things,
-for where slaves perform certain duties or practise certain arts,
-such duties or arts are thought degrading to a freeman. It must not
-be forgotten, that the games of the amphitheatre required an immense
-number of slaves trained for the purpose. [GLADIATORES.] Like the
-slaves in Sicily, the gladiators in Italy rose in B.C. 73 against
-their oppressors, and under the able generalship of Spartacus,
-defeated a Roman consular army, and were not subdued till B.C. 71,
-when 60,000 of them are said to have fallen in battle.--A slave
-could not contract a marriage. His cohabitation with a woman was
-_contubernium_; and no legal relation between him and his children
-was recognized. A slave could have no property. He was not incapable
-of acquiring property, but his acquisitions belonged to his master.
-Slaves were not only employed in the usual domestic offices and in
-the labours of the field, but also as factors or agents for their
-masters in the management of business, and as mechanics, artisans,
-and in every branch of industry. It may easily be conceived that,
-under these circumstances, especially as they were often entrusted
-with property to a large amount, there must have arisen a practice
-of allowing the slave to consider part of his gains as his own; this
-was his _Peculium_, a term also applicable to such acquisitions of
-a filius-familias as his father allowed him to consider as his own.
-[PATRIA POTESTAS.] According to strict law, the _peculium_ was the
-property of the master, but according to usage, it was considered
-to be the property of the slave. Sometimes it was agreed between
-master and slave, that the slave should purchase his freedom with
-his _peculium_ when it amounted to a certain sum. A runaway slave
-(_fugitivus_) could not lawfully be received or harboured. The master
-was entitled to pursue him wherever he pleased; and it was the duty
-of all authorities to give him aid in recovering the slave. It was
-the object of various laws to check the running away of slaves in
-every way, and accordingly a runaway slave could not legally be an
-object of sale. A class of persons called _Fugitivarii_ made it their
-business to recover runaway slaves. A person was a slave either
-jure gentium or jure civili. Under the republic, the chief supply
-of slaves arose from prisoners taken in war, who were sold by the
-quaestors with a crown on their heads (_sub corona venire, vendere_),
-and usually on the spot where they were taken, as the care of a large
-number of captives was inconvenient. Consequently slave-dealers
-usually accompanied an army, and frequently after a great battle had
-been gained many thousands were sold at once, when the slave-dealers
-obtained them for a mere nothing. The slave trade was also carried
-on to a great extent, and after the fall of Corinth and Carthage,
-Delos was the chief mart for this traffic. When the Cilician pirates
-had possession of the Mediterranean, as many as 10,000 slaves are
-said to have been imported and sold there in one day. A large number
-came from Thrace and the countries in the north of Europe, but the
-chief supply was from Africa, and more especially Asia, whence we
-frequently read of Phrygians, Lycians, Cappadocians, &c. as slaves.
-The trade of slave-dealers (_mangones_) was considered disreputable;
-but it was very lucrative, and great fortunes were frequently
-realised from it. Slaves were usually sold by auction at Rome. They
-were placed either on a raised stone (hence _de lapide emtus_), or a
-raised platform (_catasta_), so that every one might see and handle
-them, even if they did not wish to purchase them. Purchasers usually
-took care to have them stripped naked, for slave-dealers had recourse
-to as many tricks to conceal personal defects as the horse-jockeys of
-modern times: sometimes purchasers called in the advice of medical
-men. Newly imported slaves had their feet whitened with chalk, and
-those that came from the East had their ears bored, which we know was
-a sign of slavery among many eastern nations. The slave-market, like
-all other markets, was under the jurisdiction of the aediles, who
-made many regulations by edicts respecting the sale of slaves. The
-character of the slave was set forth in a scroll (_titulus_) hanging
-around his neck, which was a warranty to the purchaser: the vendor
-was bound to announce fairly all his defects, and if he gave a false
-account had to take him back within six months from the time of his
-sale, or make up to the purchaser what the latter had lost through
-obtaining an inferior kind of slave to what had been warranted. The
-chief points which the vendor had to warrant, were the health of
-the slave, especially freedom from epilepsy, and that he had not a
-tendency to thievery, running away, or committing suicide. Slaves
-sold without any warranty wore at the time of sale a cap (_pileus_)
-upon their head. Slaves newly imported were generally preferred
-for common work: those who had served long were considered artful
-(_veteratores_); and the pertness and impudence of those born in
-their master’s house, called _vernae_, were proverbial. The value
-of slaves depended of course upon their qualifications; but under
-the empire the increase of luxury and the corruption of morals led
-purchasers to pay immense sums for beautiful slaves, or such as
-ministered to the caprice or whim of the purchaser. Eunuchs always
-fetched a very high price, and Martial speaks of beautiful boys who
-sold for as much as 100,000 or 200,000 sesterces each (885_l._ 8_s._
-4_d._ and 1770_l._ 16_s._ 8_d._). Slaves who possessed a knowledge
-of any art which might bring profit to their owners, also sold for a
-large sum. Thus literary men and doctors frequently fetched a high
-price, and also slaves fitted for the stage.--Slaves were divided
-into many various classes: the first division was into public or
-private. The former belonged to the state and public bodies, and
-their condition was preferable to that of the common slaves. They
-were less liable to be sold, and under less control, than ordinary
-slaves: they also possessed the privilege of the testamenti factio
-to the amount of one half of their property, which shows that they
-were regarded in a different light from other slaves. Public slaves
-were employed to take care of the public buildings, and to attend
-upon magistrates and priests. A body of slaves belonging to one
-person was called _familia_, but two were not considered sufficient
-to constitute a _familia_. Private slaves were divided into urban
-(_familia urbana_) and rustic (_familia rustica_); but the name of
-urban was given to those slaves who served in the villa or country
-residence as well as in the town house; so that the words urban and
-rustic rather characterised the nature of their occupations than
-the place where they served. Slaves were also arranged in certain
-classes, which held a higher or a lower rank according to the nature
-of their occupation. These classes are _ordinarii_, _vulgares_,
-and _mediastini_.--_Ordinarii_ seem to have been those slaves who
-had the superintendence of certain parts of the housekeeping. They
-were always chosen from those who had the confidence of their
-master, and they generally had certain slaves under them. To this
-class the _actores_, _procuratores_, and _dispensatores_ belong,
-who occur in the familia rustica as well as the familia urbana,
-but in the former are almost the same as the _villici_. They were
-stewards or bailiffs. To the same class also belong the slaves who
-had the charge of the different stores, and who correspond to our
-house-keepers and butlers: they are called _cellarii_, _promi_,
-_condi_, _procuratores peni_, &c.--_Vulgares_ included the great
-body of slaves in a house who had to attend to any particular duty
-in the house, and to minister to the domestic wants of their master.
-As there were distinct slaves or a distinct slave for almost every
-department of household economy, as bakers (_pistores_), cooks
-(_coqui_), confectioners (_dulciarii_), picklers (_salmentarii_),
-&c., it is unnecessary to mention these more particularly. This
-class also included the porters (_ostiarii_), the bed-chamber slaves
-(_cubicularii_), the litter-bearers (_lecticarii_), and all personal
-attendants of any kind.--_Mediastini_, the name given to slaves
-used for any common purpose, was chiefly applied to certain slaves
-belonging to the familia rustica.--The treatment of slaves of course
-varied greatly, according to the disposition of their masters, but
-they were upon the whole, as has been already remarked, treated with
-greater severity and cruelty than among the Athenians. Originally the
-master could use the slave as he pleased; under the republic the law
-does not seem to have protected the person or life of the slave at
-all; but the cruelty of masters was to some extent restrained under
-the empire by various enactments. In early times, when the number of
-slaves was small, they were treated with more indulgence, and more
-like members of the family: they joined their masters in offering up
-prayers and thanksgivings to the gods, and partook of their meals in
-common with their masters, though not at the same table with them,
-but upon benches (_subsellia_) placed at the foot of the lectus.
-But with the increase of numbers and of luxury among masters, the
-ancient simplicity of manners was changed: a certain quantity of
-food was allowed them (_dimensum_ or _demensum_), which was granted
-to them either monthly (_menstruum_) or daily (_diarium_). Their
-chief food was the corn called _far_, of which either four or five
-modii were granted them a month, or one Roman pound (_libra_) a
-day. They also obtained an allowance of salt and oil: Cato allowed
-his slaves a sextarius of oil a month and a modius of salt a year.
-They also got a small quantity of wine, with an additional allowance
-on the Saturnalia and Compitalia, and sometimes fruit, but seldom
-vegetables. Butcher’s meat seems to have been hardly ever given
-them. Under the republic they were not allowed to serve in the army,
-though after the battle of Cannae, when the state was in imminent
-danger, 8000 slaves were purchased by the state for the army, and
-subsequently manumitted on account of their bravery. The offences
-of slaves were punished with severity, and frequently with the
-utmost barbarity. One of the mildest punishments was the removal
-from the familia urbana to the rustica, where they were obliged to
-work in chains or fetters. They were frequently beaten with sticks
-or scourged with the whip. Runaway slaves (_fugitivi_) and thieves
-(_fures_) were branded on the forehead with a mark (_stigma_),
-whence they are said to be _notati_ or _inscripti_. Slaves were also
-punished by being hung up by their hands with weights suspended to
-their feet, or by being sent to work in the Ergastulum or Pistrinum.
-[ERGASTULUM.] The carrying of the furca was a very common mode of
-punishment. [FURCA.] The toilet of the Roman ladies was a dreadful
-ordeal to the female slaves, who were often barbarously punished by
-their mistresses for the slightest mistake in the arrangement of
-the hair or a part of the dress. Masters might work their slaves
-as many hours in the day as they pleased, but they usually allowed
-them holidays on the public festivals. At the festival of Saturnus,
-in particular, special indulgences were granted to all slaves, of
-which an account is given under SATURNALIA. There was no distinctive
-dress for slaves. It was once proposed in the senate to give slaves
-a distinctive costume, but it was rejected, since it was considered
-dangerous to show them their number. Male slaves were not allowed
-to wear the toga or bulla, nor females the stola, but otherwise
-they were dressed nearly in the same way as poor people, in clothes
-of a dark colour (_pullati_) and slippers (_crepidae_). The rights
-of burial, however, were not denied to slaves, for, as the Romans
-regarded slavery as an institution of society, death was considered
-to put an end to the distinction between slaves and freemen. Slaves
-were sometimes even buried with their masters, and we find funeral
-inscriptions addressed to the Dii Manes of slaves (_Dis Manibus_).
-
-
-SESCUNX. [AS.]
-
-
-SESTERTĬUS, a Roman coin, which properly belonged to the silver
-coinage, in which it was one-fourth of the denarius, and therefore
-equal to 2½ asses. Hence the name, which is an abbreviation of
-_semis tertius_ (sc. _nummus_), the Roman mode of expressing 2½.
-The word _nummus_ is often expressed with _sestertius_, and often
-it stands alone, meaning _sestertius_. Hence the symbol HS or IIS,
-which is used to designate the sestertius. It stands either for LLS
-(_Libra Libra et Semis_), or for IIS, the two I’s merely forming
-the numeral two (sc. _asses_ or _librae_), and the whole being in
-either case equivalent to _dupondius et semis_. When the as was
-reduced to half an ounce, and the number of asses in the denarius
-was made sixteen instead of ten [AS, DENARIUS], the sestertius was
-still ¼ of the denarius, and therefore contained no longer 2½, but
-4 asses. The old reckoning of 10 asses to the denarius was kept,
-however, in paying the troops. After this change the sestertius was
-coined in brass as well as in silver; the metal used for it was that
-called _aurichalcum_, which was much finer than the common _aes_, of
-which the asses were made. The sum of 1000 _sestertii_ was called
-_sestertium_. This was also denoted by the symbol HS, the obvious
-explanation of which is “IIS (2½ millia).” The _sestertium_ was
-always a sum of money, never a _coin_; the _coin_ used in the payment
-of large sums was the denarius. According to the value we have
-assigned to the DENARIUS, up to the time of Augustus, we have--
-
-                             _£.   s.   d.  farth._
-            the sestertius =  0    0    2     ·5
-            the sestertium =  8   17    1
-  After the reign of Augustus--
-            the sestertius =  0    0    1    3·5
-            the sestertium =  7   16    3
-
-The sestertius was the denomination of money almost always used in
-reckoning considerable amounts. There are a very few examples of the
-use of the denarius for this purpose. The mode of reckoning was as
-follows:--_Sestertius_ = _sestertius nummus_ = _nummus_. Sums below
-1000 _sestertii_ were expressed by the numeral adjectives joined with
-either of these forms. The sum of 1000 sestertii = _mille sestertii_
-= M _sestertium_ (for _sestertiorum_) = M _nummi_ = M _nummum_
-(for _nummorum_) = M _sestertii nummi_ = M _sestertium nummum_ =
-_sestertium_. These forms are used with the numeral adjectives below
-1000: sometimes _millia_ is used instead of _sestertia_: sometimes
-both words are omitted: sometimes _nummum_ or _sestertium_ is added.
-For example, 600,000 sestertii = _sescenta sestertia_ = _sescenta
-millia_ = _sescenta_ = _sescenta sestertia nummum_. For sums of a
-thousand _sestertia_ (_i.e._ a million _sestertii_) and upwards,
-the numeral adverbs in _ies_ (_decies, undecies, vicies, &c._) are
-used, with which the words _centena millia_ (a hundred thousand) must
-be understood. With these adverbs the neuter singular _sestertium_
-is joined in the case required by the construction. Thus, _decies
-sestertium_ = _decies centena millia sestertium_ = _ten times a
-hundred thousand sestertii_ = 1,000,000 sestertii = 1000 _sestertia_:
-_millies_ HS = _millies centena millia sestertium_ = a thousand times
-one hundred thousand sestertii = 100,000,000 _sestertii_ = 100,000
-_sestertia_. When the numbers are written in cypher, it is often
-difficult to know whether _sestertii_ or _sestertia_ are meant. A
-distinction is sometimes made by a line placed over the numeral when
-_sestertia_ are intended, or in other words, when the numeral is an
-adverb in _ies_. Thus
-
-  HS. M.C.   = 1100 sestertii, but
-  HS. M̄.C̄. = HS millies centies
-             = 110,000 sestertia
-             = 110,000,000 sestertii.
-
-_Sesterce_ is sometimes used as an English word. If so, it ought
-to be used only as the translation of _sestertius_, never of
-_sestertium_.
-
-
-SĒVIR. [EQUITES.]
-
-
-SEX SUFFRĀGĬA. [EQUITES.]
-
-
-SEXTANS. [AS.]
-
-
-SEXTĀRĬUS, a Roman dry and liquid measure. It was one-sixth of the
-congius, and hence its name. It was divided, in the same manner as
-the As, into parts named _uncia, sextans, quadrans, triens, quincunx,
-semissis, &c._ The uncia, or twelfth part of the sextarius, was the
-CYATHUS; its _sextans_ was therefore two cyathi, its _quadrans_
-three, its _triens_ four, its _quincunx_ five, &c. (See Tables.)
-
-
-SĬBYLLĪNI LIBRI. These books are said to have been obtained in the
-reign of Tarquinius Priscus, or according to other accounts in
-that of Tarquinius Superbus, when a Sibyl (Σίβυλλα), or prophetic
-woman, presented herself before the king, and offered nine books
-for sale. Upon the king refusing to purchase them, she went and
-burnt three, and then returned and demanded the same price for the
-remaining six as she had done for the nine. The king again refused
-to purchase them, whereupon she burnt three more, and demanded the
-same sum for the remaining three as she had done at first for the
-nine; the king’s curiosity now became excited, so that he purchased
-the books, and then the Sibyl vanished. These books were probably
-written in Greek, as the later ones undoubtedly were. They were kept
-in a stone chest under ground in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus,
-under the custody of certain officers, at first only two in number,
-but afterwards increased successively to ten and fifteen, of whom
-an account is given under DECEMVIRI. The public were not allowed to
-inspect the books, and they were only consulted by the officers, who
-had the charge of them, at the special command of the senate. They
-were not consulted, as the Greek oracles were, for the purpose of
-getting light concerning future events; but to learn what worship
-was required by the gods, when they had manifested their wrath by
-national calamities or prodigies. Accordingly we find that the
-instruction they give is in the same spirit; prescribing what honour
-was to be paid to the deities already recognised, or what new
-ones were to be imported from abroad. When the temple of Jupiter
-Capitolinus was burnt in B.C. 82, the Sibylline books perished in the
-fire; and in order to restore them, ambassadors were sent to various
-towns in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, to make fresh collections,
-which on the rebuilding of the temple were deposited in the same
-place that the former had occupied. The Sibylline books were also
-called _Fata Sibyllina_ and _Libri Fatales_. Along with the Sibylline
-books were preserved, under the guard of the same officers, the books
-of the two prophetic brothers, the Marcii, the Etruscan prophecies of
-the nymph Bygoe, and those of Albuna or Albunea of Tibur. Those of
-the Marcii, which had not been placed there at the time of the battle
-of Cannae, were written in Latin.
-
-
-SĪCA, _dim._ SĪCĪLA, whence the English _sickle_, a curved dagger,
-adapted by its form to be concealed under the clothes, and therefore
-carried by robbers and murderers. _Sica_ may be translated _a
-scimitar_, to distinguish it from PUGIO, which denoted a dagger of
-the common kind. _Sicarius_, though properly meaning one who murdered
-with the sica, was applied to murderers in general. Hence the forms
-_de sicariis_ and _inter sicarios_ were used in the criminal courts
-in reference to murder. Thus _judicium inter sicarios_, “a trial for
-murder;” _defendere inter sicarios_, “to defend against a charge of
-murder.”
-
-
-SĬGILLĀRĬA. [SATURNALIA.]
-
-
-SIGNA MĪLĬTĀRĬA (σημεῖα, σημαίαι), military ensigns or standards.
-The most ancient standard employed by the Romans is said to have
-been a handful of straw fixed to the top of a spear or pole. Hence
-the company of soldiers belonging to it was called _Manipulus_. The
-bundle of hay or fern was soon succeeded by the figures of animals,
-viz. the eagle, the wolf, the minotaur, the horse, and the boar.
-These appear to have corresponded to the five divisions of the Roman
-army as shown on p. 165. The eagle (_aquila_) was carried by the
-_aquilifer_ in the midst of the _hastati_, and we may suppose the
-wolf to have been carried among the _principes_, and so on. In the
-second consulship of Marius, B.C. 104, the four quadrupeds were
-entirely laid aside as standards, the eagle being alone retained.
-It was made of silver, or bronze, and with expanded wings, but was
-probably of a small size, since a standard-bearer (_signifer_) under
-Julius Caesar is said in circumstances of danger to have wrenched the
-eagle from its staff, and concealed it in the folds of his girdle.
-Under the later emperors the eagle was carried, as it had been for
-many centuries, with the legion, a legion being on that account
-sometimes called _aquila_, and at the same time each cohort had
-for its own ensign the serpent or dragon (_draco_, δράκων), which
-was woven on a square piece of cloth, elevated on a gilt staff,
-to which a cross-bar was adapted for the purpose, and carried by
-the _draconarius_. Another figure used in the standards was a ball
-(_pila_), supposed to have been emblematic of the dominion of Rome
-over the world; and for the same reason a bronze figure of Victory
-was sometimes fixed at the top of the staff. Under the eagle or other
-emblem was often placed a head of the reigning emperor, which was to
-the army the object of idolatrous adoration. The minor divisions of a
-cohort, called _centuries_, had also each an ensign, inscribed with
-the number both of the cohort and of the century. By this provision
-every soldier was enabled with the greatest ease to take his place.
-The standard of the cavalry, properly called _vexillum_, was a
-square piece of cloth expanded upon a cross in the manner already
-indicated, and perhaps surmounted by some figure. The following cut,
-containing several standards, represents the performance of the
-sacrifice called _suovetaurilia_. The imperial standard from the time
-of Constantine was called _labarum_; on it a figure or emblem of
-Christ was woven in gold upon purple cloth, and this was substituted
-for the head of the emperor. Since the movements of a body of troops
-and of every portion of it were regulated by the standards, all the
-evolutions, acts, and incidents of the Roman army were expressed by
-phrases derived from this circumstance. Thus _signa inferre_ meant
-to advance, _referre_ to retreat, and _convertere_ to face about;
-_efferre_, or _castris vellere_, to march out of the camp; _ad signa
-convenire_, to re-assemble. Notwithstanding some obscurity in the
-use of terms, it appears that, whilst the standard of the legion was
-properly called _aquila_, those of the cohorts were in a special
-sense of the term called _signa_, their bearers being _signiferi_,
-and that those of the manipuli or smaller divisions of the cohort
-were denominated _vexilla_, their bearers being _vexillarii_. In time
-of peace the standards were kept in the AERARIUM, under the care of
-the QUAESTOR.
-
-[Illustration: Military Standards. (Bellori, Vet. Arc. Aug.)]
-
-
-SĬLĬCERNĬUM. [FUNUS.]
-
-
-SIMPŬLUM or SIMPŬVĬUM, the name of a small cup used in sacrifices, by
-which libations of wine were offered to the gods. It is represented
-on the coin figured under SECESPITA. There was a proverbial
-expression _excitare fluctus in simpulo_, “to make much ado about
-nothing.”
-
-
-SĪPĂRĬUM, a piece of tapestry stretched on a frame, which rose before
-the stage of the theatre, and consequently answered the purpose of
-the drop-scene with us, although, contrary to our practice, it was
-depressed when the play began, so as to go below the level of the
-stage (_aulaea premuntur_), and was raised again when the performance
-was concluded (_tolluntur_). It appears that human figures were
-represented upon it, whose feet seemed to rest upon the stage when
-this screen was drawn up. These figures were sometimes those of
-Britons woven in the canvass, and raising their arms in the attitude
-of lifting up a purple curtain, so as to be introduced in the same
-manner as Atlantes, Persae, and Caryatides. [CARYATIDES.] In a more
-general sense, _siparium_ denoted any piece of cloth or canvass
-stretched upon a frame.
-
-
-SISTRUM (σεῖστρον), a mystical instrument of music, used by the
-ancient Egyptians in their ceremonies, and especially in the worship
-of Isis. It was held in the right hand (see cut), and shaken, from
-which circumstance it derived its name. The introduction of the
-worship of Isis into Italy shortly before the commencement of the
-Christian aera made the Romans familiar with this instrument.
-
-[Illustration: Sistra. (The two figures on the left hand from
-paintings found at Portici; the right-hand figure represents a
-Sistrum formerly belonging to the library of St. Genovefa at Paris.)]
-
-
-SĬTELLA. [SITULA.]
-
-
-SĪTŎPHỸLĂCES (σιτοφύλακες), a board of officers, chosen by lot, at
-Athens. They were at first three, afterwards increased to fifteen, of
-whom ten were for the city, five for the Peiraeus. Their business was
-partly to watch the arrival of the corn ships, take account of the
-quantity imported, and see that the import laws were duly observed;
-partly to watch the sales of corn in the market, and take care that
-the prices were fair and reasonable, and none but legal weights and
-measures used by the factors; in which respect their duties were much
-the same as those of the Agoranomi and Metronomi with regard to other
-saleable articles.
-
-
-SĪTOS (σῖτος), corn. The soil of Attica, though favourable to the
-production of figs, olives, and grapes, was not so favourable for
-corn; and accordingly a large quantity of corn was annually imported.
-Exportation was entirely prohibited, nor was any Athenian or resident
-alien allowed to carry corn to any other place than Athens. Whoever
-did so, was punishable with death. Of the corn brought into the
-Athenian port two-thirds was to be brought into the city and sold
-there. No one might lend money on a ship that did not sail with
-an express condition to bring a return cargo, part of it corn, to
-Athens. Strict regulations were made with respect to the sale of
-corn in the market. Conspiracies among the corn-dealers (σιτοπῶλαι)
-to buy up the corn (συνωνεῖσθαι), or raise the price (συνιστάναι τὰς
-τιμὰς), were punished with death. The sale of corn was placed under
-the supervision of a special board of officers called _Sitophylaces_
-(σιτοφύλακες), while that of all other marketable commodities
-was superintended by the agoranomi. It was their business to see
-that meal and bread were of the proper quality, and sold at the
-legal weight and price. Notwithstanding these careful provisions,
-scarcities (σιτοδεῖαι) frequently occurred at Athens. The state then
-made great efforts to supply the wants of the people by importing
-large quantities of corn, and selling it at a low price. Public
-granaries were kept in the Odeum, Pompeum, Long Porch, and naval
-storehouse near the sea. _Sitonae_ (σιτῶναι) were appointed to
-get in the supply and manage the sale. Persons called _apodectae_
-(ἀποδέκται) received the corn, measured it out, and distributed it in
-certain quantities.
-
-
-SĪTOU DĬCĒ (σίτου δίκη). If anything happened to sever a marriage
-contract, the husband or his representative was bound to repay the
-marriage portion (προῖξ); or, if he failed to do so, he was liable
-to pay interest upon it at the rate of eighteen per cent. per annum.
-A woman’s fortune was usually secured by a mortgage of the husband’s
-property; but whether this was so or not, her guardian might bring an
-action against the party who unjustly withheld it; δίκη προικὸς, to
-recover the principal, δίκη σίτου, for the interest. The interest was
-called σῖτος (alimony or maintenance), because it was the income out
-of which the woman had to be maintained. The word σῖτος is often used
-generally for provisions, just as we use the word _bread_.
-
-
-SĬTŬLA, _dim._ SĬTELLA (ὑδρία), was probably a bucket or pail
-for drawing and carrying water, but was more usually applied to
-the vessel from which lots were drawn. The diminutive _sitella_,
-however, was more commonly used in this signification. It appears
-that the vessel was filled with water (as among the Greeks, whence
-the word ὑδρία), and that the lots (_sortes_) were made of wood;
-and as, though increasing in size below, it had a narrow neck, only
-one lot could come to the top of the water at the same time, when
-it was shaken. The vessel used for drawing lots was also called
-_urna_ or _orca_ as well as _Situla_ or _Sitella_. It is important
-to understand the difference in meaning, between Sitella and Cista,
-in their use in the comitia and courts of justice, since they have
-been frequently confounded. The _Sitella_ was the urn, from which
-the names of the tribes or centuries were drawn out by lot, so that
-each might have its proper place in voting, and the _Cista_ was the
-ballot-box into which the tabellae were cast in voting. The Cista
-seems to have been made of wicker or similar work.
-
-[Illustration: Cista. Sitella.]
-
-
-SOCCUS, _dim._ SOCCŬLUS, was nearly if not altogether equivalent in
-meaning to CREPIDA, and denoted a slipper or low shoe, which did not
-fit closely, and was not fastened by any tie. The Soccus was worn by
-comic actors, and was in this respect opposed to the COTHURNUS.
-
-[Illustration: Socci, slippers, worn by a Mimus or Buffoon. (From an
-ancient Painting.)]
-
-
-SŎCĬI (σύμμαχοι). In the early times, when Rome formed equal
-alliances with any of the surrounding nations, these nations were
-called _Socii_. After the dissolution of the Latin league, when the
-name _Latini_, or _Nomen Latinum_, was artificially applied to a
-great number of Italians, only a few of whom were real inhabitants
-of the old Latin towns, and the majority of whom had been made
-Latins by the will and the law of Rome, there necessarily arose a
-difference between these Latins and the Socii, and the expression
-_Socii Nomen Latinum_ is one of the old asyndeta, instead of _Socii
-et Nomen Latinum_. The Italian allies again must be distinguished
-from foreign allies. The Italian allies consisted, for the most part,
-of such nations as had either been conquered by the Romans, or had
-come under their dominion through other circumstances. When such
-nations formed an alliance with Rome, they generally retained their
-own laws; or if they were not allowed this privilege at first, they
-usually obtained it subsequently. The condition of the Italian allies
-varied, and mainly depended upon the manner in which they had come
-under the Roman dominion; but in reality they were always dependent
-upon Rome. The following are the principal duties which the Italian
-Socii had to perform towards Rome: they had to send subsidies in
-troops, money, corn, ships, and other things, whenever Rome demanded
-them. The number of troops requisite for completing or increasing the
-Roman armies was decreed every year by the senate, and the consuls
-fixed the amount which each allied nation had to send; in proportion
-to its population capable of bearing arms, of which each nation was
-obliged to draw up accurate lists, called _formulae_. The consul
-also appointed the place and time at which the troops of the socii,
-each part under its own leader, had to meet him and his legions.
-The infantry of the allies in a consular army was usually equal in
-numbers to that of the Romans; the cavalry was generally three times
-the number of the Romans: but these numerical proportions were not
-always observed. The consuls appointed twelve praefects as commanders
-of the socii, and their power answered to that of the twelve military
-tribunes in the consular legions. These praefects, who were probably
-taken from the allies themselves, and not from the Romans, selected
-a third of the cavalry, and a fifth of the infantry of the socii,
-who formed a select detachment for extraordinary cases, and who were
-called the _extraordinarii_. The remaining body of the socii was
-then divided into two parts, called the right and the left wing. The
-infantry of the wings was, as usual, divided into cohorts, and the
-cavalry into turmae. In some cases also legions were formed of the
-socii. Pay and clothing were given to the allied troops by the states
-or towns to which they belonged, and which appointed quaestors or
-paymasters for this purpose: but Rome furnished them with provisions
-at the expense of the republic: the infantry received the same as
-the Roman infantry, but the cavalry only received two-thirds of what
-was given to the Roman cavalry. In the distribution of the spoil and
-of conquered lands they frequently received the same share as the
-Romans. They were never allowed to take up arms of their own accord,
-and disputes among them were settled by the senate. Notwithstanding
-all this, the socii fell gradually under the arbitrary rule of the
-senate and the magistrates of Rome; and after the year B.C. 173, it
-even became customary for magistrates, when they travelled through
-Italy, to demand of the authorities of allied towns to pay homage
-to them, to provide them with a residence, and to furnish them
-with beasts of burden when they continued their journey. The only
-way for the allies to obtain any protection against such arbitrary
-proceedings, was to enter into a kind of clientela with some
-influential and powerful Roman. Socii who revolted against Rome were
-frequently punished with the loss of their freedom, or of the honour
-of serving in the Roman armies. Such punishments however varied
-according to circumstances. After the civitas had been granted to all
-the Italians by the Lex Julia de Civitate (B.C. 90), the relation of
-the Italian socii to Rome ceased. But Rome had long before this event
-applied the name Socii to foreign nations also which were allied
-with Rome, though the meaning of the word in this case differed
-from that of the Socii Italici. There were two principal kinds of
-alliances with foreign nations: 1. _foedus aequum_, such as might
-be concluded either after a war in which neither party had gained a
-decisive victory, or with a nation with which Rome had never been at
-war; 2. a _foedus iniquum_, when a foreign nation conquered by the
-Romans was obliged to form the alliance on any terms proposed by the
-conquerors. In the latter case the foreign nation was to some extent
-subject to Rome, and obliged to comply with anything that Rome might
-demand. But all foreign socii, whether they had an equal or unequal
-alliance, were obliged to send subsidies in troops when Rome demanded
-them; these troops, however, did not, like those of the Italian
-socii, serve in the line, but were employed as light-armed soldiers,
-and were called _milites auxiliares_, _auxiliarii_, _auxilia_, or
-sometimes _auxilia externa_. Towards the end of the republic all the
-Roman allies, whether they were nations or kings, sank down to the
-condition of mere subjects or vassals of Rome, whose freedom and
-independence consisted in nothing but a name. [Compare FOEDERATAE
-CIVITATES.]
-
-
-SŎDĀLĬTĬUM. [AMBITUS.]
-
-
-SŌLĀRIUM. [HOROLOGIUM.]
-
-
-SŎLĔA was the simplest kind of sandal [SANDALIUM], consisting of a
-sole with little more to fasten it to the foot than a strap across
-the instep.
-
-
-SŎLĬDUS. [AURUM.]
-
-
-SOLĬTAURĪLĬA. [SACRIFICIUM; LUSTRATIO; and woodcut on p. 343.]
-
-
-SOPHRŌNISTAE. [GYMNASIUM.]
-
-
-SORTES, lots. It was a frequent practice among the Italian nations
-to endeavour to ascertain a knowledge of future events by drawing
-lots (_sortes_): in many of the ancient Italian temples the will
-of the gods was consulted in this way, as at Praeneste, Caere, &c.
-These sortes or lots were usually little tablets or counters, made
-of wood or other materials, and were commonly thrown into a sitella
-or urn, filled with water, as is explained under SITULA. The lots
-were sometimes thrown like dice. The name of sortes was in fact given
-to anything used to determine chances, and was also applied to any
-verbal response of an oracle. Various things were written upon the
-lots according to circumstances, as for instance the names of the
-persons using them, &c.: it seems to have been a favourite practice
-in later times to write the verses of illustrious poets upon little
-tablets, and to draw them out of the urn like other lots, the verses
-which a person thus obtained being supposed to be applicable to him.
-
-
-SPĔCŬLĀRĬA. [DOMUS.]
-
-
-SPĔCŬLĀTŌRES, or EXPLŌRĀTŌRES, were scouts or spies sent before
-an army, to reconnoitre the ground and observe the movements of
-the enemy. Under the emperors there was a body of troops called
-Speculatores, who formed part of the praetorian cohorts, and had the
-especial care of the emperor’s person.
-
-
-SPĔCŬLUM (κάτοπτρον, ἔσοπτρον, ἔνοπτρον), a mirror, a looking-glass.
-The looking-glasses of the ancients were usually made of metal,
-at first of a composition of tin and copper, but afterwards more
-frequently of silver. The ancients seem to have had glass mirrors
-also like ours, consisting of a glass plate covered at the back with
-a thin leaf of metal. They were manufactured as early as the time of
-Pliny at the celebrated glass-houses of Sidon, but they must have
-been inferior to those of metal, since they never came into general
-use, and are never mentioned by ancient writers among costly pieces
-of furniture, whereas metal mirrors frequently are. Looking-glasses
-were generally small, and such as could be carried in the hand.
-Instead of their being fixed so as to be hung against the wall or to
-stand upon the table or floor, they were generally held by female
-slaves before their mistresses when dressing.
-
-[Illustration: Looking-glass held by a Nymph. (From a Painting at
-Herculaneum.)]
-
-
-SPĔCUS. [AQUAE DUCTUS.]
-
-
-SPHAERISTĒRIUM. [GYMNASIUM.]
-
-
-SPĪCŬLUM. [HASTA.]
-
-
-SPĪRA (σπεῖρα), _dim._ SPĪRŬLA, the base of a column. This member did
-not exist in the Doric order of Greek architecture, but was always
-present in the Ionic and Corinthian, and, besides the bases properly
-belonging to those orders, there was one called the Attic, which may
-be regarded as a variety of the Ionic [ATTICURGES]. In the Ionic
-and Attic the base commonly consisted of two tori (_torus superior_
-and _torus inferior_) divided by a _scotia_ (τρόχιλος), and in the
-Corinthian of two tori divided by two scotiae. The upper torus was
-often fluted (ῥαβδωτός), and surmounted by an astragal [ASTRAGALUS],
-as in the left-hand figure of the annexed woodcut, which shows the
-form of the base in the Ionic temple of Panops on the Ilissus. The
-right-hand figure in the same woodcut shows the corresponding part
-in the temple of Minerva Polias at Athens. In this the upper torus
-is wrought with a plaited ornament, perhaps designed to represent a
-rope or cable. In these two temples the spira rests not upon a plinth
-(_plinthus_, πλίνθος), but on a podium.
-
-[Illustration: Spirae (bases) of Columns. (From ancient Columns.)]
-
-
-SPŎLĬA. Four words are commonly employed to denote booty taken in
-war, _Praeda, anubiae_, _Exuviae_, _Spolia_. Of these _Praeda_ bears
-the most comprehensive meaning, being used for plunder of every
-description. _Manubiae_ would seem strictly to signify that portion
-of the spoil which fell to the share of the commander-in-chief,
-the proceeds of which were frequently applied to the erection of
-some public building. _Exuviae_ indicates anything stripped from
-the person of a foe, while _Spolia_, properly speaking, ought to
-be confined to armour and weapons, although both words are applied
-loosely to trophies, such as chariots, standards, beaks of ships
-and the like, which might be preserved and displayed. Spoils
-collected on the battlefield after an engagement, or found in a
-captured town, were employed to decorate the temples of the gods,
-triumphal arches, porticoes, and other places of public resort, and
-sometimes in the hour of extreme need served to arm the people; but
-those which were gained by individual prowess were considered the
-undoubted property of the successful combatant, and were exhibited
-in the most conspicuous part of his dwelling, being hung up in the
-atrium, suspended from the door-posts, or arranged in the vestibulum,
-with appropriate inscriptions. They were regarded as peculiarly
-sacred, so that even if the house was sold the new possessor was not
-permitted to remove them. But while on the one hand it was unlawful
-to remove spoils, so it was forbidden to _replace_ or _repair_ them
-when they had fallen down or become decayed through age; the object
-of this regulation being doubtless to guard against the frauds of
-false pretenders. Of all spoils the most important were the _spolia
-opima_, a term applied to those only which the commander-in-chief of
-a Roman army stripped in a field of battle from the leader of the
-foe. Plutarch expressly asserts that Roman history up to his own time
-afforded but three examples of the _spolia opima_. The first were
-said to have been won by Romulus from Acro, king of the Caeninenses,
-the second by Aulus Cornelius Cossus from Lar Tolumnius, king of the
-Veientes, the third by M. Claudius Marcellus from Viridomarus, king
-of the Gaesatae. In all these cases, in accordance with the original
-institution, the spoils were dedicated to Jupiter Feretrius.
-
-
-SPONSA, SPONSUS, SPONSĀLĬA. [MATRIMONIUM.]
-
-
-SPORTŬLA. In the days of Roman freedom, clients were in the habit
-of testifying respect for their patron by thronging his atrium at
-an early hour, and escorting him to places of public resort when he
-went abroad. As an acknowledgment of these courtesies, some of the
-number were usually invited to partake of the evening meal. After
-the extinction of liberty, the presence of such guests, who had
-now lost all political importance, was soon regarded as an irksome
-restraint, while at the same time many of the noble and wealthy
-were unwilling to sacrifice the pompous display of a numerous body
-of retainers. Hence the practice was introduced under the empire of
-bestowing on each client, when he presented himself for his morning
-visit, a certain portion of food as a substitute and compensation
-for the occasional invitation to a regular supper (_coena recta_),
-and this dole, being carried off in a little basket provided for the
-purpose, received the name of _sportula_. For the sake of convenience
-it soon became common to give an equivalent in money, the sum
-established by general usage being a hundred quadrantes. The donation
-in money, however, did not entirely supersede the sportula given in
-kind, for we find in Juvenal a lively description of a great man’s
-vestibule crowded with dependents, each attended by a slave bearing
-a portable kitchen to receive the viands and keep them hot while
-they were carried home. Under the empire great numbers of the lower
-orders derived their whole sustenance, and the funds for ordinary
-expenditure, exclusively from this source, while even the highborn
-did not scruple to increase their incomes by taking advantage of the
-ostentatious profusion of the rich and vain.
-
-
-STĂDĬUM (ὁ στάδιος and τὸ στάδιον), a Greek measure of length, and
-the chief one used for itinerary distances. It was equal to 600
-Greek or 625 Roman feet, or to 125 Roman paces; and the Roman mile
-contained 8 stadia. Hence the stadium contained 606 feet 9 inches
-English. This standard prevailed throughout Greece, under the name
-of the Olympic stadium, so called because it was the exact length
-of the stadium or foot-race course at Olympia, measured between the
-pillars at the two extremities of the course. The first use of the
-measure seems to be contemporaneous with the formation of the stadium
-at Olympia when the Olympic games were revived by Iphitus (B.C. 884
-or 828). This distance doubled formed the δίαυλος, the ἱππικον was 4
-stadia, and the δόλιχος is differently stated at 6, 7, 8, 12, 20, and
-24 stadia. A day’s journey by land was reckoned at 200 or 180 stadia,
-or for an army 150 stadia. The stadium at Olympia was used not only
-for the foot-race, but also for the other contests which were added
-to the games from time to time [OLYMPIA], except the horse-races,
-for which a place was set apart, of a similar form with the stadium,
-but larger; this was called the Hippodrome (ἱππόδρομος). The name
-stadium was also given to all other places throughout Greece wherever
-games were celebrated. The stadium was an oblong area terminated at
-one end by a straight line, at the other by a semicircle having the
-breadth of the stadium for its base. Round this area were ranges of
-seats rising above one another in steps.
-
-
-STĀTĒR (στατῆρ), which means simply _a standard_ (in this case
-both of weight and more particularly of money), was the name of
-the principal gold coin of Greece, which was also called _Chrysus_
-(χρυσοῦς). The stater is said to have been first coined in Lydia by
-Croesus, and probably did not differ materially from the stater which
-was afterwards current in Greece, and which was equal _in weight_ to
-_two_ drachmae, and _in value_ to _twenty_. The Macedonian stater,
-which was the one most in use after the time of Philip and his son
-Alexander the Great, was of the value of about 1_l._ 3_s._ 6_d._ In
-calculating the value of the stater in our money the ratio of gold to
-silver must not be overlooked. Thus the stater of Alexander, which we
-have valued, according to the present worth of gold, at 1_l._ 3_s._
-6_d._, passed for twenty drachmae, which, according to the present
-value of silver, were worth only 16_s._ 3_d._ But the former is the
-true worth of the stater, the difference arising from the greater
-value of silver in ancient times than now.
-
-
-STĂTĬŌNES. [CASTRA.]
-
-
-STĂTOR, a public servant, who attended on the Roman magistrates in
-the provinces. The Statores seem to have derived their name from
-standing by the side of the magistrate, and thus being at hand to
-execute all his commands; they appear to have been chiefly employed
-in carrying letters and messages.
-
-
-STĀTŬĀRĬA ARS is in its proper sense the art of making statues or
-busts, whether they consist of stone or metal or other materials, and
-includes the art of making the various kinds of reliefs (alto, basso,
-and mezzo relievo). These arts in their infant state existed among
-the Greeks from time immemorial. There is no material applicable to
-statuary which was not used by the Greeks. As _soft clay_ is capable
-of being shaped without difficulty into any form, and is easily
-dried, either by being exposed to the sun or by being baked, we may
-consider this substance to have been the earliest material of which
-figures were made. The name plastic art (ἡ πλαστική), by which the
-ancients sometimes designate the art of statuary, properly signifies
-to form or shape a thing of clay. The second material was _wood_,
-and figures made of wood were called ξόανα, from ξέω, “polish” or
-“carve.” It was chiefly used for making images of the gods, and
-probably more on account of the facility of working in it, than for
-any other reason. _Stone_ was little used in statuary during the
-early ages of Greece, though it was not altogether unknown, as we
-may infer from the relief on the Lion-gate of Mycenae. In Italy,
-where the soft peperino afforded an easy material for working, stone
-appears to have been used at an earlier period and more commonly
-than in Greece. But in the historical times the Greeks used all the
-principal varieties of marble for their statues. Different kinds of
-marble and of different colours were sometimes used in one and the
-same statue, in which case the work is called Polylithic statuary.
-_Bronze_ (χάλκος, _aes_), _silver_, and _gold_ were used profusely in
-the state of society described in the Homeric poems. At that period,
-however, and long after, the works executed in metal were made by
-means of the hammer, and the different pieces were joined together by
-pins, rivets, cramps, or other mechanical fastenings, and, as the art
-advanced, by a kind of glue, cement, or solder. Iron came into use
-much later, and the art of casting both bronze and iron is ascribed
-to Rhoecus and to Theodoras of Samos. _Ivory_ was employed at a later
-period than any of the before-mentioned materials, and then was
-highly valued both for its beauty and rarity. In its application to
-statuary, ivory was generally combined with gold, and was used for
-the parts representing the flesh. The history of ancient art, and of
-statuary in particular, may be divided into five periods.
-
-I. _First Period, from the earliest times till about 580_ B.C.--Three
-kinds of artists may be distinguished in the mythical period. The
-first consists of gods and daemons; such as Athena, Hephaestus, the
-Phrygian or Dardanian Dactyli, and the Cabiri. The second contains
-whole tribes of men distinguished from others by the mysterious
-possession of superior skill in the practice of the arts, such as
-the Telchines and the Cyclopes. The third consists of individuals
-who are indeed described as human beings, but yet are nothing
-more than personifications of particular branches of art, or the
-representatives of families of artists. Of the latter the most
-celebrated is _Daedalus_, whose name indicates nothing but a smith,
-or an artist in general, and who is himself the mythical ancestor
-of a numerous family of artists (_Daedalids_), which can be traced
-from the time of Homer to that of Plato, for even Socrates is said
-to have been a descendant of this family. _Smilis_ (from σμίλη, a
-carving-knife) exercised his art in Samos, Aegina, and other places,
-and some remarkable works were attributed to him. _Endoeus_ of
-Athens is called a disciple of Daedalus. According to the popular
-traditions of Greece, there was no period in which the gods were not
-represented in some form or other, and there is no doubt that for
-a long time there existed no other statues in Greece than those of
-the gods. The earliest representations of the gods, however, were
-only symbolic. The presence of a god was indicated by the simplest
-and most shapeless symbols, such as unhewn blocks of stone (λίθοι
-ἀργοί), and by simple pillars or pieces of wood. The general name
-for a representation of a god not consisting of such a rude symbol
-was ἄγαλμα. In the Homeric poems there are sufficient traces of the
-existence of statues of the gods; but they probably did not display
-any artistic beauty. The only work of art which has come down to us
-from the heroic age is the relief above the ancient gate of Mycenae,
-representing two lions standing on their hind legs, with a sort of
-pillar between them (woodcut under MURUS). The time which elapsed
-between the composition of the Homeric poems and the beginning of the
-fifth century before our aera may be termed the age of discovery;
-for nearly all the inventions, upon the application of which the
-development of the arts is dependent, are assigned to this period.
-Glaucus of Chios or Samos is said to have invented the art of
-soldering metal (σιδήρου κόλλησις). The two artists most celebrated
-for their discoveries were the two brothers Telecles and Theodoras of
-Samos, about the time of Polycrates. They invented the art of casting
-figures of metal. During the whole of this period, though marble and
-bronze began to be extensively applied, yet wood was more generally
-used for representations of the gods. These statues were painted
-[PICTURA], and in most cases dressed in the most gorgeous attire.
-The style in which they are executed is called the _archaic_ or the
-_hieratic_ style. The figures are stiff and clumsy, the countenances
-have little or no individuality, the eyes long and small, and the
-outer angles turned a little upwards; the mouth, which is likewise
-drawn upwards at the two corners, has a smiling appearance. The hair
-is carefully worked, but looks stiff and wiry, and hangs generally
-down in straight lines, which are curled at the ends. The arms hang
-down the sides of the body, unless the figure carries something in
-its hands. The drapery is likewise stiff, and the folds are very
-symmetrical and worked with little regard to nature.
-
-II. _Second Period, from 580 to 480_ B.C.--The number of artists who
-flourished during this period is truly astonishing. The Ionians of
-Asia Minor and the islanders of the Aegean, who had previously been
-in advance of the other Greeks in the exercise of the fine arts, had
-their last flourishing period from 560 to 528 B.C. Works in metal
-were produced in high perfection in Samos, in Aegina and Argos, while
-Chios gained the greatest reputation from its possessing the earliest
-great school of sculptors in marble, in which Bupalus and Anthermus
-were the most distinguished about 540 B.C. Their works were scattered
-over various parts of Greece, and their value may be inferred from
-the fact that Augustus adorned with them the pediment of the temple
-of Apollo on the Palatine. Sicyon also possessed a celebrated school
-of sculptors in marble, and about 580 B.C. Dipoenus and Scyllis, who
-had come from Crete, were at the head of it, and executed several
-marble statues of gods. Respecting Magna Graecia and Sicily we
-know few particulars, though it appears that the arts here went on
-improving and continued to be in advance of the mother-country. The
-most celebrated artists in southern Italy were Dameas of Croton,
-and Pythagoras of Rhegium. In Athens the arts made great progress
-under the patronage of the Pisistratids. The most celebrated among
-the Athenian sculptors of this period were Critias and Hegias, or
-Hegesias, both distinguished for their works in bronze. The former
-of them made in 477 B.C. the statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton.
-Argos also distinguished itself, and it is a curious circumstance,
-that the greatest Attic artists with whom the third period opens, and
-who brought the Attic art to its culminating point, are disciples
-of the Argive Ageladas (about 516 B.C.) In the statues of the gods
-(ἀγάλματα), which were made for temples as objects of worship, the
-hieratic style was more or less conscientiously retained, and it is
-therefore not in these statues that we have to seek for proofs of
-the progress of art. But even in temple-statues wood began to give
-way to other and better materials. Besides bronze, marble also, and
-ivory and gold were now applied to statues of the gods, and it was
-not uncommon to form the body of a statue of wood, and to make its
-head, arms, and feet of stone (ἀκρόλιθοι), or to cover the whole of
-such a wooden figure with ivory and gold. From the statues of the
-gods erected for worship we must distinguish those statues which were
-dedicated in temples as ἀναθήματα, and which now became customary
-instead of craters, tripods, &c. In these the artists were not only
-not bound to any traditional or conventional forms, but were, like
-the poets, allowed to make free use of mythological subjects, to
-add, and to omit, or to modify the stories, so as to render them
-more adapted for their artistic purposes. A third class of statues,
-which were erected during this period in great numbers, were those
-of the victors in the national games, and, though more rarely,
-of other distinguished persons (ἀνδριάντες). Those of the latter
-kind appear generally to have been portraits (εἰκόνες, _statuae
-iconicae_). The first iconic statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton
-were made by Antenor in 509 B.C., and in 477 B.C. new statues of the
-same persons were made by _Critias_. It was also at the period we
-are now describing that it became customary to adorn the pediments,
-friezes, and other parts of temples with reliefs or groups of statues
-of marble. We still possess two great works of this kind which are
-sufficient to show their general character during this period. 1.
-The _Selinuntine Marbles_, or the metopes of two temples on the
-acropolis of Selinus in Sicily, which were discovered in 1823, and
-are at present in the Museum of Palermo. 2. The _Aeginetan Marbles_,
-which were discovered in 1812 in the island of Aegina, and are now at
-Munich. They consist of eleven statues, which adorned two pediments
-of a temple of Athena, and represent the goddess leading the Aeacids
-against Troy, and contain manifest allusions to the war of the Greeks
-with the Persians.
-
-III. _Third Period, from 480 to 336_ B.C.--During this period Athens
-was the centre of the fine arts in Greece. Statuary went hand in
-hand with the other arts and with literature: it became emancipated
-from its ancient fetters, from the stiffness and conventional forms
-of former times, and reached its culminating point in the sublime
-and mighty works of Phidias. His career begins about 452 B.C. The
-genius of this artist was so great and so generally recognised,
-that all the great works which were executed in the age of Pericles
-were placed under his direction, and thus the whole host of artists
-who were at that time assembled at Athens were engaged in working
-out his designs and ideas. Of these we have still some remains:--1.
-Parts of the eighteen sculptured metopes, together with the frieze
-of the small sides of the cella of the temple of Theseus. Ten of the
-metopes represent the exploits of Hercules, and the eight others
-those of Theseus. The figures in the frieze are manifestly gods, but
-their meaning is uncertain. Casts of these figures are in the British
-Museum. 2. A considerable number of the metopes of the Parthenon,
-which are all adorned with reliefs in marble, a great part of the
-frieze of the cella, some colossal figures, and a number of fragments
-of the two pediments of this temple. The greater part of these works
-is now in the British Museum, where they are collected under the name
-of the Elgin Marbles. Besides the sculptures of these temples, there
-are also similar ornaments of other temples extant, which show the
-influence which the school of Phidias exercised in various parts of
-Greece. Of these the most important are, the Phigalian marbles, which
-belonged to the temple of Apollo Epicurius, built about 436 B.C., by
-Ictinus. They were discovered in 1812, and consist of twenty-three
-plates of marble belonging to the inner frieze of the cella. They
-are now in the British Museum. The subjects represented in them
-are fights with Centaurs and Amazons, and one plate shows Apollo
-and Artemis drawn in a chariot by stags. About the same time that
-the Attic school rose to its highest perfection under Phidias, the
-school of Argos was likewise raised to its summit by Polycletus. The
-art of making bronze statues of athletes was carried by him to the
-greatest perfection: ideal youthful and manly beauty was the sphere
-in which he excelled. One of his statues, a youthful Doryphorus,
-was made with such accurate observation of the proportions of the
-parts of the body, that it was looked upon by the ancient artists
-as a canon of rules on this point. Myron of Eleutherae, about 432
-B.C., adhered to a closer imitation of nature than Polycletus, and
-as far as the impression upon the senses was concerned, his works
-were most pleasing. The cow of Myron in bronze was celebrated in all
-antiquity. The change which took place after the Peloponnesian war
-in the public mind at Athens could not fail to show its influence
-upon the arts also. It was especially Scopas of Paros and Praxiteles
-of Athens, about one generation after Myron and Polycletus, who gave
-the reflex of their time in their productions. Their works expressed
-the softer feelings and an excited state of mind, such as would make
-a strong impression upon and captivate the senses of the beholders.
-Both were distinguished as sculptors in marble, and both worked in
-the same style; the legendary circles to which most of their ideal
-productions belong are those of Dionysus and Aphrodite, a fact which
-also shows the character of the age. Cephissodorus and Timarchus were
-sons of Praxiteles. There were several works of the former at Rome
-in the time of Pliny; he made his art subservient to passions and
-sensual desires. Most of the above-mentioned artists, however widely
-their works differed from those of the school of Phidias, may yet be
-regarded as having only continued and developed its principles of art
-in a certain direction; but towards the end of this period Euphranor
-and Lysippus of Sicyon carried out the principles of the Argive
-school of Polycletus. Their principal object was to represent the
-highest possible degree of physical beauty and of athletic and heroic
-power. The chief characteristic of Lysippus and his school is a close
-imitation of nature, which even contrived to represent bodily defects
-in some interesting manner, as in his statues of Alexander.
-
-IV. _Fourth Period, from 336 to 146_ B.C.--During the first fifty
-years of this period the schools of Praxiteles and Lysippus continued
-to flourish, especially in works of bronze; but after this time
-bronze statues were seldom made, until the art was carried on with
-new vigour at Athens about the end of the period. The school of
-Lysippus gave rise to that of Rhodes, where his disciple Chares
-formed the most celebrated among the hundred colossal statues of
-the sun. It was seventy cubits high, and partly of metal. It stood
-near the harbour, and was thrown down by an earthquake about 225
-B.C. Antiquarians assign to this part of the fourth period several
-very beautiful works still extant, as the magnificent group of
-Laocoon and his sons, which was discovered in 1506 near the baths of
-Titus, and is at present at Rome. This is, next to the Niobe, the
-most beautiful group among the extant works of ancient art; it was
-according to Pliny the work of three Rhodian artists: Agesander,
-Polydorus, and Athenodorus. The celebrated Farnesian bull is likewise
-the work of two Rhodian artists, Apollonius and Tauriscus. In the
-various kingdoms which arose out of the conquests of Alexander
-the arts were more or less cultivated. Not only were the great
-master-works of former times copied to adorn the new capitals, but
-new schools of artists sprang up in several of them. At Pergamus
-the celebrated groups were composed which represented the victories
-of Attalus and Eumenes over the Gauls. It is believed by some that
-the so-called dying gladiator at Rome is a statue of a Gaul, which
-originally belonged to one of these groups. The Borghese gladiator
-in the Louvre is supposed to be the work of an Ephesian Agasias,
-and to have originally formed a part of such a battle-scene. About
-the close of this period, and for more than a century afterwards,
-the Romans, in the conquest of the countries where the arts had
-flourished, made it a regular practice to carry away the works of
-art. The triumphs over Philip, Antiochus, the Aetolians, the Gauls in
-Asia, Perseus, Pseudo-Philip, and above all the taking of Corinth,
-and subsequently the victories over Mithridates and Cleopatra, filled
-the Roman temples and porticoes with the greatest variety of works
-of art. The sacrilegious plunder of temples and the carrying away
-of the sacred statues from the public sanctuaries became afterwards
-a common practice. The manner in which Verres acted in Sicily is
-but one of many instances of the extent to which these robberies
-were carried on. The emperors, especially Augustus, Caligula, and
-Nero, followed these examples, and the immense number of statues
-which, notwithstanding all this, remained at Rhodes, Delphi, Athens,
-and Olympia, is truly astonishing.--We can only briefly advert to
-the history of statuary among the Etruscans and Romans down to the
-year 146 B.C. The Etruscans were on the whole an industrious and
-enterprising people. With the works of Grecian art they must have
-become acquainted at an early time through their intercourse with
-the Greeks of southern Italy, whose influence upon the art of the
-Etruscans is evident in numerous cases. The whole range of the fine
-arts was cultivated by the Etruscans at an early period. Statuary in
-clay (which here supplied the place of wood, ξόανα, used in Greece)
-and in bronze appears to have acquired a high degree of perfection.
-In 267 B.C. no fewer than 2000 bronze statues are said to have
-existed at Volsinii, and numerous works of Etruscan art are still
-extant, which show great vigour and life, though they do not possess
-a very high degree of beauty. Some of their statues are worked in
-a Greek style; others are of a character peculiar to themselves,
-and entirely different from works of Grecian art, being stiff and
-ugly: others again are exaggerated and forced in their movements
-and attitudes, and resemble the figures which we meet with in the
-representations of Asiatic nations. The Romans previously to the
-time of the first Tarquin are said to have had no images of the
-gods; and for a long time afterwards their statues of gods in clay
-or wood were made by Etruscan artists. During the early part of the
-republic the works executed at Rome were altogether of a useful and
-practical, and not of an ornamental character; and statuary was in
-consequence little cultivated. But in the course of time the senate
-and the people, as well as foreign states which desired to show
-their gratitude to some Roman, began to erect bronze statues to
-distinguished persons in the Forum and other places.
-
-V. _Fifth Period, from_ B.C. _146 to the fall of the Western
-Empire._--During this period Rome was the capital of nearly the whole
-of the ancient world, not through its intellectual superiority, but
-by its military and political power. But it nevertheless became the
-centre of art and literature, as the artists resorted thither from
-all parts of the empire for the purpose of seeking employment in the
-houses of the great. The mass of the people, however, had as little
-taste for and were as little concerned about the arts as ever. In
-the time of Nero, who did much for the arts, we meet with Zenodorus,
-a founder of metal statues, who was commissioned by the emperor to
-execute a colossal statue of 110 feet high, representing Nero as
-the Sun. In the reign of Hadrian the arts seem to begin a new aera.
-He himself was undoubtedly a real lover of art, and encouraged it
-not only at Rome, but in Greece and Asia Minor. The great Villa of
-Hadrian below Tivoli, the ruins of which cover an extent of ten
-Roman miles in circumference, was richer in works of art than any
-other place in Italy. Here more works of art have been dug out of
-the ground than anywhere else within the same compass. Some statues
-executed at this time are worthy of the highest admiration. Foremost
-among these stand the statues and busts of Antinous, for whom the
-emperor entertained a passionate partiality, and who was represented
-in innumerable works of art. The colossal bust of Antinous in the
-Louvre is reckoned one of the finest works of ancient art, and is
-placed by some critics on an equality with the best works that Greece
-has produced. There are also some very good works in red marble which
-are referred to this period, as that material is not known to have
-been used before the age of Hadrian. As the arts had received such
-encouragement and brought forth such fruits in the reign of Hadrian,
-the effects remained visible for some time during the reigns of the
-Antonines. The frieze of a temple, which the senate caused to be
-erected to Antoninus Pius and Faustina, is adorned with griffins
-and vessels of very exquisite workmanship. The best among the
-extant works of this time are the equestrian statue of M. Aurelius
-of gilt bronze, which stands on the Capitol, and the column of M.
-Aurelius with reliefs representing scenes of his war against the
-Marcomanni. After the time of the Antonines the symptoms of decline
-in the arts became more and more visible. The most numerous works
-continued to be busts and statues of the emperors, but the best
-among them are not free from affectation and mannerism. In the time
-of Caracalla many statues were made, especially of Alexander the
-Great. Alexander Severus was a great admirer of statues, not from a
-genuine love of art, but because he delighted in the representations
-of great and good men. The reliefs on the triumphal arch of Septimius
-Severus, representing his victories over the Parthians, Arabs, and
-Adiabenians, have scarcely any artistic merits. Art now declined
-with great rapidity: busts and statues were more seldom made than
-before, and are awkward and poor; the hair is frequently indicated
-by nothing else but holes bored in the stone. The reliefs on the
-sarcophagi gradually become monotonous and lifeless. The reliefs on
-the arch of Constantine, which are not taken from that of Trajan, are
-perfectly rude and worthless, and those on the column of Theodosius
-were not better. Before concluding, it remains to say a few words on
-the destruction of ancient works of art. During the latter part of
-the reign of Constantine many statues of the gods were destroyed,
-and not long after his time a systematic destruction began, which
-under Theodosius spread to all parts of the empire. The spirit of
-destruction, however, was not directed against works of art in
-general and as such, but only against the pagan idols. The opinion,
-therefore, which is entertained by some, that the losses we have
-sustained in works of ancient art, are mainly attributable to the
-introduction of Christianity, is too sweeping and general. Of the
-same character is another opinion, according to which the final decay
-of ancient art was a consequence of the spiritual nature of the new
-religion. The coincidence of the general introduction of Christianity
-with the decay of the arts is merely accidental. That the early
-Christians did not despise the arts as such, is clear from several
-facts. We know that they erected statues to their martyrs, of which
-we have a specimen in that of St. Hippolytus in the Vatican library.
-The numerous works, lastly, which have been found in the Christian
-catacombs at Rome, might alone be a sufficient proof that the early
-Christians were not hostile towards the representation of the heroes
-of their religion in works of art. In fact, Christianity during the
-middle ages became as much the mother of the arts of modern times, as
-the religion of Greece was the mother of ancient art. Another very
-general and yet incorrect notion is, that the northern barbarians
-after the conquest of Rome intentionally destroyed works of art.
-This opinion is not supported by any of the contemporary historians,
-nor is it at all probable. The barbarians were only anxious to carry
-with them the most precious treasures in order to enrich themselves;
-a statue must have been an object of indifference to them. What
-perished, perished naturally by the circumstances and calamities of
-the times. In times of need bronze statues were melted down and the
-material used for other purposes; marble statues were frequently
-broken to pieces and used for building materials. If we consider
-the history of Rome during the first centuries after the conquest of
-Italy by the Germans, we have every reason to wonder that so many
-specimens of ancient art have come down to our times. The greatest
-destruction, at one time, of ancient works of art is supposed to have
-occurred at the taking of Constantinople, in the beginning of the
-thirteenth century. Among the few works saved from this devastation
-are the celebrated bronze horses which now decorate the exterior of
-St. Mark’s church at Venice. They have been ascribed, but without
-sufficient authority, to Lysippus.
-
-
-STĬLUS or STỸLUS is in all probability the same word with the Greek
-στύλος, and conveys the general idea of an object tapering like
-an architectural column. It signifies, (1) An iron instrument,
-resembling a pencil in size and shape, used for writing upon waxed
-tablets. At one end it was sharpened to a point for scratching
-the characters upon the wax, while the other end, being flat and
-circular, served to render the surface of the tablets smooth again,
-and so to obliterate what had been written. Thus, _vertere stilum_
-means _to erase_, and hence _to correct_. The stylus was also termed
-_graphium_, and the case in which it was kept _graphiarium_.--(2) A
-sharp stake or spike placed in pitfalls before an entrenchment, to
-embarrass the progress of an attacking enemy.
-
-[Illustration: Stilus. (Museo Borbonico, vol. vi. tav. 35.)]
-
-
-STIPENDĬĀRĬI. The stipendiariae urbes of the Roman provinces
-were so denominated, as being subject to the payment of a fixed
-money-tribute, _stipendium_, in contradistinction to the vectigales,
-who paid a certain portion as a tenth or twentieth of the produce
-of their lands, their cattle, or customs. The word _stipendium_
-was used to signify the tribute paid, as it was originally imposed
-for and afterwards appropriated to the purpose of furnishing the
-Roman soldiers with pay. The condition of the urbes stipendiariae
-is generally thought to have been more honourable than that of the
-vectigales, but the distinction between the two terms was not always
-observed. The word stipendiarius is also applied to a person who
-receives a fixed salary or pay, as a _stipendiarius miles_.
-
-
-STĪPENDĬUM, a pension or pay, from _stipem_ and _pendo_, because
-before silver was coined at Rome the copper-money in use was paid by
-weight and not by tale. According to Livy, the practice of giving
-pay to the Roman soldiers was not introduced till B.C. 405, on
-the occasion of the taking of Tarracina or Anxur. It is probable,
-however, that they received pay before this time, but, since it was
-not paid regularly, its first institution was referred to this year.
-In B.C. 403 a certain amount of pay was assigned to the knights
-also, or EQUITES, p. 156, _b_. This, however, had reference to the
-citizens who possessed an equestrian fortune, but had no horse
-(_equus publicus_) assigned to them by the state, for it had always
-been customary for the knights of the 18 centuries to receive pay out
-of the common treasury, in the shape of an allowance for the purchase
-of a horse, and a yearly pension of 2000 asses for its keep. [AES
-EQUESTRE; AES HORDEARIUM.] In the time of the republic the pay of a
-legionary soldier amounted to two oboli, or 3⅓ asses; a centurion
-received double, and an eques or horseman triple. Polybius states
-that foot soldiers also received in corn every month an allowance
-(_demensum_) of ⅔ of an Attic medimnus, or about 2 bushels of wheat:
-the horsemen 7 medimni of barley and 2 of wheat. The infantry of the
-allies received the same allowance as the Roman: the horsemen 1⅓
-medimni of wheat and 5 of barley. But there was this difference, that
-the allied forces received their allowances as a gratuity; the Roman
-soldiers, on the contrary, had deducted from their pay the money
-value of whatever they received in corn, armour, or clothes. There
-was indeed a law passed by C. Gracchus, which provided that besides
-their pay the soldiers should receive from the treasury an allowance
-for clothes; but this law seems either to have been repealed or to
-have fallen into disuse. The pay was doubled for the legionaries by
-Julius Caesar before the civil war. He also gave them corn whenever
-he had the means, without any restrictions. Under Augustus it appears
-to have been raised to 10 asses a day (three times the original sum).
-It was still further increased by Domitian. The praetorian cohorts
-received twice as much as the legionaries.
-
-
-STŎLA, a female dress worn over the tunic; it came as low as the
-ankles or feet, and was fastened round the body by a girdle, leaving
-above the breast broad folds. The tunic did not reach much below
-the knee, but the essential distinction between the tunic and stola
-seems to have been that the latter always had an _instita_ or flounce
-sewed to the bottom and reaching to the instep. Over the stola the
-palla or pallium was worn [PALLIUM], as we see in the cut annexed.
-The stola was the characteristic dress of the Roman matrons, as the
-toga was of the Roman men. Hence the meretrices were not allowed to
-wear it, but only a dark-coloured toga; and accordingly Horace speaks
-of the _matrona_ in contradistinction to the _togata_. For the same
-reason, women who had been divorced from their husbands on account of
-adultery, were not allowed to wear the stola, but only the toga.
-
-[Illustration: Stola, female dress. (Museo Borbonico, vol. iii. tav.
-37.)]
-
-
-STRĂTĒGUS (στρατηγός), general. This office and title seems to
-have been more especially peculiar to the democratic states of
-ancient Greece: we read of them, for instance, at Athens, Tarentum,
-Syracuse, Argos, and Thurii; and when the tyrants of the Ionian
-cities in Asia Minor were deposed by Aristagoras, he established
-strategi in their room, to act as chief magistrates. The strategi
-at Athens were instituted after the remodelling of the constitution
-by Clisthenes, to discharge the duties which had in former times
-been performed either by the king or the archon polemarchus. They
-were ten in number, one for each of the ten tribes, and chosen by
-the suffrages (χειροτονία) of the people. Before entering on their
-duties they were required to submit to a _docimasia_, or examination
-of their character; and no one was eligible to the office unless
-he had legitimate children, and was possessed of landed property
-in Attica. They were, as their name denotes, entrusted with the
-command on military expeditions, with the superintendence of all
-warlike preparations, and with the regulation of all matters in any
-way connected with the war department of the state. They levied and
-enlisted the soldiers, either personally or with the assistance of
-the taxiarchs. They were entrusted with the collection and management
-of the property-taxes (εἰσφοραί) raised for the purposes of war;
-and also presided over the courts of justice in which any disputes
-connected with this subject or the trierarchy were decided. They
-nominated from year to year persons to serve as trierarchs. They had
-the power of convening extraordinary assemblies of the people in
-cases of emergency. But their most important trust was the command
-in war, and it depended upon circumstances to how many of the number
-it was given. At Marathon all the ten were present, and the chief
-command came to each of them in turn. The archon polemarchus also was
-there associated with them, and, according to the ancient custom, his
-vote in a council of war was equal to that of any of the generals.
-Usually, however, three only were sent out; one of these (τρίτος
-αὐτός) was considered as the commander-in-chief, but his colleagues
-had an equal voice in a council of war. The military chiefs of the
-Aetolian and Achaean leagues were also called _strategi_. The Achaean
-_strategi_ had the power of convening a general assembly of the
-league on extraordinary occasions. Greek writers on Roman affairs
-give the name of _strategi_ to the praetors.
-
-
-STRĒNA, a present given on a festive day, and for the sake of good
-omen. It was chiefly applied to a new year’s gift, to a present made
-on the calends of January. In accordance with a senatusconsultum, new
-year’s gifts had to be presented to Augustus in the Capitol, even
-when he was absent.
-
-
-STRĬGIL. [BALNEUM.]
-
-
-STRŎPHĬUM (ταινία, ταινίδιον, ἀπόδεσμος), a girdle or belt worn
-by women round the breast and over the inner tunic or chemise. It
-appears to have been usually made of leather.
-
-
-STUPRUM. [ADULTERIUM.]
-
-
-SUBSIGNĀNI, privileged soldiers in the time of the empire, who fought
-under a standard by themselves, and did not form part of the legion.
-They seem to have been the same as the _vexillarii_.
-
-
-SUFFRĀGĬA SEX. [EQUITES.]
-
-
-SUFFRĀGĬUM, a vote. At Athens the voting in the popular assemblies
-and the courts of justice was either by show of hands (χειροτονία)
-or by ballot (ψῆφος). Respecting the mode of voting at Rome, see
-COMITIA, p. 107, and LEGES TABELLARIAE.
-
-
-SUGGESTUS, means in general any elevated place made of materials
-heaped up (_sub_ and _gero_), and is specially applied: (1) To the
-stage or pulpit from which the orators addressed the people in
-the comitia. [ROSTRA.]--(2) To the elevation from which a general
-addressed the soldiers.--(3) To the elevated seat from which the
-emperor beheld the public games, also called _cubiculum_. [CUBICULUM.]
-
-
-SUOVĔTAURĪLĬA. [SACRIFICIUM, p. 325; LUSTRATIO; and woodcut on p.
-343.]
-
-
-SUPPĂRUM. [NAVIS, p. 267, _b_.]
-
-
-SUPPLĬCĀTĬO, a solemn thanksgiving or supplication to the gods,
-decreed by the senate, when all the temples were opened, and the
-statues of the gods frequently placed in public upon couches
-(_pulvinaria_), to which the people offered up their thanksgivings
-and prayers. [LECTISTERNIUM.] A _supplicatio_ was decreed for two
-different reasons. 1. As a thanksgiving, when a great victory had
-been gained: it was usually decreed as soon as official intelligence
-of the victory had been received by a letter from the general
-in command. The number of days during which it was to last was
-proportioned to the importance of the victory. Sometimes it was
-decreed for only one day, but more commonly for three or five days. A
-supplication of ten days was first decreed in honour of Pompey at the
-conclusion of the war with Mithridates, and one of fifteen days after
-the victory over the Belgae by Caesar, an honour which had never been
-granted to any one before. Subsequently a supplicatio of twenty days
-was decreed after his conquest of Vercingetorix. A supplicatio was
-usually regarded as a prelude to a triumph, but it was not always
-followed by one. This honour was conferred upon Cicero on account
-of his suppression of the conspiracy of Catiline, which had never
-been decreed to any one before in a civil capacity (_togatus_).--2.
-A _supplicatio_, a solemn supplication and humiliation, was also
-decreed in times of public danger and distress, and on account of
-prodigies, to avert the anger of the gods.
-
-
-SȲCŎPHANTĒS (συκοφάντης). At an early period in Attic history a law
-was made prohibiting the exportation of figs. Whether it was made
-in a time of dearth, or through the foolish policy of preserving to
-the natives the most valuable of their productions, we cannot say.
-It appears, however, that the law continued in force long after the
-cause of its enactment, or the general belief of its utility, had
-ceased to exist; and Attic fig-growers exported their fruit in
-spite of prohibitions and penalties. To inform against a man for
-so doing was considered harsh and vexatious; as all people are apt
-to think that obsolete statutes may be infringed with impunity.
-Hence the term συκοφαντεῖν, which originally signified _to lay an
-information against another for exporting figs_, came to be applied
-to all ill-natured, malicious, groundless, and vexatious accusations.
-_Sycophantes_ in the time of Aristophanes and Demosthenes designated
-a person of a peculiar class, not capable of being described by any
-single word in our language, but well understood and appreciated by
-an Athenian. He had not much in common with our _sycophant_, but was
-a happy compound of the _common barrator, informer, pettifogger,
-busybody, rogue, liar, and slanderer_. The Athenian law permitted
-any citizen (τὸν βουλόμενον) to give information against public
-offenders, and prosecute them in courts of justice. It was the
-policy of the legislator to encourage the detection of crime, and
-a reward (such as half the penalty) was frequently given to the
-successful accuser. Such a power, with such a temptation, was likely
-to be abused, unless checked by the force of public opinion, or the
-vigilance of the judicial tribunals. Unfortunately, the character
-of the Athenian democracy and the temper of the judges furnished
-additional incentives to the informer. Eminent statesmen, orators,
-generals, magistrates, and all persons of wealth and influence
-were regarded with jealousy by the people. The more causes came
-into court, the more fees accrued to the judges, and fines and
-confiscations enriched the public treasury. The prosecutor therefore
-in public causes, as well as the plaintiff in civil, was looked
-on with a more favourable eye than the defendant, and the chances
-of success made the employment a lucrative one. It was not always
-necessary to go to trial, or even to commence legal proceedings. The
-timid defendant was glad to compromise the cause, and the conscious
-delinquent to avert the threat of a prosecution, by paying a sum of
-money to his opponent. Thriving informers found it not very difficult
-to procure witnesses, and the profits were divided between them.
-
-
-SȲLAE (σῦλαι). When a Greek state, or any of its members, had
-received an injury or insult from some other state or some of its
-members, and the former was unwilling, or not in a condition, to
-declare open war, it was not unusual to give a commission, or grant
-public authority to individuals to make reprisals. This was called
-σύλας, or σῦλα, διδόναι. This ancient practice may be compared with
-the modern one of granting letters of marque and reprisal.
-
-
-SYLLOGEIS (συλλογεῖς), usually called Συλλογεῖς τοῦ δήμου, or the
-Collectors of the People, were special commissioners at Athens, who
-made out a list of the property of the oligarchs previously to its
-confiscation.
-
-
-SYMBOLAEON, SỸNALLAGMA, SYNTHĒCĒ (συμβόλαιον, συνάλλαγμα, συνθήκη),
-are all words used to signify a contract, but are distinguishable
-from one another. Συμβόλαιον is used of contracts and bargains between
-private persons, and peculiarly of loans of money. Thus, συμβαλεῖν
-εἰς ἀνδράποδον is, to lend upon the security of a slave. Συνάλλαγμα
-signifies any matter negotiated or transacted between two or more
-persons, whether a contract or anything else. Συνθήκη is used of
-more solemn and important contracts, not only of those made between
-private individuals, but also of treaties and conventions between
-kings and states.
-
-
-SYMPŎSĬUM (συμπόσιον, _comissatio_, _convivium_), a drinking-party.
-The _symposium_ must be distinguished from the _deipnon_ (δεῖπνον),
-for though drinking almost always followed a dinner-party, yet
-the former was regarded as entirely distinct from the latter, was
-regulated by different customs, and frequently received the addition
-of many guests, who were not present at the dinner. For the Greeks
-did not usually drink at their dinner, and it was not till the
-conclusion of the meal that wine was introduced. Symposia were very
-frequent at Athens. Their enjoyment was heightened by agreeable
-conversation, by the introduction of music and dancing, and by games
-and amusements of various kinds: sometimes, too, philosophical
-subjects were discussed at them. The symposia of Plato and Xenophon
-give us a lively idea of such entertainments at Athens. The name
-itself shows, that the enjoyment of drinking was the main object of
-the symposia: wine from the juice of the grape (οἴνος ἀμπέλινος)
-was the only drink partaken of by the Greeks, with the exception
-of water. The wine was almost invariably mixed with water, and
-to drink it unmixed (ἄκρατον) was considered a characteristic of
-barbarians. The mixture was made in a large vessel called the CRATER,
-from which it was conveyed into the drinking-cups. The guests at a
-symposium reclined on couches, and were crowned with garlands of
-flowers. A master of the revels (ἄρχων τῆς πόσεως, συμποσίαρχος,
-or βασιλεύς) was usually chosen to conduct the symposium, whose
-commands the whole company had to obey, and who regulated the whole
-order of the entertainment, proposed the amusements, &c. The same
-practice prevailed among the Romans, and their symposiarch was
-called _Magister_, or _Rex Convivii_, or the _Arbiter Bibendi_.
-The choice was generally determined by the throwing of astragali
-or tali. The proportion in which the wine and water were mixed was
-fixed by him, and also how much each of the company was to drink,
-for it was not usually left to the option of each of the company
-to drink as much or as little as he pleased. The cups were always
-carried round from right to left (ἐπὶ δεξιά), and the same order
-was observed in the conversation, and in everything that took place
-in the entertainment. The company frequently drank to the health
-of one another, and each did it especially to the one to whom he
-handed the same cup. Respecting the games and amusements by which
-the symposia were enlivened, it is unnecessary to say much here,
-as most of them are described in separate articles in this work.
-Enigmas or riddles (αἰνίγματα or γρῖφοι) were among the most usual and
-favourite modes of diversion. Each of the company proposed one in
-turn to his right-hand neighbour; if he solved it, he was rewarded
-with a crown, a garland, a cake, or something of a similar kind, and
-sometimes with a kiss; if he failed, he had to drink a cup of unmixed
-wine, or of wine mixed with salt water, at one draught. The cottabos
-was also another favourite game at symposia, and was played at in
-various ways. [COTTABUS.] Representations of symposia are very common
-on ancient vases. Two guests usually reclined on each couch (κλίνη),
-as is explained on p. 95, but sometimes there were five persons on
-one couch. A drinking-party among the Romans was sometimes called
-_convivium_, but the word _comissatio_ more nearly corresponds to the
-Greek symposium. [COMISSATIO.] The Romans, however, usually drank
-during their dinner (_coena_), which they frequently prolonged during
-many hours, in the later times of the republic and under the empire.
-Their customs connected with drinking differed little from those of
-the Greeks, and have been incidentally noticed above.
-
-[Illustration: Symposium (From a Painting on a Vase.)]
-
-
-SYNDĬCUS (σύνδικος), _an advocate_, is frequently used as synonymous
-with the word _synegorus_ (συνήγορος), to denote any one who pleads
-the cause of another, whether in a court of justice or elsewhere,
-but was peculiarly applied to those orators who were sent by the
-state to plead the cause of their countrymen before a foreign
-tribunal. Aeschines, for example, was appointed to plead before
-the Amphictyonic council on the subject of the Delian temple; but
-a certain discovery having been made, not very creditable to his
-patriotism, the court of Arciopagus took upon themselves to remove
-him, and appoint Hyperides in his stead. There were other _syndici_,
-who acted rather as magistrates or judges than as advocates, though
-they probably derived their name from the circumstance of their
-being appointed to protect the interests of the state. These were
-extraordinary functionaries, created from time to time to exercise a
-jurisdiction in disputes concerning confiscated property.
-
-
-SỸNĔDRI (σύνεδροι), a name given to the members of any council,
-or any body of men who sat together to consult or deliberate. The
-congress of Greeks at Salamis is called συνέδριον. Frequent reference
-is made to the general assembly of the Greeks, τὸ κοινὸν τῶν Ἑλλήνων
-συνέδριον, at Corinth, Thermopylae, or elsewhere. The congress of
-the states belonging to the new Athenian alliance, formed after B.C.
-377, was called συνέδριον, and the deputies σύνεδροι, and the sums
-furnished by the allies συντάξεις, in order to avoid the old and
-hateful name of φόρος or tribute. The name of συνέδριον was given
-at Athens to any magisterial or official body, as to the court of
-Areiopagus, or to the place where they transacted business, their
-board or council-room.
-
-
-SỸNĒGŎRUS (συνήγορος). In causes of importance, wherein the state was
-materially interested, more especially in those which were brought
-before the court upon an εἰσαγγελία, it was usual to appoint public
-advocates (called συνήγοροι, σύνδικοι, or κατήγοροι) to manage the
-prosecution. In ordinary cases however the accuser or prosecutor
-(κατήγορος) was a distinct person from the συνήγορος, who acted
-only as auxiliary to him. It might be, indeed, that the συνήγορος
-performed the most important part at the trial, or it might be that
-he performed a subordinate part, making only a short speech in
-support of the prosecution, which was called ἐπίλογος. But however
-this might be, he was in point of law an auxiliary only, and was
-neither entitled to a share of the reward (if any) given by the law
-to a successful accuser, nor liable, on the other hand, to a penalty
-of a thousand drachms, or the ἀτιμία consequent upon a failure to
-get a fifth part of the votes. The fee of a drachm (τὸ συνηγορικόν)
-mentioned by Aristophanes was probably the sum paid to the public
-advocate whenever he was employed on behalf of the state. There
-appears to have been (at least at one period) a regular appointment
-of συνήγοροι, ten in number. For what purpose they were appointed, is
-a matter about which we have no certain information: but it is not
-unreasonable to suppose that these ten συνήγοροι were no other than
-the public advocates who were employed to conduct state prosecutions.
-
-
-SYNGRĂPHĒ (συγγραφή), signifies a written contract: whereas συνθήκη
-and συμβόλαιον do not necessarily import that the contract is in
-writing; and ὁμολογία is, strictly speaking, a verbal agreement. At
-Athens important contracts were usually reduced to writing; such as
-leases (μισθώσεις), loans of money, and all executory agreements,
-where certain conditions were to be performed. The whole was
-contained in a little tablet of wax or wood (βιβλίον or γραμματεῖον,
-sometimes double, δίπτυχον), which was sealed, and deposited with
-some third person, mutually agreed on between the parties.
-
-
-SỸNOIKĬA (συνοίκια).--(1) A festival celebrated every year at Athens
-on the 16th of Hecatombaeon in honour of Athena. It was believed to
-have been instituted by Theseus to commemorate the concentration of
-the government of the various towns of Attica at Athens.--(2) A house
-adapted to hold several families, a lodging-house, _insula_, as the
-Romans would say. The lodging-houses were let mostly to foreigners
-who came to Athens on business, and especially to the μέτοικοι, whom
-the law did not allow to acquire real property, and who therefore
-could not purchase houses of their own. The rent was commonly paid
-by the month. Lodging-houses were frequently taken on speculation
-by persons called ναύκληροι or σταθμοῦχοι, who made a profit by
-underletting them.
-
-
-SYNTHĔSIS, a garment frequently worn at dinner, and sometimes also on
-other occasions. As it was inconvenient to wear the toga at table,
-on account of its many folds, it was customary to have dresses
-especially appropriated to this purpose, called _vestes coenatoriae_,
-or _coenatoria_, _accubitoria_, or _syntheses_. The synthesis
-appears to have been a kind of tunic, an _indumentum_ rather than an
-_amictus_. [AMICTUS.] That it was, however, an easy and comfortable
-kind of dress, as we should say, seems to be evident from its use at
-table above mentioned, and also from its being worn by all classes at
-the SATURNALIA, a season of universal relaxation and enjoyment. More
-than this respecting its form we cannot say; it was usually dyed with
-some colour, and was not white, like the toga.
-
-
-SȲRINX (σύριγξ), the Pan’s pipe, or Pandean pipe, was the appropriate
-musical instrument of the Arcadian and other Grecian shepherds, and
-was regarded by them as the invention of Pan, their tutelary god.
-When the Roman poets had occasion to mention it, they called it
-_fistula_. It was formed in general of seven hollow stems of cane or
-reed, fitted together by means of wax, having been previously cut
-to the proper lengths, and adjusted so as to form an octave; but
-sometimes nine were admitted, giving an equal number of notes. A
-syrinx of eight reeds is represented on p. 278.
-
-[Illustration: Pan with a Syrinx. (Mus. Worsleyanum, pl. 9.)]
-
-
-SYRMA (σύρμα), which properly means that which is drawn or dragged
-(from σύρω), is applied to a dress with a train. It was more
-especially the name of the dress worn by the tragic actors, which had
-a train to it trailing upon the ground. Hence we find _syrma_ used
-metaphorically for tragedy itself.
-
-
-SYSSĪTĬA (συσσίτια). The custom of taking the principal meal of the
-day in public prevailed extensively amongst the Greeks from very
-early ages, but more particularly in Crete and at Sparta. The Cretan
-name for the syssitia was _Andreia_ (ἀνδρεῖα), the singular of which
-is used to denote the building or public hall where they were given.
-This title affords of itself a sufficient indication that they were
-confined to men and youths only. All the adult citizens partook of
-the public meals amongst the Cretans, and were divided into companies
-or “messes,” called _hetaeriae_ (ἑταιρίαι), or sometimes _andreia_.
-The syssitia of the Cretans were distinguished by simplicity and
-temperance. They always _sat_ at their tables, even in later times,
-when the custom of reclining had been introduced at Sparta. In most
-of the Cretan cities, the expenses of the syssitia were defrayed
-out of the revenues of the public lands, and the tribute paid by
-the perioeci, the money arising from which was applied partly to
-the service of the gods, and partly to the maintenance of all the
-citizens, both male and female; so that in this respect there might
-be no difference between the rich and the poor. The Spartan syssitia
-were in the main so similar to those of Crete, that one was said to
-be borrowed from the other. They differed from the Cretan in the
-following respects. The expenses of the tables at Sparta were not
-defrayed out of the public revenues, but every head of a family was
-obliged to contribute a certain portion at his own cost and charge;
-those who were not able to do so were excluded from the public
-tables. The guests were divided into companies, generally of fifteen
-persons each, and all vacancies were filled up by ballot, in which
-unanimous consent was indispensable for election. No persons, not
-even the kings, were excused from attendance at the public tables,
-except for some satisfactory reason, as when engaged in a sacrifice,
-or a chase, in which latter case the individual was required to send
-a present to his table. Each person was supplied with a cup of mixed
-wine, which was filled again when required: but drinking to excess
-was prohibited at Sparta as well as in Crete. The repast was of a
-plain and simple character, and the contribution of each member of
-a mess (φειδίτης) was settled by law. The principal dish was the
-black broth (μέλας ζωμός), with pork. Moreover, the entertainment
-was enlivened by cheerful conversation, though on public matters.
-Singing also was frequently introduced. The arrangements were under
-the superintendence of the polemarchs.
-
-
-
-
-TĂBELLA, _dim._ of TĂBŬLA, a billet or tablet, with which each
-citizen and judex voted in the comitia and courts of justice. For
-details see pp. 107, 236.
-
-
-TĂBELLĀRĬUS, a letter-carrier. As the Romans had no public post,
-they were obliged to employ special messengers, who were called
-_tabellarii_, to convey their letters (_tabellae_, _literae_), when
-they had not an opportunity of sending them otherwise.
-
-
-TĂBERNĀCŬLUM. [TEMPLUM.]
-
-
-TABLĪNUM. [DOMUS.]
-
-
-TĂBŬLAE. This word properly means planks or boards, whence it is
-applied to several objects, as gaming-tables, pictures, but more
-especially to tablets used for writing. Generally, _tabulae_ and
-_tabellae_ signify waxen tablets (_tabulae ceratae_), which were
-thin pieces of wood, usually of an oblong shape, covered over with
-wax (_cera_). The wax was written on by means of the stilus. These
-tabulae were sometimes made of ivory and citron-wood, but generally
-of the wood of a more common tree, as the beech, fir, &c. The outer
-sides of the tablets consisted merely of the wood; it was only the
-inner sides that were covered over with wax. They were fastened
-together at the back by means of wires, which answered the purpose of
-hinges, so that they opened and shut like our books; and to prevent
-the wax of one tablet nibbing against the wax of the other, there
-was a raised margin around each, as is clearly seen in the woodcut
-on p. 354. There were sometimes two, three, four, five, or even
-more, tablets fastened together in the above-mentioned manner. Two
-such tablets were called _diptycha_ (δίπτυχα), which merely means
-“twice-folded” (from πτύσσω, “to fold”), whence we have πτυκτίον, or
-with the τ omitted, πυκτίον. The Latin word _pugillares_, which is
-the name frequently given to tablets covered with wax, may perhaps
-be connected with the same root, though it is usually derived from
-_pugillus_, because they were small enough to be held in the hand.
-Three tablets fastened together were called _triptycha_; in the
-same way we also read of _pentaptycha_, and of _polyptycha_ or
-_multiplices_ (_cerae_). The pages of these tablets were frequently
-called by the name of cerae alone; thus we read of _prima cera_,
-_altera cera_, “first page,” “second page.” In tablets containing
-important legal documents, especially wills, the outer edges were
-pierced through with holes (_foramina_), through which a triple
-thread (_linum_) was passed, and upon which a seal was then placed.
-This was intended to guard against forgery, and if it was not done
-such documents were null and void. Waxen tablets were used among the
-Romans for almost every species of writing, where great length was
-not required. Thus letters were frequently written upon them, which
-were secured by being fastened together with packthread and sealed
-with wax. Legal documents, and especially wills, were almost always
-written on waxen tablets. Such tablets were also used for accounts,
-in which a person entered what he received and expended (_tabulae_ or
-_codex accepti et expensi_), whence _novae tabulae_ mean an abolition
-of debts either wholly or in part. The tablets used in voting in the
-comitia and the courts of justice were also called tabulae, as well
-as tabellae. [TABELLA.]
-
-
-TĂBŬLĀRĬI were notaries or accountants, who are first mentioned under
-this name in the time of the empire. Public notaries, who had the
-charge of public documents, were also called tabularii. They were
-first established by M. Antoninus in the provinces, who ordained that
-the births of all children were to be announced to the tabularii
-within thirty days from the birth.
-
-
-TĂBŬLĀRĬUM, a place where the public records (_tabulae publicae_)
-were kept. These records were of various kinds, as for instance
-senatusconsulta, tabulae censoriae, registers of births, deaths,
-of the names of those who assumed the toga virilis, &c. There were
-various tabularia at Rome, all of which were in temples; we find
-mention made of tabularia in the temples of the Nymphs, of Lucina,
-of Juventus, of Libitina, of Ceres, and more especially in that of
-Saturn, which was also the public treasury.
-
-
-TAGUS (ταγός), a leader or general, was more especially the name of
-the military leader of the Thessalians. He is sometimes called _king_
-(βασιλεύς). His command was of a military rather than of a civil
-nature, and he seems only to have been appointed when there was a war
-or one was apprehended. We do not know the extent of the power which
-the Tagus possessed constitutionally, nor the time for which he held
-the office; probably neither was precisely fixed, and depended on the
-circumstances of the times and the character of the individual.
-
-
-TĀLĀRĬA, small wings, fixed to the ancles of Hermes and reckoned
-among his attributes (πέδιλα, πτηνοπέδιλος). In many works of ancient
-art they are represented growing from his ancles (see cut, p. 63);
-but more frequently he is represented with sandals, which have wings
-fastened to them on each side over the ancles.
-
-[Illustration: Talaria. (From a Statue of Hermes at Naples.)]
-
-
-TĂLASSĬO. [MATRIMONIUM.]
-
-
-TĂLENTUM (τάλαντον) meant originally _a balance_ [LIBRA], then
-the substance weighed, and lastly and commonly a certain weight,
-_the talent_. The Greek system of money, as well as the Roman
-[AS], was founded on a reference to weight. A certain weight of
-silver among the Greeks, as of copper among the Romans, was used
-as a representative of a value, which was originally and generally
-that of the metal itself. The talent therefore and its divisions
-are denominations of money as well as of weight. The Greek system
-of weights contained four principal denominations, which, though
-different in different times and places, and even at the same place
-for different substances, always bore the same relation _to each
-other_. These were the talent (τάλαντον), which was the largest,
-then the mina (μνᾶ), the drachma (δραχμή), and the obolus (ὀβολός).
-[See Tables.] The Attic and Aeginetan were the two standards of
-money most in use in Greece. The Attic mina was 4_l._ 1_s._ 3_d._,
-and the talent 243_l._ 15_s._ The Aeginetan mina was 5_l._ 14_s._
-7_d._, and the talent 343_l._ 15_s._ The Euboic talent was of nearly
-the same weight as the Attic. A much smaller talent was in use for
-gold. It was equal to six Attic drachmae, or about ¾ oz. and 71 grs.
-It was called the _gold talent_, or the _Sicilian talent_, from
-its being much used by the Greeks of Italy and Sicily. This is the
-talent always meant when the word occurs in Homer. This small talent
-explains the use of the term _great talent_ (_magnum talentum_),
-which we find in Latin authors, for the silver Attic talent was
-_great_ in comparison with this. But the use of the word by the
-Romans is altogether very inexact. Where talents are mentioned in the
-classical writers without any specification of the standard, we must
-generally understand the Attic.
-
-
-TĀLĬO, from Talis, signifies an equivalent, but it is used only in
-the sense of a punishment or penalty the same in kind and degree as
-the mischief which the guilty person has done to the body of another.
-Talio, as a punishment, was a part of the Mosaic law.
-
-
-TĀLUS (ἀστράγαλος), a huckle-bone. The huckle-bones of sheep and
-goats were used to play with from the earliest times, principally by
-women and children, occasionally by old men. To play at this game was
-sometimes called πενταλιθίζειν, because five bones or other objects
-of a similar kind were employed; and this number is retained among
-ourselves. When the sides of the bone were marked with different
-values, the game became one of chance. [ALEA; TESSERA.] The two ends
-were left blank, because the bone could not rest upon either of them
-on account of its curvature. The four remaining sides were marked
-with the numbers 1, 3, 4, 6; 1 and 6 being on two opposite sides, and
-3 and 4 on the other two opposite sides. The Greek and Latin names
-of the numbers were as follows:--1. Μονάς, εἶς, κύων, Χῖος; Ion.
-Οἴνη: _Unio_, _Vulturius_, _canis_: 3. Τρίας, _Ternio_; 4. Τετράς,
-_Quaternio_; 6. Ἑξάς, ἑξίτης, Κῷος; _Senio_. Two persons played
-together at this game, using four bones, which they threw up into
-the air, or emptied out of a dice-box, and observing the numbers on
-the uppermost sides. The numbers on the four sides of the four bones
-admitted of thirty-five different combinations. The lowest throw of
-all was four aces (_jacere vultorios quatuor_). But the value of a
-throw was not in all cases the sum of the four numbers turned up.
-The highest in value was that called _Venus_, or _jactus Venereus_,
-in which the numbers cast up were all different, the sum of them
-being only fourteen. It was by obtaining this throw that the king
-of the feast was appointed among the Romans [SYMPOSIUM], and hence
-it was also called _Basilicus_. Certain other throws were called by
-particular names, taken from gods, illustrious men and women, and
-heroes. Thus the throw, consisting of two aces and two trays, making
-eight, which number, like the jactus Venereus, could be obtained only
-once, was denominated _Stesichorus_.
-
-[Illustration: Game of Tali. (From an ancient Painting.)]
-
-
-TĂMĬAE (ταμίαι), the treasurers of the temples and the revenue at
-Athens. The wealthiest of all the temples at Athens was that of
-Athena on the Acropolis, the treasures of which were under the
-guardianship of ten _tamiae_, who were chosen annually by lot from
-the class of pentacosiomedimni, and afterwards, when the distinction
-of classes had ceased to exist, from among the wealthiest of Athenian
-citizens. The treasurers of the other gods were chosen in like
-manner; but they, about the 90th Olympiad, were all united into one
-board, while those of Athena remained distinct. Their treasury,
-however, was transferred to the same place as that of Athena, viz.,
-to the opisthodomus of the Parthenon, where were kept not only all
-the treasures belonging to the temples, but also the state treasure
-(ὅσια χρήματα, as contra-distinguished from ἱερά), under the
-care of the treasurers of Athena. All the funds of the state were
-considered as being in a manner consecrated to Athena; while on the
-other hand the people reserved to themselves the right of making
-use of the sacred monies, as well as the other property of the
-temples, if the safety of the state should require it. Payments
-made to the temples were received by the treasurers in the presence
-of some members of the senate, just as public monies were by the
-Apodectae; and then the treasurers became responsible for their
-safe custody.--The treasurer of the revenue (ταμίας or ἐπιμελητής
-τῆς κοινῆς προσόδου) was a more important personage than those last
-mentioned. He was not a mere keeper of monies, like them, nor a mere
-receiver, like the apodectae; but a general paymaster, who received
-through the apodectae all money which was to be disbursed for the
-purposes of the administration (except the property-taxes, which were
-paid into the war-office, and the tribute from the allies, which was
-paid to the hellenotamiae [HELLENOTAMIAE]), and then distributed
-it in such manner as he was required to do by the law; the surplus
-(if any) he paid into the war-office or the theoric fund. As this
-person knew all the channels in which the public money had to flow,
-and exercised a general superintendence over the expenditure, he
-was competent to give advice to the people upon financial measures,
-with a view to improve the revenue, introduce economy, and prevent
-abuses; he is sometimes called ταμίας τῆς διοικήσεως, or ὁ ἐπὶ τῆς
-διοικήσεως, and may be regarded as a sort of minister of finance.
-He was elected by vote (χειροτονία), and held his office for four
-years, but was capable of being re-elected. A law, however, was
-passed during the administration of Lycurgus, the orator, prohibiting
-re-election; so that Lycurgus, who is reported to have continued
-in office for twelve years, must have held it for the last eight
-years under fictitious names. The power of this officer was by no
-means free from control; inasmuch as any individual was at liberty
-to propose financial measures, or institute criminal proceedings
-for malversation or waste of the public funds; and there was an
-ἀντιγραφεὺς τῆς διοικήσεως appointed to check the accounts of his
-superior. Anciently there were persons called _Poristae_ (πορίσται),
-who appear to have assisted the tamiae in some part of their duties.
-The money disbursed by the treasurer of the revenue was sometimes
-paid directly to the various persons in the employ of the government,
-sometimes through subordinate pay offices. Many public functionaries
-had their own paymasters, who were dependent on the treasurer of
-the revenue, receiving their funds from him, and then distributing
-them in their respective departments. Such were the τριηροποιοί,
-τειχοποιοί, ὁδοποιοί, ταφροποιοί, ἐπεμεληταὶ νεωρίων, who received
-through their own tamiae such sums as they required from time to time
-for the prosecution of their works. The payment of the judicial fees
-was made by the _Colacretae_ (κωλακρέται), which, and the providing
-for the meals in the Prytaneium, were the only duties that remained
-to them after the establishment of the apodectae by Cleisthenes. The
-tamiae of the sacred vessels (τῆς Παράλου and τῆς Σαλαμινίας) acted
-not only as treasurers, but as trierarchs, the expenses (amounting
-for the two ships together to about sixteen talents) being provided
-by the state. They were elected by vote. Other trierarchs had their
-own private tamiae.--The war fund at Athens (independently of the
-tribute) was provided from two sources: first, the property-tax
-(εἰσφορά), and secondly, the surplus of the yearly revenue, which
-remained after defraying the expenses of the civil administration.
-Of the ten strategi, who were annually elected to preside over the
-war department, one was called στρατηγὸς ὁ ἐπὶ τῆς διοικήσεως, to
-whom the management of the war fund was entrusted. He had under him
-a treasurer, called the ταμίας τῶν στρατιωτικῶν, who gave out the
-pay of the troops, and defrayed all other expenses incident to the
-service. So much of the surplus revenue as was not required for the
-purposes of war, was to be paid by the treasurer of the revenue into
-the theoric fund; of which, after the archonship of Euclides, special
-managers were created. [THEORICA.]--Lastly, we have to notice the
-treasurers of the demi (δήμων ταμίαι), and those of the tribes (φυλῶν
-ταμίαι), who had the care of the funds belonging to their respective
-communities, and performed duties analogous to those of the state
-treasurers. The demi, as well as the tribes, had their common lands,
-which were usually let to farm. The rents of these formed the
-principal part of their revenue.
-
-
-TAXIARCHI (ταξίαρχοι), military officers at Athens, next in rank
-to the strategi. They were ten in number, like the strategi, one
-for each tribe, and were elected by vote (χειροτονία). In war each
-commanded the infantry of his own tribe, and they were frequently
-called to assist the strategi with their advice at the war-council.
-In peace they assisted the strategi in levying and enlisting
-soldiers, and seem to have also assisted the _strategi_ in the
-discharge of many of their other duties. The taxiarchs were so called
-from their commanding _taxeis_ (τάξεις), which were the principal
-divisions of the hoplites in the Athenian army. Each tribe (φυλή)
-formed a _taxis_. As there were ten tribes, there were consequently
-in a complete Athenian army ten _taxeis_, but the number of men
-contained in each would of course vary according to the importance of
-the war. Among the other Greeks, the _taxis_ was the name of a much
-smaller division of troops. The _lochus_ (λόχος) among the Athenians
-was a subdivision of the _taxis_, and the _lochagi_ (λοχαγοί) were
-probably appointed by the taxiarchs.
-
-
-TĒGŬLA (κέραμος, _dim._ κεραμίς), a roofing-tile. Roofing-tiles were
-originally made, like bricks, of baked clay (γῆς ὀπτῆς). Byzes of
-Naxos first introduced tiles of marble about the year 620 B.C. A
-still more expensive and magnificent method of roofing consisted in
-the use of tiles made of bronze and gilt. At Rome the houses were
-originally roofed with shingles, and continued to be so down to the
-time of the war with Pyrrhus, when tiles began to supersede the old
-roofing material.
-
-
-TEICHŎPOII (τειχοποιοί), magistrates at Athens, whose business it was
-to build and keep in repair the public walls. They appear to have
-been elected by vote (χειροτονία), one from each tribe, and probably
-for a year. Funds were put at their disposal, for which they had
-their treasurer (ταμίας) dependent on the treasurer of the revenue.
-They were liable to render an account (εὐθύνη) of their management
-of these funds, and also of their general conduct, like other
-magistrates. This office has been invested with peculiar interest in
-modern times, on account of its having been held by Demosthenes, and
-its having given occasion to the famous prosecution of Ctesiphon, who
-proposed that Demosthenes should receive the honour of a crown before
-he had rendered his account according to law.
-
-
-TĒLA (ἱστός), a loom. Although weaving was among the Greeks and
-Romans a distinct trade, carried on by a separate class of persons
-(ὑφάνται, _textores_ and _textrices_, _linteones_), yet every
-considerable domestic establishment, especially in the country,
-contained a loom, together with the whole apparatus necessary for the
-working of wool (_lanificium_, ταλασία, ταλασιουργία). [CALATHUS.]
-These occupations were all supposed to be carried on under the
-protection of Athena or Minerva, specially denominated _Ergane_
-(Ἐργάνη). When the farm or the palace was sufficiently large to admit
-of it, a portion of it called the _histon_ (ἱστῶν) or _textrinum_
-was devoted to this purpose. The work was there principally carried
-on by female slaves (_quasillariae_), under the superintendence
-of the mistress of the house. Every thing woven consists of two
-essential parts, the warp and the woof, called in Latin _stamen_ and
-_subtegmen_, _subtemen_, or _trama_; in Greek στήμων and κροκή. The
-warp was called _stamen_ in Latin (from _stare_) on account of its
-erect posture in the loom. The corresponding Greek term στήμων, and
-likewise ἱστός, have evidently the same derivation. For the same
-reason, the very first operation in weaving was to set up the loom
-(ἱστὸν στήσασθαι); and the web or cloth, before it was cut down or
-“descended” from the loom, was called _vestis pendens_ or _pendula
-tela_, because it hung from the transverse beam, or _jugum_. These
-particulars are all clearly exhibited in the picture of Circe’s
-loom given in the annexed cut. We observe in the preceding woodcut,
-about the middle of the apparatus, a transverse rod passing through
-the warp. A straight cane was well adapted to be so used, and its
-application is clearly expressed by Ovid in the words _stamen
-secernit arundo_. In plain weaving it was inserted between the
-threads of the warp so as to divide them into two portions, the
-threads on one side of the rod alternating with those on the other
-side throughout the whole breadth of the warp. In a very ancient
-form of the loom there was a roller underneath the jugum, turned
-by a handle, and on which the web was wound as the work advanced.
-The threads of the warp, besides being separated by a transverse
-rod or plank, were divided into thirty or forty parcels, to each of
-which a stone was suspended for the purpose of keeping the warp in
-a perpendicular position, and allowing the necessary play to the
-strokes of the spatha. Whilst the comparatively coarse, strong,
-and much-twisted thread designed for the warp was thus arranged in
-parallel lines, the woof remained upon the spindle [FUSUS], forming a
-_spool_, _bobbin_, or _pen_ (πήνη). This was either conveyed through
-the warp without any additional contrivance, or it was made to
-revolve in a shuttle (_radius_). This was made of box brought from
-the shores of the Euxine, and was pointed at its extremities, that
-it might easily force its way through the warp. All that is effected
-by the shuttle is the conveyance of the woof across the warp. To
-keep every thread of the woof in its proper place, it is necessary
-that the threads of the warp should be decussated. This was done by
-the leashes, called in Latin _licia_, in Greek μίτοι. By a leash we
-are to understand a thread having at one end a loop, through which
-a thread of the warp was passed, the other end being fastened to a
-straight rod called _liciatorium_, and in Greek κανών. The warp,
-having been divided by the arundo, as already mentioned, into two
-sets of threads, all those of the same set were passed through the
-loops of the corresponding set of leashes, and all these leashes were
-fastened at their other end to the same wooden rod. At least one set
-of leashes was necessary to decussate the warp, even in the plainest
-and simplest weaving. The number of sets was increased according to
-the complexity of the pattern, which was called _bilix_ or _trilix_,
-δίμιτος, τρίμιτος, or πολύμιτος, according as the number was two,
-three, or more. The process of annexing the leashes to the warp was
-called _ordiri telam_, also _licia telae addere_, or _adnectere_.
-It occupied two women at the same time, one of whom took in regular
-succession each separate thread of the warp, and handed it over to
-the other (παραφέρειν, παραδίδοναι, or προσφωρεῖσθαι); the other,
-as she received each thread, passed it through the loop in proper
-order; an act which we call “entering,” in Greek διάζεσθαι. Supposing
-the warp to have been thus adjusted, and the pen or the shuttle to
-have been carried through it, it was then decussated by drawing
-forwards the proper rod, so as to carry one set of the threads of
-the warp across the rest, after which the woof was shot back again,
-and by the continual repetition of this process the warp and woof
-were interlaced. Two staves were occasionally used to fix the rods
-in such a position as was most convenient to assist the weaver in
-drawing her woof across her warp. After the woof had been conveyed
-by the shuttle through the warp, it was driven sometimes downwards,
-as is represented in the woodcut, but more commonly upwards. Two
-different instruments were used in this part of the process. The
-simplest, and probably the most ancient, was in the form of a large
-wooden sword (_spatha_, σπάθη). The spatha was, however, in a
-great degree superseded by the comb (_pecten_, κερκίς), the teeth
-of which were inserted between the threads of the warp, and thus
-made by a forcible impulse to drive the threads of the woof close
-together.--The lyre, the favourite musical instrument of the Greeks,
-was only known to the Romans as a foreign invention. Hence they
-appear to have described its parts by a comparison with the loom,
-with which they were familiar. The terms _jugum_ and _stamina_ were
-transferred by an obvious resemblance from the latter to the former
-object; and, although they adopted into their own language the Greek
-word _plectrum_, they used the Latin _pecten_ to denote the same
-thing, not because the instrument used in striking the lyre was at
-all like a comb in shape and appearance, but because it was held in
-the right hand, and inserted between the stamina of the lyre, as the
-comb was between the stamina of the loom.
-
-[Illustration: Tela, Loom. (From the Vatican MS. of Virgil.)]
-
-
-TĔLAMŌNES. [ATLANTES.]
-
-
-TĔLŌNES (τελώνης), a farmer of the public taxes at Athens. The taxes
-were let by auction to the highest bidder. Companies often took them
-in the name of one person, who was called ἀρχώνης or τελωνάρχης, and
-was their representative to the state. Sureties were required of
-the farmer for the payment of his dues. The office was frequently
-undertaken by resident aliens, citizens not liking it, on account of
-the vexatious proceedings to which it often led. The farmer was armed
-with considerable powers: he carried with him his books, searched
-for contraband or uncustomed goods, watched the harbour, markets,
-and other places, to prevent smuggling, or unlawful and clandestine
-sales; brought a _phasis_ (φάσις) or other legal process against
-those whom he suspected of defrauding the revenue; or even seized
-their persons on some occasions, and took them before the magistrate.
-To enable him to perform these duties, he was exempted from military
-service. Collectors (ἐκλογεῖς) were sometimes employed by the
-farmers; but frequently the farmer and the collector were the same
-person. The taxes were let by the commissioners (πωλῆται), acting
-under the authority of the senate. The payments were made by the
-farmer on stated prytaneias in the senate-house. There was usually
-one payment made in advance, προκαταβολή, and one or more afterwards,
-called προσκατάβλημα. Upon any default of payment, the farmer became
-_atimus_, if a citizen, and he was liable to be imprisoned at the
-discretion of the court, upon an information laid against him. If the
-debt was not paid by the expiration of the ninth prytaneia, it was
-doubled; and if not then paid, his property became forfeited to the
-state, and proceedings to confiscation might be taken forthwith. Upon
-this subject, see the speech of Demosthenes against Timocrates.
-
-
-TĔLOS (τέλος), a tax. The taxes imposed by the Athenians, and
-collected at home, were either ordinary or extraordinary. The
-former constituted a regular or permanent source of income; the
-latter were only raised in time of war or other emergency. The
-ordinary taxes were laid mostly upon _property_, and upon citizens
-_indirectly_, in the shape of toll or customs; though the resident
-aliens paid a poll-tax (called μετοίκιον), for the liberty of
-residing at Athens under protection of the state. There was a duty
-of two per cent. (πεντηκοστή), levied upon all exports and imports.
-An excise was paid on all sales in the market (called ἐπωνία),
-though we know not what the amount was. Slave-owners paid a duty
-of three obols for every slave they kept; and slaves who had been
-emancipated paid the same. This was a very productive tax before
-the fortification of Deceleia by the Lacedaemonians. The justice
-fees (πρυτανεῖα, παραστασις, &c.) were a lucrative tax in time
-of peace. The extraordinary taxes were the property-tax, and the
-compulsory services called _liturgies_ (λειτουργίαι). Some of these
-last were regular, and recurred annually; the most important, the
-_trierarchia_, was a war-service, and performed as occasion required.
-As these services were all performed, wholly or partly, at the
-expense of the individual, they may be regarded as a species of tax.
-[EISPHORA; LEITOURGIA; TRIERARCHIA.] The tribute (φόρος) paid by the
-allied states to the Athenians formed, in the flourishing period of
-the republic, a regular and most important source of revenue. In
-Olymp. 91 2, the Athenians substituted for the tribute a duty of
-five per cent. (εἰκοστή) on all commodities exported or imported by
-the subject states, thinking to raise by this means a larger income
-than by direct taxation. This was terminated by the issue of the
-Peloponnesian war, though the tribute was afterwards revived, on more
-equitable principles, under the name of σύνταξις. Other sources of
-revenue were derived by the Athenians from their mines and public
-lands, fines, and confiscations. The public demesne lands, whether
-pasture or arable, houses or other buildings, were usually let by
-auction to private persons. The conditions of the lease were engraven
-on stone. The rent was payable by prytaneias. These various sources
-of revenue produced, according to Aristophanes, an annual income
-of two thousand talents in the most flourishing period of Athenian
-empire. Τελεῖν signifies “to settle, complete, or perfect,” and hence
-“to settle an account,” and generally “to pay.” Thus Τέλος comes
-to mean any payment in the nature of a tax or duty. The words are
-connected with _zahlen_ in German, and the old sense of _tale_ in
-English, and the modern word _toll_. Though τέλος may signify any
-payment in the nature of a tax or duty, it is more commonly used of
-the ordinary taxes, as customs, &c. Ἰσοτέλεια signifies the right of
-being taxed on the same footing, and having other privileges, the
-same as the citizens; a right sometimes granted to resident aliens.
-Ἀτέλεια signifies an exemption from taxes, or other duties and
-services; an honour very rarely granted by the Athenians. As to the
-farming of the taxes, see TELONES.
-
-
-TEMPLUM is the same word as the Greek _Temenos_ (τέμενος, from τέμνω,
-to cut off); for _templum_ was any place which was circumscribed
-and separated by the augurs from the rest of the land by a certain
-solemn formula. The technical terms for this act of the augurs are
-_liberare_ and _effari_, and hence a templum itself is a _locus
-liberatus et effatus_. A place thus set apart and hallowed by the
-augurs was always intended to serve religious purposes, but chiefly
-for taking the auguries. The place in the heavens within which the
-observations were to be made was likewise called templum, as it was
-marked out and separated from the rest by the staff of the augur.
-When the augur had defined the templum within which he intended
-to make his observations, he fixed his tent in it (_tabernaculum
-capere_), and this tent was likewise called _templum_, or, more
-accurately, _templum minus_. The place chosen for a templum was
-generally an eminence, and in the city it was the _arx_, where the
-fixing of a tent does not appear to have been necessary, because here
-a place called _auguraculum_ was once for all consecrated for this
-purpose. Besides this meaning of the word templum in the language of
-the augurs, it also had that of a temple in the common acceptation.
-In this case, however, the sacred precinct within which a temple
-was built, was always a _locus liberatus et effatus_ by the augurs,
-that is, a _templum_ or a _fanum_; the consecration was completed
-by the pontiffs, and not until inauguration and consecration had
-taken place, could sacra be performed or meetings of the senate be
-held in it. It was necessary then for a temple to be sanctioned
-by the gods, whose will was ascertained by the augurs, and to be
-consecrated or dedicated by the will of man (pontiffs). Where the
-sanction of the gods had not been obtained, and where the mere act
-of man had consecrated a place to the gods, such a place was only
-a _sacrum_, _sacrarium_, or _sacellum_. The ceremony performed
-by the augurs was essential to a temple, as the consecration by
-the pontiffs took place also in other sanctuaries which were not
-templa, but mere _sacra_ or _aedes sacrae_. Thus the sanctuary of
-Vesta was not a templum, but an aedes sacra, and the various curiae
-(Hostilia, Pompeia, Julia) required to be made templa by the augurs
-before senatusconsulta could be made in them. It is impossible to
-determine with certainty in what respects a templum differed from
-a _delubrum_.--Temples appear to have existed in Greece from the
-earliest times. They were separated from the profane land around them
-(τόπος βέβηλος or τὰ βέβηλα), because every one was allowed to walk
-in the latter. This separation was in early times indicated by very
-simple means, such as a string or a rope. Subsequently, however,
-they were surrounded by more efficient fences, or even by a wall
-(ἕρκος, περίβολος). The whole space enclosed in such a περίβολος
-was called τέμενος, or sometimes ἱερόν; and contained, besides the
-temple itself, other sacred buildings, and sacred ground planted with
-groves, &c. Within the precincts of the sacred enclosure no dead were
-generally allowed to be buried, though there were some exceptions
-to this rule, and we have instances of persons being buried in or
-at least near certain temples. The religious laws of the island of
-Delos did not allow any corpses to be buried within the whole extent
-of the island, and when this law had been violated, a part of the
-island was first purified by Pisistratus, and subsequently the whole
-island by the Athenian people. The temple itself was called ναός
-or νεώς, and at its entrance fonts (περιῤῥαντήρια) were generally
-placed, that those who entered the sanctuary to pray or to offer
-sacrifices might first purify themselves. The act of consecration,
-by which a temple was dedicated to a god, was called ἵδρυσις. The
-character of the early Greek temples was dark and mysterious, for
-they had no windows, and they received light only through the door,
-which was very large, or from lamps burning in them. Architecture
-in the construction of magnificent temples, however, made great
-progress even at an earlier time than either painting or statuary,
-and long before the Persian wars we hear of temples of extraordinary
-grandeur and beauty. All temples were built either in an oblong or
-round form, and were mostly adorned with columns. Those of an oblong
-form had columns either in the front alone, in the fore and back
-fronts, or on all the four sides. Respecting the original use of
-these porticoes see PORTICUS. The friezes and metopes were adorned
-with various sculptures, and no expense was spared in embellishing
-the abodes of the gods. The light, which was formerly let in at the
-door, was now frequently let in from above through an opening in the
-middle. Most of the great temples consisted of three parts: 1. the
-πρόναος or πρόδομος, the vestibule; 2. the cella (ναός, σηκός); and
-3. the ὀπισθόδομος. The cella was the most important part, as it was,
-properly speaking, the temple or the habitation of the deity whose
-statue it contained. In one and the same cella there were sometimes
-the statues of two or more divinities, as in the Erechtheum at
-Athens, the statues of Poseidon, Hephaestus, and Butas. The statues
-always faced the entrance, which was in the centre of the prostylus.
-The place where the statue stood was called ἕδος, and was surrounded
-by a balustrade or railings. Some temples also had more than one
-cella, in which case the one was generally behind the other, as in
-the temple of Athena Polias at Athens. In temples where oracles
-were given, or where the worship was connected with mysteries, the
-cella was called ἄδυτον, μέγαρον, or ἀνάκτορον, and to it only the
-priests and the initiated had access. The ὀπισθόδομος was a building
-which was sometimes attached to the back front of a temple, and
-served as a place in which the treasures of the temple were kept,
-and thus supplied the place of θησαυροί, which were attached to some
-temples.--_Quadrangular Temples_ were described by the following
-terms, according to the number and arrangement of the columns on
-the fronts and sides. 1. Ἄστυλος, _astyle_, without any columns.
-2. Ἐν παραστάσι, _in antis_, with two columns in front between the
-antae. 3. Πρόστυλος, _prostyle_, with four columns in front. 4.
-Ἀμφιπρόστυλος, _amphiprostyle_, with four columns at each end. 5.
-Περίπτερος or ἀμφικίων, _peripteral_, with columns at each end and
-along each side. 6. Δίπτερος, _dipteral_, with two ranges of columns
-(πτερά) all round, the one within the other. 7. Ψευδοδίπτερος,
-_pseudodipteral_, with one range only, but at the same distance
-from the walls of the _cella_ as the outer range of a δίπτερος. To
-these must be added a sort of sham invented by the Roman architects,
-namely: 8. Ψευδοπερίπτερος, _pseudoperipteral_, where the sides had
-only half-columns (at the angles three-quarter columns), attached to
-the walls of the _cella_, the object being to have the _cella_ large
-without enlarging the whole building, and yet to keep up something
-of the splendour of a peripteral temple. Names were also applied to
-the temples, as well as to the porticoes themselves, according to
-the number of columns in the portico at either end of the temple:
-namely, τετράστυλος, _tetrastyle_, when there were _four_ columns in
-front, ἑξάστυλος, _hexastyle_, when there were _six_, ὀκτάστυλος,
-_octastyle_, when there were _eight_, δεκάστυλος, _decastyle_, when
-there were _ten_. There were never more than ten columns in the end
-portico of a temple; and when there were only two, they were always
-arranged in that peculiar form called _in antis_ (ἐν παραστάσι).
-The number of columns in the end porticoes was never uneven, but
-the number along the sides of a temple was generally uneven. The
-number of the side columns varied: where the end portico was
-tetrastyle, there were never any columns at the sides, except false
-ones, attached to the walls: where it was hexastyle or octastyle,
-there were generally 13 or 17 columns at the sides, counting in
-the corner columns: sometimes a hexastyle temple had only eleven
-columns on the sides. The last arrangement resulted from the rule
-adopted by the Roman architects, who counted by intercolumniations
-(the spaces between the columns), and whose rule was to have _twice
-as many intercolumniations along the sides of the building as in
-front_. The Greek architects on the contrary, counted by columns,
-and their rule was to have _twice as many columns along the sides
-as in front, and one more_, counting the corner columns in each
-case. Another set of terms, applied to temples and other buildings
-having porticoes, as well as to the porticoes themselves, was derived
-from the distances between the columns as compared with the lower
-diameters of the columns. They were the following:--1. Πυκνόστυλος,
-_pycnostyle_, the distance between the columns a diameter of a column
-and half a diameter. 2. Σύστυλος, _systyle_, the distance between
-the columns two diameters of a column. 3. Εὔστυλος, _eustyle_, the
-distance between the columns two diameters and a quarter, except
-in the centre of the front and back of the building, where each
-intercolumniation (_intercolumnium_) was three diameters; called
-eustyle, because it was best adapted both for beauty and convenience.
-4. Διάστυλος, _diastyle_, the intercolumniation, or distance between
-the columns, three diameters. 5. Ἀραιόστυλος, _araeostyle_, the
-distances excessive, so that it was necessary to make the epistyle
-(ἐπιστύλιον), or architrave, not of stone, but of timber. These five
-kinds of intercolumniation are illustrated by the following diagram.
-
-      ⬤   1½  ⬤
-     ⬤    2    ⬤
-    ⬤     2¼    ⬤
-   ⬤      3      ⬤
-  ⬤   {   4   }   ⬤
-      {or more }
-
-Independently of the immense treasures contained in many of the
-Greek temples, which were either utensils or ornaments, and of
-the tithes of spoils, &c., the property of temples, from which
-they derived a regular income, consisted of lands (τεμένη), either
-fields, pastures, or forests. These lands were generally let out to
-farm, unless they were, by some curse which lay on them, prevented
-from being taken into cultivation. Respecting the persons entrusted
-with the superintendence, keeping, cleaning, &c., see AEDITUI. In
-the earliest times there appear to have been very few temples at
-Rome, and on many spots the worship of a certain divinity had been
-established from time immemorial, while we hear of the building of
-a temple for the same divinity at a comparatively late period. Thus
-the foundation of a temple to the old Italian divinity Saturnus, on
-the Capitoline, did not take place till B.C. 498. In the same manner,
-Quirinus and Mars had temples built to them at a late period. Jupiter
-also had no temple till the time of Ancus Martius, and the one then
-built was certainly very insignificant. We may therefore suppose
-that the places of worship among the earliest Romans were in most
-cases simple altars or sacella. The Roman temples of later times were
-constructed in the Greek style. As regards the property of temples,
-it is stated that in early times lands were assigned to each temple,
-but these lands were probably intended for the maintenance of the
-priests alone. [SACERDOS.] The supreme superintendence of the temples
-of Rome, and of all things connected with them, belonged to the
-college of pontiffs. Those persons who had the immediate care of the
-temples were the AEDITUI.
-
-
-TĔPĬDĀRĬUM. [BALNEUM, p. 56.]
-
-
-TERMĬNĀLĬA, a festival in honour of the god Terminus, who presided
-over boundaries. His statue was merely a stone or post stuck in the
-ground to distinguish between properties. On the festival the two
-owners of adjacent property crowned the statue with garlands, and
-raised a rude altar, on which they offered up some corn, honeycombs,
-and wine, and sacrificed a lamb or a sucking-pig. They concluded with
-singing the praises of the god. The public festival in honour of
-this god was celebrated at the sixth mile-stone on the road towards
-Laurentum, doubtless because this was originally the extent of the
-Roman territory in that direction. The festival of the Terminalia was
-celebrated on the 23rd of February, on the day before the Regifugium.
-The Terminalia was celebrated on the last day of the old Roman
-year, whence some derive its name. We know that February was the
-last month of the Roman year, and that when the intercalary month
-Mercedonius was added, the last five days of February were added to
-the intercalary month, making the 23rd of February the last day of
-the year.
-
-
-TĔRUNCĬUS. [AS.]
-
-
-TESSĔRA (κύβος), a square or cube; a die; a token. The dice used
-in games of chance were tesserae, small squares or cubes, and were
-commonly made of ivory, bone, or wood. They were numbered on all
-the six sides, like the dice still in use; and in this respect
-as well as in their form they differed from the _tali_. [TALUS.]
-Whilst four tali were used in playing, only three tesserae were
-anciently employed. Objects of the same materials with dice, and
-either formed like them, or of an oblong shape, were used as tokens
-for different purposes. The _tessera hospitalis_ was the token of
-mutual hospitality, and is spoken of under HOSPITIUM. This token was
-probably in many cases of earthenware, having the head of Jupiter
-Hospitalis stamped upon it. _Tesserae frumentariae_ and _nummariae_
-were tokens given at certain times by the Roman magistrates to the
-poor, in exchange for which they received a fixed amount of corn or
-money. From the application of this term to tokens of various kinds,
-it was transferred to _the word_ used as a token among soldiers.
-This was the _tessera militaris_, the σύνθημα of the Greeks. Before
-joining battle it was given out and passed through the ranks, as a
-method by which the soldiers might be able to distinguish friends
-from foes.
-
-
-TESTĀMENTUM, a will. In order to be able to make a valid Roman will,
-the Testator must have the Testamentifactio, which term expresses
-the legal capacity to make a valid will. The testamentifactio was
-the privilege only of Roman citizens who were patresfamilias. The
-following persons consequently had not the testamentifactio: those
-who were in the Potestas or Manus of another, or in Mancipii causa,
-as sons and daughters, wives In manu and slaves: Latini Juniani,
-Dediticii: Peregrini could not dispose of their property according
-to the form of a Roman will: an Impubes could not dispose of his
-property by will even with the consent of his Tutor; when a male was
-fourteen years of age, he obtained the testamentifactio, and a female
-obtained the power, subject to certain restraints, on the completion
-of her twelfth year: muti, surdi, furiosi, and prodigi “quibus lege
-bonis interdictum est” had not the testamentifactio. In order to
-constitute a valid will, it was necessary that a heres should be
-instituted, which might be done in such terms as follow:--Titius
-heres esto, Titium heredem esse jubeo. [HERES (ROMAN.)] Originally
-there were two modes of making wills; either at Calata Comitia, which
-were appointed twice a year for that purpose; or _in procinctu_, that
-is, when a man was going to battle. A third mode of making wills was
-introduced, which was effected _per aes et libram_, whence the name
-of Testamentum per aes et libram. If a man had neither made his will
-at Calata Comitia nor In procinctu, and was in imminent danger of
-death, he would mancipate (_mancipio dabat_) his Familia, that is,
-his Patrimonium to a friend and would tell him what he wished to
-be given to each after his death. There seems to have been no rule
-of law that a testament must be written. The heres might either be
-made by oral declaration (_nuncupatio_) or by writing. Written wills
-however were the common form among the Romans at least in the later
-republican and in the imperial periods. They were written on tablets
-of wood or wax, whence the word “cera” is often used as equivalent to
-“tabella;” and the expressions prima, secunda cera are equivalent to
-prima, secunda pagina. The will must have been in some way so marked
-as to be recognized, and the practice of the witnesses (_testes_)
-sealing and signing the will at last became common. It was necessary
-for the witnesses both to seal (_signare_), that is, to make a mark
-with a ring (_annulus_) or something else on the wax and to add their
-names (_adscribere_). Wills were to be tied with a triple thread
-(_linum_) on the upper part of the margin which was to be perforated
-at the middle part, and the wax was to be put over the thread and
-sealed. Tabulae which were produced in any other way had no validity.
-A man might make several copies of his will, which was often done for
-the sake of caution. When sealed, it was deposited with some friend,
-or in a temple, or with the Vestal Virgins; and after the testator’s
-death it was opened (_resignare_) in due form. The witnesses or the
-major part were present, and after they had acknowledged their seals,
-the thread (_linum_) was broken and the will was opened and read, and
-a copy was made; the original was then sealed with the public seal
-and placed in the archium, whence a fresh copy might be got, if the
-first copy should ever be lost.
-
-
-TESTIS, a witness.--(1) GREEK. [MARTYRIA.]--(2) ROMAN. [JUSJURANDUM.]
-
-
-TESTŪDO (χελώνη), a tortoise, was the name given to several other
-objects.--(1) To the Lyra, because it was sometimes made of a
-tortoise-shell.--(2) To an arched or vaulted roof.--(3) To a military
-machine moving upon wheels and roofed over, used in besieging
-cities, under which the soldiers worked in undermining the walls
-or otherwise destroying them. It was usually covered with raw
-hides, or other materials which could not easily be set on fire.
-The battering-ram [ARIES] was frequently placed under a testudo of
-this kind, which was then called _Testudo Arietaria_.--(4) The name
-of testudo was also applied to the covering made by a close body
-of soldiers who placed their shields over their heads to secure
-themselves against the darts of the enemy. The shields fitted so
-closely together as to present one unbroken surface without any
-interstices between them, and were also so firm that men could walk
-upon them, and even horses and chariots be driven over them. A
-testudo was formed (_testudinem facere_) either in battle to ward
-off the arrows and other missiles of the enemy, or, which was more
-frequently the case, to form a protection to the soldiers when they
-advanced to the walls or gates of a town for the purpose of attacking
-them. Sometimes the shields were disposed in such a way as to make
-the testudo slope. The soldiers in the first line stood upright,
-those in the second stooped a little, and each line successively
-was a little lower than the preceding down to the last, where the
-soldiers rested on one knee. Such a disposition of the shields was
-called _fastigata testudo_, on account of their sloping like the roof
-of a building. The advantages of this plan were obvious: the stones
-and missiles thrown upon the shields rolled off them like water from
-a roof; besides which, other soldiers frequently advanced upon them
-to attack the enemy upon the walls. The Romans were accustomed to
-form this kind of testudo, as an exercise, in the games of the circus.
-
-[Illustration: Testudo. (From the Antonine Column.)]
-
-
-TĔTRARCHĒS or TĔTRARCHA (τετράρχης). This word was originally used,
-according to its etymological meaning, to signify the governor of
-the fourth part of a country (τετραρχία or τετραδαρχία). We have an
-example in the ancient division of Thessaly into four tetrarchies,
-which was revived by Philip. Each of the three Gallic tribes which
-settled in Galatia was divided into four tetrarchies, each ruled by
-a tetrarch. Some of the tribes of Syria were ruled by tetrarchs, and
-several of the princes of the house of Herod ruled in Palestine with
-this title. In the later period of the republic and under the empire,
-the Romans seem to have used the title (as also those of _ethnarch_
-and _phylarch_) to designate those tributary princes who were not of
-sufficient importance to be called kings.
-
-
-TETTĂRĂKONTA, HOI (οἱ τετταράκοντα), _the Forty_, were certain
-officers chosen by lot, who made regular circuits through the demi of
-Attica, whence they are called δικασταὶ κατὰ δήμους, to decide all
-cases of αἰκία and τὰ περὶ τῶν βιαίων, and also all other private
-causes, where the matter in dispute was not above the value of ten
-drachmae. Their number was originally thirty, but was increased to
-forty after the expulsion of the thirty tyrants, and the restoration
-of the democracy by Thrasybulus, in consequence, it is said, of the
-hatred of the Athenians to the number of thirty.
-
-
-THARGĒLĬA (θαργήλια), a festival celebrated at Athens on the 6th
-and 7th of Thargelion, in honour of Apollo and Artemis. The real
-festival, or the Thargelia in a narrower sense of the word, appears
-to have taken place on the 7th; and on the preceding day, the city
-of Athens or rather its inhabitants were purified. The manner in
-which this purification was effected is very extraordinary, and is
-certainly a remnant of very ancient rites, for two persons were
-put to death on that day, and the one died on behalf of the men
-and the other on behalf of the women of Athens. The name by which
-these victims were designated was _pharmaci_ (φαρμακοί). It appears
-probable, however, that this sacrifice did not take place annually,
-but only in case of a heavy calamity having befallen the city,
-such as the plague, a famine, &c. The victims appear to have been
-criminals sentenced to death. The second day of the thargelia was
-solemnized with a procession and an agon, which consisted of a cyclic
-chorus, performed by men at the expense of a choragus. The prize of
-the victor in this agon was a tripod, which he had to dedicate in
-the temple of Apollo which had been built by Pisistratus. On this
-day it was customary for persons who were adopted into a family to
-be solemnly registered, and received into the genos and the phratria
-of the adoptive parents. This solemnity was the same as that of
-registering one’s own children at the Apaturia.
-
-
-[Illustration: Plan of Greek Theatre.]
-
-THĔĀTRUM (θέατρον), a theatre. The Athenians before the time of
-Aeschylus had only a wooden scaffolding on which their dramas were
-performed. Such a wooden theatre was only erected for the time of
-the Dionysiac festivals, and was afterwards pulled down. The first
-drama that Aeschylus brought upon the stage was performed upon such
-a wooden scaffold, and it is recorded as a singular and ominous
-coincidence that on that occasion (500 B.C.) the scaffolding broke
-down. To prevent the recurrence of such an accident, the building
-of a stone theatre was forthwith commenced on the south-eastern
-descent of the Acropolis, in the Lenaea; for it should be observed,
-that throughout Greece theatres were always built upon eminences, or
-on the sloping side of a hill. The new Athenian theatre was built
-on a very large scale, and appears to have been constructed with
-great skill in regard to its acoustic and perspective arrangements.
-Subsequently theatres were erected in all parts of Greece and Asia
-Minor, although Athens was the centre of the Greek drama, and the
-only place which produced great masterworks in this department
-of literature. All the theatres, however, which were constructed
-in Greece were probably built after the model of that of Athens,
-and, with slight deviations and modifications, they all resembled
-one another in the main points, as is seen in the numerous ruins
-of theatres in various parts of Greece, Asia Minor, and Sicily.
-The Attic theatre was, like all the Greek theatres, placed in
-such a manner that the place for the spectators formed the upper
-or north-western, and the stage with all that belonged to it the
-south-eastern part, and between these two parts lay the orchestra.
-The annexed plan has been made from the remains of Greek theatres
-still extant, and from a careful examination of the passages in
-ancient writers which describe the whole or parts of a theatre.--1.
-The place for the spectators was in a narrower sense of the word
-called _theatrum_. The seats for the spectators, which were in
-most cases cut out of the rock, consisted of rows of benches rising
-one above another; the rows themselves (_a_) formed parts (nearly
-three-fourths) of concentric circles, and were at intervals divided
-into compartments by one or more broad passages (_b_) running
-between them, and parallel with the benches. These passages were
-called διαζώματα, or κατατομαί, Lat. _praecinctiones_, and when
-the concourse of people was very great in a theatre, many persons
-might stand in them. Across the rows of benches ran stairs, by which
-persons might ascend from the lowest to the highest. But these stairs
-ran in straight lines only from one praecinctio to another; and the
-stairs in the next series of rows were just between the two stairs of
-the lower series of benches. By this course of the stairs the seats
-were divided into a number of compartments, resembling cones from
-which the tops are cut off; hence they were termed κεοκίδες, and in
-Latin _cunei_. The whole of the place for the spectators (θέατρον)
-was sometimes designated by the name κοῖλον, Latin _cavea_, it being
-in most cases a real excavation of the rock. Above the highest row
-of benches there rose a covered portico (_c_), which of course far
-exceeded in height the opposite buildings by which the stage was
-surrounded, and appears to have also contributed to increase the
-acoustic effect. The entrances to the seats of the spectators were
-partly underground, and led to the lowest rows of benches, while the
-upper rows must have been accessible from above.--2. The orchestra
-(ὀρχήστρα) was a circular level space extending in front of the
-spectators, and somewhat below the lowest row of benches. But it was
-not a complete circle, one segment of it being appropriated to the
-stage. The orchestra was the place for the chorus, where it performed
-its evolutions and dances, for which purpose it was covered with
-boards. As the chorus was the element out of which the drama arose,
-so the orchestra was originally the most important part of a theatre:
-it formed the centre around which all the other parts of the building
-were grouped. In the centre of the circle of the orchestra was the
-_thymele_ (θυμέλη), that is, the altar of Dionysus (_d_), which was
-of coarse nearer to the stage than to the seats of the spectators,
-the distance from which was precisely the length of a radius of the
-circle. In a wider sense the orchestra also comprised the broad
-passages (πάροδοι, _e_) on each side, between the projecting wings of
-the stage and the seats of the spectators, through which the chorus
-entered the orchestra. The chorus generally arranged itself in the
-space between the thymele and the stage. The thymele itself was of
-a square form, and was used for various purposes, according to the
-nature of the different plays, such as a funeral monument, an altar,
-&c. It was made of boards, and surrounded on all sides with steps.
-It thus stood upon a raised platform, which was sometimes occupied
-by the leader of the chorus, the flute-player, and the rhabdophori.
-The orchestra as well as the _theatrum_ lay under the open sky; a
-roof is nowhere mentioned.--3. The stage. Steps led from each side
-of the orchestra to the stage, and by them the chorus probably
-ascended the stage whenever it took a real part in the action itself.
-The back side of the stage was closed by a wall called the _scena_
-(σκηνή), from which on each side a wing projected which was called
-the _parascenium_ (παρασκήνιον). The whole depth of the stage was
-not very great, as it only comprised a segment of the circle of the
-orchestra. The whole space from the scena to the orchestra was termed
-the _proscenium_ (προσκήνιον), and was what we should call the real
-stage. That part of it which was nearest to the orchestra, and where
-the actors stood when they spoke, was the _logeium_ (λογείον), also
-called _ocribas_ (ὀκρίβας), in Latin _pulpitum_, which was of course
-raised above the orchestra, and probably on a level with the thymele.
-The _scena_ was, as we have already stated, the wall which closed
-the stage (_proscenium_ and _logeium_) from behind. It represented a
-suitable background, or the locality in which the action was going
-on. Before the play began it was covered with a curtain (παραπέτασμα,
-προσκήνιον, αὐλαίαι), Latin _aulaea_ or _siparium_. When the play
-began this curtain was let down, and was rolled up on a roller
-underneath the stage. The proscenium and logeium were never concealed
-from the spectators. As regards the scenery represented on the
-_scena_, it was different for tragedy, comedy, and the satyric drama,
-and for each of these kinds of poetry the scenery must have been
-capable of various modifications, according to the character of each
-individual play; at least that this was the case with the various
-tragedies, is evident from the scenes described in the tragedies
-still extant. In the latter however the back-ground (_scena_) in
-most cases represented the front of a palace with a door in the
-centre (_i_) which was called the _royal door_. This palace generally
-consisted of two stories, and upon its flat roof there appears to
-have been some elevated place from which persons might observe
-what was going on at a distance. The palace presented on each side
-a projecting wing, each of which had its separate entrance. These
-wings generally represented the habitations of guests and visitors.
-All the three doors must have been visible to the spectators. The
-protagonistes always entered the stage through the middle or royal
-door, the deuteragonistes and tritagonistes through those on the
-right and left wings. In tragedies like the Prometheus, the Persians,
-Philoctetes, Oedipus in Colonus, and others, the back-ground did
-not represent a palace. There are other pieces again in which the
-scena must have been changed in the course of the performance, as in
-the Eumenides of Aeschylus and the Ajax of Sophocles. The dramas of
-Euripides required a great variety of scenery; and if in addition
-to this we recollect that several pieces were played in one day,
-it is manifest that the mechanical parts of stage performance, at
-least in the days of Euripides, must have been brought to great
-perfection. The scena in the satyric drama appears to have always
-represented a woody district with hills and grottos; in comedy the
-scena represented, at least in later times, the fronts of private
-dwellings or the habitations of slaves. The art of scene-painting
-must have been applied long before the time of Sophocles, although
-Aristotle ascribes its introduction to him. The whole of the cavea
-in the Attic theatre must have contained about 50,000 spectators.
-The places for generals, the archons, priests, foreign ambassadors,
-and other distinguished persons, were in the lowest rows of benches,
-and nearest to the orchestra, and they appear to have been sometimes
-covered with a sort of canopy. The rows of benches above these were
-occupied by the senate of 500, those next in succession by the
-ephebi, and the rest by the people of Athens. But it would seem that
-they did not sit indiscriminately, but that the better places were
-let at a higher price than the others, and that no one had a right to
-take a place for which he had not paid. The usual fee for a place was
-two obols, which was subsequently given to the poorer classes by a
-law of Pericles. [THEORICA.] Women were allowed to be present during
-the performance of tragedies, but not of comedies.--The Romans must
-have become acquainted with the theatres of the Italian Greeks at
-an early period, whence they erected their own theatres in similar
-positions upon the sides of hills. This is still clear from the
-ruins of very ancient theatres at Tusculum and Faesulae. The Romans
-themselves, however, did not possess a regular stone theatre until
-a very late period, and although dramatic representations were very
-popular in earlier times, it appears that a wooden stage was erected
-when necessary, and was afterwards pulled down again, and the plays
-of Plautus and Terence were performed on such temporary scaffoldings.
-In the mean while, many of the neighbouring towns of Rome had their
-stone theatres, as the introduction of Greek customs and manners
-was less strongly opposed in them than in the city of Rome itself.
-Wooden theatres, adorned with the most profuse magnificence, were
-erected at Rome even during the last period of the republic. In
-B.C. 55 Cn. Pompey built the first stone theatre at Rome, near the
-Campus Martius. It was of great beauty, and is said to have been
-built after the model of that of Mytilene; it contained 40,000
-spectators. The construction of a Roman theatre resembled, on the
-whole, that of a Greek one. The principal differences are, that the
-seats of the spectators, which rose in the form of an amphitheatre
-around the orchestra, did not form more than a semicircle; and
-that the whole of the orchestra likewise formed only a semicircle,
-the diameter of which formed the front line of the stage. The Roman
-orchestra contained no thymele, and was not destined for a chorus,
-but contained the seats for senators and other distinguished persons,
-such as foreign ambassadors, which are called _primus subselliorum
-ordo_. In B.C. 68 the tribune L. Roscius Otho carried a law which
-regulated the places in the theatre to be occupied by the different
-classes of Roman citizens: it enacted that fourteen ordines of
-benches were to be assigned as seats to the equites. Hence these
-quatuordecim ordines are sometimes mentioned without any further
-addition, as the honorary seats of the equites. They were undoubtedly
-close behind the seats of the senators and magistrates, and thus
-consisted of the rows of benches immediately behind the orchestra.
-
-[Illustration: Plan of Roman Theatre.]
-
-
-THENSAE or TENSAE, highly ornamented sacred vehicles, which, in the
-solemn pomp of the Circensian games, conveyed the statues of certain
-deities with all their decorations to the pulvinaria, and after the
-sports were over bore them back to their shrines. We are ignorant
-of their precise form. We know that they were drawn by horses, and
-escorted (_deducere_) by the chief senators in robes of state,
-who, along with pueri patrimi [PATRIMI], laid hold of the bridles
-and traces, or perhaps assisted to drag the carriage by means of
-thongs attached for the purpose (and hence the proposed derivation
-from _tendo_). So sacred was this duty considered, that Augustus,
-when labouring under sickness, deemed it necessary to accompany the
-tensae in a litter. If one of the horses knocked up, or the driver
-took the reins in his left hand, it was necessary to recommence the
-procession, and for one of the attendant boys to let go the thong,
-or to stumble, was profanation. The only gods distinctly named as
-carried in tensae are Jupiter and Minerva, though others appear to
-have had the same honour paid them.
-
-
-THĔŎPHĂNĬA (θεοφάνια), a festival celebrated at Delphi, on the
-occasion of which the Delphians filled the huge silver crater which
-had been presented to the Delphic god by Croesus.
-
-
-THĔŌRĬA. [THEORI.]
-
-
-THĔŌRĬCA (θεωρικά). Under this name at Athens were comprised the
-monies expended on festivals, sacrifices, and public entertainments
-of various kinds; and also monies distributed among the people in
-the shape of largesses from the state. There were, according to
-Xenophon, more festivals at Athens than in all the rest of Greece.
-At the most important of the public festivals, such as the Dionysia,
-Panathenaea, Eleusinia, Thargelia, and some others, there were not
-only sacrifices, but processions, theatrical exhibitions, gymnastic
-contests, and games, celebrated with great splendour and at a great
-expense. A portion of the expense was defrayed by the individuals
-upon whom the burden of the liturgies devolved; but a considerable,
-and perhaps the larger, part was defrayed by the public treasury.
-Demosthenes complains, that more money was spent on a single
-Panathenaic or Dionysiac festival than on any military expedition.
-The religious embassies to Delos and other places, and especially
-those to the Olympian, Nemean, Isthmian, and Pythian games, drew
-largely upon the public exchequer, though a part of the cost fell
-upon the wealthier citizens who conducted them. The largesses
-distributed among the people had their origin at an early period,
-and in a measure apparently harmless, though from a small beginning
-they afterwards rose to a height most injurious to the commonwealth.
-The Attic drama used to be performed in a wooden theatre, and the
-entrance was free to all citizens who chose to go. It was found,
-however, that the crushing to get in led to much confusion and even
-danger. On one occasion, about B.C. 500, the wooden scaffolding of
-the theatre fell down, and caused great alarm. It was then determined
-that the entrance should no longer be gratuitous. The fee for a place
-was fixed at two obols, which was paid to the lessee of the theatre,
-(called θεατρώνης, θεατροπώλης, or ἀρχιτέκτων), who undertook to
-keep it in repair, and constantly ready for use, on condition of
-being allowed to receive the profits. This payment continued to be
-exacted after the stone theatre was built. Pericles, to relieve the
-poorer classes, passed a law which enabled them to receive the price
-of admission from the state; after which all those citizens who were
-too poor to pay for their places applied for the money in the public
-assembly, which was then frequently held in the theatre. In process
-of time this donation was extended to other entertainments besides
-theatrical ones; the sum of two oboli being given to each citizen who
-attended; if the festival lasted two days, four oboli; and if three,
-six oboli; but not beyond. Hence all theoric largesses received the
-name of _diobelia_ (διωβελία). It is calculated that from 25 to 30
-talents were spent upon them annually. So large an expenditure of the
-public funds upon shows and amusements absorbed the resources, which
-were demanded for services of a more important nature. By the ancient
-law, the whole surplus of the annual revenue which remained after
-the expense of the civil administration (τὰ περίοντα χρήματα τῆς
-διοικήσεως) was to be carried to the military fund, and applied to
-the defence of the commonwealth. Since the time of Pericles various
-demagogues had sprung up, who induced the people to divert all that
-could be spared from the other branches of civil expenditure into the
-theoric fund, which at length swallowed up the whole surplus, and the
-supplies needed for the purpose of war or defence were left to depend
-upon the extraordinary contributions, or property-tax (εἰσφοραί). An
-attempt was made by the demagogue Eubulus to perpetuate this system.
-He passed a law, which made it a capital offence to propose that
-the theoric fund should be applied to military service. The law of
-Eubulus was a source of great embarrassment to Demosthenes, in the
-prosecution of his schemes for the national defence; and he seems at
-last, but not before B.C. 339, to have succeeded in repealing it. In
-the earlier times there was no person, or board of persons, expressly
-appointed to manage the theoric fund. The money thus appropriated
-was disbursed by the Hellenotamiae. After the anarchy, the largess
-system having been restored by Agyrrhius, a board of managers was
-appointed. They were elected by show of hands at the period of the
-great Dionysia, one from each tribe.
-
-THĔŌRI (θεωροί), persons sent on special missions (θεωρίαι) to
-perform some religious duty, as to consult an oracle, or to offer
-a sacrifice, on behalf of the state. There were among some of the
-Dorian states, as the Aeginetans, Troezenians, Messenians, and
-Mantineans, official priests called _Theori_, whose duty it was to
-consult oracles, interpret the responses, &c., as among the Spartans
-there were men called _Pythii_, chosen by the kings to consult
-the oracle at Delphi. At Athens there were no official persons
-called _Theori_, but the name was given to those citizens who were
-appointed from time to time to conduct religious embassies to various
-places; of which the most important were those that were sent to the
-Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games, those that went to
-consult the God at Delphi, and those that led the solemn procession
-to Delos, where the Athenians established a quadriennial festival, in
-revival of the ancient Ionian one, of which Homer speaks. The expense
-of these embassies was defrayed partly by the state, and partly by
-wealthy citizens, to whom the management of them was entrusted,
-called _Architheori_ (ἀρχιθέωροι), chiefs of the embassy. This was
-a sort of liturgy, and frequently a very costly one; as the chief
-conductor represented the state, and was expected to appear with a
-suitable degree of splendour; for instance, to wear a golden crown,
-to drive into the city with a handsome chariot, retinue, &c. The
-Salaminian, or Delian, ship was also called θεωρὶς ναῦς, and was
-principally used for conveying embassies to Delos, though, like the
-Paralus, it was employed on other expeditions besides.
-
-
-THERMAE. [BALNEUM.]
-
-
-THĒSAURUS (θησαυρός), a treasure-house. Tradition points to
-subterranean buildings in Greece, of unknown antiquity and of
-peculiar formation, as having been erected during the heroic period,
-for the purpose of preserving precious metals, arms, and other
-property (κειμήλια). Such are the treasury of Minyas, at Orchomenus,
-of which some remains still exist, and those of Atreus and his
-sons at Mycenae, the chief one of which, the so-called Treasury of
-Atreus, still exists almost in a perfect state. It is, however,
-very questionable whether these edifices were treasuries at all:
-some of the best archaeologists maintain that they were tombs. In
-the historical times, the public treasury was either in a building
-attached to the _agora_, or in the _opisthodomus_ of some temple.
-Respecting the public treasury at Rome, see AERARIUM.
-
-
-THĒSEIA (θησεῖα), a festival celebrated by the Athenians in honour
-of their national hero Theseus, whom they believed to have been the
-author of their democratical form of government. In consequence of
-this belief donations of bread and meat were given to the poor people
-at the Theseia, which was thus for them a feast at which they felt no
-want, and might fancy themselves equal to the wealthiest citizens.
-The day on which this festival was held was the eighth of every
-month (ὀγδόαι), but more especially the eighth of Pyanepsion, whence
-the festival was sometimes called ὀγδόδιον. It is probable that the
-festival of the Theseia was not instituted till B.C. 469, when Cimon
-brought the remains of Theseus from Scyrus to Athens.
-
-
-THESMŎPHŎRĬA (θεσμοφόρια), a great festival and mysteries, celebrated
-in honour of Demeter in various parts of Greece, and only by women,
-though some ceremonies were also performed by maidens. It was
-intended to commemorate the introduction of the laws and regulations
-of civilised life, which was universally ascribed to Demeter. The
-Attic thesmophoria probably lasted only three days, and began on
-the 11th of Pyanepsion, which day was called ἄνοδος or κάθοδος,
-because the solemnities were opened by the women with a procession
-from Athens to Eleusis. In this procession they carried on their
-heads sacred laws (νόμιμοι βίβλοι or θεσμοί), the introduction of
-which was ascribed to Demeter (Θεσμοφόρος), and other symbols of
-civilised life. The women spent the night at Eleusis in celebrating
-the mysteries of the goddess. The second day, called νηστεία, was a
-day of mourning, during which the women sat on the ground around the
-statue of Demeter, and took no other food than cakes made of sesame
-and honey. On this day no meetings either of the senate or the people
-were held. It was probably in the afternoon of this day that the
-women held a procession at Athens, in which they walked barefooted
-behind a waggon, upon which baskets with mystical symbols were
-conveyed to the thesmophorion. The third day, called καλλιγένεια,
-from the circumstance that Demeter was invoked under this name,
-was a day of merriment and raillery among the women themselves, in
-commemoration of Iambe, who was said to have made the goddess smile
-during her grief.
-
-
-THESMŎTHĔTAE. [ARCHON.]
-
-
-THĒTES. [CENSUS.]
-
-
-THOLOS (θόλος, also called σκιάς), a name given to any round building
-which terminated at the top in a point, whatever might be the purpose
-for which it was used. At Athens the name was in particular applied
-to the new round prytaneium near the senate-house, which should not
-be confounded with the old prytaneium at the foot of the acropolis.
-It was therefore the place in which the prytanes took their common
-meals and offered their sacrifices. It was adorned with some small
-silver statues, and near it stood the ten statues of the Attic
-Eponymi.
-
-
-THŌRAX. [LORICA.]
-
-
-THRĀCES. [GLADIATORES.]
-
-
-THRANĪTAE. [NAVIS.]
-
-
-THRŎNUS (θρόνος), a throne, is a Greek word, for which the proper
-Latin term is _Solium_. This did not differ from a chair (καθέδρα)
-[CATHEDRA; SELLA] except in being higher, larger, and in all
-respects more magnificent. On account of its elevation it was always
-necessarily accompanied by a foot-stool (_subsellium_, ὑποπόδιον,
-θράνιον). The accompanying cut shows two gilded thrones with cushions
-and drapery, intended to be the thrones of Mars and Venus, which is
-expressed by the helmet on the one and the dove on the other.
-
-[Illustration: Throni. (From an ancient Painting.)]
-
-
-THỸMĔLĒ. [THEATRUM.]
-
-
-THỸRSUS (θύρσος), a pole carried by Bacchus, and by Satyrs, Maenades,
-and others who engaged in Bacchic festivities and rites. [DIONYSIA.]
-It was sometimes terminated by the apple of the pine, or fir-cone,
-that tree (πεύκη) being dedicated to Bacchus in consequence of the
-use of the turpentine which flowed from it, and also of its cones,
-in making wine. The monuments of ancient art, however, most commonly
-exhibit, instead of the pine-apple, a bunch of vine or ivy-leaves,
-with grapes or berries, arranged into the form of a cone. The
-fabulous history of Bacchus relates that he converted the thyrsi
-carried by himself and his followers into dangerous weapons, by
-concealing an iron point in the head of the leaves. Hence his thyrsus
-is called “a spear enveloped in vine-leaves,” and its point was
-thought to incite to madness.
-
-
-[Illustration: Tiara. (From a Coin in the British Museum.)]
-
-TĬĀRA or TĬĀRAS (τιάρα or τιάρας: _Att._ κυρβασία), a hat with a
-large high crown. This was the head-dress which characterised the
-north-western Asiatics, and more especially the Armenians, Parthians,
-and Persians, as distinguished from the Greeks and Romans, whose hats
-fitted the head, or had only a low crown. The king of Persia wore an
-erect tiara, whilst those of his subjects were soft and flexible,
-falling on one side. The Persian name for this regal head-dress was
-_cidaris_.
-
-[Illustration: Tiara. (From a Coin in the British Museum.)]
-
-
-TĪBĬA (αὐλός), a pipe, the commonest musical instrument of the Greeks
-and Romans. It was very frequently a hollow cane, perforated with
-holes in the proper places. In other instances it was made of some
-kind of wood, especially box, and was bored with a gimblet. When a
-single pipe was used by itself, the performer upon it, as well as
-the instrument, was called _monaulos_. Among the varieties of the
-single pipe the most remarkable were the bagpipe, the performer on
-which was called _utricularius_ or ἀσκαύλης; and the ἀυλὸς πλάγιος or
-πλαγίαυλος, which, as its name implies, had a mouth-piece inserted
-into it at right angles. Pan was the reputed inventor of this kind of
-tibia as well as of the _fistula_ or _syrinx_ [SYRINX]. But among
-the Greeks and Romans it was much more usual to play on two pipes at
-the same time. Hence a performance on this instrument (_tibicinium_),
-even when executed by a single person, was called _canere_ or
-_cantare tibiis_. This act is exhibited in very numerous works of
-ancient art, and often in such a way as to make it manifest that the
-two pipes were perfectly distinct, and not connected, as some have
-supposed, by a common mouth-piece. The mouth-pieces of the two pipes
-often passed through a capistrum. Three different kinds of pipes were
-originally used to produce music in the Dorian, Phrygian, and Lydian
-modes. It appears, also, that to produce the Phrygian mode the pipe
-had only two holes above, and that it terminated in a horn bending
-upwards. It thus approached to the nature of a trumpet, and produced
-slow, grave, and solemn tunes. The Lydian mode was much quicker,
-and more varied and animating. Horace mentions “Lydian pipes” as a
-proper accompaniment, when he is celebrating the praise of ancient
-heroes. The Lydians themselves used this instrument in leading
-their troops to battle; and the pipes employed for the purpose are
-distinguished by Herodotus as “male and female,” i.e. probably bass
-and treble, corresponding to the ordinary sexual difference in the
-human voice. The corresponding Latin terms are _tibia dextra_ and
-_sinistra_: the respective instruments are supposed to have been so
-called, because the former was more properly held in the right hand
-and the latter in the left. The “tibia _dextra_” was used to lead
-or commence a piece of music, and the “sinistra” followed it as an
-accompaniment. The comedies of Terence having been accompanied by
-the pipe, the following notices are prefixed to explain the kind of
-music appropriate to each: _tibiis paribus_, i.e. with pipes in the
-same mode; _tib. imparibus_, pipes in different modes; _tib. duabus
-dextris_, two pipes of low pitch; _tib. par. dextris et sinistris_,
-pipes in the same mode, and of both low and high pitch. The use
-of the pipe among the Greeks and Romans was three-fold, viz. at
-sacrifices (_tibiae sacrificae_), entertainments (_ludicrae_), and
-funerals. The pipe was not confined anciently, as it is with us, to
-the male sex, but αὐλητρίδες, or female tibicines were very common.
-
-[Illustration: Woman Playing on two Pipes, Tibiae. (From a Vase in
-the British Museum.)]
-
-
-TIMĒMA (τίμημα). The penalty imposed in a court of criminal justice
-at Athens, and also the damages awarded in a civil action, received
-the name of Τίμημα, because they were _estimated_ or _assessed_
-according to the injury which the public or the individual might
-respectively have sustained. The penalty was either fixed by the
-judge, or merely declared by him according to some estimate made
-before the cause came into court. In the first case the trial was
-called ἀγὼν τιμητὸς, in the second case ἀγὼν ἀτίμητος, a distinction
-which applies to civil as well as to criminal trials. Where a man
-sought to recover an estate in land, or a house, or any specific
-thing, as a ring, a horse, a slave, nothing further was required,
-than to determine to whom the estate, the house, or the thing
-demanded, of right belonged. The same would be the case in an action
-of debt, χρέους δίκη, where a sum certain was demanded. In these
-and many other similar cases the trial was ἀτίμητος. On the other
-hand, wherever the damages were in their nature _unliquidated_, and
-no provision had been made concerning them either by the law or
-by the agreement of the parties, they were to be assessed by the
-dicasts. The following was the course of proceeding in the τιμητοὶ
-ἀγῶνες. The bill of indictment (ἔγκλημα) was always superscribed
-with some penalty by the person who preferred it. He was said
-ἐπιγράφεσθαι τίμημα, and the penalty proposed is called ἐπίγραμμα.
-If the defendant was found guilty, the prosecutor was called upon to
-support the allegation in the indictment, and for that purpose to
-mount the platform and address the dicasts (ἀναβαίνειν εἰς τίμημα).
-If the accused submitted to the punishment proposed on the other
-side, there was no further dispute; if he thought it too severe,
-he made a counter proposition. He was then said ἀντιτιμᾶσθαι, or
-ἑαυτῷ τιμᾶσθαι. He was allowed to address the court in mitigation
-of punishment. After both parties had been heard, the dicasts were
-called upon to give their verdict. Sometimes the law expressly
-empowered the jury to impose an additional penalty (προστίμημα)
-besides the ordinary one. Here the proposition emanated from the jury
-themselves, any one of whom might move that the punishment allowed by
-the law should be awarded. He was said προστιμᾶσθαι, and the whole
-dicasts, if (upon a division) they adopted his proposal, were said
-προστιμᾷν.
-
-
-TINTINNĀBŬLUM (κώδων), a bell. Bells were of various forms among the
-Greeks and Romans, as among us.
-
-
-TĪRO, the name given by the Romans to a newly enlisted soldier, as
-opposed to _veteranus_, one who had had experience in war. The mode
-of levying troops is described under EXERCITUS. The age at which the
-liability to military service commenced was 17. From their first
-enrolment the Roman soldiers, when not actually serving against an
-enemy, were perpetually occupied in military exercises. They were
-exercised every day, the tirones twice, in the morning and afternoon,
-and the veterani once. The state of a tiro was called _tirocinium_;
-and a soldier who had attained skill in his profession was then
-said _tirocinium ponere_, or _deponere_. In civil life the terms
-_tiro_ and _tirocinium_ were applied to the assumption of the toga
-virilis, which was called _tirocinium fori_ [TOGA], and to the first
-appearance of an orator at the rostrum, _tirocinum eloquentiae_.
-
-
-TĪRŌCĬNĬUM. [TIRO.]
-
-
-TĬTĬI SODĀLES, a sodalitas or college of priests at Rome, who
-represented the second tribe of the Romans, or the Tities, that
-is, the Sabines, who, after their union with the Ramnes or Latins,
-continued to perform their own ancient Sabine sacra. To superintend
-and preserve these, T. Tatius is said to have instituted the Titii
-sodales. During the time of the republic the Titii sodales are no
-longer mentioned, as the sacra of the three tribes became gradually
-united into one common religion. Under the empire we again meet with
-a college of priests bearing the name of Sodales Titii or Titienses,
-or Sacerdotes Titiales Flaviales; but they had nothing to do with the
-sacra of the ancient tribe of the Tities, but were priests instituted
-to conduct the worship of an emperor, like the Augustales.
-
-
-TĬTĬES or TĬTĬENSES. [PATRICII.]
-
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Form of the Toga spread out.]
-
-TŎGA (τήβεννος), a gown, the name of the principal outer garment
-worn by the Romans, seems to have been received by them from the
-Etruscans. The toga was the peculiar distinction of the Romans, who
-were thence called _togati_ or _gens togata_. It was originally worn
-only in Rome itself, and the use of it was forbidden alike to exiles
-and to foreigners. Gradually, however, it went out of common use,
-and was supplanted by the pallium and lacerna, or else it was worn
-in public under the lacerna. [LACERNA.] But it was still used by
-the upper classes, who regarded it as an honourable distinction, in
-the courts of justice, by clients when they received the SPORTULA,
-and in the theatre or at the games, at least when the emperor was
-present. The exact form of the toga, and the manner of wearing it,
-have occasioned much dispute; but the following account, for which
-the writer is indebted to his friend Mr. George Scharf, jun., will
-set these matters in a clearer light than has hitherto been the case.
-The complete arrangement of this dress may be seen in many antique
-statues, but especially in that of Didius Julianus, in the Louvre,
-and a bronze figure of the elder Drusus discovered at Herculaneum.
-(See figs. 2, 3.)
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Statue of Didius Julianus. (From the Louvre.)]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Bronze of the elder Drusus. (From
-Herculaneum.)]
-
-The letters upon particular parts of the illustrations correspond
-with each other, and refer to the same places upon the general form
-of the toga given above. The method of adjusting the toga is simply
-this: the straight edge (_a b g d_) being kept towards the neck, and
-the rounded towards the hand, the first part of the toga hangs in
-front over the left shoulder to the ground (_a_, fig. 4), so as to
-cover that entire half of the figure viewed in front. The remainder
-falling behind is wrapped round the body, being carried _under_
-the right arm, and brought upwards, like a belt, across the chest,
-covering the left arm and shoulder for a second time. It again falls
-behind, and terminates in the point _d_ (fig. 5), somewhat higher
-than the front portion (_a_).
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
-
-Mode of putting on the Toga.]
-
-So far any mantle of sufficient length might be folded, but two
-distinctive features of Roman dress, the umbo (_f_) and the sinus
-(_c e_), have yet to be considered. The sinus (_c e_) is that
-upper hanging portion with the curved edge downwards which shows
-conspicuously upon the right thigh. When the toga has been brought
-round to the front of the right leg, it has attained its greatest
-width (_e c e_), although on the figure less space is required for
-it. It is therefore folded over at the top, the upper part falling
-forward, down almost to the knee. It may be easily raised (see fig.
-5) and used as a lap--hence the name sinus--to carry fruits and
-flowers, so often represented in ancient art. The fold at _c_ thus
-becomes the upper edge, and forms the balteus, which may be made
-still more effective by being rolled round and slightly twisted, as
-in figs. 2 and 5. A variety again was sometimes produced by lifting
-the hanging edge (_e_) of this sinus up on to the shoulder, so as to
-cover the right arm with that alone, and Quintilian hints that it
-is not ungraceful to throw back the extreme edge of that again, an
-effect still to be admired in some of the ancient sculptures. Fig.
-5 is in the act of raising the edge. The umbo (_f_), a projecting
-mass of folds in front of the body, like the boss of a shield, was
-formed _after_ the rest of the dress had been put on in a very simple
-manner: a part of the front upright line (_a b_), almost covered up
-by the adjustment of the upper shoulder portion (_g_), was pulled out
-and made to hang down over the balteus or belt-like part (fig. 6). It
-is clearly traceable in both statues here given (figs. 2 and 3), and
-fig. 4 is intended to show the formation of the umbo more clearly by
-the right hand holding the edge, which falls over the fingers instead
-of the balteus. In proportion as the umbo (_f_) projects, so of
-course the end (_a_) is raised from the ground. The smaller figures
-(4 and 5) are both drawn without under-garments in order to avoid
-confusion. During sacrifice, when necessary to cover the head, the
-edge (_b_) nearest the neck was pulled up and made to cover the head,
-as in fig. 3, where the entire length of the edge, passing from the
-umbo into the sinus, is very clearly visible. The dress here is very
-ample, and can spare an extra length, but in the statue of a priest
-in the Louvre the head is covered at the expense of the umbo, which
-has entirely disappeared. Fig. 6 is intended to show the interlacing
-and arrangement of the toga by following the course of the straight
-edge alone from _a_ to _d_.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
-
-In many ancient statues the sleeves and folds of the tunic, being
-very full, are apt to be confounded with the rest, but in the best
-style of art this is not the case. Quintilian cautions his orators
-against these incumbrances. A difference in size and fulness of the
-toga, modified according to the rank of the wearer, may be detected
-in coins and sculpture, but in all cases the mode of adjustment
-appears to be the same.--One mode of wearing the toga was the Cinctus
-Gabinus. It consisted in forming a part of the toga itself into a
-girdle, by drawing its outer edge round the body and tying it in a
-knot in front, and at the same time covering the head with another
-portion of the garment. It was worn by persons offering sacrifices,
-by the consul when he declared war, and by devoted persons, as in the
-case of Decius. Its origin was Etruscan, as its name implies. Persons
-wearing this dress were said to be _procincti_ (or _incincti_)
-_cinctu_ (or _ritu_) _Gabino_.--The colour of the toga worn by men
-(_toga virilis_) was generally white, that is, the natural colour of
-white wool. Hence it was called _pura_ or _vestimentum purum_, in
-opposition to the _praetexta_ mentioned below. A brighter white was
-given to the toga of candidates for offices (_candidati_ from their
-_toga candida_) by rubbing it with chalk. There is an allusion to
-this custom in the phrase _cretata ambitio_. White togas are often
-mentioned as worn at festivals, which does not imply that they were
-not worn commonly, but that new or fresh-cleaned togas were first put
-on at festivals. The toga was kept white and clean by the fuller.
-When this was neglected, the toga was called _sordida_, and those who
-wore such garments _sordidati_. This dress (with disarranged hair
-and other marks of disorder about the person) was worn by accused
-persons, as in the case of Cicero. The _toga pulla_, which was of
-the natural colour of black wool, was worn in private mourning, and
-sometimes also by artificers and others of the lower orders.--The
-_toga picta_, which was ornamented with Phrygian embroidery, was
-worn by generals in triumphs [TRIUMPHUS], and under the emperors by
-the consuls, and by the praetors when they celebrated the games.
-It was also called _Capitolina_. The _toga palmata_ was a kind of
-toga picta.--The _toga praetexta_ had a broad purple border. It was
-worn with the BULLA, by children of both sexes. It was also worn
-by magistrates, both those of Rome, and those of the colonies and
-municipia; by the sacerdotes, and by persons engaged in sacred rites
-or paying vows. Among those who possessed the _jus togae praetextae
-habendae_, the following may be more particularly mentioned: the
-dictator, the consuls, the praetors (who laid aside the praetexta
-when about to condemn a Roman citizen to death), the augurs (who,
-however, are supposed by some to have worn the trabea), the decemviri
-sacris faciundis, the aediles, the triumviri epulones, the senators
-on festival days, the magistri collegii, and the magistri vicorum
-when celebrating games. In the case of the tribuni plebis, censors,
-and quaestors, there is some doubt upon the subject. The toga
-praetexta is said to have been derived from the Etruscans, and to
-have been first adopted, with the latus clavus [CLAVUS LATUS], by
-Tullus Hostilius as the royal robe, whence its use by the magistrates
-in the republic. The toga praetexta and the bulla aurea were first
-given to boys in the case of the son of Tarquinius Priscus, who,
-at the age of fourteen, in the Sabine war, slew an enemy with his
-own hand. Respecting the leaving off of the toga praetexta, and the
-assumption of the toga virilis, see IMPUBES and CLAVUS LATUS. The
-occasion was celebrated with great rejoicings by the friends of the
-youth, who attended him in a solemn procession to the Forum and
-Capitol. This assumption of the toga virilis was called _tirocinium
-fori_, as being the young man’s introduction to public life. Girls
-wore the praetexta till their marriage.--The _trabea_ was a toga
-ornamented with purple horizontal stripes. There were three kinds
-of trabeae; one wholly of purple, which was sacred to the gods,
-another of purple and white, and another of purple and saffron,
-which belonged to augurs. The purple and white trabea was a royal
-robe, and is assigned to the Latin and early Roman kings, especially
-to Romulus. It was worn by the consuls in public solemnities,
-such as opening the temple of Janus. The equites wore it at the
-_transvectio_, and in other public solemnities. Hence the _trabea_
-is mentioned as the badge of the equestrian order. Lastly, the toga
-worn by the Roman emperors was wholly of purple. It appears to have
-been first assumed by Julius Caesar.--The material of which the toga
-was commonly made was wool. It was sometimes thick and sometimes
-thin. The former was the _toga densa_, _pinguis_, or _hirta_. A new
-toga, with the nap neither worn off nor cut close, was called pexa,
-to which is opposed the _trita_ or _rasa_, which was used as a summer
-dress. The toga was originally worn by both sexes; but when the stola
-came to be worn by matrons, the toga was only worn by the meretrices,
-and by women who had been divorced on account of adultery. [STOLA.]
-In war the toga was laid aside, and replaced by the PALUDAMENTUM and
-SAGUM. Hence _togatus_ is opposed to _miles_.
-
-
-TONSOR. [BARBA.]
-
-
-TORCŬLAR, TORCŬLUM. [VINUM.]
-
-
-TORMENTUM (ἀφετήρια ὄργανα), a military engine, so called from the
-twisting (_torquendo_) of hairs, thongs, and vegetable fibres. The
-principal military engines were the _balista_ and _catapulta_. The
-_balista_ (πετροβόλος) was used to shoot stones; the _catapulta_
-(καταπέλτης, καταπελτική) to project darts, especially the falarica
-[HASTA], and a kind of missile, 4½ feet long, called _trifax_. Whilst
-in besieging a city the ram [ARIES] was employed in destroying
-the lower part of the wall, the balista was used to overthrow the
-battlements (_propugnacula_, ἐπαλξεῖς), and the catapult to shoot
-any of the besieged who appeared between them: the forms of these
-machines being adapted to the objects which they were intended to
-throw; the catapult was long, the balista nearly square. Instances
-are recorded in which the balista threw stones to the distance of
-a quarter of a mile. Some balistae threw stones weighing three
-hundredweight. Of the _scorpio_ or _onager_, which was also a species
-of tormentum, we know next to nothing.
-
-
-TORMENTUM (βάσανος), torture. (1) GREEK.--By a decree of Scamandrius
-it was ordained that no free Athenian could be put to the torture,
-and this appears to have been the general practice. The evidence
-of slaves was, however, always taken with torture, and their
-testimony was not otherwise received. From this circumstance their
-testimony appears to have been considered of more value than that
-of freemen. Any person might offer his own slave to be examined by
-torture, or demand that of his adversary, and the offer or demand
-was equally called πρόκλησις εἰς βάσανον. The parties interested
-either superintended the torture themselves, or chose certain persons
-for this purpose, hence called βασανισταὶ, who took the evidence
-of the slaves. (2) ROMAN.--During the time of the republic freemen
-were never put to the torture, and slaves only were exposed to this
-punishment. Slaves, moreover, could not be tortured to prove the
-guilt of their own master, except in the case of incestus, which was
-a crime against the gods, or unless the senate made an exception in
-some special instance. At a later time slaves might be tortured to
-bear witness against their masters in cases of majestas and adultery.
-Under the emperors even free persons were put to the torture to
-extract evidence from them in cases of majestas; and although this
-indignity was confined for the most part to persons in humble
-circumstances, we read of cases in which even Roman senators and
-equites were exposed to it.
-
-
-TORQUES or TORQUIS (στρεπτός), an ornament of gold, twisted spirally
-and bent into a circular form, which was worn round the neck by men
-of distinction among the Persians, the Gauls, and other Asiatic and
-northern nations. It was by taking a collar from a Gallic warrior
-that T. Manlius obtained the cognomen of _Torquatus_. Such collars
-were among the rewards of valour bestowed after an engagement upon
-those who had most distinguished themselves.
-
-
-TŎRUS, a bed covered with sheets or blankets, called _Toralia_.
-
-
-TRĂBEA. [TOGA.]
-
-
-TRĂGOEDIA (τραγῳδία), tragedy. (1) GREEK. The tragedy of the ancient
-Greeks as well as their comedy confessedly originated in the
-worship of the god Dionysus. The peculiarity which most strikingly
-distinguishes the Greek tragedy from that of modern times, is the
-lyrical or choral part. This was the offspring of the dithyrambic and
-choral odes from which, as applied to the worship of Dionysus, Greek
-tragedy took its rise. The name of Tragedy (τραγῳδία) is probably
-derived from the goatlike appearance of the Satyrs who sang or acted
-with mimetic gesticulations (ὄρχησις) the old Bacchic songs, with
-Silenus, the constant companion of Dionysus, for their leader. The
-Dionysian dithyrambs were sometimes of a gay and at other times
-of a mournful character: it was from the latter that the stately
-and solemn tragedy of the Greeks arose. Great improvements were
-introduced in the dithyramb by Arion, a contemporary of Periander.
-Before his time the dithyramb was sung in a wild and irregular
-manner; but he is said to have invented the Cyclic chorus, by which
-we are to understand that the Dithyramb was danced by a chorus of
-fifty men round an altar. The choral Dithyrambic songs prevailed
-to some extent, as all choral poetry did, amongst the Dorians of
-the Peloponnesus; whence the choral element of the Attic tragedy
-was always written in the Dorian dialect, thus showing its origin.
-The lyrical poetry was, however, especially popular at Sicyon and
-Corinth. In the latter city Arion made his improvements; in the
-former “tragic choruses,” i.e. dithyrambs of a sad and plaintive
-character, were very ancient. From the more solemn Dithyrambs then,
-as improved by Arion, ultimately sprang the dramatic tragedy of
-Athens, somewhat in the following manner. The choruses were under
-the direction of a leader or exarchus, who, it may be supposed,
-came forward separately, and whose part was sometimes taken by
-the poet himself. We may also conjecture that the exarchus in
-each case led off by singing or reciting his part in a solo, and
-that the chorus dancing round the altar then expressed their
-feelings of joy or sorrow at his story, representing the perils and
-sufferings of Dionysus, or some hero, as it might be. The subjects
-of this Dithyrambic tragedy were not, however, always confined
-to Dionysus. Even Arion wrote Dithyrambs, relating to different
-heroes, a practice in which he was followed by succeeding poets.
-It is easy to conceive how the introduction of an actor or speaker
-independent of the chorus might have been suggested by the exarchs
-coming forward separately and making short off-hand speeches,
-whether learnt by heart beforehand, or made on the spur of the
-moment. [CHORUS.] But it is also possible, if not probable, that
-it was suggested by the rhapsodical recitations of the epic and
-gnomic poets formerly prevalent in Greece: the gnomic poetry being
-generally written in Iambic verse, the metre of the Attic dialogue.
-This however is certain, that the union of the Iambic dialogue with
-the lyrical chorus took place at Athens under Pisistratus, and
-that it was attributed to Thespis, a native of Icaria, one of the
-country demes or parishes of Attica where the worship of Dionysus
-had long prevailed. The alteration made by him, and which gave to
-the old tragedy a new and dramatic character, was very simple but
-very important. He introduced an actor, as it is recorded, for the
-sake of giving rest to the chorus, and independent of it, in which
-capacity he probably appeared himself, taking various parts in the
-same piece, under various disguises, which he was enabled to assume
-by means of linen masks, the invention of which is attributed to
-him. Now as a chorus, by means of its leader, could maintain a
-dialogue with the actor, it is easy to see how with one actor only a
-dramatic action might be introduced, continued, and concluded, by the
-speeches between the choral songs expressive of the joy or sorrow of
-the chorus at the various events of the drama. With respect to the
-character of the drama of Thespis there has been much doubt: some
-writers, and especially Bentley, have maintained that his plays were
-all satyrical and ludicrous, i.e. the plot of them was some story
-of Bacchus, the chorus consisted principally of satyrs, and the
-argument was merry. But perhaps the truth is that in the early part
-of his career Thespis retained the satyrical character of the older
-tragedy, but afterwards inclined to more serious compositions, which
-would almost oblige him to discard the Satyrs from his choruses.
-That he did write serious dramas is intimated by the titles of the
-plays ascribed to him, as well as by the character of the fragments
-of Iambic verse quoted by ancient writers as his. It is evident that
-the introduction of the dialogue must also have caused an alteration
-in the arrangement of the chorus, which could not remain cyclic or
-circular, but must have been drawn up in a rectangular form about the
-thymele or altar of Bacchus in front of the actor, who was elevated
-on a platform or table (ἐλεός), the forerunner of the stage. The
-lines of Horace (_Ar. Poet._ 276):--
-
-      “Dicitur et plaustris vexisse poemata Thespis,
-      Quae canerent agerentque peruncti faecibus ora”--
-
-are founded on a misconception of the origin of the Attic tragedy,
-and the tale about the waggons of Thespis probably arose out of a
-confusion of the waggon of the comedian Susarion with the _platform_
-of the Thespian actor. The first representation of Thespis was in
-B.C. 535. His immediate successors were the Athenian Choerilus
-and Phrynichus, the former of whom represented plays as early as
-B.C. 524. Phrynichus was a pupil of Thespis, and gained his first
-victory in the dramatic contests B.C. 511. In his works, the lyric
-or choral element still predominated over the dramatic, and he was
-distinguished for the sweetness of his melodies, which in the time of
-the Peloponnesian war were very popular with the admirers of the old
-style of music. The first use of female masks is also attributed to
-him, and he so far deviated from the general practice of the Attic
-tragedians as to write a drama on a subject of contemporary history,
-the capture of Miletus by the Persians, B.C. 494.--We now come to
-the first writer of Satyrical dramas, Pratinas of Phlius, a town not
-far from Sicyon, and which laid claim to the invention of tragedy
-as well as comedy. For some time previously to this poet, and
-probably as early as Thespis, tragedy had been gradually departing
-more and more from its old characteristics, and inclining to heroic
-fables, to which the chorus of Satyrs was not a fit accompaniment.
-But the fun and merriment caused by them were too good to be lost.
-Accordingly the Satyrical drama, distinct from the recent and
-dramatic tragedy, but suggested by the sportive element of the old
-Dithyramb, was founded by Pratinas, who however appears to have been
-surpassed in his own invention by Choerilus. It was always written
-by tragedians, and generally three tragedies and one Satyrical piece
-were represented together, which in some instances at least formed a
-connected whole, called a tetralogy (τετραλογία). The Satyrical piece
-was acted last, so that the minds of the spectators were agreeably
-relieved by a merry after-piece at the close of an earnest and
-engrossing tragedy. The distinguishing feature of this drama was the
-chorus of Satyrs, in appropriate dresses and masks, and its subjects
-seem to have been taken from the same class of the adventures of
-Bacchus and of the heroes as those of tragedy; but of course they
-were so treated and selected, that the presence of rustic satyrs
-would seem appropriate. In their jokes and drollery consisted the
-merriment of the piece; for the kings and heroes who were introduced
-into their company were not of necessity thereby divested of their
-epic and legendary character, though they were obliged to conform to
-their situation and suffer some diminution of dignity, from their
-position. Hence Horace (_Ar. Poet._ 231) says:--
-
-      “Effutire leves indigna Tragoedia versus
-      Intererit Satyris paulum pudibunda protervis.”--
-
-alluding in the first line to the mythic or epic element of
-the Satyric drama, which he calls Tragoedia, and in the second
-representing it as being rather ashamed of its company. The “Cyclops”
-of Euripides is the only Satyric drama now extant.--The great
-improvements in tragedy were introduced by Aeschylus. This poet added
-a second actor, diminished the parts of the chorus, and made the
-dialogue the principal part of the action. He also availed himself of
-the aid of Agatharchus, the scene-painter, and improved the costume
-of his actors by giving them thick-soled boots (ἐμβάται), as well as
-the masks, which he made more expressive and characteristic. Horace
-(_Ar. Poet._ 278) thus alludes to his improvements:--
-
-              “personae pallaeque repertor honestae
-      Aeschylus, et modicis instravit pulpita tignis
-      Et docuit magnumque loqui, nitique cothurno.”--
-
-The custom of contending with trilogies (τριλογίαι), or with three
-plays at a time, is said to have been also introduced by him. In
-fact he did so much for tragedy, and so completely built it up to
-its “towering height,” that he was considered the father of it.
-The subjects of his dramas were not connected with the worship of
-Dionysus; but rather with the great cycle of Hellenic legends and
-some of the myths of the Homeric Epos. Accordingly, he said of
-himself that his dramas were but scraps and fragments from the great
-feasts of Homer. In the latter part of his life Aeschylus made use
-of one of the improvements of Sophocles, namely the τριταγωνιστής,
-or third actor. This was the finishing stroke to the dramatic
-element of Attic tragedy, which Sophocles is said to have matured
-by further improvements in costume and scene-painting. Under him
-tragedy appears with less of sublimity and sternness than in the
-hands of Aeschylus, but with more of calm grandeur and quiet dignity
-and touching incident. The plays of Sophocles are the perfection of
-the Grecian tragic drama, as a work of art and poetic composition in
-a thoroughly chastened and classic style. In the hands of Euripides
-tragedy deteriorated not only in dignity, but also in its moral
-and religious significance. He introduces his heroes in rags and
-tatters, and busies them with petty affairs, and makes them speak the
-language of every-day life. As Sophocles said of him, he represented
-men not as they ought to be, but as they are, without any ideal
-greatness or poetic character. His dialogues too were little else
-than the rhetorical and forensic language of his day cleverly put
-into verse: full of sophistry and quibbling distinctions. One of the
-peculiarities of his tragedies was the πρόλογος, an introductory
-monologue, with which some hero or god opens the play, telling who
-he is, what is the state of affairs, and what has happened up to
-the time of his address, so as to put the audience in possession
-of every fact which it might be necessary for them to know: a
-very business-like proceeding no doubt, but a poor make-shift for
-artistical skill. The “Deus ex machina,” also, though not always, in
-a “nodus, tali vindice dignus,” was frequently employed by Euripides
-to effect the _dénoûment_ of his pieces. The chorus too no longer
-discharged its proper and high functions either as a representative
-of the feelings of unprejudiced observers, or, as one of the actors,
-and a part of the whole, joining in the development of the piece.
-Many of his choral odes in fact are but remotely connected in subject
-with the action of the play. Another novelty of Euripides was the
-use of the monodies or lyrical songs, in which not the chorus,
-but the principal persons of the drama, declare their emotions
-and sufferings. Euripides was also the inventor of tragi-comedy.
-A specimen of the Euripidean tragi-comedy is still extant in the
-Alcestis, acted B.C. 438, as the last of four pieces, and therefore
-as a substitute for a Satyrical drama. Though tragic in its form and
-some of its scenes, it has a mixture of comic and satyric characters
-(_e.g._ Hercules) and concludes happily.--The parts which constitute
-a Greek tragedy, _as to its form_, are, the prologue, episode, exode,
-and choral songs; the last divided into the parode and stasimon. The
-πρόλογος is all that part of a tragedy which precedes the parodos
-of the chorus, _i.e._ the first act. The ἐπεισόδιον is all the part
-between whole choral odes. The ἔξοδος that part which has no choral
-ode after it. Of the choral part the πάροδος is the first speech
-of the whole chorus (not broken up into parts): the stasimon is
-without anapaests and trochees. These two divisions were sung by
-all the choreutae, but the “songs on the stage” and the κόμμοι by a
-part only. The commus, which properly means a wailing for the dead,
-was generally used to express strong excitement, or lively sympathy
-with grief and suffering, especially by Aeschylus. It was common to
-the actors and a portion only of the chorus. Again the πάροδος was
-so named as being the passage-song of the chorus sung while it was
-advancing to its proper place in the orchestra, and therefore in
-anapaestic or marching verse: the στάσιμον, as being chaunted by the
-chorus when standing still in its proper position.--The materials of
-Greek tragedy were the national mythology,
-
-      “Presenting Thebes, or Pelop’s line,
-      Or the tale of Troy divine.”
-
-The exceptions to this were the two historical tragedies, the
-“Capture of Miletus” by Phrynichus, and the “Persians” of Aeschylus;
-but they belong to an early period of the art. Hence the plot
-and story of the Grecian tragedy were of necessity known to the
-spectators, a circumstance which strongly distinguishes the ancient
-tragedy from the modern.--The functions of the Chorus in Greek
-Tragedy were very important, as described by Horace (_Ar. Poet._ 193),
-
-      “Actoris partes chorus officiumque virile
-      Defendat: neu quid medios intercinat actus,
-      Quod non proposito conducat, et haereat apte,” &c.
-
-It often expresses the reflections of a dispassionate and
-right-minded spectator, and inculcates the lessons of morality and
-resignation to the will of heaven, taught by the occurrence of
-the piece in which it is engaged. With respect to the number of
-the chorus see CHORUS.--(2) ROMAN. The tragedy of the Romans was
-borrowed from the Greek, but the construction of the Roman theatre
-afforded no appropriate place for the chorus, which was therefore
-obliged to appear on the stage, instead of in the orchestra. The
-first tragic poet and actor at Rome was Livius Andronicus, a Greek
-by birth, who began to exhibit in B.C. 240. In his monodies (or the
-lyrical parts sung, not by a chorus, but by one person), it was
-customary to separate the singing from the mimetic dancing, leaving
-the latter only to the actor, while the singing was performed by a
-boy placed near the flute-player (_ante tibicinem_); so that the
-dialogue only (_diverbia_) was left to be spoken by the actors.
-Livius Andronicus was followed by Naevius, Ennius, Pacuvius, and
-Attius. These five poets belong to the earlier epoch of Roman
-tragedy, in which little was written but translations and imitations
-of the Greek, with occasional insertions of original matter. How
-they imitated the structure of the choral odes is doubtful--perhaps
-they never attempted it. In the age of Augustus the writing of
-tragedies, whether original or imitations, seems to have been quite
-a fashionable occupation. The emperor himself attempted an Ajax, but
-did not succeed. One of the principal tragedians of this epoch was
-Asinius Pollio, to whom the line (Virg. _Eclog._ viii. 10) applies--
-
-      “Sola Sophocleo tua carmina digna cothurno.”
-
-Ovid wrote a tragedy on the subject of Medea. Quintilian says of
-Varius, who was distinguished in epic as well as tragic poetry, that
-his Thyestes might be compared with any of the Greek tragedies. Some
-fragments of this Thyestes are extant, but we have no other remains
-of the tragedy of the Augustan age. The loss perhaps is not great.
-The only complete Roman tragedies that have come down to us are the
-ten attributed to the philosopher Seneca; but whether he wrote any
-of them or not is a disputed point. To whatever age they belong,
-they are beyond description bombastic and frigid, utterly unnatural
-in character and action, full of the most revolting violations of
-propriety, and barren of all theatrical effect. Still they have had
-admirers: Heinsius calls the Hippolytus “divine,” and prefers the
-Troades to the Hecuba of Euripides: even Racine has borrowed from
-the Hippolytus in Phèdre. Roman tragedians sometimes wrote tragedies
-on subjects taken from their national history. Pacuvius, _e.g._
-wrote a _Paulus_, L. Accius a _Brutus_ and a _Decius_. Curiatius
-Maternus, also a distinguished orator in the reign of Domitian, wrote
-a Domitius and a Cato, the latter of which gave offence to the rulers
-of the state.
-
-
-TRĀGŬLA. [HASTA.]
-
-
-TRANSTRA. [NAVIS.]
-
-
-TRANSVECTĬO ĔQUĬTUM. [EQUITES, p. 157.]
-
-
-TRIĀRĬI. [EXERCITUS.]
-
-
-TRĪBŬLA or TRĪBŬLUM (τριβόλος), a corn-drag, consisting of a thick
-and ponderous wooden board, which was armed underneath with pieces
-of iron or sharp flints, and drawn over the corn by a yoke of oxen,
-either the driver or a heavy weight being placed upon it, for the
-purpose of separating the grain and cutting the straw.
-
-
-TRĬBŬLUS (τρίβολος), a caltrop, also called _murex_. When a place was
-beset with troops, the one party endeavoured to impede the cavalry
-of the other party, either by throwing before them caltrops, which
-necessarily lay with one of their four sharp points turned upwards,
-or by burying the caltrops with one point at the surface of the
-ground.
-
-
-TRĬBŪNAL, a raised platform, on which the praetor and judices sat in
-the Basilica. [BASILICA.] There was a tribunal in the camp, which
-was generally formed of turf, but sometimes, in a stationary camp,
-of stone, from which the general addressed the soldiers, and where
-the consul and tribunes of the soldiers administered justice. When
-the general addressed the army from the tribunal the standards were
-planted in front of it, and the army placed round it in order. The
-address itself was called _Allocutio_.
-
-
-TRĬBŪNUS, a tribune. This word seems originally to have indicated
-an officer connected with a tribe (_tribus_), or who represented a
-tribe for certain purposes; and this is indeed the character of the
-officers who were designated by it in the earliest times of Rome,
-and may be traced also in the later officers of this name.--(1)
-TRIBUNES OF THE THREE ANCIENT TRIBES.--At the time when all the
-Roman citizens were contained in the three tribes of the Ramnes,
-Tities, and Luceres, each of them was headed by a tribune, and these
-three tribunes represented their respective tribes in all civil,
-religious, and military affairs; that is to say, they were in the
-city the magistrates of the tribes, and performed the sacra on their
-behalf, and in times of war they were their military commanders.
-The _tribunus celerum_ was the commander of the _celeres_, the
-king’s body-guard, and not the tribune of the tribe of the Ramnes,
-as is supposed by some modern writers. In what manner the tribunus
-celerum was appointed is uncertain, but it is probable that he was
-elected by the tribes; for we find that when the imperium was to be
-conferred upon the king, the comitia were held under the presidency
-of the tribunus celerum; and in the absence of the king, to whom
-this officer was next in rank, he convoked the comitia: it was in
-an assembly of this kind that Brutus proposed to deprive Tarquinius
-of the imperium. A law passed under the presidency of the tribunus
-celerum was called a _lex tribunicia_, to distinguish it from one
-passed under the presidency of the king. The tribunes of the three
-ancient tribes ceased to be appointed when these tribes themselves
-ceased to exist as political bodies, and when the patricians became
-incorporated in the local tribes of Servius Tullius. [TRIBUS.]--(2)
-TRIBUNES OF THE SERVIAN TRIBES (φύλαρχοι, τριττυάρχοι).--When Servius
-Tullius divided the commonalty into thirty local tribes, we again
-find a tribune at the head of these tribes. The duties of these
-tribunes, who were without doubt the most distinguished persons
-in their respective districts, appear to have consisted at first
-in keeping a register of the inhabitants in each district, and of
-their property, for purposes of taxation, and for levying the troops
-for the armies. When subsequently the Roman people became exempted
-from taxes, the main part of their business was taken from them,
-but they still continued to exist. The _tribuni aerarii_, who occur
-down to the end of the republic, were perhaps only the successors
-of the tribunes of the tribes. When (B.C. 406) the custom of giving
-pay (_stipendium_) to the soldiers was introduced, each of the
-tribuni aerarii had to collect the tributum in his own tribe, and
-with it to pay the soldiers; and in case they did not fulfil this
-duty, the soldiers had the right of pignoris capio against them. In
-later times their duties appear to have been confined to collecting
-the tributum, which they made over to the military quaestors who
-paid the soldiers. [QUAESTOR.] The Lex Aurelia, B.C. 70, called
-the tribuni aerarii to the exercise of judicial functions, along
-with the senators and equites, as these tribunes represented the
-body of the most respectable citizens. But of this distinction they
-were subsequently deprived by Julius Caesar.--(3) TRIBUNI PLEBIS
-(δήμαρχοι, the office δημαρχία).--The ancient tribunes of the
-plebeian tribes had undoubtedly the right of convoking the meetings
-of their tribes, and of maintaining the privileges granted to them
-by king Servius, and subsequently by the Valerian laws. But this
-protection was very inadequate against the insatiable ambition and
-usurpations of the patricians. When the plebeians, impoverished by
-long wars, and cruelly oppressed by the patricians, at last seceded
-in B.C. 494 to the Mons Sacer, the patricians were obliged to grant
-to the plebeians the right of appointing tribunes (_tribuni plebis_)
-with more efficient powers to protect their own order than those
-which were possessed by the heads of the tribes. The purpose for
-which they were appointed was only to afford protection against
-any abuse on the part of the patrician magistrates; and that they
-might be able to afford such protection their persons were declared
-sacred and inviolable, and it was agreed that whoever invaded this
-inviolability should be an outlaw, and that his property should be
-forfeited to the temple of Ceres. A subsequent law enacted that no
-one should oppose or interrupt a tribune while addressing the people,
-and that whoever should act contrary to this ordinance should give
-bail to the tribunes for the payment of whatever fine they should
-affix to his offence in arraigning him before the commonalty; if
-he refused to give bail, his life and property were forfeited. The
-tribunes were thus enabled to afford protection to any one who
-appealed to the assembly of the commonalty or required any other
-assistance. They were essentially the representatives and the organs
-of the plebeian order, and their sphere of action was the comitia
-tributa. With the patricians and their comitia they had nothing to
-do. The tribunes themselves, however, were not judges, and could
-inflict no punishments, but could only propose the imposition of a
-fine to the commonalty (_multam irrogare_). The tribunes were thus
-in their origin only a protecting magistracy of the plebs, but in
-the course of time their power increased to such a degree that it
-surpassed that of all other magistrates, and the tribunes then became
-a magistracy for the whole Roman people, in opposition to the senate
-and the oligarchical party in general, although they had nothing
-to do with the administration or the government. During the latter
-period of the republic they became true tyrants, and may be compared
-to the national convention of France during the first revolution. At
-first the number of the tribunes was only two, but soon afterwards
-they were increased to five, one being taken from each of the five
-classes, and subsequently to ten, two being taken from each of the
-five classes. This last number appears to have remained unaltered
-down to the end of the empire. The tribunes entered upon their office
-on the 10th of December, but were elected, at least in the time of
-Cicero, on the 17th of July. It is almost superfluous to state that
-none but plebeians were eligible to the office of tribune; hence
-when, towards the end of the republic, patricians wished to obtain
-the office, they were obliged first to renounce their own order and
-to become plebeians; hence also under the empire it was thought that
-the princeps should not be tribune because he was a patrician. But
-the influence which belonged to this office was too great for the
-emperors not to covet it. Hence Augustus was made tribune for life.
-During the republic, however, the old regulation remained in force,
-even after the tribunes had ceased to be the protectors of the plebs
-alone. There is only one instance recorded in which patricians were
-elected to the tribuneship, and this was probably the consequence
-of an attempt to divide the tribuneship between the two orders.
-Although nothing appears to be more natural than that the tribunes
-should originally have been elected by that body of Roman citizens
-which they represented, yet the subject is involved in considerable
-obscurity. Some writers state that they were elected by the comitia
-of the curies; others suppose that they were elected in the comitia
-of the centuries; but whether they were elected in the latter or in
-the comitia of the tribes, it is certain that at first the sanction
-of the curies to the election was at all events necessary. But after
-the time of the Lex Publilia (B.C. 472) the sanction of the curies is
-not heard of, and the election of the tribunes was left entirely to
-the comitia tributa, which were convoked and held for this purpose
-by the old tribunes previous to the expiration of their office. One
-of the old tribunes was appointed by lot to preside at the election.
-As the meeting could not be prolonged after sunset, and the business
-was to be completed in one day, it sometimes happened that it was
-obliged to break up before the election was completed, and then those
-who were elected filled up the legitimate number of the college by
-cooptatio. But in order to prevent this irregularity, the tribune L.
-Trebonius, in 448 B.C., got an ordinance passed, according to which
-the college of the tribunes should never be completed by cooptatio,
-but the elections should be continued on the second day, if they were
-not completed on the first, till the number ten was made up. The
-place where the election of the tribunes was held was originally and
-lawfully the Forum, afterwards also the Campus Martius, and sometimes
-the area of the Capitol.--We now proceed to trace the gradual growth
-of the tribunitian power. Although its original character was merely
-protection (_auxilium_ or βοήθεια) against patrician magistrates,
-the plebeians appear early to have regarded their tribunes also as
-mediators or arbitrators in matters among themselves. The whole power
-possessed by the college of tribunes was designated by the name
-_tribunicia potestas_, and extended at no time farther than one mile
-beyond the gates of the city; at a greater distance than this they
-came under the imperium of the magistrates, like every other citizen.
-As they were the public guardians, it was necessary that every one
-should have access to them and at any time; hence the doors of their
-houses were open day and night for all who were in need of help and
-protection, which they were empowered to afford against any one, even
-against the highest magistrates. For the same reason a tribune was
-not allowed to be absent from the city for a whole day, except during
-the Feriae Latinae, when the whole people were assembled on the
-Alban Mount. In B.C. 456 the tribunes, in opposition to the consuls,
-assumed the right of convoking the senate, in order to lay before it
-a rogation, and discuss the same; for until that time the consuls
-alone had had the right of laying plebiscita before the senate for
-approbation. Some years after, B.C. 452, the tribunes demanded of
-the consuls to request the senate to make a senatusconsultum for the
-appointment of persons to frame a new legislation; and during the
-discussions on this subject the tribunes themselves were present in
-the senate. The written legislation which the tribunes then wished
-can only have related to their own order; but as such a legislation
-would only have widened the breach between the two orders, they
-afterwards gave way to the remonstrances of the patricians, and
-the new legislation was to embrace both orders. From the second
-decemvirate the tribuneship was suspended, but was restored after
-the legislation was completed, and now assumed a different character
-from the change that had taken place in the tribes. [TRIBUS.] The
-tribunes now had the right to be present at the deliberations of
-the senate; but they did not sit among the senators themselves,
-but upon benches before the opened doors of the senate house. The
-inviolability of the tribunes, which had before only rested upon a
-contract between the two estates, was now sanctioned and confirmed by
-a law of M. Horatius. As the tribes now also included the patricians
-and their clients, the tribunes might naturally be asked to interpose
-on behalf of any citizen, whether patrician or plebeian. Hence the
-patrician ex-decemvir, Appius Claudius, implored the protection of
-the tribunes. About this time the tribunes also acquired the right
-of taking the auspices in the assemblies of the tribes. They also
-assumed again the right, which they had exercised before the time
-of the decemvirate, of bringing patricians who had violated the
-rights of the plebeians before the comitia of the tribes. By the Lex
-Valeria passed in the Comitia Centuriata (B.C. 449), it was enacted
-that a plebiscitum, which had been voted by the tribes, should bind
-the patricians as well. While the college thus gained outwardly new
-strength every day, a change took place in its internal organisation,
-which to some extent paralysed its powers. Before B.C. 394, every
-thing had been decided in the college by a majority; but about this
-time, we do not know how, a change was introduced, which made the
-opposition (_intercessio_) of one tribune sufficient to render a
-resolution of his colleagues void. This new regulation does not
-appear in operation till 394 and 393 B.C.; the old one was still
-applied in B.C. 421 and 415. From their right of appearing in the
-senate, and of taking part in its discussions, and from their being
-the representatives of the whole people, they gradually obtained
-the right of intercession against any action which a magistrate
-might undertake during the time of his office, and this even without
-giving any reason for it. Thus we find a tribune preventing a consul
-from convoking the senate, and preventing the proposal of new laws
-or elections in the comitia; they interceded against the official
-functions of the censors; and even against a command issued by the
-praetor. In the same manner a tribune might place his veto upon an
-ordinance of the senate; and he could thus either compel the senate
-to submit the subject to a fresh consideration, or could raise the
-session. In order to propose a measure to the senate they might
-themselves convene a meeting, or when it had been convened by a
-consul they might make their proposal even in opposition to the
-consul, a right which no other magistrates had in the presence of the
-consuls. The senate, on the other hand, had itself, in certain cases,
-recourse to the tribunes. Thus, in B.C. 431 it requested the tribunes
-to compel the consuls to appoint a dictator, in compliance with a
-decree of the senate, and the tribunes compelled the consuls, by
-threatening them with imprisonment, to appoint A. Postumius Tubertus
-dictator. From this time forward we meet with several instances in
-which the tribunes compelled the consuls to comply with the decrees
-of the senate, _si non essent in auctoritate senatus_, and to execute
-its commands. In their relation to the senate a change was introduced
-by the _Plebiscitum Atinium_, which ordained that a tribune, by
-virtue of his office, should be a senator. When this plebiscitum was
-made is uncertain; but we know that in B.C. 170 it was not yet in
-operation. It probably originated with C. Atinius, who was tribune in
-B.C. 132. But as the quaestorship, at least in later times, was the
-office which persons held previously to the tribuneship, and as the
-quaestorship itself conferred upon a person the right of a senator,
-the law of Atinius was in most cases superfluous.--In their relation
-to other magistrates we may observe, that the right of intercessio
-was not confined to stopping a magistrate in his proceedings, but
-they might even command their viatores to seize a consul or a censor,
-to imprison him, or to throw him from the Tarpeian rock. When the
-tribunes brought an accusation against any one before the people,
-they had the right of _prehensio_, but not the right of _vocatio_,
-that is, they might command a person to be dragged by their viatores
-before the comitia, but they could not summon him. They might, as in
-earlier times, propose a fine to be inflicted upon the person accused
-before the comitia, but in some cases they dropped this proposal
-and treated the case as a capital one. The college of tribunes had
-also the power of making edicts. In cases in which one member of
-the college opposed a resolution of his colleagues nothing could be
-done, and the measure was dropped; but this useful check was removed
-by the example of Tiberius Gracchus, in which a precedent was given
-for proposing to the people that a tribune obstinately persisting
-in his veto should be deprived of his office. From the time of the
-Hortensian law the power of the tribunes had been gradually rising
-to such a height that at length it was superior to every other in
-the state. They had acquired the right of proposing to the comitia
-tributa or the senate measures on nearly all the important affairs of
-the state, and it would be endless to enumerate the cases in which
-their power was manifested. Their proposals were indeed usually made
-ex auctoritate senatus, or had been communicated to and approved by
-it; but cases in which the people itself had a direct interest, such
-as a general legal regulation, granting of the franchise, a change in
-the duties and powers of a magistrate, and others, might be brought
-before the people, without their having been previously communicated
-to the senate, though there are also instances of the contrary.
-Subjects belonging to the administration could not be brought before
-the tribes without the tribunes having previously received through
-the consuls the auctoritas of the senate. This, however, was done
-very frequently, and hence we have mention of a number of plebiscita
-on matters of administration. It sometimes even occurs that the
-tribunes brought the question concerning the conclusion of peace
-before the tribes, and then compelled the senate to ratify the
-resolution, as expressing the wish of the whole people. Sulla, in his
-reform of the constitution on the early aristocratic principles, left
-to the tribunes only the jus auxiliandi, and deprived them of the
-right of making legislative or other proposals, either to the senate
-or the comitia, without having previously obtained the sanction of
-the senate. But this arrangement did not last, for Pompey restored to
-them their former rights. During the latter period of the republic,
-when the office of quaestor was in most cases held immediately
-before that of tribune, the tribunes were generally elected from
-among the senators, and this continued to be the case under the
-empire. Sometimes, however, equites also obtained the office, and
-thereby became members of the senate, where they were considered
-of equal rank with the quaestors. Tribunes of the people continued
-to exist down to the fifth century of our era, though their powers
-became naturally much limited, especially in the reign of Nero. They
-continued however to have the right of intercession against decrees
-of the senate, and on behalf of injured individuals.--(4) TRIBUNI
-MILITUM CUM CONSULARI POTESTATE. When in B.C. 445 the tribune C.
-Canuleius brought forward the rogation that the consulship should not
-be confined to either order, the patricians evaded the attempt by a
-change in the constitution; the powers which had hitherto been united
-in the consulship were now divided between two new magistrates,
-viz. the _Tribuni militum cum consulari potestate_ and the censors.
-Consequently, in B.C. 444, three military tribunes, with consular
-power, were appointed, and to this office the plebeians were to
-be equally eligible with the patricians. For the years following,
-however, the people were to be at liberty, on the proposal of the
-senate, to decide whether consuls were to be elected according to
-the old custom, or consular tribunes. Henceforth, for many years,
-sometimes consuls and sometimes consular tribunes were appointed,
-and the number of the latter varied from three to four, until in
-B.C. 405 it was increased to six, and as the censors were regarded
-as their colleagues, we have sometimes mention of eight tribunes.
-At last, however, in B.C. 367, the office of these tribunes was
-abolished by the Licinian law, and the consulship was restored. These
-consular tribunes were elected in the comitia of the centuries, and
-undoubtedly with less solemn auspices than the consuls.--(5) TRIBUNI
-MILITARES [EXERCITUS, p. 169.]
-
-
-TRĬBUS (φῦλον, φυλή), a tribe. (1) GREEK. In the earliest times of
-Greek history mention is made of people being divided into tribes
-and clans. Homer speaks of such divisions in terms which seem to
-imply that they were elements that entered into the composition of
-every community. A person not included in any clan (ἀφρήτωρ), was
-regarded as a vagrant or outlaw. These divisions were rather natural
-than political, depending on family connection, and arising out of
-those times, when each head of a family exercised a patriarchal sway
-over its members. The bond was cemented by religious communion,
-sacrifices and festivals, which all the family or clansmen attended,
-and at which the chief usually presided.--Of the Dorian race
-there were originally three tribes, traces of which are found in
-all the countries which they colonised. Hence they are called by
-Homer Δωριέες τριχάϊκες. These tribes were the _Hylleis_ (Ὑλλεῖς),
-_Pamphyli_ (Πάμφυλοι), and _Dymanatae_ or _Dymanes_ (Δυμανάται or
-Δυμᾶνες). The first derived their name from Hyllus, son of Hercules,
-the two last from Pamphylus and Dymas, who are said to have fallen
-in the last expedition when the Dorians took possession of the
-Peloponnesus. The Hyllean tribe was perhaps the one of highest
-dignity; but at Sparta there does not appear to have been much
-distinction, for all the freemen there were by the constitution of
-Lycurgus on a footing of equality. To these three tribes others
-were added in different places, either when the Dorians were joined
-by other foreign allies, or when some of the old inhabitants were
-admitted to the rank of citizenship or equal privileges. Thus the
-Cadmean Aegeids are said by Herodotus to have been a great tribe
-at Sparta, descended (as he says) from Aegeus, grandson of Theras,
-though others have thought they were incorporated with the three
-Doric tribes. The subdivision of tribes into _phratriae_ (φρατρίαι)
-or _patrae_ (πάτραι), _genē_ (γένη), _trittyes_ (τρίττυες), &c.
-appears to have prevailed in various places. At Sparta each tribe
-contained ten _obae_ (ὠβαί), a word denoting a local division
-or district; each _obe_ contained ten _triacades_ (τριακάδες),
-communities containing thirty families. But very little appears
-to be known of these divisions, how far they were local, or how
-far genealogical. After the time of Cleomenes the old system of
-tribes was changed; new ones were created corresponding to the
-different quarters of the town, and they seem to have been five in
-number.--The first Attic tribes that we read of are said to have
-existed in the reign, or soon after the reign, of Cecrops, and were
-called _Cecropis_ (Κεκροπίς), _Autochthon_ (Αὐτόχθων), _Actaea_
-(Ἀκταία), and _Paralia_ (Παραλία). In the reign of a subsequent king,
-Cranaus, these names were changed to _Cranais_ (Κραναΐς), _Atthis_
-(Ἀτθίς), _Mesogaea_ (Μεσόγαια), and _Diacris_ (Διακρίς). Afterwards
-we find a new set of names; _Dias_ (Διάς), _Athenais_ (Ἀθηναΐς),
-_Poseidonias_ (Ποσειδωνιάς), and _Hephaestias_ (Ἡφαιστιάς); evidently
-derived from the deities who were worshipped in the country. Some
-of those secondly mentioned, if not all of them, seem to have been
-geographical divisions; and it is not improbable that, if not
-independent communities, they were at least connected by a very
-weak bond of union. But all these tribes were superseded by four
-others, which were probably founded soon after the Ionic settlement
-in Attica, and seem to have been adopted by other Ionic colonies out
-of Greece. The names _Geleontes_ (Γελέοντες), _Hopletes_ (Ὅπλητες),
-_Argades_ (Ἀργάδεις), _Aegicores_ (Αἰγικορεῖς), are said by Herodotus
-to have been derived from the sons of Ion, son of Xuthus. Upon
-this, however, many doubts have been thrown by modern writers. The
-etymology of the last three names would seem to suggest, that the
-tribes were so called from the occupations which their respective
-members followed; the _Hopletes_ being the armed men, or warriors;
-the _Argades_, labourers or husbandmen; the _Aegicores_, goatherds
-or shepherds. But whatever be the truth with respect to the origin
-of these tribes, one thing is certain, that before the time of
-Theseus, whom historians agree in representing as the great founder
-of the Attic commonwealth, the various people who inhabited the
-country continued to be disunited and split into factions.--Theseus
-in some measure changed the relations of the tribes to each
-other, by introducing a gradation of ranks in each; dividing the
-people into _Eupatridae_ (Εὐπατρίδαι), _Geomori_ (Γεωμόροι), and
-_Demiurgi_ (Δημιουργοί), of whom the first were nobles, the second
-agriculturists or yeomen, the third labourers and mechanics. At the
-same time, in order to consolidate the national unity, he enlarged
-the city of Athens, with which he incorporated several smaller towns,
-made it the seat of government, encouraged the nobles to reside
-there, and surrendered a part of the royal prerogative in their
-favour. The tribes or phylae were divided, either in the age of
-Theseus or soon after, each into three _phratriae_ (φρατρίαι, a term
-equivalent to fraternities, and analogous in its political relation
-to the Roman _curiae_), and each _phratria_ into thirty _gene_ (γένη,
-equivalent to the Roman _Gentes_), the members of a _genos_ (γένος)
-being called _gennetae_ (γεννῆται) or _homogalactes_ (ὁμογαλάκτες).
-Each _genos_ was distinguished by a particular name of a patronymic
-form, which was derived from some hero or mythic ancestor. These
-divisions, though the names seem to import family connection, were
-in fact artificial; which shows that some advance had now been made
-towards the establishment of a closer political union. The members of
-the _phratriae_ and _gene_ had their respective religious rites and
-festivals, which were preserved long after these communities had lost
-their political importance, and perhaps prevented them from being
-altogether dissolved.--After the age of Theseus, the monarchy having
-been first limited and afterwards abolished, the whole power of the
-state fell into the hands of the _Eupatridae_ or nobles, who held all
-civil offices, and had besides the management of religious affairs,
-and the interpretation of the laws. Attica became agitated by feuds,
-and we find the people, shortly before the legislation of Solon,
-divided into three parties, _Pediaei_ (Πεδιαῖοι) or lowlanders,
-_Diacrii_ (Διάκριοι) or highlanders, and _Parali_ (Πάραλοι) or people
-of the sea-coast. The first two remind us of the ancient division of
-tribes, _Mesogaea_ and _Diacris_; and the three parties appear in
-some measure to represent the classes established by Theseus, the
-first being the nobles, whose property lay in the champaign and most
-fertile part of the country; the second, the smaller landowners and
-shepherds; the third, the trading and mining class, who had by this
-time risen in wealth and importance. To appease their discords, Solon
-was applied to; and thereupon framed his celebrated constitution and
-code of laws. Here we have only to notice that he retained the four
-tribes as he found them, but abolished the existing distinctions of
-_rank_, or at all events greatly diminished their importance, by
-introducing his property qualification, or division of the people
-into _Pentacosiomedimni_ (Πεντακοσιομέδιμνοι), _Hippeis_ (Ἱππεῖς),
-_Zeugitae_ (Ζευγῖται), and _Thetes_ (Θῆτες). [CENSUS, GREEK.] The
-enactments of Solon continued to be the _law_ at Athens, though in
-great measure suspended by the tyranny, until the democratic reform
-effected by Clisthenes. He abolished the old tribes, and created ten
-new ones, according to a geographical division of Attica, and named
-after ten of the ancient heroes: _Erechtheis_, _Aegeis_, _Pandionis_,
-_Leontis_, _Acamantis_, _Oeneis_, _Cecropis_, _Hippothoontis_,
-_Aeantis_, _Antiochis_. These tribes were divided each into ten
-_demi_ (δῆμοι), the number of which was afterwards increased by
-subdivision; but the arrangement was so made that several _demi_ not
-contiguous or near to one another were joined to make up a tribe.
-[DEMUS.] The object of this arrangement was, that by the breaking of
-old associations a perfect and lasting revolution might be effected,
-in the habits and feelings, as well as the political organisation of
-the people. Solon allowed the ancient _phratriae_ to exist, but they
-were deprived of all political importance. All foreigners admitted
-to the citizenship were registered in a phyle and demus, but not in
-a phratria or genos. The functions which had been discharged by the
-old tribes were now mostly transferred to the _demi_. Among others,
-we may notice that of the forty-eight _naucrariae_ into which the old
-tribes had been divided for the purpose of taxation, but which now
-became useless, the taxes being collected on a different system. The
-reforms of Clisthenes were destined to be permanent. They continued
-to be in force (with some few interruptions) until the downfall of
-Athenian independence. The ten tribes were blended with the whole
-machinery of the constitution. Of the senate of five hundred, fifty
-were chosen from each tribe. The allotment of dicasts was according
-to tribes; and the same system of election may be observed in most
-of the principal offices of state, judicial and magisterial, civil
-and military, &c. In B.C. 307, Demetrius Poliorcetes increased
-the number of tribes to twelve by creating two new ones, namely,
-_Antigonias_ and _Demetrias_, which afterwards received the names of
-_Ptolemais_ and _Attalis_; and a thirteenth was subsequently added
-by Hadrian, bearing his own name.--(2) ROMAN. The three ancient
-Romulian tribes, the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, or the Ramnenses,
-Titienses, and Lucerenses, to which the patricians alone belonged,
-must be distinguished from the thirty plebeian tribes of Servius
-Tullius, which were entirely local, four for the city, and twenty-six
-for the country around Rome. The history and organisation of the
-three ancient tribes are spoken of under PATRICII. They continued
-of political importance almost down to the period of the decemviral
-legislation; but after this time they no longer occur in the history
-of Rome, except as an obsolete institution. The institution and
-organisation of the thirty plebeian tribes, and their subsequent
-reduction to twenty by the conquests of Porsena, are spoken of
-under PLEBES. The four city tribes were called by the same names
-as the regions which they occupied, viz. _Suburana_, _Esquilina_,
-_Collina_, and _Palatina_. The names of the sixteen country tribes
-which continued to belong to Rome after the conquest of Porsena,
-are in their alphabetical order as follows: _Aemilia_, _Camilia_,
-_Cornelia_, _Fabia_, _Galeria_, _Horatia_, _Lemonia_, _Menemia_,
-_Papiria_, _Pollia_, _Popillia, upinia_, _Romilia_, _Sergia_,
-_Veturia_, and _Voltinia_. As Rome gradually acquired possession of
-more of the surrounding territory, the number of tribes also was
-gradually increased. When Appius Claudius, with his numerous train
-of clients, emigrated to Rome, lands were assigned to them in the
-district where the Anio flows into the Tiber, and a new tribe, the
-_tribus Claudia_, was formed. This tribe was subsequently enlarged,
-and was then designated by the name _Crustumina_ or _Clustumina_.
-This name is the first instance of a country tribe being named after
-a place, for the sixteen older ones all derived their name from
-persons or heroes. In B.C. 387, the number of tribes was increased to
-twenty-five by the addition of four new ones, viz. the _Stellatina_,
-_Tromentina_, _Sabatina_, and _Arniensis_. In B.C. 358 two more, the
-_Pomptina_ and _Publilia_, were formed of Volscians. In B.C. 332, the
-censors Q. Publilius Philo and Sp. Postumius increased the number of
-tribes to twenty-nine, by the addition of the _Maecia_ and _Scaptia_.
-In B.C. 318 the _Ufentina_ and _Falerina_ were added. In B.C. 299 two
-others, the _Aniensis_ and _Terentina_, were added by the censors,
-and at last in B.C. 241, the number of tribes was augmented to
-thirty-five, by the addition of the _Quirina_ and _Velina_. Eight
-new tribes were added upon the termination of the Social War, to
-include the Socii, who then obtained the Roman franchise; but they
-were afterwards incorporated among the old 35 tribes, which continued
-to be the number of the tribes to the end of the republic. When the
-tribes, in their assemblies, transacted any business, a certain order
-(_ordo tribuum_) was observed, in which they were called upon to give
-their votes. The first in the order of succession was the Suburana,
-and the last the Arniensis. Any person belonging to a tribe had in
-important documents to add to his own name that of his tribe, in the
-ablative case. Whether the local tribes, as they were established by
-the constitution of Servius Tullius, contained only the plebeians,
-or included the patricians also, is a point on which the opinions of
-modern scholars are divided: but it appears most probable that down
-to the decemviral legislation the tribes and their assemblies were
-entirely plebeian. From the time of the decemviral legislation, the
-patricians and their clients were undoubtedly incorporated in the
-tribes. Respecting the assemblies of the tribes, see COMITIA TRIBUTA.
-
-
-TRĬBŪTUM, a tax which was partly applied to cover the expenses of
-war, and partly those of the fortifications of the city. The usual
-amount of the tax was one for every thousand of a man’s fortune,
-though in the time of Cato it was raised to three in a thousand. The
-tributum was not a property-tax in the strict sense of the word, for
-the accounts respecting the plebeian debtors clearly imply, that the
-debts were not deducted in the valuation of a person’s property,
-so that he had to pay the tributum upon property which was not his
-own, but which he owed, and for which he had consequently to pay the
-interest as well. It was a direct tax upon objects without any regard
-to their produce, like a land or house-tax, which indeed formed the
-main part of it. That which seems to have made it most oppressive,
-was its constant fluctuation. It was raised according to the regions
-or tribes instituted by Servius Tullius, and by the tribunes of these
-tribes, subsequently called tribuni aerarii. It was not, like the
-other branches of the public revenue, let out to farm, but being
-fixed in money it was raised by the tribunes, unless (as was the case
-after the custom of giving pay to the soldiers was introduced) the
-soldiers, like the knights, demanded it from the persons themselves
-who were bound to pay it. [AES EQUESTRE and HORDEARIUM.] When this
-tax was to be paid, what sum was to be raised, and what portion of
-every thousand asses of the census, were matters upon which the
-senate alone had to decide. But when it was decreed, the people
-might refuse to pay it when they thought it too heavy, or unfairly
-distributed, or hoped to gain some other advantage by the refusal. In
-later times the senate sometimes left its regulation to the censors,
-who often fixed it very arbitrarily. No citizen was exempt from it,
-but we find that the priests, augurs, and pontiffs made attempts to
-get rid of it: but this was only an abuse, which did not last. After
-the war with Macedonia (B.C. 147), when the Roman treasury was filled
-with the revenues accruing from conquests and from the provinces,
-the Roman citizens became exempted from paying the tributum, and
-this state of things lasted down to the consulship of Hirtius and
-Pansa (43 B.C.), when the tributum was again levied, on account of
-the exhausted state of the aerarium. After this time it was imposed
-according to the discretion of the emperors. Respecting the tributum
-paid by conquered countries and cities, see VECTIGALIA.
-
-
-TRICLĪNĬUM, the dining-room of a Roman house, the position of
-which, relatively to the other parts of the house, is seen in the
-“house of the Tragic poet” (see p. 144). It was of an oblong shape,
-and was twice as long as it was broad. The superintendence of
-the dining-room in a great house was intrusted to a slave called
-_tricliniarcha_, who, through other slaves, took care that everything
-was kept and proceeded in proper order. A _triclinium_ generally
-contained three couches, and as the usual number of persons occupying
-each couch was three, the triclinium afforded accommodation for a
-party of nine. Sometimes, however, as many as four lay on each of the
-couches. Each man in order to feed himself lay flat upon his breast
-or nearly so, and stretched out his hand towards the table; but
-afterwards, when his hunger was satisfied, he turned upon his left
-side, leaning on his elbow. To this Horace alludes in describing a
-person sated with a particular dish, and turning in order to repose
-upon his elbow. (_Sat._ ii. 4, 39.) We find the relative positions
-of two persons who lay next to one another, commonly expressed by
-the prepositions _super_ or _supra_, and _infra_. A passage of Livy
-(xxxix. 43), in which he relates the cruel conduct of the consul L.
-Quintius Flamininus, shows that _infra aliquem cubare_ was the same
-as _in sinu alicujus cubare_, and consequently that each person was
-considered as _below_ him to whose breast his own head approached. On
-this principle we are enabled to explain the denominations both of
-the three couches, and of the three places on each couch.
-
-[Illustration:
-                  lectus medius
-                 +-------------+
-                 |      m   s  |
-                 |  i   e   u  |
-                 |  m   d   m  |
-                 |  u   i   m  |
-                 |  s   u   u  |
-                 |      s   s  |
-       +---------+-------------+---------+
-  l    |         |  6   5   4  |         | l s
-  e  i | summus  |7           3|  imus   | e u
-  c  m |         |             |         | c m
-  t  u | medius  |8           2| medius  | t m
-  u  s |         |             |         | u u
-  s    |  imus   |9           1| summus  | s s
-       +---------+             +---------+
-]
-
-Supposing the annexed arrangement to represent the plan of a
-triclinium, it is evident that, as each guest reclined on his left
-side, the countenances of all when in this position were directed,
-first, from No. 1 towards No. 3, then from No. 4 towards No. 6, and
-lastly, from No. 7 towards No. 9; that the guest No. 1 lay, in the
-sense explained, _above_ No. 2, No. 3 _below_ No. 2, and so of the
-rest; and that, going in the same direction, the couch to the right
-hand was _above_ the others, and the couch to the left hand _below_
-the others. It will be found, that in a passage in the eighth satire
-of the second book of Horace, the guests are enumerated in the order
-of their accubation--an order exhibited in the annexed diagram.
-
-[Illustration:
-               ____________
-              |            |
-              | V   M   S  |
-              | i   a   e  |
-              | b   e   r  |
-              | i   c   v  |
-              | d   e   i  |
-              | i   n   l  |
-              | u   a   i  |
-              | s   s   u  |
-              |         s  |
-   ___________|____________|___________
-  |           |   ______   |           |
-  |Nomentanus |  /      \  |  Varius   |
-  |Nasidienus | ( Mensa. ) |  Viscus   |
-  | Porcius   |  \      /  | Fundanius |
-  |___________|   ¯¯¯¯¯¯   |___________|
-]
-
-
-TRĬDENS. [FUSCINA.]
-
-
-TRĬENS. [AS.]
-
-
-TRIĒRARCHĬA (τριήραρχια), one of the extraordinary war services or
-liturgies at Athens, the object of which was to provide for the
-equipment and maintenance of the ships of war belonging to the
-state. The persons who were charged with it were called trierarchs
-(τριήραρχοι), as being the captains of triremes, though the name
-was also applied to persons who bore the same charge in other
-vessels. It existed from very early times in connection with the
-forty-eight naucraries of Solon, and the fifty of Clisthenes: each
-of which corporations appears to have been obliged to equip and man
-a vessel. [NAUCRARIA.] Under the constitution of Clisthenes the
-ten tribes were at first severally charged with five vessels. This
-charge was of course superseded by the later forms of the hierarchy.
-The state furnished the ship, and either the whole or part of the
-ship’s rigging and furniture, and also pay and provisions for the
-sailors. The trierarchs were bound to keep in repair the ship and its
-furniture, and were frequently put to great expense in paying the
-sailors and supplying them with provisions, when the state did not
-supply sufficient money for the purpose. Moreover, some trierarchs,
-whether from ambitious or patriotic motives, put themselves to
-unnecessary expense in fitting out and rigging their ships, from
-which the state derived an advantage. The average expense of the
-trierarchy was 50 minae. In ancient times one person bore the whole
-charge of the trierarchy, afterwards it was customary for two persons
-to share it, who were then called _syntrierarchs_ (συντριήραρχοι).
-When this practice was first introduced is not known, but it was
-perhaps about the year 412 B.C., after the defeat of the Athenians
-in Sicily, when the union of two persons for the choregia was first
-permitted. The syntrierarchy, however, did not entirely supersede
-the older and single form, being only meant as a relief in case of
-emergency, when there was not a sufficient number of wealthy citizens
-to bear the expense singly. In the case of a syntrierarchy the two
-trierarchs commanded their vessel in turn, six months each, according
-as they agreed between themselves.--The third form of the trierarchy
-was connected with, or suggested by, the syntrierarchy. In B.C. 358,
-the Athenians were unable to procure a sufficient number of legally
-appointed trierarchs, and accordingly they summoned volunteers. This,
-however, was but a temporary expedient; and as the actual system
-was not adequate to the public wants, they determined to manage the
-trierarchy somewhat in the same way as the property-tax (_eisphora_),
-namely, by classes or symmoriae, according to the law of Periander
-passed in B.C. 358, and which was the primary and original enactment
-on the subject. With this view 1200 _synteleis_ (συντελεῖς) or
-partners were appointed, who were probably the wealthiest individuals
-of the state, according to the census or valuation. These were
-divided into 20 _symmoriae_ (συμμορίαι) or classes; out of which
-a number of persons (σώματα) joined for the equipment or rather
-the maintenance and management of a ship, under the title of a
-_synteleia_ (συντέλεια) or union. To every ship there was generally
-assigned a _synteleia_ of fifteen persons of different degrees of
-wealth, as we may suppose, so that four ships only were provided
-for by each symmoria of sixty persons. It appears, however, that
-before Demosthenes carried a new law on this subject (B.C. 340), it
-had been customary for _sixteen_ persons to unite in a synteleia or
-company for a ship, who bore the burden in equal shares. This being
-the case, it follows either that the members of the symmoriae had
-been by that time raised from 1200 to 1280, or that some alterations
-had taken place in their internal arrangements, of which no account
-has come down to us. The superintendence of the whole system was in
-the hands of the 300 wealthiest members, who were therefore called
-the “leaders of the symmoriae” (ἡγεμόνες τῶν συμμοριῶν), on whom
-the burdens of the trierarchy chiefly fell, or rather ought to have
-fallen. The services performed by individuals under this system
-appear to have been the same as before: the state still provided
-the ship’s tackle, and the only duty then of the trierarchs under
-this system was to keep their vessels in the same repair and order
-as they received them. But even from this they managed to escape:
-for the wealthiest members, who had to serve for their synteleia,
-let out their trierarchies for a talent, and received that amount
-from their partners (συντελεῖς), so that in reality they paid next
-to nothing, or, at any rate, not what they ought to have done,
-considering that the trierarchy was a ground of exemption from
-other liturgies.--To remedy these abuses Demosthenes carried a law
-when he was the ἐπιστάτης τοῦ ναυτικοῦ, or the superintendent of
-the Athenian navy, thereby introducing the _Fourth form_ of the
-trierarchy. The provisions of the law were as follows: The naval
-services required from every citizen were to depend upon and be
-proportional to his property, or rather to his taxable capital, as
-registered for the symmoriae of the property-tax, the rate being
-one trireme for every ten talents of taxable capital, up to three
-triremes and one auxiliary vessel (ὑπηρέσιον) for the largest
-properties; _i.e._ no person, however rich, could be required to
-furnish more. Those who had not ten talents in taxable capital were
-to club together in synteleiae till they had made up that amount.
-By this law great changes were effected. All persons paying taxes
-were rated in proportion to their property, so that the poor were
-benefited by it, and the state likewise: for, as Demosthenes says,
-those who had formerly contributed one-sixteenth to the trierarchy of
-one ship were now trierarchs of two, in which case they must either
-have served by proxy, or done duty in successive years. He adds, that
-the consequences were highly beneficial. We do not know the amount
-of property which rendered a man liable to serve a trierarchy or
-syntrierarchy, but we read of no instance of liability arising from
-a property of less value than 500 minae. The appointment to serve
-under the first and second forms of the trierarchy was made by the
-strategi, and in case any person was appointed to serve a trierarchy,
-and thought that any one else (not called upon) was better able
-to bear it than himself, he offered the latter an exchange of his
-property [ANTIDOSIS] subject to the burden of the trierarchy. In
-cases of extreme hardship, persons became suppliants to the people,
-or fled to the altar of Artemis at Munychia. If not ready in time,
-they were sometimes liable to imprisonment. On the contrary, whoever
-got his ship ready first was to be rewarded with the “crown of
-the trierarchy;” so that in this way considerable emulation and
-competition were produced. Moreover, the trierarchs were ὑπεύθυνοι,
-or liable to be called to account for their expenditure; though they
-applied their own property to the service of the state. It has been
-already stated that the trierarchy was a ground of exemption from the
-other liturgies, any of which, indeed, gave an exemption, from all
-the rest during the following year.
-
-
-TRĬNUNDĬNUM. [NUNDINAE.]
-
-
-TRIŌBŎLON (τριώβολον), the fee of three obols, which the Athenian
-dicasts received. [DICASTAE.]
-
-
-TRĬPOS (τρίπους), a tripod, _i.e._ any utensil or article of
-furniture supported upon three feet. More especially (1) A
-three-legged table.--(2) A pot or caldron, used for boiling meat,
-and either raised upon a three-legged stand of bronze, or made
-with its three feet in the same piece.--(3) A bronze altar, not
-differing probably in its original form from the tall tripod caldron
-already described. It was from a tripod that the Pythian priestess
-at Delphi gave responses. [CORTINA.] The celebrity of this tripod
-produced innumerable imitations of it, which were made to be used in
-sacrifice, and still more frequently to be presented to the treasury
-both in that place and in many other Greek temples.
-
-[Illustration: Tripod of Apollo at Delphi. (Böttiger’s Amalthea, vol.
-i. p. 119.)]
-
-
-TRĬPŬDĬUM. [AUSPICIUM.]
-
-
-TRIRĒMIS. [NAVIS.]
-
-
-TRĬUMPHUS (θρίαμβος), a solemn procession, in which a victorious
-general entered the city in a chariot drawn by four horses. He was
-preceded by the captives and spoils taken in war, was followed by
-his troops, and after passing in state along the Via Sacra, ascended
-the Capitol to offer sacrifice in the temple of Jupiter. From the
-beginning of the republic down to the extinction of liberty a regular
-triumph (_justus triumphus_) was recognised as the summit of military
-glory, and was the cherished object of ambition to every Roman
-general. A triumph might be granted for successful achievements
-either by land or sea, but the latter were comparatively so rare
-that we shall for the present defer the consideration of the naval
-triumph. After any decisive battle had been won, or a province
-subdued by a series of successful operations, the imperator forwarded
-to the senate a laurel-wreathed dispatch (_literae laureatae_),
-containing an account of his exploits. If the intelligence
-proved satisfactory, the senate decreed a public thanksgiving.
-[SUPPLICATIO.] After the war was concluded, the general with his
-army repaired to Rome, or ordered his army to meet him there on a
-given day, but did not enter the city. A meeting of the senate was
-held without the walls, usually in the temple either of Bellona or
-Apollo, that he might have an opportunity of urging his pretensions
-in person, and these were then scrutinised and discussed with the
-most jealous care. The following rules were for the most part rigidly
-enforced, although the senate assumed the discretionary power of
-relaxing them in special cases. 1. That no one could be permitted
-to triumph unless he had held the office of dictator, of consul,
-or of praetor. The honours granted to Pompey, who triumphed in his
-24th year (B.C. 81) before he had held any of the great offices of
-state, and again ten years afterwards, while still a simple eques,
-were altogether unprecedented. 2. That the magistrate should have
-been actually in office both when the victory was gained and when
-the triumph was to be celebrated. This regulation was insisted upon
-only during the earlier ages of the commonwealth. Its violation
-commenced with Q. Publilius Philo, the first person to whom the
-senate ever granted a _prorogatio imperii_ after the termination
-of a magistracy, and thenceforward proconsuls and propraetors were
-permitted to triumph without question. 3. That the war should have
-been prosecuted or the battle fought under the auspices and in the
-province and with the troops of the general seeking the triumph.
-Thus if a victory was gained by the legatus of a general who was
-absent from the army, the honour of it did not belong to the former,
-but to the latter, inasmuch as he had the auspices. 4. That at
-least 5000 of the enemy should have been slain in a single battle,
-that the advantage should have been positive, and not merely a
-compensation for some previous disaster, and that the loss on the
-part of the Romans should have been small compared with that of their
-adversaries. But still we find many instances of triumphs granted
-for general results, without reference to the numbers slain in any
-one engagement. 5. That the war should have been a legitimate
-contest against public foes, and not a civil contest. Hence Catulus
-celebrated no triumph over Lepidus, nor Antonius over Catiline, nor
-Cinna and Marius over their antagonists of the Sullan party, nor
-Caesar after Pharsalia; and when he did subsequently triumph after
-his victory over the sons of Pompey, it caused universal disgust. 6.
-That the dominion of the state should have been extended, and not
-merely something previously lost regained. The absolute acquisition
-of territory does not appear to have been essential. 7. That the war
-should have been brought to a conclusion and the province reduced to
-a state of peace, so as to permit of the army being withdrawn, the
-presence of the victorious soldiers being considered indispensable
-in a triumph. The senate claimed the exclusive right of deliberating
-upon all these points, and giving or withholding the honour sought,
-and they for the most part exercised the privilege without question,
-except in times of great political excitement. The sovereignty of the
-people, however, in this matter was asserted at a very early date,
-and a triumph is said to have been voted by the tribes to Valerius
-and Horatius, the consuls of B.C. 446, in direct opposition to the
-resolution of the fathers, and in a similar manner to C. Marcius
-Rutilus the first plebeian dictator, while L. Postumius Megellus,
-consul B.C. 294, celebrated a triumph, although resisted by the
-senate and seven out of the ten tribunes. Nay, more, we read of a
-certain Appius Claudius, consul B.C. 143, who having persisted in
-celebrating a triumph in defiance of both the senate and people, was
-accompanied by his daughter (or sister) Claudia, a vestal virgin,
-and by her interposition saved from being dragged from his chariot
-by a tribune. A disappointed general, however, seldom ventured to
-resort to such violent measures, but satisfied himself with going
-through the forms on the Alban Mount, a practice first introduced by
-C. Papirius Maso. If the senate gave their consent, they at the same
-time voted a sum of money towards defraying the necessary expenses,
-and one of the tribunes _ex auctoritate senatus_ applied for a
-plebiscitum to permit the imperator to retain his imperium on the day
-when he entered the city. This last form could not be dispensed with
-either in an ovation or a triumph, because the imperium conferred
-by the comitia curiata did not include the city itself, and when a
-general had once gone forth _paludatus_, his military power ceased
-as soon as he re-entered the gates, unless the general law had been
-previously suspended by a special enactment; and in this manner the
-resolution of the senate was, as it were, ratified by the plebs. For
-this reason no one desiring a triumph ever entered the city until
-the question was decided, since by so doing he would ipso facto
-have forfeited all claim. We have a remarkable example of this in
-the case of Cicero, who after his return from Cilicia lingered in
-the vicinity of Rome day after day, and dragged about his lictors
-from one place to another, without entering the city, in the vain
-hope of a triumph.--In later times these pageants were marshalled
-with extraordinary pomp and splendour, and presented a most gorgeous
-spectacle. Minute details would necessarily be different according
-to circumstances, but the general arrangements were as follows. The
-temples were all thrown open, garlands of flowers decorated every
-shrine and image, and incense smoked on every altar. Meanwhile the
-imperator called an assembly of his soldiers, delivered an oration
-commending their valour, and concluded by distributing rewards to
-the most distinguished, and a sum of money to each individual, the
-amount depending on the value of the spoils. He then ascended his
-triumphal car and advanced to the Porta Triumphalis, where he was
-met by the whole body of the senate headed by the magistrates. The
-procession then defiled in the following order. 1. The senate headed
-by the magistrates. 2. A body of trumpeters. 3. A train of carriages
-and frames laden with spoils, those articles which were especially
-remarkable either on account of their beauty or rarity being disposed
-in such a manner as to be seen distinctly by the crowd. Boards were
-borne aloft on fercula, on which were painted in large letters the
-names of vanquished nations and countries. Here, too, models were
-exhibited in ivory or wood of the cities and forts captured, and
-pictures of the mountains, rivers, and other great natural features
-of the subjugated region, with appropriate inscriptions. Gold and
-silver in coin or bullion, arms, weapons, and horse furniture of
-every description, statues, pictures, vases, and other works of art,
-precious stones, elaborately wrought and richly embroidered stuffs,
-and every object which could be regarded as valuable or curious. 4.
-A body of flute players. 5. The white bulls or oxen destined for
-sacrifice, with gilded horns, decorated with infulae and serta,
-attended by the slaughtering priests with their implements, and
-followed by the Camilli bearing in their hands paterae and other holy
-vessels and instruments. 6. Elephants or any other strange animals,
-natives of the conquered districts. 7. The arms and insignia of the
-leaders of the foe. 8. The leaders themselves, and such of their
-kindred as had been taken prisoners, followed by the whole band of
-inferior captives in fetters. 9. The coronae and other tributes of
-respect and gratitude bestowed on the imperator by allied kings and
-states. 10. The lictors of the imperator in single file, their fasces
-wreathed with laurel. 11. The imperator himself in a circular chariot
-of a peculiar form, drawn by four horses, which were sometimes,
-though rarely, white. He was attired in a gold-embroidered robe
-(_toga picta_) and flowered tunic (_tunica palmata_): he bore in his
-right hand a laurel bough, and in his left a sceptre; his brows were
-encircled with a wreath of Delphic laurel, in addition to which in
-ancient times, his body was painted bright red. He was accompanied in
-his chariot by his children of tender years, and sometimes by very
-dear or highly honoured friends, while behind him stood a public
-slave, holding over his head a golden Etruscan crown ornamented with
-jewels. The presence of a slave in such a place at such a time seems
-to have been intended to avert _invidia_ and the influence of the
-evil eye, and for the same purpose a fascinum, a little bell, and a
-scourge were attached to the vehicle. Tertullian tells us, that the
-slave ever and anon whispered in the ear of the imperator the warning
-words _Respice post te, hominem memento te_, but this statement is
-not confirmed by any earlier writer. 12. Behind the chariot or on
-the horses which drew it rode the grown-up sons of the imperator,
-together with the legati, the tribuni, and the equites, all on
-horseback. 13. The rear was brought up by the whole body of the
-infantry in marching order, their spears adorned with laurel, some
-shouting Io Triumphe, and singing hymns to the gods, while others
-proclaimed the praises of their leader or indulged in keen sarcasms
-and coarse ribaldry at his expense, for the most perfect freedom of
-speech was granted and exercised. Just as the pomp was ascending the
-Capitoline hill, some of the hostile chiefs were led aside into the
-adjoining prison and put to death, a custom so barbarous that we
-could scarcely believe that it existed in a civilised age, were it
-not attested by the most unquestionable evidence. Pompey, indeed,
-refrained from perpetrating this atrocity in his third triumph, and
-Aurelian on like occasion spared Zenobia, but these are quoted as
-exceptions to the general rule. When it was announced that these
-murders had been completed, the victims were then sacrificed, an
-offering from the spoils was presented to Jupiter, the laurel wreath
-was deposited in the lap of the god, the imperator was entertained
-at a public feast along with his friends in the temple, and returned
-home in the evening preceded by torches and pipes, and escorted by a
-crowd of citizens. The whole of the proceedings, generally speaking,
-were brought to a close in one day; but when the quantity of plunder
-was very great, and the troops very numerous, a longer period was
-required for the exhibition, and thus the triumph of Flaminius
-continued for three days in succession. But the glories of the
-imperator did not end with the show, nor even with his life. It was
-customary (we know not if the practice was invariable) to provide him
-at the public expense with a site for a house, such mansions being
-styled _triumphales domus_. After death his kindred were permitted
-to deposit his ashes within the walls, and laurel-wreathed statues
-standing erect in triumphal cars, displayed in the vestibulum of
-the family mansion, transmitted his fame to posterity.--A TRIUMPHUS
-NAVALIS appears to have differed in no respect from an ordinary
-triumph, except that it must have been upon a smaller scale, and
-would be characterised by the exhibition of beaks of ships and
-other nautical trophies. The earliest upon record was granted to C.
-Duillius, who laid the foundation of the supremacy of Rome by sea
-in the first Punic war; and so elated was he by his success, that
-during the rest of his life, whenever he returned home at night from
-supper, he caused flutes to sound and torches to be borne before
-him. A second naval triumph was celebrated by Lutatius Catulus for
-his victory off the Insulae Aegates, B.C. 241; a third by Q. Fabius
-Labeo, B.C. 189, over the Cretans; and a fourth by C. Octavius
-over King Perseus, without captives and without spoils.--TRIUMPHUS
-CASTRENSIS was a procession of the soldiers through the camp in
-honour of a tribunus or some officer inferior to the general, who
-had performed a brilliant exploit. After the extinction of freedom,
-the emperor being considered as the commander-in-chief of all the
-armies of the state, every military achievement was understood to
-be performed under his auspices, and hence, according to the forms
-of even the ancient constitution, he alone had a legitimate claim
-to a triumph. This principle was soon fully recognised and acted
-upon; for although Antonius had granted triumphs to his legati, and
-his example had been freely followed by Augustus in the early part
-of his career, yet after the year B.C. 14, he entirely discontinued
-the practice, and from that time forward triumphs were rarely, if
-ever, conceded to any except members of the imperial family. But to
-compensate in some degree for what was then taken away, the custom
-was introduced of bestowing what were termed _Triumphalia Ornamenta_,
-that is, permission to receive the titles bestowed upon and to appear
-in public with the robes worn by the imperatores of the commonwealth
-when they triumphed, and to bequeath to descendants triumphal
-statues. These _triumphalia ornamenta_ are said to have been first
-bestowed upon Agrippa or upon Tiberius, and ever after were a common
-mark of the favour of the prince.
-
-[Illustration: Triumphal Procession. (Zoega, Bassi-rilievi, tav. 9,
-76.)]
-
-
-TRĬUMVĬRI, or TRESVĬRI, were either ordinary magistrates or officers,
-or else extraordinary commissioners, who were frequently appointed
-at Rome to execute any public office. The following is a list of the
-most important of both classes.
-
-1. TRIUMVIRI AGRO DIVIDUNDO. [TRIUMVIRI COLONIAE DEDUCENDAE.]
-
-2. TRIUMVIRI CAPITALES were regular magistrates, first appointed
-about B.C. 292. They were elected by the people, the comitia being
-held by the praetor. They succeeded to many of the functions of the
-Quaestores Parricidii. [QUAESTOR.] It was their duty to inquire into
-all capital crimes, and to receive informations respecting such, and
-consequently they apprehended and committed to prison all criminals
-whom they detected. In conjunction with the aediles, they had to
-preserve the public peace, to prevent all unlawful assemblies, &c.
-They enforced the payment of fines due to the state. They had the
-care of public prisons, and carried into effect the sentence of the
-law upon criminals. In these points they resembled the magistracy of
-the Eleven at Athens.
-
-4. TRIUMVIRI COLONIAE DEDUCENDAE were persons appointed to
-superintend the formation of a colony. They are spoken of under
-COLONIA, p. 99, _b_. Since they had besides to superintend the
-distribution of the land to the colonists, we find them also called
-_Triumviri Coloniae Deducendae Agroque Dividundo_, and sometimes
-simply _Triumviri Agro Dando_.
-
-5. TRIUMVIRI EPULONES. [EPULONES.]
-
-6. TRIUMVIRI EQUITUM TURMAS RECOGNOSCENDI, or LEGENDIS EQUITUM
-DECURIIS, were magistrates first appointed by Augustus to revise the
-lists of the equites, and to admit persons into the order. This was
-formerly part of the duties of the censors.
-
-7. TRIUMVIRI MENSARII. [MENSARII.]
-
-8. TRIUMVIRI MONETALES. [MONETA.]
-
-9. TRIUMVIRI NOCTURNI were magistrates elected annually, whose chief
-duty it was to prevent fires by night, and for this purpose they had
-to go round the city during the night (_vigilias circumire_). If they
-neglected their duty they appear to have been accused before the
-people by the tribunes of the plebs. The time at which this office
-was instituted is unknown, but it must have been previously to the
-year B.C. 304. Augustus transferred their duties to the Praefectus
-Vigilum. [PRAEFECTUS VIGILUM.]
-
-10. TRIUMVIRI REFICIENDIS AEDIBUS, extraordinary officers elected
-in the Comitia Tributa in the time of the second Punic war, were
-appointed for the purpose of repairing and rebuilding certain temples.
-
-11. TRIUMVIRI REIPUBLICAE CONSTITUENDAE. When the supreme power
-was shared between Caesar (Octavianus), Antony, and Lepidus, they
-administered the affairs of the state under the title of _Triumviri
-Reipublicae Constituendae_. This office was conferred upon them in
-B.C. 43, for five years; and on the expiration of the term, in B.C.
-38, was conferred upon them again, in B.C. 37, for five years more.
-The coalition between Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, in B.C. 60,
-is usually called the first triumvirate, and that between Octavianus,
-Antony, and Lepidus, the second; but it must be borne in mind that
-the former never bore the title of triumviri, nor were invested with
-any office under that name, whereas the latter were recognised as
-regular magistrates under the above-mentioned title.
-
-12. TRIUMVIRI SACRIS CONQUIRENDIS DONISQUE PERSIGNANDIS,
-extraordinary officers elected in the Comitia Tributa in the time of
-the second Punic war, seem to have had to take care that all property
-given or consecrated to the gods was applied to that purpose.
-
-13. TRIUMVIRI SENATUS LEGENDI were magistrates appointed by Augustus
-to admit persons into the senate. This was previously the duty of the
-censors.
-
-
-TRŎCHUS (τροχός), a hoop. The Greek hoop was a bronze ring, and had
-sometimes bells attached to it. It was impelled by means of a hook
-with a wooden handle, called _clavis_, and ἐλατήρ. From the Greeks
-this custom passed to the Romans, who consequently adopted the Greek
-term. The following woodcuts from gems exhibit naked youths trundling
-the hoop by means of the hook or key. They are accompanied by the jar
-of oil and the laurel branch, the signs of effort and of victory.
-
-[Illustration: Trochi, Hoops. (From ancient Gems.)]
-
-
-TROJAE LŪDUS. [CIRCUS.]
-
-
-TRŎPAEUM (τρόπαιον, _Att._ τροπαῖον), a trophy, a sign and memorial
-of victory, which was erected on the field of battle where the enemy
-had turned (τρέπω, τρόπη) to flight; and in case of a victory gained
-at sea, on the nearest land. The expression for raising or erecting
-a trophy is τροπαῖον στῆσαι or στήσασθαι, to which may be added ἀπὸ
-or κατὰ τῶν πολεμίων. When the battle was not decisive, or each party
-considered it had some claims to the victory, both erected trophies.
-Trophies usually consisted of the arms, shields, helmets, &c. of the
-enemy that were defeated; and these were placed on the trunk of a
-tree, which was fixed on some elevation. The trophy was consecrated
-to some divinity, with an inscription (ἐπίγραμμα), recording the
-names of the victors and of the defeated party; whence trophies were
-regarded as inviolable, which even the enemy were not permitted to
-remove. Sometimes, however, a people destroyed a trophy, if they
-considered that the enemy had erected it without sufficient cause.
-That rankling and hostile feelings might not be perpetuated by the
-continuance of a trophy, it seems to have been originally part of
-Greek international law that trophies should be made only of wood,
-and not of stone or metal, and that they should not be repaired when
-decayed. It was not, however, uncommon to erect trophies of metal.
-Pausanias speaks of several which he saw in Greece. The trophies
-erected to commemorate naval victories were usually ornamented with
-the beaks or acroteria of ships [ACROTERIUM; ROSTRA]; and were
-generally consecrated to Poseidon or Neptune. Sometimes a whole ship
-was placed as a trophy. The Romans, in early times, never erected any
-trophies on the field of battle, but carried home the spoils taken in
-battle, with which they decorated the public buildings, and also the
-private houses of individuals. [SPOLIA.] Subsequently, however, the
-Romans adopted the Greek practice of raising trophies on the field
-of battle. The first trophies of this kind were erected by Domitius
-Ahenobarbus and Fabius Maximus in B.C. 121, after their conquest of
-the Allobroges, when they built at the junction of the Rhone and the
-Isara towers of white stone, upon which trophies were placed adorned
-with the spoils of the enemy. Pompey also raised trophies on the
-Pyrenees after his victories in Spain; Julius Caesar did the same
-near Ziela, after his victory over Pharnaces; and Drusus, near the
-Elbe, to commemorate his victory over the Germans. Still, however, it
-was more common to erect some memorial of the victory at Rome than on
-the field of battle. The trophies raised by Marius to commemorate his
-victories over Jugurtha and the Cimbri and Teutoni, which were cast
-down by Sulla, and restored by Julius Caesar, must have been in the
-city. In the later times of the republic, and under the empire, the
-erection of triumphal arches was the most common way of commemorating
-a victory, many of which remain to the present day. [ARCUS.]
-
-[Illustration: Trophy of Augustus. (Museo Capitolino, vol i. tav. 5.)]
-
-
-TROSSŬLI. [EQUITES, p. 157, _a_.]
-
-
-TRŬA, _dim._ TRULLA (τορύνη), derived from τρύω, τόρω, &c., to
-perforate; a large and flat spoon or ladle, pierced with holes; a
-trowel. The annexed woodcut represents such a ladle. The _trulla
-vinaria_ seems to have been a species of colander [COLUM], used as a
-wine-strainer.
-
-[Illustration: Trua. (From the House of Pansa at Pompeii.)]
-
-
-TRŬTĬNA (τρυτάνη), a general term, including both _libra_, a balance,
-and _statera_, a steelyard. Payments were originally made by
-weighing, not by counting. Hence a balance (_trutina_) was preserved
-in the temple of Saturn at Rome.
-
-
-TŬBA (σάλπιγξ), a bronze trumpet, distinguished from the _cornu_ by
-being straight while the latter was curved. [CORNU.] The tuba was
-employed in war for signals of every description, at the games and
-public festivals, and also at the last rites to the dead: those who
-sounded the trumpet at funerals were termed _siticines_, and used an
-instrument of a peculiar form. The tones of the tuba are represented
-as of a harsh and fear-inspiring character. The invention of the tuba
-is usually ascribed by ancient writers to the Etruscans. It has been
-remarked that Homer never introduces the σάλπιγξ in his narrative
-except in comparisons, which leads us to infer that, although known
-in his time, it had been but recently introduced into Greece; and it
-is certain that, notwithstanding its eminently martial character, it
-was not until a late period used in the armies of the leading states.
-By the Greek tragedians its Tuscan origin is fully recognised.
-According to one account it was first fabricated for the Tyrrhenians
-by Athena, who in consequence was worshipped by the Argives under the
-title of Σάλπιγξ, while at Rome the _tubilustrium_, or purification
-of sacred trumpets, was performed on the last day of the Quinquatrus.
-[QUINQUATRUS.] There appears to have been no essential difference in
-form between the Greek and Roman or Tyrrhenian trumpets. Both were
-long, straight, bronze tubes, gradually increasing in diameter, and
-terminating in a bell-shaped aperture.
-
-[Illustration: Soldiers blowing Tubae and Cornua. (From Column of
-Trajan.)]
-
-
-TŬBĬLUSTRIUM. [QUINQUATRUS.]
-
-
-TULLIĀNUM. [CARCER.]
-
-
-TŬMULTUĀRĬI. [TUMULTUS.]
-
-
-TŬMULTUS, the name given to a sudden or dangerous war in Italy or
-Cisalpine Gaul, and the word was supposed by the ancients to be a
-contraction of _timor multus_. It was, however, sometimes applied
-to a sudden or dangerous war elsewhere; but this does not appear to
-have been a correct use of the word. Cicero says that there might
-be a war without a tumultus, but not a tumultus without a war; but
-it must be recollected that the word was also applied to any sudden
-alarm respecting a war; whence we find a tumultus often spoken of
-as of less importance than a war, because the results were of less
-consequence, though the fear might have been much greater than in a
-regular war. In the case of a tumultus there was a cessation from
-all business (_justitium_), and all citizens were obliged to enlist
-without regard being had to the exemptions (_vacationes_) from
-military service, which were enjoyed at other times. As there was not
-time to enlist the soldiers in the regular manner, the magistrate who
-was appointed to command the army displayed two banners (_vexilla_)
-from the Capitol, one red, to summon the infantry, and the other
-green, to summon the cavalry, and said, _Qui rempublicam salvam vult,
-me sequatur_. Those that assembled took the military oath together,
-instead of one by one, as was the usual practice, whence they were
-called _conjurati_, and their service _conjuratio_. Soldiers enlisted
-in this way were termed _Tumultuarii_ or _Subitarii_.
-
-
-[Illustration: Doric Chiton. (From a Bas-relief in the British
-Museum.)]
-
-[Illustration: Ionic Chiton. (From a Statue in the British Museum.)]
-
-TŬNĬCA (χιτών, _dim._ χιτωνίσκος, χιτώνιον), an under-garment. (1)
-GREEK. The chiton was the only kind of ἔνδυμα, or under-garment worn
-by the Greeks. Of this there were two kinds, the Dorian and Ionian.
-The Dorian chiton, as worn by males, was a short woollen shirt,
-without sleeves; the Ionian was a long linen garment, with sleeves.
-The former seems to have been originally worn throughout the whole
-of Greece; the latter was brought over to Greece by the Ionians of
-Asia. The Ionic chiton was commonly worn at Athens by men during the
-Persian wars, but it appears to have entirely gone out of fashion for
-the male sex about the time of Pericles, from which time the Dorian
-chiton was the under-garment universally adopted by men through the
-whole of Greece. The distinction between the Doric and Ionic chiton
-still continued in the dress of women. The Spartan virgins only
-wore this one garment, and had no upper kind of clothing, whence it
-is sometimes called _Himation_ [PALLIUM] as well as _Chiton_. They
-appeared in the company of men without any further covering; but the
-married women never did so without wearing an upper garment. This
-Doric chiton was made, as stated above, of woollen stuff; it was
-without sleeves, and was fastened over both shoulders by clasps or
-buckles (πόρπαι, περόναι), which were often of considerable size.
-It was frequently so short as not to reach the knee. It was only
-joined together on one side, and on the other was left partly open
-or slit up (σχιστός χίτων), to allow a free motion of the limbs. The
-following cut represents an Amazon with a chiton of this kind: some
-parts of the figure appear incomplete, as the original is mutilated.
-The Ionic chiton, on the contrary, was a long and loose garment,
-reaching to the feet (ποδήρης), with wide sleeves (κόραι), and was
-usually made of linen. The sleeves, however, appear generally to
-have covered only the upper part of the arm; for in ancient works
-of art we seldom find the sleeve extending farther than the elbow,
-and sometimes not so far. The sleeves were sometimes slit up, and
-fastened together with an elegant row of brooches. The Ionic chiton,
-according to Herodotus, was originally a Carian dress, and passed
-over to Athens from Ionia, as has been already remarked. The women
-at Athens originally wore the Doric chiton, but were compelled to
-change it for the Ionic, after they had killed with the buckles or
-clasps of their dresses the single Athenian who had returned alive
-from the expedition against Aegina, because there were no buckles
-or clasps required in the Ionic dress. The preceding cut represents
-the Muse Thalia wearing an Ionic chiton. The peplum has fallen off
-her shoulders, and is held up by the left hand. Both kinds of dress
-were fastened round the middle with a girdle, and as the Ionic chiton
-was usually longer than the body, part of it was drawn up so that
-the dress might not reach farther than the feet, and the part which
-was so drawn up overhung or overlapped the girdle, and was called
-κόλπος.--There was a peculiar kind of dress, which seems to have been
-a species of double chiton, called _Diplois_ (διπλοΐς), _Diploidion_
-(διπλοΐδιον), and _Hemidiploidion_ (ἡμιδιπλοΐδιον).
-
-[Illustration: Diploidia, double Chitons. (Museo Borbonico, vol. ii.
-tav. 4, 6.)]
-
-It appears not to have been a separate article of dress, but merely
-the upper part of the cloth forming the chiton, which was larger than
-was required for the ordinary chiton, and was therefore thrown over
-the front and back. The following cuts will give a clearer idea of
-the form of this garment than any description. Since the Diploidion
-was fastened over the shoulders by means of buckles or clasps, it
-was called _Epomis_ (ἐπωμίς), which is supposed by some writers to
-have been only the end of the garment fastened on the shoulder. The
-chiton was worn by men next their skin; but females were accustomed
-to wear a chemise (χιτώνιον) under their chiton. It was the practice
-among most of the Greeks to wear an himation, or outer garment,
-over the chiton, but frequently the chiton was worn alone. A person
-who wore only a chiton was called μονοχίτων (οἰοχίτων in Homer), an
-epithet given to the Spartan virgins. In the some way, a person who
-wore only an himation, or outer garment, was called ἀχίτων. The
-Athenian youths, in the earlier times, wore only the chiton, and when
-it became the fashion, in the Peloponnesian war, to wear an outer
-garment over it, it was regarded as a mark of effeminacy.--(2) ROMAN.
-The _Tunica_ of the Romans, like the Greek chiton, was a woollen
-under-garment, over which the toga was worn. It was the _Indumentum_
-or _Indutus_, as opposed to the _Amictus_, the general term for the
-toga, pallium, or any other outer garment. [AMICTUS.] The Romans
-are said to have had no other clothing originally but the toga; and
-when the tunic was first introduced, it was merely a short garment
-without sleeves, and was called _Colobium_. It was considered a mark
-of effeminacy for men to wear tunics with long sleeves (_manicatae_)
-and reaching to the feet (_talares_). The tunic was girded (_cincta_)
-with a belt or girdle around the waist, but it was usually worn
-loose, without being girded, when a person was at home, or wished to
-be at his ease. Hence we find the terms _cinctus_, _praecinctus_,
-and _succinctus_, applied, like the Greek εὔζωνος, to an active and
-diligent person, and _discinctus_ to one who was idle or dissolute.
-The form of the tunic, as worn by men, is represented in many
-woodcuts in this work. In works of art it usually terminates a
-little above the knee; it has short sleeves, covering only the upper
-part of the arm, and is girded at the waist: the sleeves sometimes,
-though less frequently, extend to the hands.--Both sexes at Rome
-usually wore two tunics, an outer and an under, the latter of which
-was worn next the skin, and corresponds to our shirt and chemise.
-The under tunics were called _Subucula_ and _Indusium_, the former
-of which is supposed to be the name of the under tunic of the men,
-and the latter of that of the women: but this is not certain. The
-word _Interula_ was of later origin, and seems to have been applied
-equally to the under tunic of both sexes. It is doubtful whether the
-_Supparus_ or _Supparum_ was an outer or an under garment. Persons
-sometimes wore several tunics, as a protection against cold: Augustus
-wore four in the winter, besides a subucula. As the dress of a man
-usually consisted of an under tunic, an outer tunic, and the toga,
-so that of a woman, in like manner, consisted of an under tunic, an
-outer tunic, and the palla. The outer tunic of the Roman matron was
-properly called stola [STOLA], and is represented in the woodcut on
-p. 355; but the annexed woodcut, which represents a Roman empress
-in the character of Concordia, or Abundantia, gives a better idea
-of its form. Over the tunic or stola the palla is thrown in many
-folds, but the shape of the former is still distinctly shown. The
-tunics of women were larger and longer than those of men, and always
-had sleeves; but in ancient paintings and statues we seldom find
-the sleeves covering more than the upper part of the arm. Sometimes
-the tunics were adorned with golden ornaments called _Leria_. Poor
-people, who could not afford to purchase a toga, wore the tunic
-alone, whence we find the common people called _Tunicati_. A person
-who wore only his tunic was frequently called NUDUS. Respecting the
-clavus latus and the clavus angustus, worn on the tunics of the
-senators and equites respectively, see CLAVUS LATUS, CLAVUS ANGUSTUS.
-When a triumph was celebrated, the conqueror wore, together with an
-embroidered toga (_Toga picta_), a flowered tunic (_Tunica palmata_),
-also called _Tunica Jovis_, because it was taken from the temple of
-Jupiter Capitolinus. Tunics of this kind were sent as presents to
-foreign kings by the senate.
-
-[Illustration: Roman Tunic. (Visconti, Monumenti Gabini, n. 34.)]
-
-
-TŪRĬBŬLUM (θυμιατήριον), a censer. The Greeks and Romans, when they
-sacrificed, commonly took a little frankincense out of the ACERRA
-and let it fall upon the flaming altar. [ARA.] More rarely they
-used a censer, by means of which they burnt the incense in greater
-profusion, and which was in fact a small moveable grate or FOCULUS.
-The annexed cut shows the performance of both of these acts at the
-same time. Winckelmann supposes it to represent Livia, the wife, and
-Octavia, the sister of Augustus, sacrificing to Mars in gratitude
-for his safe return from Spain. The censer here represented has two
-handles for the purpose of carrying it from place to place, and it
-stands upon feet so that the air might be admitted underneath, and
-pass upwards through the fuel.
-
-[Illustration: Livia and Octavia Sacrificing. (From an ancient
-Painting.)]
-
-
-TURMA. [EXERCITUS, p. 166, b.]
-
-
-TURRIS (πύργος), a tower. Moveable towers were among the most
-important engines used in storming a fortified place. They were
-generally made of beams and planks, and covered, at least on the
-three sides which were exposed to the besieged, with iron, not only
-for protection, but also to increase their weight, and thus make
-them steadier. They were also covered with raw hides and quilts,
-moistened, and sometimes with alum, to protect them from fire.
-Their height was such as to overtop the walls, towers, and all
-other fortifications of the besieged place. They were divided into
-stories (_tabulata_ or _tecta_), and hence they are called _turres
-contabulatae_. The sides of the towers were pierced with windows, of
-which there were several to each story. The use of the stories was
-to receive the engines of war (_tormenta_). They contained balistae
-and catapults, and slingers and archers were stationed in them, and
-on the tops of the towers. In the lowest story was a battering-ram
-[ARIES]; and in the middle one or more bridges (_pontes_) made
-of beams and planks, and protected at the sides by hurdles.
-Scaling-ladders (_scalae_) were also carried in the towers, and when
-the missiles had cleared the walls, these bridges and ladders enabled
-the besiegers to rush upon them. These towers were placed upon wheels
-(generally 6 or 8), that they might be brought up to the walls. These
-wheels were placed for security inside of the tower.
-
-
-TŪTOR. [CURATOR.]
-
-
-TYMPĂNUM (τύμπανον), a small drum carried in the hand. Of these, some
-resembled in all respects a modern tambourine with bells. Others
-presented a flat circular disk on the upper surface and swelled out
-beneath like a kettle-drum. Both forms are represented in the cuts
-below. Tympana were covered with the hides of oxen, or of asses; were
-beaten with a stick, or with the hand, and were much employed in all
-wild enthusiastic religious rites, especially the orgies of Bacchus
-and Cybele.--(2) A solid wheel without spokes, for heavy waggons,
-such as is shown in the cut on p. 298.
-
-[Illustration: Tympana. (From ancient Paintings.)]
-
-
-TỸRANNUS (τύραννος). In the heroic age all the governments in
-Greece were monarchical, the king uniting in himself the functions
-of the priest, the judge, and military chief. In the first two or
-three centuries following the Trojan war various causes were at
-work, which led to the abolition, or at least to the limitation, of
-the kingly power. Emigrations, extinctions of families, disasters
-in war, civil dissensions, may be reckoned among these causes.
-Hereditary monarchies became elective; the different functions
-of the king were distributed; he was called _Archon_ (ἄρχων),
-_Cosmus_ (κόσμος), or _Prytanis_ (πρύτανις), instead of _Basileus_
-(βασιλεύς), and his character was changed no less than his name.
-Noble and wealthy families began to be considered on a footing
-of equality with royalty; and thus in process of time sprang up
-oligarchies or aristocracies, which most of the governments that
-succeeded the ancient monarchies were in point of fact, though not
-as yet called by such names. These oligarchies did not possess the
-elements of social happiness or stability. The principal families
-contended with each other for the greatest share of power, and were
-only unanimous in disregarding the rights of those whose station was
-beneath their own. The people, oppressed by the privileged classes,
-began to regret the loss of their old paternal form of government;
-and were ready to assist any one who would attempt to restore it.
-Thus were opportunities offered to ambitious and designing men to
-raise themselves, by starting up as the champions of popular right.
-Discontented nobles were soon found to prosecute schemes of this
-sort, and they had a greater chance of success, if descended from
-the ancient royal family. Pisistratus is an example; he was the
-more acceptable to the people of Athens, as being a descendant of
-the family of Codrus. Thus in many cities arose that species of
-monarchy which the Greeks called _tyrannis_ (τυραννίς), which meant
-only _a despotism_, or irresponsible dominion of one man; and which
-frequently was nothing more than a revival of the ancient government,
-and, though unaccompanied with any recognised hereditary title, or
-the reverence attached to old name and long prescription, was hailed
-by the lower orders of people as a good exchange, after suffering
-under the domination of the oligarchy. All _tyrannies_, however,
-were not so acceptable to the majority; and sometimes we find the
-nobles concurring in the elevation of a despot, to further their
-own interests. Thus the Syracusan _Gamori_, who had been expelled
-by the populace, on receiving the protection of Gelon, sovereign
-of Gela and Camarina, enabled him to take possession of Syracuse,
-and establish his kingdom there. Sometimes the conflicting parties
-in the state, by mutual consent, chose some eminent man, in whom
-they had confidence, to reconcile their dissensions; investing him
-with a sort of dictatorial power for that purpose, either for a
-limited period or otherwise. Such a person they called _Aesymnetes_
-(αἰσυμνήτης). The _tyrannus_ must be distinguished, on the one hand,
-from the _aesymnetes_, inasmuch as he was not elected by general
-consent, but commonly owed his elevation to some violent movement
-or stratagem, such as the creation of a body-guard for him by the
-people, or the seizure of the citadel; and on the other hand, from
-the ancient king, whose right depended, not on usurpation, but on
-inheritance and traditionary acknowledgment. The power of a king
-might be more absolute than that of a _tyrant_; as Phidon of Argos
-is said to have made the royal prerogative greater than it was
-under his predecessors; yet he was still regarded as a king; for
-the difference between the two names depended on title and origin,
-and not on the manner in which the power was exercised. The name of
-_tyrant_ was originally so far from denoting a person who abused
-his power, or treated his subjects with cruelty, that Pisistratus
-is praised for the moderation of his government. Afterwards, when
-_tyrants_ themselves had become odious, the name also grew to be
-a word of reproach, just as _rex_ did among the Romans. Among
-the early _tyrants_ of Greece those most worthy of mention are:
-Clisthenes of Sicyon, grandfather of the Athenian Clisthenes, in
-whose family the government continued for a century since its
-establishment by Orthagoras, about B.C. 672; Cypselus of Corinth,
-who expelled the Bacchiadae, B.C. 656, and his son Periander, both
-remarkable for their cruelty; their dynasty lasted between seventy
-and eighty years; Procles of Epidaurus; Pantaleon of Pisa, who
-celebrated the thirty-fourth Olympiad, depriving the Eleans of the
-presidency; Theagenes of Megara, father-in-law to Cylon the Athenian;
-Pisistratus, whose sons were the last of the early _tyrants_ on the
-Grecian continent. In Sicily, where _tyranny_ most flourished, the
-principal were Phalaris of Agrigentum, who established his power in
-B.C. 568; Theron of Agrigentum; Gelon, already mentioned, who, in
-conjunction with Theron, defeated Hamilcar the Carthaginian, on the
-same day on which the battle of Salamis was fought; and Hieron, his
-brother: the last three celebrated by Pindar. The following also are
-worthy of notice: Polycrates of Samos; Lygdamis of Naxos; Histiaeus
-and Aristagoras of Miletus. Perhaps the last mentioned can hardly be
-classed among the _Greek tyrants_, as they were connected with the
-Persian monarchy. The general characteristics of a _tyranny_ were,
-that it was bound by no laws, and had no recognised limitation to its
-authority, however it might be restrained _in practice_ by the good
-disposition of the _tyrant_ himself, or by fear, or by the spirit of
-the age. It was commonly most odious to the wealthy and noble, whom
-the _tyrant_ looked upon with jealousy as a check upon his power,
-and whom he often sought to get rid of by sending them into exile
-or putting them to death. The _tyrant_ usually kept a body-guard
-of foreign mercenaries, by aid of whom he controlled the people at
-home; but he seldom ventured to make war, for fear of giving an
-opportunity to his subjects to revolt. The causes which led to the
-decline of _tyranny_ among the Greeks were partly the degeneracy of
-the _tyrants_ themselves, corrupted by power, indolence, flattery,
-and bad education; for even where the father set a good example, it
-was seldom followed by the son; partly the cruelties and excesses of
-particular men, which brought them all into disrepute; and partly
-the growing spirit of inquiry among the Greek people, who began to
-speculate upon political theories, and soon became discontented
-with a form of government, which had nothing in theory, and little
-in practice, to recommend it. Few dynasties lasted beyond the third
-generation. Most of the tyrannies, which flourished before the
-Persian war, are said to have been overthrown by the exertions of
-Sparta, jealous, probably, of any innovation upon the old Doric
-constitution, especially of any tendency to ameliorate the condition
-of the Periocci, and anxious to extend her own influence over the
-states of Greece by means of the benefits which she conferred. Upon
-the fall of _tyranny_, the various republican forms of government
-were established, the Dorian states generally favouring oligarchy,
-the Ionian democracy. Of the tyrants of a later period, the most
-celebrated are the two Dionysii. The corruption of the Syracusans,
-their intestine discords, and the fear of the Carthaginian invaders,
-led to the appointment of Dionysius to the chief military command,
-with unlimited powers; by means of which he raised himself to the
-throne, B.C. 406, and reigned for 38 years, leaving his son to
-succeed him. The younger Dionysius, far inferior in every respect to
-his father, was expelled by Dion, afterwards regained the throne, and
-was again expelled by Timoleon, who restored liberty to the various
-states of Sicily.
-
-
-
-
-UDO, a sock of goat’s-hair or felt, worn by countrymen with the low
-boots called _perones_. [PERO.]
-
-
-ULNA. [PES.]
-
-
-UMBĬLĪCUS. [LIBER.]
-
-
-UMBO. [CLIPEUS.]
-
-
-UMBRĀCŬLUM, UMBELLA (σκιάδειον, σκιάδιον, σκιαδίσκη), a parasol, was
-used by Greek and Roman ladies as a protection against the sun. They
-seem not to have been carried generally by the ladies themselves,
-but by female slaves, who held them over their mistresses. The
-daughters of the aliens (μέτοικοι) at Athens had to carry parasols
-after the Athenian maidens at the Panathenaea, as is mentioned under
-HYDRIAPHORIA. The parasols of the ancients seem to have been exactly
-like our own parasols or umbrellas in form, and could be shut up and
-opened like ours. It was considered a mark of effeminacy for men to
-make use of parasols. The Roman ladies used them in the amphitheatre
-to defend themselves from the sun or some passing shower, when
-the wind or other circumstances did not allow the velarium to be
-extended. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] To hold a parasol over a lady was one
-of the common attentions of lovers, and it seems to have been very
-common to give parasols as presents. Instead of parasols, the Greek
-women in later times wore a kind of straw hat or bonnet, called
-_tholia_ (θολία). The Romans also wore a hat with a broad brim
-(_petasus_) as a protection against the sun.
-
-[Illustration: Umbraculum, Parasol. (From an ancient Vase.)]
-
-
-UNCIA (ὀγκία, οὐγκία, οὐγγία), the twelfth part of the AS or LIBRA,
-is derived by Varro from _unus_, as being the unit of the divisions
-of the as. Its value as a weight was 433·666 grains, or ¾ of an
-ounce and 105·36 grains avoirdupois. [LIBRA.] In connecting the
-Roman system of weights and money with the Greek another division of
-the uncia was used. When the drachma was introduced into the Roman
-system as equivalent to the denarius of 96 to the pound [DENARIUS;
-DRACHMA], the uncia contained 8 drachmae, the drachma 3 scrupula, the
-scrupulum 2 oboli (since 6 oboli made up the drachma), and the obolos
-3 siliquae (κερατία). In this division we have the origin of the
-modern Italian system, in which the pound is divided into 12 ounces,
-the ounce into 3 drams, the dram into 3 scruples, and the scruple
-into 6 carats. In each of these systems 1728 κερατία, siliquae, or
-carats, make up the pound. The Romans applied the uncial division to
-all kinds of magnitude. [AS.] In length the uncia was the twelfth
-of a foot, whence the word _inch_ [PES], in area the twelfth of a
-jugerum [JUGERUM], in content the twelfth of a sextarius [SEXTARIUS;
-CYATHUS], in time the twelfth of an hour.
-
-
-UNCIĀRĬUM FĒNUS. [FENUS.]
-
-
-UNCTŌRES. [BALNEUM.]
-
-
-UNGUENTA, ointments, oils, or salves. The application of unguenta in
-connection with the bathing and athletic contests of the ancients is
-stated under BALNEUM and ATHLETAE. But although their original object
-was simply to preserve the health and elasticity of the human frame,
-they were in later times used as articles of luxury. They were then
-not only employed to impart to the body or hair a particular colour,
-but also to give to them the most beautiful fragrance possible; they
-were, moreover, not merely applied after a bath, but at any time,
-to render one’s appearance or presence more pleasant than usual. In
-short, they were used then as oils and pomatums are at present. At
-Rome these luxuries did not become very general till towards the end
-of the republic, while the Greeks appear to have been familiar with
-them from early times. The wealthy Greeks and Romans carried their
-ointments and perfumes with them, especially when they bathed, in
-small boxes of costly materials and beautiful workmanship, which
-were called _Narthecia_. The traffic which was carried on in these
-ointments and perfumes in several towns of Greece and southern Italy
-was very considerable. The persons engaged in manufacturing them
-were called by the Romans _Unguentarii_, or, as they frequently
-were women, _Unguentariae_, and the art of manufacturing them
-_Unguentaria_. In the wealthy and effeminate city of Capua there was
-one great street, called the Seplasia, which consisted entirely of
-shops in which ointments and perfumes were sold.
-
-
-ŪRĀGUS. [CENTURIO.]
-
-
-URCĔUS, a pitcher or water-pot, generally made of earthenware, was
-used by the priests at Rome in the sacrifices, and thus appears with
-other sacrificial emblems on Roman coins.
-
-[Illustration: Urceus and Lituus on obverse of Coin of Pompey.]
-
-
-URNA, an urn, a Roman measure of capacity for fluids, equal to half
-an AMPHORA. This use of the term was probably founded upon its more
-general application to denote a vessel for holding water, or any
-other substance, either fluid or solid. An urn was used to receive
-the names of the judges (_judices_) in order that the praetor might
-draw out of it a sufficient number to determine causes: also to
-receive the ashes of the dead.
-
-
-USTRĪNA, USTRĪNUM. [BUSTUM.]
-
-
-ŪSŪCĂPĬO, the possession of property for a certain time without
-interruption. The Twelve Tables declared that the ownership of land,
-a house, or other immoveable property, could be acquired by usucapio
-in two years; and of moveable property by usucapio in one year.
-
-
-ŪSŪRAE. [FENUS.]
-
-
-ŪSUS. [MATRIMONIUM.]
-
-
-ŪSUSFRUCTUS was the right to the enjoyment of a thing by one person,
-while the ownership belonged to another. He who had the ususfructus
-was _Ususfructuarius_ or _Fructuarius_, and the object of the
-ususfructus was _Res Fructuaria_.
-
-
-UTRĬCŬLĀRĬUS. [TIBIA.]
-
-
-UXOR. [MATRIMONIUM.]
-
-
-UXŌRĬUM. [AES UXORIUM.]
-
-
-
-
-VĂCATĬO. [EXERCITUS, EMERITI.]
-
-
-VĂDĬMŌNĬUM, VAS. [ACTIO; PRAES.]
-
-
-VĀGĪNA. [GLADIUS.]
-
-
-VALLUM, a term applied either to the whole or a portion of the
-fortifications of a Roman camp. It is derived from _vallus_ (a
-stake), and properly means the palisade which ran along the outer
-edge of the agger, but it very frequently includes the agger also.
-The _vallum_, in the latter sense, together with the _fossa_ or ditch
-which surrounded the camp outside of the _vallum_, formed a complete
-fortification. The _valli_ (χάρακες), of which the _vallum_, in
-the former and more limited sense, was composed, are described by
-Polybius and Livy, who make a comparison between the _vallum_ of the
-Greeks and that of the Romans, very much to the advantage of the
-latter. Both used for _valli_ young trees or arms of larger trees,
-with the side branches on them; but the _valli_ of the Greeks were
-much larger and had more branches than those of the Romans, which
-had either two or three, or at the most four branches, and these
-generally on the same side. The Greeks placed their valli in the
-agger at considerable intervals, the spaces between them being filled
-up by the branches; the Romans fixed theirs close together, and made
-the branches interlace, and sharpened their points carefully. Hence
-the Greek vallus could easily be taken hold of by its large branches
-and pulled from its place, and when it was removed a large opening
-was left in the vallum. The Roman vallus, on the contrary, presented
-no convenient handle, required very great force to pull it down,
-and even if removed left a very small opening. The Greek valli were
-cut on the spot; the Romans prepared theirs beforehand, and each
-soldier carried three or four of them when on a march. They were
-made of any strong wood, but oak was preferred. The word _vallus_
-is sometimes used as equivalent to _vallum_. In the operations of
-a siege, when the place could not be taken by storm, and it became
-necessary to establish a blockade, this was done by drawing defences
-similar to those of a camp round the town, which was then said to be
-_circumvallatum_. Such a circumvallation, besides cutting off all
-communication between the town and the surrounding country, formed
-a defence against the sallies of the besieged. There was often a
-double line of fortifications, the inner against the town, and the
-outer against a force that might attempt to raise the siege. In this
-case the army was encamped between the two lines of works. This
-kind of circumvallation, which the Greeks called ἀποτειχισμός and
-περιτειχισμός, was employed by the Peloponnesians in the siege of
-Plataeae. Their lines consisted of two walls (apparently of turf)
-at the distance of 16 feet, which surrounded the city in the form
-of a circle. Between the walls were the huts of the besiegers. The
-wall had battlements (ἐπάλξεις), and at every tenth battlement
-was a tower, filling up by its depth the whole space between the
-walls. There was a passage for the besiegers through the middle
-of each tower. On the outside of each wall was a ditch (τάφρος).
-This description would almost exactly answer to the Roman mode of
-circumvallation, of which some of the best examples are that of
-Carthage by Scipio, that of Numantia by Scipio, and that of Alesia
-by Caesar. The towers in such lines were similar to those used in
-attacking fortified places, but not so high, and of course not
-moveable. [TURRIS.]
-
-
-VALVAE. [JANUA.]
-
-
-VANNUS (λικμός, λίκνον), a winnowing-van, _i.e._ a broad basket,
-into which the corn mixed with chaff was received after thrashing,
-and was then thrown in the direction of the wind. Virgil dignifies
-this simple implement by calling it _mystica vannus Iacchi_. The
-rites of Bacchus, as well as those of Ceres, having a continual
-reference to the occupations of rural life, the vannus was borne in
-the processions celebrated in honour of both these divinities. In the
-cut annexed the infant Bacchus is carried in a vannus by two dancing
-bacchantes clothed in skins.
-
-[Illustration: Bacchus carried in a Vannus. (From an Antefixa in the
-British Museum.)]
-
-
-VAS (pl. _vasa_), a general term for any kind of vessel. Thus
-we read of _vas vinarium_, _vas argenteum_, _vasa Corinthia et
-Deliaca_, _vasa Samia_, that is, made of Samian earthenware, _vasa
-Murrhina_. [MURRHINA VASA.] The word _vas_ was used in a still wider
-signification, and was applied to any kind of utensil used in the
-kitchen, agriculture, &c. The utensils of the soldiers were called
-_vasa_, and hence _vasa colligere_ and _vasa conclamare_ signify to
-pack up the baggage, to give the signal for departure.
-
-
-VECTĪGĀLĬA, the general term for all the regular revenues of the
-Roman state. It means anything which is brought (_vehitur_) into the
-public treasury, like the Greek φόρος. The earliest regular income
-of the state was in all probability the rent paid for the use of
-the public land and pastures. This revenue was called _pascua_, a
-name which was used as late as the time of Pliny, in the tables
-or registers of the censors for all the revenues of the state in
-general. The senate was the supreme authority in all matters of
-finance, but as the state did not occupy itself with collecting
-the taxes, duties, and tributes, the censors were entrusted with
-the actual business. These officers, who in this respect may not
-unjustly be compared to modern ministers of finance, used to let the
-various branches of the revenue to the publicani for a fixed sum, and
-for a certain number of years. [CENSOR; PUBLICANI.] As most of the
-branches of the public revenues of Rome are treated of in separate
-articles, it is only necessary to give a list of them here, and to
-explain those which have not been treated of separately. 1. The
-tithes paid to the state by those who occupied the ager publicus.
-[DECUMAE; AGER PUBLICUS.] 2. The sums paid by those who kept their
-cattle on the public pastures. [SCRIPTURA.] 3. The harbour duties
-raised upon imported and exported commodities. [PORTORIUM.] 4. The
-revenue derived from the salt-works. [SALINAE.] 5. The revenues
-derived from the mines (_metalla_). This branch of the public revenue
-cannot have been very productive until the Romans had become masters
-of foreign countries. Until that time the mines of Italy appear to
-have been worked, but this was forbidden by the senate after the
-conquest of foreign lands. The mines of conquered countries were
-treated like the salinae. 6. The hundredth part of the value of all
-things which were sold (_centesima rerum venalium_). This tax was not
-instituted at Rome until the time of the civil wars; the persons who
-collected it were called _coactores_. Tiberius reduced this tax to a
-two-hundredth (_ducentesima_), and Caligula abolished it for Italy
-altogether, whence upon several coins of this emperor we read R. C.
-C., that is, _Remissa Ducentesima_. Respecting the tax raised upon
-the sale of slaves, see QUINQUAGESIMA. 7. The vicesima hereditatum
-et manumissionum. [VICESIMA.] 8. The tribute imposed upon foreign
-countries was by far the most important branch of the public revenue
-during the time of Rome’s greatness. It was sometimes raised at
-once, sometimes paid by instalments, and sometimes changed into a
-poll-tax, which was in many cases regulated according to the census.
-In regard to Cilicia and Syria we know that this tax amounted to one
-per cent. of a person’s census, to which a tax upon houses and slaves
-was added. In some cases the tribute was not paid according to the
-census, but consisted in a land-tax. 9. A tax upon bachelors. [AES
-UXORIUM.] 10. A door-tax. [OSTIARIUM.] 11. The _octavae_. In the
-time of Caesar all liberti living in Italy, and possessing property
-of 200 sestertia, and above it, had to pay a tax consisting of the
-eighth part of their property.--It would be interesting to ascertain
-the amount of income which Rome at various periods derived from these
-and other sources; but our want of information renders it impossible.
-We have only the general statement, that previously to the time of
-Pompey the annual revenue amounted to fifty millions of drachmas, and
-that it was increased by him to eighty-five millions.
-
-
-VĒLĀRĬUM. [AMPHITHEATRUM, p. 23.]
-
-
-VĒLĬTES, the light-armed troops in a Roman army. [EXERCITUS, p. 169.]
-
-
-VĒLUM (αὐλαία).--(1) A curtain. Curtains were used in private
-houses as coverings over doors, or they served in the interior of
-the house as substitutes for doors.--(2) _Velum_, and more commonly
-its derivative _velamen_, denoted the veil worn by women. That worn
-by a bride was specifically called _flammeum_. [MATRIMONIUM.]--(3)
-(Ἱστίον.) A sail. [NAVIS, p. 267.]
-
-
-VĒNĀBŬLUM, a hunting-spear. This may have been distinguished from
-the spears used in warfare by being barbed; at least it is often so
-formed in ancient works of art. It was seldom, if ever, thrown, but
-held so as to slant downwards and to receive the attacks of the wild
-boars and other beasts of chace.
-
-
-VĒNĀTĬO, hunting, was the name given among the Romans to an
-exhibition of wild beasts, which fought with one another and with
-men. These exhibitions originally formed part of the games of the
-circus. Julius Caesar first built a wooden amphitheatre for the
-exhibition of wild beasts, and others were subsequently erected;
-but we frequently read of venationes in the circus in subsequent
-times. The persons who fought with the beasts were either condemned
-criminals or captives, or individuals who did so for the sake of
-pay, and were trained for the purpose. [BESTIARII.] The Romans were
-as passionately fond of this entertainment as of the exhibitions of
-gladiators, and during the latter days of the republic, and under
-the empire, an immense variety of animals was collected from all
-parts of the Roman world for the gratification of the people, and
-many thousands were frequently slain at one time. We do not know on
-what occasion a venatio was first exhibited at Rome; but the first
-mention we find of any thing of the kind is in the year B.C. 251,
-when L. Metellus exhibited in the circus 142 elephants, which he had
-brought from Sicily after his victory over the Carthaginians. But
-this can scarcely be regarded as an instance of a venatio, as it
-was understood in later times, since the elephants are said to have
-been only killed because the Romans did not know what to do with
-them, and not for the amusement of the people. There was, however,
-a venatio in the later sense of the word in B.C. 186, in the games
-celebrated by M. Fulvius in fulfilment of the vow which he had
-made in the Aetolian war; in these games lions and panthers were
-exhibited. It is mentioned as a proof of the growing magnificence of
-the age that in the ludi circenses, exhibited by the curule aediles
-P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica and P. Lentulus B.C. 168, there were 63
-African panthers and 40 bears and elephants. From about this time
-combats with wild beasts probably formed a regular part of the ludi
-circenses, and many of the curule aediles made great efforts to
-obtain rare and curious animals, and put in requisition the services
-of their friends. Elephants are said to have first fought in the
-circus in the curule aedileship of Claudius Pulcher, B.C. 99; and
-twenty years afterwards, in the curule aedileship of the two Luculli,
-they fought against bulls. A hundred lions were exhibited by Sulla
-in his praetorship, which were destroyed by javelin-men sent by king
-Bocchus for the purpose. This was the first time that lions were
-allowed to be loose in the circus; they were previously always tied
-up. The games, however, in the curule aedileship of Scaurus, B.C. 58,
-surpassed anything the Romans had ever seen; among other novelties,
-he first exhibited an hippopotamos and five crocodiles in a temporary
-canal or trench (_euripus_). At the venatio given by Pompey in his
-second consulship, B.C. 55, upon the dedication of the temple of
-Venus Victrix, there was an immense number of animals slaughtered,
-among which we find mention of 600 lions, and 18 or 20 elephants;
-the latter fought with Gaetulians, who hurled darts against them,
-and they attempted to break through the railings (_clathri_) by
-which they were separated from the spectators. To guard against this
-danger Julius Caesar surrounded the arena of the amphitheatre with
-trenches (_euripi_). In the games exhibited by J. Caesar in his
-third consulship, B.C. 45, the venatio lasted for five days, and was
-conducted with extraordinary splendour. Cameleopards or giraffes were
-then for the first time seen in Italy. The venationes seem to have
-been first confined to the ludi circenses, but during the later times
-of the republic, and under the empire, they were frequently exhibited
-on the celebration of triumphs, and on many other occasions, with the
-view of pleasing the people. The passion for these shows continued
-to increase under the empire, and the number of beasts sometimes
-slaughtered seems almost incredible. Under the emperors we read of
-a particular kind of venatio, in which the beasts were not killed
-by bestiarii, but were given up to the people, who were allowed to
-rush into the area of the circus and carry away what they pleased.
-On such occasions a number of large trees, which had been torn up by
-the roots, was planted in the circus, which thus resembled a forest,
-and none of the more savage animals were admitted into it. One of the
-most extraordinary venationes of this kind was that given by Probus,
-in which there were 1000 ostriches, 1000 stags, 1000 boars, 1000
-deer, and numbers of wild goats, wild sheep, and other animals of the
-same kind. The more savage animals were slain by the bestiarii in
-the amphitheatre, and not in the circus. Thus, in the day succeeding
-the venatio of Probus just mentioned, there were slain in the
-amphitheatre 100 lions and 100 lionesses, 100 Libyan and 100 Syrian
-leopards, and 300 bears.
-
-[Illustration: Venationes. (From Bas-reliefs on the Tomb of Scaurus
-at Pompeii.)]
-
-
-VĔNĒFĬCĬUM, the crime of poisoning, is frequently mentioned in Roman
-history. Women were most addicted to it: but it seems not improbable
-that this charge was frequently brought against females without
-sufficient evidence of their guilt, like that of witchcraft in Europe
-in the middle ages. We find females condemned to death for this crime
-in seasons of pestilence, when the people are always in an excited
-state of mind, and ready to attribute the calamities under which they
-suffer to the arts of evil-disposed persons. Thus the Athenians,
-when the pestilence raged in their city during the Peloponnesian
-war, supposed the wells to have been poisoned by the Peloponnesians,
-and similar instances occur in the history of almost all states.
-Still, however, the crime of poisoning seems to have been much more
-frequent in ancient than in modern times; and this circumstance
-would lead persons to suspect it in cases when there was no real
-ground for the suspicion. At Athens the PHARMACON GRAPHE was brought
-against poisoners. At Rome the first legislative enactment especially
-directed against poisoning was a law of the dictator Sulla--Lex
-Cornelia de Sicariis et Veneficis--passed in B.C. 82, which continued
-in force, with some alterations, to the latest times. It contained
-provisions against all who made, bought, sold, possessed, or gave
-poison for the purpose of poisoning. The punishment fixed by this law
-was the interdictio aquae et ignis.
-
-
-VER SACRUM (ἔτος ἱερόν). It was a custom among the early Italian
-nations, especially among the Sabines, in times of great danger and
-distress, to vow to the deity the sacrifice of everything born in the
-next spring, that is, between the first of March and the last day
-of April, if the calamity under which they were labouring should be
-removed. This sacrifice in the early times comprehended both men and
-domestic animals, and there is little doubt that in many cases the
-vow was really carried into effect. But in later times it was thought
-cruel to sacrifice so many infants, and accordingly the following
-expedient was adopted. The children were allowed to grow up, and in
-the spring of their twentieth or twenty-first year they were with
-covered faces driven across the frontier of their native country,
-whereupon they went whithersoever fortune or the deity might lead
-them. Many a colony had been founded by persons driven out in this
-manner; and the Mamertines in Sicily were the descendants of such
-devoted persons. In the two historical instances in which the Romans
-vowed a ver sacrum, that is, after the battle of lake Trasimenus
-and at the close of the second Punic war, the vow was confined to
-domestic animals.
-
-
-VERBĒNA. [SAGMINA.]
-
-
-VERBĒNĀRĬUS. [FETIALIS.]
-
-
-VERNA. [SERVUS.]
-
-
-VERSŪRA. [FENUS.]
-
-
-VĔRU, VERŪTUM. [HASTA.]
-
-
-VESPAE, VESPILLŌNES. [FUNUS, p. 188.]
-
-
-VESTĀLES, the virgin priestesses of Vesta, who ministered in her
-temple and watched the eternal fire. Their existence at Alba Longa is
-connected with the earliest Roman traditions, for Silvia the mother
-of Romulus was a member of the sisterhood; their establishment in
-the city, in common with almost all other matters connected with
-state religion, is generally ascribed to Numa, who selected four,
-two from the Titienses and two from the Ramnes; and two more were
-subsequently added from the Luceres, by Tarquinius Priscus according
-to one authority, by Servius Tullius according to another. This
-number of six remained unchanged to the latest times. They were
-originally chosen (_capere_ is the technical word) by the king,
-and during the republic and empire by the pontifex maximus. It was
-necessary that the maiden should not be under six nor above ten
-years of age, perfect in all her limbs, in the full enjoyment of
-all her senses, patrima et matrima [PATRIMI], the daughter of free
-and freeborn parents who had never been in slavery, who followed
-no dishonourable occupation, and whose home was in Italy. The Lex
-Papia ordained that when a vacancy occurred the pontifex maximus
-should name at his discretion twenty qualified damsels, one of whom
-was publicly (_in concione_) fixed upon by lot, an exemption being
-granted in favour of such as had a sister already a vestal, and of
-the daughters of certain priests of a high class. The above law
-appears to have been enacted in consequence of the unwillingness of
-fathers to resign all control over a child, and this reluctance was
-manifested so strongly in later times, that in the age of Augustus
-_libertinae_ were declared eligible. The casting of lots moreover
-does not seem to have been practised if any respectable person
-came forward voluntarily, and offered a daughter who fulfilled the
-necessary conditions. As soon as the election was concluded, the
-pontifex maximus took the girl by the hand and addressed her in a
-solemn form. After this was pronounced she was led away to the atrium
-of Vesta, and lived thenceforward within the sacred precincts, under
-the special superintendence and control of the pontifical college.
-The period of service lasted for thirty years. During the first ten
-the priestess was engaged in learning her mysterious duties, being
-termed _discipula_, during the next ten in performing them, during
-the last ten in giving instructions to the novices, and so long as
-she was thus employed she was bound by a solemn vow of chastity. But
-after the time specified was completed, she might, if she thought
-fit, throw off the emblems of her office, unconsecrate herself
-(_exaugurare_), return to the world, and even enter into the marriage
-state. Few however availed themselves of these privileges; those who
-did were said to have lived in sorrow and remorse (as might indeed
-have been expected from the habits they had formed); hence such a
-proceeding was considered ominous, and the priestesses for the most
-part died, as they had lived, in the service of the goddess. The
-senior sister was entitled _Vestalis Maxima_, or _Virgo Maxima_,
-and we find also the expressions _Vestalium vetustissima_ and _tres
-maximae_. Their chief office was to watch by turns, night and day,
-the everlasting fire which blazed upon the altar of Vesta, its
-extinction being considered as the most fearful of all prodigies, and
-emblematic of the extinction of the state. If such misfortune befell,
-and was caused by the carelessness of the priestess on duty, she
-was stripped and scourged by the pontifex maximus, in the dark and
-with a screen interposed, and he rekindled the flame by the friction
-of two pieces of wood from a _felix arbor_. Their other ordinary
-duties consisted in presenting offerings to the goddess at stated
-times, and in sprinkling and purifying the shrine each morning with
-water, which according to the institution of Numa was to be drawn
-from the Egerian fount, although in later times it was considered
-lawful to employ any water from a living spring or running stream,
-but not such as had passed through pipes. When used for sacrificial
-purposes it was mixed with _muries_, that is, salt which had been
-pounded in a mortar, thrown into an earthen jar, and baked in an
-oven. They assisted moreover at all great public holy rites, such as
-the festivals of the Bona Dea, and the consecration of temples; they
-were invited to priestly banquets, and we are told that they were
-present at the solemn appeal to the gods made by Cicero during the
-conspiracy of Catiline. They also guarded the sacred relics which
-formed the _fatale pignus imperii_, the pledge granted by fate for
-the permanency of the Roman sway, deposited in the inmost adytum,
-which no one was permitted to enter save the virgins and the chief
-pontifex. What this object was no one knew; some supposed that it was
-the palladium, others the Samothracian gods carried by Dardanus to
-Troy, and transported from thence to Italy by Aeneas, but all agreed
-in believing that something of awful sanctity was here preserved,
-contained, it was said, in a small earthen jar closely sealed, while
-another exactly similar in form, but empty, stood by its side. We
-have seen above that supreme importance was attached to the purity of
-the vestals, and a terrible punishment awaited her who violated the
-vow of chastity. According to the law of Numa, she was simply to be
-stoned to death, but a more cruel torture was devised by Tarquinius
-Priscus, and inflicted from that time forward. When condemned by
-the college of pontifices, she was stripped of her vittae and other
-badges of office, was scourged, was attired like a corpse, placed in
-a close litter and borne through the forum attended by her weeping
-kindred, with all the ceremonies of a real funeral, to a rising
-ground called the _Campus Sceleratus_, just within the city walls,
-close to the Colline gate. There a small vault underground had been
-previously prepared, containing a couch, a lamp, and a table with
-a little food. The pontifex maximus, having lifted up his hands to
-heaven and uttered a secret prayer, opened the litter, led forth
-the culprit, and placing her on the steps of the ladder which gave
-access to the subterranean cell, delivered her over to the common
-executioner and his assistants, who conducted her down, drew up the
-ladder, and having filled the pit with earth until the surface was
-level with the surrounding ground, left her to perish deprived of all
-the tributes of respect usually paid to the spirits of the departed.
-In every case the paramour was publicly scourged to death in the
-forum. The honours which the vestals enjoyed were such as in a great
-measure to compensate for their privations. They were maintained at
-the public cost, and from sums of money and land bequeathed from time
-to time to the corporation. From the moment of their consecration
-they became as it were the property of the goddess alone, and were
-completely released from all parental sway, without going through
-the form of _emancipatio_ or suffering any _capitis deminutio_.
-They had a right to make a will, and to give evidence in a court of
-justice without taking an oath. From the time of the triumviri each
-was preceded by a lictor when she went abroad; consuls and praetors
-made way for them, and lowered their fasces; even the tribunes of
-the plebs respected their holy character, and if any one passed
-under their litter he was put to death. Augustus granted to them all
-the rights of matrons who had borne three children, and assigned
-them a conspicuous place in the theatre, a privilege which they had
-enjoyed before at the gladiatorial shows. Great weight was attached
-to their intercession on behalf of those in danger and difficulty,
-of which we have a remarkable example in the entreaties which they
-addressed to Sulla on behalf of Julius Caesar, and if they chanced
-to meet a criminal as he was led to punishment, they had a right to
-demand his release, provided it could be proved that the encounter
-was accidental. Wills, even those of the emperors, were committed
-to their charge, for when in such keeping they were considered
-inviolable; and in like manner very solemn treaties, such as that
-of the triumvirs with Sextus Pompeius, were placed in their hands.
-That they might be honoured in death as in life, their ashes were
-interred within the pomoerium. They were attired in a stola over
-which was an upper vestment made of linen, and in addition to the
-infula and white woollen vitta, they wore when sacrificing a peculiar
-head-dress called _suffibulum_, consisting of a piece of white cloth
-bordered with purple, oblong in shape, and secured by a clasp. In
-dress and general deportment they were required to observe the utmost
-simplicity and decorum, any fanciful ornaments in the one or levity
-in the other being always regarded with disgust and suspicion. Their
-hair was cut off, probably at the period of their consecration:
-whether this was repeated from time to time does not appear, but
-they are never represented with flowing locks. The following cut
-represents the vestal Tuccia who, when wrongfully accused, appealed
-to the goddess to vindicate her honour, and had power given to her to
-carry a sieve full of water from the Tiber to the temple. The form of
-the upper garment is well shown.
-
-[Illustration: Vestal Virgin. (From a Gem.)]
-
-
-VESTĬBŬLUM. [DOMUS, p. 142, a.]
-
-
-VĔTĔRĀNUS. [TIRO.]
-
-
-VEXILLĀRĬI. [EXERCITUS, p. 170, b.]
-
-
-VEXILLUM. [SIGNA MILITARIA.]
-
-
-VIA, a public road. It was not until the period of the long
-protracted Samnite wars that the necessity was felt of securing a
-safe communication between the city and the legions, and then for
-the first time we hear of those famous paved roads, which, in after
-ages, connected Rome with her most distant provinces, constituting
-the most lasting of all her works. The excellence of the principles
-upon which they were constructed is sufficiently attested by their
-extraordinary durability, many specimens being found in the country
-around Rome which have been used without being repaired for more than
-a thousand years. The Romans are said to have adopted their first
-ideas upon this subject from the Carthaginians, and it is extremely
-probable that the latter people may, from their commercial activity
-and the sandy nature of their soil, have been compelled to turn
-their attention to the best means of facilitating the conveyance of
-merchandise to different parts of their territory. The first great
-public road made by the Romans was the Via Appia, which extended in
-the first instance from Rome to Capua, and was made in the censorship
-of Appius Claudius Caecus (B.C. 312.) The general construction of a
-Roman road was as follows:--In the first place, two shallow trenches
-(_sulci_) were dug parallel to each other, marking the breadth of
-the proposed road; this in the great lines is found to have been
-from 13 to 15 feet. The loose earth between the _sulci_ was then
-removed, and the excavation continued until a solid foundation
-(_gremium_) was reached, upon which the materials of the road might
-firmly rest; if this could not be attained, in consequence of the
-swampy nature of the ground or from any peculiarity in the soil, a
-basis was formed artificially by driving piles (_fistucationibus_).
-Above the _gremium_ were four distinct strata. The lowest course
-was the _statumen_, consisting of stones not smaller than the hand
-could just grasp; above the statumen was the _rudus_, a mass of
-broken stones cemented with lime, (what masons call _rubble-work_,)
-rammed down hard, and nine inches thick; above the rudus came the
-_nucleus_, composed of fragments of bricks and pottery, the pieces
-being smaller than in the rudus, cemented with lime, and six inches
-thick. Uppermost was the _pavimentum_, large polygonal blocks of the
-hardest stone (_silex_), usually, at least in the vicinity of Rome,
-basaltic lava, irregular in form, but fitted and jointed with the
-greatest nicety, so as to present a perfectly even surface, as free
-from gaps or irregularities as if the whole had been one solid mass.
-The general aspect will be understood from the cut given below.
-
-[Illustration: Street at the entrance of Pompeii.]
-
-The centre of the way was a little elevated, so as to permit
-the water to run off easily. Occasionally, at least in cities,
-rectangular slabs of softer stone were employed instead of the
-irregular polygons of silex, and hence the distinction between the
-phrases _silice sternere_ and _saxo quadrato sternere_. Nor was
-this all. Regular foot-paths (_margines_, _crepidines_, _umbones_)
-were raised upon each side and strewed with gravel, the different
-parts were strengthened and bound together with _gomphi_ or stone
-wedges, and stone blocks were set up at moderate intervals on the
-side of the foot-paths, in order that travellers on horseback might
-be able to mount without assistance. Finally, Caius Gracchus
-erected mile-stones along the whole extent of the great highways,
-marking the distances from Rome, which appear to have been counted
-from the gate at which each road issued forth, and Augustus, when
-appointed inspector of the viae around the city, erected in the
-forum a gilded column (_milliarium aureum_), on which were inscribed
-the distances of the principal points to which the viae conducted.
-During the earlier ages of the republic the construction and general
-superintendence of the roads without, and the streets within the
-city, were committed like all other important works to the censors.
-These duties, when no censors were in office, devolved upon the
-consuls, and in their absence on the praetor urbanus, the aediles, or
-such persons as the senate thought fit to appoint. There were also
-under the republic four officers, called _quatuorviri viarum_, for
-superintending the streets within the city, and two called _curatores
-viarum_, for superintending the roads without. Under the empire the
-_curatores viarum_ were officers of high rank. The chief roads which
-issued from Rome are:--1. The VIA APPIA, the _Great South Road_.
-It issued from the _Porta Capena_, and passing through _Aricia_,
-_Tres Tabernae_, _Appii Forum_, _Tarracina_, _Fundi_, _Formiae_,
-_Minturnae_, _Sinuessa_, and _Carilinum_, terminated at _Capua_,
-but was eventually extended through _Calatia_ and _Caudium_ to
-_Beneventum_, and finally from thence through _Venusia_, _Tarentum_,
-and _Uria_, to _Brundusium_.--2. The VIA LATINA, from the _Porta
-Capena_, another great line leading to Beneventum, but keeping a
-course farther inland than the Via Appia. Soon after leaving the city
-it sent off a short branch (VIA TUSCULANA) to _Tusculum_, and passing
-through _Compitum Anaginum_, _Ferentinum_, _Frusino_, _Fregellae_,
-_Fabrateria_, _Aquinum_, _Casinum_, _Venafrum_, _Teanum_, _Allifae_,
-and _Telesia_, joined the _Via Appia_ at _Beneventum_. A cross-road
-called the VIA HADRIANA, running from _Minturnae_ through _Suessa
-Aurunca_ to _Teanum_, connected the _Via Appia_ with the _Via
-Latina_.--3. From the _Porta Esquilina_ issued the VIA LABICANA,
-which passing Labicum fell into the _Via Latina_ at the station _ad
-Bivium_, 30 miles from Rome.--4. The VIA PRAENESTINA, originally
-the VIA GABINA, issued from the same gate with the former. Passing
-through _Gabii_ and _Praeneste_, it joined the _Via Latina_ just
-below _Anagnia_.--5. The VIA TIBURTINA, which issued from the _Porta
-Tiburtina_, and proceeding N. E. to _Tibur_, a distance of about
-20 miles, was continued from thence, in the same direction, under
-the name of the VIA VALERIA, and traversing the country of the
-Sabines passed through _Carseoli_ and _Corfinium_ to _Aternum_ on
-the Adriatic, thence to _Adria_, and so along the coast to _Castrum
-Truentinum_, where it fell into the _Via Salaria_.--6. The VIA
-NOMENTANA, anciently FICULNENSIS, ran from the _Porta Collina_,
-crossed the _Anio_ to _Nomentum_, and a little beyond fell into the
-_Via Salaria_ at _Eretum_.--7. The VIA SALARIA, also from the _Porta
-Collina_ (passing _Fidenae_ and _Crustumerium_) ran north and east
-through Sabinum and Picenum to _Reate_ and _Asculum Picenum_. At
-_Castrum Truentinum_ it reached the coast, which it followed until
-it joined the _Via Flaminia_ at _Ancona_.--8. The VIA FLAMINIA, the
-_Great North Road_, carried ultimately to _Ariminum_. It issued from
-the _Porta Flaminia_, and proceeded nearly north to _Ocriculum_ and
-_Narnia_ in Umbria. Here a branch struck off, making a sweep to
-the east through _Interamna_ and _Spoletium_, and fell again into
-the main trunk (which passed through _Mevania_) at _Fulginia_. It
-continued through _Fanum Flaminii_ and _Nuceria_, where it again
-divided, one line running nearly straight to _Fanum Fortunae_ on
-the Adriatic, while the other diverging to _Ancona_ continued from
-thence along the coast to _Fanum Fortunae_, where the two branches
-uniting passed on to _Ariminum_ through _Pisaurum_. From thence the
-_Via Flaminia_ was extended under the name of the VIA AEMILIA, and
-traversed the heart of Cisalpine Gaul through _Bononia_, _Mutina_,
-_Parma_, _Placentia_ (where it crossed the Po), to _Mediolanum_.--9.
-The VIA AURELIA, the _Great Coast Road_, issued originally from the
-_Porta Janiculensis_, and subsequently from the _Porta Aurelia_. It
-reached the coast at _Alsium_, and followed the shore of the lower
-sea along Etruria and Liguria by _Genoa_ as far as _Forum Julii_ in
-Gaul. In the first instance it extended no farther than _Pisa_.--10.
-The VIA PORTUENSIS kept the right bank of the Tiber to _Portus
-Augusti_.--11. The VIA OSTIENSIS originally passed through the _Porta
-Trigemina_, afterwards through the _Porta Ostiensis_, and kept the
-left bank of the Tiber to _Ostia_. From thence it was continued
-under the name of VIA SEVERIANA along the coast southward through
-_Laurentum_, _Antium_, and _Circaei_, till it joined the _Via Appia_
-at _Tarracina_. The VIA LAURENTINA, leading direct to _Laurentum_,
-seems to have branched off from the _Via Ostiensis_ at a short
-distance from Rome.--12. The VIA ARDEATINA from Rome to _Ardea_.
-According to some this branched off from the _Via Appia_, and thus
-the circuit of the city is completed.
-
-
-VĬĀTĬCUM is, properly speaking, everything necessary for a person
-setting out on a journey, and thus comprehends money, provisions,
-dresses, vessels, &c. When a Roman magistrate, praetor, proconsul,
-or quaestor went to his province, the state provided him with all
-that was necessary for his journey. But as the state in this, as
-in most other cases of expenditure, preferred paying a sum at once
-to having any part in the actual business, it engaged contractors
-(_redemptores_), who for a stipulated sum had to provide the
-magistrates with the viaticum, the principal parts of which appear
-to have been beasts of burden and tents (_muli et tabernacula_).
-Augustus introduced some modification of this system, as he once
-for all fixed a certain sum to be given to the proconsuls (probably
-to other provincial magistrates also) on setting out for their
-provinces, so that the redemptores had no more to do with it.
-
-
-VĬĀTOR, a servant who attended upon and executed the commands of
-certain Roman magistrates, to whom he bore the same relation as the
-lictor did to other magistrates. The name _viatores_ was derived
-from the circumstance of their being chiefly employed on messages
-either to call upon senators to attend the meeting of the senate,
-or to summon people to the comitia, &c. In the earlier times of the
-republic we find viatores as ministers of such magistrates also
-as had their lictors: viatores of a dictator and of the consuls
-are mentioned by Livy. In later times, however, viatores are only
-mentioned with such magistrates as had only potestas and not
-imperium, such as the tribunes of the people, the censors, and the
-aediles.
-
-
-VICTIMA. [SACRIFICIUM.]
-
-
-VĪCĒSĬMA, a tax of five per cent. Every Roman, when he manumitted a
-slave, had to pay to the state a tax of one-twentieth of his value,
-whence the tax was called _vicesima manumissionis_. This tax was
-first imposed by the Lex Manlia (B.C. 357), and was not abolished
-when all other imposts were done away with in Rome and Italy. A
-tax called _vicesima hereditatum et legatorum_ was introduced by
-Augustus (_Lex Julia Vicesimaria_): it consisted of five per cent.,
-which every Roman citizen had to pay to the aerarium militare, upon
-any inheritance or legacy left to him, with the exception of such
-as were left to a citizen by his nearest relatives, and such as did
-not amount to above a certain sum. It was levied in Italy and the
-provinces by procuratores appointed for the purpose.
-
-
-VĪCOMĂGISTRI. [VICUS.]
-
-
-VĪCUS, the name of the subdivisions into which the four regions
-occupied by the four city tribes of Servius Tullius were divided,
-while the country regions, according to an institution ascribed to
-Numa, were subdivided into pagi. This division, together with that of
-the four regions of the four city tribes, remained down to the time
-of Augustus, who made the vici subdivisions of the fourteen regions
-into which he divided the city. In this division each vicus consisted
-of one main street, including several smaller by-streets; their
-number was 424, and each was superintended by four officers, called
-_vico-magistri_, who had a sort of local police, and who, according
-to the regulation of Augustus, were every year chosen by lot from
-among the people who lived in the vicus. On certain days, probably at
-the celebration of the compitalia, they wore the praetexta, and each
-of them was accompanied by two lictors. These officers, however, were
-not a new institution of Augustus, for they had existed during the
-time of the republic, and had had the same functions as a police for
-the vici of the Servian division of the city.
-
-
-VICTŌRĬĀTUS. [DENARIUS.]
-
-
-VĬGĬLES. [EXERCITUS, p. 171.]
-
-
-VĬGĬLĬAE. [CASTRA.]
-
-
-VĪGINTĬSEXVĬRI, twenty-six magistratus minores, among whom were
-included the Triumviri Capitales, the Triumviri Monetales, the
-Quatuorviri Viarum Curandarum for the city, the two Curatores Viarum
-for the roads outside the city, the Decemviri Litibus (_stlitibus_)
-Judicandis, and the four praefects who were sent into Campania for
-the purpose of administering justice there. Augustus reduced the
-number of officers of this college to twenty (_vigintiviri_), as the
-two curatores viarum for the roads outside the city and the four
-Campanian praefects were abolished. Down to the time of Augustus the
-sons of senators had generally sought and obtained a place in the
-college of the vigintisexviri, it being the first step towards the
-higher offices of the republic; but in A.D. 13 a senatusconsultum
-was passed, ordaining that only equites should be eligible to the
-college of the vigintiviri. The consequence of this was that the
-vigintiviri had no seats in the senate, unless they had held some
-other magistracy which conferred this right upon them. The age at
-which a person might become a vigintivir appears to have been twenty.
-
-
-VĪGINTĬVĬRI. [VIGINTISEXVIRI.]
-
-
-VILLA, a farm or country-house. The Roman writers mention two kinds
-of villa, the _villa rustica_ or farm-house, and the _villa urbana_
-or _pseudo-urbana_, a residence in the country or in the suburbs of
-a town. When both of these were attached to an estate they were
-generally united in the same range of buildings, but sometimes
-they were placed at different parts of the estate. The interior
-arrangements of the _villa urbana_ corresponded for the most part to
-those of a town-house. [DOMUS.]
-
-
-VILLĬCUS, a slave who had the superintendence of the _villa rustica_,
-and of all the business of the farm, except the cattle, which were
-under the care of the _magister pecoris_. The word was also used
-to describe a person to whom the management of any business was
-entrusted.
-
-
-VĪNĀLĬA. There were two festivals of this name celebrated by the
-Romans: the _Vinalia urbana_ or _priora_, and the _Vinalia rustica_
-or _altera_. The vinalia urbana were celebrated on the 23rd of April,
-when the wine-casks which had been filled the preceding autumn
-were opened for the first time, and the wine tasted. The rustic
-vinalia, which fell on the 19th of August, and was celebrated by
-the inhabitants of all Latium, was the day on which the vintage was
-opened. On this occasion the flamen dialis offered lambs to Jupiter,
-and while the flesh of the victims lay on the altar, he broke with
-his own hands a bunch of grapes from a vine, and by this act he, as
-it were, opened the vintage, and no must was allowed to be conveyed
-into the city until this solemnity was performed. This day was sacred
-to Jupiter, and Venus too appears to have had a share in it.
-
-
-VINDĒMĬĀLIS FĒRĬA. [FERIAE.]
-
-
-VINDEX. [ACTIO.]
-
-
-VINDICTA. [MANUMISSIO.]
-
-
-VĪNĔA, in its literal signification, is a bower formed of the
-branches of vines; and, from the protection which such a leafy roof
-affords, the name was applied by the Romans to a roof under which the
-besiegers of a town protected themselves against darts, stones, fire,
-and the like, which were thrown by the besieged upon the assailants.
-The whole machine formed a roof, resting upon posts eight feet in
-height. The roof itself was generally sixteen feet long and seven
-broad. The wooden frame was in most cases light, so that it could be
-carried by the soldiers; sometimes, however, when the purpose which
-it was to serve required great strength, it was heavy, and then the
-whole fabric probably was moved by wheels attached to the posts.
-The roof was formed of planks and wicker-work, and the uppermost
-layer or layers consisted of raw hides or wet cloth, as a protection
-against fire, by which the besieged frequently destroyed the vineae.
-The sides of a vinea were likewise protected by wicker-work. Such
-machines were constructed in a safe place at some distance from
-the besieged town, and then carried or wheeled (_agere_) close to
-its walls. Here several of them were frequently joined together, so
-that a great number of soldiers might be employed under them. When
-vineae had taken their place close to the walls, the soldiers began
-their operations, either by undermining the walls, and thus opening a
-breach, or by employing the battering-ram (_aries_).
-
-
-VĪNUM (οἴνος). The general term for the fermented juice of the grape.
-In the Homeric poems the cultivation of the grape is represented as
-familiar to the Greeks. It is worth remarking that the only wine upon
-whose excellence Homer dilates in a tone approaching to hyperbole
-is represented as having been produced on the coast of Thrace, the
-region from which poetry and civilisation spread into Hellas, and the
-scene of several of the more remarkable exploits of Bacchus. Hence we
-might infer that the Pelasgians introduced the culture of the vine
-when they wandered westward across the Hellespont, and that in like
-manner it was conveyed to the valley of the Po, when at a subsequent
-period they made their way round the head of the Adriatic. It seems
-certain that wine was both rare and costly in the earlier ages of
-Roman history. As late as the time of the Samnite wars, Papirius
-the dictator, when about to join in battle with the Samnites, vowed
-to Jupiter only a small cupful (_vini pocillum_) if he should gain
-the victory. In the times of Marius and Sulla foreign wines were
-considered far superior to native growths; but the rapidity with
-which luxury spread in this matter is well illustrated by the saying
-of M. Varro, that Lucullus when a boy never saw an entertainment
-in his father’s house, however splendid, at which Greek wine was
-handed round more than once, but when in manhood he returned from his
-Asiatic conquests he bestowed on the people a largess of more than
-a hundred thousand cadi. Four different kinds of wine are said to
-have been presented for the first time at the feast given by Julius
-Caesar in his third consulship (B.C. 46.), these being Falernian,
-Chian, Lesbian, and Mamertine, and not until after this date were the
-merits of the numerous varieties, foreign and domestic, accurately
-known and fully appreciated. But during the reign of Augustus and
-his immediate successors the study of wines became a passion, and
-the most scrupulous care was bestowed upon every process connected
-with their production and preservation. Pliny calculates that the
-number of wines in the whole world deserving to be accounted of high
-quality (_nobilia_) amounted to eighty, of which his own country
-could claim two-thirds; and that 195 distinct kinds might be reckoned
-up, and that if all the varieties of these were to be included in the
-computation, the sum would be almost doubled.--The process followed
-in wine-making was essentially the same among both the Greeks and the
-Romans. After the grapes had been gathered they were first trodden
-with the feet in a vat (ληνός, _torcular_); but as this process did
-not press out all the juice of the grapes, they were subjected to
-the more powerful pressure of a thick and heavy beam (_prelum_) for
-the purpose of obtaining all the juice yet remaining in them. From
-the press the sweet unfermented juice flowed into another large vat,
-which was sunk below the level of the press, and therefore called the
-_under wine-vat_, in Greek ὑπολήνιον, in Latin _lacus_. A portion
-of the must was used at once, being drunk fresh after it had been
-clarified with vinegar. When it was desired to preserve a quantity in
-the sweet state, an amphora was taken and coated with pitch within
-and without, and corked so as to be perfectly air-tight. It was then
-immersed in a tank of cold fresh water or buried in wet sand, and
-allowed to remain for six weeks or two months. The contents after
-this process were found to remain unchanged for a year, and hence the
-name ἀεὶ γλεῦκος, _i.e._ _semper mustum_. A considerable quantity of
-must from the best and oldest vines was inspissated by boiling, being
-then distinguished by the Greeks under the general names of ἕψημα or
-γλύξις, while the Latin writers have various terms according to the
-extent to which the evaporation was carried. Thus, when the must was
-reduced to two-thirds of its original volume it became _carenum_,
-when one-half had evaporated _defrutum_, when two-thirds _sapa_
-(known also by the Greek names _siraeum_ and _hepsema_), but these
-words are frequently interchanged. Similar preparations are at the
-present time called in Italy _musto cotto_ and _sapa_, and in France
-_sabe_. The process was carried on in large caldrons of lead (_vasa
-defrutaria_), over a slow fire of chips, on a night when there was no
-moon, the scum being carefully removed with leaves, and the liquid
-constantly stirred to prevent it from burning. These grape-jellies,
-for they were nothing else, were used extensively for giving body to
-poor wines and making them keep, and entered as ingredients into many
-drinks, such as the _burranica potio_, so called from its red colour,
-which was formed by mixing _sapa_ with milk. The whole of the mustum
-not employed for some of the above purposes was conveyed from the
-_lacus_ to the _cella vinaria_, an apartment on the ground-floor or
-a little below the surface. Here were the _dolia_ (πίθοι), otherwise
-called _seriae_ or _cupae_, long bell-mouthed vessels of earthenware,
-very carefully formed of the best clay, and lined with a coating of
-pitch. They were usually sunk (_depressa_, _defossa_, _demersa_)
-one-half or two-thirds in the ground; to the former depth, if the
-wine to be contained was likely to prove strong, to the latter if
-weak. In these _dolia_ the process of fermentation took place, which
-usually lasted for about nine days, and as soon as it had subsided,
-and the _mustum_ had become _vinum_, the dolia were closely covered.
-The lids (_opercula doliorum_), were taken off about once every
-thirty-six days, and oftener in hot weather, in order to cool and
-give air to the contents, to add any preparation required to preserve
-them sound, and to remove any impurities that might be thrown up.
-The commoner sorts of wine were drunk direct from the dolium, and
-hence draught wine was called _vinum doliare_ or _vinum de cupa_,
-but the finer kinds were drawn off (_diffundere_, μεταγγίζειν), into
-_amphorae_. On the outside the title of the wine was painted, the
-date of the vintage being marked by the names of the consuls then in
-office. [AMPHORA.] The amphorae were then stored up in repositories
-(_apothecae_, _horrea_, _tabulata_), completely distinct from the
-_cella vinaria_, and usually placed in the upper story of the house
-(whence _descende_, _testa_, and _deripere horreo_ in Horace), for a
-reason explained afterwards. It is manifest that wine prepared and
-bottled in the manner described above must have contained a great
-quantity of dregs and sediment, and it became absolutely necessary
-to separate these before it was drunk. This was sometimes effected
-by fining with yolks of eggs, those of pigeons being considered most
-appropriate by the fastidious, but more commonly by simply straining
-through small cup-like utensils of silver or bronze perforated with
-numerous small holes. Occasionally a piece of linen cloth (σάκκος,
-_saccus_) was placed over the _colum_, and the wine filtered through.
-[COLUM.] In all the best wines hitherto described the grapes are
-supposed to have been gathered as soon as they were fully ripe, and
-fermentation to have run its full course. But a great variety of
-sweet wines were manufactured by checking the fermentation, or by
-partially drying the grapes, or by converting them completely into
-raisins. _Passum_ or _raisin-wine_ was made from grapes dried in
-the sun until they had lost half their weight, or they were plunged
-into boiling oil, which produced a similar effect, or the bunches
-after they were ripe were allowed to hang for some weeks upon the
-vine, the stalks being twisted or an incision made into the pith
-of the bearing shoot so as to put a stop to vegetation. The stalks
-and stones were removed, the raisins were steeped in must or good
-wine, and then trodden or subjected to the gentle action of the
-press. The quantity of juice which flowed forth was measured, and an
-equal quantity of water added to the pulpy residuum, which was again
-pressed, and the product employed for an inferior _passum_ called
-_secundarium_. The passum of Crete was most prized, and next in rank
-were those of Cilicia, Africa, Italy, and the neighbouring provinces.
-The kinds known as _Psythium_ and _Melampsythium_ possessed the
-peculiar flavour of the grape and not that of wine. The grapes most
-suitable for passum were those which ripened early, especially
-the varieties _Apiana_, _Scirpula_, and _Psithia_. The Greeks
-recognised three colours in wines: _red_ (μέλας), _white_, i.e. pale
-straw-colour (λευκός), and brown or amber-coloured (κιῤῥός). The
-Romans distinguish four: _albus_, answering to λευκός, _fulvus_ to
-κιῤῥός, while μέλας is subdivided into _sanguineus_ and _niger_, the
-former being doubtless applied to bright glowing wines like Tent
-and Burgundy, while the _niger_ or _ater_ would resemble Port. We
-have seen that wine intended for keeping was racked off from the
-dolia into amphorae. When it was necessary in the first instance to
-transport it from one place to another, or when carried by travellers
-on a journey, it was contained in bags made of goat-skin (ἀσκοί,
-_utres_) well pitched over so as to make the seams perfectly tight.
-
-[Illustration: Silenus astride upon a Wine-skin. (Museo Borbonico.
-vol. iii. tav. 28.)]
-
-As the process of wine-making among the ancients was for the most
-part conducted in an unscientific manner, it was found necessary,
-except in the case of the finest varieties, to have recourse to
-various devices for preventing or correcting acidity, heightening the
-flavour, and increasing the durability of the second growths. The
-object in view was accomplished sometimes by merely mixing different
-kinds of wine together, but more frequently by throwing into the
-dolia or amphorae various condiments or seasonings (ἀρτύσεις,
-_medicamina_, _conditurae_). The principal substances employed as
-_conditurae_ were, 1. sea-water; 2. turpentine, either pure, or in
-the form of pitch (_pix_), tar (_pix liquida_), or resin (_resina_).
-3. Lime, in the form of gypsum, burnt marble, or calcined shells.
-4. Inspissated must. 5. Aromatic herbs, spices, and gums; and these
-were used either singly, or cooked up into a great variety of
-complicated confections. But not only were spices and gums steeped
-in wine or incorporated during fermentation, but even the precious
-perfumed essential oils (_unguenta_) were mixed with it before it was
-drunk (μυῤῥίνη, _murrhina_.) Of these compound beverages the most
-popular was the _oenomeli_ (οἰνόμελι) of the Greeks, the _mulsum_
-of the Romans. This was of two kinds; in the one honey was mixed
-with wine, in the other with must. The former was said to have been
-invented by the legendary hero Aristaeus, the first cultivator
-of bees, and was considered most perfect and palatable when made
-of some old rough (_austerum_) wine, such as Massic or Falernian
-(although Horace objects to the latter for this purpose), and new
-Attic honey. The proportions were four, by measure, of wine to one
-of honey, and various spices and perfumes, such as myrrh, cassia,
-costum, malobathrum, nard, and pepper, might be added. The second
-kind was made of must evaporated to one half of its original bulk,
-Attic honey being added in the proportion of one to ten. This,
-therefore, was merely a very rich fruit syrup, in no way allied to
-wine. _Mulsum_ was considered the most appropriate draught upon an
-empty stomach, and was therefore swallowed immediately before the
-regular business of a repast began and hence the whet (_gustatio_)
-coming before the cup of mulsum was called the _promulsis_. _Mulsum_
-was given at a triumph by the imperator to his soldiers. _Mulsum_
-(sc. _vinum_) or _oenomeli_ (οἰνόμελι) is perfectly distinct from
-_mulsa_ (sc. _aqua_). The latter, or _mead_, being made of honey
-and water mixed and fermented, is the _melicraton_ (μελίκρατον) or
-_hydromeli_ (ὑδρόμελι) of the Greeks. The ancients considered old
-wine not only more grateful to the palate, but also more wholesome
-and invigorating. Generally speaking the Greek wines do not seem to
-have required a long time to ripen. Nestor in the Odyssey, indeed,
-drinks wine ten years old; but the connoisseurs under the empire
-pronounced that all transmarine wines arrived at a moderate degree
-of maturity in six or seven. Many of the Italian varieties, however,
-required to be kept for twenty or twenty-five years before they were
-drinkable (which is now considered ample for our strongest ports),
-and even the humble growths of Sabinum were stored up for from four
-to fifteen. Hence it became a matter of importance to hasten, if
-possible, the natural process. This was attempted in various ways,
-sometimes by elaborate condiments, sometimes by sinking vessels
-containing the must in the sea, by which an artificial mellowness
-was induced (_praecox vetustas_) and the wine in consequence termed
-_thalassites_; but more usually by the application of heat. Thus
-it was customary to expose the amphorae for some years to the
-full fervour of the sun’s rays, or to construct the _apothecae_
-in such a manner as to be exposed to the hot air and smoke of
-the bath-furnaces, and hence the name _fumaria_ applied to such
-apartments, and the phrases _fumosos_, _fumum bibere_, _fuligine
-testae_, in reference to the wines. If the operation was not
-conducted with care, and the amphorae not stoppered down perfectly
-tight, a disagreeable effect would be produced on the contents. In
-Italy, in the first century of the Christian aera, the lowest market
-price of the most ordinary quality of wine was 300 sesterces for
-40 urnae, that is, 15 sesterces for the amphora, or 6_d._ a gallon
-nearly. At a much earlier date, the triumph of L. Metellus during
-the first Punic war (B.C. 250), wine was sold at the rate of 8 asses
-the amphora. The price of native wine at Athens was four drachmas
-for the metretes, that is, about 4½_d._ the gallon, when necessaries
-were dear, and we may perhaps assume one half of this sum as the
-average of cheaper times. On the other hand, high prices were given
-freely for the varieties held in esteem, since as early as the time
-of Socrates a metretes of Chian sold for a mina.--With respect to
-the way in which wine was drunk, and the customs observed by the
-Greeks and Romans at their drinking entertainments, the reader is
-referred to the article SYMPOSIUM.--The wine of most early celebrity
-was that which the minister of Apollo, Maron, who dwelt upon the
-skirts of Thracian Ismarus, gave to Ulysses. It was red (ἐρυθρόν),
-and honey-sweet (μελιηδέα), so precious, that it was unknown to
-all in the mansion save the wife of the priest and one trusty
-house-keeper; so strong, that a single cup was mingled with twenty
-of water; so fragrant, that even when thus diluted it diffused a
-divine and most tempting perfume. Homer mentions also more than once
-_Pramnian wine_ (οἴνος Πραμνεῖος), an epithet which is variously
-interpreted by different writers. In after times a wine bearing the
-same name was produced in the island of Icaria, around the hill
-village of Latorea in the vicinity of Ephesus, in the neighbourhood
-of Smyrna, near the shrine of Cybele, and in Lesbos. But the wines
-of greatest renown at a later period were grown in the islands of
-Thasos, Lesbos, Chios, and Cos, and in a few favoured spots on the
-opposite coast of Asia, such as the slopes of Mount Tmolus, the ridge
-which separates the valley of the Hermus from that of the Caÿster,
-Mount Messogis, which divides the tributaries of the Caÿster from
-those of the Meander, the volcanic region of the Catacecaumene,
-which still retains its fame, the environs of Ephesus, of Cnidus,
-of Miletus, and of Clazomenae. Among these the first place seems to
-have been by general consent conceded to the _Chian_, of which the
-most delicious varieties were brought from the heights of Ariusium in
-the central parts, and from the promontory of Phanae at the southern
-extremity of the island. The _Thasian_ and _Lesbian_ occupied the
-second place, and the _Coan_ disputed the palm with them. In Lesbos
-the most highly prized vineyards were around Mytilene and Methymna.
-There is no foundation whatever for the remark that the finest
-Greek wines, especially the products of the islands in the Aegean
-and Ionian seas, belonged for the most part to the luscious sweet
-class. The very reverse is proved by the epithets αὐστηρός, σκληρός,
-λεπτός, and the like, applied to a great number, while γλυκύς and
-γλυκάζων are designations comparatively rare, except in the vague
-language of poetry.--The most noble Italian wines, with a very few
-exceptions, were derived from Latium and Campania, and for the most
-part grew within a short distance of the sea. In the first rank
-we must place the _Setinum_, which fairly deserves the title of
-_Imperial_, since it was the chosen beverage of Augustus and most of
-his courtiers. It grew upon the hills of Setia, above Forum Appii,
-looking down upon the Pomptine marshes. Before the age of Augustus
-the _Caecubum_ was the most prized of all. It grew in the poplar
-swamps bordering on the gulf of Amyclae, close to Fundi. In the time
-of Pliny its reputation was entirely gone, partly in consequence
-of the carelessness of the cultivators, and partly from its proper
-soil, originally a very limited space, having been cut up by the
-canal of Nero extending from Baiae to Ostia. It was full-bodied and
-heady, not arriving at maturity until it had been kept for many
-years. The second rank was occupied by the _Falernum_, of which the
-_Faustianum_ was the most choice variety, having gained its character
-from the care and skill exercised in the cultivation of the vines.
-The _Falernus ager_ commenced at the Pons Campanus, on the left
-hand of those journeying towards the Urbana Colonia of Sulla, the
-_Faustianus ager_ at a village about six miles from Sinuessa, so that
-the whole district in question may be regarded as stretching from
-the Massic hills to the river Vulturnus. Falernian became fit for
-drinking in ten years, and might be used until twenty years old, but
-when kept longer gave headaches, and proved injurious to the nervous
-system. Pliny distinguishes three kinds, the rough (_austerum_),
-the sweet (_dulce_), and the thin (_tenue_). Others arranged the
-varieties differently; that which grew upon the hill tops they called
-_Caucinum_, that on the middle slopes _Faustianum_, and that on the
-plain _Falernum_. In the third rank was the _Albanum_, from the
-Mons Albanus, of various kinds, very sweet (_praedulce_), sweetish,
-rough, and sharp; it was invigorating (_nervis utile_), and in
-perfection after being kept for fifteen years. Here too we place the
-_Surrentinum_, from the promontory forming the southern horn of the
-bay of Naples, which was not drinkable until it had been kept for
-five-and-twenty years, for, being destitute of richness, and very
-dry, it required a long time to ripen, but was strongly recommended
-to convalescents, on account of its thinness and wholesomeness. Of
-equal reputation were the _Massicum_, from the hills which formed
-the boundary between Latium and Campania, although somewhat harsh,
-and the _Gauranum_, from the ridge above Baiae and Puteoli, produced
-in small quantity, but of very high quality, full-bodied, and thick.
-In the same class are to be included the _Calenum_ from Cales, and
-the _Fundanum_ from Fundi. The _Calenum_ was light and better for
-the stomach than Falernian; the _Fundanum_ was full-bodied and
-nourishing, but apt to attack both stomach and head; therefore
-little sought after at banquets. This list is closed by the
-_Veliturninum_, _Privernatinum_, and _Signinum_, from Velitrae,
-Privernum, and Signia, towns on the Volscian hills; the first was a
-sound wine, but had this peculiarity, that it always tasted as if
-mixed with some foreign substance; the second was thin and pleasant;
-the last was looked upon only in the light of a medicine valuable
-for its astringent qualities. We may safely bring in one more, the
-_Formianum_, from the Gulf of Caieta, associated by Horace with the
-Caecuban, Falernian, and Calenian. The fourth rank contained the
-_Mamertinum_, from the neighbourhood of Messana, first brought into
-fashion by Julius Caesar. The finest was sound, light, and at the
-same time not without body.
-
-
-VIRGĬNES VESTĀLES. [VESTALES VIRGINES.]
-
-
-VIS. Leges were passed at Rome for the purpose of preventing acts of
-violence. The Lex Plotia or Plautia was enacted against those who
-occupied public places and carried arms. The lex proposed by the
-consul Q. Catulus on the subject, with the assistance of Plautius
-the tribunus, appears to be the Lex Plotia. There was a Lex Julia of
-the dictator Caesar on this subject, which imposed the penalty of
-exile. Two Juliae Leges were passed as to this matter in the time of
-Augustus, which were respectively entitled De Vi Publica and De Vi
-Privata.
-
-
-VISCĔRĀTĬO. [FUNUS, p. 190, _b_.]
-
-
-VĪTIS. [CENTURIO.]
-
-
-VITRUM (ὕαλος), glass. A story has been preserved by Pliny, that
-glass was first discovered accidentally by some merchants who, having
-landed on the Syrian coast at the mouth of the river Belus, and
-being unable to find stones to support their cooking-pots, fetched
-for this purpose from their ships some of the lumps of nitre which
-composed the cargo. This being fused by the heat of the fire, united
-with the sand upon which it rested, and formed a stream of vitrified
-matter. No conclusion can be drawn from this tale, even if true, in
-consequence of its vagueness; but it probably originated in the fact,
-that the sand of the district in question was esteemed peculiarly
-suitable for glass-making, and exported in great quantities to
-the workshops of Sidon and Alexandria, long the most famous in
-the ancient world. Alexandria sustained its reputation for many
-centuries: Rome derived a great portion of its supplies from this
-source, and as late as the reign of Aurelian we find the manufacture
-still flourishing. There is some difficulty in deciding by what
-Greek author glass is first mentioned, because the term ὕαλος
-unquestionably denotes not only artificial glass but rock-crystal, or
-indeed any transparent stone or stone-like substance. Thus the ὕελος
-of Herodotus, in which the Ethiopians encased the bodies of their
-dead, cannot be glass, for we are expressly told that it was dug in
-abundance out of the earth; and hence commentators have conjectured
-that rock-crystal or rock-salt, or amber, or oriental alabaster, or
-some bituminous or gummy product, might be indicated. But when the
-same historian, in his account of sacred crocodiles, states that they
-were decorated with ear-rings made of melted stone, we may safely
-conclude that he intends to describe some vitreous ornament for which
-he knew no appropriate name. Glass is, however, first mentioned with
-certainty by Theophrastus, who notices the circumstance alluded to
-above, of the fitness of the sand at the mouth of the river Belus for
-the fabrication of glass. Among the Latin writers Lucretius appears
-to be the first in which the word _vitrum_ occurs; but it must have
-been well known to his countrymen long before, for Cicero names
-it along with paper and linen, as a common article of merchandise
-brought from Egypt. Scaurus, in his aedileship (B.C. 58), made a
-display of it such as was never witnessed even in after-times; for
-the _scena_ of his gorgeous theatre was divided into three tiers, of
-which the under portion was of marble, the upper of gilded wood, and
-the middle compartment of glass. In the poets of the Augustan age it
-is constantly introduced, both directly and in similes, and in such
-terms as to prove that it was an object with which every one must be
-familiar. Strabo declares that in his day a small drinking-cup of
-glass might be purchased at Rome for half an as, and so common was
-it in the time of Juvenal and Martial, that old men and women made
-a livelihood by trucking sulphur matches for broken fragments. When
-Pliny wrote, manufactories had been established not only in Italy,
-but in Spain and Gaul also, and glass drinking-cups had entirely
-superseded those of gold and silver; and in the reign of Alexander
-Severus we find _vitrearii_ ranked along with curriers, coachmakers,
-goldsmiths, silversmiths, and other ordinary artificers whom the
-emperor taxed to raise money for his thermae. The numerous specimens
-transmitted to us prove that the ancients were well acquainted with
-the art of imparting a great variety of colours to their glass;
-they were probably less successful in their attempts to render it
-perfectly pure and free from all colour, since we are told that it
-was considered most valuable in this state. It was wrought according
-to the different methods now practised, being fashioned into the
-required shape by the blowpipe, _cut_, as we term it, although
-_ground_ (_teritur_) is a more accurate phrase, upon a wheel, and
-engraved with a sharp tool like silver. The art of etching upon
-glass, now so common, was entirely unknown, since it depends upon the
-properties of fluoric acid, a chemical discovery of the last century.
-The following were the chief uses to which glass was applied:--1.
-Bottles, vases, cups, and cinerary urns. 2. Glass pastes, presenting
-fac-similes either in relief or intaglio of engraved precious stones.
-3. Imitations of coloured precious stones, such as the carbuncle,
-the sapphire, the amethyst, and, above all, the emerald. 4. Thick
-sheets of glass of various colours appear to have been laid down for
-paving floors, and to have been attached as a lining to the walls
-and ceilings of apartments in dwelling houses, just as scagliuola is
-frequently employed in Italy, and occasionally in our own country
-also. Rooms fitted up in this way were called _vitreae camerae_, and
-the panels _vitreae quadraturae_. Such was the kind of decoration
-introduced by Scaurus for the scene of his theatre, not columns nor
-pillars of glass as some, nor bas-reliefs as others have imagined. 5.
-Glass was also used for windows. [DOMUS, p. 144.]
-
-
-VITTA, or plural VITTAE, a ribbon or fillet, is to be considered,
-1. As an ordinary portion of female dress. 2. As a decoration of
-sacred persons and sacred things. 1. When considered as an ordinary
-portion of female dress, it was simply a band encircling the head,
-and serving to confine the tresses (_crinales vittae_), the ends when
-long (_longae taenia vittae_) hanging down behind. It was worn by
-maidens, and by married women also, the vitta assumed on the nuptial
-day being of a different form from that used by virgins. The Vitta
-was _not_ worn by libertinae even of fair character, much less by
-meretrices; hence it was looked upon as an _insigne pudoris_, and,
-together with the _stola_ and _instita_, served to point out at first
-sight the freeborn matron. The colour was probably a matter of
-choice: white and purple are both mentioned. When employed for sacred
-purposes, it was usually twisted round the infula [INFULA], and held
-together the loose flocks of wool. Under this form it was employed
-as an ornament for 1. Priests, and those who offered sacrifice. 2.
-Priestesses, especially those of Vesta, and hence _vittata sacerdos_
-for a vestal, κατ’ ἐξόχην. 3. Prophets and poets, who may be regarded
-as priests, and in this case the vittae were frequently intertwined
-with chaplets of olive or laurel. 4. Statues of deities. 5. Victims
-decked for sacrifice. 6. Altars. 7. Temples. 8. The ἱκετήρια of
-suppliants. The sacred vittae, as well as the infulae, were made of
-wool, and hence the epithets _lanea_ and _mollis_. They were white
-(_niveae_), or purple (_puniceae_), or azure (_caeruleae_), when
-wreathed round an altar to the manes.
-
-[Illustration: Vittae. (Statues from Herculaneum.)]
-
-
-VŎLŌNES is synonymous with _Voluntarii_ (from _volo_), and might
-hence be applied to all those who volunteered to serve in the Roman
-armies without there being any obligation to do so. But it was
-applied more especially to slaves, when in times of need they offered
-or were allowed to fight in the Roman armies. Thus when during
-the second Punic war, after the battle of Cannae, there was not a
-sufficient number of freemen to complete the army, about 8000 young
-and able-bodied slaves offered to serve. Their proposal was accepted;
-they received armour at the public expense, and as they distinguished
-themselves they were honoured with the franchise. In after times the
-name volones was retained whenever slaves chose or were allowed to
-take up arms in defence of their masters, which they were the more
-willing to do, as they were generally rewarded with the franchise.
-
-
-VŎLŪMEN. [LIBER.]
-
-
-VŎLUNTĀRĬI. [VOLONES.]
-
-
-VŎMĬTŌRĬA. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]
-
-
-VULCĀNĀLĬA, a festival celebrated at Rome in honour of Vulcan, on the
-23rd of August, with games in the circus Flaminius, where the god had
-a temple. The sacrifice on this occasion consisted of fishes, which
-the people threw into the fire. It was also customary on this day to
-commence working by candle-light, which was probably considered as an
-auspicious beginning of the use of fire, as the day was sacred to the
-god of this element.
-
-
-VULGĀRES. [SERVUS.]
-
-
-
-
-XĔNĀGI (ξεναγοί). The Spartans, as being the head of that
-Peloponnesian and Dorian league, which was formed to secure the
-independence of the Greek states, had the sole command of the
-confederate troops in time of war, ordered the quotas which each
-state was to furnish, and appointed officers of their own to command
-them. Such officers were called _Xenagi_. The generals whom the
-allies sent with their troops were subordinate to these Spartan
-_xenagi_, though they attended the council of war, as representatives
-of their respective countries. After the peace of Antalcidas, the
-league was still more firmly established, though Argos refused to
-join it; and the Spartans were rigorous in exacting the required
-military service, demanding levies by the _scytale_, and sending out
-_xenagi_ to collect them. The word _Xenagus_ may be applied to any
-leader of a hand of foreigners or mercenaries.
-
-
-XĔNĒLĂSĬA (ξενηλασία). The Lacedaemonians appear in very early
-times, before the legislation of Lycurgus, to have been averse to
-intercourse with foreigners. This disposition was encouraged by the
-lawgiver, who made an ordinance forbidding strangers to reside at
-Sparta without special permission, and empowering the magistrate to
-expel from the city any stranger who misconducted himself, or set an
-example injurious to public morals.
-
-
-XĔNĬAS GRĂPHĒ (ξενίας γραφή). As no man could be an Athenian citizen
-except by birth or creation (γένει or ποιήσει), if one, having
-neither of those titles, assumed to act as a citizen, either by
-taking part in the popular assembly, or by serving any office,
-judicial or magisterial, or by attending certain festivals, or doing
-any other act which none but a citizen was privileged to do, he was
-liable to a γραφὴ ξενίας, which any citizen might institute against
-him; or he might be proceeded against by εἰσαγγελία.
-
-
-XĔNUS (ξένος). [HOSPITIUM.]
-
-
-XESTES (ξέστης), a Greek measure of capacity, both fluid and solid,
-which contained 12 cyathi or 2 cotylae, and was equal to ⅙ of the
-chous, 1/48 of the Roman amphora or quadrantal, and 1/72 of the
-Greek amphora or metretes; or, viewing it as a dry measure, it was
-half the choenix and 1/96 of the medimnus. It contained ·9911 of a
-pint English. At this point the Roman and Attic systems of measures
-coincide; for there is no doubt that the Attic xestes was identical
-with the Roman sextarius.
-
-
-
-
-ZĂCŎRI. [AEDITUI.]
-
-
-ZĒTĒTAE (ζητηταί), _Inquisitors_, were extraordinary officers,
-appointed by the Athenians to discover the authors of some crime
-against the state, and bring them to justice. They were more
-frequently appointed to search for confiscated property, the
-goods of condemned criminals and state debtors; to receive and
-give information against any persons who concealed, or assisted
-in concealing them, and to deliver an inventory of all such goods
-(ἀπογράφειν) to the proper authorities.
-
-
-ZŌNA, also called CINGŬLUM (ζώνη, ζῶμα, ζωστῆρ, μίτρα), a girdle
-or zone, worn about the loins by both sexes. The chief use of this
-article of dress was to hold up the tunic (ζώννυσθαι), which was
-more especially requisite to be done when persons were at work, on
-a journey, or engaged in hunting. The zona is also represented in
-many statues and pictures of men in armour as worn round the cuirass.
-The girdle, mentioned by Homer, seems to have been a constituent
-part of the cuirass, serving to fasten it by means of a buckle, and
-also affording an additional protection to the body, and having a
-short kind of petticoat attached to it, as is shown in the figure of
-the Greek warrior in p. 240. The cut at p. 4 shows that the ancient
-cuirass did not descend low enough to secure that part of the body
-which was covered by the ornamental kilt or petticoat. To supply this
-defect was the design of the _mitra_ (μίτρα), a brazen belt lined
-probably on the inside with leather and stuffed with wool, which was
-worn next to the body. Men used their girdles to hold money instead
-of a purse. As the girdle was worn to hold up the garments for the
-sake of business or of work requiring despatch, so it was loosened
-and the tunic was allowed to fall down to the feet to indicate the
-opposite condition, and more especially in preparing to perform
-a sacrifice (_veste recincta_), or funeral rites (_discincti_,
-_incinctae_). A girdle was worn by young women, even when their tunic
-was not girt up, and removed on the day of marriage, and therefore
-called ζώνη παρθενική.
-
-
-ZŌPHŎRUS (ζωφόρος or διάζωμα), the frieze of an entablature.
-
-
-
-
-TABLES
-
-OF
-
-GREEK AND ROMAN MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY.
-
-
-  TABLE                                       Page
-
-     I. GREEK MEASURES OF LENGTH.
-          (1) Smaller Measures                 424
-
-    II. ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.
-          (1) Smaller Measures                 424
-
-   III. GREEK MEASURES OF LENGTH.
-          (2) Land and Itinerary               425
-
-    IV. ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.
-          (2) Land and Itinerary               426
-
-     V. GREEK MEASURES OF SURFACE              426
-
-    VI. ROMAN MEASURES OF SURFACE              427
-
-   VII. GREEK MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
-          (1) Liquid Measures                  428
-
-  VIII. ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
-          (1) Liquid Measures                  429
-
-    IX. GREEK MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
-          (2) Dry Measures                     430
-
-     X. ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
-          (2) Dry Measures                     430
-
-    XI. GREEK WEIGHTS                          431
-
-   XII. GREEK MONEY                            432
-
-  XIII. ROMAN WEIGHTS.
-          (1) The As and its Uncial Divisions  433
-
-   XIV. ROMAN WEIGHTS.
-          (2) Subdivisions of the Uncia        433
-
-    XV. ROMAN MONEY.
-          (1) Before Augustus                  434
-
-   XVI. ROMAN MONEY.
-          (2) After Augustus                   434
-
-
-
-
-TABLE I.
-
-  GRECIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.
-
-    Column headings:
-
-    F: Feet.
-
-    Row labels:
-
-    O: ὈΡΓΥΙΆ
-
-  +--------------------------------------------------------+-+---------+
-  |                   I. SMALLER MEASURES.                 |F| Inches. |
-  +--------------------------------------------------------+-+---------+
-  | Δάκτυλος                                               |”| ·7584375|
-  +--+                                                     | |         |
-  | 2| Κόνδυλος                                            |”| 1·516875|
-  +--+---+                                                 | |         |
-  | 4| 2 | Παλαιστή, Δῶρον, Δοχμή, or Δακτυλοδοχμή         |”| 3·03375 |
-  +--+---+---+                                             | |         |
-  | 8| 4 | 2 | Διχάς, or Ἡμιπόδιον                         |”| 6·0675  |
-  +--+---+---+---+                                         | |         |
-  |10| 5 | 2½| 1¼| Διχάς                                   |”| 7·584375|
-  +--+---+---+---+------+                                  | |         |
-  |11| 5½| 2¾| 1⅜|1-1/10| Ὀρθοδῶρον                        |”|8·3428125|
-  +--+---+---+---+------+------+                           | |         |
-  |12| 6 | 3 | 1½|   1⅕ |1-1/11| Σπιθαμή                   |”| 9·10125 |
-  +--+---+---+---+------+------+---+                       | |         |
-  |16| 8 | 4 | 2 |   1⅗ |1-5/11| 1⅓| ΠΟῩΣ                  |1| 0·135   |
-  +--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+                   | |         |
-  |18| 9 | 4½| 2¼|   1⅘ |1-7/11| 1½| 1⅛| Πυγμή             |1| 1·651875|
-  +--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+             | |         |
-  |20| 10| 5 | 2½|   2  |1-9/11| 1⅔| 1¼|1-1/9| Πυγών       |1| 3·16875 |
-  +--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+---+         | |         |
-  |24| 12| 6 | 3 |   2⅖ |2-2/11| 2 | 1½|  1⅓ | 1⅕| ΠΗΧΥΣ   |1| 6·2025  |
-  +--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+---+-+       | |         |
-  |72| 36| 18| 9 |   7⅕ |6-6/11| 6 | 4½|  4  | 3⅗|3| Ξύλον |4| 6·6075  |
-  +--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+---+-+---+   | |         |
-  |96| 48| 24| 12|   9⅗ |8-8/11| 8 | 6 |  5⅓ | 4⅘|4| 1⅓| O |6| 0·81    |
-  +--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+---+-+---+---+-+---------+
-
-N.B.--_Approximate Values._ From the above Table, it will be seen
-that the Greek _Foot_, _Cubit_, and _Orguia_, only exceed the English
-_Foot_, _Foot and a half_, and _Fathom_, by about 1-10th, 2-10ths,
-and 8-10ths of an inch respectively.
-
-
-
-
-TABLE II.
-
-  ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.
-
-  +----------------------------------------------+-------+---------+
-  |             I. SMALLER MEASURES.             | Feet. | Inches. |
-  +----------------------------------------------+-------+---------+
-  | Digitus                                      |   ”   |   ·7281 |
-  +----+                                         |       |         |
-  | 1⅓ | UNCIA or Pollex                         |   ”   |   ·9708 |
-  +----+----+                                    |       |         |
-  | 4  |  3 | Palmus                             |   ”   |  2·9124 |
-  +----+----+---+                                |       |         |
-  | 12 |  9 | 3 | Palmus Major (of late times)   |   ”   |  8·7372 |
-  +----+----+---+----+                           |       |         |
-  | 16 | 12 | 4 | 1⅓ | PES                       |   ”   | 11·6496 |
-  +----+----+---+----+----+                      |       |         |
-  | 20 | 15 | 5 | 1⅔ | 1¼ | Palmipes             |   1   |  2·562  |
-  +----+----+---+----+----+----+                 |       |         |
-  | 24 | 18 | 6 | 2  | 1½ | 1⅕ | CUBITUS         |   1   |  5·4744 |
-  +----+----+---+----+----+----+-----------------+-------+---------+
-
-N.B.--_Approximate Values._ The Roman _Uncia_, _Pes_, and _Cubitus_
-only fall short of our _Inch_, _Foot_, and _Foot and a half_, by less
-than 1-10th, 4-10ths, and 6-10ths of an inch respectively.
-
-
-
-
-TABLE III.
-
-  GRECIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.
-
-    Column headings:
-
-    M: Miles.
-    F: Feet.
-    I: Inches.
-
-    Row labels:
-
-    RM: ROMAN MILE (μίλιον)
-    P: ΠαρασάγγηςS: ΣχοῖνοςD: DEGREE
-
-  +--------------------------------------------------------------+-----+----+------+
-  |         II. LARGER MEASURES.--LAND AND ITINERARY.[4]         |  M  | F  |  I   |
-  +--------------------------------------------------------------+-----+----+------+
-  | ΠΟΥΣ                                                         |  ”  |  1 |0·135 |
-  +------+                                                       |     |    |      |
-  |  1½  | ΠΗΧΥΣ                                                 |  ”  |  1 |6·2025|
-  +------+-------+                                               |     |    |      |
-  |  2½  |   1⅔ | Βῦμα                                           |  ”  |  2 |6·3375|
-  +------+------+------+                                         |     |    |      |
-  |  6   |   4  |  2⅖  | ὈΡΓΥΙΆ                                  |  ”  |  6 | 0·81 |
-  +------+------+------+----+                                    |     |    |      |
-  |  10  |   6⅔ |  4   | 1⅔ | Κάλαμος, Ἄκαινα, or Δεκάπους       |  ”  | 10 | 1·35 |
-  +------+------+------+----+----+                               |     |    |      |
-  |  60  |  40  |  24  | 10 |  6 | Ἄμμα                          |  ”  | 60 | 8·1  |
-  +------+------+------+----+----+---+                           |     |    |      |
-  | 100  |  66⅔ |  40  | 16⅔| 10 | 1⅔| Πλέθρον                   |  ”  | 101| 1·5  |
-  +------+------+------+----+----+---+---+                       |     |    |      |
-  | 600  | 400  | 240  | 100| 60 | 10|  6| ΣΤΆΔΙΟΝ or ΣΤΆΔΙΟΣ    |  ”  | 606|  9   |
-  +------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+                   |     |    |      |
-  | 1200 | 800  | 480  | 200| 120| 20| 12| 2 | Δίαυλος           |  ”  |1213|  6   |
-  +------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+               |     |    |      |
-  | 2400 | 1600 | 960  | 40 | 240| 40| 24| 4 | 2 | Ἱππικόν       |  ”  |2427|   ”  |
-  +------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+           |     |    |      |
-  | 4800 | 3200 | 1920 | 800| 480| 80| 48| 8 | 4 | 2 | RM        |  ”  |4854|   ”  |
-  +------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+       |     |    |      |
-  |18,000|12,000| 7200 |3000|1800|300|180| 30| 15| 7½| 3¾| P     |  3  |2362|  6   |
-  +------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+    |     |    |      |
-  |36,000|24,000|14,400|6000|3600|600|360| 60| 30| 15| 7½| 2| S  |  6  |4735|   ”  |
-  +------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+--+ |     |    |      |
-  |360,000      |144,000    |36,000  |3600   |300    |75    |10|D|68[5]|5110|   ”  |
-  |      |240,000      |60,000   |6000   |600    |150    |20                       |
-  +------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+--+-+-----+----+------+
-
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[4] In order to show the relations more clearly, the foreign measures
-most familiar to the Greeks are included in this Table.
-
-[5] This is, of course, not the true number of English statute miles
-contained in a degree of a great circle of the earth, but the number
-_computed_ from the data exhibited in the Table, some of which are
-only approximate; namely, 1 Degree = 75 Roman miles = 600 Greek
-Stadia, and 1 Greek foot = 12·135 inches. The true value of a degree
-in English miles is 69-1/51 = 69·0196, and the difference is only about
-7-100ths of a mile.
-
-
-
-
-TABLE IV.
-
-  ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.
-
-    Column headings:
-
-    M: Miles
-    F: Feet.
-    I: Inches.
-
-    Row labels:
-
-    MP: MILLE PASSUUM
-    GL: Gallic Leuga
-    D: DEGREE[6]
-
-  +---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----+-------+
-  |         II. LARGER MEASURES.--LAND AND ITINERARY.       | M |  F  |   I   |
-  +---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----+-------+
-  | PES                                                     | ” |  ”  |11·6496|
-  +-------+                                                 |   |     |       |
-  |   1½  | Cubitus                                         | ” |  1  | 5·4744|
-  +-------+-------+                                         |   |     |       |
-  |   2½  |   1⅔  | Gradus, or Pes Sestertius               | ” |  2  | 5·124 |
-  +-------+-------+-------+                                 |   |     |       |
-  |   5   |   3⅓  |   2   | PASSUS                          | ” |  4  |10·248 |
-  +-------+-------+-------+------+                          |   |     |       |
-  |   10  |   6⅔  |   4   |   2  | Decempeda, or Pertica    | ” |  9  | 8·496 |
-  +-------+-------+-------+------+------+                   |   |     |       |
-  |  120  |   80  |   48  |  24  |  12  | Actus (in length) | ” | 116 | 5·952 |
-  +-------+-------+-------+------+------+----+              |   |     |       |
-  |  5000 |  3333⅓|  2000 | 1000 |  500 | 41⅔| MP           | ” | 4854|   ”   |
-  +-------+-------+-------+------+------+----+--+           |   |     |       |
-  |  7500 |  5000 |  3000 | 1500 |  750 | 62½|1½| GL        | 1 | 2003|   ”   |
-  +-------+-------+-------+------+------+----+--+--+        |   |     |       |
-  |375,000|250,000|150,000|75,000|37,500|3125|75|50| D      |68 | 5110|   ”   |
-  +-------+-------+-------+------+------+----+--+--+--------+---+-----+-------+
-
-N.B.--The Roman mile only differs from the English by less than
-1-10th.
-
-
-FOOTNOTE:
-
-[6] See Note to Table III.
-
-
-
-
-TABLE V.
-
-  GRECIAN MEASURES OF SURFACE.
-
-    Column headings:
-
-    P: Perches.
-    SF: Square Feet.
-
-  +---------------------------------------------------+----+-----------+
-  |                 ORDINARY LAND MEASURES.           | P  |    SF     |
-  +---------------------------------------------------+----+-----------+
-  | ΠΟΥΣ (Square Foot)                                |  ” |   1·0226  |
-  +------+                                            |    |           |
-  |  36  | Ἑξαπόδης                                   |  ” |  36·81456 |
-  +------+--------+                                   |    |           |
-  |  100 |  2-7/9 | Ἄκαινα (Square of the καλαμος)    |  ” | 102·26266 |
-  +------+--------+-----+                             |    |           |
-  |  833⅓| 23-4/27|   8⅓| Ἡμίεκτος                    |  3 |  35·439   |
-  +------+--------+-----+----+                        |    |           |
-  | 1666⅔| 46-8/27|  16⅔|  2 | Ἕκτος                  |  6 |  70·877   |
-  +------+--------+-----+----+----+                   |    |           |
-  | 2500 |  69-4/9|  25 |  3 | 1½ | Ἄρουρα            |  9 | 106·318   |
-  +------+--------+-----+----+----+---+               |    |           |
-  |10,000| 277-7/9| 100 | 12 | 6  | 4 | ΠΛΈΘΡΟΝ       | 37 | 153·02[7] |
-  +------+--------+-----+----+----+---+---------------+----+-----------+
-
-
-FOOTNOTE:
-
-[7] This differs from a rood, or a quarter of an acre, by little more
-than 2 perches; for the rood contains 40 perches.
-
-
-
-
-TABLE VI.
-
-  ROMAN MEASURES OF SURFACE.
-
-    Column headings:
-
-    A: Acres.
-    R: Roods.
-    P: Perches.
-    SF: Square Feet.
-
-    Row labels:
-
-    H: Heredium
-    C: Centuria
-    S: Saltus
-
-  +------------------------------------------------------+---+---+---+----------+
-  |                ORDINARY LAND MEASURES.               | A | R | P |   SF     |
-  +------------------------------------------------------+---+---+---+----------+
-  | PES QUADRATUS                                        | ” | ” | ” |  ·9445   |
-  +----------+                                           |   |   |   |          |
-  |    100   | Scrupulum, or Decempeda Quadrata          | ” | ” | ” |  94·245  |
-  +----------+-------+                                   |   |   |   |          |
-  |    480   | 4⅘ | ACTUS SIMPLEX                        | ” | ” | 1 | 180·127  |
-  +----------+-------+------+                            |   |   |   |          |
-  |   2400   |   24  |   5  | Uncia[8]                   | ” | ” | 8 |  83·885  |
-  +----------+-------+------+----+                       |   |   |   |          |
-  |   3600   |   36  |   7½ | 1½ | Clima                 | ” | ” |12 |  125·83  |
-  +----------+-------+------+----+----+                  |   |   |   |          |
-  |  14,400  |  144  |  30  | 6  |  4 | ACTUS QUADRATUS  | ” | 1 | 9 |  231·07  |
-  +----------+-------+------+----+----+----+             |   |   |   |          |
-  |  28,800  |  288  |  60  | 12 |  8 |  2 | JUGERUM     | ” | 2 |19 |189·89[9] |
-  +----------+-------+------+----+----+----+---+         |   |   |   |          |
-  |  57,600  |  576  |  120 | 24 | 16 |  4 | 2 | H       | 1 | 0 |39 |107·53[10]|
-  +----------+-------+------+----+----+----+---+---+     |   |   |   |          |
-  | 5,760,000| 57,600|12,000|2400|1600| 400|200|100| C   |124| 2 |19 |  135·25  |
-  +----------+-------+------+----+----+----+---+---+-+   |   |   |   |          |
-  |23,040,000|230,400|48,000|9600|6400|1600|800|400|4| S |498| 1 |37 |268·75[11]|
-  +----------+-------+------+----+----+----+---+---+-+---+---+---+---+----------+
-
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[8] The _As_ to which this _Uncia_ and the above _Scrupulum_ belong
-is the _Jugerum_. The other uncial divisions of the _Jugerum_ may
-easily be calculated from the _Uncia_. The _Semissis_ is, of course,
-the _Actus Quadratus_.
-
-[9] _i.e._ almost 5-8ths of an acre.
-
-[10] _i.e._ almost an acre and a quarter.
-
-[11] _i.e._ almost 500 acres.
-
-
-
-
-TABLE VII.
-
-  GRECIAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
-
-    Column headings: G=Gallons. P=Pints.
-
-    Row labels:
-
-    RA: ROMAN AMPHORA (κεράμιον)
-    AM: ΑΜΦΟΡΕΥΣ ΜΕΤΡΗΤΗΣ
-
-  +----------------------------------------------------------+-+-----+-------+
-  |                                                          | |     |Approx-|
-  |                                                          | |     |imate. |
-  |                    I. ATTIC LIQUID MEASURES.             | |     | [12]  |
-  |                                                          | |     +-+-----+
-  |                                                          |G|  P  |G|  P  |
-  +----------------------------------------------------------+-+-----+-+-----+
-  |Κοχλιάριον                                                |“| ·008|”|1/120|
-  +----+                                                     | |     | |     |
-  |  2 |Χήμη                                                 |“| ·016|”|1/60 |
-  +----+----+                                                | |     | |     |
-  |  2½|  1¼|Μύστρον                                         |“| ·02 |”|1/48 |
-  +----+----+----+                                           | |     | |     |
-  |  5 |  2½|   2|Κόγχη                                      |“| ·04 |”|1/24 |
-  +----+----+----+----+                                      | |     | |     |
-  | 10 |  5 |   4|   2|ΚΎΑΘΟΣ                                |“| ·08 |”|1/12 |
-  +----+----+----+----+---+                                  | |     | |     |
-  | 15 |  1½|   6|   3| 1½|Ὀξύβαφον                          |“| ·12 |”|  ⅛  |
-  +----+----+----+----+---+---+                              | |     | |     |
-  | 30   15 |  12|   6|  3|  2|Τέταρτον                      |“| ·24 |”|  ¼  |
-  +----+----+----+----+---+---+---+                          | |     | |     |
-  | 60 | 30 |  24|  12|  6|  4|  2|Κοτύλη, Τρυβλίον or Ἡμίνα |“| ·48 |”|  ½  |
-  +----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+                      | |     | |     |
-  | 120| 60 |  48|  24| 12|  8|  4|  2| ΞΈΣΤΗΣ (Sextarius)   |“| ·96 |”|  1  |
-  +----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---                   | |     | |     |
-  | 720| 360| 288| 144| 72| 48| 24| 12| 6 ΧΟΥΣ               |“|5·76 |”|  6  |
-  +----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+--+--+                | |     | |     |
-  |5760|2880|2304|1152|576|384|192| 96|48| 8| RA             |5|6·08 |6|  ”  |
-  +----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+--+--+---+            | |     | |     |
-  |8640|4320|3456|1728|864|576|288|144|72|12| 1½| AM         |8|5·12 |9|  ”  |
-  +----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+--+--+---+------------+-+-----+-+-----+
-
-N.B.--The _Aeginetan_ measures of capacity may be easily calculated
-from these, according to the ratio given under QUADRANTAL.
-
-
-FOOTNOTE:
-
-[12] As the _Sextarius_ differs from the English pint by only 1-25th
-part of the latter, it will be found useful, in ordinary rough
-calculations, to take it at exactly a pint, and so with the other
-measures in this table. The results thus obtained may be corrected by
-subtracting from each of them its 1-25th part.
-
-
-
-
-TABLE VIII.
-
-  ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
-
-    Column headings:
-
-    A: Approximate.[13]
-    G: Gallons.
-    P: Pints.
-
-    Row labels:
-
-    Q: Quartarius, _i.e._ 1-4th of the _Sextarius_
-    S: SEXTARIUS, _i.e._ 1-6th of the _Congius_
-    AQ: AMPHORA QUADRANTAL
-    C: Culeus
-
-  +-----------------------------------------------+----+-----+-----------+
-  |                                               |    |     |     A     |
-  |              I. LIQUID MEASURES.              |  G |   P +-----+-----+
-  |                                               |    |     |  G  |   P |
-  +-----------------------------------------------+----+-----+-----+-----+
-  | Ligula                                        |  ” |  ·02|  ”  | 1/48|
-  +------+                                        |    |     |     |     |
-  |   4  | CYATHUS[14]                            |  ” |  ·08|  ”  | 1/12|
-  +------+------+                                 |    |     |     |     |
-  |   6  |   1½ | Acetabulum                      |  ” |  ·12|  ”  |  ⅛  |
-  +------+------+----+                            |    |     |     |     |
-  |  12  |   3  |  2 | Q                          |  ” |  ·24|  ”  |  ¼  |
-  +------+------+----+----+                       |    |     |     |     |
-  |  24  |   6  |  4 |  2 | Hemina or Cotyla      |  ” |  ·48|  ”  |  ½  |
-  +------+------+----+----+----+                  |    |     |     |     |
-  |  48  |  12  |  8 |  4 |  2 | S                |  ” |  ·96|  ”  |  1  |
-  +------+------+----+----+----+---+              |    |     |     |     |
-  |  288 |  72  | 48 | 24 | 12 | 6 | CONGIUS      |  ” | 5·76|  ”  |  6  |
-  +------+------+----+----+----+---+---+          |    |     |     |     |
-  | 1152 |  288 | 192| 96 | 48 | 24| 4 | Urna     |  2 | 7·04|  3  |  ”  |
-  +------+------+----+----+----+---+---+--+       |    |     |     |     |
-  | 2304 |  576 | 384| 192| 96 | 48| 8 | 2| AQ    |  5 | 6·08|  6  |  ”  |
-  +------+------+----+----+----+---+---+--+--+    |    |     |     |     |
-  |46,080|11,520|7680|3840|1920|960|160|40|20| C  | 115| 1·6 | 120 |  ”  |
-  +------+------+----+----+----+---+---+--+--+----+----+-----+-----+-----+
-
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[13] See the Note to Table VII
-
-[14] According to the uncial division, the _Sextarius_ was the _As_,
-and the _Cyathus_ the _Uncia_.
-
-
-
-
-TABLE IX.
-
-  GRECIAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
-
-    Column headings:
-
-    A: Approximate.[15]
-    G: Gallons
-    P: Pints.
-
-    Row labels:
-
-    H: Ἕκτος (equal to the Roman _Modius_.)
-    M: ΜΈΔΙΜΝΟΣ
-
-  +------------------------------------------+----+------+---------------+
-  |                                          |    |      |       A       |
-  |         II. ATTIC DRY MEASURES.          | G  |  P   +-------+-------+
-  |                                          |    |      |   G   |   P   |
-  +------------------------------------------+----+------+-------+-------+
-  | Κοχλιάριον                               |  ” | ·008 |   ”   | 1/120 |
-  +------+                                   |    |      |       |       |
-  |  10  | ΚΎΑΘΟΣ                            |  ” |  ·08 |   ”   |  1/12 |
-  +------+----+                              |    |      |       |       |
-  |  15  |  1½| Ὀξύβαφον                     |  ” |  ·12 |   ”   |   ⅛   |
-  +------+----+---+                          |    |      |       |       |
-  |  60  |  6 |  4| ΚΟΤΎΛΗ or Ἡμίνα          |  ” |  ·48 |   ”   |   ½   |
-  +------+----+---+---+                      |    |      |       |       |
-  |  120 |  12|  8|  2| ΞΈΣΤΗΣ (_Sextarius_) |  ” |  ·96 |   ”   |   1   |
-  +------+----+---+---+---+                  |    |      |       |       |
-  |  240 |  24| 16|  4| 2 | ΧΟΙΝΙΞ           |  ” | 1·92 |   ”   | 2[16] |
-  +------+----+---+---+---+---+              |    |      |       |       |
-  |  960 |  96| 64| 16| 8 | 4 | Ἡμίεκτον     |  ” | 7·68 |   1   |   ”   |
-  +------+----+---+---+---+---+---+          |    |      |       |       |
-  | 1920 | 192|128| 32| 16| 8 | 2 | H        |  1 | 7·36 |   2   |   ”   |
-  +------+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+      |    |      |       |       |
-  |11,520|1152|768|192| 96| 48| 12| 6 | M    | 11 | 4·16 | 12[17]|   ”   |
-  +------+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+------+----+------+-------+-------+
-
-N.B.--Respecting the _Aeginetan_ Measures, see the Note to Table VII.
-
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[15] See the Note to Table VII.
-
-[16] Or one quart.
-
-[17] Or one bushel and a half.
-
-
-
-
-TABLE X.
-
-  ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
-
-    Column headings:
-
-    A: Approximate.[18]
-    G: Gallons.
-    P: Pints.
-
-    Row labels:
-
-    Quart.: Quartarius, _i.e._ 1-4th of the _Sextarius_
-    Sext.: SEXTARIUS, _i.e._ 1-6th of the _Congius_
-
-  +----------------------------------------------+---+------+-------------+
-  |                                              |   |      |      A      |
-  |               II. DRY MEASURES.              | G |  P   +------+------+
-  |                                              |   |      |  G   |  P   |
-  +----------------------------------------------+---+------+------+------+
-  | Ligula                                       | ” |  ·02 |   ”  | 1/48 |
-  +-----+                                        |   |      |      |      |
-  |  4  | CYATHUS[19]                            | ” |  ·08 |   ”  | 1/12 |
-  +-----+-----+                                  |   |      |      |      |
-  |  6  |  1½ | Acetabulum                       | ” |  ·12 |   ”  |   ⅛  |
-  +-----+-----+-----+                            |   |      |      |      |
-  |  12 |   3 |  2  | Quart.                     | ” |  ·24 |   ”  |   ¼  |
-  +-----+-----+-----+----+                       |   |      |      |      |
-  |  24 |   6 |  4  |  2 | Hemina, or Cotyla     | ” |  ·48 |   ”  |   ½  |
-  +-----+-----+-----+----+----+                  |   |      |      |      |
-  |  48 |  12 |  8  |  4 |  2 | Sext.            | ” |  ·96 |   ”  |   1  |
-  +-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+             |   |      |      |      |
-  | 384 |  96 |  64 | 32 | 16 |  8 | Semimodius  | ” | 7·68 |   1  |   ”  |
-  +-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+---+         |   |      |      |      |
-  | 768 | 192 | 128 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 2 | MODIUS  | 1 | 7·36 | 2[20]|   ”  |
-  +-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+---+---------+---+------+------+------+
-
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[18] See the Note to Table VII.
-
-[19] See the Note to Table VIII.
-
-[20] Or a quarter of a bushel.
-
-
-
-
-TABLE XI.
-
-  GRECIAN WEIGHTS.
-
-  +------------------------------------------------------------------------+
-  |                1. Ratios of the three chief Systems.                   |
-  +------------------------------------------------------------------------+
-  | Aeginetan : Euboic or old Attic                       ::   6     :   5 |
-  | Aeginetan : Solonian or later Attic                   ::   5     :   3 |
-  | Euboic : Solonian                                     :: 138-8/9 : 100 |
-  |                                                    or :: 100     :  72 |
-  |                                                    or ::  25     :  18 |
-  +========================================================================+
-  |The Aeginetan Talent=6000 Aeginetan Drachmae=7200 Euboic=10,000 Solonian|
-  |    Euboic       ”  =5000          ”        =6000   ”   = 8,333⅓    ”   |
-  |    Solonian[21] ”  =3600          ”        =4320   ”   = 6,000     ”   |
-  +------------------------------------------------------------------------+
-
-
-FOOTNOTE:
-
-[21] Also called the _Attic Silver Talent_. When Attic weights are
-spoken of without any further distinction, these are generally
-intended.
-
-
-    Column headings:
-
-    L: lb.
-    O: oz.
-    G: grs.
-
-  +----------------------------------+--------------------+--------------+
-  |                                  |     _Exact._[22]   |_Approximate._|
-  |     2. Aeginetan Weights.        +----+---+-----------+-----+---+----+
-  |                                  |  L | O |    grs.   | lb. |oz.| G  |
-  +----------------------------------+----+---+-----------+-----+---+----+
-  | Obol (Ὀβολος)                    |  ” | ” | 18·472-2/9|  ”  | ” | 20 |
-  +------+                           |    |   |           |     |   |    |
-  |   6  | Drachma (Δραχμή)          |  ” | ” | 110·83⅛   |  ”  | ¼ |  ” |
-  +------+----+                      |    |   |           |     |   |    |
-  |  600 | 100| Mina (Μνᾶ)           |  1 | 9 |145·83⅓[23]|  1⅔ | ” |  ” |
-  +------+----+--+                   |    |   |           |     |   |    |
-  |36,000|6000|60| Talent (Τάλαντον) | 95 | ” |    ”      | 100 | ” |  ” |
-  +------+----+--+-------------------+----+---+-----------+-----+---+----+
-
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[22] In this and the other tables the English weights used are those
-of the avoirdupois scale as fixed by statute; namely, the grain = the
-Troy grain, the ounce = 437½ grains, the pound = 16 ounces = 7000
-grains.
-
-[23] Or ⅓ of an oz.
-
-
-    Column headings:
-
-    L: lb.
-    O: oz.
-
-  +------------------------------+-----------------------+--------------+
-  |                              |       _Exact._        |_Approximate._|
-  |     3. Euboic or Attic       +----+---+--------------+----+---+-----+
-  |     Commercial Weights.      | L  | O |     grs.     | L  | O | grs.|
-  +------------------------------+----+---+--------------+----+---+-----+
-  | Obol                         |  ” | ” | 15·398-14/27 |    | ” | 15½ |
-  +--------+                     |    |   |              |    |   |     |
-  |    6   | Drachma             |  ” | ” |  92·3611-1/9 |  ” | ” | 93⅓ |
-  +--------+------+              |    |   |              |    |   |     |
-  |   600  |  100 | Mina         |  1 | 5 |  48·611-1/9  |  1 | ” |  ”  |
-  +--------+------+----+         |    |   |              |    |   |     |
-  | 36,000 | 6000 | 60 | Talent  | 79 | 2 |  291·63⅓     | 80 | ” |  ”  |
-  +--------+------+----+---------+----+---+--------------+----+---+-----+
-
-
-    Column headings:
-
-    L: lb.
-    O: oz.
-    G: grs.
-
-  +----------------------------------+------------------+--------------+
-  |                                  |      _Exact._    |_Approximate._|
-  |       4. Attic Commercial        +----+----+--------+----+----+----+
-  |       Weights increased.         | L  | O  |  grs.  | L  |  O | G  |
-  +----------------------------------+----+----+--------+----+----+----+
-  | 1 Mina = 150 Drachmae (silver)   |  1 |  6 |  350   | 1½ |  ” |  ” |
-  | 5 Minae = 6 Minae (commercial)   |  7 | 14 | 291·6⅔ | 7½ |  ” |  ” |
-  | 1 Talent = 65 Minae (commercial) | 88 |  ” | 145·8⅓ | 90 |  ” |  ” |
-  +----------------------------------+----+----+--------+----+----+----+
-
-  +-----------------------------+----------------------+--------------+
-  |                             |        _Exact._      |_Approximate._|
-  |  5. Attic Silver Weights.   +-----+----+-----------+----+----+----+
-  |                             | lb. | oz.|    grs.   | lb.| oz.|grs.|
-  +-----------------------------+-----+----+-----------+----+----+----+
-  | Obol                        |  ”  | ”  | 11·0833⅓  | ”  | ”  | 12 |
-  +--------+                    |     |    |           |    |    |    |
-  |    6   | Drachma            |  ”  | ”  |  66·5     | ”  | ”  | 70 |
-  +--------+------+             |     |    |           |    |    |    |
-  |   600  |  100 | Mina        |  ”  | 15 |  87·5[24] | 1  | ”  | ”  |
-  +--------+------+----+        |     |    |           |    |    |    |
-  | 36,000 | 6000 | 60 | Talent |  57 | ”  |    ”      | 60 | ”  | ”  |
-  +--------+------+----+--------+-----+----+-----------+----+----+----+
-
-
-FOOTNOTE:
-
-[24] Or ⅕ of an oz.
-
-
-
-
-TABLE XII.
-
-  GRECIAN MONEY.
-
-    Column headings:
-
-    F: Farthings.
-
-    Row labels:
-
-    Dr.: DRACHMA[25] (Δραχμή)
-    Di.: Didrachm (Δίδραχμον)
-    Tet.: Tetradrachm (Τετράδραχμον)
-    M: MINA (Μνᾶ)
-    T: TALENT (Τάλαντον)
-
-  +--------------------------------------------------------+---+----+----+-----+
-  |                    I. ATTIC COPPER AND SILVER.         |£. |_s._|_d._|  F  |
-  +--------------------------------------------------------+---+----+----+-----+
-  | Lepton (Λεπτόν)                                        | ” |  ” |  ” | ·116|
-  +------+                                                 |   |    |    |     |
-  |   7  | Chalchus (Χαλκοῦς)                              | ” |  ” |  ” |·8125|
-  +------+----+                                            |   |    |    |     |
-  |   14 |  2 | Dichalcon, or Quarter Obol (Δίχαλκον)      | ” |  ” |  ” |1·625|
-  +------+----+----+                                       |   |    |    |     |
-  |   28 |  4 |  2 | Half Obol (Ἡμιοβόλιον)                | ” |  ” |  ” | 3·25|
-  +------+----+----+----+                                  |   |    |    |     |
-  |   56 |  8 |  4 |  2 | OBOL (Ὀβολός)                    | ” |  ” |  1 | 2·5 |
-  +------+----+----+----+---+                              |   |    |    |     |
-  |  112 | 16 |  8 |  4 | 2 | Diobolus (Διόβολον)          | ” |  ” |  3 |  1  |
-  +------+----+----+----+---+---+                          |   |    |    |     |
-  |  168 | 24 | 12 |  6 | 3 | 1½| Triobolus (Τριόβολον)    | ” |  ” |  4 | 3·5 |
-  +------+----+----+----+---+---+---+                      |   |    |    |     |
-  |  224 | 32 | 16 |  8 | 4 | 2 | 1⅓| Tetrobolus           | ” |  ” |  6 |  2  |
-  |      |    |    |    |   |   |   |   (Τετρόβολον)       |   |    |    |     |
-  +------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+                  |   |    |    |     |
-  |  336 | 48 | 24 | 12 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1½| Dr.              | ” |  ” |  9 |  3  |
-  +------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+              |   |    |    |     |
-  |  672 | 96 | 48 | 24 | 12| 6 | 4 | 3 | 2 | Di.          | ” |  1 |  7 |  2  |
-  +------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+          |   |    |    |     |
-  | 1344 | 192| 96 | 48 | 24| 12| 8 | 6 | 4 | 2 | Tet.     | ” |  3 |  3 |  ”  |
-  +------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+      |   |    |    |     |
-  |33,600|4800|2400|1200|600|300|200|150|100| 50| 25| M    | 4 |  1 |  3 |  ”  |
-  +------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+   |   |    |    |     |
-  |2,016,000  |144,000  |36,000 |12,000 |6000   |1500  | T |243|15[26] ” |  ”  |
-  |      |288,000  |72,000  |18,000 |9000   |3000   |60|                       |
-  +------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+---+---+----+----+-----+
-
-  II. _Aeginetan and Euboic Silver._--The coins of these systems can be
-  easily calculated from the Attic, according to the ratios given in
-  Table XI., No. 1. As thus calculated, the Aeginetan Talent was equal
-  to 406_l._ 5_s._, and the Euboic was equal to 338_l._ 10_s._ 10_d._,
-  and the Drachmae were equal respectively to 1_s._ 4¼_d._ for the
-  Aeginetan, and 1_s._ 1½_d._ + ⅕ of a farthing for the Euboic.
-
-  III. _Grecian Gold._--The values of the Grecian gold money cannot be
-  conveniently reduced to the tabular form; they will be found in the
-  articles STATER and DAREICUS.
-
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[25] The Drachma was very nearly equal to the French Franc.
-
-[26] Or, approximately, 250_l._, the difference being only 1-40th.
-
-
-
-
-TABLE XIII.
-
-  ROMAN WEIGHTS.
-
-    Column headins:
-
-    O: Oz.
-
-    Row labels:
-
-    AL: AS, or LIBRA
-
-  +--------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+
-  |                                                              |Avoirdupois|
-  |                                                              |  Weight.  |
-  |           I. THE UNCIAL DIVISIONS OF THE POUND.              +--+--------+
-  |                                                              |O |  Grs.  |
-  +--------------------------------------------------------------+--+--------+
-  | UNCIA                                                        | ”| 430·83⅓|
-  |                                                              |  |  [27]  |
-  +---+                                                          |  |        |
-  | 1½| Sescuncia, or Sescunx                                    | 1| 203·75 |
-  +---+---+                                                      |  |        |
-  | 2 | 1⅓| Sextans                                              | 1| 404·16⅔|
-  +---+---+---+                                                  |  |        |
-  | 3 | 2 | 1½| Quadrans, or Teruncius                           | 2| 168·750|
-  +---+---+---+---+                                              |  |        |
-  | 4 | 2⅓| 2 | 1⅓| Triens                                       | 3| 270·83⅓|
-  +---+---+---+---+---+                                          |  |        |
-  | 5 | 3⅓| 2½| 1⅔| 1¼| Quincunx                                 | 4| 354·16⅔|
-  +---+---+---+---+---+---+                                      |  |        |
-  | 6 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1½| 1⅕| SEMIS, or Semissi                    | 5| 337·5  |
-  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+                                  |  |        |
-  | 7 | 4⅓| 3½| 2⅓| 1¾| 1⅖| 1⅙| Septunx                          | 6| 320·33⅓|
-  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+                            |  |        |
-  | 8 | 5⅓| 4 | 2⅔| 2 | 1⅗| 1⅓|1-1/7| Bes, or Bessis             | 7| 104·16⅔|
-  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+---+                        |  |        |
-  | 9 | 6 | 4½| 3 | 2¼| 1⅘| 1½|1-2/7| 1⅛| Dodrans                | 8| 277·5  |
-  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+---+-----+                  |  |        |
-  | 10| 6⅓| 5 | 3⅓| 2½| 2 | 1⅔|1-3/7| 1¼|1-1/9| Dextrans         | 9| 270·83⅓|
-  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+---+-----+------+           |  |        |
-  | 11| 7⅓| 5½| 3⅔| 2¾| 2⅕| 1⅚|1-4/7| 1⅜|1-2/9|1-1/10| Deunx     |10| 260·83⅓|
-  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+---+-----+------+------+    |  |        |
-  | 12| 8 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 2⅖| 2 |1-5/7| 1½|  1⅓ |  1⅕  |1-1/11| AL |11| 237·5  |
-  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+---+-----+------+------+----+--+--------+
-
-
-FOOTNOTE:
-
-[27] This only differs from the ounce avoirdupois by less than 7
-grains.
-
-
-
-
-TABLE XIV.
-
-  ROMAN WEIGHTS.
-
-  +----------------------------------------------------+-------------+
-  |              II. SUBDIVISIONS OF THE UNCIA.        |   Grains.   |
-  +----------------------------------------------------+-------------+
-  | Siliqua                                            |    2·9224   |
-  +----+                                               |             |
-  |  3 | Obolus                                        |    8·767361 |
-  +----+---+                                           |             |
-  |  6 | 2 | SCRUPULUM                                 |   17·53472  |
-  +----+---+---+                                       |             |
-  | 12 | 4 | 2 | Semisextula                           |   35·0694   |
-  +----+---+---+---+                                   |             |
-  | 24 | 8 | 4 | 2 | SEXTULA                           |   70·138    |
-  +----+---+---+---+---+                               |             |
-  | 36 | 12| 6 | 3 | 1½| Sicilicus                     |  105·2083   |
-  +----+---+---+---+---+---+                           |             |
-  | 48 | 16| 8 | 4 | 2 | 1⅓| Duella                    |  140·277    |
-  +----+---+---+---+---+---+---+                       |             |
-  | 72 | 24| 12| 6 | 3 | 2 | 1½| Semuncia              |  120·416    |
-  +----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+                   |             |
-  | 144| 48| 24| 12| 6 | 4 | 3 | 2 | UNCIA             |  420·833    |
-  +----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+               |             |
-  |1728|576|288|144| 72| 48| 36| 24| 12| AS, or LIBRA  | 5050        |
-  +----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---------------+-------------+
-
-
-
-
-TABLE XV.
-
-  ROMAN MONEY.
-
-    Row labels:
-
-    Du: Dupondius
-    S: SESTERTIUS
-    Q: Quinarius
-    De: DENARIUS
-
-  +---------------------------------------------------------------------+
-  | I. BEFORE THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS: when the Denarius was              |
-  |                1-7th of an Ounce, or about 60 Grains.               |
-  +----------------------+--------------------+----+----+----+----------+
-  |  1. _Copper Coins._  | 2. _Silver Coins._ | £. |_s._|_d._|Farthings.|
-  |                      |                    |    |    |    |          |
-  | Sextula              |                    |  ” |  ” |  ” |   ·35416 |
-  +--+                   |                    |    |    |    |          |
-  |1½| Quadrans          | Teruncius          |  ” |  ” |  ” |   ·53125 |
-  +--+--+                |                    |    |    |    |          |
-  | 2|1⅓| Triens         |                    |  ” |  ” |  ” |   ·7083  |
-  +--+--+--+             +--+                 |    |    |    |          |
-  | 3| 2|1½| Semissis    | 2| Sembella        |  ” |  ” |  ” |  1·0625  |
-  +--+--+--+--+          +--+--+              |    |    |    |          |
-  | 6| 4| 3| 2| As       | 4| 2| Libella      |  ” |  ” |  ” |  2·125   |
-  +--+--+--+--+--+       +--+--+--+           |    |    |    |          |
-  |12| 8| 6| 4| 2| Du    |  |  |  |           |  ” |  ” |  1 |   ·25    |
-  +--+--+--+--+--+-+     +--+--+--+           |    |    |    |          |
-  |24|16|12| 8| 4|2| S   |16| 8| 4| S         |  ” |  ” |  2 |   ·5     |
-  +--+--+--+--+--+-+-+   +--+--+--+-+         |    |    |    |          |
-  |48|32|24|16| 8|4|2|   |32|16| 8|2| Q       |  ” |  ” |  4 |     1    |
-  +--+--+--+--+--+-+-+   +--+--+--+-+-+       |    |    |    |          |
-  |96|64|48|32|16|8|4|   |24|32|16|4|2| De    |  ” |  ” |  8 |     2    |
-  +==+==+==+==+==+=+=+===+==+==+==+=+=+=======+====+====+====+==========+
-  | 3. _Gold Coins._ AUREUS[28]               |    |    |    |          |
-  |     (value in proportion to Roman Silver) |  ” | 17 |  8 |     2    |
-  |     (value in English current Coin)       |  1 |  1 |  1 |     2    |
-  +===========================================+====+====+====+==========+
-  | 4. _Money of Account (not a Coin)._       |    |    |    |          |
-  |             SESTERTIUM, or Mille Nummi    |  8 | 17 |  1 |     ”    |
-  +-------------------------------------------+----+----+----+----------+
-
-
-FOOTNOTE:
-
-[28] For the subdivisions of the gold money, see AURUM.
-
-
-
-
-TABLE XVI.
-
-  ROMAN MONEY.
-
-    Row labels:
-
-    QV: Quinarius, or Victoriatus
-
-  +---------------------------------------+----+----+----+--------+
-  |  II. AFTER THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS:     |    |    |    |        |
-  |  when the Denarius was 1-8th of an    | £. | s. | d. | Farth- |
-  |  Ounce, or 52·5 Grains.               |    |    |    |  ings. |
-  +---------------------------------------+----+----+----+--------+
-  | Sextula                               |  ” |  ” |  ” |  ·3125 |
-  +----+                                  |    |    |    |        |
-  | 1½ | Quadrans                         |  ” |  ” |  ” |  ·46875|
-  +----+----+                             |    |    |    |        |
-  | 2  | 1⅓ | Triens                      |  ” |  ” |  ” |  ·625  |
-  +----+----+----+                        |    |    |    |        |
-  | 3  |  2 | 1½ | Semissis               |  ” |  ” |  ” |  ·9375 |
-  +----+----+----+--+                     |    |    |    |        |
-  | 6  |  4 |  3 | 2| As                  |  ” |  ” |  ” | 1·875  |
-  +----+----+----+--+--+                  |    |    |    |        |
-  | 12 |  8 |  6 | 4| 2| Dupondius        |  ” |  ” |  ” | 3·75   |
-  +----+----+----+--+--+-+                |    |    |    |        |
-  | 24 | 16 | 12 | 8| 4|2| SESTERTIUS     |  ” |  ” |  1 | 3·5    |
-  +----+----+----+--+--+-+-+              |    |    |    |        |
-  | 48 | 32 | 24 |16| 8|4|2| QV           |  ” |  ” |  3 | 3      |
-  +----+----+----+--+--+-+-+-+            |    |    |    |        |
-  | 96 | 64 | 48 |32|16|8|4|2| Denarius   |  ” |  ” |  7 | 2      |
-  +====+====+====+==+==+=+=+=+============+====+====+====+========+
-  | AUREUS, reckoned at 25 Denarii        |  ” | 15 |  7 | 2      |
-  |    ”  reckoned in English Current Coin|  ” | 18 |  5 | 3·25   |
-  | SESTERTIUM, or Mille Nummi            |  7 | 16 |  3 |   ”    |
-  +---------------------------------------+----+----+----+--------+
-
-
-
-
-PARALLEL YEARS.
-
-(_See page 276._)
-
-
-  B.C.     Ol.
-
-  776.    1.  1.
-  772.    2.  1.
-  768.    3.  1.
-  764.    4.  1.
-  760.    5.  1.
-  756.    6.  1.
-  752.    7.  1.
-  748.    8.  1.
-  744.    9.  1.
-  740.   10.  1.
-  736.   11.  1.
-  732.   12.  1.
-  728.   13.  1.
-  724.   14.  1.
-  720.   15.  1.
-  716.   16.  1.
-  712.   17.  1.
-  708.   18.  1.
-  704.   19.  1.
-  700.   20.  1.
-  696.   21.  1.
-  692.   22.  1.
-  688.   23.  1.
-  684.   24.  1.
-  680.   25.  1.
-  676.   26.  1.
-  672.   27.  1.
-  668.   28.  1.
-  664.   29.  1.
-  660.   30.  1.
-  656.   31.  1.
-  652.   32.  1.
-  648.   33.  1.
-  644.   34.  1.
-  640.   35.  1.
-  636.   36.  1.
-  632.   37.  1.
-  628.   38.  1.
-  624.   39.  1.
-  620.   40.  1.
-  616.   41.  1.
-  612.   42.  1.
-  608.   43.  1.
-  604.   44.  1.
-  600.   45.  1.
-  596.   46.  1.
-  592.   47.  1.
-  591.        2.
-  590.        3.
-  589.        4.
-  588.   48.  1.
-  587.        2.
-  586.        3.
-  585.        4.
-  584.   49.  1.
-  583.        2.
-  582.        3.
-  581.        4.
-  580.   50.  1.
-  579.        2.
-  578.        3.
-  577.        4.
-  576.   51.  1.
-  575.        2.
-  574.        3.
-  573.        4.
-  572.   52.  1.
-  571.        2.
-  570.        3.
-  569.        4.
-  568.   53.  1.
-  567.        2.
-  566.        3.
-  565.        4.
-  564.   54.  1.
-  563.        2.
-  562.        3.
-  561.        4.
-  560.   55.  1.
-  559.        2.
-  558.        3.
-  557.        4.
-  556.   56.  1.
-  555.        2.
-  554.        3.
-  553.        4.
-  552.   57.  1.
-  551.        2.
-  550.        3.
-  549.        4.
-  548.   58.  1.
-  547.        2.
-  546.        3.
-  545.        4.
-  544.   59.  1.
-  543.        2.
-  542.        3.
-  541.        4.
-  540.   60.  1.
-  539.        2.
-  538.        3.
-  537.        4.
-  536.   61.  1.
-  535.        2.
-  534.        3.
-  533.        4.
-  532.   62.  1.
-  531.        2.
-  530.        3.
-  529.        4.
-  528.   63.  1.
-  527.        2.
-  526.        3.
-  525.        4.
-  524.   64.  1.
-  523.        2.
-  522.        3.
-  521.        4.
-  520.   65.  1.
-  519.        2.
-  518.        3.
-  517.        4.
-  516.   66.  1.
-  515.        2.
-  514.        3.
-  513.        4.
-  512.   67.  1.
-  511.        2.
-  510.        3.
-  509.        4.
-  508.   68.  1.
-  507.        2.
-  506.        3.
-  505.        4.
-  504.   69.  1.
-  503.        2.
-  502.        3.
-  501.        4.
-  500.   70.  1.
-  499.        2.
-  498.        3.
-  497.        4.
-  496.   71.  1.
-  495.        2.
-  494.        3.
-  493.        4.
-  492.   72.  1.
-  491.        2.
-  490.        3.
-  489.        4.
-  488.   73.  1.
-  487.        2.
-  486.        3.
-  485.        4.
-  484.   74.  1.
-  483.        2.
-  482.        3.
-  481.        4.
-  480.   75.  1.
-  479.        2.
-  478.        3.
-  477.        4.
-  476.   76.  1.
-  475.        2.
-  474.        3.
-  473.        4.
-  472.   77.  1.
-  471.        2.
-  470.        3.
-  469.        4.
-  468.   78.  1.
-  467.        2.
-  466.        3.
-  465.        4.
-  464.   79.  1.
-  463.        2.
-  462.        3.
-  461.        4.
-  460.   80.  1.
-  459.        2.
-  458.        3.
-  457.        4.
-  456.   81.  1.
-  455.        2.
-  454.        3.
-  453.        4.
-  452.   82.  1.
-  451.        2.
-  450.        3.
-  449.        4.
-  448.   83.  1.
-  447.        2.
-  446.        3.
-  445.        4.
-  444.   84.  1.
-  443.        2.
-  442.        3.
-  441.        4.
-  440.   85.  1.
-  439.        2.
-  438.        3.
-  437.        4.
-  436.   86.  1.
-  435.        2.
-  434.        3.
-  433.        4.
-  432.   87.  1.
-  431.        2.
-  430.        3.
-  429.        4.
-  428.   88.  1.
-  427.        2.
-  426.        3.
-  425.        4.
-  424.   89.  1.
-  423.        2.
-  422.        3.
-  421.        4.
-  420.   90.  1.
-  419.        2.
-  418.        3.
-  417.        4.
-  416.   91.  1.
-  415.        2.
-  414.        3.
-  413.        4.
-  412.   92.  1.
-  411.        2.
-  410.        3.
-  409.        4.
-  408.   93.  1.
-  407.        2.
-  406.        3.
-  405.        4.
-  404.   94.  1.
-  403.        2.
-  402.        3.
-  401.        4.
-  400.   95.  1.
-  399.        2.
-  398.   95.  3.
-  397.        4.
-  396.   96.  1.
-  395.        2.
-  394.        3.
-  393.        4.
-  392.   97.  1.
-  391.        2.
-  390.        3.
-  389.        4.
-  388.   98.  1.
-  387.        2.
-  386.        3.
-  385.        4.
-  384.   99.  1.
-  383.        2.
-  382.        3.
-  381.        4.
-  380.  100.  1.
-  379.        2.
-  378.        3.
-  377.        4.
-  376.  101.  1.
-  375.        2.
-  374.        3.
-  373.        4.
-  372.  102.  1.
-  371.        2.
-  370.        3.
-  369.        4.
-  368.  103.  1.
-  367.        2.
-  366.        3.
-  365.        4.
-  364.  104.  1.
-  363.        2.
-  362.        3.
-  361.        4.
-  360.  105.  1.
-  359.        2.
-  358.        3.
-  357.        4.
-  356.  106.  1.
-  355.        2.
-  354.        3.
-  353.        4.
-  352.  107.  1.
-  351.        2.
-  350.        3.
-  349.        4.
-  348.  108.  1.
-  347.        2.
-  346.        3.
-  345.        4.
-  344.  109.  1.
-  343.        2.
-  342.        3.
-  341.        4.
-  340.  110.  1.
-  339.        2.
-  338.        3.
-  337.        4.
-  336.  111.  1.
-  335.        2.
-  334.        3.
-  333.        4.
-  332.  112.  1.
-  331.        2.
-  330.        3.
-  329.        4.
-  328.  113.  1.
-  327.        2.
-  326.        3.
-  325.        4.
-  324.  114.  1.
-  323.        2.
-  322.        3.
-  321.        4.
-  320.  115.  1.
-  319.        2.
-  318.        3.
-  317.        4.
-  316.  116.  1.
-  315.        2.
-  314.        3.
-  313.        4.
-  312.  117.  1.
-  311.        2.
-  310.        3.
-  309.        4.
-  308.  118.  1.
-  307.        2.
-  306.        3.
-  305.        4.
-  304.  119.  1.
-  303.        2.
-  302.        3.
-  301.        4.
-  300.  120.  1.
-  299.        2.
-  298.        3.
-  297.        4.
-  296.  121.  1.
-  295.        2.
-  294.        3.
-  293.        4.
-  292.  122.  1.
-  291.        2.
-  290.        3.
-  289.        4.
-  288.  123.  1.
-  287.        2.
-  286.        3.
-  285.        4.
-  284.  124.  1.
-  283.        2.
-  282.        3.
-  281.        4.
-  280.  125.  1.
-  279.        2.
-  278.        3.
-  277.        4.
-  276.  126.  1.
-  275.        2.
-  274.        3.
-  273.        4.
-  272.  127.  1.
-  268.  128.  1.
-  264.  129.  1.
-  260.  130.  1.
-  256.  131.  1.
-  252.  132.  1.
-  248.  133.  1.
-  244.  134.  1.
-  240.  135.  1.
-  236.  136.  1.
-  232.  137.  1.
-  228.  138.  1.
-  224.  139.  1.
-  220.  140.  1.
-  216.  141.  1.
-  212.  142.  1.
-  208.  143.  1.
-  204.  144.  1.
-  200.  145.  1.
-  196.  146.  1.
-  192.  147.  1.
-  188.  148.  1.
-  184.  149.  1.
-  180.  150.  1.
-  176.  151.  1.
-  172.  152.  1.
-  168.  153.  1.
-  164.  154.  1.
-  160.  155.  1.
-  156.  156.  1.
-  152.  157.  1.
-  148.  158.  1.
-  144.  159.  1.
-  140.  160.  1.
-  136.  161.  1.
-  132.  162.  1.
-  128.  163.  1.
-  124.  164.  1.
-  120.  165.  1.
-  116.  166.  1.
-  112.  167.  1.
-  108.  168.  1.
-  104.  169.  1.
-  100.  170.  1.
-   96.  171.  1.
-   92.  172.  1.
-   88.  173.  1.
-   84.  174.  1.
-   80.  175.  1.
-   76.  176.  1.
-   72.  177.  1.
-   68.  178.  1.
-   64.  179.  1.
-   60.  180.  1.
-   56.  181.  1.
-   52.  182.  1.
-   48.  183.  1.
-   44.  184.  1.
-   40.  185.  1.
-   36.  186.  1.
-   32.  187.  1.
-   28.  188.  1.
-   24.  189.  1.
-   20.  190.  1.
-   16.  191.  1.
-   12.  192.  1.
-    8.  193.  1.
-    4.  194.  1.
-
-
-  A.D.     Ol.
-
-    1.  195.  1.
-    5.  196.  1.
-    9.  197.  1.
-   13.  198.  1.
-   17.  199.  1.
-   21.  200.  1.
-   25.  201.  1.
-   29.  202.  1.
-   33.  203.  1.
-   37.  204.  1.
-   41.  205.  1.
-   45.  206.  1.
-   49.  207.  1.
-   53.  208.  1.
-   57.  209.  1.
-   61.  210.  1.
-   65.  211.  1.
-   69.  212.  1.
-   73.  213.  1.
-   77.  214.  1.
-   81.  215.  1.
-   85.  216.  1.
-   89.  217.  1.
-   93.  218.  1.
-   97.  219.  1.
-  101.  220.  1.
-  105.  221.  1.
-  109.  222.  1.
-  113.  223.  1.
-  117.  224.  1.
-  121.  225.  1.
-  125.  226.  1.
-  129.  227.  1.
-  133.  228.  1.
-  137.  229.  1.
-  141.  230.  1.
-  145.  231.  1.
-  149.  232.  1.
-  153.  233.  1.
-  157.  234.  1.
-  161.  235.  1.
-  165.  236.  1.
-  169.  237.  1.
-  173.  238.  1.
-  177.  239.  1.
-  181.  240.  1.
-  185.  241.  1.
-  189.  242.  1.
-  193.  243.  1.
-  197.  244.  1.
-  201.  245.  1.
-  205.  246.  1.
-  209.  247.  1.
-  213.  248.  1.
-  217.  249.  1.
-  221.  250.  1.
-  225.  251.  1.
-  229.  252.  1.
-  233.  253.  1.
-  237.  254.  1.
-  241.  255.  1.
-  245.  256.  1.
-  249.  257.  1.
-  253.  258.  1.
-  257.  259.  1.
-  261.  260.  1.
-  265.  261.  1.
-  269.  262.  1.
-  273.  263.  1.
-  277.  264.  1.
-  281.  265.  1.
-  285.  266.  1.
-  289.  267.  1.
-  293.  268.  1.
-  297.  269.  1.
-  301.  270.  1.
-
-
-
-
-CALENDARIUM:
-
-
-  Labels:
-
-    AK: Ante Kalendas (of the month following).
-    AKM: Ante Kalendas Martias.
-
-  +--------+---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
-  |  Our   |  March, May,  |   January,    | April, June,  | February has  |
-  |  days  |     July,     |    August,    |   September,  |    28 days,   |
-  | of the | October, have |   December,   |   November,   |  and in Leap  |
-  | Month. |   31 days.    | have 31 days. | have 30 days. |    Year 29.   |
-  +--------+---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
-  |    1.  | KALENDIS.     | KALENDIS.     | KALENDIS.     | KALENDIS.     |
-  |    2.  | VI. }         | IV. }  ante   | IV. }  ante   | IV. } ante    |
-  |    3.  | V.  }  ante   | III.} Nonas.  | III.} Nonas.  | III.} Nonas.  |
-  |    4.  | IV. } Nonas.  | Pridie Nonas. | Pridie Nonas. | Pridie Nonas. |
-  |    5.  | III.}         | NONIS.        | NONIS.        | NONIS.        |
-  |    6.  | Pridie Nonas. | VIII.}        | VIII.}        | VIII.         |
-  |    7.  | NONIS.        | VII. }        | VII. }        | VII.          |
-  |    8.  | VIII.}        | VI.  } ante   | VI.  } ante   | VI.           |
-  |    9.  | VII. }        | V.   } Idus.  | V.   } Idus.  | V.            |
-  |   10.  | VI.  } ante   | IV.  }        | IV.  }        | IV.           |
-  |   11.  | V.   } Idus.  | III. }        | III. }        | III.          |
-  |   12.  | IV.  }        | Pridie Idus.  | Pridie Idus.  | Pridie Idus.  |
-  |   13.  | III. }        | IDIBUS.       | IDIBUS.       | IDIBUS.       |
-  |   14.  | Pridie Idus.  | XIX.  }       | XVIII.}       | XVI. }        |
-  |   15.  | IDIBUS.       | XVIII.}       | XVII. }       | XV.  }        |
-  |   16.  | XVII }        | XVII. }       | XVI.  }       | XIV. }        |
-  |   17.  | XVI. }        | XVI.  }       | XV.   }       | XIII.}        |
-  |   18.  | XV.  }        | XV.   }       | XIV.  }       | XII. }        |
-  |   19.  | XIV. }        | XIV.  }       | XIII. }       | XI.  }        |
-  |   20.  | XIII.}        | XIII. }       | XII.  }       | X.   } AKM    |
-  |   21.  | XII. }        | XII.  }       | XI.   } AK    | IX.  }        |
-  |   22.  | XI.  } AK     | XI.   } AK    | X.    }       | VIII.}        |
-  |   23.  | X.   }        | X.    }       | IX.   }       | VII. }        |
-  |   24.  | IX.  }        | IX.   }       | VIII. }       | VI.  }        |
-  |   25.  | VIII.}        | VIII. }       | VII.  }       | V.   }        |
-  |   26.  | VII. }        | VII.  }       | VI.   }       | IV.  }        |
-  |   27.  | VI.  }        | VI.   }       | V.    }       | III. }        |
-  |   28.  | V.   }        | V.    }       | IV.   }       | Pridie        |
-  |   29.  | IV.  }        | IV.   }       | III.  }       |  Kalendas     |
-  |   30.  | III. }        | III.  }       | Pridie        |  Martias.     |
-  |   31.  | Pridie        | Pridie        |  Kalendas (of |               |
-  |        |  Kalendas (of |  Kalendas (of |  the month    |               |
-  |        |  the month    |  the month    |  following).  |               |
-  |        |  following).  |  following).  |               |               |
-  +--------+---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
-
-
-
-
-GREEK INDEX.
-
-
-  _The numerals indicate the pages, and the letters_ a _and_ b
-  _the first and second columns respectively._
-
-
-  Α.
-
-  Ἄβαξ, 1, a.
-
-  Ἄγαλμα, 13, b; 350, a.
-
-  Ἀγαθοεργοί, 13, b.
-
-  Ἀγγαρεία, 25, a.
-
-  Ἀγέλη, 13, b.
-
-  Ἄγημα, 13, b.
-
-  Ἀγητής, 72, b.
-
-  Ἀγητόρειον, 72, b.
-
-  Ἀγητόρια, 72, b.
-
-  Ἄγκιστρον, 191, b.
-
-  Ἄγκοινα, 267, b.
-
-  Ἀγκύλη, 200, a.
-
-  Ἀγκύρα, 268, a.
-
-  Ἀγορά, 15, b.
-
-  Ἀγορανόμος, 8, b; 15, b.
-
-  Ἀγρονόμοι, 16, a.
-
-  Ἀγροτέρας θυσία, 16, a.
-
-  Ἀγύρται, 16, a.
-
-  Ἀγχεμάχοι, 41, b.
-
-  Ἀγχιστεία, 203, a.
-
-  Ἀγωνάρχαι, 15, a.
-
-  Ἀγῶνες, 15, a; 131, b.
-    ἀτίμητοι, 132, b; 377, b.
-    τίμητοι, 132, b; 377, b.
-
-  Ἀγωνισταί, 47, a.
-
-  Ἀγωνοδίκαι, 15, a.
-
-  Ἀγωνοθέται, 15, a.
-
-  Ἀδελφιδοῦς, 203, a.
-
-  Ἀδελφός, 203, a.
-
-  Ἀδέσποτοι, 202, a.
-
-  Ἀδύνατοι, 8, b.
-
-  Ἀδώνια, 7, a.
-
-  Ἄδυτον, 367, a.
-
-  Ἀείσιτοι, 313, b.
-
-  Ἀέτωμα, 176, a.
-
-  Ἀθληταί, 47, a.
-
-  Ἀθλητῆρες, 47, a.
-
-  Ἀθλοθέται, 15, a; 282, a.
-
-  Αἰγικορεῖς, 389, b.
-
-  Αἰγίοχος, 10, b.
-
-  Αἰγίς, 10, b.
-
-  Αἴθουσα, 16, b.
-
-  Αἰκίας δίκη, 16, a.
-
-  Αἴνιγμα, 11, a; 357, b.
-
-  Αἰσυμνήτης, 12, b; 15, a.
-
-  Αἰχμή, 199, b.
-
-  Αἰχμοφόροι, 587, b.
-
-  Αἰώρα, 11, a.
-
-  Ἄκαινα, Ἀκαίνη, 1, b.
-
-  Ἀκάτειος, 266, b.
-
-  Ἀκάτιον, 1, b; 262, b.
-
-  Ἄκατος, 1, b; 262, a.
-
-  Ἀκινάκης, 3, b.
-
-  Ἀκμόθετον, 254, b.
-
-  Ἄκμων, 254, b.
-
-  Ἀκόντιον, 200, b.
-
-  Ἀκράτισμα, 95, a.
-
-  Ἀκροκέραια, 267, a.
-
-  Ἀκρόλιθοι, 4, a; 350, b.
-
-  Ἀκρόπολις, 4, a.
-
-  Ἀκροστόλιον, 4, a; 263, b.
-
-  Ἀκρωτηριάζειν, 4, b; 322, b.
-
-  Ἀκρωτήριον, 4, a.
-
-  Ἄκτια, 5, a.
-
-  Ἀκωκή, 199, b.
-
-  Ἄκων, 200, b.
-
-  Ἀλαβάρχης, 16, b.
-
-  Ἁλαί, 327, a.
-
-  Ἀλείπται, 17, b.
-
-  Ἁλία, 15, b.
-
-  Ἄλληξ, or Ἄλλιξ, 17, a.
-
-  Ἄλμα, 289, a.
-
-  Ἁλοπήγιον, 327, a.
-
-  Ἀλυσίδιον, 76, b.
-
-  Ἀλύσιον, 76, b.
-
-  Ἅλυσις, 76, b.
-
-  Ἀλύται, 18, a; 275, a.
-
-  Ἀλυτάρχης, 18, a; 275, a.
-
-  Ἁλῶα, 18, a; 37, a.
-
-  Ἀλῶα, 18, a.
-
-  Ἅλως, 37, a.
-
-  Ἅμαξα, 297, b.
-
-  Ἀμαρύνθια, 18, a.
-
-  Ἀμαρύσια, 18, a.
-
-  Ἀμβροσία, 19, a.
-
-  Ἀμπεχόνη, 19, b.
-
-  Ἀμπίτταρες, 202, a.
-
-  Ἀμπυκτήρ, 24, a.
-
-  Ἄμπυξ, 24, a.
-
-  Ἀμφίβληστρον, 320, b.
-
-  Ἀμφίβολος, 268, b.
-
-  Ἀμφιδέαι, 42, b.
-
-  Ἀμφιδρόμια, 21, a.
-
-  Ἀμφιθάλαμος, 141, b.
-
-  Ἀμφικίων, 367, a.
-
-  Ἀμφικτύονες, 19, b.
-
-  Ἀμφιπρόστυλος, 367, a.
-
-  Ἀμφίστομος, 268, b.
-
-  Ἀμφορεύς, 23, a.
-
-  Ἀναβαθμοί, 140, a.
-
-  Ἀνάγλυπτα, 24, b.
-
-  Ἀνάγλυφα, 24, b.
-
-  Ἀναγώγια, 25, a.
-
-  Ἀναδικία, 29, a.
-
-  Ἀναθήματα, 145, a; 350, b.
-
-  Ἁνακαλυπτήρια, 250, b.
-
-  Ἀνακειμένα, 145, a.
-
-  Ἀνάκειον, 24, b.
-
-  Ἀνάκλιντρον, 222, a.
-
-  Ἀνάκρισις, 24, b; 34, b.
-
-  Ἀνάκτορον, 367, a.
-
-  Ἄναξ, 320, a.
-
-  Ἀναξυρίδες, 62, a.
-
-  Ἀνδρεῖα, 359, b.
-
-  Ἀνδριάς, 351, a.
-
-  Ἀνδρογεώνια, 25, a.
-
-  Ἀνδροληψία, 25, a.
-
-  Ἀνδρολήψιον, 25, a.
-
-  Ἀνδρῶνες, 140, b.
-
-  Ἀνδρωνῖτις, 140, a.
-
-  Ἀνεύθυνος, 160, a.
-
-  Ἀνεψιαδαῦς, 203, a.
-
-  Ἀνεψιός, 203, a.
-
-  Ἀνθεστήρια, 135, b.
-
-  Ἀνθεστηριών, 65, b.
-
-  Ἀνθεσφόρια, 26, b.
-
-  Ἀνθράκια, 141, b.
-
-  Ἀνθύπατος, 310, a.
-
-  Ἀνθυπωμοσία, 132, a.
-
-  Ἄνοδος, 375, b.
-
-  Ἄνοπλοι, 41, b.
-
-  Ἀντιγόνεια, 390, b.
-
-  Ἀντιγραφή, 27, a; 132, a.
-
-  Ἀντίδοσις, 26, b.
-
-  Ἀντιτίμησις, 81, b.
-
-  Ἀντιχειροτονεῖν, 83, b.
-
-  Ἀντλία, 27, a.
-
-  Ἄντυξ, 27, a; 94, a.
-
-  Ἀντωμοσία, 132, a.
-
-  Ἀξίνη, 331, b.
-
-  Ἄξονες, 54, b; 271, b.
-
-  Ἄξων, 124, a.
-
-  Ἄορ, 196, a.
-
-  Ἀπαγωγή, 27, b.
-
-  Ἀπατούρια, 27, b.
-
-  Ἀπαύλια, 250, b.
-
-  Ἀπελεύθερος, 239, a; 338, b.
-
-  Ἀποβάθρα, 303, a.
-
-  Ἀπογραφή, 28, b.
-
-  Ἀποδέκται, 28, a; 345, a.
-
-  Ἀπόδεσμος, 355, b.
-
-  Ἀποθέωσις, 28, b.
-
-  Ἀποθήκη, 28, b; 207, b.
-
-  Ἀποικία, 98, b.
-
-  Ἄποικοι, 93, a.
-
-  Ἀπόκλητοι, 13, a.
-
-  Ἀπολείψεως δίκη, 139, a.
-
-  Ἀπολλώνια, 28, b.
-
-  Ἀποπέμψεως δίκη, 139, a.
-
-  Ἀπόῤῥητα, 28, b.
-
-  Ἀποστασίου δίκη, 338, b.
-
-  Ἀποστολεύς, 28, b.
-
-  Ἀποτειχισμός, 406, b.
-
-  Ἀποτελεσματικός, 45, b.
-
-  Ἀποτίμημα, 145, b.
-
-  Ἀπόφασις, 38, a.
-
-  Ἀποφορά, 28, b.
-
-  Ἀποφράδες ἡμέραι, 301, a.
-
-  Ἀποχειροτονεῖν, 35, a.
-
-  Ἀποχειροτονία, 83, b.
-
-  Ἀπωμοσία, 171, b.
-
-  Ἀραιόστυλος, 367, b.
-
-  Ἀρβύλη, 291, a.
-
-  Ἀργάδεις, 389, b.
-
-  Ἀργυράσπιδες, 40, a.
-
-  Ἀργυροκοπεῖον, 40, a.
-
-  Ἄργυρος, 40, a.
-
-  Ἀρδάλιον, 185, a.
-
-  Ἀρδάνιον, 185, a.
-
-  Ἄρειος πάγος, 37, a.
-
-  Ἀριστοκρατία, 40, b.
-
-  Ἄριστον, 95, a.
-
-  Ἅρμα, 123, b; 274, b.
-
-  Ἁρμάμαξα, 199, b.
-
-  Ἄροτρον, 31, b.
-
-  Ἄρουρα, 43, a.
-
-  Ἁρπάγη, 199, a.
-
-  Ἁρπαστόν, 297, a.
-
-  Ἅρπη, 173, b.
-
-  Ἀῤῥηφόρια, 42, b.
-
-  Ἀῤῥηφόροι, 42, b.
-
-  Ἀρτάβη, 43, a.
-
-  Ἀρτεμίσια, 43, a.
-
-  Ἀρτοποιός, 297, b.
-
-  Ἀρτοπῶλαι, 96, a.
-
-  Ἀρτοπώλιδες, 96, a; 297, b.
-
-  Ἀρτύσεις, 418, a.
-
-  Ἀρχεῖον, 33, a.
-
-  Ἀρχή, 35, b.
-
-  Ἀρχίατρος, 33, a.
-
-  Ἀρχιθέωρος, 129, a; 375, a.
-
-  Ἀρχιτεκτονία, 33, a.
-
-  Ἀρχιτεκτονική, 33, a.
-
-  Ἀρχιτέκτων, 374, b.
-
-  Ἄρχων, 34, b.
-    βασιλέυς, 35, a.
-    ἐπώνυμος, 35, a; 66, a; 86, a.
-
-  Ἀρχώνης, 365, a.
-
-  Ἀσάμινθος, 54, b.
-
-  Ἄσβολος, 183, b.
-
-  Ἀσεβείας γραφή, 44, a.
-
-  Ἀσκαύλης, 376, b.
-
-  Ἀσκληπίεια, 44, b.
-
-  Ἀσκοί, 418, a.
-
-  Ἀσκωλιασμός, 44, b.
-
-  Ἄσκωμα, 265, b.
-
-  Ἀσπιδεῖον, 264, a.
-
-  Ἀσπιδίσκη, 264, a.
-
-  Ἀσπίς, 41, b; 94, a.
-
-  Ἀσπισταί, 41, b.
-
-  Ἀσσάριον, 44, a.
-
-  Ἀστράβη, 154, a.
-
-  Ἀστράγαλος, 45, a; 361, b.
-
-  Ἀστρατείας γραφή, 45, b.
-
-  Ἄστυλος, 367, a.
-
-  Ἀστυνόμοι, 46, a.
-
-  Ἀσυλία, 46, a.
-
-  Ἄσυλον, 46, a.
-
-  Ἀτέλεια, 46, b; 366, a.
-
-  Ἀτιμία, 8, a; 47, b.
-
-  Ἄτιμος, 36, a; 47, b.
-
-  Ἄτλαντες, 47, b.
-
-  Ἄτρακτος, 191, b.
-
-  Αὐθέψης, 54, a.
-
-  Αὐλαία, 372, a; 408, a.
-
-  Αὔλακες, 32, b.
-
-  Αὔλειος θύρα, 140, b.
-
-  Αὐλή, 16, b; 48, a; 140, b.
-
-  Αὐλητρίδες, 377, b.
-
-  Αὐλός, 207, a; 376, b.
-
-  Αὐτόνομοι, 54, a.
-
-  Αὐτοψία, 150, b.
-
-  Ἀφεταί, 202, a.
-
-  Ἀφετήριον ὄργανον, 381, a.
-
-  Ἄφλαστον, 264, b.
-
-  Ἄφοδος, 85, b.
-
-  Ἄφρακτος ναῦς, 261, b.
-
-  Ἀφρήτορ, 389, a.
-
-  Ἀφροδίσια, 28, a.
-
-  Ἀχίτων, 401, b.
-
-  Ἁψίς, 29, b.
-
-
-  Β.
-
-  Βαλανεῖον, 54, b.
-
-  Βάλαντιον, 248, b.
-
-  Βαλλισμοί, 283, b.
-
-  Βάραθρον, 57, a.
-
-  Βάρβιτον, -ος, 57, b; 245, b.
-
-  Βασανισταί, 381, b.
-
-  Βάσανος, 248, b; 381, a.
-
-  Βασίλεια, 256, b.
-
-  Βασιλεύς, 320, a; 360, b.
-
-  Βασίλισσα, 35, a.
-
-  Βασκανία, 175, a.
-
-  Βελόνη, 6, b.
-
-  Βελονίς, 6, b.
-
-  Βέμβηξ, 198, a.
-
-  Βενδίδεια, 58, a.
-
-  Βηλός, 215, a.
-
-  Βῆμα, 146, b; 249, a.
-
-  Βίβασις, 328, b.
-
-  Βιβλιοθήκη, 58, b.
-
-  Βιβλίον, 238, a.
-
-  Βιδιαῖοι, 59, a.
-
-  Βῖκος, 59, a.
-
-  Βιός, 37, b.
-
-  Βοηδρόμια, 59, b.
-
-  Βοηδρομιών, 65, b.
-
-  Βοιωτάρχης, -ος, 59, b.
-
-  Βολίς, 76, a.
-
-  Βομβύλιος, 23, b.
-
-  Βορεασμοί, 61, a.
-
-  Βορεασμός, 61, a.
-
-  Βουλευτήριον, 62, a.
-
-  Βουλή, 3, b; 15, b; 61, a.
-
-  Βοῶναι, 60, b.
-
-  Βραβεῖς, 15, b.
-
-  Βραβευταί, 15, b.
-
-  Βραυρώνια, 62, a.
-
-  Βρόχοι, 319, b.
-
-  Βύβλος, 238, a.
-
-  Βυκάνη, 62, b.
-
-  Βυσσός, 63, a.
-
-  Βωμός, 31, a.
-
-
-  Γ.
-
-  Γαισός, 192, b.
-
-  Γάλως, 13, b.
-
-  Γαμηλία, 193, a.
-
-  Γάμοροι, 91, a.
-
-  Γάμος, 249, b.
-
-  Γελέοντες, 389, b.
-
-  Γενεθλιαλογία, 45, b.
-
-  Γένειον, 57, a.
-
-  Γενέσια, 187, b.
-
-  Γένεσις, 46, a.
-
-  Γένη, 389, a.
-
-  Γεννῆται, 389, b.
-
-  Γένος, 301, a.
-
-  Γέρανος, 327, a.
-
-  Γερουσία, 193, b.
-
-  Γέῤῥα, 194, a.
-
-  Γέφυρα, 302, a.
-
-  Γεφυρίζειν, 151, a.
-
-  Γεφυρισμός, 151, a.
-
-  Γεωμόροι, 389, b.
-
-  Γλεῦκος, 416, b.
-
-  Γλύξις, 416, b.
-
-  Γναφεύς, 184, a.
-
-  Γνήσιος, 7, a.
-
-  Γνώμων, 206, a.
-
-  Γοργύρα, 72, a.
-
-  Γράμμα, 331, a.
-
-  Γραμματεύς, 3, b; 196, a.
-
-  Γραφή, 131, b; 293, b.
-
-  Γραφή δωροδοκίας, 127, a.
-    δώρων, 127, a.
-    ξενίας, 422, a.
-    παρανοίας, 284, a.
-    παρανόμων, 147, b; 284, a.
-    ὕβρεως, 210, a.
-    φαρμάκων, 292, b.
-    ψευδεγγραφῆς, 314, a.
-
-  Γραφική, 293, b.
-
-  Γραφίς, 295, b.
-
-  Γρῖφος, 357, b.
-
-  Γρόσφος, 200, b.
-
-  Γύης, 31, b.
-
-  Γυμνασιάρχης, 197, b.
-
-  Γυμνασίαρχος, 197, b.
-
-  Γυμνάσιον, 197, a.
-
-  Γυμνασταί, 197, b.
-
-  Γυμνήσιοι, 198, a.
-
-  Γυμνῆται, 41, b.
-
-  Γυμνῆτες, 41, b; 198, b.
-
-  Γυμνοί, 41, b; 272, b.
-
-  Γυμνοπαιδία, 198, b.
-
-  Γυναικοκόσμοι, 198, b.
-
-  Γυναικονόμοι, 198, b.
-
-  Γυναικωνῖτις, 140, a.
-
-  Γωρυτός, 37, b.
-
-
-  Δ.
-
-  Δαδοῦχος, 150, b.
-
-  Δαίδαλα, 126, b.
-
-  Δαιδάλεια, 126, b.
-
-  Δακτύλιος, 25, b.
-
-  Δάκτυλος, 126, b.
-
-  Δαμαρέτειον χρύσιον, 126, b.
-
-  Δαμοσία, 161, b; 301, b.
-
-  Δανάκη, 126, b; 185, a.
-
-  Δαρεικός, 126, b.
-
-  Δαφνηφόρια, 126, b.
-
-  Δεῖγμα, 128, b.
-
-  Δείλη, 134, b.
-
-  Δεῖπνον, 95, a.
-
-  Δεκαδαρχία, 127, a.
-
-  Δεκαδοῦχοι, 127, a.
-
-  Δεκαρχία, 127, a.
-
-  Δεκασμός, 127, a.
-
-  Δεκάστυλος, 367, b.
-
-  Δεκατευταί, 128, b.
-
-  Δεκάτη, 128, b.
-
-  Δεκατηλόγοι, 128, a.
-
-  Δεκατῶναι, 128, a.
-
-  Δελφίνια, 129, a.
-
-  Δελφίς, 129, a.
-
-  Δεσμωτήριον, 72, a.
-
-  Δεσποσιοναῦται, 202, a.
-
-  Δευτεραγωνιστής, 205, b.
-
-  Δῆγμα, 182, b.
-
-  Δήλια, 128, b; 283, b.
-
-  Δήμαρχοι, 129, a; 385, b.
-
-  Δημιοῦργοι, 3, b; 129, a; 389. b.
-
-  Δήμιος, 202, a.
-
-  Δημοκρατία, 129, b.
-
-  Δῆμος, 129, b; 130, a.
-
-  Δημόσιοι, 129, b.
-
-  Δημόσιον, 11, b; 33, a.
-
-  Δημόται, 130, a.
-
-  Διαγραφεῖς, 149, a.
-
-  Διάζωμα, 422, b.
-
-  Διαζώματα, 371, a.
-
-  Διαιτηταί, 130, b.
-
-  Διάκριοι, 390, a.
-
-  Διαμαρτυρία, 24, b.
-
-  Διαμαστίγωσις, 130, b.
-
-  Διάσια, 131, a.
-
-  Διάστυλος, 367, b.
-
-  Δίαυλος, 274, b; 348, b.
-
-  Διαχειροτονία 83, b.
-
-  Διαψήφισις, 130, b.
-
-  Διελκυστίνδα παίζειν, 198, a.
-
-  Διῆρες, 141, b.
-
-  Δίκαι ἔμμηνοι, 152, a.
-
-  Διιπόλεια, 135, b.
-
-  Διιπόλια, 135, b.
-
-  Δικαστής, 131, a.
-
-  Δικαστικόν, 131, a.
-
-  Δίκη, 131, b.
-    ἀποστασίου, 338, b.
-
-  Δίκη αὐτοτελής, 132, b.
-    βλάβης, 248, b.
-    ἐξούλης, 152, a.
-    λειπομαρτυρίου, 248, b.
-    προικός, 345, a.
-    σίτου, 345, a.
-    χρέους, 377, b.
-
-  Δίκροτα, 260, b.
-
-  Δικτύννια, 134, b.
-
-  Δίκτυον, 319, b.
-
-  Διμάχαι, 135, b; 164, a.
-
-  Δίμιτος, 364, b.
-
-  Διοικήσεως, ὁ ἐπὶ, 362, b.
-
-  Διόλεια, 135, b.
-
-  Διονύσια, 135 b.
-    ἐν ἄστει, or μεγάλα, 135, b.
-    κατ’ ἀργούς, or μικρά, 135, b.
-
-  Διοσημεῖα, 138, b.
-
-  Διοσκούρια, 137, a.
-
-  Διπλοΐδιον, 401, a.
-
-  Διπλοΐς, 401, a.
-
-  Διπόλεια, 135, b.
-
-  Δίπτερος, 367, a.
-
-  Δίπτυχα, 137, b; 358, b; 360, a.
-
-  Δίσκος, 137, b.
-
-  Διφθέρα, 137, a; 238, a.
-
-  Δίφρος, 124, b.
-
-  Διωβελία, 374, b.
-
-  Δόκανα, 139, b.
-
-  Δοκιμασία, 139, b; 153, b.
-
-  Δόλιχος, 274, b; 348, b.
-
-  Δόλων, 140, a.
-
-  Δοράτιον, 199, b.
-
-  Δόρπον, 95, a.
-
-  Δόρυ, 41, b; 199, b.
-
-  Δοῦλος, 337, a.
-
-  Δράκων, 343, b.
-
-  Δραχμή, 145, b.
-
-  Δρεπάνη, Δρέπανον, 173, b.
-
-  Δροῖται, 185, b.
-
-  Δρόμος, 274, b.
-
-  Δυμανάται, 389, a.
-
-  Δυμᾶνες, 389, a.
-
-  Δωμάτια, 140, b.
-
-  Δῶρα, 145, a.
-
-  Δωροδοκίας γραφή. 127, a.
-
-  Δῶρον, 281, a.
-
-  Δώρων γραφή, 127, a.
-
-
-  Ε.
-
-  Ἐγγύησις, 249, b.
-
-  Ἔγκλημα, 131, b.
-
-  Ἔγκτημα, 152, b.
-
-  Ἔγκτησις, 91, a; 152, b.
-
-  Ἔγχος, 41, b; 199, b.
-
-  Ἕδνα, 145, a.
-
-  Ἕδος, 367, a.
-
-  Ἑδώλια, 265, b.
-
-  Ἔεδνα, 145, a.
-
-  Ἐθελοπρόξενος, 209, a.
-
-  Εἰκόνες, 351, a.
-
-  Εἰκοστή, 148, b.
-
-  Εἰκοστολόγοι, 148, b.
-
-  Εἵλωτες, 201, b.
-
-  Εἴρην, 148, b.
-
-  Εἰσαγγελία, 148, b.
-
-  Εἰσιτήρια, 148, b.
-
-  Εἰσποιεῖσθαι, 7, a.
-
-  Εἰσποίησις, 7, a.
-
-  Εἰσποιητός, 7, a.
-
-  Εἰσφέρειν, 149. a.
-
-  Εἰσφορά, 148, b.
-
-  Ἑκατόμβαια, 203, a.
-
-  Ἑκατομβαιών, 65, b.
-
-  Ἑκατομβή, 203, a; 324, b.
-
-  Ἔκγονοι, 203, a.
-
-  Ἔκδικος, 148, a.
-
-  Ἔκδοσις, 176, b.
-
-  Ἐκεχειρία, 274. a.
-
-  Ἐκκλησία, 146, b.
-    κυρία, 146, b.
-    νόμιμος, 146, b.
-    σύγκλητος, 146, b.
-
-  Ἔκκλητοι, 206, b.
-
-  Ἐκκομιδή, 185, b.
-
-  Ἐκλογεῖς, 149, a.
-
-  Ἐκμαρτυρία, 24, b; 148, a.
-
-  Ἐκποιεῖν, 7, a.
-
-  Ἐκποιεῖσθαι, 7. a.
-
-  Ἑκτεύς, Ἕκτη, 201, a.
-
-  Ἐκφορά, 185, a.
-
-  Ἐκφυλλοφορία, 172, b.
-
-  Ἐλαία, Ἔλαιον, 273, b.
-
-  Ἐλατήρ, 398, a.
-
-  Ἐλαφηβολιών, 65, b.
-
-  Ἐλέος, 382, b.
-
-  Ἐλευθέρια, 151, b.
-
-  Ἐλευσίνια, 149, b.
-
-  Ἑλκυστίνδα παίζειν, 198, a.
-
-  Ἑλλανοδίκαι, 18, a; 201, b; 275, a.
-
-  Ἑλληνοταμίαι, 201, b.
-
-  Ἐλλόβιον, 211, b.
-
-  Ἐλλώτια, or Ἑλλώτια, 151, b.
-
-  Ἔλυμα, 31, b.
-
-  Ἐμβάς, 151, b.
-
-  Ἐμβατεία, 151, b.
-
-  Ἔμβλημα, 152, a.
-
-  Ἐμβολή, 40, b.
-
-  Ἔμβολον, 264, a.
-
-  Ἔμβολος, 124, a; 264, a.
-
-  Ἐμμέλεια, 85, b.
-
-  Ἔμμηνοι δίκαι, 152, a.
-
-  Ἔμπαισμα, 152, a.
-
-  Ἐμποριον, 152, b.
-
-  Ἔμπορος, 152, b.
-
-  Ἔμφρουρος, 161, a.
-
-  Ἐναγίσματα, 187, b.
-
-  Ἔνατα, 187, a.
-
-  Ἔνδειξις, 152, b.
-
-  Ἕνδεκα οἱ, 202, b.
-
-  Ἐνδοῦναι, 140, b.
-
-  Ἐνδρομίς, 152, b.
-
-  Ἔνδυμα, 19, b.
-
-  Ἔννατα, 187, a.
-
-  Ἐννεάκρουνος, 29, b.
-
-  Ἐννεατηρίς, 316, a.
-
-  Ἔνοπτρον, 347, a.
-
-  Ἔντεα, 41, a.
-
-  Ἐνωμοτίαι, 161, a.
-
-  Ἐνώτιον, 211, b.
-
-  Ἑξάστυλος, 367, a.
-
-  Ἐξέδρα, 140, b; 160, b; 258, b.
-
-  Ἐξετασταί, 160, b.
-
-  Ἐξηγηταί, 160, a; 160, b.
-
-  Ἑξήρεις, 262, a.
-
-  Ἐξόδια, 171, a.
-
-  Ἔξοδος, 384, a.
-
-  Ἐξούλης δίκη, 152, a.
-
-  Ἐξωμίς, 171, a.
-
-  Ἐξωμοσία, 171, b.
-
-  Ἐξώστρα, 171, b.
-
-  Ἑορτή, 274, b.
-
-  Ἐπαγγελία, 153, a.
-
-  Ἑπάλξεις, 381, a; 406, b.
-
-  Ἐπάριτοι, 153, a.
-
-  Ἐπαύλια, 250, b.
-
-  Ἐπεισόδιον, 384, a.
-
-  Ἐπιβάθρα, 303, a.
-
-  Ἐπιβάται, 155, a.
-
-  Ἐπίβλημμα, 19, b.
-
-  Ἐπιβόλαιον, 19, b.
-
-  Ἐπιβολή, 155, a.
-
-  Ἐπιγαμία, 91, a.
-
-  Ἐπίγραμμα, 377, b.
-
-  Ἐπιγραφεῖς, 149, a.
-
-  Ἐπιδαύρια, 151, a.
-
-  Ἐπιδόσεις, 155, a.
-
-  Ἐπίθημα, 186, b.
-
-  Ἐπίκληρος, 155, a.
-
-  Ἐπίκλιντρον, 222, a.
-
-  Ἐπίλογοι, 358, b.
-
-  Ἐπιμεληταί, 155, b; 316, a.
-    τοῦ ἐμπορίον, 152, b; 155, b.
-    τῆς κοινῆς προσόδου, 155, b; 362, b.
-    τῶν μοριῶν Ἐλαιῶν, 155, b.
-    τῶν Μυστηρίων, 155, b.
-    τῶν νεωρίων, 155, b.
-    τῶν φυλῶν, 155, b.
-
-  Ἐπιμύλιον, 256, a.
-
-  Ἐπιπόραδος, 85, b.
-
-  Ἐπίπροικοι, 203, a.
-
-  Ἐπίσκοποι, 155, b.
-
-  Ἐπισπάσασθαι, 140, b.
-
-  Ἐπισπαστήρ, 140, b.
-
-  Ἐπιστάτης, 61, b; 161, b.
-    τῶν δημοσίων ἔργων, 155, b.
-
-  Ἐπιστολεύς, 155, b.
-
-  Ἐπιστύλιον, 102, a; 155, b.
-
-  Ἐπίσωτρον, 124, a.
-
-  Ἐπίταγμα, 163, b.
-
-  Ἐπίτονοι, 222, a; 267, b.
-
-  Ἐπίτροπος, 155, b.
-
-  Ἐπιχειροτονία, 35, a; 83, b.
-
-  Ἐπόπται, 150, b.
-
-  Ἐποπτεία, 150, b.
-
-  Ἐπωβελία, 156, a.
-
-  Ἐπωμίς, 401, a.
-
-  Ἐπωνία, 365, b.
-
-  Ἐπώνυμος, 35, a.
-
-  Ἔρανος, 95, b; 159, a.
-
-  Ἐργάναι, 363, b.
-
-  Ἐργαστῖναι, 282, a.
-
-  Ἑρμαῖ, 204, a.
-
-  Ἕρμαια, 204, a.
-
-  Ἐῤῥηφόροι, 42, b.
-
-  Ἐρσηφόροι, 42, b.
-
-  Ἐρυκτῆρες, 202, a.
-
-  Ἐρώτια, 159, b.
-
-  Ἐρωτίδια, 159, b.
-
-  Ἔσοπτρον, 347, a.
-
-  Ἐστία, 180, b.
-
-  Ἐστιάσις, 204, a.
-
-  Ἑστιάτωρ, 204, b.
-
-  Ἐσχάρα, 31, a; 141, b; 180, b.
-
-  Ἐσχαρίς, 31 a; 141, b; 180, b.
-
-  Ἑταιρία, 98, a; 159, a; 359, b.
-
-  Ἕταιροι, 163, b.
-
-  Ἑτεροστόμος, 268, b.
-
-  Εὔδειπνος, 11, a.
-
-  Εὔζωνος, 401, b.
-
-  Εὐθυδικία, 132, a.
-
-  Εὐθύνη, 154, b; 160, a.
-
-  Εὔθυνοι, 160, b.
-
-  Εὐμολπίδαι, 159, b.
-
-  Εὐνή, 222, a.
-
-  Εὐπατρίδαι, 91, a; 160, a.
-
-  Εὔστυλος, 367, b.
-
-  Εὐφημεῖτε, 138, b.
-
-  Εὐφημία, 138, b.
-
-  Ἐφελκύσασθαι, 140, b.
-
-  Ἐφέσις, 29, a.
-
-  Ἐφέται, 153, b.
-
-  Ἐφηβεία, 153, a.
-
-  Ἔφηβος, 153, a.
-
-  Ἐφήγησις, 153, b.
-
-  Ἐφίππειον, 154, a.
-
-  Ἐφίππιον, 154, a.
-
-  Ἔφοροι, 154, a.
-
-  Ἔφυροι, 150, b.
-
-  Ἐχῖνος, 24, b; 132, a; 249, a.
-
-  Ἕψημα, 416, b.
-
-  Ἐώρα, 11, a.
-
-
-  Ζ.
-
-  Ζάκοροι, 10, a.
-
-  Ζευγῖται, 81, b; 162, a; 390, a.
-
-  Ζεῦγλαι, 266, a.
-
-  Ζευκτηρίαι, 266, a.
-
-  Ζητηταί, 422, b.
-
-  Ζυγά, 265, b.
-
-  Ζύγιοι, 124, b; 265, b.
-
-  Ζυγῖται, 124, b; 265, b.
-
-  Ζύγον, 161, a; 217, a; 245, b; 329, a.
-
-  Ζύγος, 217, a; 329, a.
-
-  Ζύθος, 82, b.
-
-  Ζωγραφία, 293, b.
-
-  Ζῶμα, 422, b.
-
-  Ζωμὸς μέλας, 360, a.
-
-  Ζώνα, 41, a; 422, b.
-
-  Ζωστήρ, 41, b; 422, b.
-
-  Ζωφόρος, 102, a; 422, b.
-
-
-  Η.
-
-  Ἡγεμόνες συμμοριῶν, 393, a.
-
-  Ἡγεμονία δικαστηρίου, 249, a.
-
-  Ἠθμός, 101, a.
-
-  Ἠλακάτη, 191, b.; 267, a.
-
-  Ἤλεκτρον -ος, 149, b.
-
-  Ἡλιοτρόπιον, 207, a.
-
-  Ἦμαρ δείελον, 134, b.
-    μέσον, 134, b.
-
-  Ἡμέρα κυρία τοῦ νόμου, 94, a.
-    μέση, 134, b.
-
-  Ἡμεροδρόμοι, 202, a.
-
-  Ἡμιδιπλοΐδιον, 401, a.
-
-  Ἡμιεκτεόν, 201, a.
-
-  Ἡμιέκτον, 201, a.
-
-  Ἡμικύκλιον, 202, a.
-
-  Ἡμίμνα, or Ἡμίνα, 120, b; 202, b.
-
-  Ἡνίοχος, 124, b.
-
-  Ἡραῖα, 202, b.
-
-  Ἡρῷον, 186, a.
-
-  Ἠώς, 134, b.
-
-
-  Θ.
-
-  Θαλάμιοι, 265, b.
-
-  Θαλαμῖται, 265, b.
-
-  Θάλαμος, 141, b; 265, b.
-
-  Θαλλοφόροι, 282, b.
-
-  Θάπτειν, 185, b.
-
-  Θαργήλια, 370, a.
-
-  Θαργηλιών, 65, b.
-
-  Θέατρον, 273, a; 370, b.
-
-  Θεατροπώλης, 374, b.
-
-  Θεατρώνης, 374, b.
-
-  Θέμα, 46, a.
-
-  Θεοφανία, 374, a.
-
-  Θεράπων, 161, b; 202, a.
-
-  Θερμά, 55, a.
-
-  Θέσις, 7, a.
-
-  Θεσμοθέται, 35, a.
-
-  Θεσμός, 35, b; 271, b.
-
-  Θεσμοφόριος, 375, b.
-
-  Θετοί, 7, a.
-
-  Θεωρία, 375, a.
-
-  Θεωρικά, 374, a.
-
-  Θεωρίς, 128, b; 283, b.
-
-  Θεωροί, 128, b; 375, a.
-
-  Θῆκαι, 186, a.
-
-  Θηριομάχοι, 58, b.
-
-  Θησαυρός, 367, a; 375, a.
-
-  Θησεῖα, 375, b.
-
-  Θῆτες, 81, b; 390, a.
-
-  Θίασος, 135, b.
-
-  Θολία, 405, a.
-
-  Θόλος, 376, a.
-
-  Θόωκος, 15, b.
-
-  Θράνιον, 376, a.
-
-  Θρανῖται, 265, b.
-
-  Θράνος, 265, b.
-
-  Θρηνῳδοί, 185, b.
-
-  Θρίαμβος, 394, a.
-
-  Θρόνος, 376, a.
-
-  Θυμέλη,  371, b.
-
-  Θυμιατήριον, 2, a; 402, b.
-
-  Θύρα, 214, b.
-    αὔλειος, 140, b.
-    βαλανωτός, 141, a.
-    κηπαία, 141, b.
-    μέσαυλος, 141, a.
-    μέταυλος, 141, a.
-
-  Θυρεός, 331, a.
-
-  Θύρετρον, 215, a.
-
-  Θυρίδες, 141, b.
-
-  Θύρσος, 376, a.
-
-  Θυρῶν, 140, b.
-
-  Θυρωρεῖον, 140, b.
-
-  Θυρωρός, 140, b; 215, a.
-
-  Θύσανοι, 10, b.
-
-  Θυτήριον, 31, a.
-
-  Θώραξ, 41, a; 240, b.
-
-
-  Ι.
-
-  Ἴακχος, 150, b.
-
-  Ἴγδη, Ἴγδις, 257, a.
-
-  Ἵδρυσις, 366, b.
-
-  Ἱερεῖον, 324, a.
-
-  Ἱεροδιδάσκαλος, 303, a.
-
-  Ἱερόδουλοι, 204, b.
-
-  Ἱερομαντεία, 138, a.
-
-  Ἱερομηνία, 274, a.
-
-  Ἱερομνήμονες, 20, a; 205, a.
-
-  Ἱερόν, 362, a; 366, b.
-
-  Ἱερονῖκαι, 47, a.
-
-  Ἱερονόμος, 303, a.
-
-  Ἱεροποιοί, 205, a.
-
-  Ἱεροσκοπία, 138, a.
-
-  Ἱεροφάντης, 150, a; 159, b; 303, a.
-
-  Ἱεροφύλαξ, 303, a.
-
-  Ἱκετηρία, 421, a.
-
-  Ἴκρια, 260, a.
-
-  Ἰλάρια, 205, a.
-
-  Ἴλη, 163, b.
-
-  Ἱμάντες, 82, b; 267, b.
-
-  Ἱμάντες πυκτικοί, 82, b.
-
-  Ἱματίδιον, 280, a.
-
-  Ἱμάτιον, 19, a; 280, a.
-
-  Ἰνῶα, 213, a.
-
-  Ἱππαρμοστής, 161, a.
-
-  Ἴππαρχος, 3, b; 162, b.
-
-  Ἱππεῖς, 13, b; 81, b; 390, a.
-
-  Ἱππικόν, 348, b.
-
-  Ἱπποβόται, 205, a.
-
-  Ἱππόδρομος, 348, b.
-
-  Ἱπποκόμος, 162, b.
-
-  Ἴρην, 148, b.
-
-  Ἴσθμια, 214, a.
-
-  Ἰσοπολιτεία, 91, a; 255, a.
-
-  Ἰσοτέλεια, 91, a; 255, a; 366, a.
-
-  Ἰσοτελεῖς, 91, a; 255, a.
-
-  Ἱστίον, 259, b; 267, a.
-
-  Ἱστοβοεύς, 31, b.
-
-  Ἱστός, 259, b; 266, a; 363, b.
-
-  Ἱστών, 141, b; 363, b.
-
-  Ἴτυς, 124, a.
-
-  Ἱφικρατίδες, 163, a.
-
-
-  Κ.
-
-  Καβείρια, 63, a.
-
-  Κάδος, Κάδδος, 23, b; 63, b.
-
-  Καθάπαξ, 47, b.
-
-  Κάθαρσις, 244, a.
-
-  Καθετήρ, 318, b.
-
-  Κάθοδος, 375, b.
-
-  Καίειν, 185, b.
-
-  Κάλαθος, 64, a.
-    κάθοδος, 150, b.
-
-  Κάλαμος, 301, a.
-
-  Καλλιγένεια, 375, b.
-
-  Καλλιερεῖν, 138, b.
-
-  Καλλιστεῖα, 68, b.
-
-  Καλοβάτης, 184, b.
-
-  Κάλοι, 260, b; 267, b.
-
-  Καλῳδία, 267, b.
-
-  Καμάρα, 69, a.
-
-  Κάναβος, or Κίναβος, 69, a.
-
-  Κάναθρον, 69, a.
-
-  Κάνδυς, 70, a.
-
-  Κάνεον, 70, a.
-
-  Κανηφόρος, 70, a; 282, b.
-
-  Κανών, 364, b.
-
-  Καπηλεῖον, 77, a.
-
-  Κάπηλος, 77, a; 152, b.
-
-  Καπνοδόκη, 141, b.
-
-  Καρνεάται, 72, b.
-
-  Καρνεῖα, 72, b.
-
-  Καρπαία, 328, a.
-
-  Καρχήσιον, 72, a.
-
-  Καρύα, 73, a.
-
-  Καρυατίς, 73, a.
-
-  Καταβλητική, 242, a.
-
-  Καταγώγιον, 77, a.
-
-  Κατάλογος, 76, a.
-
-  Κατάλυσις, 77, a.
-
-  Καταπειρατήρια, 76, a.
-
-  Καταπέλτης, 381, a.
-
-  Καταπελτική, 381, a.
-
-  Καταῤῥάκτης, 76, a.
-
-  Κατάστασις, 162, b.
-
-  Καταστρώματα, 261, a.
-
-  Κατατομαί, 371, a.
-
-  Κατάφρακτοι, 261, a.
-
-  Καταχειροτονία, 83, b.
-
-  Καταχύσματα, 250, a.
-
-  Κατήγορος, 358, b.
-
-  Κάτοπτρον, 347, a.
-
-  Κατορύττειν, 185, b.
-
-  Κατοχεύς, 215, a.
-
-  Καυσία, 77, b.
-
-  Κεάδας, 72, a; 78, a.
-
-  Κειρία, 222, a.
-
-  Κεκρύφαλος, 103, b.
-
-  Κελευστής, 259, a; 305, b.
-
-  Κεραία, 267, a.
-
-  Κεραμεύς, 178, b.
-
-  Κεράμιον, 178, b.
-
-  Κέραμος, 178, b; 363, b.
-
-  Κέρας, 163, b; 322, b.
-
-  Κερατίον, 405, b.
-
-  Κερκίδες, 364, b; 371, a.
-
-  Κεροῦχοι, 267, b.
-
-  Κεφαλή, 40, b.
-
-  Κηπαία θύρα, 141, b.
-
-  Κῆπος, 207, b.
-
-  Κηρογραφία, 295, a.
-
-  Κηροός, 82, b.
-
-  Κηρύκειον, 63, a.
-
-  Κηρύκιον, 63, a.
-
-  Κιβωτός, 32, a.
-
-  Κίθαρις,245, a.
-
-  Κίονες, 186, a.
-
-  Κίστη, 90, a.
-
-  Κιστοφόρος, 90, b.
-
-  Κίων, 101, b.
-
-  Κλεῖθρον, 215, a.
-
-  Κλείς, 178, b.
-
-  Κλεψύδρα, 249, a.
-
-  Κλήιδες, 260, a.
-
-  Κληρονόμος, 203, a.
-
-  Κλῆρος, 203, a.
-
-  Κληρουχία, 93, a; 98, b.
-
-  Κληροῦχοι, 93, a.
-
-  Κλητῆρες, 93, a.
-
-  Κλήτορες, 93, a.
-
-  Κλιμακίδες, 266, a.
-
-  Κλίνη, 221, a; 222, a.
-
-  Κλινίδιον, 221, a.
-
-  Κλισίας, 215, a.
-
-  Κναφεύς, 184, a.
-
-  Κνέφαλον, 222, a.
-
-  Κνῆμαι, 124, a.
-
-  Κνημίς, 41, a; 273, a.
-
-  Κόγξ, 150, b.
-
-  Κόθορνος, 120, a.
-
-  Κοιλοι, 65, b.
-
-  Κοῖλον, 371, a.
-
-  Κοινὸν τῶν Αἰτώλων, 13, a.
-
-  Κοιτῶνες, 140, b.
-
-  Κολεός, 196, a.
-
-  Κολοσσός, 101, a.
-
-  Κόλπος, 401, a.
-
-  Κολῶναι, 186, a.
-
-  Κόμη, 103, a.
-
-  Κομμός, 384, a.
-
-  Κοντός, 266, a.
-
-  Κοπίς, 122, a.
-
-  Κόρδαξ, 85, b; 111, a.
-
-  Κόρη, 400, b.
-
-  Κορυβαντικά, 119, b.
-
-  Κόρυμβος, 103, a.
-
-  Κόρυς, 41, b; 192, b.
-
-  Κορώνη, 288, a.
-
-  Κορωνίς, 102, b; 119, b.
-
-  Κοσμοί, 120, a.
-
-  Κότινος, 275, b.
-
-  Κότταβος, 120, b.
-
-  Κοτύλη, 120, b.
-
-  Κοτύττια, 120, b.
-
-  Κουρά, 103, a.
-
-  Κόφινος, 117, a.
-
-  Κοχλιάριον, 94, b.
-
-  Κοχλίας, 94, b.
-
-  Κράνος, 192, b.
-
-  Κρατήρ, 121, a.
-
-  Κρεάγρα, 199, b.
-
-  Κρήνη, 29, b; 181, a.
-
-  Κρηπίς, 121, a.
-
-  Κρίκος, 211, b.
-
-  Κριός, 40, a.
-
-  Κριταί, 121, a.
-
-  Κροκή, 364, a.
-
-  Κροκωτόν -ός, 121, a.
-
-  Κρόταλον, 126, a.
-
-  Κρούειν, 215, a.
-
-  Κρυπτεία, 121, b.
-
-  Κρωβύλος, 103, a.
-
-  Κτείς, 288, a.
-
-  Κύαθος, 125, a.
-
-  Κυάμος, 96, a.
-
-  Κυβερνῆται, 259, a.
-
-  Κυβιστηρες, 328, a.
-
-  Κύβος, 368, b.
-
-  Κύκλα, 124, a.
-
-  Κυκλάς, 125, b.
-
-  Κύκλος, 338, a.
-
-  Κύλιξ, 68, a.
-
-  Κῦμα, 125, b.
-
-  Κύμβαλον, 125, b.
-
-  Κύμβη, 125, b.
-
-  Κυνέη, 41, b; 192, b.
-
-  Κυρβασία, 376, b.
-
-  Κύρβεις, 54, b; 271, b.
-
-  Κύριος, 123, b; 250, b.
-
-  Κύων, 362, a.
-
-  Κώδων, 378, a.
-
-  Κωλακρέται, 98, a; 363, a.
-
-  Κῶμος, 110, b.
-
-  Κωμῳδία, 110, b.
-
-  Κωνοπεῖον, 113, a.
-
-  Κώπη, 265, b.
-
-
-  Λ.
-
-  Λαμπαδαρχία, 220, a.
-
-  Λαμπαδηδρομία, 220, a.
-
-  Λαμπαδηφορία, 220, a.
-
-  Λαμπάς, 220, a.
-
-  Λάρνακες, 185, b.
-
-  Λάφρια, 220, b.
-
-  Λέβης, 273, b.
-
-  Λειτουργία, 224, a.
-
-  Λεκάνη, 286, a.
-
-  Λεκανίς, 207, a.
-
-  Λέσχη, 225, a.
-
-  Λέχος, 222, a.
-
-  Λήκυθος, 23, b; 185, a; 295, b.
-
-  Λήναια, 135, b.
-
-  Ληνοί, 185, b.
-
-  Ληνός, 416, b.
-
-  Ληξιαρχικὸν γραμματεῖον, 130, a.
-
-  Λῆξις, 131, b.
-
-  Λιβανωτρίς, 2, b.
-
-  Λιβυρνίς, 239, a; 262, b.
-
-  Λιβυρνόν, 239, a; 262, b.
-
-  Λιθοτομίαι, 221, a.
-
-  Λικμός, 407, a.
-
-  Λίκνον, 407, a.
-
-  Λίνα, 319, b.
-
-  Λίτρα, 240, a.
-
-  Λογεῖον, 372, a.
-
-  Λογισταί, 160, b.
-
-  Λογιστής, 65, a.
-
-  Λόγχη, 199, b.
-
-  Λοετρόν, 54, b.
-
-  Λοιβαί, 325, b.
-
-  Λουτήρ, 55, a.
-
-  Λουτήριον, 55, a.
-
-  Λουτρόν, 54, b.
-
-  Λουτροφόρος, 250, a.
-
-  Λόφος, 192, b.
-
-  Λοχαγοί, 161, a; 363, b.
-
-  Λόχος, 161, a; 162, b; 363, b.
-
-  Λύκαια, 245, a.
-
-  Λύκος, 199, a.
-
-  Λύρα, 245, a.
-
-  Λύχνος, 241, b.
-
-  Λυχνοῦχος, 70, a.
-
-
-  Μ.
-
-  Μάζα, 96, a; 285, a.
-
-  Μαιμακτηριών, 65, b.
-
-  Μάνδαλος, 215, a.
-
-  Μανδύας, 219, b.
-
-  Μανδύη, 219, b.
-
-  Μαντεῖον, 276, b.
-
-  Μάντεις, 137, b.
-
-  Μαντική, 137, b.
-
-  Μαρσύπιον, 248, b.
-
-  Μαρτυρία, 24, b; 248, b.
-
-  Μαστιγονόμοι, 249, a.
-
-  Μαστιγοφόροι, 249, a.
-
-  Μάστιξ, 179, b.
-
-  Μάχαιρα, 122, a; 315, a.
-
-  Μέγαρον, 367, a.
-
-  Μέδιμνος, 253, a.
-
-  Μεθίστασται, 172, a.
-
-  Μελία, 199, b.
-
-  Μελίκρατον, 418, b.
-
-  Μελιττοῦτα, 185, a.
-
-  Μελλείρην, 148, b.
-
-  Μεσαύλιος θύρα, 141, a.
-
-  Μέσαυλος θύρα, 141, a.
-
-  Μεσημβρία, 134, b.
-
-  Μεταγειτνιών, 65, b.
-
-  Μέταλλον, 254, a.
-
-  Μετάστασις, 85, b.
-
-  Μέταυλος θύρα, 141, a.
-
-  Μετεωρολογία, 45, b.
-
-  Μετοίκιον, 255, a; 365, b.
-
-  Μέτοικοι, 254, b.
-
-  Μετόπη, 255, a.
-
-  Μετρητής, 255, b.
-
-  Μέτωπον, 263, a.
-
-  Μήν ἐμβόλιμος, 65, b.
-
-  Μητρόπολις, 98, b.
-
-  Μήτρῳον, 33, a.
-
-  Μῖμος, 255, b.
-
-  Μισθὸς ἐκκλησιαστικός, 147, a.
-
-  Μίτοι, 364, b.
-
-  Μίτρα, 103, a; 256, a; 422, b.
-
-  Μίτρη, 41, a.
-
-  Μνᾶ, 361, b.
-
-  Μνήματα, 186, a.
-
-  Μνημεῖα, 186, a.
-
-  Μόθακες, 202, a.
-
-  Μόθωνες, 202, a.
-
-  Μοιχείας γραφή, 8, a.
-
-  Μολυβδίδες, 184, b.
-
-  Μοναρχία, 256, b.
-
-  Μονομάχοι, 194, b.
-
-  Μονοχίτων, 401, a.
-
-  Μόρα, 161, a.
-
-  Μουνυχιών, 65, b.
-
-  Μουσεῖον, 258, b.
-
-  Μοχλός, 215, a.
-
-  Μυκτῆρες, 241, b.
-
-  Μύλος, 256, a.
-
-  Μύξαι, 241, b.
-
-  Μυρίοι, 258, b.
-
-  Μυῤῥίναι, 418, a.
-
-  Μύσια, 258, b.
-
-  Μυσταγωγός, 150, a; 159, b.
-
-  Μύσται, 150, a.
-
-  Μυστήρια, 258, b.
-
-  Μυστίλη, 95, b.
-
-  Μύστρον, 95, b.
-
-  Μύστρος, 95, b.
-
-
-  Ν.
-
-  Ναΐδιον, 186, a.
-
-  Ναός, 366, b.
-
-  Ναυαρχία, 259, a.
-
-  Ναύαρχος, 259, a.
-
-  Ναύκληροι, 259, b; 359, a.
-
-  Ναυκραρία, 259, a.
-
-  Ναύκραρος, 259, a.
-
-  Ναῦς, 259, b.
-
-  Ναυτικόν, 176, b.
-
-  Ναυτοδίκαι, 268, b.
-
-  Νεάζεσθαι, 32, b.
-
-  Νεκρόδειπνον, 187, a.
-
-  Νεκύσια, 187, b.
-
-  Νεμαῖα, 269, a.
-
-  Νέμεα, 269, a.
-
-  Νεμεῖα, 269, a.
-
-  Νεοδαμώδεις, 202, a.
-
-  Νεός, 32, b.
-
-  Νεοῦσθαι, 32, b.
-
-  Νεωκόροι, 10, a; 269, a.
-
-  Νεώς, 366, b.
-
-  Νῆες, 262, a.
-
-  Νήμα, 191, b.
-
-  Νηστεία, 375, b.
-
-  Νομοθέτης, 35, b; 271, b.
-
-  Νόμος, 271, b.
-
-  Νομοφύλακες, 271, a.
-
-  Νουμηνία, 65, a.
-
-  Νυμφευτής, 250, a.
-
-  Νυχθήμερον, 134, b.
-
-
-  Ξ.
-
-  Ξεναγία, 163, a.
-
-  Ξεναγοί, 421, b.
-
-  Ξενηλασία, 422, a.
-
-  Ξενία, 208, a.
-
-  Ξενίας γραφή, 422, a.
-
-  Ξενικά, 255, a.
-
-  Ξένος, 208, a; 254, b.
-
-  Ξενῶνες, 141, b.
-
-  Ξέστης, 422, a.
-
-  Ξίφος, 41, b; 196, a.
-
-  Ξόανον, 349, a.
-
-  Ξυήλη, 161, b.
-
-  Ξυλοκοπία, 191, b.
-
-  Ξυστήρ, 17, b.
-
-  Ξύστρα, 56, b.
-
-
-  Ο.
-
-  Ὀβολός, 145, a; 361, b.
-
-  Ὀγδόδιον, 375, b.
-
-  Ὀγκία, or Οὐγκία, 405, a.
-
-  Ὁδοποιοί, 363, a.
-
-  Οἰκήματα, 140, b.
-
-  Οἰκιστής, 98, b.
-
-  Οἶκος, 140, a.
-
-  Οἰνιστήρια, 103, a.
-
-  Οἰνόμελι, 418, a.
-
-  Οἶνος, 416, a.
-
-  Οἰωνιστική, 138, b.
-
-  Οἰωνοπόλος, 49, b.
-
-  Οἰωνοσκόποι, 49, b.
-
-  Ὀκρίβας, 372, a.
-
-  Ὀκτάστυλος, 367, a.
-
-  Ὀλιγαρχία, 41, a; 273, b.
-
-  Ὁλκάδες, 262, a.
-
-  Ὁλκοί, 261, b.
-
-  Ὄλμος, 257, a.
-
-  Ὀλοκαυτεῖν, 324, b.
-
-  Ὀλύμπια, 274, a.
-
-  Ὀλυμπιάς, 276, a.
-
-  Ὁμογάλακτες, 389, b.
-
-  Ὅμοιοι, 91, b; 161, b; 206, a.
-
-  Ὁμολογία, 358, b.
-
-  Ὀμφάλος, 94, a; 163, b.
-
-  Ὀνειροπολία, 138, b.
-
-  Ὄνομα, 270, b.
-
-  Ὄνος, 256, a.
-
-  Ὀξίς, 2, b.
-
-  Ὀξυβάφιον, 2, b.
-
-  Ὀξύβαφον, 2, b; 120, b.
-
-  Ὀξυγράφοι, 272, a.
-
-  Ὀπή, 255, a.
-
-  Ὀπισθόδομος, 367, a.
-
-  Ὅπλα, 41, a.
-
-  Ὅπλητες, 389, b.
-
-  Ὁπλίται, 41, b.
-
-  Ὄργια, 258, b.
-
-  Ὀργυιά, 278, a.
-
-  Ὀρείχαλκος, 278, a.
-
-  Ὄρκος, 218, a.
-
-  Ὄρμος, 256, b; 328, b.
-
-  Ὄρυγμα, 57, a.
-
-  Ὄρχησις, 327, b.
-
-  Ὀρχήστρα, 371, b.
-
-  Ὀρχηστύς, 327, b.
-
-  Ὄσιοι, 277, a.
-
-  Ὀστράκιον, 178, b.
-
-  Ὀστρακισμός, 172, a.
-
-  Ὄστρακον, 172, b; 178, b; 185, a.
-
-  Ὀσχοφόρια, 278, a.
-
-  Οὐγγία, 405, a.
-
-  Οὐγκία, 405, a.
-
-  Οὖδας, 215, a.
-
-  Οὐλαμοί, 161, b.
-
-  Οὐλόχυτα, 325, a.
-
-  Οὐλοχύται, 325, a.
-
-  Οὐραγός, 161, b; 166, b.
-
-  Οὐριάχος, 200, a.
-
-  Ὄφεις, 42, b.
-
-  Ὀχάνη, 94, a.
-
-  Ὄχανον, 94, a.
-
-  Ὀχλοκρατία, 129, b.
-
-  Ὄψημα, 276, b.
-
-  Ὄψον, 276, b.
-
-  Ὀψώνης, 276, b.
-
-
-  Π.
-
-  Παγκρατιασταί, 282, b.
-
-  Παγκράτιον, 282, b.
-
-  Παιάν, 279, a.
-
-  Παιδαγωγός, 279, a.
-
-  Παιδονόμος, 279, a.
-
-  Παιδοτριβαί, 197, b.
-
-  Παιήων, 279, a.
-
-  Παίων, 279, a.
-
-  Πάλαισμα, 242, a.
-
-  Παλαισμοσύνη, 242, a.
-
-  Παλαιστή, 281, a.
-
-  Παλαίστρα, 279, b.
-
-  Πάλη, 242, a.
-
-  Παμβοιώτια, 281, b.
-
-  Πάμμαχοι, 282, b.
-
-  Πάμφυλοι, 389, a.
-
-  Παναθήναια, 281, b.
-
-  Πανδοκεῖον, 77, a.
-
-  Πανήγυρις, 283, a.
-
-  Πανιώνια, 283, a.
-
-  Πανοπλία, 283, a.
-
-  Παράβασις, 111, a.
-
-  Παραγναθίδες, 192, b.
-
-  Παραγραφή, 283, b.
-
-  Παράδεισος, 283, b.
-
-  Παραθύρα, 215, a.
-
-  Παραιβάτης, 124, b.
-
-  Παραλῖται, 283, b.
-
-  Πάραλοι, 283, b; 390, a.
-
-  Πάραλος, 283, b.
-
-  Παράμεσος δάκτυλος, 25, b.
-
-  Παρανοίας γραφή, 284, a.
-
-  Παρανόμων γραφή, 147, b; 284, a.
-
-  Παράνυμφος, 250, a.
-
-  Παραπέτασμα, 140, b; 372, a.
-
-  Παραπρεσβεία, 284, b.
-
-  Παραστάδες, 26, a.
-
-  Παραπυλίς, 305, a.
-
-  Παραῤῥύματα, 267, b.
-
-  Παρασάγγης, 284, b.
-
-  Παράσημον, 263, b.
-
-  Παράσιτος, 284, b.
-
-  Παρασκήνιον, 372, a.
-
-  Παραστάς, 141, a.
-
-  Παράστασι, ἐν, 367, a.
-
-  Παραστάται, 266, a.
-
-  Πάρεδροι, 284, b.
-
-  Παρήορος, 124, b.
-
-  Πάροδοι, 372, a.
-
-  Πάροδος, 85, b.
-
-  Πάροχος, 250, a.
-
-  Παστός, 289, b.
-
-  Πάτραι, 389, a.
-
-  Πεδιαῖοι, 390, a.
-
-  Πέδιλον, 64, b.
-
-  Πεζέταιροι, 163, b.
-
-  Πελάται, 288, b.
-
-  Πέλεκυς, 331, b.
-
-  Πελτασταί, 42, a; 163, a; 289, a.
-
-  Πέλτη, 42, a; 288, b.
-
-  Πενέσται, 289, a.
-
-  Πενταετηρίς, 274, b.
-
-  Πένταθλοι, 289, a.
-
-  Πένταθλον, 289, a.
-
-  Πεντακοσιαρχία, 163, b.
-
-  Πεντακοσιομέδιμνοι, 81, b; 390, a.
-
-  Πενταλιθίζειν, 362, a.
-
-  Πεντάλιθος, 198, a.
-
-  Πεντάπτυχα, 360, a.
-
-  Πεντηκόντορος, 260, b; 262, a.
-
-  Πεντηκοστή, 289, a.
-
-  Πεντηκοστήρ, 161, a.
-
-  Πεντηκοστολόγοι, 289, b.
-
-  Πεντηκοστύς, 161, a.
-
-  Πεντήρεις, 262, a.
-
-  Πέπλος, 289, b.
-
-  Περίαμμα, 24, a.
-
-  Περίαπτον, 24, a.
-
-  Περίβλημα, 19, b.
-
-  Περιβόλαιον, 19, b.
-
-  Περίβολος, 323, a.
-
-  Περίδειπνον, 187, a.
-
-  Περίοικοι, 290, b.
-
-  Περίπατος, 258, b.
-
-  Περιπόδιον, 213, a.
-
-  Περίπολοι, 153, b; 162, a.
-
-  Περίπτερος, 367, a.
-
-  Περιῤῥαντήρια, 366, b.
-
-  Περισκελλίς, 291, a.
-
-  Περιστύλιον, 102, a; 140, b.
-
-  Περιτειχισμός, 406, b.
-
-  Περόνη, 178, b.
-
-  Πεσσοί, 221, a.
-
-  Πεταλισμός, 172, b.
-
-  Πέτασος, 297, b.
-
-  Πέταυρον, 292, a.
-
-  Πέτευρον, 292, a.
-
-  Πετροβόλος, 381, a.
-
-  Πηδάλιον, 265, b.
-
-  Πήληξ, 192, b.
-
-  Πήνη, 364, a.
-
-  Πηνίκη, 104, a.
-
-  Πήνιον, 192, a.
-
-  Πήρα, 290, a.
-
-  Πῆχυς, 122, a; 245, b.
-
-  Πίθος, 417, a.
-
-  Πιθοιγία, 136, a.
-
-  Πίλημα, 297, a.
-
-  Πῖλος, 297, a.
-
-  Πιλωτόν, 297, a.
-
-  Πινακική, 45, b.
-
-  Πινακοθήκη, 293, b.
-
-  Πλαγίαυλος, 376, b.
-
-  Πλαστική, 349, a.
-
-  Πλέθρον, 300, b.
-
-  Πλῆκτρον, 246, a.
-
-  Πλήμνη, 124, a.
-
-  Πλημοχόαι, 151, a.
-
-  Πλημοχόη, 151, a.
-
-  Πληρεῖς, 65, b.
-
-  Πλίνθος, 220, b.
-
-  Πλοῖον, 259, b; 262, a.
-
-  Πλυντήρια, 301, a.
-
-  Πόδες, 260, b; 267, b.
-
-  Ποιεῖν, 7, a.
-
-  Ποιεῖσθαι, 7. a.
-
-  Ποίησις, 7, a.
-
-  Ποιητός, 7, a.
-
-  Ποινή, 301, a.
-
-  Πολέμαρχος, 35, a; 162, b; 301, a.
-
-  Πόλις, 91, b.
-
-  Πολιτεία, 90, b; 203, a.
-
-  Πολίτης, 90, b.
-
-  Πόλος, 206, a.
-
-  Πολύμιτος, 364, b.
-
-  Πολύπτυχα, 360, a.
-
-  Πομπή, 301, b.
-
-  Πορισταί, 305, a; 362, b.
-
-  Πόρπαξ, 161, b.
-
-  Πόρπη, 178, b.
-
-  Ποσειδεών, 65, b.
-
-  Ποῦς, 292, a.
-
-  Πράκτορες, 306, b.
-
-  Προάγνευσις, 150, a.
-
-  Προβολή, 310, a.
-
-  Προβούλευμα, 61, b.
-
-  Πρόβουλοι, 310, a.
-
-  Προγάμεια, 250, a.
-
-  Πρόδομος, 367, a.
-
-  Προδοσία, 310, b.
-
-  Πρόδρομος, 141, a.
-
-  Προεδρία, 214, b.
-
-  Πρόεδροι, 61, b.
-
-  Πρόθεσις, 185, a.
-
-  Προθεσμία, 311, b.
-
-  Προθεσμίας νόμος, 311, b.
-
-  Πρόθυρα, 140, a.
-
-  Πρόθυρον, 16, b.
-
-  Προικὸς δίκη, 345, a.
-
-  Προΐξ, 145, a.
-
-  Προκάθαρσις, 150, a.
-
-  Προκαταβολή, 363, a.
-
-  Πρόκλησις, 132, a.
-
-  Πρόλογος, 383, b.
-
-  Πρόμαχοι, 41, b.
-
-  Προμήθεια, 311, a.
-
-  Πρόναος, 367, a.
-
-  Προξενία, 208, a.
-
-  Πρόξενος, 209, a.
-
-  Προπύλαια, 311, a.
-
-  Προσκατάβλημα, 365, a.
-
-  Προσκεφάλειον, 222, a.
-
-  Προσκήνιον, 372, a.
-
-  Πρόσκλησις, 131, b; 248, b.
-
-  Προσκύνησις, 7, b.
-
-  Προστάς, 141, a.
-
-  Προστάτης, 91, a,
-    τοῦ δήμου, 311, b.
-
-  Προστιμᾶν, 378, a.
-
-  Προστιμᾶσθαι, 378, a.
-
-  Προστίμημα, 132, b; 378, a.
-
-  Προστόον, 140, b.
-
-  Πρόστυλος, 367, a.
-
-  Προσωπεῖον, 291, a.
-
-  Πρόσωπον, 291, a.
-
-  Προτέλεια γάμων, 249, b.
-
-  Προτομή, 40, b.
-
-  Πρότονοι, 259, b; 267, b.
-
-  Προφήτης, 150, a.
-
-  Προφῆτις, 277, a.
-
-  Προχειροτονία, 62, a.
-
-  Προωμοσία, 132, a.
-
-  Πρυλέες, 327, b.
-
-  Πρύλις, 327, b.
-
-  Πρύμνη, 264, b.
-
-  Πρυτανεία, 61, b.
-
-  Πρυτανεῖα, 131, b; 313, b.
-
-  Πρυτανεῖον, 313, a.
-
-  Πρυτανεῖς, 61, b; 313, b.
-
-  Πρωΐ, 134, b.
-
-  Πρώρα, 263, a.
-
-  Πρωράται, 259, a.
-
-  Πρωρεύς, 264, b.
-
-  Πρωταγωνιστής, 205, b.
-
-  Πρωτοστάτης, 161, b.
-
-  Πυανέψια, 315, b.
-
-  Πυανεψιών, 65, b.
-
-  Πυγμαχία, 315, a.
-
-  Πυγμή, 315, a.
-
-  Πυγμοσύνη, 315, a.
-
-  Πυέλοι, 54, b; 185, b.
-
-  Πύθια, 315, b.
-
-  Πύθιοι, 316, a.
-
-  Πυκνόστυλος, 367, b.
-
-  Πύκται, 315, a.
-
-  Πυλαγόραι, 20, a.
-
-  Πυλαία, 20, a.
-
-  Πύλη, 305, a.
-
-  Πυλίς, 305, a.
-
-  Πυλών, 140, b; 305, b.
-
-  Πύξ, 315, a.
-
-  Πυξίδιον, 316, a.
-
-  Πύξις, 316, a.
-
-  Πυράγρα, 254, b.
-
-  Πυραί, 185, b.
-
-  Πύργος, 402, a.
-
-  Πυρία, 55, b.
-
-  Πυριατήριον, 55, b.
-
-  Πυῤῥίχη, 327, b.
-
-  Πυῤῥιχισταί, 328, a.
-
-  Πῶγων, 57, a.
-
-  Πωλῆται, 301, b.
-
-  Πῶμο, 207, a.
-
-
-  Ρ.
-
-  Ῥαβδίον, 295, b.
-
-  Ῥαβδονόμοι, 15, a.
-
-  Ῥαβδοῦχοι, 15, a; 249, a.
-
-  Ῥαιστήρ, 254, b.
-
-  Ῥαφίς, 6, b.
-
-  Ῥήτρα, 322, a.
-
-  Ῥινοπύλη, 305, b.
-
-  Ῥιπίς, 179, b.
-
-  Ῥόμβος, 198, a.
-
-  Ῥυμός, 31, b; 124, a.
-
-  Ῥυτόν, 322, b.
-
-
-  Σ.
-
-  Σαγήνη, 320, b.
-
-  Σάκκος, 101, b; 103, a; 323, a.
-
-  Σάκος, 41, b.
-
-  Σαλαμίνια, 283, b.
-
-  Σαλαμίνιοι, 283, b.
-
-  Σάλπιγξ, 399, a.
-
-  Σαμβύκη, 329, a.
-
-  Σαμβυκιστριαί, 329, a.
-
-  Σανδάλιον, 329, a.
-
-  Σάνδαλον, 329, a.
-
-  Σανίς, 215, a.
-
-  Σαρδών, 320, a.
-
-  Σάρισα, or Σάρισσα, 163, a.
-
-  Σαυρωτήρ, 200, a.
-
-  Σεβαστός, 53, a.
-
-  Σειραφόρος, 124, b.
-
-  Σεῖστρον, 344, a.
-
-  Σηκός, 367, a.
-
-  Σημαίαι, 343, a.
-
-  Σήματα, 186, a.
-
-  Σημειογράφοι, 272, a.
-
-  Σημεῖον, 343, a.
-
-  Σίγυννος, 289, a.
-
-  Σίκιννις, 85, b.
-
-  Σιτηρέσιον, 162, b.
-
-  Σιτοδεῖαι, 345, a.
-
-  Σιτοπῶλαι, 345, a.
-
-  Σῖτος, 344, b.
-
-  Σίτου δίκη, 345, a.
-
-  Σιτοφυλακεῖον, 207, b.
-
-  Σιτοφύλακες, 15, b; 344, b.
-
-  Σιτῶναι, 345, a.
-
-  Σκαλμοί, 264, b.
-
-  Σκαπέδρα, 198, a.
-
-  Σκάφη, 262, b.
-
-  Σκέπαρνον, 44, a.
-
-  Σκεύη κρεμαστά, 265, b.
-    ξύλινα, 265, b.
-
-  Σκηνή, 372, a.
-
-  Σκῆπτρον, 330, a.
-
-  Σκιάδειον, 404, b.
-
-  Σκιάδιον, 404, b.
-
-  Σκιαδίσκη, 404, b.
-
-  Σκιάθηρον, 206, a.
-
-  Σκιάς, 376, a.
-
-  Σκιροφοριών, 65, b.
-
-  Σκόλοψ, 121, a.
-
-  Σκύθαι, 129, b; 147, a.
-
-  Σκυτάλη, 331, a.
-
-  Σμίλη, 139, b.
-
-  Σοροί, 185, b.
-
-  Σπάθη, 364, b.
-
-  Σπάργανον, 212, a.
-
-  Σπεῖρα, 347, b.
-
-  Σπονδαί, 325, b.
-
-  Σπονδοφόροι, 274, a.
-
-  Στάδιον, 348, b.
-
-  Στάδιος, 348, b.
-
-  Σταθμός, 215, a; 239, a; 247, b.
-
-  Σταθμοῦχοι, 359, a.
-
-  Στάσιμον, 111, a; 384, a.
-
-  Στατήρ, 349, a.
-
-  Σταυρός, 121, a.
-
-  Στέφανος, 118, a.
-
-  Στῆλαι, 186, a.
-
-  Στήμων, 364, a.
-
-  Στλεγγίς, 17, b; 56, b.
-
-  Στοά, 140, b; 305, b.
-
-  Στόλος, 263, b.
-
-  Στόμιον, 182, b.
-
-  Στοιχεῖον, 206, a.
-
-  Στρατηγός, 3, b; 13, a; 308, a; 355, a.
-    ὁ ἐπὶ διοικήσεως, 363, a.
-
-  Στρατός, 160, b.
-
-  Στρεπτός, 381, b.
-
-  Στρόβιλος, 198, a.
-
-  Στρογγύλαι, 261, a; 262, a.
-
-  Στρῶμα, 154, a; 222, a.
-
-  Στύλος, 101, b; 354, a.
-
-  Στύραξ, 200, a.
-
-  Συγγένεια, 203, a.
-
-  Συγγενεῖς, 203, a.
-
-  Συγγραφή, 358, b.
-
-  Σύγκλητος ἐκκλησία, 146, b.
-
-  Συκοφάντης, 356, a.
-
-  Σῦλαι, 356, b.
-
-  Συλλογεῖς, 357, a.
-
-  Συμβόλαιον, 357, a.
-
-  Συμβολή, 95, b.
-
-  Σύμμαχοι, 345, b.
-
-  Συμμορία, 149, a; 393, a.
-
-  Συμπόσιον, 357, a.
-
-  Συνάλλαγμα, 357, a.
-
-  Σύνδικος, 271, b; 358, a.
-
-  Συνέδριον, 358, a.
-
-  Σύνεδροι, 358, a.
-
-  Συνηγορικόν, 358, b.
-
-  Συνήγορος, 160, b; 358, a.
-
-  Συνθήκη, 357, a.
-
-  Σύνθημα, 368, b.
-
-  Σύνοδος, 117, a.
-
-  Συνοικία, 358, b.
-
-  Σύνταγμα, 163, a.
-
-  Συντάξεις, 358, a.
-
-  Σύνταξις, 365, b.
-
-  Συντέλεια, 393, a.
-
-  Συντελεῖς, 393, a.
-
-  Συντριήραρχοι, 392, b.
-
-  Συνωρίς, 124, b.
-
-  Σύριγξ, 359, a.
-
-  Σύρμα, 359, b.
-
-  Σύσκηνοι, 116, b.
-
-  Συσσίτια, 359, b.
-
-  Σύστασις, 163, b.
-
-  Σύστυλος, 367, b.
-
-  Σφαγίς, 122, a.
-
-  Σφαῖρα, 296, a.
-
-  Σφαιρεῖς, 296, b.
-
-  Σφαιριστήριον, 198, a; 296, b.
-
-  Σφαιριστική, 198, a; 296, a.
-
-  Σφαιριστικός, 296, b.
-
-  Σφαιρίστρα, 296, b.
-
-  Σφενδόνη, 103, b; 184, b.
-
-  Σφενδονήται, 184, b.
-
-  Σφίδες, 246, a.
-
-  Σφραγίς, 25, b.
-
-  Σφύρα, 254, b.
-
-  Σφυρήλατον, 254, b.
-
-  Σχεδίαι, 260, a.
-
-  Σχοινία, 267, b; 268, a.
-
-  Σχοινοβάτης, 184, b.
-
-  Σχοῖνος, 330, b.
-
-  Σωφρονίσται, 197, b.
-
-  Σωφροσύνη, 197, b.
-
-
-  Τ.
-
-  Ταγός, 360, b.
-
-  Ταινία, 264, b; 355, b.
-
-  Ταινίδιον, 355, b.
-
-  Τάλαντα, 239, a.
-
-  Τάλαντον, 361, a.
-
-  Τάλαρος, 64, a.
-
-  Ταλασία, 363, b.
-
-  Ταλασιουργία, 363, b.
-
-  Ταμίας, 316, b; 362, a.
-
-  Ταξίαρχοι, 163, b; 363, a.
-
-  Τάξις, 163, b; 163, a.
-
-  Ταῤῥός, 265, b.
-
-  Τάφοι, 186, a.
-
-  Ταφροποιοί, 363, a.
-
-  Τάφρος, 406, b.
-
-  Ταχυγράφοι, 272, a.
-
-  Τέθριππος, 124, a.
-
-  Τειχοποιός, 363, b.
-
-  Τεῖχος, 257, a.
-
-  Τελαμών, 47, b; 57, a.
-
-  Ταλεταί, 258, b.
-
-  Τέλος, 163, b; 365, b.
-
-  Τελωνάρχης, 365, a.
-
-  Τελώνης, 289, b; 365, a.
-
-  Τέμενος, 366, b.
-
-  Τέρμα, 205, b.
-
-  Τετράδραχμον, 145, b.
-
-  Τετραλογία, 383, a.
-
-  Τετραορία, 124, a.
-
-  Τετράρχης, 370, a.
-
-  Τετραρχία, 163, a; 370, a.
-
-  Τετράστυλος, 367, a.
-
-  Τετρήρεις, 262, a.
-
-  Τετταράκοντα, οἱ, 16, a; 370, a.
-
-  Τεύχεα, 41, a.
-
-  Τήβεννος, 378, a.
-
-  Τιάρα, 376, b.
-
-  Τιάρας, 376, b.
-
-  Τίμημα, 81, b; 377, b.
-
-  Τιμητεία, 78, b.
-
-  Τιμητής, 78, b.
-
-  Τόκοι ἔγγειοι, 176, b.
-    ἔγγυοι, 176, b.
-    ναυτικοί, 176, b.
-
-  Τόκος, 176, b.
-
-  Τολύπη, 191, b.
-
-  Τόνοι, 222, a.
-
-  Τόξαρχοι, 129, b.
-
-  Τοξοθήκη, 37, b.
-
-  Τόξον, 37, b.
-
-  Τοξόται, 129, b; 147, a.
-
-  Τοπεῖα, 267, b.
-
-  Τορευτική, 63, b.
-
-  Τορύνη, 399, a.
-
-  Τραγῳδία, 381, b.
-
-  Τράπεζα, 253, b.
-
-  Τράπεζαι, 186, b.
-    δεύτεραι, 96, a.
-    πρῶται, 96, a.
-
-  Τραπεζίται, 39, a.
-
-  Τράφηξ, 264, b.
-
-  Τρίαινα, 191, b.
-
-  Τριακάδες, 389, a.
-
-  Τριακοσιομέδιμνοι, 81, b.
-
-  Τριβόλος, 385, a.
-
-  Τριτηρίς, 65, b.
-
-  Τριηραρχία, 224, b; 392, b.
-
-  Τριήραρχοι, 392, b.
-
-  Τριήρεις, 260, b.
-
-  Τριηροποιοί, 261, a; 363, a.
-
-  Τρίμιπος, 364, b.
-
-  Τρίπολος, 32, b.
-
-  Τρίπους, 253, b; 394, a.
-
-  Τρίπτυχα, 360, a.
-
-  Τρίτα, 187, a.
-
-  Τριταγωνιστής, 205, b.
-
-  Τριττύα, 325, a.
-
-  Τριττύς, 389, a.
-
-  Τριώβολον, 394, a.
-
-  Τροπαῖον, 398, a.
-
-  Τροπωτήρ, 265, a.
-
-  Τρόχιλος, 347, b.
-
-  Τροχός, 124, a; 178, b; 398, a.
-
-  Τρυβλίον, 120, b.
-
-  Τρύγοιπος, 101, b.
-
-  Τρυγῳδία, 110, b.
-
-  Τρυτάνη, 399, a.
-
-  Τρυφάλεια, 193, a.
-
-  Τυλεῖον, 222, a.
-
-  Τύλη, 222, a.
-
-  Τύμβος, 186, a.
-
-  Τύμπανον, 403, a.
-
-  Τύπος, 178, b.
-
-  Τυραννίς, 403, b.
-
-  Τύραννος, 403, a.
-
-
-  Υ.
-
-  Ὑακίνθια, 209, b.
-
-  Ὕαλος, 420, a.
-
-  Ὕβρεως γραφή, 16, b; 210, a.
-
-  Ὑδραγωγία, 29, b.
-
-  Ὑδραλέτης, 256, a.
-
-  Ὑδρανός, 150, a.
-
-  Ὑδραύλις, 210, a.
-
-  Ὑδρία, 345, a.
-
-  Ὑδριαφορία, 210, b.
-
-  Ὑδρόμελι, 418, b.
-
-  Ὕδωρ, 207, a.
-
-  Ὕλη, 260, b.
-
-  Ὑλλεῖς, 389, a.
-
-  Ὕπαιθρον, 140, b.
-
-  Ὕπαιθρος, 102, a.
-
-  Ὑπασπισταί, 161, b; 163, b.
-
-  Ὕπατος, 113, b.
-
-  Ὑπέραι, 260, b; 267, b.
-
-  Ὑπερῷον, 140, a; 141, b.
-
-  Ὑπεύθυνος, 34, a; 160, a; 393, b.
-
-  Ὑπήνη, 57, a.
-
-  Ὑπηρεσία, 393, b.
-
-  Ὑπηρέτης, 162, b.
-
-  Ὑπόγαιον, 186, a.
-
-  Ὑπόγειον, 186, a.
-
-  Ὑπογραφίς, 295, b.
-
-  Ὑπόδημα, 64, b; 329, a.
-
-  Ὑποζάκοροι, 10, a.
-
-  Ὑποζώματα, 267, a.
-
-  Ὑποκριτής, 205, b.
-
-  Ὑπολήνιον, 416, b.
-
-  Ὑπομείονες, 91, b; 206, a.
-
-  Ὑπόνομος, 122, b; 152, a.
-
-  Ὑποπόδιον, 376, a.
-
-  Ὑπόρχημα, 210, b; 327, a.
-
-  Ὑποστρατηγός, 3, b.
-
-  Ὑπωμοσία, 132, a.
-
-  Ὑσσός, 200, a.
-
-  Ὑφάνται, 363, b.
-
-
-  Φ.
-
-  Φάλαγγες, 163, b.
-
-  Φαλαγγαρχία, 163, b.
-
-  Φάλαγξ, 160, b; 163, b.
-
-  Φάλαρον, 292, a.
-
-  Φάλος, 192, b.
-
-  Φανός, 176, a.
-
-  Φαρέτρα, 292, b
-
-  Φαρμακείας γραφή, 292, b.
-
-  Φαρμακοί, 370, a.
-
-  Φαρμάκων γραφή, 292, b.
-
-  Φᾶρος, 280, b.
-
-  Φάρος, 292, b.
-
-  Φάσγανον, 196, a.
-
-  Φάσηλας, 293, a.
-
-  Φάσις, 293, a.
-
-  Φειδίτης, 360, a.
-
-  Φενάκη, 104, a.
-
-  Φερνή, 145, a.
-
-  Φεύγειν, 172, a.
-
-  Φθορά, 8, a.
-
-  Φιάλη, 285, b.
-
-  Φιμός, 182, b.
-
-  Φορβειά, 70, b.
-
-  Φορεῖον, 221, a.
-
-  Φόρμιγξ, 245, a.
-
-  Φόρος, 358, a.
-
-  Φορτηγοί, 262, a.
-
-  Φορτικά, 262, a.
-
-  Φρατρία, 389, a.
-
-  Φρατρικὸν γραμματεῖον, 7, a.
-
-  Φυγή, 172, a.
-
-  Φῦκος, 183, b.
-
-  Φύλακες, 155, a.
-
-  Φυλακτήριον, 24, a.
-
-  Φύλαρχοι, 162, b; 293, a.
-
-  Φυλή, 162, a; 388, a.
-
-  Φυλοβασιλεῖς, 293, a.
-
-  Φῦλον, 388, a.
-
-  Φωταγωγία, 150, b.
-
-
-  Χ.
-
-  Χαλδαίων μέθοδοι, 45, b.
-
-  Χαλδαίων ψηφίδες, 45, b.
-
-  Χαλινός, 182, a.
-
-  Χαλκιοίκια, 83, a.
-
-  Χαλκός, 12, a.
-
-  Χαλκοῦς, 12, a; 83, a.
-
-  Χάρακες, 406, b.
-
-  Χειρόγραφον, 83, b.
-
-  Χειροτονεῖν, 83, b.
-
-  Χειροτονητοί, 83, b.
-
-  Χειροτονία, 34, a; 83, b.
-
-  Χέλυς, 245, b.
-
-  Χελώνη, 245, b; 369, a.
-
-  Χηνίσκος, 263, b.
-
-  Χιλαρχία, 163, b.
-
-  Χιτών, 400, a.
-    σχιστός, 400, a.
-
-  Χιτώνιον, 400, a; 401, a.
-
-  Χιτωνίσκος, 400, a.
-
-  Χλαῖνα, 220, a.
-
-  Χλαμύς, 84, a.
-
-  Χλαμύδιον, 84, a.
-
-  Χλιδών, 42, b.
-
-  Χοαί, 187, b.
-
-  Χόες, 136, a.
-
-  Χοεύς, 85, b.
-
-  Χοίνιξ, 84, b.
-
-  Χορηγία, 84, b.
-
-  Χορηγός, 84, b.
-
-  Χοροδιδάσκαλος, 84, b.
-
-  Χορός, 85, a; 198, b.
-    κύκλικος, 85, a.
-
-  Χοῦς, 85, b.
-
-  Χρέους δίκη, 377, b.
-
-  Χρησμόλογοι, 138, a.
-
-  Χρηστήριον, 276, b.
-
-  Χρονολογία, 85, b.
-
-  Χρυσός, 53, b.
-
-  Χρυσοῦς, 349, a.
-
-  Χύτρα, 273, b.
-
-  Χύτροι, 136, a.
-
-  Χῶμα, 14, b; 186, a.
-
-
-  Ψ.
-
-  Ψάλιον, 42, b.
-
-  Ψέλιον, or Ψέλλιον, 42, b.
-
-  Ψευδεγγραφῆς γραφή, 314, a.
-
-  Ψευδοδίπτερος, 367, a.
-
-  Ψευδοπερίπτερος, 367, a.
-
-  Ψήφισμα, 62, a; 147, b; 272, a.
-
-  Ψῆφος, 221, a; 313, b.
-
-  Ψιλοί, 41, b.
-
-  Ψυκτήρ, 314, a.
-
-
-  Ω.
-
-  Ὠβαί, 191, b; 389, a.
-
-  Ὠδεῖον, 273, a.
-
-  Ὠρεῖον, 207, b.
-
-  Ὡρολόγιον, 206, b.
-
-  Ὡροσκόπος, 46, a.
-
-  Ὠσχοφόρια, 278, a.
-
-
-
-
-LATIN INDEX.
-
-
-  A.
-
-  Abacus, 1, a.
-
-  Ablegmina, 325, a.
-
-  Abolla, 1, a.
-
-  Abrogare legem, 225, b.
-
-  Absolutio, 216, a.
-
-  Accensi, 165, b; 168, b.
-
-  Accensus, 1, b.
-
-  Acclamatio, 2, a.
-
-  Accubatio, 2, a.
-
-  Accubitoria vestis, 359, a.
-
-  Accusatio, 121, a.
-
-  Accusator, 6, a; 216, a.
-
-  Accusatorum libelli, 237, b.
-
-  Acerra, 2, b.
-
-  Acetabulum, 2, b.
-
-  Achaicum fœdus, 3, a.
-
-  Acies, 199, b.
-
-  Acilia lex, 226, a.
-
-  Acilia Calpurnia lex, 18, b.
-
-  Acinaces, 3, b.
-
-  Acisculus, 44, b.
-
-  Aclis, 4, a; 201, a.
-
-  Acroama, 4, a.
-
-  Acropolis, 4, a.
-
-  Acroterium, 4, a.
-
-  Acta, 4, b.
-    diurna, 4, b.
-    forensia, 4 b.
-    jurare in, 4, b.
-    militaria, 4 b.
-    patrum, 4, b.
-    senatus, 4, b.
-
-  Actio, 5, a; 213, b.
-    exercitoria, 160, b.
-    fiduciaria, 179, a.
-    injuriarum, 213, a.
-    in jure, 6, a.
-    Legis or Legitima, 5, a.
-    de pauperie, 288, a.
-    de peculio, 339, b.
-    rei uxoriæ, or dotis, 145, b.
-    restitutoria, 213, b.
-    Sepulchri violati, 190, b.
-
-  Actionem dare, 5, b.
-    edere, 5, b.
-
-  Actor, 6, a.
-    publicus, 6, a.
-
-  Actuariæ naves, 6, a; 262, a.
-
-  Actuarii, 6, a; 272, b.
-
-  Actus, 6, b; 300, b.
-    minimus, 6, b.
-    quadratus, 6, b.
-    simplex, 6, b.
-
-  Acus, 6, b.
-
-  Adcrescendi jure, 204, a.
-
-  Addico, 48, b; 50, a.
-
-  Addicti, 269, b.
-
-  Ademptio equi, 80, b.
-
-  Adfines, 13, a.
-
-  Adfinitas, 13, a.
-
-  Adgnati, 98, a.
-
-  Adgnatio, 98, a.
-
-  Adlecti, 6, b.
-
-  Admissionales, 6, b.
-
-  Admissionum proximus, 6, b.
-
-  Adolescentes, 212, b.
-
-  Adoptio, 7, a.
-
-  Adoratio, 7, b.
-
-  Adrogatio, 7, a.
-
-  Adsertor, 45, a.
-
-  Adsessor, 45, a.
-
-  Adversaria, 8, a.
-
-  Adversarius, 6, a.
-
-  Adulterium (Greek), 7, b.
-
-  Adulterium (Roman), 8, a.
-
-  Adulti, 6, b; 212, b.
-
-  Advocatus, 8, b.
-
-  Aebutia lex, 226, a.
-
-  Aedes, 366, b.
-    sacra, 366, b.
-
-  Aediles, 8, b.
-    cereales, 9, b.
-
-  Aeditimi, 10, a.
-
-  Aeditui, 10, a.
-
-  Aeditumi, 10, a.
-
-  Aegis, 10, b.
-
-  Aelia lex, 226, a.
-    Sentia lex, 226, a.
-
-  Aemilia lex, 226, a.
-    Baebia lex, 228, a.
-    Lepidi lex, 235, b.
-    Scauri lex, 248, b.
-
-  Aenatores, 11, a.
-
-  Aenei nummi, 12, a; 341, b.
-
-  Aenum, 11, a.
-
-  Aeora, 11, a.
-
-  Aera, 12, a.
-
-  Aerarii, 11, a.
-    Tribuni, 12, b; 385, b.
-
-  Aerarium, 11, b.
-    militare, 11, b.
-    Praetores ad, 11, b.
-    sanctum, 11, b.
-
-  Aerii nummi, 341, b.
-
-  Aes, 12, a.
-
-  Aes (money), 12, a.
-    alienum, 12, a.
-    circumforaneum, 12, a.
-    equestre, 12, a; 156, b.
-    grave, 12, a; 43, b.
-    hordearium, or hordiarium 12, a; 156, b.
-    militare, 12, a.
-    uxorium, 12, b.
-
-  Aestivae feriae, 177, b.
-
-  Aetolicum fœdus, 13, a.
-
-  Affines, 13, a.
-
-  Affinitas, 13, a.
-
-  Agaso, 13, b.
-
-  Agema, 13, b.
-
-  Ager, 13, b.
-    iteratus, 32, b.
-    publicus, 13, b.
-    scriptuarius, 331, a.
-
-  Agger, 14, b; 75, a; 302, b.
-
-  Agitator, 89, a.
-
-  Agmen, 167, a.
-    pilatum, 167, a.
-    quadratum, 167, a.
-
-  Agnati, 98, a.
-
-  Agnatio, 98, a.
-
-  Agnomen, 271, b.
-
-  Agonales, 326, b.
-
-  Agonalia, 15, a.
-
-  Agonensis, 326, b.
-
-  Agonia, 15, a.
-
-  Agonium Martiale, 15, a.
-
-  Agonus, 15, a.
-
-  Agoranomi, 15, b.
-
-  Agrariae leges, 14, b.
-
-  Agraulia, 15, b.
-
-  Agrimensores, 16, a.
-
-  Agronomi, 16, a.
-
-  Ahenum, 11, a.
-
-  Ala, 16, b.
-
-  Alae, 142, b; 171, b.
-
-  Alabaster, 16, b.
-
-  Alabastrum, 16, b.
-
-  Alares, 16, b.
-
-  Alarii, 16, b.
-
-  Alauda, 17, a.
-    legio, 17, a.
-
-  Albogalerus, 28, a.
-
-  Album, 17, a.
-    judicum, 17, a.
-    Senatorium, 17, a.
-
-  Alea, 17, a.
-
-  Aleator, 17, a.
-
-  Ales, 50, a.
-
-  Alicula, 17, a.
-
-  Alimentarii pueri et puellae, 17, b.
-
-  Alipilus, 17, b.
-
-  Aliptae, 17, b.
-
-  Alites, 50, a.
-
-  Allocutio, 17, b; 385, a.
-
-  Altare, 31, a.
-
-  Aluta, 65, b.
-
-  Amanuensis, 18, a.
-
-  Ambarvalia, 43, a.
-
-  Ambitus, 18, a.
-
-  Ambrosia, 19, a.
-
-  Ambubaiae, 19, a.
-
-  Ambulationes, 208, a.
-
-  Amburbiale, 19, a.
-
-  Amburbium, 19, a.
-
-  Amentum, 200, a.
-
-  Amicire, 19, a.
-
-  Amictorium, 19, a; 335, b.
-
-  Amictus, 19, a.
-
-  Amphictyones, 19, b.
-
-  Amphitheatrum, 21, a.
-
-  Amphora, 23, a; 316, b; 417, a.
-
-  Ampliatio, 23, b; 215, b.
-
-  Ampulla, 17, b; 23, b; 56, b.
-
-  Ampullarius, 24, a.
-
-  Amuletum, 24, a.
-
-  Amussis, or Amussium, 24, b.
-
-  Anagnostae, 24, b.
-
-  Anatocismus, 177, a.
-
-  Ancilia, 326, b.
-
-  Ancora, 268, a.
-
-  Ancones, 320, b.
-
-  Andabatae, 195, a.
-
-  Angaria, 25, a.
-
-  Angariarum exhibitio, or praestatio, 25, a.
-
-  Angiportus, or Angiportum, 25, a.
-
-  Angustus clavus, 92, b.
-
-  Animadversio censoria, 80, a.
-
-  Anio novus, 30, a.
-    vetus, 30, a.
-  Annales maximi, 175, b; 304, b.
-
-  Annalis lex, 226, b; 334, a.
-
-  Annona, 25, a.
-    civica, 183, b.
-
-  Annuli aurei jus, 25, b.
-
-  Annulorum jus, 25, b.
-
-  Annulus, 25, b.
-
-  Annus magnus, 66, a.
-
-  Anquina, 267, b.
-
-  Anquisitio, 26, a; 216 b.
-
-  Antae, 26, a.
-
-  Anteambulones, 26, b.
-
-  Antecessores, 26, b.
-
-  Antecoena, 96, b.
-
-  Antecursores, 26, b.
-
-  Antefixa, 26, b.
-
-  Antemeridianum tempus, 134, b.
-
-  Antenna, 267, a.
-
-  Antepilani, 165, b; 168, b.
-
-  Antesignani, 168, b.
-
-  Antia lex, 236, a.
-
-  Anticum, 214, b.
-
-  Antiquarii, 239, a.
-
-  Antlia, 27, a.
-
-  Antoniae leges, 226, b.
-
-  Apaturia, 27, b.
-
-  Aperta navis, 261, b.
-
-  Apex, 28, a.
-
-  Aplustre, 264, b.
-
-  Apodectae, 28, a.
-
-  Apodyterium, 56, a.
-
-  Apollinares ludi, 242, b.
-
-  Apophoreta, 28, b.
-
-  Apotheca, 28, b; 58, b.
-
-  Apotheosis, 28, b.
-
-  Apparitio, 29, a.
-
-  Apparitores, 29, a.
-
-  Appellatio (Greek), 29, a.
-    (Roman), 29, a.
-
-  Aprilis, 66, a.
-
-  Apuleia lex, 226, b.
-    agraria lex, 226, b.
-    frumentaria lex, 226, b.
-    majestatis lex, 226, b.
-
-  Aqua, 29, b.
-    Alexandrina, 30, b.
-    Algentia, 30, b.
-    Alsietina, or Augusta, 30, a.
-    Appia, 30, a.
-    Claudia, 30, a.
-    Crabra, 30, b.
-    Julia, 30, a.
-    Marcia, 30, a.
-    Septimiana, 30, b.
-    Tepula, 30, a.
-    Trajana, 30, b.
-    Virgo, 30, a.
-
-  Aquae ductus, 29, b.
-    et ignis interdictio, 173, a.
-
-  Aquarii, 31, a.
-
-  Aquila, 343, a.
-
-  Aquilifer, 169, b.
-
-  Ara, 31, a.
-
-  Aratrum, 31, b.
-
-  Arbiter, 215, b.
-
-  Arbiter bibendi, 357, b.
-
-  Arbitrium, 188, a.
-
-  Arca, 32, a; 188, b.
-
-  Arca, ex, 39, b.
-
-  Arca publica, 336, b.
-
-  Arcera, 33, a.
-
-  Archiater, 33, a.
-
-  Archimagirus, 97, a.
-
-  Archimimus, 188, a; 256, a.
-
-  Architectura, 33, a.
-
-  Archon, 34, b.
-
-  Arcus, 36, a; 37, b.
-    triumphalis, 36, b.
-    Constantini, 37, b.
-    Drusi, 37, a.
-    Gallieni, 37, b.
-    Septimii Severi, 37, a.
-    Titi, 37, a.
-
-  Area, 37, a.
-
-  Areiopagus, 37, a.
-
-  Arena, 21, a.
-
-  Aretalogi, 39, a.
-
-  Argei, 39, a.
-
-  Argentarii, 39, a.
-
-  Argentum, 40, a.
-
-  Argyraspides, 40, a.
-
-  Aries, 40, a.
-
-  Arma, Armatura, 41, a.
-
-  Armarium, 42, a.
-
-  Armatura levis, 170, a.
-
-  Armilla, 42, b.
-
-  Armilustrium, 42, a.
-
-  Arra, Arrabo, or Arrha, Arrhabo, 42, a.
-
-  Arrogatio, 7, a.
-
-  Ars Chaldaeorum, 45, b.
-
-  Artaba, 43, a.
-
-  Artopta, 297, a.
-
-  Artopticii, 297, a.
-
-  Arvales Fratres, 43, a.
-
-  Arundo, 364, a.
-
-  Arura, 43, a.
-
-  Aruspices, 199, b.
-
-  Arx, 43, b.
-
-  As, 43, b.
-
-  As libralis, 43, b.
-
-  Asamenta, 326, b.
-
-  Ascia, 44, a.
-
-  Asiarchae, 45, a.
-
-  Assamenta, 326, b.
-
-  Assarius, 44, a.
-
-  Asseres lecticarii, 221, b.
-
-  Assertor, 45, a.
-
-  Assertus, 45, a.
-
-  Asses Usurae, 176, b.
-
-  Assessor, 45, a.
-
-  Assidui, 240, b.
-
-  Assiduitas, 18, b.
-
-  Astragalus, 45, a.
-
-  Astrologi, 45, b.
-
-  Astrologia, 45, b.
-
-  Astronomi, 45, b.
-
-  Asyli jus, 46, a.
-
-  Asylum, 46, a.
-
-  Atellanae Fabulae, 46, b.
-
-  Aternia Tarpeia lex, 226, b.
-
-  Athenaeum, 46, b.
-
-  Athletae, 47, a.
-
-  Atia lex, 226, b.
-
-  Atilia lex, 226, b.
-
-  Atinia lex, 226, b.
-
-  Atlantes, 47, b.
-
-  Atramentum, 48, a.
-
-  Atrium, 48, a; 412, b.
-
-  Auctio, 48, b.
-
-  Auctor, 48, b.
-
-  Auctores fieri, 49, b.
-
-  Auctoramentum, 58, b; 194, b.
-
-  Auctorati, 194, b.
-
-  Auctoritas, 49, b.
-    senatus, 336, a.
-
-  Auditorium, 49, b.
-
-  Aufidia lex, 18, b.
-
-  Augur, 49, b.
-
-  Auguraculum, 43, b; 50, b; 366, a.
-
-  Augurale, 50, b; 74, b.
-
-  Augurium, 49, b; 138, b.
-
-  Augustales, 52, b.
-
-  Augustalia, 52, b.
-
-  Augustus, 53, a; 68, a.
-
-  Avia, 13, a.
-
-  Aulaeum, 372, a.
-
-  Aurelia lex, 226, b.
-
-  Aures, 32, a.
-
-  Aureus nummus, 53, b; 341, b.
-
-  Aurichalcum, 341, b.
-
-  Auriga, 89, a.
-
-  Aurum, 53, b.
-    coronarium, 54, a.
-    vicesimarium, 11, b.
-
-  Auspex, 49, b.
-
-  Auspicium, 49, b; 138, b.
-
-  Authepsa, 54, a.
-
-  Autonomi, 54, a.
-
-  Auxilia, 346, b.
-
-  Auxiliares, 170, b.
-
-  Auxiliarii, 170, b.
-
-  Axamenta, 326, b.
-
-  Axis, 124, a.
-
-
-  B.
-
-  Babylonii, 45, b.
-    numeri, 45, b.
-
-  Bacchanalia, 136, b.
-
-  Baebia lex, 227, a.
-    Aemilia lex, 228, a.
-
-  Balineae, 54, b.
-
-  Balineum, 54, b.
-
-  Balista, Ballista, 381, a.
-
-  Balneae, 54, b.
-
-  Balneator, 55, b.
-
-  Balneum, 54, b.
-
-  Balteus, or Baltea, 379, b.
-
-  Balteus, 57, a.
-
-  Baptisterium, 56, a.
-
-  Barathrum, 57, a.
-
-  Barba, 57, a.
-
-  Barbati bene, 57, b.
-
-  Barbatuli, 57, b.
-
-  Bascauda, 57, b.
-
-  Basilica, 57, b.
-
-  Basis, 101, b.
-
-  Basterna, 58, a.
-
-  Baxa, or Baxea, 58, a.
-
-  Bellaria, 97, a.
-
-  Beneficiarius, 58, b.
-
-  Beneficium, 58, b.
-
-  Benignitas, 18, b.
-
-  Bes, 44, a.
-
-  Bessis, 176, b.
-
-  Bestiarii, 58, b.
-
-  Bibasis, 328, b.
-
-  Bibliopola, 58, b.
-
-  Bibliotheca, 58, b.
-
-  Bidens, 59, a; 268, b.
-
-  Bidental, 59, a.
-
-  Bidiaei, 59, a.
-
-  Biga, or Bigae, 124, b.
-
-  Bigati, 136, b.
-
-  Billix, 364, b.
-
-  Bipennis, 331, b.
-
-  Biremis, 59, b; 260, a.
-
-  Bissextilis annus, 67, b.
-
-  Bissextum, 67, b.
-
-  Bissextus, 67, b.
-
-  Bombycinum, 337, a.
-
-  Bona, 59, b.
-    caduca, 60, a.
-    fides, 60, a.
-
-  Bonorum cessio, 60, a.
-    collatio, 60, a.
-    emtio, et emtor, 60, b.
-    possessio, 5, b; 60, b.
-
-  Bracae, or Braccae, 62, a.
-
-  Bravium, 90, a.
-
-  Bruttiani, 62, b.
-
-  Buccina, 62, b.
-
-  Buccinator, 11, a.
-
-  Bucculae, 192, b.
-
-  Bulla, 62, b.
-
-  Bura, or Buris, 31, b.
-
-  Bustuarii, 63, a.
-
-  Bustum, 63, a; 189, a.
-
-  Buxum, 63, a.
-
-  Byssus, 63, a.
-
-
-  C.
-
-  Caduceator, 63, b.
-
-  Caduceus, 63, a.
-
-  Caducum, 60, a.
-
-  Cadus, 23, b; 63, b.
-
-  Caecilia lex de censoribus, 227, a.
-    lex de vectigalibus, 227, a.
-    Didia lex, 227, a.
-
-  Caelatura, 63, b.
-
-  Caelia lex, 236, a.
-
-  Caementa, 258, a.
-
-  Caesar, 64, a.
-
-  Caetra, 83, a.
-
-  Calamistrum, 64, a.
-
-  Calamus, 64, a.
-
-  Calantica, 103, a.
-
-  Calathus, 64, a.
-
-  Calatores, 105, a.
-
-  Calceamen, 64, b.
-
-  Calceamentum, 64, b.
-
-  Calceus, 64, b.
-
-  Calculator, 65, a.
-
-  Calculi, 65, a; 221, a.
-
-  Calda lavatio, 56, a.
-
-  Caldarium, 56, a.
-
-  Calendae, 67, b.
-
-  Calendarium, 65, a; 176, b.
-
-  Calida, 77, a.
-
-  Caliga, 68, a.
-
-  Calix, 68, a.
-
-  Callis, 68, b.
-
-  Calones, 68, b.
-
-  Calpurnia lex de ambitu, 18, b.
-    lex de repetundis, 319, a.
-
-  Calvatica, 103, a.
-
-  Calumnia, 68, b.
-
-  Calx, 88, a.
-
-  Camara, 69, a.
-
-  Camera, 69, a.
-
-  Camillae, Camilli, 69, a; 252, a.
-
-  Caminus, 145, a.
-
-  Campestre, 69, a.
-
-  Canalis, 30, b.
-
-  Cancellarius, 69, b.
-
-  Cancelli, 69, a; 107, b.
-
-  Candela, 69, b.
-
-  Candelabrum, 69, b.
-
-  Candidarii, 297, b.
-
-  Candidatus, 18, b; 380, a.
-
-  Canephorus, 70, a.
-
-  Canistrum, 70, a.
-
-  Cantharus, 70, b.
-
-  Canthus, 124, a.
-
-  Canticum, 70, b.
-
-  Canuleia lex, 227, a.
-
-  Capistrum, 70, b.
-
-  Capite censi, 71, a.
-
-  Capitis deminutio, 71, a.
-
-  Capitis minutio, 71, a.
-
-  Capitolini, 242, b.
-    ludi, 242, b.
-
-  Capsa, 70, b.
-
-  Capsarii, 56, a; 71, a.
-
-  Captio, 303, b.
-
-  Capulum, 188, a.
-
-  Capulus, 32, a.
-
-  Caput, 71, a.
-    extorum, 71, b.
-
-  Caracalla, 72, a.
-
-  Carcer, 72, a.
-
-  Carceres, 87, b; 107, b.
-
-  Carchesium, 72, a; 266, b.
-
-  Carenum, 416, b.
-
-  Carmen seculare, 243, b.
-
-  Carmentalia, 72, a.
-
-  Carnifex, 72, b.
-
-  Carpentum, 72, b.
-
-  Carptor, 97, a.
-
-  Carrago, 73, a.
-
-  Carruca, 73, a.
-
-  Carrus, or Carrum, 73, a.
-
-  Caryatides, 73, a.
-
-  Caryatis, 73, a.
-
-  Cassia lex, 227, a.
-    agraria, 227, a.
-    tabellaria, 236, a.
-    Terentia frumentaria, 227, a.
-
-  Cassis, 41, b; 192, b.
-
-  Castellarii, 31, a.
-
-  Castellum aquae, 31, a.
-
-  Castra, 73, a.
-    stativa, 73, b.
-
-  Castrensis corona, 118, b.
-
-  Cataphracti, 76, a.
-
-  Catapulta, 381, a.
-
-  Cataracta, 76, a.
-
-  Catasta, 340, a.
-
-  Cateia, 76, b; 201, a.
-
-  Catella, 76, b.
-
-  Catena, 76, b.
-
-  Catervarii, 195, a.
-
-  Cathedra, 76, b.
-
-  Catillum, or Catillus, 77, a.
-
-  Catillus, 256, a.
-
-  Catinum, or Catinus, 77, a.
-
-  Cavaedium, 142, b.
-
-  Cavea, 87, a; 371, a.
-
-  Cavere, 217, b; 77, b.
-
-  Caupo, 77, a.
-
-  Caupona, 77, a.
-
-  Causia, 77, b.
-
-  Cauterium, 295, b.
-
-  Cautio, 77, b.
-
-  Cavum aedium, 142, b.
-
-  Celeres, 78, a.
-
-  Celerum tribunus, 385, a.
-
-  Cella, 78, a; 142, b; 367, a.
-    caldaria, 56, a.
-
-  Cellarius, 78, a.
-
-  Celtes, 139, b.
-
-  Cenotaphium, 78, b.
-
-  Censere, 336, a.
-
-  Censor, 78, b; 101, a.
-
-  Censura, 78, b.
-
-  Census, 78, b; 31, b; 248, a.
-    (Greek), 81, b.
-
-  Centesima, 82, a.
-    rerum venalium, 82, a.
-
-  Centesimae usurae, 176, b.
-
-  Centumviri, 82, a.
-
-  Centuria, 105, b; 166, b; 168, a; 217, a.
-
-  Centuriata comitia, 105, a.
-
-  Centurio, 165, a; 166, b; 169, a.
-    primus, 169, b.
-    primipili, 169, b.
-
-  Centussis, 44, a.
-
-  Cera, 82, b.
-
-  Cerae, 295, b; 360, b.
-
-  Ceratae tabulae, 360, a.
-
-  Cerealia, 82, b.
-
-  Cerevisia, 82, b.
-
-  Cernere hereditatem, 203, b.
-
-  Ceroma, 82, b.
-
-  Certamen, 52, b.
-
-  Ceruchi, 267, a.
-
-  Cessio bonorum, 60, a.
-
-  Cestius pons, 302, a.
-
-  Cestrum, 295, b.
-
-  Cestus, 82, b.
-
-  Cetra, 83, a.
-
-  Chaldaei, 45, b.
-
-  Charistia, 83, b.
-
-  Charta, 238, b.
-
-  Cheironomia, 83, b.
-
-  Cheniscus, 263, b.
-
-  Chirographum, 83, b.
-
-  Chlamys, 84, a.
-
-  Choregia, 84, b.
-
-  Choregus, 84, b.
-
-  Chorus, 85, a.
-
-  Chronologia, 85, b.
-
-  Chrysendeta, 86, b.
-
-  Cidaris, 376, b.
-
-  Cincia, or Muneralis, lex, 227, b.
-
-  Cinctus, 401, b.
-    Gabinus, 380, a.
-
-  Cinerarius, 64, a.
-
-  Cingulum, 41, b; 422, b.
-
-  Cinifio, 64, a.
-
-  Cippus, 86, b.
-
-  Circenses ludi, 89, a.
-
-  Circuitores, 31, a.
-
-  Circus, 87, a.
-
-  Cisium, 90, a.
-
-  Cista, 90, a; 345, b.
-
-  Cistophorus, 90, b.
-
-  Cithara, 245, a.
-
-  Civica corona, 118, a.
-
-  Civile jus, 218, a.
-
-  Civis, 91, b.
-
-  Civitas (Greek), 90, b.
-    (Roman), 91, b.
-
-  Clarigatio, 178, b.
-
-  Classica corona, 118, b.
-
-  Classici, 171, a.
-
-  Classicum, 118, a.
-
-  Clathri, 144, b; 409, a.
-
-  Claudia lex, 227, b.
-
-  Clavis, 398, a.
-
-  Claustra, 88, a; 215, a.
-
-  Clavus angustus, 92, b.
-    annalis, 92, b.
-    latus, 92, b.
-
-  Clepsydra, 207, a.
-
-  Clibanarii, 76, a.
-
-  Cliens, 93, b.
-
-  Clientela, 93, b.
-
-  Clipeus, 41, b; 94, a.
-
-  Clitellae, 94, a.
-
-  Cloaca, 94, a.
-
-  Cloacarium, 94, a.
-
-  Cloacarum curatores, 94, b.
-
-  Clodiae leges, 183, a; 227, b.
-
-  Coa vestis, 94, b.
-
-  Coactor, 82, a; 94, b; 407, b.
-
-  Cochlea, 27, a; 94, b.
-
-  Cochlear, 94, b.
-
-  Codex, 39, b; 95, a.
-
-  Codex Gregorianus et Hermogianus, 95, a.
-    Justinianus, 95, a.
-    Theodosianus, 95, a.
-
-  Coelia, or Caelia, lex, 236, a.
-
-  Coemptio, 251, a.
-
-  Coena, 95, a; 96, b.
-
-  Coenaculum, 143, b.
-
-  Coenatio, 97, b.
-
-  Coenatoria, 97, b; 359, a.
-
-  Cognati, 98, a.
-
-  Cognatio, 98, a.
-
-  Cognitor, 6, a.
-
-  Cognomen, 271, b.
-
-  Coheres, 203, b.
-
-  Cohors, 167, b.
-
-  Cohortes Alariae, 16, b.
-    equitatae, 171, a.
-    peditatae, 171, a.
-    vigilum, 171, a.
-    urbanae, 171, a.
-
-  Collectio, 215, b.
-
-  Collegae, 98, a.
-
-  Collegium, 98, a.
-
-  Colobium, 401, b.
-
-  Colonia, 98, b.
-
-  Colonus, 98, b.
-
-  Colores, 295, a.
-
-  Colossus, 101, a.
-
-  Colum, 101, a.
-
-  Columbarium, 101, b; 190, a.
-
-  Columna, 101, b.
-    rostrata, 102, b.
-
-  Columnarium, 102, b.
-
-  Colus, 191, b.
-
-  Coma, 103, a.
-
-  Commentarii senatus, 4, b.
-
-  Commissatio, 104, a; 357, a.
-
-  Comitia, 104, a.
-    calata, 105, a.
-    centuriata, 105, a.
-    curiata, 104, b.
-    tributa, 108, a.
-
-  Commeatus, 110, b.
-
-  Commentarii sacrorum, 304, a.
-
-  Commentarium, 110, b.
-
-  Commentarius, 110, b.
-
-  Commercium, 92, a.
-
-  Commissoria lex, 227, b.
-
-  Comoedia, 110, b.
-
-  Comperendinatio, 215, b.
-
-  Comperendini dies, 135, b.
-
-  Competitor, 18, b.
-
-  Compitalia, 112, b.
-
-  Compitalicii ludi, 112, b.
-
-  Compluvium, 142, b.
-
-  Concamerata sudatio, 56, a.
-
-  Conceptivae feriae, 112, b.
-
-  Concilium, 112, b.
-
-  Conditivum, 190, a.
-
-  Conditorium, 190, a.
-
-  Conditurae, 418, a.
-
-  Conductor, 81, a.
-
-  Condus, 78, a.
-
-  Confarreatio, 251, b.
-
-  Congiarium, 112, b.
-
-  Congius, 113, a.
-
-  Conjurati, 400, a.
-
-  Conjuratio, 400, a.
-
-  Connubium, 251, a.
-
-  Conopeum, 113, a.
-
-  Conquisitores, 113, a.
-
-  Consanguinei, 98, a.
-
-  Conscripti, 333, a.
-
-  Consecratio, 29, a; 211, b.
-
-  Consilium, 104, a.
-
-  Consualia, 113, a.
-
-  Consul, 113, b.
-
-  Consulares, 116, b.
-
-  Consularis, 116, b.
-
-  Consulti, 217, b.
-
-  Consultores, 217, b.
-
-  Contio, 116, b.
-
-  Controversia, 215, b.
-
-  Contubernales, 116, b.
-
-  Contubernium, 117, a; 168, b; 339, a.
-
-  Contus, 266, b.
-
-  Conventio in manum, 251, a.
-
-  Conventus, 112, b; 117, a.
-
-  Convicium, 212, b.
-
-  Convivii magister, 357, b.
-    rex, 357, b.
-
-  Convivium, 357, a.
-
-  Cooptari, 98, b.
-
-  Cophinus, 117, a.
-
-  Corbicula, 117, b.
-
-  Corbis, 117, b.
-
-  Corbitae, 117, b.
-
-  Corbula, 117, b.
-
-  Cornelia lex--
-    agraria, 228, a.
-    de alea, 17, a.
-    de civitate, 228, a.
-    de falsis, 173, b.
-    frumentaria, 183, a.
-    de injuriis, 212, b.
-    judiciaria, 216, b.
-    majestatis, 247, a.
-    de novis tabellis, 228, a.
-    nummaria, 228, a.
-    de parricidio, 228, a.
-    de proscriptione et proscriptis, 311, b.
-    de repetundis, 319, a.
-    de sacerdotiis, 324, a.
-    de sicariis et veneficis, 212, a; 228, a.
-    sumptuaria, 235, b.
-    testamentaria, 173, b; 228, a.
-    tribunicia, 228, a.
-    unciaria, 228, a.
-
-  Cornelia Baebia lex, 18, b; 228, a.
-    Caecilia lex, 183, a.
-    et Caecilia lex, 228, a.
-
-  Cornicines, 11, a.
-
-  Cornu, 117, a.
-
-  Cornua, 238, a; 245, b; 267, a.
-
-  Corona, 102, b; 118, a.
-    castrensis, 118, b.
-    civica, 118, a.
-    classica, 118, b.
-    convivialis, 119, b.
-    funebris, 119, a.
-    graminea, 118, a.
-    muralis, 118, b.
-    natalitia, 119, b.
-    navalis, 118, b.
-    nuptialis, 119, b.
-    obsidionalis, 118, a.
-    oleagina, 118, b.
-    ovalis, 118, b.
-    rostrata, 118, b.
-    sacerdotalis, 119, a.
-    sepulchralis, 119, a.
-    triumphalis, 118, b.
-    vallaris, 118, b.
-
-  Coronis, 102, b; 119, b.
-
-  Corporati, 98, a.
-
-  Corporatio, 98, a.
-
-  Corpus, 98, a.
-
-  Cortina, 119, b.
-
-  Corvus, 119, b.
-
-  Corytos, 37, b.
-
-  Cosmetae, 120, a.
-
-  Cosmi, 120, a.
-
-  Cothurnus, 120, a.
-
-  Cotyla, 120, b.
-
-  Covinarii, 121, a.
-
-  Covinus, 120, b.
-
-  Crater, Cratera, 121, a.
-
-  Creditum, 39, b.
-
-  Crepida, 121, a.
-
-  Crepidata tragœdia, 112, a.
-
-  Crepidines, 412, b.
-
-  Creta, 88, a.
-
-  Cretio hereditatis, 203, b.
-
-  Crimen, 121, a.
-
-  Crista, 192, b.
-
-  Crocota, 121, a.
-
-  Crotalistria, 126, a.
-
-  Crotalum, 126, a.
-
-  Crusta, 64, a; 152, a.
-
-  Crux, 121, a.
-
-  Crypta, 88, a; 121, b.
-
-  Cryptoporticus, 121, b.
-
-  Ctesibica machina, 27, a.
-
-  Cubicularii, 122, a.
-
-  Cubiculum, 22, b; 78, a; 122, a; 143, a.
-
-  Cubitoria, 97, b.
-
-  Cubitus, 122, a.
-
-  Cucullus, 122, a.
-
-  Cudo, or Cudon, 122, a.
-
-  Culcita, 222, a.
-
-  Culeus, 122, a.
-
-  Culina, 143, a.
-
-  Culleus, 122, a.
-
-  Culter, 32, a; 122, a.
-
-  Cultrarius, 122, b.
-
-  Cumatium, 125, b.
-
-  Cumera, 252, a.
-
-  Cumerum, 252, a.
-
-  Cunabula, 212, a.
-
-  Cuneus, 23, a; 122, b; 371, a.
-
-  Cuniculus, 122, b.
-
-  Cupa, 122, b; 417, a.
-
-  Curator, 101, a; 122, b.
-
-  Curatores, 123, a.
-    annonae, 123, a.
-    aquarum, 31, a.
-    ludorum, 123, a.
-    religionum, 123, a.
-    viarum, 413, a.
-
-  Curia, 100, b; 123, a.
-
-  Curiae, 100, b; 334, b.
-
-  Curiales, 100, b.
-
-  Curiata comitia, 104, b.
-
-  Curio, 123, b.
-    maximus, 123, b.
-
-  Curriculum, 123, b.
-
-  Currus, 123, b.
-
-  Cursores, 125, a.
-
-  Cursus, 89, a.
-
-  Curulis sella, 331, b.
-
-  Cuspis, 199, b.
-
-  Custodes, Custodiae, 75, b.
-
-  Custos urbis, 307, b.
-
-  Cyathus, 125, a.
-
-  Cyclas, 125, b.
-
-  Cyma, 125, b.
-
-  Cymatium, 125, b.
-
-  Cymba, 125, b.
-
-  Cymbalum, 125, b.
-
-
-  D.
-
-  Dare actionem, 5, b.
-
-  Daricus, 126, b.
-
-  Decanus, 117, a.
-
-  December, 66, a.
-
-  Decempeda, 127, a.
-
-  Decemviri, 127, a.
-    legibus scribendis, 127, a; 228, b.
-    litibus, or stlitibus, judicandis, 127, b.
-    sacrorum, or sacris faciendis, 127, b.
-
-  Decennalia, or Decennia, 128, a.
-
-  Decimatio, 128, a.
-
-  Decretum, 128, a; 213, b; 336, a.
-
-  Decumae, 128, a.
-
-  Decumani, 128, a.
-
-  Decuncis, 128, b.
-
-  Decuriae, 330, b.
-
-  Decuriones, 100, b; 166, b.
-
-  Decursoria, 302, b.
-
-  Decussis, 44, a.
-
-  Dedicare, 145, a.
-
-  Dedicatio, 211, b.
-
-  Dediticii, 128, b.
-
-  Deditio, 128, a.
-
-  Deductores, 18, b.
-
-  Defrutum, 416, b.
-
-  Delator, 128, b.
-
-  Delectus, 167, a.
-
-  Delia, 128, b.
-
-  Delphinae, 87, b.
-
-  Delphinia, 129, a.
-
-  Delubrum, 366, b.
-
-  Demarchi, 129, a.
-
-  Demens, 123, a.
-
-  Demensum, 129, a; 341, a.
-
-  Dementia, 123, a.
-
-  Deminutio capitis, 71, a.
-
-  Demiurgi, 129, a.
-
-  Demus, 130, a.
-
-  Denarius, 130, a.
-    aureus, 53, b.
-
-  Denicales feriae, 190, b.
-
-  Dens, or Dentale, 31, b; 191, b.
-
-  Deportatio, 173, b.
-    in insulam, 173, b.
-
-  Deportatus, 173, b.
-
-  Depositum, 39, b.
-
-  Derogare legem, 225, b.
-
-  Designator, 188, a.
-
-  Desultor, 130, b.
-
-  Detestatio sacrorum, 105, a.
-
-  Deversorium, 77, a.
-
-  Deunx, 44, a.
-
-  Dextans, 44, a.
-
-  Diadema, 130, b.
-
-  Diaeta, 97, b; 143, b.
-
-  Diaetetae, 130, b.
-
-  Dialis flamen, 180, a.
-
-  Diarium, 341, a.
-
-  Dicere, 133, a.
-
-  Dictator, 132, b.
-
-  Didia lex, 235, b.
-
-  Diem dicere, 216, a.
-
-  Dies, 134, b.
-    Civilis, 134, b.
-    comitiales, 135, b.
-    comperendini, 135, b.
-    fasti, 135, a; 175, a.
-    feriati, 177, b.
-    festi, 135, a.
-    intercisi, 135, a.
-    Naturalis, 134, b.
-    nefasti, 135, a.
-    proeliales, 135, b.
-    profesti, 135, a.
-    stati, 135, b.
-
-  Diffarreatio, 139, b.
-
-  Digitus, 292, a.
-
-  Dimachae, 135, b.
-
-  Dimensum, 341, a.
-
-  Diminutio capitis, 71, a.
-
-  Dionysia, 135, b.
-
-  Diota, 137, a.
-
-  Diploma, 137, a.
-
-  Diptycha, 137, b.
-
-  Diribitores, 107, b.
-
-  Discessio, 336, a.
-
-  Discinctus, 401, b.
-
-  Discipula, 410, b.
-
-  Discus, 137, b.
-
-  Dispensator, 65, a.
-
-  Diversorium, 77, a.
-
-  Divinatio, 137, b.
-    (law term), 139, a.
-
-  Divisores, 18, b.
-
-  Divortium, 139, a.
-
-  Divus, 29, a.
-
-  Dodrans, 44, a.
-
-  Dolabella, 139, b.
-
-  Dolabra, 139, b.
-
-  Dolium, 140, b; 417, a.
-
-  Dolo, 140, a.
-
-  Dominium, 14, a; 140, a.
-
-  Dominus, 140, a; 194, b; 338, b.
-    funeris, 188, a.
-
-  Domitia lex, 324, a.
-
-  Domo, de, 39, b.
-
-  Domus, 140, a.
-
-  Dona, 145, a.
-
-  Donaria, 145, a.
-
-  Donatio, 182, b.
-
-  Donativum, 113, a.
-
-  Dormitoria, 143, a.
-
-  Dos (Greek), 145, a.
-    (Roman), 145, b.
-
-  Drachma, 145, b; 405, b.
-
-  Draco, 343, b.
-
-  Draconarius, 343, b.
-
-  Ducenarii, 146, a; 217, a.
-
-  Ducentesima, 82, a; 408, a.
-
-  Duillia lex, 228, b.
-    Maenia lex, 228, b.
-
-  Dulciarii, 297, b.
-
-  Duodecim scripta, 221, a.
-
-  Duplarii, 146, a.
-
-  Duplicarii, 146, a.
-
-  Duplicatio, 6, a.
-
-  Dupondium, 292, a.
-
-  Dupondius, 44, a.
-
-  Dussis, 44, a.
-
-  Duumviri, 101, a; 146, a.
-    juri dicundo, 100, b.
-    navales, 146, a.
-    perduellionis, 290, a.
-    quinquennales, 146, b.
-    sacri, 146, b.
-    sacrorum, 146, b.
-
-
-  E.
-
-  Eculeus, 159, a.
-
-  Edere actionem, 5, b.
-
-  Edictum, 148, a.
-    novum, 148, a.
-    perpetuum, 148, a.
-    repentinum, 148, a.
-    tralatitium, 148, b.
-    vetus, 148, a.
-
-  Edititii, 216, a.
-
-  Editor, 194, b.
-
-  Elaeothesium, 56, a.
-
-  Electrum, 149, b.
-
-  Eleusinia, 149, b.
-
-  Ellychnium, 241, b.
-
-  Emancipatio, 151, b.
-
-  Emblema, 152, a.
-
-  Emeriti, 152, a; 167, b.
-
-  Emissarium, 152, a.
-
-  Emporium, 152, b.
-
-  Encaustica, 295, a.
-
-  Endromis, 152, b.
-
-  Ensis, 41, b; 196, a.
-
-  Entasis, 101, b; 152, b.
-
-  Ephebia, 153, b.
-
-  Ephippium, 154, a.
-
-  Ephori, 154, a.
-
-  Epibatae, 155, a.
-
-  Epidemiurgi, 129, b.
-
-  Epirhedium, 322, a.
-
-  Epistylium, 155, b.
-
-  Epitaphium, 189, a.
-
-  Epithalamium, 250, b; 252, b.
-
-  Epulones, 156, a.
-
-  Epulum Jovis, 156, a.
-
-  Equestris ordo, 157, b.
-
-  Equiria, 156, a.
-
-  Equites, 156, a; 314, b.
-
-  Equitum transvectio, 157, a.
-
-  Equuleus, 159, a.
-
-  Equus October, 280, a.
-    Publicus, 156, b.
-
-  Ergastulum, 159, a.
-
-  Ericius, 159, a.
-
-  Esseda, 159, b.
-
-  Essedarii, 159, b; 195, b.
-
-  Essedum, 159, b.
-
-  Everriator, 190, b.
-
-  Evocati, 167, b.
-
-  Euripus, 22, a; 408, b.
-
-  Exauctorati, 170, b.
-
-  Exauguratio, 160, b.
-
-  Exceptio, 5, b; 308, a.
-
-  Exceptores, 272, a.
-
-  Excubiae, 75, b.
-
-  Excubitores, 160, b.
-
-  Exedra, 143, a; 160, b.
-
-  Exercitor navis, 160, b.
-
-  Exercitoria actio, 160, b.
-
-  Exercitus, 160, b.
-
-  Exodia, 171, a.
-
-  Exostra, 171, b.
-
-  Expeditus, 170, a; 171, b.
-
-  Exploratores, 347, a.
-
-  Exsequiae, 188, a.
-
-  Exsilium, 172, a.
-    liberum, 173, b.
-
-  Exsul, 173, a.
-
-  Exta, 325, a.
-
-  Extispices, 199, b.
-
-  Extispicium, 199, b.
-
-  Extranei heredes, 203, b.
-
-  Extraordinarii, 167, a; 346, a.
-
-  Exverrae, 190, b.
-
-  Exverriator, 190, b.
-
-  Exuviae, 348, a.
-
-
-  F.
-
-  Fabia lex, 297, b.
-
-  Fabiani, 244, a.
-
-  Fabii, 244, a.
-
-  Fabri, 173, b.
-
-  Fabula palliata, 112, a.
-    praetextata, 112, a.
-    togata, 112, a.
-    tabernaria, 112, a.
-
-  Fabula trabeata, 112, a.
-
-  Fabulae Atellanae, 46, b.
-
-  Factiones aurigarum, 89, a.
-
-  Falarica, 201, a.
-
-  Falcidia lex, 237, b.
-
-  Falcula, 173, b.
-
-  Falsum, 173, b.
-
-  Falx, 173, b.
-
-  Familia, 174, b; 194, b; 340, b.
-
-  Familiae emptor, 174, a.
-
-  Famosi libelli, 237, b.
-
-  Famulus, 174, a.
-
-  Fannia lex, 235, b.
-
-  Fanum, 366, a.
-
-  Farreum, 251, a.
-
-  Fartor, 174, a.
-
-  Fas, 218, a.
-
-  Fasces, 114, b; 174, a.
-
-  Fascia, 175, a; 222, a.
-
-  Fascinum, 175, a.
-
-  Fasti, 175, a.
-    annales, 175, b.
-    calendares, 175, b.
-    Capitolini, 175, b.
-    dies, 175, a.
-    historici, 175, b.
-    sacri, 175, b.
-
-  Fastigium, 175, b.
-
-  Fata Sibyllina, 342, b.
-
-  Fauces, 88, a; 143, a.
-
-  Favete linguis, 138, b.
-
-  Fax, 176, a.
-
-  Februare, 244, a.
-
-  Februarius, 67, a; 244, a.
-
-  Februum, 244, a.
-
-  Februus, 244, a.
-
-  Feciales, 178, a.
-
-  Feminalia, 176, a.
-
-  Fenestra, 144, b.
-
-  Fenus, 176, a.
-    nauticum, 176, b.
-
-  Feralia, 191, a.
-
-  Ferculum, 97, a; 177, a.
-
-  Ferentarii, 168, b.
-
-  Feretrum, 188, a.
-
-  Feriae, 177, b.
-    aestivae, 177, b.
-    conceptivae, or conceptae, 177, b.
-    denicales, 190, b.
-    imperativae, 177, b.
-    Latinae, 177, b.
-    publicae, 177, b.
-    stativae, 177, b.
-    stultorum, 182, a.
-    vindemiales, 177, b.
-
-  Ferre legem, 225, b.
-
-  Fescennina, 178, a.
-
-  Festi dies, 135, a.
-
-  Festuca, 248, a.
-
-  Fetiales, 178, a.
-
-  Fibula, 178, b.
-
-  Fictile, 31, a; 178, b.
-
-  Fideicommissarii praetores, 308, b.
-
-  Fideicommissum, 179, a.
-
-  Fides, 245, a.
-
-  Fiducia, 179, a.
-
-  Fiduciaria actio, 179, a.
-
-  Figulina ars, 178, b.
-
-  Figulus, 178, b.
-
-  Filiafamilias, 286, a.
-
-  Filiusfamilias, 286, a.
-
-  Filum, 191, b.
-
-  Fiscus, 11, b; 179, a.
-
-  Fistuca, 144, b.
-
-  Fistucatio, 412, b.
-
-  Fistula, 359, a.
-
-  Flabelliferae, 179, b.
-
-  Flabellum, 179, b.
-
-  Flagellum, 179, b.
-
-  Flagrum, 179, b.
-
-  Flamen, 180, a.
-    Dialis, 180, a.
-    Martialis, 180, a.
-    Quirinalis, 180, a.
-    Pomonalis, 180, a.
-
-  Flaminia lex, 229, a.
-
-  Flaminica, 180, b.
-
-  Flammeum, 252, a.
-
-  Flavia agraria lex, 229, a.
-
-  Flexumines, 157, a.
-
-  Floralia, 180, b.
-
-  Focale, 180, b.
-
-  Foculus, 145, a; 180, b.
-
-  Focus, 180, b.
-
-  Foederatae civitates, 181, a.
-
-  Foederati, 181, a.
-
-  Foedus, 181, a; 346, b.
-
-  Foenus, 176, a.
-    nauticum, 176, b.
-
-  Follis, 181, b; 296, b.
-
-  Fons, 181, a.
-
-  Fores, 88, a; 142, b.
-
-  Fori, 87, a; 265, b.
-
-  Foris, 215, a.
-
-  Forma, 178, b.
-
-  Formido, 319, b.
-
-  Formula, 5, b; 346, a.
-
-  Fornacalia, 182, a.
-
-  Fornax, 182, a.
-
-  Fornix, 36, a; 182, a.
-
-  Foro cedere, or abire, 39, b.
-    mergi, 39, b.
-
-  Foruli, 87, a.
-
-  Forum, 74, b; 117, a; 190, a.
-
-  Fossa, 14, b; 75, a.
-
-  Framea, 201, a.
-
-  Fratres arvales, 43, a.
-
-  Frenum, 182, a.
-
-  Frigidarium, 56, a.
-
-  Fritillus, 182, b.
-
-  Frontale, 24, a.
-
-  Fructuaria res, 406, a.
-
-  Fructuarius, 406, a.
-
-  Frumentariae leges, 182, b.
-
-  Frumentarii, 183, b.
-
-  Fucus, 183, b.
-
-  Fuga lata, 173, b.
-    libera, 173, b.
-
-  Fugalia, 318, b.
-
-  Fugitivarii, 339, b.
-
-  Fugitivus, 339, b.
-
-  Fulcra, 222, a.
-
-  Fullo, 184, a.
-
-  Fullonica, 184, a.
-
-  Fullonicum, 184, a.
-
-  Fullonium, 184, a.
-
-  Fumarium, 418, b.
-
-  Funalis equus, 124, b.
-
-  Funambulus, 184, b; 328, b.
-
-  Funda, 184, b; 320, b.
-
-  Funditores, 184, b.
-
-  Funes, 222, a; 267, b.
-
-  Funus, 184, b.
-    indictivum, 188, a.
-    plebeium, 188, a.
-    publicum, 188, a.
-    tacitum, 188, a.
-    translatitium, 188, a.
-
-  Furca, 191, a.
-
-  Furcifer, 191, a.
-
-  Furia, or Fusia Caninia lex, 229, a.
-
-  Furiosus, 123, a.
-
-  Fuscina, 191, b.
-
-  Fustuarium, 191, b.
-
-  Fusus, 191, b.
-
-
-  G.
-
-  Gabinia lex, 229, b; 236, a.
-
-  Gabinus cinctus, 380, a.
-
-  Gaesum, 192, a.
-
-  Galea, 41, b; 192, b.
-
-  Galerus, -um, 104, a; 193, a.
-
-  Galli, 193, a; 195, b.
-
-  Ganea, 77, a.
-
-  Gausapa, 193, a.
-
-  Gausape, 193, a.
-
-  Gausapum, 193, a.
-
-  Geminae frontes, 238, a.
-
-  Gener, 13, a.
-
-  Genethliaci, 45, b.
-
-  Genitura, 46, a.
-
-  Gens, 193, a.
-
-  Gentilitia sacra, 193, b.
-
-  Germani, 98, a.
-
-  Gerrae, 194, a.
-
-  Gladiatores, 194, a.
-
-  Gladiatorium, 194, b.
-
-  Gladius, 41, b; 196, a.
-
-  Glandes, 184, b.
-
-  Glomus, 191, b.
-
-  Glos, 13, b.
-
-  Gomphi, 413, a.
-
-  Gradus, 21, b; 182, b.
-
-  Graecostasis, 196, a.
-
-  Graphiarium, 354, a.
-
-  Gregorianus codex, 95, a.
-
-  Gremium, 412, b.
-
-  Gubernaculum, 265, b.
-
-  Gubernator, 266, a.
-
-  Gustatio, 96, b.
-
-  Guttus, 17, b; 56, b.
-
-  Gymnasium, 197, a.
-
-
-  H.
-
-  Haeres, 203, a.
-
-  Halteres, 198, b.
-
-  Harmamaxa, 199, a.
-
-  Harmostae, 199, a.
-
-  Harpago, 199, a.
-
-  Harpastum, 297, a.
-
-  Haruspices, 199, b.
-
-  Haruspicina ars, 138, a; 199, b.
-
-  Haruspicium, 138, a.
-
-  Hasta, 41, b; 82, a; 199, b.
-    celibaris, 201, a.
-    pura, 201, a.
-    vendere sub, 48, a.
-
-  Hastarium, 201, a.
-
-  Hastati, 165, a; 168, b.
-
-  Helepolis, 201, b.
-
-  Heliocaminus, 145, a.
-
-  Hellanodicae, 201, b.
-
-  Hellenotamiae, 201, b.
-
-  Helotes, 201, b.
-
-  Hemina, 120, b; 202, b.
-
-  Heraea, 202, b.
-
-  Hereditas, 203, b.
-
-  Heredium, 217, a.
-
-  Heres (Greek), 203, a.
-    (Roman), 203, a.
-
-  Hermae, 204, a.
-
-  Hermaea, 204, a.
-
-  Hermanubis, 204, b.
-
-  Hermares, 204, b.
-
-  Hermathena, 204, b.
-
-  Hermeracles, 204, b.
-
-  Hermogenianus codex, 95, a.
-
-  Hermuli, 88, a; 204, a.
-
-  Hexaphoron, 221, b.
-
-  Hexeres, 262, a.
-
-  Hieronica lex, 229, b.
-
-  Hieronicae, 47, a.
-
-  Hilaria, 205, a.
-
-  Hippodromus, 205, a.
-
-  Hister, 205, b.
-
-  Histrio, 188, a; 205, b.
-
-  Honorarii, 116, b.
-
-  Honorarium, 8, b.
-
-  Honores, 206, b.
-
-  Hoplomachi, 195, b.
-
-  Hora, 135, a.
-
-  Hordearium aes, 12, b; 156, b.
-
-  Horologium, 206, b.
-
-  Horreum, 207, b; 417, a.
-
-  Hortator, 305, b.
-
-  Hortensia lex, 229, b; 300, b.
-
-  Hortus, 207, b.
-
-  Hospes, 209, a.
-
-  Hospitium, 208, a.
-
-  Hostia, 324, b.
-
-  Hostia ambarvalis, 43, b.
-
-  Hostis, 208, a.
-
-  Humare, 189, b.
-
-  Hyacinthia, 209, b.
-
-  Hydraulis, 210, a.
-
-  Hypaethrae, 102, a.
-
-  Hypocaustum, 56, a.
-
-  Hypogeum, 186, a.
-
-
-  I, J.
-
-  Jaculatores, 201, a.
-
-  Jaculum, 209, b; 320, b.
-
-  Janitor, 142, b; 215, a.
-
-  Janua, 142, b; 214, b.
-
-  Januarius, 67, a.
-
-  Iconicae statuae, 351, a.
-
-  Idus, 67, a.
-
-  Jentaculum, 96, a.
-
-  Ignominia, 80, a; 212, a.
-
-  Ilicet, 189, a.
-
-  Imagines, 210, b; 270, a.
-
-  Immunitas, 210, b.
-
-  Imperativae feriae, 177, b.
-
-  Imperator, 211, a.
-
-  Imperium, 211, a.
-
-  Impluvium, 142, b.
-
-  Impubes, 211, a.
-
-  In bonis, 59, b.
-
-  Inauguratio, 211, b.
-    regis, 321, a.
-
-  Inauris, 211, b.
-
-  Incendium, 211, b.
-
-  Incensus, 71, b; 79, b.
-
-  Inceramenta navium, 295, a.
-
-  Incestum, -us, 212, a.
-
-  Incunabula, 212, a.
-
-  Index, 238, b.
-
-  Induere, 19, a.
-
-  Indumentum, 359, a; 401, b.
-
-  Indusium, 401, b.
-
-  Indutus, 19, a; 401, b.
-
-  Infamia, 212, a.
-
-  Infans, 212, b.
-
-  Infantia, 212, b.
-
-  Inferiae, 191, a.
-
-  Infula, 212, b.
-
-  Infundibulum, 256, a.
-
-  Ingenui, 212, b.
-
-  Injuria, 212, b.
-
-  Injuriarum actio, 213, a.
-
-  Inlicium, 106, b.
-
-  Inquilinus, 173, a.
-
-  Insigne, 263, b.
-
-  Instita, 213, a; 222, a.
-
-  Insula, 213, a.
-
-  Intentio, 5, b.
-
-  Intercessio, 213, a.
-
-  Intercisi dies, 135, a.
-
-  Interdictio aquae et ignis, 173, a.
-
-  Interdictum, 213, a.
-    prohibitorium, 213, a.
-    restitutorium, 213, a.
-
-  Interpres, 18, b; 39, b; 213, b.
-
-  Interregnum, 214, a.
-
-  Interrex, 213, b; 320, b.
-
-  Interula, 401, b.
-
-  Iselastici ludi, 47, a.
-
-  Iter, 302, b.
-
-  Iterare, 32, b.
-
-  Jubere, 336, a.
-
-  Judex, 215, a.
-
-  Judices editi, 216, a.
-    edititii, 216, a.
-
-  Judicium, 215, a.
-    album, 216, b.
-    populi, 215, b; 216, a.
-    privatum, 215, b.
-    publicum, 215, b.
-
-  Jugerum, 217, a.
-
-  Jugum, 217, a; 239, a; 364, a.
-
-  Jugumentum, 215, a.
-
-  Juliae leges, 229, b.
-
-  Julia lex de civitate, 181, b; 229, b.
-    de foenore, 230, a.
-    judiciaria, 216, b.
-    de liberis legationibus, 224, a.
-    majestatis, 247, a.
-    municipalis, 230, a.
-    et Papia Poppaea, 230, a.
-    peculatus, 230, b.
-    et Plautia, 230, b.
-    de provinciis, 312, b.
-    repetundarum, 319, b.
-    de sacerdotiis, 324, a.
-    de sacrilegis, 230, b.
-    sumptuaria, 236, a.
-    theatralis, 230, b.
-    et Titia, 230, b.
-    de vi publica et privata, 212, a.
-    vicesimaria, 414, b.
-
-  Julius, 67, b.
-
-  Junea, or Junia, Norbana lex, 230, b.
-
-  Junia lex repetundarum, 319, a.
-
-  Juniores, 105, b.
-
-  Junius, 66, a.
-
-  Jure, actio in, 5, b.
-    adcrescendi, 204, a.
-    agere, 5, a.
-
-  Jure cessio, in, 7, b; 60, a.
-
-  Jureconsulti, 217, b.
-
-  Juris auctores, 217, b.
-
-  Jurisconsulti, 217, b.
-
-  Jurisdictio, 117, a; 218, a.
-
-  Jurisperiti, 217, b.
-
-  Jurisprudentes, 217, b.
-
-  Jus, 218, a.
-    annuli aurei, 25, b.
-    annulorum, 25, b.
-    applicationis, 173, a.
-    augurium, or augurum, 52, b.
-    Censurae, 79, a.
-    civile, 218, a.
-    civile Papirianum, or Papisianum, 233, b.
-    civitatis, 92, a.
-    commercii, 92, a.
-    connubii, 92, a.
-    edicendi, 9, a; 148, a.
-    exsulandi, 173, a.
-    fetiale, 219, a.
-    honorum, 92, a.
-    Latii, 92, a; 220, b.
-    liberorum, 230, b.
-    Pontificium, 218, a; 304, a.
-    postliminii, 306, a.
-    privatum, 92, a.
-    publice epulandi, 337, a.
-    publicum, 92, a.
-    Quiritium, 79, b; 218, a.
-    senatus, 333, b.
-    suffragiorum, 92, a.
-    vocatio, in, 5, a.
-
-  Jusjurandum, 218, a.
-    judiciale, 219, a.
-
-  Justa funera, 188, a.
-
-  Justinianeus codex, 95, a.
-
-  Justitium, 191, a; 219, a.
-
-  Juvenalia, or juvenales ludi, 219, b.
-
-
-  L.
-
-  Labarum, 344, a.
-
-  Labrum, 56, a.
-
-  Labyrinthus, 219, b.
-
-  Lacerna, 219, b.
-
-  Laciniae, 220, a.
-
-  Laconicum, 56, a.
-
-  Lacunar, 144, b.
-
-  Lacus, 182, a; 416, b.
-
-  Laena, 220, a.
-
-  Laesa majestas, 246, b.
-
-  Lancea, 200, a.
-
-  Lances, 239, a.
-
-  Lanificium, 363, b.
-
-  Lanista, 194, b.
-
-  Lanx, 220, b.
-
-  Lapicidinae, 221, a.
-
-  Lapis, 255, b.
-    specularis, 144, b.
-
-  Laquear, 144, b.
-
-  Laqueatores, 195, b.
-
-  Laqueus, 220, b.
-
-  Lararium, 220, b.
-
-  Larentalia, 220, b.
-
-  Larentinalia, 220, b.
-
-  Largitio, 18, b.
-
-  Larva, 291, a.
-
-  Lata fuga, 173, b.
-
-  Later, 220, b.
-
-  Lateraria, 220, b.
-
-  Laticlavius, 92, b.
-
-  Latii jus, 220, b.
-
-  Latinae feriae, 177, b.
-
-  Latinitas, 220, b.
-
-  Latinus, 92, a; 181, a.
-
-  Latium, 220, b.
-
-  Latomiae, 221, a.
-
-  Latrones, 221, a.
-
-  Latrunculi, 221, a.
-
-  Latumiae, 221, a.
-
-  Latus clavus, 92, b.
-
-  Lavatio calda, 56, a.
-
-  Laudatio funebris, 188, b.
-
-  Laurentalia, 220, b.
-
-  Lautomiae, 221, a.
-
-  Lautumiae, 221, a.
-
-  Lectica, 221, a.
-
-  Lecticarii, 221, b.
-
-  Lectisternium, 221, b.
-
-  Lectus, 222, a.
-    funebris, 188, a.
-
-  Legatio libera, 224, a.
-
-  Legatum, 222, b.
-
-  Legatus, 222, b; 313, a.
-
-  Leges, 225, a.
-    censoriae, 81, a.
-    centuriatae, 79, a; 225, a.
-    curiatae, 225, a.
-    Juliae, 226, a.
-
-  Legio, 164, a; 170, b.
-
-  Legis actiones, 5, a.
-
-  Legitima hereditas, 203, b.
-
-  Legitimae actiones, 5, a.
-
-  Lembus, 224, b.
-
-  Lemniscus, 224, b.
-
-  Lemuralia, 224, b.
-
-  Lemuria, 224, b.
-
-  Lenaea, 135, b.
-
-  Leria, 402, a.
-
-  Lessus, 188, a.
-
-  Levir, 13, b.
-
-  Lex, 225, a; 229, a.
-    Acilia, 226, a.
-    Acilia Calpurnia, 18, b.
-    Aebutia, 226, a.
-    Aelia, 226, a.
-    Aelia Sentia, 226, a.
-    Aemilia, 226, a.
-    Aemilia, de censoribus, 226, a.
-    Aemilia Baebia, 228, a.
-    Aemilia Lepidi, 235, b.
-    Aemilia Scauri, 248, b.
-    agraria, 14, b; 226, a.
-    ambitus, 18, b.
-    Ampia, 226, b.
-    annalis, or Villia, 226, b; 334, a.
-    annua, 148, b.
-    Antia, 236, a.
-    Antonia, 226, b.
-    Apuleia, 226, b.
-    Apuleia agraria, 226, b.
-    Apuleia frumentaria, 226, b.
-    Apuleia majestatis, 247, a.
-    Aternia Tarpeia, 226, b.
-    Atia de sacerdotiis, 226, b.
-    Atilia, 226, b.
-    Atilia Marcia, 226, b.
-    Atinia, 226, b.
-    Aufidia, 18, b.
-    Aurelia, 226, b.
-    Aurelia Tribunicia, 226, b.
-    Baebia, 227, a.
-    Baebia Aemilia, 228, a.
-    Caecilia de Censoribus, or Censoria, 227, a.
-    Caecilia de Vectigalibus, 227, a.
-    Caecilia Didia, 227, a.
-    Calpurnia de ambitu, 18, b.
-    Calpurnia de repetundis, 319, a.
-    Campana, 235, a.
-    Canuleia, 227, a.
-    Cassia, 227, a.
-    Cassia agraria, 227, a.
-    Cassia tabellaria, 236, a.
-    Cassia Terentia frumentaria, 227, b.
-    Centuriata, 79, a.
-    Cincia, 227, b.
-    Claudia, 227, b.
-    Claudia de Senatoribus, 227, b.
-    Clodiae, 183, a; 227, b.
-    Coelia or Caelia, 236, a.
-
-  Lex Cornelia--
-    agraria, 228, a.
-    de civitate, 228, a.
-    de falsis, 173, b.
-    frumentaria, 183, a.
-    de injuriis, 212, b.
-    judiciaria, 216, b.
-    de magistratibus, 228, a.
-    majestatis, 247, a.
-    de novis tabellis, 228, a.
-    nummaria, 228, a.
-    de parricidio, 228, a.
-    de proscriptione et proscriptis, 311, b.
-    de repetundis, 319, a.
-    de sacerdotiis, 324, a.
-    de sicariis et veneficis, 212, a; 228, a.
-    sumptuaria, 235, b.
-    testamentaria, 173, b; 228, a.
-    tribunicia, 228, a.
-    unciaria, 228, a.
-    Baebia, 18, b; 228, a.
-    Caecilia, 183, a.
-    et Caecilia, 228, a.
-
-  Lex Curiata de imperio, 49, a; 104, b; 233, b.
-    Curiata de adoptione, 7, b.
-    Decemviralis, 228, b.
-    Decia de duumviris navalibus, 228, b.
-    Didia, 235, b.
-    Domitia de sacerdotiis, 324, a.
-    Duilia, 228, b.
-    Duilia maenia, 228, b.
-    Duodecim Tabularum, 228, b.
-    Fabia de plagio, 297, b.
-    Fabia de numero sectatorum, 229, a.
-    Falcidia, 237, b.
-    Fannia, 235, b.
-    Flaminia, 229, a.
-    Flavia agraria, 229, a.
-    frumentariae, 182, b; 229, a.
-    Fufia de religione, 229, a.
-    Fufia judiciaria, 217, a.
-    Furia or Fusia Caninia, 229, a.
-    Furia or Fusia testamentaria, 229, a.
-    Gabinia tabellaria, 229, b; 236, a.
-    Gellia Cornelia, 229, b.
-    Genucia, 229, b.
-    Hieronica, 229, b.
-    Hortensia de plebiscitis, 229, b; 300, b.
-    Icilia, 229, b.
-    Julia de adulteriis, 8, a.
-    Julia de ambitu, 18, b.
-    Juliae, 229, b.
-    Junia de peregrinis, 230, b.
-    Junia Licinia, 231, a.
-    Junia Norbana, 230, b.
-    Junia repetundarum, 319, a.
-    Laetoria, 230, b.
-    Licinia de sodalitiis, 19, a.
-    Licinia de ludis Apollinaribus, 231, a.
-    Licinia Junia, 231, a.
-    Licinia Mucia de civibus regundis, 231, a.
-    Licinia sumptuaria, 235, a.
-    Liciniae rogationes, 231, a.
-    Liviae, 231, a.
-    Lutatia de vi, 231, b.
-    Maenia, 231, b.
-    majestatis, 246, b.
-
-  Lex Mamilia de Jugurthae Fautoribus, 231, b.
-    Mamilia finium regundarum, 231, b.
-    mancipii, 247, b.
-    Manilia, 231, b.
-    Manlia de vicesima, 231, b.
-    Marcia, 231, b.
-    Maria, 231, b.
-    Memmia, or Remmia, 69, a.
-    Mensia, 231, b.
-    Minucia, 231, b.
-    Nervae Agraria, 231, b.
-    Octavia, 182, b; 231, b.
-    Ogulnia, 232, a.
-    Oppia, 235, b.
-    Orchia, 235, b.
-    Ovinia, 232, a.
-    Papia de peregrinis, 232, a.
-    Papia Poppaea, 230, a.
-    Papiria, or Julia Papiria de mulctarum aestimatione, 232, a.
-    Papiria, 232, a.
-    Papiria Plautia, 232, a.
-    Papiria Poetelia, 232, a.
-    Papiria tabellaria, 236, a.
-    Pedia, 232, a.
-    Peducaea, 232, a.
-    Pesulania, 232, a.
-    Petreia, 232, a.
-    Petronia, 232, b.
-    Pinaria, 232, b.
-    Plaetoria, 122, b.
-    Plautia, or Plotia de vi, 231, b.
-    Plautia, or Plotia judiciaria, 232, b.
-    Plautia Papiria, 232, a.
-    Poetelia, 232, b.
-    Poetelia Papiria, 232, b.
-    Pompeia, 232, b.
-    Pompeia de ambitu, 217, a.
-    Pompeia de civitate, 232, b.
-    Pompeia de imperio Caesari prorogando, 232, b.
-    Pompeia judiciaria, 217, b.
-    Pompeia de jure magistratuum, 232, b.
-    Pompeia de parricidiis, 285, b.
-    Pompeia tribunitia, 232, b.
-    Pompeia de vi, 212, a; 232, b.
-    Pompeiae, 232, b.
-    Popilia, 232, a.
-    Porciae de capite civium, 232, b.
-    Porcia de provinciis, 232, b.
-    Publicia, 232, b.
-    Publilia, 232, b.
-    Publiliae, 233, a.
-    Pupia, 233, a.
-    Quina vicemaria, 122, b.
-    Quintia, 233, a.
-    regia, 233, a.
-    regiae, 233, b.
-    Remmia, 69, a.
-    repetundarum, 319, a.
-    Rhodia, 233, b.
-    Roscia theatralis, 233, b.
-
-  Lex Rubria, 234, a.
-    Rupiliae, 234, a.
-    sacratae, 234, a.
-    Saenia de patriciorum numero augendo, 234, a.
-    Satura, 226, a.
-    Scantinia, 234, a.
-    Scribonia, 234, a.
-    Scribonia viaria, 234, a.
-    Sempronia de foenore, 234, b.
-    Semproniae, 234, a.
-    Servilia agraria, 235, a.
-    Servilia Glaucia de civitate, 319, a.
-    Servilia Glaucia de repetundis, 319, a.
-    Servilia judiciaria, 235, a.
-    Silia, 235, a.
-    Silvani et Carbonis, 92, a.
-    Sulpicia Sempronia, 235, a.
-    Sulpiciae, 235, a.
-    Sumptuariae, 235, a.
-    Tabellariae, 236, a.
-    Tarpeia Aternia, 226, b.
-    Terentia Cassia, 183, a.
-    Terentilia, 236, b.
-    Testamentariae, 236, b.
-    Thoria, 236, b.
-    Titia, 236, b.
-    Titia de alea, 17, a.
-    Titia de tutoribus, 230, b.
-    Trebonia, 236, b.
-    Trebonia de provinciis consularibus, 236, b.
-    Tribunicia, 233, a; 236, b.
-    Tullia de ambitu, 18, b.
-    Tullia de legatione libera, 224, a.
-    Valeria, 237, a.
-    Valeriae, 236, b.
-    Valeriae et Horatiae, 29, b; 237, a.
-    Varia, 247, a.
-    Vatinia de provinciis, 237, a.
-    Vatinia de colonis, 237, a.
-    Vatinia de rejectione judicum, 237, a.
-    de vi, 420, a.
-    viaria, 237, a.
-    vicesimaria, 414, b.
-    Villia annalis, 226, b.
-    Visellia, 237, a.
-    Voconia, 237, b.
-
-  Libatio, 325, b.
-
-  Libella, 90, a; 237, b.
-
-  Libellus, 194, b; 237, b.
-
-  Liber, 238, a.
-
-  Libera fuga, 173, b.
-
-  Liberales ludi, 137, a.
-
-  Liberalia, 137, a.
-
-  Liberalis causa, 45, a.
-    manus, 45, a.
-
-  Liberalitas, 18, b.
-
-  Liberi, 238, b.
-
-  Libertus, 238, b.
-
-  Libertinus, 212, b; 238, b.
-
-  Libitinarii, 187, b.
-
-  Libra, 239, a.
-    or as, 239, a.
-
-  Librarium, 48, a.
-
-  Libraria taberna, 58, b.
-
-  Librarii, 58, b; 239, a.
-
-  Librator, 239, a.
-
-  Libripens, 247, b.
-
-  Liburna, 239, a; 262, b.
-
-  Liburnica, 239, a; 262, b.
-
-  Liceri, 48, b.
-
-  Licia, 364, b.
-
-  Liciatorum, 364, b.
-
-  Licinia lex de sodalitiis, 19, a.
-    Junia lex, 231, a.
-    Mucia lex, 231, a.
-    lex sumptuaria, 235, b.
-
-  Liciniae rogationes, 231, a.
-
-  Licitari, 48, b.
-
-  Lictor, 239, b.
-
-  Ligula, 239, b.
-
-  Limen, 215, a.
-
-  Linteones, 363, b.
-
-  Linter, 239, b.
-
-  Linteum, 17, b; 222, b.
-
-  Linum, 360, b.
-
-  Lirare, 32, b.
-
-  Literae, 360, a.
-
-  Lithostrotum, 144, b.
-
-  Lituus, 240, a.
-
-  Lixae, 68, b.
-
-  Locatio, 80, b.
-
-  Loculus, 32, b; 188, b.
-
-  Locuples, 240, b.
-
-  Locus liberatus et effatus, 366, a.
-
-  Lodix, 240, b.
-
-  Logistae, 160, b.
-
-  Lorica, 41, a; 240, b.
-
-  Lucar, 206, a.
-
-  Lucerences, 286, b.
-
-  Luceres, 286, b.
-
-  Lucerna, 241, b.
-
-  Lucta, 242, a.
-
-  Luctatio, 242, a.
-
-  Ludi, 242, a.
-    Apollinares, 242, a.
-    Augustales, 52, b.
-    Capitolini, 242, b.
-    Circenses, 89, a; 242, a.
-    compitalitii, 112, b.
-    Florales, 180, b.
-    funebres, 191, b; 242, b.
-    liberales, 137, a.
-    magni, 242, b.
-    Megalenses, 253, b.
-    Osci, 46, b.
-    plebeii, 242, b.
-    Romani, 242, b.
-    saeculares, 242, b.
-    scenici, 206, a; 242, a.
-    Tarentini, 242, b.
-    Taurii, 242, b.
-
-  Ludus, 194, b.
-    Trojae, 90, a.
-
-  Lupanar, 77, a.
-
-  Lupatum, 182, b.
-
-  Lupercalia, 243, b.
-
-  Luperci, 243, b; 244, b.
-
-  Lupus ferreus, 244, a.
-
-  Lustratio, 43, b; 244, a.
-
-  Lustrum, 66, a; 244, b.
-
-  Lyra, 245, a.
-
-
-  M.
-
-  Maceria, 257, a.
-
-  Maculae, 319, b.
-
-  Maenia lex, 231, b.
-
-  Maenianum, 22, b; 246, a.
-
-  Magadis, 245, b.
-
-  Magister, 246, a.
-    admissionum, 6, b.
-    auctionis, 48, b.
-    equitum, 134, b.
-    populi, 132, b.
-    societatis, 246, a.
-
-  Magistratus, 246, b.
-
-  Maius, 66, a.
-
-  Majestas, 246, b.
-
-  Majores, 212, b; 246, b.
-
-  Malleolus, 247, a.
-
-  Malus, 266, a.
-
-  Malus oculus, 175, a.
-
-  Mamilia lex, 231, b.
-
-  Manceps, 81, a; 247, a.
-
-  Mancipatio, 247, b.
-
-  Mancipi res, 247, b.
-
-  Mancipium, 247, b.
-
-  Mandatum, 247, b.
-
-  Mangones, 339, b.
-
-  Manilia lex, 231, b.
-
-  Manipulares, 168, a.
-
-  Manipularii, 168, a.
-
-  Manipulus, 165, a; 168, a; 343, a.
-
-  Manlia lex, 231, b.
-
-  Mansio, 247, b.
-
-  Mansionarius, 248, a.
-
-  Mansiones, 248, a.
-
-  Manubiae, 306, b; 348, a.
-
-  Manum, conventio in, 251, a.
-
-  Manumissio, 248, a.
-
-  Manus ferrea, 199, b.
-
-  Mappa, 97, b.
-
-  Marcia lex, 231, b.
-
-  Margines, 412, b.
-
-  Maria lex, 231, b.
-
-  Marsupium, 248, b.
-
-  Martialis flamen, 180, a.
-
-  Martius, 66, a.
-
-  Materfamilias, 251, a.
-
-  Mathematici, 45, b.
-
-  Mathesis, 45, b.
-
-  Matralia, 249, a.
-
-  Matrimonium, 249, b.
-
-  Matrona, 251, a.
-
-  Matronales feriae, 249, b.
-
-  Matronalia, 249, b.
-
-  Matura, 201, a.
-
-  Mausoleum, 190, a; 253, a.
-
-  Mediastini, 253, a; 340, b.
-
-  Medicamina, 418, a.
-
-  Medimnus, 253, a.
-
-  Medix tuticus, 253, b.
-
-  Megalenses ludi, 253, b.
-
-  Megalensia, 253, b.
-
-  Megalesia, 253, b.
-
-  Membrana, 238, b.
-
-  Memmia lex, 69, a.
-
-  Mensa, 253, b.
-    de, 39, b.
-
-  Mensae scripturam, per, 39, b.
-
-  Mensam per, 39, b.
-
-  Mensarii, 254, a.
-
-  Mensularii, 254, a.
-
-  Mensia lex, 231, b.
-
-  Mensis, 66, a.
-
-  Menstruum, 341, a.
-
-  Mercedonius, 66, b.
-
-  Meridiani, 195, b.
-
-  Meridies, 134, b.
-
-  Metae, 87, a.
-
-  Metallum, 254, a.
-
-  Metator, 73, b.
-
-  Metretes, 23, b; 255, b.
-
-  Mille passuum, 255, b.
-
-  Milliare, 255, b.
-
-  Milliarium, 255, b.
-    aureum, 255, b.
-
-  Mimus, 255, b.
-
-  Minores, 123, a; 246, b.
-
-  Minucia lex, 231, b.
-
-  Minutio capitis, 71, a.
-
-  Mirmillones, 195, b.
-
-  Missio, 167, b; 195, a.
-    causaria, 167, b.
-    honesta, 167, b.
-    ignominiosa, 167, b.
-
-  Missus, 90, a.
-    aerarius, 90, a.
-
-  Mitra, 104, a; 256, a.
-
-  Modiolus, 124, a.
-
-  Modius, 256, a.
-
-  Moenia, 257, a.
-
-  Mola, 256, a.
-    aquaria, 256, a.
-    asinaria, 256, a.
-    manuaria, 256, a.
-    trusatilis, 256, a.
-    versatilis, 256, a.
-    salsa, 325, a.
-
-  Monarchia, 256, b.
-
-  Monaulos, 376, b.
-
-  Moneris, 261, a.
-
-  Moneta, 256, b.
-
-  Monetales triumviri, 256, b.
-
-  Monile, 256, b.
-
-  Monstrum, 310, b.
-
-  Monumentum, 190, a.
-
-  Morator, 89, b.
-
-  Morbus comitialis, 108, a.
-
-  Mortarium, 257, a.
-
-  Morum cura, or praefectura, 79, a.
-
-  Mos, 251, b.
-
-  Motio e senatu, 80, b.
-    e tribu, 80, b.
-
-  Mulleus, 65, b.
-
-  Mulsa, 418, b.
-
-  Mulsum, 418, a.
-
-  Munerator, 194, b.
-
-  Municeps, 100, b.
-
-  Municipes, 100, b.
-
-  Municipium, 100, b.
-
-  Munus, 194, b; 206, b.
-
-  Muralis corona, 118, b.
-
-  Muries, 411, a.
-
-  Murrea vasa, 257, a.
-
-  Murrhina vasa, 257, a.
-
-  Murus, 257, a.
-
-  Musculus, 258, b.
-
-  Museum, 258, b.
-
-  Musica muta, 283, a.
-
-  Musivum opus, 144, b; 296, a.
-
-  Mustum, 416, b.
-
-  Mysteria, 258, b.
-
-
-  N.
-
-  Nacca, 184, a.
-
-  Naenia, 188, a.
-
-  Narthecia, 405, b.
-
-  Natatio, 56, a.
-
-  Natatorium, 56, a.
-
-  Nationes, 170, b.
-
-  Navales Socii, 171, a.
-
-  Navalis corona, 118, b.
-
-  Navarchus, 259, a.
-
-  Navis, 259, b.
-    aperta, 261, b.
-
-  Naumachia, 268, a.
-
-  Naumachiarii, 268, a.
-
-  Necessarii heredes, 203, b.
-
-  Nefasti dies, 135, a.
-
-  Negotiatores, 269, a.
-
-  Nenia, 188, a.
-
-  Neptunalia, 269, b.
-
-  Nexum, 269, b.
-
-  Nexus, 269, b.
-
-  Nobiles, 270, a.
-
-  Nobilitas, 270, a.
-
-  Nomen, 270, b.
-    expedire, or expungere, 39, b.
-    Latinum, 345, b.
-    (Greek), 270, b.
-    (Roman), 270, b.
-
-  Nomenclator, 18, b.
-
-  Nonae, 66, a.
-
-  Nota, 272, a.
-    censoria, 80, a.
-
-  Notarii, 272, a.
-
-  Notatio censoria, 80, a.
-
-  Novale, 32, b.
-
-  Novare, 32, b.
-
-  November, 66, a.
-
-  Novendiale, 190, b; 272, b.
-
-  Noverca, 13, b.
-
-  Novi homines, 270, a.
-
-  Novitas, 270, a.
-
-  Nucleus, 412, b.
-
-  Nudus, 272, b.
-
-  Numeratio, 336, a.
-
-  Numeri, 168, a.
-
-  Nummularii, 254, a.
-
-  Numularii, 254, a.
-
-  Nummus, or Numus, 341, a.
-    aureus, 53, b.
-
-  Nuncupatio, 369, a.
-
-  Nundinae, 66, a; 272, b.
-
-  Nundinum, 273, a.
-
-  Nuntiatio, 51, a.
-
-  Nuptiae, 249, b.
-
-  Nurus, 13, a.
-
-
-  O.
-
-  Obices, 215, a.
-
-  Obnuntiatio, 51, a.
-
-  Obolus, 145, a; 405, b.
-
-  Obrogare legem, 225, b.
-
-  Obsidionalis corona, 118, a.
-
-  Obsonium, 276, b.
-
-  Occatio, 32, b.
-
-  Ocrea, 41, a; 273, a.
-
-  Octavae, 408, a.
-
-  Octavia lex, 182, b; 231, b.
-
-  October, 66, a.
-    equus, 280, a.
-
-  Octophoron, 221, b.
-
-  Odeum, 273, a.
-
-  Oecus, 143, a.
-
-  Oenomelum, 418, a.
-
-  Officium admissionis, 6, b.
-
-  Offringere, 32, b.
-
-  Ogulnia lex, 232, a.
-
-  Olea, 273, b.
-
-  Oleagina corona, 118, b.
-
-  Oleum, 273, b.
-
-  Oliva, 273, b.
-
-  Olla, 190, b; 273, b.
-
-  Olympia, 274, a.
-
-  Onager, 381, a.
-
-  Onerariae naves, 117, b; 262, a.
-
-  Onyx, alabaster, 16, b.
-
-  Opalia, 276, b; 330, a.
-
-  Opifera, 267, b.
-
-  Opima spolia, 348, a.
-
-  Oppia lex, 235, b.
-
-  Oppidum, 87, b.
-
-  Opsonator, 276, b.
-
-  Opsonium, 276, b.
-
-  Optio, 166, b.
-
-  Optimates, 270, b.
-
-  Opus incertum, 258, a.
-
-  Oraculum, 276, b.
-
-  Orarium, 277, b.
-
-  Oratio, 7, b.
-
-  Orator, 277, b.
-
-  Orbis, 178, b.
-
-  Orca, 345, a.
-
-  Orchestra, 371, b.
-
-  Orchia lex, 235, b.
-
-  Orcinus senator, 333, a.
-
-  Ordinarii servi, 340, b.
-
-  Ordinum ductores, 166, b; 168, b; 169, a.
-
-  Ordo, 100, b; 165, b; 168, a; 278, a.
-    decurionum, 100, b.
-    equestris, 157, b.
-    senatorius, 333, b.
-
-  Oreae, 182, b.
-
-  Orichalcum, 278, a.
-
-  Ornamenta triumphalia, 397, a.
-
-  Ornatrix, 103, b.
-
-  Oscines, 50, a.
-
-  Oscillum, 278, a.
-
-  Ostentum, 310, b.
-
-  Ostiarium, 278, b.
-
-  Ostiarius, 142, b.
-
-  Ostium, 88, a; 142, b; 214, b.
-
-  Ova, 87, b.
-
-  Ovalis corona, 118, b.
-
-  Ovatio, 278, b.
-
-  Ovile, 107, b.
-
-  Ovinia lex, 232, a.
-
-
-  P.
-
-  Paean, 279, a.
-
-  Paedagogia, 279, a.
-
-  Paedagogus, 279, a.
-
-  Paenula, 279, a.
-
-  Paganalia, 279, b.
-
-  Pagani, 279, b.
-
-  Paganica, 296, b.
-
-  Pagi, 279, b.
-
-  Pala, 26, a.
-
-  Palaestra, 198, a; 279, b.
-
-  Palangae, 160, b.
-
-  Palilia, 280, a.
-
-  Palimpsestus, 238, a.
-
-  Palla, 280, a.
-
-  Palliata fabula, 112, a.
-
-  Palliolum, 280, a.
-
-  Pallium, 280, a.
-
-  Palmipes, 281, a.
-
-  Palmus, 281, a.
-
-  Paludamentum, 281, a.
-
-  Paludatus, 395, a.
-
-  Panathenaea, 281, b.
-
-  Pancratiastae, 282, b.
-
-  Pancratium, 282, b.
-
-  Panegyris, 283, a.
-
-  Pantomimus, 283, a.
-
-  Papia lex de peregrinis, 232, a.
-    Poppaea lex, 230, a.
-
-  Papiria lex, 232, a.
-    Plautia lex, 232, a.
-    Poetelia lex, 232, a.
-    tabellaria lex, 236, a.
-
-  Papyrus, 238, a.
-
-  Paradisus, 283, b.
-
-  Parapherna, 145, b.
-
-  Parasiti, 284, b.
-
-  Parentalia, 191, a.
-
-  Paries, 144, a.
-
-  Parma, 285, a.
-
-  Parmula, 285, a.
-
-  Parochi, 285, a.
-
-  Paropsis, 285, a.
-
-  Parricida, 285, b.
-
-  Parricidium, 285, b.
-
-  Partes, 314, b.
-
-  Particulae, 314, b.
-
-  Pascua, 407, a.
-    publica, 330, b.
-
-  Passum, 417, b.
-
-  Passus, 285, b.
-
-  Patella, 285, b.
-
-  Pater, 286, b.
-    familias, 174, a.
-    patratus, 178, a.
-
-  Patera, 285, b.
-
-  Patibulum, 191, a.
-
-  Patina, 286, a.
-
-  Patres, 286, b.
-    conscripti, 333, a.
-
-  Patria potestas, 286, a.
-
-  Patricii, 286, b.
-
-  Patrimi et matrimi, or Patrimes et matrimes, 287, b.
-
-  Patrimonium, 174, a.
-
-  Patronomi, 287, b.
-
-  Patronus, 93, b; 287, b.
-
-  Pavimentum, 144, b; 412, b.
-
-  Pauperie, aetio de, 288, a.
-
-  Pauperies, 288, a.
-
-  Pausarii, 305, b.
-
-  Pecten, 288, a; 364, b.
-
-  Peculator, 288, a.
-
-  Peculatus, 288, a.
-
-  Peculio, actio de, 339, b.
-
-  Peculium, 339, b.
-
-  Pecunia, 12, a; 40, a; 53, b.
-    vacua, 39, b.
-
-  Pecuniae repetundae, 318, b.
-
-  Pecus, 288, a.
-
-  Pedarii senatores, 334, a.
-
-  Pedisequi, 288, a.
-
-  Peducaea lex, 232, a.
-
-  Pedum, 288, a.
-
-  Pegma, 288, b.
-
-  Pegmares, 288, b.
-
-  Pelta, 288, b.
-
-  Penicillus -um, 295, b.
-
-  Pentacosiomedimni, 81, b; 390, a.
-
-  Pentathli, 289, a.
-
-  Pentathlon, 289, a.
-
-  Peplum, 289, b.
-
-  Pera, 290, a.
-
-  Perduellio, 247, a; 290, a.
-
-  Perduellionis duumviri, 290, a.
-
-  Peregrinus, 92, a; 290, a.
-
-  Perferre legem, 225, b.
-
-  Peripetasmata, 222, b.
-
-  Periscelis, 291, a.
-
-  Peristroma, 222, b; 291, a.
-
-  Peristylium, 102, a; 143, a.
-
-  Peritiores, 217, b.
-
-  Permutatio, 39, b.
-
-  Pero, 291, a.
-
-  Perscriptio, 39, b.
-
-  Persona, 291, a.
-
-  Pes, 267, b; 292, a.
-    sestertius, 292, a.
-
-  Pessulus, 215, a.
-
-  Pesulania lex, 232, a.
-
-  Petasus, 297, a; 405, a.
-
-  Petauristae, 292, a.
-
-  Petaurum, 292, a.
-
-  Petitor, 6, a; 18, b.
-
-  Petorritum, 292, a.
-
-  Petreia lex, 232, a.
-
-  Petronia lex, 232, b.
-
-  Phalangae, 160, b.
-
-  Phalanx, 160, b; 163, b.
-
-  Phalarica, 201, a.
-
-  Phalera, 292, a.
-
-  Pharetra, 292, b.
-
-  Pharos, or Pharus, 292, b.
-
-  Phaselus, 293, a.
-
-  Pictura, 293, b.
-
-  Pignoris captio, 334, b.
-
-  Pila, 257, a; 296, a; 343, b.
-
-  Pilani, 168, b.
-
-  Pileati, 188, a.
-
-  Pilentum, 297, a.
-
-  Pileum, 297, a.
-
-  Pileus, 297, a.
-
-  Pilum, 200, a; 257, a.
-
-  Pinacotheca, 143, a.
-
-  Pinaria lex, 232, b.
-
-  Piscina, 30, a; 31, a; 56, a.
-
-  Pistor, 297, b.
-
-  Pistrinum, 257, a.
-
-  Plaetoria lex, 122, b.
-
-  Plagiarius, 297, b.
-
-  Plagium, 297, b.
-
-  Planetarii, 45, b.
-
-  Planipedes, 256, a.
-
-  Plaustrum, or Plostrum, 297, b.
-
-  Plautia, or Plotia lex de vi, 231, b.
-    judiciaria, 232, b.
-
-  Plebeii, 298, a.
-    ludi, 242, b.
-
-  Plebes, 298, a.
-
-  Plebiscitum. 225, b; 300, b.
-
-  Plebs, 298, a.
-
-  Plectrum, 246, a.
-
-  Pluteus, 58, a; 222, a; 301, a.
-
-  Pnyx, 146, b.
-
-  Poculum, 301, a.
-
-  Podium, 21, b; 101, b.
-
-  Poena, 301, a.
-
-  Poetelia Papiria lex, 232, b.
-
-  Pollinctores, 187, b.
-
-  Polus, 206, a.
-
-  Polychromy, 295, b.
-
-  Pomeridianum tempus, 134, b.
-
-  Pomoerium, 301, b.
-
-  Pompa, 301, b.
-    Circensis, 89, b.
-
-  Pompeiae leges, 232, b.
-
-  Pons, 107, b; 302, a.
-    Aelius, 302, b.
-    Cestius, 302, a.
-    Fabricius, 302, b.
-    Janiculensis, 302, a.
-    Milvius, 302, b.
-    Palatinus, 302, b.
-    Sublicius, 302, b.
-    suffragiorum, 303, a.
-    Vaticanus, 302, b.
-
-  Pontifex, 303, a.
-
-  Pontificales libri, 304, a.
-
-  Pontifices minores, 305, a.
-
-  Pontificii libri, 304, a.
-
-  Pontificium jus, 218, a; 304, a.
-
-  Popa, 77, a; 122, b; 325, a.
-
-  Popilia lex, 232, a.
-
-  Popina, 77, a.
-
-  Popularia, 23, a.
-
-  Populi scitum, 225, b.
-
-  Populifugia, or Poplifugia, 305, a.
-
-  Populus, 300, a; 286, a.
-
-  Porcae, 32, b.
-
-  Porciae leges, 232, b.
-
-  Porta, 305, a.
-    decumana, 75, a.
-    pompae, 88, a.
-
-  Porta praetoria, or extraordinaria, 75, a.
-    principalis, 75, a.
-
-  Portentum, 138, b; 199, b.
-
-  Porticus, 305, b.
-
-  Portisculus, 305, b.
-
-  Portitores, 306, a.
-
-  Portorium, 305, b.
-
-  Portula, 305, b.
-
-  Possessio, 14, a.
-
-  Possessor, 14, a.
-
-  Postes, 215, a.
-
-  Posticum, 214, b.
-
-  Postliminium, 306, a.
-
-  Postmeridianum tempus, 135, a.
-
-  Postsignani, 168, b.
-
-  Potestas, 286, a.
-
-  Praecinctio, 23, a; 371, a.
-
-  Praecinctus, 401, b.
-
-  Praecones, 306, b.
-
-  Praeconium, 306, b.
-
-  Praeda, 306, b; 347, b.
-
-  Praedes, 216, a.
-
-  Praedia, 308, a.
-
-  Praediator, 308, a.
-
-  Praefecti sociorum, 167, a.
-
-  Praefectus, 307, a.
-    aerarii, 11, b.
-    annonae, 182, b; 307, a.
-    aquarum, 31, a.
-    castrorum, 307, a.
-    classis, 307, a.
-    fabrûm, 173, a.
-    juri dicundo, 100, b.
-    praetorio, 307, a.
-    vigilum, 171, a.
-    urbi, 10, a; 307, b.
-
-  Praefectura, 101, a.
-    morum, 79, a.
-
-  Praeficae, 188, a.
-
-  Praejudicium, 308, a.
-
-  Praelusio, 194, b.
-
-  Praemium, 167, b.
-
-  Praenomen, 270, b.
-
-  Praerogativa tribus, 109, a.
-
-  Praerogativae, 109, a.
-
-  Praes, 308, a.
-
-  Praescriptio, 308, a.
-
-  Praeses, 313, a.
-
-  Praesidia, 75, b.
-
-  Praeteriti senatores, 80, b; 333, b.
-
-  Praetexta, 380, b.
-
-  Praetextata fabula, 46, b; 112, a.
-
-  Praetor, 308, a.
-    peregrinus, 308, b.
-    urbanus, 308, b.
-
-  Praetoria cohors, 309, a.
-
-  Praetoriani, 309, a.
-
-  Praetorium, 308, a; 309, b.
-
-  Prandium, 96, b.
-
-  Prehensio, 388, a.
-
-  Prelum, or Praelum, 416, b.
-
-  Prensatio, 18, b.
-
-  Primipilus, 169. b.
-
-  Primitiae, 325, b.
-
-  Princeps juventutis, 159, a.
-
-  Princeps senatus, 333, b.
-
-  Principes, 165, b; 168, b.
-
-  Principia, 168, b.
-    via, 75, a.
-
-  Principium, 109, a.
-
-  Privatum jus, 92, a.
-
-  Privilegium, 225, b.
-
-  Privigna, 13, b.
-
-  Privignus, 13, b.
-
-  Probatio nummorum, 39, b.
-
-  Proconsul, 310, a.
-
-  Procubitores, 168, b.
-
-  Procuratio prodigiorum, 310, b.
-
-  Procurator, 6, a; 65, a; 179, b; 310, b; 313, a.
-    peni, 78, a.
-
-  Prodigium, 310, b.
-
-  Prodigus, 123, a.
-
-  Proeliales dies, 135, b.
-
-  Profesti dies, 135, a.
-
-  Progener, 13, b.
-
-  Proletarii, 71, a.
-
-  Promulsis, 96, b; 418, a.
-
-  Promus, 78, a; 97, a.
-
-  Pronubae, 252, b.
-
-  Pronubi, 252, b.
-
-  Pronurus, 13, b.
-
-  Propraetor, 308, b.
-
-  Propugnaculum, 381, a.
-
-  Proquaestor, 317, b.
-
-  Prora, 263, a.
-
-  Proscenium, 372, a.
-
-  Proscindere, 32, b.
-
-  Proscribere, 311, b.
-
-  Proscripti, 311, b.
-
-  Proscriptio, 311, b.
-
-  Prosecta, 325, a.
-
-  Prosiciae, 325, a.
-
-  Prosocrus, 13, b.
-
-  Provincia, 311, b.
-
-  Provocatio, 29, b.
-
-  Provocatores, 195, b.
-
-  Proximus admissionum, 6, b.
-
-  Prudentiores, 217, b.
-
-  Pteron, 253, a.
-
-  Pubertas, 211, a.
-
-  Pubes, 212, b.
-
-  Publicae feriae, 177, b.
-
-  Publicani, 314, a.
-
-  Publicia lex, 232, b.
-
-  Publicum, 314, a.
-    jus, 92, a.
-
-  Publicus ager, 13, b.
-
-  Publilia lex, 232, b.
-
-  Publiliae leges, 232, b.
-
-  Pugilatus, 315, a.
-
-  Pugiles, 315, a.
-
-  Pugillares, 360, a.
-
-  Pugio, 315, a.
-
-  Pugna equestris et pedestris, 90, a.
-
-  Pullarius, 50, b.
-
-  Pullati, 23, a.
-
-  Pulmentarium, 276, b.
-
-  Pulpitum, 372, a.
-
-  Pulvinar, 87, a; 315, a.
-
-  Pulvinus, 315, a.
-
-  Punctae, 107, a.
-
-  Pupia lex, 233, a.
-
-  Pupillus, 315, a.
-
-  Puppis, 264, b.
-
-  Puteal, 315, a.
-
-  Puteus, 56, a.
-
-  Puticulae, 189, b.
-
-  Puticuli, 189, b.
-
-  Pyra, 188, b.
-
-  Pyrgus, 182, b.
-
-  Pythia, 277, a; 315, b.
-
-  Pyxidula, 316, a.
-
-  Pyxis, 316, a.
-
-
-  Q.
-
-  Quadragesima, 316, b.
-
-  Quadrans, 44, a.
-
-  Quadrantal, 316, b.
-
-  Quadriga, 124, b.
-
-  Quadrigati, 130, b.
-
-  Quadriremes, 261, b.
-
-  Quadrupes, 288, a.
-
-  Quadruplatores, 316, b.
-
-  Quadruplicatio, 6, a.
-
-  Quadrussis, 44, a.
-
-  Quaesitor, 216, a.
-
-  Quaestiones, 216, a; 316, b.
-    perpetuae, 309, a.
-
-  Quaestor, 316, b.
-
-  Quaestores classici, 316, b.
-    parricidii, 216, a; 316, b.
-    rerum capitalium, 216, a.
-    urbani, 317, b.
-
-  Quaestorium, 74, b.
-
-  Quaestura Ostiensis, 317, b.
-
-  Qualus, 64, b.
-
-  Quasillariae, 64, b.
-
-  Quasillus, 64, b.
-
-  Quatuorviri juri dicundo, 100, b.
-    viarum curandarum, 318, a; 413, a.
-
-  Quinctiliani, 244, a.
-
-  Quinctilii, 244, a.
-
-  Quinctilis, 66, a.
-
-  Quincunx, 44, a.
-
-  Quindecemviri, 128, a.
-
-  Quinquatria, 318, a.
-
-  Quinquatrus, 318, a.
-    minores or minusculae, 318, a.
-
-  Quinquennalia, 318, a.
-
-  Quinquennalis, 101, a.
-
-  Quinqueremes, 261, b.
-
-  Quinquertium, 289, a.
-
-  Quinqueviri, 318, a.
-    mensarii, 254, a.
-
-  Quintana, 74, b.
-
-  Quintia lex, 233, a.
-
-  Quirinalia, 318, a.
-
-  Quirinalis flamen, 180, a.
-
-  Quiritium jus, 79, b; 281, a.
-
-
-  R.
-
-  Radius, 124, a; 364, b.
-
-  Ramnenses, 286, b.
-
-  Ramnes, 286, b.
-
-  Rationes, 39, b.
-
-  Rationes Chaldaicae, 45, b.
-
-  Recuperatores, 5, b; 215, b.
-
-  Reda, 322, a.
-
-  Redemptor, 81, a; 318, b.
-
-  Redimiculum, 318, b.
-
-  Regia, 15, a.
-    lex, 233, a.
-
-  Regifugium, 318, b.
-
-  Regimen morum, 80, a.
-
-  Regina sacrorum, 322, a.
-
-  Rei uxoriae, or dotis actio, 145, b.
-
-  Relatio, 335, b.
-
-  Relegatio, 173, a.
-
-  Relegatus, 173, b.
-
-  Religiosus, 190, b.
-
-  Remancipatio, 139, b.
-
-  Remmia lex, 69, a.
-
-  Remulcum, 318, b.
-
-  Remuria, 224, b.
-
-  Remus, 265, b.
-
-  Renuntiatio, 109, a.
-
-  Repagula, 88, a; 215, a.
-
-  Repetundae, 318, b.
-
-  Replicatio, 6, a.
-
-  Repositorium, 97, a.
-
-  Repotia, 252, b.
-
-  Repudium, 139, b.
-
-  Res mancipi, 247, b.
-    nec mancipi, 247, b.
-    privatae, 225, b.
-    singulae, 225, b.
-
-  Responsa, 217, b.
-
-  Restitutoria actio, 213, b.
-
-  Rete, 319, b.
-
-  Retiarii, 195, b.
-
-  Reticulum, 103, a; 319, b.
-
-  Retinaculum, 268, a; 320, b.
-
-  Retis, 319, b.
-
-  Reus, 6, a; 216, a.
-
-  Rex, 320, a.
-    sacrificulus, 321, b.
-    sacrificus, 15, a; 321, b.
-    sacrorum, 304, a; 321, b.
-
-  Rheda, 322, a.
-
-  Rhinthonica, 112, a.
-
-  Rhodia lex, 233, b.
-
-  Rica, 322, b.
-
-  Ricinium, 322, b.
-
-  Robigalia, 322, b.
-
-  Robur, 72, a.
-
-  Rogare legem, 225, b.
-
-  Rogatio, 107, a; 216, b; 225, b.
-
-  Rogationem accipere, 225, b.
-    promulgare, 225, b.
-
-  Rogationes Liciniae, 231, a.
-
-  Rogator, 107, b.
-
-  Rogus, 188, b.
-
-  Romphea, 201, a.
-
-  Rorarii, 165, b; 168, b.
-
-  Roscia theatralis lex, 233, b.
-
-  Rostra, 322, b.
-
-  Rostrata columna, 102, b.
-    corona, 118, b.
-
-  Rostrum, 264, a.
-
-  Rota, 124, a; 178, b.
-
-  Rubria lex, 234, a.
-
-  Rubrica, 179, a.
-
-  Ruderatio, 144, b.
-
-  Rudiarii, 195, a.
-
-  Rudis, 194, b.
-
-  Rudus, 412, b.
-
-  Rupiliae leges, 234, a.
-
-
-  S.
-
-  Saccus, 101, b; 323, a; 417, a.
-
-  Sacellum, 193, b; 323, a; 366, a.
-
-  Sacer, 234, a.
-
-  Sacerdos, 323, b.
-
-  Sacerdotes Augustales, 53, a.
-
-  Sacerdotium, 323, b.
-
-  Sacra, 268, b; 324, a.
-    gentilitia, 193, b.
-    privata, 324, a.
-    publica, 324, a.
-
-  Sacramentum, 218, b; 324, a.
-
-  Sacrarium, 324, a; 366, a.
-
-  Sacratae leges, 234, a.
-
-  Sacrificium, 324, a.
-
-  Sacrilegium, 325, b.
-
-  Sacrorum detestatio, 105, a.
-
-  Sacrum novemdiale, 272, b.
-
-  Saeculares ludi, 242, b.
-
-  Saeculum, 325, b.
-
-  Sagittarii, 37, b.
-
-  Sagmina, 326, a.
-
-  Sagulum, 326, a.
-
-  Sagum, 326, a.
-
-  Salaminia, 283, b.
-
-  Salii, 326, a.
-
-  Salinae, 327, a.
-
-  Salinum, 327, a.
-
-  Saltatio, 283, a; 327, b.
-
-  Saltus, 217, a; 330, b.
-
-  Salutatores, 328, b.
-
-  Sambuca, 329, a.
-
-  Samnites, 195, a.
-
-  Sandalium, 329, a.
-
-  Sandapila, 188, a.
-
-  Sapa, 416, b.
-
-  Sarcophagus, 188, b.
-
-  Sarissa, 201, a.
-
-  Sarracum, 329, a.
-
-  Satira, 329, a.
-
-  Satura, 329, a.
-    lex, 226, a; 329, a.
-
-  Saturnalia, 329, a.
-
-  Scabellum, 330, a.
-
-  Scalae, 23, a; 266, a.
-
-  Scalmi, 264, b.
-
-  Scalptura, 330, a.
-
-  Scamnum, 222, a; 330, a.
-
-  Scantinia lex, 234, a.
-
-  Scapha, 1, b; 262, b.
-
-  Scapus, 101, b.
-
-  Scena, 372, a.
-
-  Scenici ludi, 206, a; 242, a.
-
-  Sceptrum, 330, a.
-
-  Schoenus, 330, b.
-
-  Sciothericum, 207, a.
-
-  Scire, 336, a.
-
-  Scissor, 97, a.
-
-  Scitum populi, 225, b.
-
-  Scorpio, 180, a; 381, a.
-
-  Scotia, 347, b.
-
-  Scribae, 330, b.
-
-  Scribere, 331, a.
-
-  Scribonia lex, 234, a.
-
-  Scrinium, 70, b.
-
-  Scriplum, 331, a.
-
-  Scripta, 221, a.
-
-  Scriptura, 330, b.
-
-  Scripturarii, 331, a.
-
-  Scripulum, 331, a.
-
-  Scrupulum, 53, b; 331, a; 405, b.
-
-  Sculptura, 330, a.
-
-  Scutica, 180, a.
-
-  Scutum, 41, b; 331, a.
-
-  Scytale, 331, a.
-
-  Secespita, 331, b.
-
-  Sectatores, 18, b.
-
-  Sectio, 331, b.
-
-  Sector, 331, b.
-
-  Secundarium, 417, b.
-
-  Securis, 331, b.
-
-  Secutores, 195, b.
-
-  Seges, 32, b.
-
-  Segestre, 222, b.
-
-  Sella, 154, a; 331, b.
-
-  Sembella, 237, b.
-
-  Semis, Semissis, 44, a; 54, a.
-
-  Semproniae leges, 234, a.
-
-  Sempronia lex de foenere, 234, b.
-
-  Semunciarium fenus, 177, a.
-
-  Senator, 333, a.
-
-  Senatores Orcini, 333, a.
-    pedarii, 334, a.
-
-  Senatus, 332, a.
-    auctoritas, 336, a.
-    consultum, 336, a.
-    jus, 333, b.
-
-  Seniores, 105, b.
-
-  Sepelire, 189, b.
-
-  September, 66, a.
-
-  Septemviri Epulones, 156, a.
-
-  Septimontium, 337, a.
-
-  Septum, 107, b.
-
-  Septunx, 44, a.
-
-  Sepulchri violati actio, 190, b.
-
-  Sepulchrum, 189, b.
-
-  Sequestres, 18, b.
-
-  Sera, 215, a.
-
-  Seriae, 417, a.
-
-  Sericum, 337, a.
-
-  Serrati, _sc._ nummi, 130, b.
-
-  Serta, 337, a.
-
-  Servare de coelo, 51, a.
-
-  Servilia agraria lex, 235, a.
-    Glaucia lex, 319, a.
-    judiciaria lex, 235, a.
-
-  Servus (Greek), 337, a.
-    (Roman), 338, b.
-    ad manum, 18, a.
-    publicus, 340, a.
-
-  Sescuncia, 44, a.
-
-  Sescunx, 44, a.
-
-  Sestertium, 341, b.
-
-  Sestertius, 341, b.
-
-  Sevir turmae equitum, 159, a.
-
-  Seviri, 53, a.
-
-  Sex suffragia, 156, a.
-
-  Sextans, 44, a.
-
-  Sextarius, 342, a; 405, b.
-
-  Sextilis, 66, a.
-
-  Sibina, 201, a.
-
-  Sibyllini libri, 342, b.
-
-  Sica, 342, b.
-
-  Sicarius, 343, a.
-
-  Sicila, 342, b.
-
-  Sidus natalitium, 46, a.
-
-  Sigillaria, 330, a.
-
-  Signa militaria, 343, a.
-
-  Signifer, 166, b; 343, b.
-
-  Signum, 138, b; 168, a.
-
-  Silentium, 51, a.
-
-  Silia lex, 235, a.
-
-  Silicarii, 31, a.
-
-  Silicernium, 190, b.
-
-  Siliqua, 405, b.
-
-  Silvae, 330, b.
-
-  Silvani et Carbonis lex, 92, a.
-
-  Simpulum, or Simpuvium, 331, b; 344, a.
-
-  Siparium, 344, a; 372, a.
-
-  Sistrum, 344, a.
-
-  Sitella, 345, a.
-
-  Siticines, 188, a.
-
-  Situla, 345, a.
-
-  Socculus, 345, b.
-
-  Soccus, 345, b.
-
-  Socer, 13, a.
-    magnus, 13, b.
-
-  Societas, 39, b.
-
-  Socii, 170, b; 181, a; 345, b.
-
-  Socrus, 13, a.
-    magna, 13, b.
-
-  Sodales, 98, a.
-    Augustales, 53, a.
-    Titii, 43, a.
-
-  Sodalitium, 19, a.
-
-  Solarium, 135, a; 143, b; 207, a.
-
-  Solea, 346, b.
-
-  Solidorum venditio, 39, b.
-
-  Solidus, 54, a.
-
-  Solitaurilia, 325, a; 244, b.
-
-  Solium, 56, a; 376, a.
-
-  Solum, 144, b.
-
-  Sophronistae, 179, b.
-
-  Sordidati, 380, a.
-
-  Sortes, 345, a; 347, a.
-
-  Sparus, 200, b.
-
-  Spectacula, 87, a.
-
-  Spectio, 51, a.
-
-  Specularia, 144, b.
-
-  Specularis lapis, 144, b.
-
-  Speculatores, 347, a.
-
-  Speculum, 347, a.
-
-  Specus, 30, b.
-
-  Sperata, 252, b.
-
-  Sphaeristerium, 296, b.
-
-  Spiculum, 199, b; 200, b.
-
-  Spina, 87, a.
-
-  Spira, 101, b; 347, b.
-
-  Spirula, 347, b.
-
-  Spolia, 347, b.
-
-  Sponda, 222, a.
-
-  Sponsa, 251, b.
-
-  Sponsalia, 251, b.
-
-  Sponsus, 251, b.
-
-  Sportula, 348, a.
-
-  Stadium, 348, b.
-
-  Stalagamia, 211, b.
-
-  Stamen, 191, b; 364, a.
-
-  Stater, 349, a.
-
-  Statera, 399, a.
-
-  Stati dies, 135, b.
-
-  Stationes, 75, b.
-
-  Stativae feriae, 177, b.
-
-  Stator, 349, a.
-
-  Statuaria ars, 349, a.
-
-  Statumen, 412, b.
-
-  Stesichorus, 362, a.
-
-  Stilus, 354, a.
-
-  Stipendiarii, 354, a.
-
-  Stipendium, 354, b.
-
-  Stiva, 32, a.
-
-  Stola, 354, b.
-
-  Stragulum, 222, b.
-
-  Stratum, 154, a.
-
-  Strena, 355, b.
-
-  Strigil, 56, b.
-
-  Strophium, 355, b.
-
-  Structor, 97, a.
-
-  Stultorum feriae, 182, a.
-
-  Stuprum, 8, a.
-
-  Stylus, 354, a.
-
-  Subitarius exercitus, 167, a.
-
-  Subitarii, 400, a.
-
-  Subrogare legem, 225, b.
-
-  Subscriptores, 139, a.
-
-  Subscriptio censoria, 80, a.
-
-  Subsellium, 376, a.
-
-  Subsignanus, 168, b; 355, b.
-
-  Subtegmen, 364, a.
-
-  Subtemen, 364, a.
-
-  Subucula, 401, b.
-
-  Suburana, 390, b.
-
-  Succinctus, 401, b.
-
-  Sudatio concamerata, 56, a.
-
-  Sudatorium, 56, a.
-
-  Suffibulum, 412, a.
-
-  Suffitio, 190, b.
-
-  Suffragia sex, 156, a.
-
-  Suffragium, 355, b.
-
-  Suggestus, 22, b; 322, b; 356, a.
-
-  Suggrundarium, 188, b.
-
-  Sui heredes, 203, b.
-
-  Sulci, 412, b.
-
-  Sulcus, 32, b.
-
-  Sulpiciae leges, 235, a.
-
-  Sulpicia Sempronia lex, 235, a.
-
-  Sumptuariae leges, 235, a.
-
-  Suovetaurilia, 244, b; 325, a.
-
-  Supparum, 267, b; 401, b.
-
-  Supparus, 401, b.
-
-  Supplicatio, 356, a.
-
-  Supposititii, 195, b.
-
-  Susceptores, 81, a.
-
-  Suspensura, 56, a.
-
-  Sutorium, 48, a.
-
-  Symposium, 357, a.
-
-  Syndicus, 358, a.
-
-  Syngrapha, 358, b.
-
-  Synthesis, 329, b; 359, a.
-
-  Syrinx, 359, a.
-
-  Syssitia, 359, b.
-
-
-  T.
-
-  Tabella, 360, a.
-
-  Tabellariae leges, 236, a.
-
-  Tabellarius, 360, a.
-
-  Taberna, 39, b; 77, a.
-    diversoria, 77, a.
-
-  Tabernaria fabula, 112, a.
-
-  Tablinum, 142, b.
-
-  Tabulae, 39, b; 360, a.
-    censoriae, 79, b.
-    novae, 360, b.
-    publicae, 317, a.
-
-  Tabulam, adesse ad, 48, b.
-
-  Tabularii, 360, b.
-
-  Tabularium, 360, b.
-
-  Tabulatum, 417, a.
-
-  Talaria, 361, a.
-
-  Talasius, 252, b.
-
-  Talassio, 252, b.
-
-  Talentum, 361, a.
-
-  Talio, 361, b.
-
-  Talus, 361, b.
-
-  Tarentini ludi, 242, b.
-
-  Tarpeia Aternia lex, 226, b.
-
-  Taurii ludi, 242, b.
-
-  Tectores, 31, a.
-
-  Tectorium, 48, a.
-
-  Tegula, 363, b.
-
-  Tela, 363, b.
-
-  Telamones, 47, b.
-
-  Temo, 31, b; 124, a; 297, b.
-
-  Templum, 322, b.
-
-  Temporis praescriptio, 308, a.
-
-  Tensae, 373, b.
-
-  Tepidarium, 56, a.
-
-  Terentilia lex, 236, b.
-
-  Terentini ludi, 242, b.
-
-  Terminalia, 368, a.
-
-  Termini, 204, b.
-
-  Tertiare, 32, b.
-
-  Teruncius, 44, a; 237, b.
-
-  Tessera, 368, b.
-    hospitalis, 209, b.
-    nummaria, or frumentaria, 183, a.
-
-  Testamentariae leges, 236, b.
-
-  Testamentifactio, 368, b.
-
-  Testamentum, 248, a; 368, b.
-
-  Testator, 368, b.
-
-  Testis, 248, a; 218, b.
-
-  Testudo, 40, b; 245, b; 369, a.
-
-  Tetrarcha, 370, a.
-
-  Tetrarches, 370, a.
-
-  Textores, 363, b.
-
-  Textrices, 363, b.
-
-  Textrinum, 363, b.
-
-  Thalassites, 418, b.
-
-  Thargelia, 370, a.
-
-  Theatrum, 370, b.
-
-  Thensae, 373, b.
-
-  Theodosianus codex, 95, a.
-
-  Thermae, 54, b.
-
-  Thermopolium, 77, a.
-
-  Thesmophoria, 375, b.
-
-  Thorax, 240, b.
-
-  Thoria lex, 236, b.
-
-  Thraces, 195, b.
-
-  Threces, 195, b.
-
-  Thronus, 376, a.
-
-  Thyrsus, 376, a.
-
-  Tiara, 376, b.
-
-  Tiaras, 376, b.
-
-  Tibia, 376, b.
-
-  Tibicinium, 377, a.
-
-  Tintinnabulum, 378, a.
-
-  Tirocinium, 378, a.
-
-  Tiro, 378, a.
-
-  Titia lex, 236, b.
-
-  Titienses, 286, b.
-
-  Tities, 286, b.
-
-  Titii Sodales, 378, a.
-
-  Titulus, 189, a; 238, b.
-
-  Toga, 378, a.
-    candida, 380, a.
-    palmata, 380, b.
-    picta, 380, b.
-    praetexta, 380, b.
-    pulla, 380, b.
-    pura, 380, a.
-    sordida, 380, a.
-    virilis, 380, a.
-
-  Togata fabula, 112, a.
-
-  Togatus, 378, b.
-
-  Tonsor, 381, a.
-
-  Topiaria ars, 208, b.
-
-  Topiarius, 208, a.
-
-  Toralia, 222, b.
-
-  Torcular, 416, b.
-
-  Torculum, 416, b.
-
-  Tormentum, 267, a; 381, a.
-
-  Torques, 381, b.
-
-  Torquis, 381, b.
-
-  Torus, 222, a; 347, b; 381, b.
-
-  Trabea, 380, b.
-
-  Trabeata fabula, 112, a.
-
-  Tragoedia, 381, b.
-
-  Tragula, 201, a; 320, b.
-
-  Tragum, 320, b.
-
-  Trama, 364, a.
-
-  Transactio in via, 5, a.
-
-  Transtillum, 245, b.
-
-  Transtra, 265, b.
-
-  Transvectio equitum, 158, b.
-
-  Trebonia lex, 236, b.
-
-  Tremissis, 54, a.
-
-  Tressis, 44, a.
-
-  Tresviri, 397, a.
-
-  Triarii, 165, b; 168, b.
-
-  Tribula, 385, a.
-
-  Tribulum, 385, a.
-
-  Tribulus, 385, a.
-
-  Tribunal, 385, a.
-
-  Tribuni Laticlavii, 169, a.
-    militum, 166, a; 169, a.
-
-  Tribunicia lex, 233, a; 236, b.
-    potestas, 387, a.
-
-  Tribunus, 385, a.
-    celerum, 78, a.
-
-  Tribus (Greek), 388, a.
-    (Roman), 390, b.
-
-  Tributa comitia, 108, a.
-
-  Tributum, 391, a.
-
-  Tricliniarchia, 392, a.
-
-  Triclinium, 391, b.
-
-  Tridens, 191, b.
-
-  Triens, 44, a.
-
-  Trifax, 381, a.
-
-  Triga, 124, a.
-
-  Trilix, 364, b.
-
-  Trinum nundinum, 273, a.
-
-  Trinundinum, 273, a.
-
-  Triplicatio, 6, a.
-
-  Tripos, 394, a.
-
-  Tripudium, 50, b.
-
-  Triremes, 260, b.
-
-  Triticum, 182, b.
-
-  Triumphalia ornamenta, 397, a.
-
-  Triumphalis corona, 118, b.
-
-  Triumphus, 394, a.
-    castrensis, 397, a.
-    navalis, 397, a.
-
-  Triumviri, 397, a.
-    agro dividundo, 397, b.
-    capitalis, 397, b.
-    coloniae deducendae, 99, b; 397, b.
-    epulones, 156, a.
-    equitum turmas recognoscendi, or legendis equitum decuriis, 397, b.
-    mensarii, 254, a.
-    monetales, 256, b.
-    nocturni, 397, b.
-    reficiendis aedibus, 397, b.
-    reipublicae constituendae, 397, b.
-    sacris conquirendis donisque
-    persignandis, 398, a.
-    senatus legendi, 398, a.
-
-  Trochleae, 267, a.
-
-  Trochus, 398, a.
-
-  Trojae ludus, 90, a.
-
-  Tropaeum, 398, a.
-
-  Trossuli, 157, a.
-
-  Trua, 399, a.
-
-  Trulla, 399, a.
-
-  Trutina, 399, a.
-
-  Tuba, 399, a.
-
-  Tubicen, 11, a.
-
-  Tubilustrium, 318, a.
-
-  Tullia lex de ambitu, 18, b.
-    de legatione libera, 224, a.
-
-  Tullianum, 72, a.
-
-  Tumultuarii, 400, a.
-
-  Tumultuarius Exercitus, 167, a.
-
-  Tumultus, 399, b.
-
-  Tunica, 400, a.
-
-  Tunica recta, 252, a.
-
-  Tunicati, 402, b.
-
-  Turibulum, 402, b.
-
-  Turma, 166, b.
-
-  Turricula, 182, b.
-
-  Turris, 402, a.
-
-  Tutela, 264, b.
-
-  Tutor, 122, b.
-
-  Tympanum, 27, a; 298, a; 403, a.
-
-
-  U, V.
-
-  Vacatio, 152, a; 167, b.
-
-  Vadari reum, 5, b.
-
-  Vades, 216, a.
-
-  Vades dare, 5, b.
-
-  Vadimonium, Vas, 5, b.
-
-  Vagina, 196, a.
-
-  Valeriae leges, 236, b.
-
-  Valeriae et Horatiae leges, 29, b; 237, a.
-
-  Valeria lex, 237, a.
-
-  Vallaris corona, 118, b.
-
-  Vallum, 14, b; 75, a; 406, a.
-
-  Vallus, 75, a; 406, b.
-
-  Valva, 215, a.
-
-  Vannus, 407, a.
-
-  Vari, 320, b.
-
-  Varia lex, 247, a.
-
-  Vas, 407, a.
-
-  Vatinia lex, 237, a.
-
-  Udo, 404, b.
-
-  Vectigal rerum venalium, 82, a.
-
-  Vectigalia, 407, a.
-
-  Velarium, 23, a.
-
-  Velites, 166, b; 168, b; 408, a.
-
-  Velum, 267, a; 408, a.
-
-  Venabulum, 408, a.
-
-  Venatio, 21, a; 408, a.
-
-  Venditio, 80, b.
-
-  Veneficium, 409, a.
-
-  Venereus jactus, 362, a.
-
-  Venus, 362, a.
-
-  Ver sacrum, 410, a.
-
-  Verbena, 31, b; 326, a.
-
-  Verbenarius, 178, a.
-
-  Verna, 340, a.
-
-  Verriculum, 320, b.
-
-  Versura, 177, a.
-
-  Veru, 200, b.
-
-  Vervactum, 32, b.
-
-  Verutum, 200, b.
-
-  Vespae, 188, a.
-
-  Vespillones, 188, a.
-
-  Vestalis, 410, a.
-    maxima, 410, b.
-
-  Vestibulum, 142, a.
-
-  Veteranus, 167, b; 378, a.
-
-  Veteratores, 340, a.
-
-  Vexillarii, 165, b; 170, b.
-
-  Vexillum, 165, b; 343, b.
-
-  Via Principalis, 75, a.
-
-  Viae, 412, a.
-
-  Viaria lex, 237, a.
-
-  Viaticum, 414, a.
-
-  Viator, 414, b.
-
-  Victima, 324, b.
-
-  Vicesima, 11, b; 414, b.
-    hereditatum et legatorum, 414, b.
-    manumissionis, 248, b; 414, b.
-
-  Vicesimaria lex, 414, b.
-
-  Vicesimarii, 414, b.
-
-  Vico magistri, 415, a.
-
-  Vicus, 414, b.
-
-  Victoriatus, 130, a.
-
-  Vigiles, 171, a.
-
-  Vigiliae, 75, b.
-
-  Vigintisexviri, 415, a.
-
-  Vigintiviri, 415, a.
-
-  Villa, 415, a.
-    publica, 79, a.
-    rustica, 415, a.
-
-  Villia annalis lex, 226, b.
-
-  Villicus, 31, a; 208, a; 340, b; 415, b.
-
-  Vinalia, 415, b.
-
-  Vindemialis feria, 177, b.
-
-  Vindex, 5, a.
-
-  Vindicta, 248, a.
-
-  Vinea, 415, b.
-
-  Vinum, 416, a.
-
-  Virgines Vestales, 410, a.
-
-  Virgo maxima, 411, a.
-
-  Viridarium, 208, b.
-
-  Viridarius, 208, a.
-
-  Virilis toga, 380, a.
-
-  Vis, 420, a.
-
-  Visceratio, 190, b.
-
-  Viscellia lex, 237, a.
-
-  Vitis, 169, a.
-
-  Vitium, 51, a.
-
-  Vitrearii, 420, b.
-
-  Vitricus, 13, b.
-
-  Vitrum, 420, a.
-
-  Vitta, Vittae, 421, a.
-
-  Vittata sacerdos, 421, b.
-
-  Ulna, 404, b.
-
-  Umbella, 404, b.
-
-  Umbilicus, 238, a.
-
-  Umbo, 94, a; 379, b; 412, b.
-
-  Umbraculum, 404, b.
-
-  Uncia, 44, a; 176, b; 405, a.
-
-  Unciarum fenus, 177, a.
-
-  Unctores, 17, b.
-
-  Unctorium, 56, a.
-
-  Unguenta, 405, b.
-
-  Unguentaria, 405, b.
-
-  Unguentariae, 405, b.
-
-  Unguentarii, 405, b.
-
-  Universitas, 98, a.
-
-  Vocatio, 388, a.
-
-  Voconia lex, 237, b.
-
-  Volones, 421, b.
-
-  Volumen, 238, a.
-
-  Voluntarii, 421, b.
-
-  Vomer, 32, a.
-
-  Vomitoria, 23, a.
-
-  Vorticellum, 191, b.
-
-  Urceus, 406, a.
-
-  Urna, 189, a; 345, a; 406, a.
-
-  Ustrina, 63, a; 189, a.
-
-  Ustrinum, 189, a.
-
-  Usucapio, 406, a.
-
-  Usurae, 176, b.
-
-  Usus, 251, a.
-
-  Ususfructuarius, 406, a.
-
-  Ususfructus, 406, a.
-
-  Uterini, 98, a.
-
-  Utres, 418, a.
-
-  Utricularius, 376, b.
-
-  Vulcanalia, 421, b.
-
-  Vulgares, 340, b.
-
-  Uxor, 251, a.
-
-  Uxorium, 12, b.
-
-
-  X.
-
-  Xystus, 208, a.
-
-
-  Z.
-
-  Zona, 422, b.
-
-  Zophorus, 102, a; 422, b.
-
-
-
-
-ENGLISH INDEX.
-
-
-  A.
-
-  Actors (Greek), 205, b.
-    (Roman), 205, b.
-
-  Adoption (Greek), 7, a.
-    (Roman), 7, a.
-
-  Advocate, 358, a.
-
-  Adze, 44, a.
-
-  Altar, 31, a.
-
-  Ambassadors, 223, a.
-
-  Anchor, 268, a.
-
-  Anvil, 254, b.
-
-  Aqueduct, 29, b.
-
-  Arch, 36, a.
-
-  Archers, 37, b.
-
-  Armour, 41, a.
-
-  Arms, 41, a.
-
-  Army (Greek), 160, b.
-    (Roman), 164, a.
-
-  Astronomy, 45, b.
-
-  Auction (sale), 48, b.
-
-  Axe, 331, b.
-
-  Axle, 124, a.
-
-
-  B.
-
-  Bail (Greek), 152, b.
-    (Roman), 5, b.
-
-  Bakers, 297, b.
-
-  Balance, the, 239, a.
-
-  Ball, game at, 181, b; 296, a.
-
-  Bankers, 39, a.
-
-  Banishment (Greek), 172, a.
-    (Roman), 173, a.
-
-  Barber, 57, a.
-
-  Basket, 57, b.
-
-  Baths (Greek), 54, a.
-    (Roman), 55, b.
-
-  Beard, 57, a.
-
-  Beds, 222, a.
-
-  Beer, 82, b.
-
-  Bell, 378, a.
-
-  Bellows, 181, b.
-
-  Belt, 57, a.
-
-  Bit (of horses), 182, b.
-
-  Boeotian constitution, 59, b.
-
-  Books, 238, a.
-
-  Bookseller, 239, a.
-
-  Boots, 64, b; 120, a.
-
-  Bottomry, 176, b.
-
-  Bow, 37, b.
-
-  Boxing, 315, a.
-
-  Bracelet, 42, b.
-
-  Brass, 12, a; 278, a.
-
-  Brazier, 180, b.
-
-  Breakfast, 95, a.
-
-  Bribery (Greek), 127, a.
-    (Roman), 18, b.
-
-  Bricks, 220, b.
-
-  Bridge, 302, a.
-
-  Bridle, 182, a.
-
-  Bronze, 12, a.
-
-  Brooch, 178, b.
-
-  Burial (Greek), 184, a.
-    (Roman), 187, b.
-
-
-  C.
-
-  Calendar (Greek), 65, a.
-    (Roman); 66, a.
-
-  Cameos, 330, a.
-
-  Camp, 73, a.
-    breaking up of, 76, a.
-    choice of ground for, 73, b.
-    construction of, 74, a.
-
-  Candle, 69, b.
-
-  Candlestick, 69, b.
-
-  Canvassing, 18, a.
-
-  Capital (of columns), 101, b.
-
-  Cart, 72, b.
-
-  Casque, 192, b.
-
-  Ceilings, 144, b.
-
-  Celt, 139, b.
-
-  Censer, 402, b.
-
-  Chain, 76, b.
-
-  Chariot, 123, b.
-
-  Chimneys, 145, a.
-
-  Chisel, 139, b.
-
-  Circumvallation, 406, b.
-
-  Citizenship (Greek), 90, b.
-    (Roman), 91, b.
-
-  Clerks (Athenian), 196, a.
-    (Roman), 6, a.
-
-  Clocks, 206, b.
-
-  Coffins, 185, b; 188, b.
-
-  Colony (Greek), 98, b.
-    (Roman), 99, b.
-
-  Column, 101, b.
-
-  Combs, 288, a.
-
-  Comedy (Greek), 110, b.
-    (Roman), 111, b.
-
-  Cooks, 97, a.
-
-  Cordage, 267, b.
-
-  Corn crops, 344, b.
-    preservation of, 345, a.
-
-  Couches, 221, a.
-
-  Cowl, 122, a.
-
-  Cretan constitution, 120, a.
-
-  Criers, 306, b.
-
-  Crook, 288, a.
-
-  Crops, 344, b.
-
-  Cross, 121, a.
-
-  Crown, 118, a.
-
-  Crucifixion, 121, a.
-
-  Cubit, 122, a.
-
-  Cup, 68, a.
-
-  Cymbal, 125, b.
-
-
-  D.
-
-  Daggers, 315, a;  342, b.
-
-  Dance, the Pyrrhic, 328, a.
-
-  Dancing, 327, b.
-
-  Day, 134, a.
-
-  Dice, 368, b.
-
-  Dice-box, 182, b.
-
-  Dinner, 95, a.
-
-  Dish, 77, a; 285, a.
-
-  Distaff, 191, b.
-
-  Dithyramb, 381, b.
-
-  Divorce (Greek), 139, a.
-    (Roman), 139, a.
-
-  Door, 214, b.
-
-  Dowry (Greek), 145, a.
-    (Roman), 145, b.
-
-  Drains, 94, a.
-
-  Draughts, game of, 221, a.
-
-  Drum, 403, a.
-
-  Dynasty, 34, b.
-
-
-  E.
-
-  Ear-ring, 211, b.
-
-  Earthenware, 178, b.
-
-  Eleven, the, 202, b.
-
-  Ensigns, military, 343, a.
-
-  Era, 86, a.
-
-  Evil Eye, 175, a.
-
-  Executioner, 72, b.
-
-
-  F.
-
-  Fan, 179, b.
-
-  Felting, 297, a.
-
-  Fire-place, 180, b.
-
-  Floors of houses, 144, b.
-
-  Fresco, 295, a.
-
-  Fuller, 184, a.
-
-  Funerals (Greek), 184, b.
-    (Roman), 187, b.
-
-  Furnace, 56, a; 182, a.
-
-
-  G.
-
-  Gambler, Gaming, 17, a.
-
-  Garden, 207, b.
-
-  Gates of cities, 305, a.
-
-  Girdle, 422, b.
-
-  Gladiators, 194, a.
-
-  Glass, 420, a.
-
-  Gold, 53, b.
-
-  Granary, 207, b.
-
-  Greaves, 273, a.
-
-  Guards, 75, b.
-
-
-  H.
-
-  Hair (Greek), 103, a.
-    (Roman), 103, b.
-
-  Hammers, 247, a; 254, b.
-
-  Harp, 329, a.
-
-  Hatchet, 331, b.
-
-  Hearth, 180, b.
-
-  Heir (Greek), 203, a.
-    (Roman), 203, a.
-
-  Helmet, 192, b.
-
-  Hemlock, 202, b.
-
-  Heraclean tablet, 230, a.
-
-  Holidays, 177, b.
-
-  Hoop, 398, a.
-
-  Hospitality, 208, a.
-
-  Hour, 207, a.
-
-  House (Greek), 140, a.
-    (Roman), 142, a.
-
-  Hunting, 408, a.
-
-  Hunting-spear, 408, a.
-
-
-  I, J.
-
-  Informer, 128, b.
-
-  Inheritance (Greek), 203, a.
-    (Roman), 203, a.
-
-  Ink, 48, a.
-
-  Inn, 77, a.
-
-  Intaglios, 330, a.
-
-  Intercalary month, 66, b.
-
-  Interest of money (Greek), 176, b.
-    (Roman), 176, b.
-
-  Istumian games, 214, a.
-
-  Italy, 100, b.
-
-  Judges (Greek), 121, a; 131, a.
-    (Roman), 215, a.
-
-
-  K.
-
-  Kiln, 182, a.
-
-  King (Greek), 320, a.
-    (Roman), 320, b.
-
-  Kitchen, 143, a.
-
-  Knife, 122, a.
-
-  Knights (Athenian), 81, b.
-    (Roman), 156, a.
-
-  Knockers, 215, a.
-
-
-  L.
-
-  Ladders, 266, a.
-
-  Lamps, 241, b.
-
-  Law, 218, a; 225, a.
-
-  Legacy, 222, b.
-
-  Legion, 164, a.
-
-  Letter-carrier, 360, a.
-
-  Levy, 167, a.
-
-  Library, 58, b.
-
-  Light-house, 293, a.
-
-  Litters, 221, b.
-
-  Liturgies, 224, a.
-
-  Looking-glass, 347, a.
-
-  Loom, 363, b.
-
-  Lots, 347, a.
-
-  Luncheon, 95, a.
-
-  Lyre, the, 245, a.
-
-
-  M.
-
-  Marriage (Greek), 249, b.
-    (Roman), 250, b.
-
-  Masks, 291, a.
-
-  Masts, 266, a.
-
-  Meals (Greek), 95, a.
-    (Roman), 96, a.
-
-  Mile, 255, b.
-
-  Mile-stones, 255, b; 413, a.
-
-  Mills, 256, a.
-
-  Mines, 407, b.
-
-  Mint, 256, b.
-
-  Mirror, 347, a.
-
-  Money, coined, 12, a.
-    (Greek), gold, 53, b.
-    (Roman),   ”   53, b.
-
-  Month (Greek), 65, a.
-    (Roman), 66, a.
-
-  Mortars, 257, a; 258, a.
-
-  Mosaics, 141, b; 144, b.
-
-  Mourning for the dead, 190, b; 187, a.
-
-
-  N.
-
-  Names (Greek), 270, b.
-    (Roman), 270, b.
-
-  Necklaces, 256, b.
-
-  Nemean games, 269, a.
-
-  Nets, 319, b.
-
-  Notary, 360, b.
-
-
-  O.
-
-  Oars, 265, b.
-
-  Oath (Greek), 218, a.
-    (Roman), 218, b.
-
-  October-horse, 280, a.
-
-  Officers, duty of, 75, b.
-    parade of, 75, b.
-
-  Olympiad, 276, a.
-
-  Olympic games, 274, a.
-
-  Oracles, 276, b.
-
-  Orders of architecture, 101, b; 102, a.
-
-  Organ, 210, a.
-
-  Ostracism, 172, a.
-
-  Oven, 182, a.
-
-  Ounce, 105, a.
-
-
-  P.
-
-  Painting, 293, b.
-
-  Paper, 238, b.
-
-  Parasol, 404, b.
-
-  Parchment, 238, b.
-
-  Pay of soldiers, 354, b.
-
-  Pediment, 176, a.
-
-  Pen, 64, a.
-
-  Perfumes, 405, b.
-
-  Pipe, 376, b.
-
-  Plough, 31, b.
-
-  Poisoning, 409, a.
-
-  Poles, 266, a.
-
-  Portcullis, 76, a.
-
-  Pottery, 178, b.
-
-  Priests, 323, b.
-
-  Prison, 72, a.
-
-  Prodigies, 310, b.
-
-  Property-tax (Greek), 148, b.
-    (Roman), 391, b.
-
-  Prow, 263, a.
-
-  Purification, 244, a.
-
-  Purses, 248, b.
-
-  Pyrrhic dance, 328, a.
-
-  Pythian games, 315, b.
-
-
-  Q.
-
-  Quiver, 292, b.
-
-
-  R.
-
-  Races, 87, a.
-
-  Rings, 25, b.
-
-  Road, 412, a.
-
-  Rope-dancers, 184, b.
-
-  Ropes, 267, b.
-
-  Rounds, 75, b.
-
-  Rudder, 265, b.
-
-
-  S.
-
-  Sacrifices, 324, a.
-
-  Saddles, 154, a.
-
-  Sails, 267, a.
-
-  Salt, 327, a.
-
-  Salt-cellar, 327, a.
-
-  Salt-works, 327, a.
-
-  Sandal, 58, a.
-
-  Scales, 239, a.
-
-  Screw, 94, b.
-
-  Scythe, 173, b.
-
-  Senate (Greek), 61, a; 193, b.
-    (Roman), 332, b.
-
-  Sentinels, 75, b.
-
-  Shawl, 289, b.
-
-  Shields, 94, a; 285, a; 331, a; 288, b.
-
-  Ships, 259, b.
-
-  Shoe, 64, b; 151, b.
-
-  Shops, 39, b.
-
-  Sibyl, 342, b.
-
-  Sickle, 342, b.
-
-  Silk, 337, a.
-
-  Silver, 40, a.
-
-  Slaves (Greek), 337, a.
-    (Roman), 338, b.
-
-  Sling, 184, b.
-
-  Slingers, 184, b.
-
-  Spartan constitution, 193, b.
-
-  Spear, 199, b.
-
-  Speusinians, 129, b.
-
-  Spindle, 191, b.
-
-  Standards, military, 343, a.
-
-  Statuary, 349, a.
-
-  Stern, 264, b.
-
-  Stoves, 145, a.
-
-  Sun-dial, 206, b.
-
-  Sword, 196, a.
-
-
-  T.
-
-  Tables, 253, b.
-
-  Talent, 361, a.
-
-  Tapestry, 344, a.
-
-  Taxes (Greek), 365, b.
-    (Roman), 365, b; 391, a.
-
-  Temple, 366, a.
-
-  Testament, 368, b.
-
-  Theatre, 370, b.
-
-  Thessalian constitution, 360, b.
-
-  Threshold, 214, b.
-
-  Throne, 376, a.
-
-  Tiles, roofing, 363, b.
-
-  Tombs, 186, a.
-
-  Torch, 176, a.
-
-  Torture, 381, a.
-
-  Tower, 402, a.
-
-  Tragedy (Greek), 381, b.
-    (Roman), 384, a.
-
-  Triangle, the, 181, a.
-
-  Tribes (Greek), 388, b.
-    (Roman), 390, b.
-
-  Tribunes, 385, a.
-
-  Trident, 191, b.
-
-  Tripod, 394, a.
-
-  Trophy, 398, a.
-
-  Trousers, 62, a.
-
-  Trumpet, 62, b; 399, a.
-
-  Tumblers, 328, a.
-
-
-  U, V.
-
-  Vase-painting, 295, b.
-
-  Veil, 408, a.
-
-  Voting (Greek), 355, b.
-    (Roman), 107, a; 355, b.
-
-  Usurers, 176, b.
-
-
-  W.
-
-  Waggon, 297, b.
-
-  Wall, 257, b; 301, b.
-
-  Weaving, 364, a.
-
-  Wheel, 124, a.
-
-  Whip, 179, b.
-
-  Wills, 368, b.
-
-  Window, 144, b.
-
-  Wine, 416, a.
-
-  Witnesses (Greek), 248, b.
-    (Roman), 218, a.
-
-  Wrestling, 242, a.
-
-
-  Y.
-
-  Yards of a sail, 267, a.
-
-  Year (Greek), 65, a.
-    (Roman), 66, b.
-
-  Yoke, 217, a.
-
-
-
-
-CLASSIFIED INDEX.
-
-_Under each head the names of the articles in the Index are given in
-which the subject is explained._
-
-
-  AGRICULTURE.
-    Hortus.
-    Olea, Oliva.
-    Oscillum.
-    Scamnum.
-    Sitos.
-    Villa rustica.
-    Vinum.
-
-  AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.
-    Aratrum.
-    Jugum.
-    Pala.
-    Pecten.
-    Pedum.
-    Plaustrum.
-    Prelum.
-    Sarracum.
-    Stilus.
-    Tintinnabulum.
-    Torculum.
-    Tribula.
-    Tympanum.
-    Vannus.
-
-  AMUSEMENTS AND PLAYTHINGS.
-    Abacus.
-    Aenigma.
-    Alea.
-    Ascoliasmus.
-    Buxum.
-    Calculi.
-    Cottabos.
-    Follis.
-    Fritillus.
-    Latrunculi.
-    Talus.
-    Tessera.
-    Trochus.
-
-  ARCHITECTURE.
-    Abacus.
-    Acroterium.
-    Antae.
-    Antefixa.
-    Apsis.
-    Architectura.
-    Arcus.
-    Astragalus.
-    Atlantes.
-    Balteus.
-    Camara.
-    Canalis.
-    Columbaria.
-    Columna.
-    Coronis.
-    Cortina.
-    Crypta.
-    Cyma.
-    Entasis.
-    Epistylium.
-    Fascia.
-    Fastigium.
-    Janua.
-    Jugum.
-    Later.
-    Maenianum.
-    Metopa.
-    Peristylium.
-    Podium.
-    Porticus.
-    Spira.
-    Testudo.
-    Tholus.
-    Tympanum.
-    Zophorus.
-
-  ARITHMETIC.
-    Abacus.
-    Calculi.
-
-  ARMOUR AND WEAPONS.
-    Acinaces.
-    Aegis.
-    Arcus.
-    Arma.
-    Armatura.
-    Capulus.
-    Cateia.
-    Cetra.
-    Clipeus.
-    Dolo.
-    Funda.
-    Galea.
-    Gerrha.
-    Gladius.
-    Hasta.
-    Lorica.
-    Ocrea.
-    Palma.
-    Pelta.
-    Pharetra.
-    Pugio.
-    Scutum.
-    Securis.
-    Sica.
-    Venabulum.
-
-  ASSEMBLIES AND COUNCILS.
-    Agora.
-    Amphictyones.
-    Areiopagus.
-    Boule.
-    Comitia calata.
-      curiata.
-      centuriata.
-      tributa.
-    Concilium.
-    Concio.
-    Conventus.
-    Curia.
-    Ecclesia.
-    Eccleti.
-    Gerousia.
-    Myrii.
-    Panegyris.
-    Panionia.
-    Senatus.
-    Synedri.
-
-  ASTRONOMY.
-    Astrologia.
-
-  CAMPS AND FORTS.
-    Acropolis.
-    Agger.
-    Arx.
-    Carrago.
-    Castra.
-      stativa.
-    Pagi.
-    Praetorium.
-    Turris.
-    Vallum.
-
-  CHARITIES AND DONATIONS.
-    Alimentarii.
-    Congiaria.
-    Dianomae.
-    Donaria.
-    Frumentariae Leges.
-    Strena.
-
-  CIVIL PUNISHMENTS.
-    Arca.
-    Barathron, or Orugma.
-    Carcer.
-    Ceadas.
-    Crux.
-    Equuleus.
-    Ergastulum.
-    Flagrum.
-    Furca, patibulum.
-    Laqueus.
-    Latumiae.
-    Sestertium.
-
-  CLASSES OF CITIZENS AND OTHERS.
-    Adlecti.
-    Aerarii.
-    Agela.
-    Aretalogi.
-    Camilli.
-    Canephoros.
-    Dediticii.
-    Delator.
-    Demos.
-    Eiren.
-    Emphruri.
-    Ephebus.
-    Equites.
-    Eupatridae.
-    Geomori.
-    Hetaerae.
-    Hippobotae.
-    Homoei.
-    Libertus.
-    Locupletes.
-    Metoeci.
-    Naucraria.
-    Nobiles.
-    Ordo.
-    Parasiti.
-    Patricii.
-    Patrimi et Matrimi.
-    Perioeci.
-    Plebes.
-    Quadruplatores.
-    Salutatores.
-
-  COLONIES & MOTHER COUNTRY.
-    Apoikia.
-    Cleruchiae.
-    Colonia.
-    Metropolis.
-
-  CRIMES.
-    Ambitus.
-    Calumnia.
-    Falsum.
-    Incendium.
-    Injuria.
-    Leges Corneliae et Juliae.
-    Majestas.
-    Parricidium.
-    Plagium.
-    Sacrilegium.
-    Sodalitium.
-    Stuprum.
-    Talio.
-    Veneficium.
-    Vis.
-
-  DIVISION OF LAND.
-    Ager publicus.
-    Cippus.
-    Pyrgos.
-    Temenos.
-
-  DRAMA, DRAMATIC ENTERTAINMENTS.
-    Comoedia.
-    Exodia.
-    Exostra.
-    Mimus.
-    Pantomimus.
-    Periactos.
-    Persona.
-    Siparium.
-    Theatrum.
-    Tragoedia.
-    Velum.
-
-  DRESS, ORNAMENTS, THE TOILET.
-    Abolla.
-    Alicula.
-    Amictorium.
-    Amictus.
-    Ampyx.
-    Annulus.
-    Apex.
-    Armilla.
-    Barba.
-    Baxa.
-    Braccae.
-    Bulla.
-    Calamistrum.
-    Calceus.
-    Campestre.
-    Candys.
-    Caracalla.
-    Catena.
-    Causia.
-    Cestus.
-    Chlamys.
-    Clavus latus.
-      angustus.
-    Coma.
-    Cothurnus.
-    Crepida.
-    Crocota.
-    Cucullus.
-    Cudo.
-    Cyclas.
-    Diadema.
-    Embas.
-    Emblema.
-    Endromis.
-    Exomis.
-    Fascia.
-    Feminalia.
-    Fibula.
-    Fimbriae.
-    Flabellum.
-    Focale.
-    Fucus.
-    Galerus.
-    Inauris.
-    Incunabula.
-    Infula.
-    Instita.
-    Lacerna.
-    Laciniae.
-    Laena.
-    Lemniscus.
-    Marsupium.
-    Mitra.
-    Monile.
-    Nudus.
-    Orarium.
-    Paenula.
-    Pallium.
-    Pecten.
-    Peplum.
-    Pera.
-    Periscelis.
-    Pero.
-    Phalera.
-    Pileus.
-    Redimiculum.
-    Reticulum.
-    Ricinium.
-    Saccus.
-    Sandalium.
-    Serta.
-    Soccus.
-    Solea.
-    Stola.
-    Strophium.
-    Synthesis.
-    Tiara.
-    Toga.
-    Torques.
-    Tunica.
-    Udo.
-    Velum.
-    Vitta.
-    Umbraculum.
-    Unguenta.
-    Zona.
-
-  ENGINEERING.
-    Aquae ductus.
-    Cloaca.
-    Crypta.
-    Emissarium.
-    Fistula.
-    Fons.
-    Librator aquae.
-    Murus, moenia.
-    Navalia.
-    Pharos.
-    Piscina.
-    Pons.
-    Porta.
-    Syrinx.
-
-  ENGRAVING AND CHASING.
-    Caelatura.
-
-  ENTERTAINMENTS. FOOD.
-    Apophoreta.
-    Calida.
-    Cerevisia.
-    Coena.
-    Commissatio.
-    Erani.
-    Opsonium.
-    Paropsis.
-    Posca.
-    Sportula.
-    Symposium.
-    Syssitia.
-    Vinum.
-
-  EPOCHS AND DIVISIONS OF TIME.
-    Calendarium, 1. Greek.
-      2. Roman.
-    Chronologia.
-    Clavus annalis.
-    Dies.
-      fasti et nefasti.
-    Fasti.
-      sacri, or kalendares.
-      annales, or historici.
-    Feriae.
-    Hora.
-    Horologium.
-    Lustrum.
-    Nundinae.
-    Olympias.
-    Saeculum.
-
-  EXERCISES.
-    Ceroma.
-    Cestus.
-    Cheironomia.
-    Desultor.
-    Discus.
-    Gymnasium.
-    Halteres.
-    Harpastum.
-    Hippodromus.
-    Lucta, luctatio.
-    Palaestra.
-    Pancratium.
-    Pentathlon.
-    Petaurum.
-    Pila.
-    Pugilatus.
-    Saltatio.
-
-  FESTIVALS, GAMES, AND SHOWS.
-    Actia.
-    Adonia.
-    Aeora.
-    Agonalia.
-    Agones.
-    Agraulia.
-    Agroteras thusia.
-    Aloa or haloa.
-    Amarynthia.
-    Ambrosia.
-    Amphidromia.
-    Anagogia.
-    Androgeonia.
-    Anthesphoria.
-    Apaturia.
-    Aphrodisia.
-    Apollonia.
-    Ariadneia.
-    Armilustrium.
-    Arrhephoria.
-    Artemisia.
-    Asclepieia.
-    Augustales.
-    Bendideia.
-    Boedromia.
-    Boreasmus.
-    Brauronia.
-    Cabeiria.
-    Callisteia.
-    Carmentalia.
-    Carneia.
-    Carya.
-    Cerealia.
-    Chalcioikia.
-    Charistia.
-    Compitalia.
-    Consualia.
-    Cotyttia.
-    Daedala.
-    Decennalia.
-    Delia.
-    Delphinia.
-    Diipoleia.
-    Diocleia.
-    Dionysia.
-    Eleusinia.
-    Eleutheria.
-    Ellotia.
-    Equiria.
-    Floralia.
-    Fornacalia.
-    Gymnopaedia.
-    Heraea.
-    Hermaea.
-    Hestiasis.
-    Hilaria.
-    Hyacinthia.
-    Inoa.
-    Isthmia.
-    Juvenalia.
-    Lampadephoria.
-    Laphria.
-    Larentalia.
-    Lectisternium.
-    Lemuralia.
-    Ludi.
-      [_In the text an alphabetical list of the principal ludi
-       is given._]
-    Lupercalia.
-    Lycaea.
-    Matralia.
-    Matronalia.
-    Megalensia.
-    Mysia.
-    Mysteria.
-    Neptunalia.
-    Novendiale.
-    Olympia.
-    Opalia.
-    Oschophoria.
-    Palilia.
-    Pamboeotia.
-    Panathenaea.
-    Plynteria.
-    Poplifugia.
-    Prometheia.
-    Pyanepsia.
-    Pythia.
-    Quinquatrus.
-    Quinquennalia.
-    Quirinalia.
-    Regifugium.
-    Robigalia.
-    Saturnalia.
-    Septimontium.
-    Sthenia.
-    Synoikia.
-    Terminalia.
-    Theophania.
-    Theseia.
-    Thesmophoria.
-    Vinalia.
-    Vulcanalia.
-
-  FORMS OF GOVERNMENT.
-    Aristocratia.
-    Democratia.
-    Monarchia.
-    Ochlocratia.
-    Oligarchia.
-
-  FUNERALS.
-    Arca.
-    Cenotaphium.
-    Cippus.
-    Columbarium.
-    Crypta.
-    Funus, 1. Greek.
-      2. Roman.
-    Mausoleum.
-    Urna.
-
-  FURNITURE.
-    Abacus.
-    Armarium.
-    Balnea.
-    Cathedra.
-    Conopeum.
-    Cortina.
-    Incitega.
-    Lectus.
-    Mensa.
-    Pluteus.
-    Pulvinar.
-    Scamnum.
-    Sella.
-    Speculum.
-    Thronus.
-    Torus.
-    Triclinium.
-    Tripos.
-
-  GREEK LAW.
-    Adoptio.
-    Aikias dike.
-    Anakrisis.
-    Androlepsia.
-    Antidosis.
-    Antigraphe.
-    Apographe.
-    Apophasis.
-    Aporrheta.
-    Apostasiou dike.
-    Appellatio.
-    Asebeias graphe.
-    Astrateias graphe.
-    Ateleia.
-    Atimia.
-    Axones.
-    Civitas, politeia.
-    Cleteres.
-    Decasmus.
-    Diaetetae.
-    Diapsephisis.
-    Dicastes.
-    Dike.
-    Divortium.
-    Dokimasia.
-    Dos.
-    Ecmartyria.
-    Eisangelia.
-    Embateia.
-    Emmeni dikae.
-    Endeixis, ephegesis.
-    Epangelia.
-    Epibole.
-    Epiclerus.
-    Epitropus.
-    Epobelia.
-    Euthyne.
-    Exomosia.
-    Exsilium.
-    Fenus.
-    Gamelia.
-    Graphe.
-    Heres.
-    Hieromenia.
-    Hybreos graphe.
-    Jusjurandum.
-    Prodosia.
-    Proeisphoras dike.
-    Prostates tou demou.
-    Prothesmia.
-    Psephus.
-    Pseudengraphes graphe.
-    Pseudocleteias graphe.
-    Rhetrae.
-    Sitou dike.
-    Sycophantes.
-    Sylae.
-    Syndicus.
-    Synegorus.
-    Syngraphe.
-    Timema.
-    Tormentum.
-    Xenias graphe.
-
-  HORSE FURNITURE.
-    Ephippium.
-    Frenum.
-    Habenae.
-    Hippoperae.
-
-  INCOME, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE.
-    Aes uxorium.
-    Apophora.
-    Arca.
-    Census.
-    Centesima.
-    Columnarium.
-    Decumae.
-    Eicoste.
-    Eisphora.
-    Epidoseis.
-    Fiscus.
-    Ostiarium.
-    Pentecoste.
-    Phoros.
-    Portorium.
-    Quadragesima.
-    Salinae.
-    Scriptura.
-    Stipendiarii.
-    Telones.
-    Telos.
-    Theorica.
-    Tributum.
-    Vectigalia.
-    Vicesima.
-
-  INSIGNIA AND ATTRIBUTES.
-    Caduceus.
-    Fasces.
-    Insignia.
-    Sceptrum.
-    Talaria.
-    Thyrsus.
-
-  LEAGUES.
-    Achaicum Foedus.
-    Aetolicum Foedus.
-    Socii.
-
-  LITERATURE.
-    Commentarius.
-    Fescennina.
-    Logographi.
-    Paean.
-    Satura.
-
-  MACHINES AND CONTRIVANCES.
-    Antlia.
-    Catena.
-    Clitellae.
-    Cochlea.
-    Columbarium.
-    Ephippium.
-    Exostra.
-    Ferculum.
-    Fistula.
-    Follis.
-    Forma.
-    Fornax.
-    Jugum.
-    Libra, Libella.
-    Mortarium, pila.
-    Pegma.
-    Phalangae.
-    Retis, Rete.
-    Scalae.
-    Tela.
-    Tintinnabulum.
-    Torculum.
-    Trutina.
-
-  MAGISTRATES AND RULERS.
-    Acta.
-    Adlecti.
-    Aesymnetes.
-    Alabarches.
-    Amphictyones.
-    Archon.
-    Areiopagus.
-    Bidiaei.
-    Boetarches.
-    Boule.
-    Censor.
-    Centumviri.
-    Consul.
-    Consularis.
-    Cosmi.
-    Decaduchi.
-    Decarchia.
-    Decemviri.
-      legibus scribendis.
-      litibus judicandis.
-      sacris faciundis.
-      agris dividundis.
-    Demarchi.
-    Demiurgi.
-    Dictator.
-    Duumviri.
-    Ephetae.
-    Ephori.
-    Epimeletae.
-    Eponymus.
-    Gerousia.
-    Gynaeconomi.
-    Harmostae.
-    Hendeka, hoi.
-    Hieromnemones.
-    Interrex.
-    Magistratus.
-    Medix tuticus.
-    Nomophylaces.
-    Paedonomus.
-    Patronomi.
-    Perduellionis duumviri.
-    Phylarchi.
-    Phylobasileis.
-    Polemarchus.
-    Poletae.
-    Poristae.
-    Praetor.
-    Proconsul.
-    Rex.
-    Senatus.
-    Tetrarches.
-    Tribunus.
-    Triumviri.
-    Tyrannus.
-    Vigintisexviri.
-
-  MANUFACTURES AND MATERIALS.
-    Byssus.
-    Coa vestis.
-    Fictile.
-    Gausapa.
-    Lodix, lodicula.
-    Salinae.
-    Sericum.
-    Serta.
-    Vitrum.
-
-  MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.
-    Acclamatio.
-    Acta.
-    Angaria.
-    Cheirotonia.
-    Chelidonia.
-    Chirographum.
-    Corona convivialis.
-      nuptialis.
-      natalitia.
-    Crypteia.
-    Diploma.
-    Hospitium.
-    Hydriaphoria.
-    Immunitas.
-    Jusjurandum, 1. Greek.
-      2. Roman.
-    Leiturgia.
-    Matrimonium, 1. Greek.
-      2. Roman.
-    Nomen.
-    Nudus.
-    Proscriptio.
-    Prytaneium.
-    Suffragium.
-    Synoikia.
-    Syssitia.
-    Tabella.
-    Tribus, 1. Greek.
-      2. Roman.
-    Trierarchia.
-    Venatio.
-    Viaticum.
-    Xenelasia.
-
-  MARITIME AFFAIRS.
-    Camara.
-    Carchesium.
-    Cataphracti.
-    Corbitae.
-    Cymba.
-    Delphis.
-    Dolo.
-    Epibatae.
-    Epistoleus.
-    Harpago.
-    Insignia.
-    Jugum.
-    Lembus.
-    Navarchus.
-    Navis.
-    Naumachia.
-    Paralus.
-    Phaselus.
-    Portisculus.
-    Praefectus classis.
-    Remulcum.
-    Rudens.
-
-  MARKETS.
-    Agora.
-    Deigma.
-    Emporium.
-    Forum.
-    Macellum.
-
-  MEASURES AND WEIGHTS.
-    Acaena.
-    Acetabulum.
-    Actus.
-    Amphora.
-    Artaba.
-    Arura.
-    As.
-    Choenix.
-    Chous.
-    Congius.
-    Cotyla.
-    Cubitus.
-    Culeus.
-    Cyathus.
-    Dactylus.
-    Decempeda.
-    Gradus.
-    Hecte.
-    Hemina.
-    Hippicon.
-    Jugerum.
-    Libra, as.
-    Ligula.
-    Litra.
-    Medimnus.
-    Metretes.
-    Milliare.
-    Modius.
-    Obolus.
-    Orgyia.
-    Palmipes.
-    Palmus.
-    Parasanga.
-    Passus.
-    Pes.
-    Plethron.
-    Quadrantal.
-    Schoenus.
-    Scrupulum.
-    Sextarius.
-    Stadium.
-    Ulna.
-    Uncia.
-    Urna.
-    Xestes.
-
-  METALS.
-    Aes.
-    Argentum.
-    Aurum.
-    Electrum.
-    Metallum.
-    Orichalcum.
-
-  MILITARY COSTUME.
-    Abolla.
-    Alicula.
-    Balteus.
-    Bulla.
-    Caliga.
-    Paludamentum.
-    Sagum.
-
-  MILITARY ENGINES.
-    Aries.
-    Catapulta.
-    Cataracta.
-    Corvus.
-    Cuniculus.
-    Ericius.
-    Helepolis.
-    Lupus ferreus.
-    Pluteus.
-    Scalae.
-    Stylus.
-    Testudo.
-    Tormentum.
-    Tribulus.
-    Turris.
-    Vinea.
-
-  MILITARY ENSIGNS.
-    Signa Militaria.
-
-  MILITARY LEVIES.
-    Catalogus.
-    Conquisitores.
-    Emphruri.
-    Epariti.
-    Tumultus.
-
-  MILITARY MANŒUVRES.
-    Cuneus.
-    Forfex.
-    Testudo.
-
-  MILITARY PAY AND ALLOWANCES.
-    Acta.
-    Aes equestre.
-      hordearium.
-      militare.
-    Praeda.
-    Stipendium.
-
-  MILITARY PUNISHMENTS.
-    Decimatio.
-    Fustuarium.
-
-  MILITARY REWARDS.
-    Aurum coronarium.
-    Corona obsidionalis.
-      civica.
-      navalis.
-      muralis.
-      castrensis, vallaris.
-      ovalis.
-      oleagina.
-    Hasta pura.
-    Ovatio.
-    Praeda.
-    Spolia.
-    Triumphus.
-    Tropaeum.
-
-  MONEY.
-    Aes.
-      circumforaneum.
-    Argentum.
-    As.
-    Assarius nummus.
-    Aurum.
-    Chalcus.
-    Cistophorus.
-    Damaretion.
-    Danace.
-    Daricus.
-    Denarius.
-    Drachma.
-    Hecte.
-    Libella.
-    Litra.
-    Nummus.
-    Obolus.
-    Sestertius.
-    Stater.
-    Uncia.
-
-  MUSIC AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.
-    Acroama.
-    Aeneatores.
-    Buccina.
-    Canticum.
-    Capistrum.
-    Chorus.
-    Cornu.
-    Crotalum.
-    Cymbalum.
-    Hydraula.
-    Lituus.
-    Lyra.
-    Pecten.
-    Sambuca.
-    Sistrum.
-    Syrinx.
-    Testudo.
-    Tibia.
-    Tuba.
-    Tympanum.
-
-  OFFICERS AND SOLDIERS.
-    Accensi.
-    Aeneatores.
-    Agathoergi.
-    Ala.
-    Alauda.
-    Antecessores.
-    Argyraspides.
-    Catalogus.
-    Cataphracti.
-    Celeres.
-    Conquisitores.
-    Contubernales.
-    Damosia.
-    Dimachae.
-    Ducenarii.
-    Duplarii.
-    Epariti.
-    Evocati.
-    Excubitores.
-    Exercitus, 1. Greek.
-      2. Roman.
-    Libratores.
-    Phylarchi.
-    Praefectus castrorum.
-      praetorio.
-    Praetor.
-    Praetoriani.
-    Strategus.
-    Tagus.
-    Taxiarchi.
-    Tiro.
-    Volones.
-    Xenagi.
-
-  ORACLES AND DIVINATION.
-    Augurium, auspicium.
-    Caput extorum.
-    Oraculum.
-    Sibyllini Libri.
-    Sortes.
-
-  PRIESTS AND PRIESTLY OFFICES.
-    Aeditui.
-    Agyrtae.
-    Arvales fratres.
-    Asiarchae.
-    Augur, auspex.
-    Augustales.
-    Curio.
-    Epulones.
-    Eumolpidae.
-    Exegetae.
-    Fetiales.
-    Flamen.
-    Galli.
-    Haruspices.
-    Luperci.
-    Neocori.
-    Pausarii.
-    Pontifex.
-    Rex sacrificulus.
-    Sacerdos.
-    Salii.
-    Theori.
-    Titii sodales.
-    Vestales.
-
-  PRIVATE BUILDINGS.
-    Aithousa.
-    Apotheca.
-    Armarium.
-    Atrium.
-    Bibliotheca.
-    Caupona.
-    Cella.
-    Cubiculum.
-    Domus, 1. Greek.
-    2. Roman.
-      vestibulum.
-      ostium.
-      atrium.
-      alae.
-      tablinum.
-      fauces.
-      perystylum.
-      cubicula.
-      triclinia.
-      oeci.
-      exedrae.
-      culina.
-      coenacula.
-      diaeta.
-      solaria.
-    Exedrae.
-    Focus.
-    Fornax.
-    Fornix.
-    Hemicyclium.
-    Janua.
-    Lararium.
-    Later.
-    Paries cratitius.
-      formaceus.
-      lateritius.
-      reticulata structura.
-    Paries structura antiqua.
-      emplecton.
-      e lapide quadrato.
-    Pergula.
-    Pinacotheca.
-    Pluteus.
-    Puteal.
-    Scalae.
-    Synoikia.
-    Taberna.
-    Tegula.
-    Triclinium.
-    Villa.
-
-  PUBLIC BUILDINGS.
-    Aerarium.
-    Amphitheatrum.
-    Archeion.
-    Arcus triumphalis.
-    Argyrocopeion.
-    Athenaeum.
-    Auditorium.
-    Balneae.
-    Basilica, chalcidicum.
-    Bibliotheca.
-    Carcer.
-    Circus.
-    Cochlea.
-    Curia.
-    Forum.
-    Graecostasis.
-    Hippodromus.
-    Horreum.
-    Labyrinthus.
-    Lautumiae.
-    Lesche.
-    Moneta.
-    Museum.
-    Paradisus.
-    Porticus.
-    Prytaneion.
-    Rostra.
-    Stadium.
-    Suggestus.
-    Tabularium.
-    Thesaurus.
-    Tribunal.
-
-  PUBLIC OFFICERS.
-    Accensi.
-    Actuarii.
-    Adlecti.
-    Admissionales.
-    Aediles.
-    Agathoergi.
-    Agonothetae.
-    Agoranomi.
-    Agrimensores.
-    Agronomi.
-    Apodectae.
-    Apostoleis.
-    Apparitores.
-    Asiarchae.
-    Astynomi.
-    Boonae.
-    Carnifex.
-    Choregus.
-    Coactor.
-    Critae.
-    Curatores.
-      [_An alphabetical list of curatores is given._]
-    Diaetetae.
-    Diribitores.
-    Ducenarii.
-    Ecdicus.
-    Episcopi.
-    Epistates.
-    Euthyni.
-    Exetastae.
-    Frumentarii.
-    Grammateus.
-    Hieropoii.
-    Hodopoei.
-    Legatus.
-    Leiturgia.
-    Lictor.
-    Magister.
-      [_An alphabetical list of magistri is given._]
-    Manceps.
-    Mastigophori.
-    Mensarii.
-    Notarii.
-    Paredri.
-    Parochi.
-    Practores.
-    Praecones.
-    Praefectus Annonae.
-      Urbi.
-    Probouli.
-    Procurator.
-    Publicani.
-    Pythii.
-    Quaestores classici.
-      parricidii.
-    Quinqueviri.
-    Scribae.
-    Sitophylaces.
-    Stator.
-    Stratores.
-    Syllogeis.
-    Tabularii.
-    Tamias.
-    Teichopoeus.
-    Tettaraconta, hoi.
-    Theori.
-    Trierarchia.
-    Triumviri.
-    Viatores.
-    Zetetae.
-
-  ROADS AND STREETS.
-    Angiportus.
-    Callis.
-    Mansio.
-    Viae.
-    Vicus.
-
-  ROMAN LAW.
-    Actio.
-    Actor.
-    Adoptio.
-    Advocatus.
-    Aediles.
-    Affinitas.
-    Agrariae leges.
-    Album.
-    Ambitus.
-    Appellatio.
-    Arra, Arrha.
-    Arrabo, Arrhabo.
-    Assertor.
-    Assessor.
-    Auctio.
-    Auctor, Auctoritas.
-    Basilica.
-    Beneficium.
-    Bona.
-      caduca.
-      fides.
-    Bonorum cessio.
-      collatio.
-      emptio.
-      possessio.
-    Calumnia.
-    Caput.
-    Caupo.
-    Cautio, cavere.
-    Centumviri.
-    Certi, incerti actio.
-    Chirographum.
-    Civitas.
-    Cliens.
-    Codex Gregorianus.
-      Hermogenianus.
-      Justinianeus.
-      Theodosianus.
-    Cognati.
-    Collegium.
-    Colonia.
-    Commissoria lex.
-    Crimen, delictum.
-    Curator.
-    Decretum.
-    Dediticii.
-    Depositum.
-    Divortium.
-    Dominium.
-    Dominus.
-    Dos.
-    Edictum.
-      Theodorici.
-    Emancipatio.
-    Exercitoria actio.
-    Exsilium.
-    Falsum.
-    Familia.
-    Fenus.
-    Fidei commissum.
-    Fiducia.
-    Fiscus.
-    Foederatae civitates.
-    Frumentariae leges.
-    Gens.
-    Heres.
-    Honores.
-    Imperium.
-    Impubes.
-    Incendium.
-    Incestum.
-    Infamia.
-    Infans.
-    Ingenui.
-    Injuria.
-    Intercessio.
-    Interdictum.
-    Judex.
-    Jure, cessio in.
-    Jurisconsulti.
-    Jurisdictio.
-    Jus.
-      Civile Papirianum.
-    Jusjurandum.
-    Latinitas.
-    Legatum.
-    Lex.
-      [_Under this head an alphabetical list of the principal laws
-       is given._]
-    Libelli accusatorum.
-      famosi.
-    Libertus.
-    Magistratus.
-    Majestas.
-    Mancipium.
-    Mandatum.
-    Manumissio.
-    Negotiatores.
-    Nexum.
-    Orator.
-    Patria potestas.
-    Patronus.
-    Pauperies.
-    Peculatus.
-    Plagium.
-    Plebiscitum.
-    Poena.
-    Possessio.
-    Postliminium.
-    Praedium.
-    Praejudicium.
-    Praes.
-    Praescriptio.
-    Praetor.
-    Procurator.
-    Proscriptio.
-    Provincia.
-    Repetundae pecuniae.
-    Sectio.
-    Senatus consultum.
-    Societas.
-    Sumptuariae leges.
-    Tabellariae leges.
-    Talio.
-    Testamentum.
-    Tormentum.
-    Tutor.
-    Vindicta.
-    Vis.
-    Universitas.
-    Usufructus.
-
-  SACRIFICES AND RELIGIOUS RITES.
-    Acerra.
-    Amburbium.
-    Anakleteria.
-    Antigoneia.
-    Apotheosis.
-    Ara.
-    Canephoros.
-    Corona sacerdotalis.
-    Cortina.
-    Diamastigosis.
-    Eisiteria.
-    Eleusinia.
-    Exauguratio.
-    Inauguratio.
-    Lituus.
-    Lustratio.
-    Lustrum.
-    Sacra.
-    Sacrificium.
-    Sagmina.
-    Secespita.
-    Simpulum.
-    Supplicatio.
-    Thensae.
-    Tripos.
-    Turibulum.
-
-  SLAVES AND BONDSMEN.
-    Agaso.
-    Alipilus.
-    Aliptae.
-    Amanuensis.
-    Anagnostae.
-    Anteambulones.
-    Aquarii.
-    Bruttiani.
-    Calones.
-    Capsarii.
-    Coloni.
-    Cosmetae.
-    Cubicularii.
-    Cursores.
-    Demosii.
-    Fartor.
-    Gymnesii.
-    Helotes.
-    Ieroduli.
-    Librarii.
-    Mediastini.
-    Notarii.
-    Paedagogus.
-    Pedisequi.
-    Penestae.
-    Servus, 1. Greek.
-      2. Roman.
-    Tabellarius.
-    Thetes.
-    Villicus.
-
-  STATUARY.
-    Acrolithi.
-    Caryatides.
-    Colossus.
-    Daedala.
-    Hermae.
-    Imago.
-    Sculptura.
-    Statuaria ars.
-    Typus.
-
-  SUPERSTITIONS.
-    Amuletum.
-    Apophrades hemerai.
-    Astrologia.
-    Fascinum.
-    Oscillum.
-    Prodigium.
-    Sortes.
-
-  TEMPLES AND HOLY PLACES.
-    Argei.
-    Asylum.
-    Bidental.
-    Docana.
-    Propylaea.
-    Sacellum.
-    Sacrarium.
-    Templum.
-    Velum.
-
-  TITLES.
-    Augustus.
-    Caesar.
-
-  TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS.
-    Acus.
-    Amussis.
-    Apsis.
-    Ascia.
-    Colus.
-    Contus.
-    Culter.
-    Dolabra, Dolabella.
-    Falx.
-    Fistuca.
-    Follis.
-    Fuscina.
-    Fusus.
-    Harpago.
-    Jugum.
-    Malleolus.
-    Norma.
-    Securis.
-
-  TRADES AND OCCUPATIONS.
-    Ambubaiae.
-    Argentarii.
-    Athletae.
-    Bestiarii.
-    Bibliopola.
-    Calculator.
-    Caupo.
-    Fabri.
-    Fullo.
-    Funambulus.
-    Gladiatores.
-    Hemerodromi.
-    Histrio.
-    Interpres.
-    Notarii.
-    Pelatae.
-    Pistor.
-    Redemtor.
-
-  VEHICLES AND THEIR PARTS.
-    Antyx.
-    Arcera.
-    Basterna.
-    Canathron.
-    Capistrum.
-    Carpentum.
-    Carruca.
-    Chiramaxium.
-    Cisium.
-    Covinus.
-    Currus.
-    Esseda.
-    Harmamaxa.
-    Jugum.
-    Lectica.
-    Petorritum.
-    Pilentum.
-    Rheda.
-    Sella.
-
-  UTENSILS.
-    Acetabulum.
-    Aenum.
-    Alabastrum.
-    Amphora.
-    Ampulla.
-    Anaglypha.
-    Authepsa.
-    Bascauda.
-    Bicos.
-    Cadus.
-    Calathus.
-    Calix.
-    Candela.
-    Candelabrum.
-    Cantharus.
-    Capsa.
-    Carchesium.
-    Catinus.
-    Chrysendita.
-    Cista.
-    Cochlear.
-    Colum.
-    Cophinus.
-    Corbis, Corbula, Corbicula.
-    Cortina.
-    Crater.
-    Cupa.
-    Cyathus.
-    Fax.
-    Ferculum.
-    Guttus.
-    Lanx.
-    Lecythus.
-    Lucerna.
-    Modiolus.
-    Murrhina vasa.
-    Oenophorum.
-    Olla, aula.
-    Patera, Patella.
-    Patina.
-    Poculum.
-    Psycter.
-    Pyxis.
-    Rhyton.
-    Salinum.
-    Situla, Sitella.
-    Tripos.
-    Trua, Trulla.
-    Vas.
-    Urceus.
-
-  WRITING AND WRITING MATERIALS.
-    Adversaria.
-    Album.
-    Atramentum.
-    Buxum.
-    Calamus.
-    Codex.
-    Libellus.
-      memorialis.
-    Liber.
-    Nota.
-    Regula.
-    Scytale.
-    Stylus.
-    Tabulae.
-
-
-THE END.
-
-
-  LONDON: PRINTED BY WM. CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
-  STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.
-
-
-
-
-  TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
-
-  Most illustrations have been placed at the start, or the end, of
-  a dictionary entry. In some long multi-page entries with several
-  illustrations, a paragraph break has been inserted to allow
-  placement of an illustration at a relevant point of the text.
-
-  The original text used Y with breve (Ῠ) in 49 entry headings that
-  were latinized versions of a Greek word, for example ĂLῨTAE (ἀλύται).
-  These have been changed to Y with tilde (Ỹ), ĂLỸTAE (ἀλύται),
-  because there is no Y with breve in the Unicode Latin tables.
-
-  There are a few references in the main text to entries that do not
-  exist in this (Shorter) version of the Dictionary, for example:
-  FURTUM, ATTICURGES, and in the Classified Index there are several
-  dozen more, for example: Pala, Follis, Dianomae, Pyrgos.
-
-  Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
-  corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
-  the text and consultation of external sources.
-
-  Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the
-  text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.
-
-  Pg 24: ‘ἀμπυκτῆρ’ replaced by ‘ἀμπυκτήρ’.
-  Pg 33: ‘ἀρχιτεκτονια’ replaced by ‘ἀρχιτεκτονία’.
-  Pg 37: ‘corytus’ has been italicized for consistency.
-  Pg 42: ‘ἀμφιδεᾶ’ replaced by ‘ἀμφιδέα’.
-  Pg 46: ‘by the Emperior’ replaced by ‘by the Emperor’.
-  Pg 51: ‘of each parties’ replaced by ‘of such parties’.
-  Pg 57: ‘Basilica Portia, in’ replaced by ‘Basilica Porcia, in’.
-  Pg 146: ‘have tried causes’ replaced by ‘have tried cases’.
-  Pg 150: ‘oath of secresy’ replaced by ‘oath of secrecy’ (twice).
-  Pg 154: ‘στρῶματα’ replaced by ‘στρώματα’.
-  Pg 157: ‘traduc equum’ replaced by ‘traducere equum’.
-  Pg 180: ‘εστια’ replaced by ‘ἑστία’.
-  Pg 211: ‘once distinguised’ replaced by ‘once distinguished’.
-  Pg 212: ‘be distingushed’ replaced by ‘be distinguished’.
-  Pg 215: ‘μοχλόν’ replaced by ‘μοχλὸν’.
-  Pg 222: ‘ἀνάκλίντρον’ replaced by ‘ἀνάκλιντρον’.
-  Pg 249: ‘ἠγεμὼν’ replaced by ‘ἡγεμὼν’.
-  Pg 250: ‘this conventio.’ replaced by ‘this convention.’.
-  Pg 266: ‘ἱστός’ replaced by ‘ἱστὸς’.
-  Pg 299: ‘In (B.C. 445), the’ replaced by ‘In B.C. 445, the’.
-  Pg 332: ‘the downfal of’ replaced by ‘the downfall of’.
-  Pg 350: ‘the developement of’ replaced by ‘the development of’.
-  Pg 419: ‘gave headachs’ replaced by ‘gave headaches’.
-
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-
-<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Smaller Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, by William Smith</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
-at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
-are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this eBook.
-</div>
-
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A Smaller Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</p>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: William Smith</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: July 24, 2021 [eBook #65909]</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: John Campbell, Delphine Lettau, alternate illustrations from TIA and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net</div>
-
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES ***</div>
-
-
-<div class="transnote">
-<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p>
-
-<p>Footnote anchors are denoted by <span class="fnanchor">[number]</span>,
-and the footnotes have been placed at the end of the relevant entry. Footnotes for Tables I-XVI
-have been kept at the bottom of each relevant Table.</p>
-
-<p>Basic fractions are displayed as ½ ⅓ ¼ etc; other fractions are mostly
-shown in the form <sup>a</sup>/<sub>b</sub>, for example <sup>4</sup>/<sub>9</sub>.
-The book also has some fractions in the form a-b, for example 1-40th or 7-100ths.</p>
-
-<p>Each entry in the dictionary is a Latin name and uses vowel breves
-and macrons to indicate pronunciation. Greek words in the text use
-polytonic Greek. Some other less common characters are found in this
-book and these will display on this device as:<br />
-<span class="pad2">⛛ &nbsp; &nbsp; (0x26DB inverted Greek Δ)</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">M̄ &nbsp; &nbsp; (M with 0x0304 combining macron)</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">C̄ &nbsp; &nbsp; (C with 0x0304 combining macron)</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">⬤ &nbsp; &nbsp; (0x2B24 black circle)</span><br />
-</p>
-
-<p>Several of the <a href="#TABLES">Tables</a> at the back of the book are
-very dense and wider than can be displayed on some devices. Use of a
-small-size font may help.</p>
-
-<p>The original text was printed in two-column format; the indexes at
-the back of the book reference the page and the column, a (left) or
-b (right). This etext uses the normal single column format so that the
-column reference does not apply; only the page reference is relevant.</p>
-
-<p class="customcover">The cover image was created by the transcriber
-and is placed in the public domain.</p>
-
-<p>Some minor changes to the text are noted at the <a href="#TN">end of the book.</a></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="cover-orig" style="max-width: 42em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/cover-orig.jpg" title="Original cover" alt="original cover" />
-Original cover.
-</div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter">
-
-<h1>
-A<br />
-<span class="fs250">SMALLER &nbsp; DICTIONARY</span><br />
-<span class="fs80">OF</span><br />
-<span class="fs150 antiqua">Greek and Roman Antiquities.</span>
-</h1>
-</div>
-
-
-<hr class="p4 chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="p2 pfs120">THE STUDENT’S MANUALS:</p>
-</div>
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-<p class="p1 pfs90"><em>A SERIES OF HISTORICAL CLASS BOOKS FOR
-ADVANCED SCHOLARS.</em></p>
-
-<hr class="r10" />
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-Coloured Maps and Woodcuts. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
-
-<p class="center">⁂ Questions on the Student’s Hume. 12mo. <em>2s.</em></p>
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-Establishment of the Second Empire 1852. By <span class="smcap">Rev W H Pearson</span>. Woodcuts. Post 8vo.
-<em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
-
-<p>THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF GREECE. From the Earliest Times to the
-Roman Conquest. By Dr <span class="smcap">Wm. Smith</span>. With Coloured Maps and Woodcuts. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
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-<p class="center">⁂ Questions on the Student’s Greece. 12mo. 2<em>s.</em></p>
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-Establishment of the Empire. By <span class="smcap">Dean Liddell</span>. With Coloured Map and Woodcuts. Post
-8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
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-<p>THE STUDENT’S GIBBON. Being an Epitome of the History of the Decline
-and Fall of the Roman Empire. By <span class="smcap">Dr Wm. Smith</span>. Woodcuts. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
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-<p>THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF EUROPE DURING THE MIDDLE AGES.
-By <span class="smcap">Henry Hallam, LL D</span>. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
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-Accession of Henry VII. to the Death of George II. By <em>Henry Hallam LL D</em>. Post 8vo.
-<em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
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-Media, Persia, Asia Minor, and Phœnicia. By <span class="smcap">Philip Smith, B A</span>. With Woodcuts Post
-8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
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-W L Bevan M A</span>. Woodcuts. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
-
-<p>THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY, <span class="smcap">Mathematical,
-Physical and Descriptive</span>. By <span class="smcap">Rev W L Bevan, M A</span>. Woodcuts. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
-
-<p>THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. By <span class="smcap">George
-P Marsh</span>. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
-
-<p>THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. By <span class="smcap">T B Shaw,
-M A</span>. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
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-<p>THE STUDENT’S SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. Selected
-from the Chief Writers. By <span class="smcap">Thos B Shaw M A</span>. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
-
-<p>THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY. From the
-Creation of the World to the return of the Jews from Captivity. With an Introduction to the
-Books of the Old Testament. By <span class="smcap">Philip Smith B A</span>. Woodcuts. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
-
-<p>THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY. With an
-Introduction containing the Connection of the Old and New Testaments. By <span class="smcap">Philip
-Smith B A</span>. Maps and Woodcuts. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
-
-<p>THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. By <span class="smcap">Philip
-Smith B A</span>. Woodcuts. 2 vols. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em> each.</p>
-
-<div class="pad3">
-<p><span class="smcap">Part I</span>&mdash;From the Times of the Apostles to the full Establishment of the Holy Roman
-Empire and the Papal Power. <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 30-1380.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Part II</span>&mdash;The Middle Ages and the Reformation. <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1381-1593.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF ENGLISH CHURCH HISTORY. By <span class="smcap">Canon
-Perry M A</span>. 2 vols. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em> each.</p>
-
-<div class="pad3">
-<p><span class="smcap">First Period</span>&mdash;From the Planting of the Church in Britain to the Accession of Henry
-VIII. 596-1509.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Second Period</span>&mdash;From the Accession of Henry VIII to the Silencing of Convocation in
-the Eighteenth Century. 1509-1717.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY, with Questions and
-References. By <span class="smcap">William Fleming, D D</span>. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<hr class="p4 chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<p class="p2 pfs90">A</p>
-
-<p class="p1 pfs180">SMALLER &nbsp; DICTIONARY</p>
-
-<p class="p2 pfs80">OF</p>
-
-<p class="p1 pfs135 antiqua">Greek and Roman Antiquities.</p>
-
-<p class="p2 pfs120"><span class="smcap">By</span> WILLIAM SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D.,</p>
-
-<p class="p1 pfs70">EDITOR OF THE ‘CLASSICAL AND LATIN DICTIONARIES,’ ETC.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowe7_5" id="ill-title">
-  <img class="p2 w100" src="images/ill-title.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p class="p2 pfs70">ABRIDGED FROM THE LARGER DICTIONARY.</p>
-
-<p class="p2 pfs80"><em>TWELFTH EDITION.</em></p>
-
-<p class="p2 pfs70">ILLUSTRATED WITH TWO HUNDRED WOODCUTS.</p>
-
-<p class="p4 pfs90 lsp">LONDON:</p>
-<p class="pfs100 lsp">JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.</p>
-<p class="pfs100">1884.</p>
-
-<p class="p2 pfs70"><em>The right of Translation is reserved.</em></p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="p2 pfs90">DR. WM. SMITH’S DICTIONARIES.</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r10" />
-
-<div class="blockquotx">
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-Geography, and Natural History</span>. With Illustrations. 3 vols. Medium 8vo. <em>5l. 5s.</em></p>
-
-<p>A CONCISE BIBLE DICTIONARY. Condensed from the above.
-With Maps and 300 Illustrations. Medium 8vo. <em>21s.</em></p>
-
-<p>A SMALLER BIBLE DICTIONARY. Abridged from the above.
-With Maps and 40 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
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-<p>A DICTIONARY OF CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITIES. The History, Institutions,
-and Antiquities of the Christian Church. With Illustrations. 2 vols. Medium 8vo.
-<em>3l. 13s. 6d.</em></p>
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-SECTS, AND DOCTRINES. Vols I. II. and III. Medium 8vo. <em>31s. 6d.</em> each.</p>
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-the Laws, Institutions, Domestic Usages, Painting, Sculpture, Music, the Drama, &amp;c.
-With 500 Illustrations. Medium 8vo. <em>28s.</em></p>
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-MYTHOLOGY. Containing a History of the Ancient World, civil, literary, and ecclesiastical.
-With 564 Illustrations. 3 vols. Medium 8vo. <em>84s.</em></p>
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-the political history of both countries and cities, as well as their geography. With 530
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-With 200 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
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-Abridged from the larger Work. With 200 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
-
-<p>A LATIN-ENGLISH DICTIONARY. Based on the Works of <span class="smcap">Forcellini</span>
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-Medium 8vo. <em>21s.</em></p>
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-Proper Names and Tables of Roman Calendar, etc. Abridged from the above. Square 12mo.
-<em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
-
-<p>A COPIOUS AND CRITICAL ENGLISH-LATIN DICTIONARY.
-Medium 8vo. <em>21s.</em></p>
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-above. Square 12mo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p>
-</div>
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-<p class="p4 pfs70">LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SOWS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET
-AND CHARING CROSS.</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[Pg 1]</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="p4 pfs70">A</p>
-
-<p class="p1 pfs150">SMALLER DICTIONARY</p>
-
-<p class="p2 pfs70">OF</p>
-
-<p class="pfs135">GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.</p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="A_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">A</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Abacus" class="p2 drop-capy">ĂBĂCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄβαξ</span>), denoted primarily a square
-tablet of any description, and was hence
-employed in the following significations:&mdash;(1)
-A table, or side-board, chiefly used for
-the display of gold and silver cups, and other
-kinds of valuable and ornamental utensils.
-The use of abaci was first introduced at Rome
-from Asia Minor after the victories of Cn.
-Manlius Vulso, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 187, and their introduction
-was regarded as one of the marks
-of the growing luxury of the age.&mdash;(2) A
-draught-board or chess-board.&mdash;(3) A board
-used by mathematicians for drawing diagrams,
-and by arithmeticians for the purposes
-of calculation.&mdash;(4) A painted panel,
-coffer, or square compartment in the wall
-or ceiling of a chamber.&mdash;(5) In architecture,
-the flat square stone which constituted
-the highest member of a column,
-being placed immediately under the architrave.
-</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill001a" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill001a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Abacus.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Abolla">ABOLLA, a cloak chiefly worn by soldiers,
-and thus opposed to the toga, the
-garb of peace. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Toga">Toga</a>.</span>] The abolla was
-used by the lower classes at Rome, and consequently
-by the philosophers who affected
-severity of manners and life. Hence the expression
-of Juvenal, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">facinus majoris abollae</i>,&mdash;“a
-crime committed by a very deep philosopher.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp56" id="ill001b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill001b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Abolla. (Bellori, Arc. Triumph., pl. 11, 12.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Abrogatio">ABRŎGĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex">Lex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Absolutio">ABSŎLŪTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Acaena">ĂCAENA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκαίνη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκαινα</span>, or in later Greek
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκενα</span>, in one place <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκαινον</span>), a measuring rod
-of the length of ten Greek feet. It was used
-in measuring land, and thus resembles the
-Roman decempeda.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Acatium">ĂCATĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκάτιον</span>, a diminutive of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκατος</span>),
-a small vessel or boat used by the Greeks,
-which appears to have been the same as the
-Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scapha</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acatia</i> were also sails
-adapted for fast sailing.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Accensus">ACCENSUS. (1) A public officer, who
-attended on several of the Roman magistrates.
-The Accensi summoned the people to
-the assemblies, and those who had law-suits<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span>
-to court; they preserved order in the courts,
-and proclaimed the time of the day when it
-was the third hour, the sixth hour, and the
-ninth hour. An accensus anciently preceded
-the consul who had not the fasces, which
-custom, after being long disused, was restored
-by Julius Cæsar in his first consulship.
-Accensi also attended on the governors of
-provinces.&mdash;(2) The accensi were also a class
-of soldiers in the Roman army, who were
-enlisted after the full number of the legion
-had been completed, in order to supply any
-vacancies that might occur in the legion.
-They were taken, according to the census of
-Servius Tullius, from the fifth class of citizens,
-and were placed in battle in the rear of the
-army, behind the triarii.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Acclamatio">ACCLĀMĀTĬO, was the public expression
-of approbation or disapprobation, pleasure or
-displeasure, by loud acclamations. On many
-occasions, there appear to have been certain
-forms of acclamations always used by the Romans;
-as, for instance, at marriages, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Io
-Hymen</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hymenaee</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Talassio</i>; at triumphs,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Io Triumphe</i>; at the conclusion of plays, the
-last actor called out <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Plaudite</i> to the spectators;
-orators were usually praised by such expressions
-as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bene et praeclare</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Belle et festive</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Non potest melius</i>, &amp;c. Under the empire the
-name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acclamationes</i> was given to the praises
-and flatteries bestowed by the senate upon the
-reigning emperor and his family.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Accubatio">ACCŬBĀTĬO, the act of reclining at meals.
-The Greeks and Romans were accustomed, in
-later times, to recline at their meals; but
-this practice could not have been of great antiquity
-in Greece, since Homer always describes
-persons as sitting at their meals; and
-Isidore of Seville, an ancient grammarian,
-also attributes the same custom to the ancient
-Romans. Even in the time of the early
-Roman emperors, children in families of the
-highest rank used to sit together, while their
-fathers and elders reclined on couches at the
-upper part of the room. Roman ladies continued
-the practice of sitting at table, even
-after the recumbent position had become
-common with the other sex. It appears to
-have been considered more decent, and more
-agreeable to the severity and purity of ancient
-manners, for women to sit, more especially if
-many persons were present. But, on the
-other hand, we find cases of women reclining,
-where there was conceived to be nothing bold
-or indelicate in their posture. Such is the
-case in the preceding woodcut, which seems
-intended to represent a scene of matrimonial
-felicity. For an account of the disposition of
-the couches, and of the place which each
-guest occupied in a Greek and Roman entertainment,
-see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Symposium">Symposium</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Triclinium">Triclinium</a></span>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill002a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill002a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Accubatio. Act of Reclining. (Montfaucon, Ant. Exp.,
-Suppl., iii. 60.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Accusator">ACCŪSĀTOR, ACCŪSĀTIO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Acerra">ĂCERRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυμιατήριον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λιβανωτρίς</span>), the incense-box
-or censer used in sacrifices. The
-acerra was also a small moveable altar placed
-before the dead, on which perfumes were
-burnt. The use of acerrae at funerals was
-forbidden by a law of the Twelve Tables as
-an unnecessary expense.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp76" id="ill002b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill002b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Acerra. (From a Frieze in the Museum Capitolinum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Acetabulum">ĂCĒTABŬLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀξίς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀξύβαφον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀξυβάφιον</span>).
-(1) A vinegar-cup, wide and open above, as
-we see in the annexed cut. The name was
-also given to all cups resembling it in size and
-form, to whatever use they might be applied.&mdash;(2)
-A Roman measure of capacity, fluid
-and dry. It was one-fourth of the hemian,
-and therefore one-eighth of the sextarius.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp82" id="ill002c" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill002c.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Acetabulum. (Dennis, Etruria, p. xcvi.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Achaicum">ĂCHĀĬCUM FOEDUS. The Achaean league
-is divided into two periods. 1. <em>The earlier
-period.</em>&mdash;When the Heracleidae took possession
-of Peloponnesus, which had until then
-been chiefly inhabited by Achaeans, a portion
-of the latter, under Tisamenus, turned northwards
-and occupied the north coast of Peloponnesus.
-The country thus occupied derived
-from them its name of Achaia, and
-contained twelve confederate towns, which
-were governed by the descendants of Tisamenus,
-till at length they abolished the
-kingly rule after the death of Ogyges, and
-established a democracy. In the time of Herodotus
-the twelve towns of which the league
-consisted were: Pellene, Aegeira, Aegae,
-Bura, Helice, Aegium, Rhypes (Rhypae), Patreis
-(ae), Phareis (ae), Olenus, Dyme, and
-Tritaeeis (Tritaea). After the time of Herodotus,
-Rhypes and Aegae disappeared from
-the number, and Ceryneia and Leontium
-stepped into their place. The bond which
-united the towns of the league was not so
-much a political as a religious one, as is
-shown by the common sacrifice offered at
-Helice to Poseidon, and after the destruction
-of that town, at Aegium to Zeus, surnamed
-Homagyrius, and to Demeter Panachaea.
-The confederation exercised no great influence
-in the affairs of Greece down to the time
-when it was broken up by the Macedonians.
-2. <em>The later period.</em>&mdash;When Antigonus in
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 281 made the unsuccessful attempt to
-deprive Ptolemaeus Ceraunus of the Macedonian
-throne, the Achaeans availed themselves
-of the opportunity of shaking off the
-Macedonian yoke, and renewing their ancient
-confederation. The grand object however
-now was no longer a common worship, but a
-real political union among the confederates.
-The fundamental laws were, that henceforth
-the confederacy should form one inseparable
-state, that each town, which should join it,
-should have equal rights with the others, and
-that all members, in regard to foreign countries,
-should be considered as dependent, and
-bound to obey in every respect the federal
-government, and those officers who were entrusted
-with the executive. Aegium was the
-seat of the government, and it was there that
-the citizens of the various towns met at regular
-and stated times, to deliberate upon the
-common affairs of the league, and if it was
-thought necessary, upon those of separate
-towns, and even of individuals, and to
-elect the officers of the league. The league
-acquired its great strength in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 251, when
-Aratus united Sicyon, his native place, with
-it, and some years later gained Corinth also
-for it. Megara, Troezene, and Epidaurus
-soon followed their example. Afterwards
-Aratus persuaded all the more important
-towns of Peloponnesus to join the confederacy,
-and thus Megalopolis, Argos, Hermione,
-Phlius, and others were added to it. In a
-short period the league reached the height of
-its power, for it embraced Athens, Megara,
-Aegina, Salamis, and the whole of Peloponnesus,
-with the exception of Sparta, Elis,
-Tegea, Orchomenos, and Mantineia. The
-common affairs of the confederate towns were
-regulated at general meetings attended by the
-citizens of all the towns, and held regularly
-twice every year, in the spring and in the
-autumn. These meetings, which lasted three
-days, were held in a grove of Zeus Homagyrius
-in the neighbourhood of Aegium, and near
-a sanctuary of Demeter Panachaea. Every
-citizen, both rich and poor, who had attained
-the age of thirty, might attend the assemblies,
-to which they were invited by a public herald,
-and might speak and propose any measure.
-The subjects which were to be brought before
-the assembly were prepared by a council
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βουλή</span>), which seems to have been permanent.
-The principal officers of the confederacy were:
-1. At first two strategi (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρατηγοί</span>), but
-after the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 255 there was only one,
-who in conjunction with an hipparchus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἴππαρχος</span>)
-or commander of the cavalry and an
-under-strategus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποστρατηγός</span>) commanded
-the army furnished by the confederacy, and
-was entrusted with the whole conduct of war;
-2. A public secretary (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραμματεύς</span>); and, 3.
-Ten demiurgi (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημιουργοί</span>). All the officers of
-the league were elected in the assembly held
-in the spring, at the rising of the Pleiades,
-and legally they were invested with their
-several offices only for one year, though it
-frequently happened that men of great merit
-and distinction were re-elected for several
-successive years. If one of the officers died
-during the period of his office, his place was
-filled by his predecessor, until the time for
-the new elections arrived. The perpetual
-discord of the members of the league, the
-hostility of Sparta, the intrigues of the Romans,
-and the folly and rashness of the later
-strategi, brought about not only the destruction
-and dissolution of the confederacy, but
-of the freedom of all Greece, which after the
-fall of Corinth, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 146, became a Roman
-province under the name of Achaia.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Acies">ĂCĬES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Acinaces">ĂCĪNĂCĒS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκινάκης</span>), a Persian sword,
-whence Horace speaks of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Medus acinaces</i>.
-The acinaces was a short and straight weapon,
-and thus differed from the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sica</i>,
-which was curved. It was worn on the right
-side of the body, whereas the Greeks and Romans
-usually had their swords suspended on
-the left side. The form of the acinaces, with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span>
-the mode of wearing it, is illustrated by the
-following Persepolitan figures.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp67" id="ill004" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill004.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Acinaces, Persian Sword. (From bas-reliefs at Persepolis.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Acisculus">ACISCŬLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ascia">Ascia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aclis">ĀCLIS, a kind of dart with a leathern
-thong attached to it. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amentum">Amentum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Acroama">ACROĀMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκρόαμα</span>), which properly
-means any thing heard, was the name given
-to a concert of players on different musical
-instruments, and also to an interlude performed
-during the exhibition of the public
-games. The word is also applied to the
-actors and musicians who were employed to
-amuse guests during an entertainment, and
-is sometimes used to designate the anagnostae.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Anagnostes">Anagnostes</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Acrolithi">ACRŎLĬTHI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκρόλιθοι</span>), statues, of which
-the extremities only were of marble, and the
-remaining part of the body of wood either
-gilt or covered with drapery.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Acropolis">ACRŎPŎLIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκρόπολις</span>). In almost all
-Greek states, which were usually built upon
-a hill, rock, or some natural elevation, there
-was a castle or a citadel, erected upon the
-highest part of the rock or hill, to which the
-name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acropolis</i>, higher or upper city, was
-given. Thus we read of an acropolis at
-Athens, Corinth, Argos, Messene, and many
-other places. The Capitolium at Rome answered
-the same purpose as the Acropolis in
-the Greek cities; and of the same kind were
-the tower of Agathocles at Utica, and that of
-Antonia at Jerusalem.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Acrostolium">ACROSTŎLĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Acroterium">ACRŎTĒRĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκρωτήριον</span>), signifies the
-extremity of any thing, and was applied by
-the Greeks to the extremities of the prow of
-a vessel (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκροστόλιον</span>), which were usually
-taken from a conquered vessel as a mark of
-victory: the act of doing so was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκρωτηριάζειν</span>.
-In architecture it signifies, 1.
-The sloping roof of a building. 2. The pediment.
-3. The pedestals for statues placed
-on the summit of a pediment. In sculpture
-it signifies the extremities of a statue, as
-wings, feet, hands, &amp;c.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Acta">ACTA. (1) The public acts and orders of
-a Roman magistrate, which after the expiration
-of his office were submitted to the senate
-for approval or rejection. Under the empire,
-all the magistrates when entering upon their
-office on the 1st of January swore approval
-of the acts of the reigning emperor.&mdash;(2)
-<span class="smcap">Acta Forensia</span> were of two kinds: first,
-those relating to the government, as leges,
-plebiscita, edicta, the names of all the magistrates,
-&amp;c., which formed part of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae
-publicae</i>; and secondly, those connected with
-the courts of law.&mdash;(3) <span class="smcap">Acta Militaria</span>,
-contained an account of the duties, numbers,
-and expenses of each legion, and were probably
-preserved in the military treasury
-founded by Augustus.&mdash;(4) <span class="smcap">Acta Senatus</span>,
-called also <span class="smcap">Commentarii Senatus</span> and <span class="smcap">Acta
-Patrum</span>, contained an account of the various
-matters brought before the senate, the opinions
-of the chief speakers, and the decision
-of the house. By command of Julius Caesar
-they were published regularly every day as
-part of the government gazette. Augustus
-forbade the publication of the proceedings of
-the senate, but they still continued to be preserved,
-and one of the most distinguished
-senators was chosen by the emperor to compile
-the account.&mdash;(5) <span class="smcap">Acta Diurna</span>, a gazette
-published daily at Rome by the authority
-of the government, during the later times
-of the republic and under the empire, corresponding
-in some measure to our newspapers.
-They were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acta Publica</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acta Urbana</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acta Rerum Urbanarum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acta
-Populi</i>, and sometimes simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acta</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diurna</i>.
-They contained, 1. A list of births and
-deaths in the city, an account of the money
-paid into the treasury from the provinces,
-and every thing relating to the supply of
-corn. 2. Extracts from the Acta Forensia.
-3. Extracts from the Acta Senatus. 4. A
-court circular, containing an account of
-the births, deaths, festivals, and movements
-of the imperial family. 5. An account of
-such public affairs and foreign wars as the
-government thought proper to publish. 6.
-Curious and interesting occurrences, such as
-prodigies and miracles, the erection of new
-edifices, the conflagration of buildings, funerals,
-sacrifices, a list of the various games,
-and especially curious tales and adventures,
-with the names of the parties.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Actia">ACTĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκτια</span>), a festival celebrated every
-four years at Actium in Epirus, with wrestling,
-horse-racing, and sea-fights, in honour
-of Apollo. There was a celebrated temple of
-Apollo at Actium. After the defeat of Antony
-off Actium, Augustus enlarged the
-temple, and instituted games to be celebrated
-every five years in commemoration of his
-victory.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Actio">ACTĬO, is defined by a Roman jurist to be
-the right of pursuing by judicial means what
-is a man’s due. The old actions of the Roman
-law were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legis actiones</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legitimae</i>,
-either because they were expressly
-provided for by the laws of the Twelve Tables,
-or because they were strictly adapted to
-the words of the laws, and therefore could
-not be varied. But these forms of action
-gradually fell into disuse, in consequence of
-the excessive nicety required, and the failure
-consequent on the slightest error in the pleadings,
-and they were eventually abolished by
-the Lex Aebutia, and two Leges Juliae, except
-in a few cases. In the old Roman constitution,
-the knowledge of the law was most
-closely connected with the institutes and
-ceremonial of religion, and was accordingly
-in the hands of the patricians alone, whose
-aid their clients were obliged to ask in all
-their legal disputes. App. Claudius Caecus,
-perhaps one of the earliest writers on law,
-drew up the various forms of actions, probably
-for his own use and that of his friends:
-the manuscript was stolen or copied by his
-scribe Cn. Flavius, who made it public; and
-thus, according to the story, the plebeians
-became acquainted with those legal forms
-which hitherto had been the exclusive property
-of the patricians. After the abolition
-of the old legal actions, a suit was prosecuted
-in the following manner:&mdash;An action was
-commenced by the plaintiff summoning the
-defendant to appear before the praetor or
-other magistrate who had <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jurisdictio</i>; this
-process was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jus vocatio</i>; and, according
-to the laws of the Twelve Tables, was
-in effect a dragging of the defendant before
-the praetor, if he refused to go quietly; and
-although this rude proceeding was somewhat
-modified in later times, we find in the time
-of Horace that if the defendant would not go
-quietly, the plaintiff called on any bystander
-to witness, and dragged the defendant into
-court. The parties might settle their dispute
-on their way to the court, or the defendant
-might be bailed by a vindex. The vindex
-must not be confounded with the vades. This
-settlement of disputes on the way was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">transactio in via</i>, and serves to explain a
-passage in St. Matthew, v. 25. When before
-the praetor, the parties were said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jure agere</i>.
-The plaintiff then prayed for an action, and
-if the praetor allowed it (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dabat actionem</i>), he
-then declared what action he intended to
-bring against the defendant, which he called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edere actionem</i>. This might be done in writing,
-or orally, or by the plaintiff taking the
-defendant to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">album</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Album">Album</a></span>], and showing
-him which action he intended to rely on.
-As the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">formulae</i> on the album comprehended,
-or were supposed to comprehend, every possible
-form of action that could be required by
-a plaintiff, it was presumed that he could
-find among all the formulae some one which
-was adapted to his case; and he was, accordingly,
-supposed to be without excuse if
-he did not take pains to select the proper
-formula. If he took the wrong one, or if
-he claimed more than his due, he lost his
-cause (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">causa cadebat</i>); but the praetor sometimes
-gave him leave to amend his claim or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intentio</i>. It will be observed, that as the
-formulae were so numerous and comprehensive,
-the plaintiff had only to select the formula
-which he supposed to be suitable to
-his case, and it would require no further
-variation than the insertion of the names of
-the parties and of the thing claimed, or the
-subject-matter of the suit, with the amount
-of damages, &amp;c., as the case might be. When
-the praetor had granted an action, the plaintiff
-required the defendant to give security
-for his appearance before the praetor (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in
-jure</i>) on a day named, commonly the day but
-one after the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jus vocatio</i>, unless the matter
-in dispute was settled at once. The defendant,
-on finding a surety, was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vades dare</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vadimonium promittere</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">facere</i>; the surety,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vas</i>, was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spondere</i>; the plaintiff, when
-satisfied with the surety, was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vadari
-reum</i>, to let him go on his sureties, or to
-have sureties from him. When the defendant
-promised to appear <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jure</i> on the day
-named, without giving any surety, this was
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vadimonium purum</i>. In some cases,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">recuperatores</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a></span>] were named, who, in
-case of the defendant making default, condemned
-him in the sum of money named in
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vadimonium</i>. If the defendant appeared
-on the day appointed, he was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vadimonium
-sistere</i>; if he did not appear, he was
-said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vadimonium deseruisse</i>; and the praetor
-gave to the plaintiff the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bonorum possessio</i>.
-Both parties, on the day appointed, were
-summoned by a crier (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praeco</i>), when the
-plaintiff made his claim or demand, which
-was very briefly expressed, and may be considered
-as corresponding to our declaration
-at law. The defendant might either deny
-the plaintiff’s claim, or he might reply to it
-by a plea, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exceptio</i>. If he simply denied the
-plaintiff’s claim, the cause was at issue, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span>
-a judex might be demanded. The forms of
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exceptio</i>, also, were contained in the praetor’s
-edict, or, upon hearing the facts, the
-praetor adapted the plea to the case. The
-plaintiff might reply to the defendant’s <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exceptio</i>.
-The plaintiff’s answer was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">replicatio</i>. If the defendant answered the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">replicatio</i>, his answer was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duplicatio</i>;
-and the parties might go on to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triplicatio</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadruplicatio</i>, and even further, if the
-matters in question were such that they
-could not otherwise be brought to an issue.
-A person might maintain or defend an action
-by his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognitor</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">procurator</i>, or, as we should
-say, by his attorney. The plaintiff and defendant
-used a certain form of words in appointing
-a cognitor, and it would appear that
-the appointment was made in the presence of
-both parties. The cognitor needed not to be
-present, and his appointment was complete
-when by his acts he had signified his assent.
-When the cause was brought to an issue, a
-judex or judices might be demanded of the
-praetor, who named or appointed a judex,
-and delivered to him the formula, which contained
-his instructions. The judices were
-said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dari</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">addici</i>. So far the proceedings
-were said to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jure</i>: the prosecution of
-the actio before the judex requires a separate
-discussion. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Actor">ACTOR, signified generally a plaintiff. In
-a civil or private action, the plaintiff was
-often called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">petitor</i>; in a public action (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">causa
-publica</i>), he was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">accusator</i>. The defendant
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">reus</i>, both in private and
-public causes: this term, however, according
-to Cicero, might signify either party, as indeed
-we might conclude from the word itself.
-In a private action the defendant was often
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adversarius</i>, but either party might be
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adversarius</i> with respect to the other.
-Wards brought their actions by their guardian
-or tutor. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Peregrini</i>, or aliens, originally
-brought their action through their patronus;
-but afterwards in their own name, by a fiction
-of law, that they were Roman citizens.
-A Roman citizen might also generally bring
-his action by means of a cognitor or procurator.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actio">Actio</a>.</span>] Actor has also the sense of
-an agent or manager of another’s business
-generally. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">actor publicus</i> was an officer
-who had the superintendence or care of
-slaves and property belonging to the state.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Actuariae">ACTŬĀRĬAE NĀVES, transport-vessels,
-seem to have been built in a lighter style
-than the ordinary ships of burden, from which
-they also differed in being always furnished
-with oars, whereas the others were chiefly
-propelled by sails.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Actuarii">ACTŬĀRĬI, short-hand writers, who took
-down the speeches in the senate and the public
-assemblies. In the debate in the Roman
-senate upon the punishment of those who had
-been concerned in the conspiracy of Catiline,
-we find the first mention of short-hand
-writers, who were employed by Cicero to
-take down the speech of Cato.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Actus">ACTUS, a Roman measure of length, also
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">actus quadratus</i>, was equal to half a
-jugerum, or 14,400 square Roman feet. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">actus minimus</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">simplex</i>, was 120 feet long,
-and four broad, and therefore equal to 480
-square Roman feet. Actus was also used to
-signify a bridle-way.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Acus">ĂCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βελόνη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βελονίς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥαφίς</span>), a needle, a
-pin. Pins were made not only of metal, but
-also of wood, bone, and ivory. They were
-used for the same purposes as with us, and
-also in dressing the hair. The mode of platting
-the hair, and then fastening it with a
-pin or needle, is shown in the annexed figure
-of a female head. This fashion has been
-continued to our own times by the females of
-Italy.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp62" id="ill006" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill006.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Acus. (Montfaucon, Ant. Exp., Suppl., iii. 8.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Addicti">ADDICTI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nexum">Nexi</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Adfines">ADFĪNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Affines">Affines</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Adlecti">ADLECTI, or ALLECTI, those persons
-under the empire who were admitted to the
-privileges and honours of the praetorship,
-quaestorship, aedileship, and other public
-offices, without having any duties to perform.
-The senators called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adlecti</i> seem to have been
-the same as the conscripti.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Adlocutio">ADLŎCŪTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Allocutio">Allocutio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Admissionales">ADMISSĬŌNĀLES, chamberlains at the imperial
-court, who introduced persons into the
-presence of the emperor. They were divided
-into four classes; the chief officer of each
-class was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proximus admissionum</i>; and
-the proximi were under the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister admissionum</i>.
-Their duty was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">officium admissionis</i>.
-They were usually freedmen.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Adolescens">ĂDŎLESCENS, was applied in the Roman
-law to a person from the end of his twelfth
-or fourteenth to the end of his twenty-fifth
-year, during which period a person was also
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adultus</i>. The word adolescens, however,
-is frequently used in a less strict sense<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span>
-in the Latin writers in referring to a person
-much older than the above-mentioned age.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Adonia">ĂDŌNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀδώνια</span>), a festival celebrated in
-honour of Aphrodite and Adonis in most of
-the Grecian cities. It lasted two days, and
-was celebrated by women exclusively. On
-the first day they brought into the streets
-statues of Adonis, which were laid out as
-corpses; and they observed all the rites customary
-at funerals, beating themselves and
-uttering lamentations. The second day was
-spent in merriment and feasting; because
-Adonis was allowed to return to life, and
-spend half the year with Aphrodite.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Adoptio">ĂDOPTĬO, adoption. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span>&mdash;Adoption
-was called by the Athenians <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσποίησις</span>,
-or sometimes simply <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ποίησις</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θέσις</span>. The
-adoptive father was said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ποιεῖσθαι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσποιεῖσθαι</span>,
-or sometimes <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ποιεῖν</span>: and the father or
-mother (for a mother after the death of her
-husband could consent to her son being
-adopted) was said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκποιεῖν</span>: the son was said
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκποιεῖσθαι</span> with reference to the family which
-he left; and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσποιεῖσθαι</span> with reference to
-the family into which he was received. The
-son, when adopted, was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ποιητός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσποιητός</span>,
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θετός</span>, in opposition to the legitimate
-son born of the body of the father, who was
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γνήσιος</span>. A man might adopt a son
-either in his lifetime or by his testament,
-provided he had no male offspring, and was
-of sound mind. He might also, by testament,
-name a person to take his property, in
-case his son or sons should die under age.
-Only Athenian citizens could be adopted;
-but females could be adopted (by testament
-at least) as well as males. The adopted child
-was transferred from his own family and
-demus into those of the adoptive father; he
-inherited his property, and maintained the
-sacra of his adoptive father. It was not necessary
-for him to take his new father’s name,
-but he was registered as his son in the register
-of his phratria (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φρατρικὸν γραμματεῖον</span>).
-Subsequently to this, it was necessary to enter
-him in the register of the adoptive father’s
-demus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ληξιαρχικὸν γραμματεῖον</span>), without
-which registration it appears that he did not
-possess the full rights of citizenship as a
-member of his new demus.&mdash;(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span>&mdash;The
-Roman relation of parent and child arose
-either from a lawful marriage or from adoption.
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Adoptio</i> was the general name which
-comprehended the two species, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adoptio</i> and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adrogatio</i>; and as the adopted person passed
-from his own familia into that of the person
-adopting, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adoptio</i> caused a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capitis diminutio</i>,
-and the lowest of the three kinds. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caput">Caput</a>.</span>]
-Adoption, in its specific sense, was the ceremony
-by which a person who was in the
-power of his parent (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in potestate parentum</i>),
-whether child or grandchild, male or female,
-was transferred to the power of the person
-adopting him. It was effected under the
-authority of a magistrate (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magistratus</i>), the
-praetor, for instance, at Rome, or a governor
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praeses</i>) in the provinces. The person to
-be adopted was emancipated [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mancipatio">Mancipatio</a></span>]
-by his natural father before the competent
-authority, and surrendered to the adoptive
-father by the legal form called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jure cessio</i>.
-When a person was not in the power of his
-parent (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sui juris</i>), the ceremony of adoption
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adrogatio</i>. Originally, it could
-only be effected at Rome, and only by a vote
-of the populus (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">populi auctoritate</i>) in the
-comitia curiata (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lege curiata</i>); the reason of
-this being that the caput or status of a Roman
-citizen could not, according to the laws
-of the Twelve Tables, be effected except by a
-vote of the populus in the comitia curiata.
-Clodius, the enemy of Cicero, was adrogated
-into a plebeian family, in order to qualify
-himself to be elected a tribune of the plebs.
-Females could not be adopted by adrogatio.
-Under the emperors it became the practice to
-effect the adrogatio by an imperial rescript.
-The effect of adoption was to create the legal
-relation of father and son, just as if the
-adopted son were born of the blood of the
-adoptive father in lawful marriage. The
-adopted child was intitled to the name and
-sacra privata of the adopting parent. A person,
-on passing from one gens into another,
-and taking the name of his new familia, generally
-retained the name of his old gens also,
-with the addition to it of the termination
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anus</i>. Thus Aemilius, the son of L. Aemilius
-Paullus, upon being adopted by P. Cornelius
-Scipio, assumed the name of P. Cornelius
-Scipio Aemilianus, and C. Octavius, afterwards
-the emperor Augustus, upon being
-adopted by the testament of his great-uncle
-the dictator, assumed the name of C. Julius
-Caesar Octavianus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Adoratio">ĂDŌRĀTĬO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσκύνησις</span>), adoration, was
-paid to the gods in the following manner:&mdash;The
-individual stretched out his right hand
-to the statue of the god whom he wished to
-honour, then kissed his hand, and waved it
-to the statue. The adoratio differed from the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">oratio</i> or prayers, which were offered with
-the hands folded together and stretched out to
-the gods. The adoration paid to the Roman
-emperors was borrowed from the Eastern mode,
-and consisted in prostration on the ground,
-and kissing the feet and knees of the emperor.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Adrogatio">ADRŎGĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adoptio">Adoptio</a></span>, (<span class="smcap">Roman</span>).]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Adulterium">ĂDULTĔRĬUM, adultery. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span>&mdash;Among
-the Athenians, if a man caught another
-man in the act of criminal intercourse
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μοιχεία</span>) with his wife, he might kill him<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span>
-with impunity; and the law was also the
-same with respect to a concubine (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παλλακή</span>).
-He might also inflict other punishment on
-the offender. It appears that there was no
-adultery, unless a married woman was concerned.
-The husband might, if he pleased,
-take a sum of money from the adulterer, by
-way of compensation, and detain him till he
-found sureties for the payment. The husband
-might also prosecute the adulterer in the action
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μοιχείας γραφή</span>. If the act of adultery
-was proved, the husband could no longer
-cohabit with his wife, under pain of losing
-his privileges of a citizen (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτιμία</span>). The adulteress
-was excluded even from those temples
-which foreign women and slaves were allowed
-to enter; and if she was seen there, any one
-might treat her as he pleased, provided he did
-not kill her or mutilate her.&mdash;(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span>&mdash;The
-word adulterium properly signifies, in
-the Roman law, the offence committed by a
-man’s having sexual intercourse with another
-man’s wife. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Stuprum</i> (called by the Greeks
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φθορά</span>) signifies the like offence with a widow
-or virgin. In the time of Augustus a law was
-enacted (probably about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 17), entitled
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis</i>, which
-seems to have contained special penal provisions
-against adultery; and it is also not improbable
-that, by the old law or custom, if
-the adulterer was caught in the fact, he was
-at the mercy of the injured husband, and that
-the husband might punish with death his
-adulterous wife. By the Julian law, a woman
-convicted of adultery was mulcted in half of
-her dowry (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dos</i>) and the third part of her
-property (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bona</i>), and banished (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">relegata</i>) to
-some miserable island, such as Seriphos, for
-instance. The adulterer was mulcted in half
-his property, and banished in like manner.
-This law did not inflict the punishment of
-death on either party; and in those instances
-under the emperors in which death was inflicted,
-it must be considered as an extraordinary
-punishment, and beyond the provisions
-of the Julian law. The Julian law permitted
-the father (both adoptive and natural) to kill
-the adulterer and adulteress in certain cases,
-as to which there were several nice distinctions
-established by the law. If the wife was divorced
-for adultery, the husband was entitled
-to retain part of the dowry. By a constitution
-of the Emperor Constantine, the offence
-in the adulterer was made capital.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Adversaria">ADVERSĀRĬA, a note-book, memorandum-book,
-posting-book, in which the Romans entered
-memoranda of any importance, especially
-of money received and expended, which
-were afterwards transcribed, usually every
-month, into a kind of ledger. (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tabulae justae,
-codex accepti et expensi.</i>)</p>
-
-
-<p id="Adversarius">ADVERSĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actor">Actor</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Adunati">ĂDŬNĂTI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀδύνατοι</span>), were persons supported
-by the Athenian state, who, on account
-of infirmity or bodily defects, were unable to
-obtain a livelihood. The sum which they
-received from the state appears to have varied
-at different times. In the time of Lysias and
-Aristotle, one obolus a day was given; but it
-appears to have been afterwards increased
-to two oboli. The bounty was restricted to
-persons whose property was under three
-minae; and the examination of those who
-were entitled to it belonged to the senate of
-the Five Hundred. Peisistratus is said to
-have been the first to introduce a law for the
-maintenance of those persons who had been
-mutilated in war.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Advocatus">ADVOCATUS, seems originally to have
-signified any person who gave another his
-aid in any affair or business, as a witness for
-instance; or for the purpose of aiding and
-protecting him in taking possession of a piece
-of property. It was also used to express a
-person who in any way gave his advice and
-aid to another in the management of a cause;
-but, in the time of Cicero, the word did not
-signify the orator or patronus who made the
-speech. Under the emperors it signified a
-person who in any way assisted in the conduct
-of a cause, and was sometimes equivalent
-to orator. The advocate’s fee was then
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Honorarium</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Adytum">ĂDỸTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aedes">AEDES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>; Templum.</span>]</p>
-
-<p id="Aediles">AEDĪLES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγορανόμοι</span>). The name of
-these functionaries is said to be derived from
-their having the care of the temple (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aedes</i>) of
-Ceres. The aediles were originally two in
-number: they were elected from the plebs,
-and the institution of the office dates from
-the same time as that of the tribunes of the
-plebs, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 494. Their duties at first seem
-to have been merely ministerial; they were
-the assistants of the tribunes in such matters
-as the tribunes entrusted to them, among
-which are enumerated the hearing of causes
-of smaller importance. At an early period
-after their institution (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 446), we find
-them appointed the keepers of the senatus-consulta,
-which the consuls had hitherto
-arbitrarily suppressed or altered. They were
-also the keepers of the plebiscita. Other
-functions were gradually entrusted to them,
-and it is not always easy to distinguish their
-duties from some of those which belong to
-the censors. They had the general superintendence
-of buildings, both sacred and private;
-under this power they provided for
-the support and repair of temples, curiae,
-&amp;c., and took care that private buildings
-which were in a ruinous state were repaired<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span>
-by the owners or pulled down. The care of
-the supply and distribution of water, of the
-streets and pavements, with the cleansing
-and draining of the city, belonged to the
-aediles; and, of course, the care of the cloacae.
-They had the office of distributing
-corn among the plebs, but this distribution
-of corn at Rome must not be confounded with
-the duty of purchasing or procuring it from
-foreign parts, which was performed by the
-consuls, quaestors, and praetors, and sometimes
-by an extraordinary magistrate, as the
-praefectus annonae. The aediles had to see
-that the public lands were not improperly
-used, and that the pasture grounds of the
-state were not trespassed on; and they had
-power to punish by fine any unlawful act in
-this respect. They had a general superintendence
-over buying and selling, and, as a
-consequence, the supervision of the markets,
-of things exposed to sale, such as slaves, and
-of weights and measures; from this part of
-their duty is derived the name under which
-the aediles are mentioned by the Greek writers
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγορανόμοι</span>). It was their business to
-see that no new deities or religious rites were
-introduced into the city, to look after the
-observance of religious ceremonies, and the
-celebrations of the ancient feasts and festivals.
-The general superintendence of police comprehended
-the duty of preserving order,
-regard to decency, and the inspection of the
-baths and houses of entertainment. The
-aediles had various officers under them, as
-praecones, scribae, and viatores. The <span class="smcap">Aediles
-Curules</span>, who were also two in number, were
-originally chosen only from the patricians,
-afterwards alternately from the patricians and
-the plebs, and at last indifferently from both.
-The office of curule aediles was instituted
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 365, and, according to Livy, on the
-occasion of the plebeian aediles refusing to
-consent to celebrate the Ludi Maximi for the
-space of four days instead of three; upon
-which a senatus-consultum was passed, by
-which two aediles were to be chosen from the
-patricians. From this time four aediles, two
-plebeian and two curule, were annually elected.
-The distinctive honours of the curule aediles
-were, the sella curulis, from whence their
-title is derived, the toga praetexta, precedence
-in speaking in the senate, and the jus imaginum.
-Only the curule aediles had the jus
-edicendi, or the right of promulgating edicta;
-but the rules comprised in their edicta served
-for the guidance of all the aediles. The
-edicta of the curule aediles were founded on
-their authority as superintendents of the markets,
-and of buying and selling in general.
-Accordingly, their edicts had mainly, or perhaps
-solely, reference to the rules as to buying
-and selling, and contracts for bargain and
-sale. The persons both of the plebeian and
-curule aediles were sacrosancti. It seems
-that after the appointment of the curule
-aediles, the functions formerly exercised by
-the plebeian aediles were exercised, with some
-few exceptions, by all the aediles indifferently.
-Within five days after being elected, or entering
-on office, they were required to determine
-by lot, or by agreement among themselves,
-what parts of the city each should
-take under his superintendence; and each
-aedile alone had the care of looking after the
-paving and cleansing of the streets, and other
-matters, it may be presumed, of the same
-local character within his district. The other
-duties of the office seem to have been exercised
-by them jointly. In the superintendence of
-the public festivals or solemnities, there was
-a further distinction between the two sets of
-aediles. Many of these festivals, such as
-those of Flora and Ceres, were superintended
-by either set of aediles indifferently; but the
-plebeian games were under the superintendence
-of the plebeian aediles, who had an allowance
-of money for that purpose; and the fines
-levied on the pecuarii, and others, seem to
-have been appropriated to these among other
-public purposes. The celebration of the
-Ludi Magni or Romani, of the Ludi Scenici,
-or dramatic representations, and the Ludi
-Megalesii, belonged specially to the curule
-aediles, and it was on such occasions that
-they often incurred a prodigious expense,
-with a view of pleasing the people, and
-securing their votes in future elections. This
-extravagant expenditure of the aediles arose
-after the close of the second Punic war, and
-increased with the opportunities which individuals
-had of enriching themselves after the
-Roman arms were carried into Greece, Africa,
-and Spain. Even the prodigality of the emperors
-hardly surpassed that of individual
-curule aediles under the republic; such as C.
-Julius Caesar, the dictator, P. Cornelius Lentulus
-Spinther, and, above all, M. Aemilius
-Scaurus, whose expenditure was not limited
-to bare show, but comprehended objects of
-public utility, as the reparation of walls,
-dock-yards, ports, and aquaeducts. In B.C.
-45, Julius Caesar caused two curule aediles
-and four plebeian aediles to be elected; and
-thenceforward, at least so long as the office of
-aedile was of any importance, six aediles were
-annually elected. The two new plebeian
-aediles were called Cereales, and their duty
-was to look after the supply of corn. Though
-their office may not have been of any great
-importance after the institution of a praefectus
-annonae by Augustus, there is no doubt that
-it existed for several centuries, and at least as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span>
-late as the time of the emperor Gordian. The
-aediles belonged to the class of the minores
-magistratus. The plebeian aediles were originally
-chosen at the comitia centuriata, but
-afterwards at the comitia tributa, in which
-comitia the curule aediles also were chosen.
-It appears that until the lex annalis was
-passed (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 180) a Roman citizen might be
-a candidate for any office after completing his
-twenty-seventh year. This law fixed the age
-at which each office might be enjoyed, and it
-seems that the age fixed for the aedileship
-was thirty-six. The aediles existed under
-the emperors; but their powers were gradually
-diminished, and their functions exercised
-by new officers created by the emperors.
-After the battle of Actium, Augustus appointed
-a Praefectus urbi, who exercised the general
-police, which had formerly been one of the
-duties of the aediles. Augustus also took
-from the aediles, or exercised himself, the
-office of superintending the religious rites,
-and the banishing from the city of all foreign
-ceremonials; he also assumed the superintendence
-of the temples, and thus may be
-said to have destroyed the aedileship by depriving
-it of its old and original function.
-The last recorded instance of the splendours
-of the aedileship is the administration of
-Agrippa, who volunteered to take the office,
-and repaired all the public buildings and all
-the roads at his own expense, without drawing
-anything from the treasury. The aedileship
-had, however, lost its true character
-before this time. Agrippa had already been
-consul before he accepted the office of aedile,
-and his munificent expenditure in this nominal
-office was the close of the splendour of
-the aedileship. Augustus appointed the
-curule aediles specially to the office of putting
-out fires, and placed a body of 600 slaves at
-their command; but the praefecti vigilum
-afterwards performed this duty. They retained,
-under the early emperors, a kind of
-police, for the purpose of repressing open
-licentiousness and disorder. The coloniae,
-and the municipia of the later period, had
-also their aediles, whose numbers and functions
-varied in different places. They seem,
-however, as to their powers and duties, to
-have resembled the aediles of Rome. They
-were chosen annually.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aeditui">AEDĬTŬI, AEDĬTŬMI, AEDĬTĬMI (called
-by the Greeks <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεωκόροι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζάκοροι</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποζάκοροι</span>),
-were persons who took care of the temples,
-attended to the cleaning of them, &amp;c. They
-appear to have lived in the temples, or near
-them, and to have acted as ciceroni to those
-persons who wished to see them. Subsequently
-among the Greeks, the menial services
-connected with this office were left to
-slaves, and the persons called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">neocori</i> became
-priestly officers of high rank, who had the
-chief superintendence of temples, their treasures,
-and the sacred rites observed in them.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="ill010" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill010.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Aegis worn by Athena.<br />
-From Torso at Dresden. &nbsp; &nbsp; From Ancient Statues.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Aegis">AEGIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰγίς</span>) signifies, literally, a goat-skin.
-According to ancient mythology, the
-aegis worn by Zeus was the hide of the goat
-Amaltheia, which had suckled him in his
-infancy. Homer always represents it as part
-of the armour of Zeus, whom on this account
-he distinguishes by the epithet <em>aegis-bearing</em>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰγίοχος</span>). He, however, asserts, that it was
-borrowed on different occasions both by
-Apollo and Athena. The aegis was connected
-with the shield of Zeus, either serving as a
-covering over it, or as a belt by which it was
-suspended from the right shoulder. Homer
-accordingly uses the word to denote not only
-the goat-skin, which it properly signified, but
-also the shield to which it belonged. The
-aegis was adorned in a style corresponding to
-the might and majesty of the father of the
-gods. In the middle of it was fixed the
-appalling Gorgon’s head, and its border was
-surrounded with golden tassels (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θύσανοι</span>), each
-of which was worth a hecatomb. The aegis
-is usually seen on the statues of Athena, in
-which it is a sort of scarf falling obliquely
-over the right shoulder, so as to pass round
-the body under the left arm. The serpents
-of the Gorgon’s head are transferred to the
-border of the skin. (See the left-hand figure<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span>
-in the cut.) The later poets and artists
-represent the aegis as a breast-plate covered
-with metal in the form of scales. (See the
-right-hand figure.)</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aeneatores">AENĔĀTŌRES, were those who blew upon
-wind instruments in the Roman army; namely,
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buccinatores</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornicines</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tubicines</i>.
-They were also employed in the public games.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aenigma">AENIGMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἴνιγμα</span>), a riddle. It was an
-ancient custom among the Greeks to amuse
-themselves by proposing riddles at their symposia,
-or drinking parties. Those who were
-successful in solving them, received a prize,
-which usually consisted of wreaths, cakes,
-&amp;c., while those who were unsuccessful were
-condemned to drink in one breath a certain
-quantity of wine, sometimes mixed with salt
-water. Those riddles which have come down
-to us are mostly in hexameter verse. The Romans
-seem to have been too serious to find any
-great amusement in riddles.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aenum">AENUM, or ĂHĒNUM (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vas</i>), a brazen
-vessel, used for boiling. The word is also
-frequently used in the sense of a dyer’s copper;
-and, as purple was the most celebrated
-dye of antiquity, we find the expressions
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sidonium aënum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tyrium aënum</i>, &amp;c.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aeora">AEŌRA, or ĔŌRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰώρα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐώρα</span>), a festival
-at Athens, accompanied with sacrifices and
-banquets, whence it is sometimes called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὔδειπνος</span>. It was probably instituted in
-honour of Icarius and his daughter Erigone.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aera">AERA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chronologia">Chronologia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aerarii">AERĀRĬI, a class of Roman citizens, who
-were not included in the thirty tribes instituted
-by Servius Tullius. Although citizens,
-they did not possess the suffragium, or right
-of voting in the comitia. They were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cives
-sine suffragio</i>. They also paid the tribute in
-a different manner from the other citizens.
-The Aerarians were chiefly artisans and freedmen.
-The Caerites, or inhabitants of the
-Etruscan town of Caere, who obtained the
-franchise in early times, but without the
-suffragium, were probably the first body of
-aerarians. Any Roman citizen guilty of a
-crime punishable by the censors, might be
-degraded to the rank of an aerarian; so that
-his civic rights were suspended, at least for
-the time that he was an aerarian. All citizens
-so degraded were classed among the
-Caerites; whence we find the expressions
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aerarium facere</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in tabulas Caeritum referre</i>
-used as synonymous. Persons who were
-made <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">infames</i> likewise became aerarians, for
-they lost the jus honorum and the suffragium.
-The aerarians had to pay a tributum pro
-capite which was considerably higher than
-that paid by the other citizens. They were
-not allowed to serve in the legions.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aerarii_t">AERĀRĬI TRĬBŪNI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes_e">Aes Equestre</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aerarium">AERĀRĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ δημόσιον</span>), the public treasury
-at Rome, and hence the public money
-itself. After the banishment of the kings the
-temple of Saturn was employed as the place
-for keeping the public money, and it continued
-to be so used till the later times of the
-empire. Besides the public money and the
-accounts connected with it, various other
-things were preserved in the treasury; of
-these the most important were:&mdash;1. The
-standards of the legions. 2. The various
-laws passed from time to time, engraven on
-brazen tables. 3. The decrees of the senate,
-which were entered there in books kept
-for the purpose, though the original documents
-were preserved in the temple of Ceres
-under the custody of the aediles. 4. Various
-other public documents, the reports and
-despatches of all generals and governors of
-provinces, the names of all foreign ambassadors
-that came to Rome, &amp;c. Under the
-republic the aerarium was divided into two
-parts: the <em>common</em> treasury, in which were
-deposited the regular taxes, and from which
-were taken the sums of money needed for the
-ordinary expenditure of the state; and the
-<em>sacred</em> treasury (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aerarium sanctum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sanctius</i>),
-which was never touched except in
-cases of extreme peril. Both of these treasuries
-were in the temple of Saturn, but in
-distinct parts of the temple. The produce of
-a tax of five per cent. (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vicesima</i>) upon the
-value of every manumitted slave, called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aurum vicesimarium</i>, was paid into the sacred
-treasury, as well as a portion of the immense
-wealth obtained by the Romans in their conquests
-in the East. Under Augustus the
-provinces and the administration of the
-government were divided between the senate,
-as the representative of the old Roman people,
-and the Caesar: all the property of the former
-continued to be called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aerarium</i>, and that of
-the latter received the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fiscus</i>. Augustus
-also established a third treasury, to
-provide for the pay and support of the army,
-and this received the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aerarium militare</i>.
-He also imposed several new taxes to be paid
-into this aerarium. In the time of the republic,
-the entire management of the revenues of the
-state belonged to the senate; and under the
-superintendence and control of the senate the
-quaestors had the charge of the aerarium. In
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 28, Augustus deprived the quaestors of
-the charge of the treasury and gave it to two
-praefects, whom he allowed the senate to
-choose from among the praetors at the end of
-their year of office. Various other changes
-were made with respect to the charge of the
-aerarium, but it was eventually entrusted, in
-the reign of Trajan, to praefects, who appear
-to have held their office for two years.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Aes">AES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκός</span>), properly signifies a compound
-of copper and tin, corresponding to what we
-call <em>bronze</em>. It is incorrect to translate it
-<em>brass</em>, which is a combination of copper and
-zinc, since all the specimens of ancient objects,
-formed of the material called aes, are found
-upon analysis to contain no zinc. The employment
-of aes was very general among the
-ancients; money, vases, and utensils of all
-sorts, being made of it. All the most ancient
-coins in Rome and the old Italian states were
-made of aes, and hence money in general was
-called by this name. For the same reason
-we have <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes alienum</i>, meaning debt, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aera</i>
-in the plural, pay to the soldiers. The Romans
-had no other coinage except bronze
-or copper (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes</i>), till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 269, five years
-before the first Punic war, when silver was
-first coined; gold was not coined till sixty-two
-years after silver. The first coinage of
-aes is usually attributed to Servius Tullius,
-who is said to have stamped the money with
-the image of cattle (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecus</i>), whence it is called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecunia</i>. According to some accounts, it was
-coined from the commencement of the city,
-and we know that the old Italian states possessed
-a bronze or copper coinage from the
-earliest times. The first coinage was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">as</i>
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a></span>], which originally was a pound weight;
-but as in course of time the weight of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">as</i>
-was reduced not only in Rome, but in the
-other Italian states, and this reduction in
-weight was not uniform in the different
-states, it became usual in all bargains to pay
-the asses according to their weight, and not
-according to their nominal value. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes
-grave</i> was not the old heavy coins as distinguished
-from the lighter modern; but it signified
-any number of copper coins reckoned
-according to the old style, by weight. There
-was, therefore, no occasion for the state to
-suppress the circulation of the old copper
-coins, since in all bargains the asses were not
-reckoned by tale, but by weight.&mdash;Bronze or
-copper (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκός</span>) was very little used by the
-Greeks for money in early times. Silver was
-originally the universal currency, and copper
-appears to have been seldom coined till after
-the time of Alexander the Great. The copper
-coin was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Chalcous</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκούς</span>). The
-smallest silver coin at Athens was the quarter-obol,
-and the chalcous was the half of that,
-or the eighth of an obol. In later times, the
-obol was coined of copper as well as silver.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aes_c">AES CIRCUMFORĀNĔUM, money borrowed
-from the Roman bankers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">argentarii</i>),
-who had shops in porticoes round the forum.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aes_e">AES ĔQUESTRE, AES HORDĔĀRĬUM,
-and AES MĪLĬTĀRE, were the ancient terms
-for the pay of the Roman soldiers, before the
-regular <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stipendium</i> was introduced. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes
-equestre</i> was the sum of money given for the
-purchase of the horse of an eques; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes
-hordearium</i>, the sum paid yearly for its keep,
-in other words the pay of an eques; and the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes militare</i>, the pay of a foot soldier. None
-of this money seems to have been taken from
-the public treasury, but to have been paid by
-certain private persons, to whom this duty
-was assigned by the state. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes hordearium</i>,
-which amounted to 2000 asses, had
-to be paid by single women (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viduae</i>, i.e.
-both maidens and widows) and orphans
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">orbi</i>), provided they possessed a certain
-amount of property. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes equestre</i>, which
-amounted to 10,000 asses, was probably also
-paid by the same class of persons. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes
-militare</i>, the amount of which is not expressly
-mentioned, had to be paid by the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni aerarii</i>, and if not paid, the foot soldiers
-had a right of distress against them.
-It is generally assumed that these <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni
-aerarii</i> were magistrates connected with the
-treasury, and that they were the assistants
-of the quaestors; but there are good reasons
-for believing that the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni aerarii</i> were
-private persons, who were liable to the payment
-of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes militare</i>, and upon whose
-property a distress might be levied, if the
-money were not paid. They were probably
-persons whose property was rated at a certain
-sum in the census, and we may conjecture
-that they obtained the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni aerarii</i>
-because they levied the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tributum</i>, which was
-imposed for the purpose of paying the army,
-and then paid it to the soldiers. These <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni
-aerarii</i> were no longer needed when the
-state took into its own hands the payment of
-the troops; but they were revived in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 70,
-as a distinct class in the commonwealth, by
-the Lex Aurelia, which gave the judicia to the
-senators, equites and tribuni aerarii.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aes_u">AES UXŌRĬUM, was a tax paid by men
-who reached old age without having married.
-It was first imposed by the censors in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 403.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex_jpp">Lex Julia et Papia Poppaea</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aesymnetes">AESYMNĒTES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰσυμνήτης</span>), a person who
-was sometimes invested with unlimited power
-in the Greek states. His power partook in
-some degree of the nature both of kingly and
-tyrannical authority; since he was appointed
-legally, and did not usurp the government,
-but at the same time was not bound by any
-laws in his public administration. The office
-was not hereditary, nor was it held for life;
-but it only continued for a limited time, or
-till some object was accomplished. Thus we
-read that the inhabitants of Mytilene appointed
-Pittacus aesymnetes, in order to prevent
-the return of Alcaeus and the other
-exiles. Dionysius compares it with the dictatorship
-of Rome. In some states, such as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span>
-Cyme and Chalcedon, it was the title borne
-by the regular magistrates.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aetas">AETAS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Infans">Infans</a>; <a href="#Impubes">Impubes</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aetolicum">AETŌLĬCUM FOEDUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοινὸν τῶν Αἰτώλων</span>),
-the Aetolian league, appears as a powerful
-political body soon after the death of
-Alexander the Great, viz. during the Lamian
-war against Antipater. The characteristic
-difference between the Aetolian and Achaean
-leagues was that the former originally consisted
-of a confederacy of nations or tribes,
-while the latter was a confederacy of towns.
-The sovereign power of the confederacy was
-vested in the general assemblies of all the
-confederates (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοινὸν τῶν Αἰτώλων</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">concilium
-Aetolorum</i>), and this assembly had the right
-to discuss all questions respecting peace and
-war, and to elect the great civil or military
-officers of the league. The ordinary place of
-meeting was Thermon, but on extraordinary
-occasions assemblies were also held in other
-towns belonging to the league, though they
-were not situated in the country of Aetolia
-Proper. The questions which were to be
-brought before the assembly were sometimes
-discussed previously by a committee, selected
-from the great mass, and called Apocleti
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπόκλητοι</span>). The general assembly usually
-met in the autumn, when the officers of the
-league were elected. The highest among
-them, as among those of the Achaean league,
-bore the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Strategus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρατηγός</span>), whose
-office lasted only for one year. The strategus
-had the right to convoke the assembly;
-he presided in it, introduced the subjects for
-deliberation, and levied the troops. The
-officers next in rank to the strategus were
-the hipparchus and the public scribe. The
-political existence of the league was destroyed
-in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 189 by the treaty with Rome, and the
-treachery of the Roman party among the
-Aetolians themselves caused in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 167 five
-hundred and fifty of the leading patriots to
-be put to death, and those who survived the
-massacre were carried to Rome as prisoners.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aetoma">ĀĔTŌMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀέτωμα</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fastigium">Fastigium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Affines">AFFĪNES, AFFĪNĬTAS, or ADFĪNES,
-ADFĪNĬTAS. Affines are the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognati</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cognati">Cognati</a></span>]
-of husband and wife, the cognati of
-the husband becoming the affines of the wife,
-and the cognati of the wife the affines of the
-husband. The father of a husband is the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socer</i> of the husband’s wife, and the father of
-a wife is the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socer</i> of the wife’s husband.
-The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socrus</i> expresses the same affinity
-with respect to the husband’s and wife’s
-mothers. A son’s wife is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nurus</i>, or daughter-in-law
-to the son’s parents; a wife’s husband
-is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gener</i>, or son-in-law to the wife’s parents.
-Thus the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">avus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">avia</i>&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pater</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mater</i>&mdash;of the
-wife became by the marriage respectively the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socer magnus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prosocrus</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socrus magna</i>&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socer</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socrus</i>&mdash;of the husband, who becomes
-with respect to them severally <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">progener</i> and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gener</i>. In like manner the corresponding
-ancestors of the husband respectively assume
-the same names with respect to the son’s
-wife, who becomes with respect to them <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pronurus</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nurus</i>. The son and daughter of a
-husband or wife born of a prior marriage are
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">privignus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">privigna</i>, with respect to
-their step-father or step-mother; and with
-respect to such children, the step-father and
-step-mother are severally called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitricus</i> and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">noverca</i>. The husband’s brother becomes
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">levir</i> with respect to the wife, and his sister
-becomes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">glos</i> (the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γάλως</span>). Marriage
-was unlawful among persons who had become
-such affines as above mentioned.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agalma">ĂGALMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄγαλμα</span>) is a general name for a
-statue or image to represent a god.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agaso">ĂGĀSO, a groom, whose business it was to
-take care of the horses. The word is also
-used for a driver of beasts of burden, and is
-sometimes applied to a slave who had to
-perform the lowest menial duties.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agathoergi">ĂGĂTHŎERGI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγαθοεργοί</span>). In time of
-war the kings of Sparta had a body-guard of
-three hundred of the noblest of the Spartan
-youths (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππεῖς</span>), of whom the five eldest retired
-every year, and were employed for one
-year under the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agathoergi</i>, in missions
-to foreign states.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agela">ĂGĔLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγέλη</span>), an assembly of young
-men in Crete, who lived together from their
-eighteenth year till the time of their marriage.
-An <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agela</i> always consisted of the sons
-of the most noble citizens, and the members
-of it were obliged to marry at the same time.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agema">ĂGĒMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄγημα</span> from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄγω</span>), the name of a
-chosen body of troops in the Macedonian
-army, usually consisting of horsemen.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ager">ĂGER PUBLĬCUS, the public land, was
-the land belonging to the Roman state. It
-was a recognised principle among the Italian
-nations that the territory of a conquered
-people belonged to the conquerors. Accordingly,
-the Romans were constantly acquiring
-fresh territory by the conquest of the surrounding
-people. The land thus acquired
-was usually disposed of in the following way.
-1. The land which was under cultivation was
-either distributed among colonists, who were
-sent to occupy it, or it was sold, or it was let
-out to farm. 2. The land which was then
-out of cultivation, and which, owing to war,
-was by far the greater part, might be occupied
-by any of the Roman citizens on the
-payment of a portion of the yearly produce;
-a tenth of the produce of arable land, and a
-fifth of the produce of the land planted with
-the vine, the olive, and other valuable trees.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span>
-3. The land which had previously served as
-the common pasture land of the conquered
-state, or was suitable for the purpose,
-continued to be used as pasture land by
-the Roman citizens, who had, however, to
-pay a certain sum of money for the cattle
-which they turned upon it. The occupation
-of the public land spoken of above under the
-second head was always expressed by the
-words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">possessio</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">possidere</i>, and the occupier
-of the land was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">possessor</i>. The
-land continued to be the property of the
-state; and accordingly we must distinguish
-between the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">possessio</i>, which merely
-indicated the use or enjoyment of the land,
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dominium</i>, which expressed ownership,
-and was applied to private land, of which a
-man had the absolute ownership. The right
-of occupying the public land belonged only
-to citizens, and consequently only to the patricians
-originally, as they were the state.
-The plebeians were only subjects, and consequently
-had no right to the property of the
-state; but it is probable that they were permitted
-to feed their cattle on the public
-pasture lands. Even when the plebeians
-became a separate estate by the constitution
-of Servius Tullius, they still obtained no
-right to share in the possession of the public
-land, which continued to be the exclusive
-privilege of the patricians; but as a compensation,
-each individual plebeian received an
-assignment of a certain quantity of the public
-land as his own property. Henceforth the
-possession of the public land was the privilege
-of the patricians, and an assignment of a
-portion of it the privilege of the plebeians.
-As the state acquired new lands by conquest,
-the plebeians ought to have received assignments
-of part of them, but since the patricians
-were the governing body, they generally
-refused to make any such assignment, and
-continued to keep the whole as part of the
-ager publicus, whereby the enjoyment of it
-belonged to them alone. Hence, we constantly
-read of the plebeians claiming, and
-sometimes enforcing, a division of such land.
-With the extension of the conquests of Rome,
-the ager publicus constantly increased, and
-thus a large portion of Italy fell into the
-hands of the patricians, who frequently withheld
-from the state the annual payments of a
-tenth and a fifth, which they were bound to
-pay for the possession of the land, and thus
-deprived the state of a fund for the expenses
-of the war. In addition to which they used
-slaves as cultivators and shepherds, since
-freemen were liable to be drawn off from
-field-labour to military service, and slave-labour
-was consequently far cheaper. In this
-way the number of free labourers was diminished,
-and that of slaves augmented. To
-remedy this state of things several laws were
-from time to time proposed and carried,
-which were most violently opposed by the
-patricians. All laws which related to the
-<em>public</em> land are called by the general title of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges Agrariae</i>, and accordingly all the early
-laws relating to the possession of the public
-land by the patricians, and to the assignment
-of portions of it to the plebeians, were
-strictly agrarian laws; but the first law to
-which this name is usually applied was proposed
-soon after the establishment of the
-republic by the consul, Sp. Cassius, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-486. Its object was to set apart the portion
-of the public land which the patricians were
-to possess, to divide the rest among the plebeians,
-to levy the payment due for the possession,
-and to apply it to paying the army.
-The first law, however, which really deprived
-the patricians of the advantages they had
-previously enjoyed in the occupation of the
-public land was the agrarian law of C. Licinius
-Stolo (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 366), which limited each
-individual’s possession of public land to 500
-jugera, and declared that no individual should
-have above 100 large and 500 smaller cattle
-on the public pastures: it further enacted
-that the surplus land was to be divided
-among the plebeians. As this law, however,
-was soon disregarded, it was revived again
-by Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 133), with
-some alterations and additions. The details
-of the other agrarian laws mentioned in
-Roman history are given under the name of
-the lex by which they are called. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex">Lex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agger">AGGER (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χῶμα</span>), from <em>ad</em> and <em>gero</em>, was
-used in general for a heap or mound of any
-kind. It was more particularly applied:&mdash;(1)
-To a mound, usually composed of earth,
-which was raised round a besieged town, and
-which was gradually increased in breadth
-and height, till it equalled or overtopped the
-walls. The agger was sometimes made, not
-only of earth, but of wood, hurdles, &amp;c.;
-whence we read of the agger being set on
-fire.&mdash;(2) To the earthen wall surrounding a
-Roman encampment, composed of the earth
-dug from the ditch (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fossa</i>), which was usually
-9 feet broad and 7 feet deep; but if any
-attack was apprehended, the depth was increased
-to 12 feet and the breadth to 13 feet.
-Sharp stakes, &amp;c., were usually fixed upon
-the agger, which was then called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallum</i>.
-When both words are used, the agger means
-the mound of earth, and the vallum the
-stakes, &amp;c., which were fixed upon the agger.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agitatores">ĂGITĀTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agmen">AGMEN. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agnati">AGNĀTI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cognati">Cognati</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agnomen">AGNŌMEN [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nomen">Nomen</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Agonalia">ĂGŌNĀLĬA or ĂGŌNĬA, one of the most
-ancient festivals at Rome, its institution
-being attributed to Numa Pompilius. It was
-celebrated on the 9th of January, the 21st of
-May, and the 11th of December; to which
-we should probably add the 17th of March,
-the day on which the Liberalia was celebrated,
-since this festival is also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonia</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonium Martiale</i>. The object of this
-festival was a disputed point among the ancients
-themselves. The victim which was
-offered was a ram; the person who offered it
-was the rex sacrificulus; and the place where
-it was offered was the regia. Now the ram
-was the usual victim presented to the guardian
-gods of the state, and the rex sacrificulus
-and the regia could be employed only
-for such ceremonies as were connected with
-the highest gods and affected the weal of the
-whole state. Regarding the sacrifice in this
-light, we see a reason for its being offered
-several times in the year. The etymology of
-the name was also a subject of much dispute
-among the ancients; and the various etymologies
-that were proposed are given at
-length by Ovid (<cite>Fast.</cite> i. 319-332). None of
-these, however, are at all satisfactory; and we
-would therefore suggest that it may have received
-its name from the sacrifice having been
-offered on the Quirinal hill, which was originally
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonus</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agones">ĂGŌNES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγῶνες</span>), the general term among
-the Greeks for the contests at their great
-national games. The word also signified law-suits,
-and was especially employed in the
-phrase <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγῶνες τιμητοί</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτίμητοι</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Timema">Timema</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agonothetae">ĂGONŎTHĔTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγωνοθέται</span>), persons in
-the Grecian games who decided disputes, and
-adjudged the prizes to the victors. Originally,
-the person who instituted the contest
-and offered the prize was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonothetes</i>,
-and this continued to be the practice in those
-games which were instituted by kings or
-private persons. But in the great public
-games, such as the Isthmian, Pythian, &amp;c.,
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonothetae</i> were either the representatives
-of different states, as the Amphictyons
-at the Pythian games, or were chosen from
-the people in whose country the games were
-celebrated. During the flourishing times of
-the Grecian republics the Eleans were the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonothetae</i> in the Olympic games, the Corinthians
-in the Isthmian games, the Amphictyons
-in the Pythian games, and the Corinthians,
-Argives, and inhabitants of Cleonae
-in the Nemaean games. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonothetae</i>
-were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aesymnetae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰσυμνῆται</span>),
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonarchae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγωνάρχαι</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonodicae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγωνοδίκαι</span>),
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Athlothetae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀθλοθέται</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rhabduchi</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥαβδοῦχοι</span>), or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rhabdonomi</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥαβδονόμοι</span>, from
-the staff which they carried as an emblem of
-authority), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Brabeis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βραβεῖς</span>), and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Brabeutae</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βραβευταί</span>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agora">ĂGŎRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγορά</span>) properly means an assembly
-of any kind, and is usually employed
-by Homer to designate the general assembly
-of the people. The Agora seems to have been
-considered an essential part of the constitution
-of the early Grecian states. It was usually
-convoked by the king, but occasionally by
-some distinguished chieftain, as, for example,
-by Achilles before Troy. The king occupied
-the most important seat in these assemblies,
-and near him sat the nobles, while the people
-stood or sat in a circle around them. The
-people appear to have had no right of speaking
-or voting in these assemblies, but merely
-to have been called together to hear what had
-been already agreed upon in the council of
-the nobles, and to express their feelings as a
-body. The council of the nobles is called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Boulé</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βουλή</span>) and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thoöcus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θόωκος</span>), and sometimes
-even <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agora</i>. Among the Athenians,
-the proper name for the assembly of the
-people was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ecclesia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκκλησία</span>), and among
-the Dorians <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Halia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁλία</span>). The term Agora
-was confined at Athens to the assemblies of
-the phylae and demi. The name Agora was
-early transferred from the assembly itself to
-the place in which it was held; and thus it
-came to be used for the market-place, where
-goods of all descriptions were bought and
-sold. Hence it answers to the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">forum</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agoranomi">ĂGŎRĀNŎMI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγορανόμοι</span>), public functionaries
-in most of the Grecian states, whose
-duties corresponded in many respects with
-those of the Roman aediles. At Athens their
-number was ten, five for the city, and five
-for the Peiraeus, and they were chosen by
-lot. The principal duty of the Agoranomi
-was, as their name imports, to inspect the
-market, and to see that all the laws respecting
-its regulation were properly observed.
-They had the inspection of all things that
-were sold in the market, with the exception
-of corn, which was subject to the jurisdiction
-of special officers, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sitophylaces</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτοφύλακες</span>).
-They regulated the price and quantity
-of articles exposed for sale, and punished
-all persons convicted of cheating,
-especially by means of false weights and
-measures. They had the power of fining all
-citizens who infringed upon the rules of the
-market, and of whipping all slaves and
-foreigners guilty of a like offence. They also
-collected the market dues, and had the care
-of all the temples and fountains in the
-market place.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agrariae_l">AGRĀRĬAE LĒGES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ager">Ager Publicus</a>;
-<a href="#Lex">Lex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agraulia">AGRAULĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγραύλια</span>) was a festival celebrated
-by the Athenians in honour of Agraulos,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span>
-the daughter of Cecrops. It was perhaps
-connected with the solemn oath, which all
-Athenians, when they arrived at manhood
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφηβοι</span>), were obliged to take in the temple
-of Agraulos, that they would fight for their
-country, and always observe its laws.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agrimensores">AGRĪMENSŌRES, or “land surveyors,”
-a college established under the Roman emperors.
-Like the jurisconsults, they had regular
-schools, and were paid handsome salaries by
-the state. Their business was to measure
-unassigned lands for the state, and ordinary
-lands for the proprietors, and to fix and
-maintain boundaries. Their writings on the
-subject of their art were very numerous;
-and we have still scientific treatises on the
-law of boundaries, such as those by Frontinus
-and Hyginus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agrionia">AGRIŌNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγριώνια</span>), a festival which
-was celebrated at Orchomenus, in Boeotia, in
-honour of Dionysus, surnamed Agrionius. A
-human being used originally to be sacrificed
-at this festival, but this sacrifice seems to have
-been avoided in later times. One instance,
-however, occurred in the days of Plutarch.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agronomi">AGRONŎMI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγρονόμοι</span>), the country-police,
-probably in Attica, whose duties corresponded
-in most respects to those of the
-astynomi in the city, and who appear to
-have performed nearly the same duties as the
-hylori (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑλωροί</span>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agroteras">AGRŎTĔRAS THŬSIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγροτέρας θυσία</span>),
-a festival celebrated every year at Athens in
-honour of Artemis, surnamed Agrotera (from
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄγρα</span>, the chase). It was solemnized on the
-sixth of the month of Boëdromion, and consisted
-of a sacrifice of 500 goats, which continued
-to be offered in the time of Xenophon.
-Its origin is thus related:&mdash;When the Persians
-invaded Attica, the Athenians made a
-vow to sacrifice to Artemis Agrotera as many
-goats as there should be enemies slain at
-Marathon. But as the number of enemies
-slain was so great that an equal number of
-goats could not be found at once, the Athenians
-decreed that 500 should be sacrificed every year.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agyrtae">AGYRTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγύρται</span>), mendicant priests,
-who were accustomed to travel through the
-different towns of Greece, soliciting alms for
-the gods whom they served, and whose
-images they carried, either on their shoulders
-or on beasts of burthen. They were, generally
-speaking, persons of the lowest and
-most abandoned character.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ahenum">ĂHĒNUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aenum">Aenum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aikias">AIKIAS DĬKĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰκίας δίκη</span>), an action
-brought at Athens, before the court of the
-Forty (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ τετταράκοντα</span>), against any individual
-who had struck a citizen. Any citizen
-who had been thus insulted might proceed
-against the offending party, either by
-the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰκίας δίκη</span>, which was a private action,
-or by the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕβρεως γραφή</span>, which was looked
-upon in the light of a public prosecution.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aithousa">AITHOUSA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἴθουσα</span>), a word only used
-by Homer, is probably for <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἴθουσα στοά</span>, a
-portico exposed to the sun. From the passages
-in which it occurs, it seems to denote a
-covered portico, opening on to the court of
-the house, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλή</span>, in front of the vestibule,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόθυρον</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ala">ĀLA, part of a Roman house. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ala_a">ĀLA, ĀLĀRES, ĀLĀRĬI. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ala</i>, which literally
-means <em>a wing</em>, was from the earliest
-epochs employed to denote the wing of an
-army, but in process of time was frequently
-used in a restricted sense.&mdash;(1) When a
-Roman army was composed of Roman citizens
-exclusively, the flanks of the infantry
-when drawn up in battle array were covered
-on the right and left by the cavalry; and
-hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ala</i> denoted the body of horse which
-was attached to and served along with the
-foot-soldiers of the legion.&mdash;(2) When, at a
-later date, the Roman armies were composed
-partly of Roman citizens and partly of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Socii</i>,
-either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Latini</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Italici</i>, it became the practice
-to marshal the Roman troops in the
-centre of the battle line and the Socii upon
-the wings. Hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ala</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alarii</i> denoted
-the contingent furnished by the allies, both
-horse and foot, and the two divisions were
-distinguished as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dextera ala</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sinistra ala</i>.&mdash;(3)
-When the whole of the inhabitants
-of Italy had been admitted to the privileges
-of Roman citizens the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alarii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cohortes
-alariae</i> were transferred to the <em>foreign</em> troops
-serving along with the Roman armies.&mdash;(4)
-Lastly, under the empire, the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ala</i>
-was applied to regiments of horse, raised it
-would seem with very few exceptions in the
-provinces, serving apart from the legions and
-the cavalry of the legions.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Alabarches">ĂLĂBARCHĒS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλαβάρχης</span>), the chief magistrate
-of the Jews at Alexandria, whose
-duties, as far as the government was concerned,
-chiefly consisted in raising and paying
-the taxes.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Alabaster">ĂLĂBASTER or ĂLĂBASTRUM, a vessel
-or pot used for containing perfumes, or rather
-ointments, made of that species of marble
-which mineralogists call <em>gypsum</em>, and which
-is usually designated by the name of <em>alabaster</em>.
-When varieties of colour occur in the
-same stone, and are disposed in bands or
-horizontal strata, it is often called onyx alabaster;
-and when dispersed irregularly, as if
-in clouds, it is distinguished as agate alabaster.
-The term seems to have been employed
-to denote vessels appropriated to these uses,
-even when they were not made of the material
-from which it is supposed they originally<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span>
-received their name. Thus Theocritus
-speaks of golden alabastra. These vessels
-were of a tapering shape, and very often had
-a long narrow neck, which was sealed; so
-that when Mary, the sister of Lazarus, is
-said by St. Mark to break the alabaster box
-of ointment for the purpose of anointing our
-Saviour, it appears probable that she only
-broke the extremity of the neck, which was
-thus closed.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Alarii">ĀLĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ala_a">Ala</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Alauda">ĂLAUDA, a Gaulish word, the prototype
-of the modern French <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Alouette</i>, denoting a
-small crested bird of the lark kind. The
-name alauda was bestowed by Julius Caesar
-on a legion of picked men, which he raised at
-his own expense among the inhabitants of
-Transalpine Gaul, about the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 55,
-which he equipped and disciplined after the
-Roman fashion, and on which he at a subsequent
-period bestowed the freedom of the
-state. The designation was, in all probability,
-applied from a plume upon the helmet,
-resembling the “apex” of the bird in question,
-or from the general shape and appearance
-of the head-piece.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Albogalerus">ALBŎGĂLĒRUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Apex">Apex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Album">ALBUM, a tablet of any material on which
-the praetor’s edicts, and the rules relating to
-actions and interdicts, were written. The
-tablet was put up in a public place, in order
-that all the world might have notice of its
-contents. According to some authorities, the
-album was so called because it was either a
-white material or a material whitened, and
-of course the writing would be of a different
-colour. According to other authorities, it
-was so called because the writing was in
-white letters. Probably the word album
-originally meant any tablet containing anything
-of a public nature. We know that it
-was, in course of time, used to signify a list
-of any public body; thus we find <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">album judicum</i>,
-or the body out of which judices were
-to be chosen [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a></span>], and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">album senatorium</i>,
-or list of senators.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Alea">ĀLĔA, gaming, or playing at a game of
-chance of any kind: hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aleo</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aleator</i>, a
-gamester, a gambler. Playing with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tali</i>, or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tesserae</i>, was generally understood, because
-this was by far the most common game of
-chance among the Romans. Gaming was
-forbidden by the Roman laws, both during
-the times of the republic and under the emperors,
-but was tolerated in the month of
-December at the Saturnalia, which was a
-period of general relaxation; and old men
-were allowed to amuse themselves in this
-manner at all times.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Alicula">ĂLĬCŬLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄλλιξ</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄλληξ</span>), an upper dress,
-in all probability identical with the chlamys.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Alimentarii">ĂLIMENTĀRII PŬĔRI ET PŬELLAE.
-In the Roman republic the poorer citizens
-were assisted by public distributions of corn,
-oil, and money, which were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">congiaria</i>.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Congiarium">Congiarium</a>.</span>] The Emperor Nerva was the
-first who extended them to children, and Trajan
-appointed them to be made every month,
-both to orphans and to the children of poor
-parents. The children who received them were
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pueri et puellae alimentarii</i>, and also
-(from the emperor) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pueri puellaeque Ulpiani</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Alipilus">ĀLĬPĬLUS, a slave, who attended on
-bathers to remove the superfluous hair from
-their bodies.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aliptae">ĂLIPTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλείπται</span>), among the Greeks,
-were persons who anointed the bodies of the
-athletae preparatory to their entering the
-palaestra. The chief object of this anointing
-was to close the pores of the body, in order
-to prevent much perspiration, and the weakness
-consequent thereon. The athleta was
-again anointed after the contest, in order to
-restore the tone of the strained muscles. He
-then bathed, and had the dust, sweat, and
-oil scraped off his body, by means of an instrument
-similar to the strigil of the Romans,
-and called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stlengis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στλεγγίς</span>), and afterwards
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">xystra</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξύστρα</span>). The aliptae took advantage
-of the knowledge they necessarily acquired
-of the state of the muscles of the athletae,
-and their general strength or weakness of
-body, to advise them as to their exercises
-and mode of life. They were thus a kind of
-medical trainers. Among the Romans the
-aliptae were slaves who scrubbed and anointed
-their masters in the baths. They, too, like
-the Greek aliptae, appear to have attended to
-their masters’ constitution and mode of life.
-They were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unctores</i>. They used
-in their operations a kind of scraper called
-strigil, towels (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lintea</i>), a cruise of oil (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">guttus</i>),
-which was usually of horn, a bottle (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ampulla</i>),
-and a small vessel called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lenticula</i>.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp76" id="ill017" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill017.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Allocutio (Coin of Nero.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Allocutio">ALLŎCŪTĬO, an harangue made by a
-Roman imperator to his soldiers, to encourage<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span>
-them before battle, or on other occasions.
-On coins we frequently find a figure
-of an imperator standing on a platform and
-addressing the soldiers below him. Such
-coins bear the epigraph <span class="allsmcap">ADLOCUTIO</span>.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp76" id="ill018" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill018.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Allocutio. (Coin of Galba.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Aloa">ALŌA or HALŌA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλῶα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁλῶα</span>), an Attic
-festival, but celebrated principally at Eleusis,
-in honour of Demeter and Dionysus, the inventors
-of the plough and protectors of the
-fruits of the earth.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Altare">ALTĀRE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ara">Ara</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aluta">ĂLŪTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calceus">Calceus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Alytae">ĂLỸTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλύται</span>), persons whose business
-it was to keep order in the public games.
-They received their orders from an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alytarches</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλυτάρχης</span>), who was himself under the direction
-of the agonothetae, or hellenodicae.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Amanuensis">ĀMĂNŬENSIS, or AD MĂNUM SERVUS,
-a slave, or freedman, whose office it was to
-write letters and other things under his master’s
-direction. The amanuenses must not
-be confounded with another sort of slaves,
-also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad manum servi</i>, who were always
-kept ready to be employed in any business.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Amarynthia">ĂMĂRYNTHĬA, or ĂMĂRYSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμαρύνθια</span>
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμαρύσια</span>), a festival of Artemis Amarynthia
-or Amarysia, celebrated, as it seems,
-originally at Amarynthus in Euboea, with
-extraordinary splendour, but also solemnised
-in several places in Attica, such as Athmone.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ambarvalia">AMBARVĀLIĂ. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arvales">Arvales Fratres</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ambitus">AMBĬTUS, which literally signifies “a
-going about,” cannot, perhaps, be more nearly
-expressed than by our word <em>canvassing</em>. After
-the plebs had formed a distinct class at Rome,
-and when the whole body of the citizens had
-become very greatly increased, we frequently
-read, in the Roman writers, of the great
-efforts which it was necessary for candidates
-to make in order to secure the votes of the
-citizens. At Rome, as in every community
-into which the element of popular election
-enters, solicitation of votes, and open or
-secret influence and bribery, were among the
-means by which a candidate secured his election
-to the offices of state. The following
-are the principal terms occurring in the
-Roman writers in relation to the canvassing
-for the public offices:&mdash;A candidate was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">petitor</i>; and his opponent with reference to
-him <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">competitor</i>. A candidate (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">candidatus</i>)
-was so called from his appearing in the
-public places, such as the fora and Campus
-Martius, before his fellow-citizens, in a
-whitened toga. On such occasions the candidate
-was attended by his friends (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deductores</i>),
-or followed by the poorer citizens
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sectatores</i>), who could in no other manner
-show their good will or give their assistance.
-The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">assiduitas</i> expressed both the continual
-presence of the candidate at Rome and
-his continual solicitations. The candidate,
-in going his rounds or taking his walk, was
-accompanied by a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomenclator</i>, who gave him
-the names of such persons as he might meet;
-the candidate was thus enabled to address
-them by their name, an indirect compliment,
-which could not fail to be generally gratifying
-to the electors. The candidate accompanied
-his address with a shake of the hand (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prensatio</i>).
-The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">benignitas</i> comprehended
-generally any kind of treating, as shows,
-feasts, &amp;c. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ambitus</i>, which was the
-object of several penal enactments, taken as
-a generic term, comprehended the two species&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ambitus</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">largitiones</i> (bribery). <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Liberalitas</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">benignitas</i> are opposed by Cicero,
-as things allowable, to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ambitus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">largitio</i>,
-as things illegal. Money was paid for votes;
-and, in order to insure secrecy and secure
-the elector, persons called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">interpretes</i> were
-employed to make the bargain, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sequestres</i> to
-hold the money till it was to be paid, and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">divisores</i> to distribute it. The offence of
-ambitus was a matter which belonged to the
-judicia publica, and the enactments against
-it were numerous. One of the earliest,
-though not the earliest of all, the Lex Cornelia
-Baebia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 181) was specially directed
-against <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">largitiones</i>. Those convicted under
-it were incapacitated from being candidates
-for ten years. The Lex Cornelia Fulvia
-(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 159) punished the offence with exile.
-The Lex Acilia Calpurnia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 67) imposed
-a fine on the offending party, with exclusion
-from the senate and all public offices. The
-Lex Tullia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63), passed in the consulship
-of Cicero, in addition to the penalty of the
-Acilian law, inflicted ten years’ exsilium on
-the offender; and, among other things, forbade
-a person to exhibit gladiatorial shows
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gladiatores dare</i>) within any two years in
-which he was a candidate, unless he was required
-to do so, on a fixed day, by a testator’s
-will. Two years afterwards the Lex Aufidia<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span>
-was proposed, but not passed; by which,
-among other things, it was provided that, if
-a candidate promised (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pronuntiavit</i>) money
-to a tribe, and did not pay it, he should be
-unpunished; but, if he did pay the money, he
-should further pay to each tribe (annually?)
-3000 sesterces as long as he lived. This
-absurd proposal occasioned the witticism of
-Cicero, who said that Clodius observed the
-law by anticipation; for he promised, but did
-not pay. The Lex Licinia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 55) was specially
-directed against the offence of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sodalitium</i>,
-or the wholesale bribery of a tribe by
-gifts and treating; and another lex, passed
-(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 52) when Pompey was sole consul, had
-for its object the establishment of a speedier
-course of proceeding on trials for ambitus.
-All these enactments failed in completely accomplishing
-their object. That which no
-law could suppress, so long as the old popular
-forms retained any of their pristine vigour,
-was accomplished by the imperial usurpation.
-Caesar, when dictator, nominated some of
-the candidates for public offices: as to the
-consulship, he managed the appointments to
-that office just as he pleased. The popular
-forms of election were observed during the
-time of Augustus. Tiberius transferred the
-elections from the comitia to the senate, by
-which the offence of ambitus, in its proper
-sense, entirely disappeared. The trials for
-ambitus were numerous in the time of the
-republic. The oration of Cicero in defence
-of L. Murena, who was charged with ambitus,
-and that in defence of Cn. Plancius,
-who was charged with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sodalitium</i>, are both
-extant.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ambrosia">AMBRŎSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμβροσία</span>), the food of the
-gods, which conferred upon them eternal
-youth and immortality, and was brought to
-Jupiter by pigeons. It was also used by the
-gods for anointing their body and hair;
-whence we read of the ambrosial locks of
-Jupiter.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ambubaiae">AMBŪBAIAE (probably from the Syriac
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">abub aubub</i>, a pipe), Eastern dancing girls,
-who frequented chiefly the Circus at Rome,
-and obtained their living by prostitution and
-lascivious songs and dances.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Amburbium">AMBURBĬUM, a sacrifice which was performed
-at Rome for the purification of the city.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Amentum">AMENTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Amictorium">ĂMICTŌRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Strophium">Strophium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Amictus">ĂMICTUS. The verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amicire</i> is commonly
-opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">induere</i>, the former being applied
-to the putting on of the outer garment, the
-pallium, laena, or toga (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμάτιον, φᾶρος</span>); the
-latter, to the putting on of the inner garment,
-the tunic (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χιτών</span>). In consequence of this
-distinction, the verbal nouns <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amictus</i> and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">indutus</i>, even without any further denomination
-of the dress being added, indicate respectively
-the outer and inner clothing. In
-Greek <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amicire</i> is expressed by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφιέννυσθαι</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμπέχεσθαι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιβάλλεσθαι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περιβάλλεσθαι</span>: and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">induere</i> by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνδύνειν</span>. Hence came <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμπεχόνη</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίβλημα</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιβόλαιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίβλημα</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περιβόλαιον</span>,
-an outer garment, a cloak, a shawl;
-and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔνδυμα</span>, an inner garment, a tunic, a
-shirt.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Amphictyones">AMPHICTỸŎNES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφικτύονες</span>). Institutions
-called amphictyonic appear to have
-existed in Greece from time immemorial.
-They seem to have been originally associations
-of neighbouring tribes, formed for the regulation
-of mutual intercourse and the protection
-of a common temple or sanctuary, at
-which the representatives of the different
-members met, both to transact business and
-to celebrate religious rites and games. One
-of these associations was of much greater
-importance than all the rest, and was called,
-by way of eminence, the <em>Amphictyonic League</em>
-or <em>Council</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφικτυονία</span>). It differed from
-other similar associations in having two places
-of meeting, the sanctuaries of two divinities;
-which were the temple of Demeter, in the
-village of Anthela, near Thermopylae, where
-the deputies met in autumn; and that of
-Apollo, at Delphi, where they assembled in
-spring. Its connexion with the latter place
-not only contributed to its dignity, but also to
-its permanence. Its early history is involved
-in obscurity. Most of the ancients suppose
-it to have been founded by Amphictyon, the
-son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, from whom
-they imagined that it derived its name: but
-this opinion is destitute of all foundation, and
-arose from the ancients assigning the establishment
-of their institutions to some mythical
-hero. There can be little doubt as to
-the true etymology of the word. It was originally
-written <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφικτίονες</span>, and consequently
-signified those that dwelt around some particular
-locality. Its institution, however, is
-clearly of remote antiquity. It was originally
-composed of twelve <em>tribes</em> (not cities or states,
-it must be observed), each of which tribes
-contained various independent cities or states.
-We learn from Aeschines, that in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 343,
-eleven of these tribes were as follows:&mdash;The
-Thessalians, Boeotians (not Thebans only),
-Dorians, Ionians, Perrhaebians, Magnetes,
-Locrians, Oetaeans or Oenianians, Phthiots
-or Achaeans of Phthia, Malians, and Phocians;
-other lists leave us in doubt whether the
-remaining tribe were the Dolopes or Delphians;
-but as the Delphians could hardly be
-called a distinct tribe, their nobles appearing
-to have been Dorians, it seems probable that
-the Dolopes were originally members, and
-afterwards supplanted by the Delphians. All<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span>
-the states belonging to each of these tribes
-were on a footing of perfect equality. Thus
-Sparta enjoyed no advantages over Dorium
-and Cytinium, two small towns in Doris: and
-Athens, an Ionic city, was on a par with Eretria
-in Euboea, and Priene in Asia Minor,
-two other Ionic cities. The ordinary council
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pylaea</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυλαία</span>), from its meeting
-in the neighbourhood of Pylae (Thermopylae),
-but the name was given to the session at
-Delphi as well as to that at Thermopylae.
-The council was composed of two classes of
-representatives, one called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pylagorae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυλαγόραι</span>),
-and the other <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hieromnemones</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερομνήμονες</span>).
-Athens sent three Pylagorae and
-one Hieromnemon; of whom the former were
-elected apparently for each session, and the
-latter by lot, probably for a longer period.
-Respecting the relative duties of the Pylagorae
-and Hieromnemones we have little
-information: the name of the latter implies
-that they had a more immediate connection
-with the temple. We are equally in the
-dark respecting the numbers who sat in the
-council and its mode of proceeding. It would
-seem that all the deputies had seats in the
-council, and took part in its deliberations;
-but if it be true, as appears from Aeschines,
-that each of the tribes had only two votes, it
-is clear that all the deputies could not have
-voted. In addition to the ordinary council,
-there was an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ecclesia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκκλησία</span>), or general
-assembly, including not only the classes
-above mentioned, but also those who had
-joined in the sacrifices, and were consulting
-the god. It was convened on extraordinary
-occasions by the chairman of the council. Of
-the duties of the Amphictyons nothing will
-give us a clearer view than the oath they
-took, which was as follows:&mdash;“They would
-destroy no city of the Amphictyons, nor cut
-off their streams in war or peace; and if any
-should do so, they would march against him,
-and destroy his cities; and should any pillage
-the property of the god, or be privy to or
-plan anything against what was in his temple
-(at Delphi), they would take vengeance on
-him with hand and foot, and voice, and all
-their might.” From this oath we see that
-the main duty of the deputies was the preservation
-of the rights and dignity of the temple
-of Delphi. We know, too, that after it was
-burnt down (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 548), they contracted with
-the Alcmaeonidae for its rebuilding. History,
-moreover, teaches that if the council produced
-any palpable effects, it was from their interest
-in Delphi; and though they kept up a standing
-record of what ought to have been the international
-law of Greece, they sometimes acquiesced
-in, and at other times were parties to, the most
-iniquitous acts. Of this the case of Crissa
-is an instance. This town lay on the Gulf of
-Corinth, near Delphi, and was much frequented
-by pilgrims from the West. The Crissaeans
-were charged by the Delphians with undue
-exactions from these strangers. The council
-declared war against them, as guilty of a
-wrong against the god. The war lasted ten
-years, till, at the suggestion of Solon, the
-waters of the Pleistus were turned off, then
-poisoned, and turned again into the city. The
-besieged drank their fill, and Crissa was soon
-razed to the ground; and thus, if it were an
-Amphictyonic city, was a solemn oath doubly
-violated. Its territory&mdash;the rich Cirrhaean
-plain&mdash;was consecrated to the god, and curses
-imprecated upon whomsoever should till or
-dwell in it. Thus ended the First Sacred
-War (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 585), in which the Athenians were
-the instruments of Delphian vengeance. The
-second or Phocian war (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 350) was the
-most important in which the Amphictyons
-were concerned; and in this the Thebans
-availed themselves of the sanction of the
-council to take vengeance on their enemies,
-the Phocians. To do this, however, it was
-necessary to call in Philip of Macedon, who
-readily proclaimed himself the champion of
-Apollo, as it opened a pathway to his own
-ambition. The Phocians were subdued (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-346), and the council decreed that all their
-cities, except Abae, should be razed, and the
-inhabitants dispersed in villages not containing
-more than fifty persons. Their two votes
-were given to Philip, who thereby gained a
-pretext for interfering with the affairs of
-Greece; and also obtained the recognition of
-his subjects as Hellenes. The Third Sacred
-War arose from the Amphissians tilling the
-devoted Cirrhaean plain. The Amphictyons
-called in the assistance of Philip, who soon
-reduced the Amphissians to subjection. Their
-submission was immediately followed by the
-battle of Chaeroneia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 338), and the
-extinction of the independence of Greece. In
-the following year, a congress of the Amphictyonic
-states was held, in which war was
-declared as if by united Greece against Persia,
-and Philip elected commander-in-chief. On
-this occasion the Amphictyons assumed the
-character of national representatives as of old,
-when they set a price upon the head of Ephialtes,
-for his treason to Greece at Thermopylae.
-It has been sufficiently shown that
-the Amphictyons themselves did not observe
-the oaths they took; and that they did not
-much alleviate the horrors of war, or enforce
-what they had sworn to do, is proved by
-many instances. Thus, for instance, Mycenae
-was destroyed by Argos (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 535), Thespiae
-and Plataeae by Thebes, and Thebes herself
-swept from the face of the earth by Alexander,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span>
-without the Amphictyons raising one word in
-opposition. Indeed, a few years before the
-Peloponnesian war, the council was a passive
-spectator of what Thucydides calls the Sacred
-War (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ ἱερὸς πόλεμος</span>), when the Lacedaemonians
-made an expedition to Delphi, and put
-the temple into the hands of the Delphians,
-the Athenians, after their departure, restoring
-it to the Phocians. The council is rarely
-mentioned after the time of Philip. We are
-told that Augustus wished his new city,
-Nicopolis (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 31), to be enrolled among
-the members. Pausanias, in the second
-century of our era, mentions it as still existing,
-but deprived of all power and influence.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Amphidromia">AMPHĬDRŎMĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφιδρόμια</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δρομιάμφιον
-ἧμαρ</span>), a family festival of the Athenians,
-at which the newly-born child was
-introduced into the family, and received its
-name. The friends and relations of the
-parents were invited to the festival of the
-amphidromia, which was held in the evening,
-and they generally appeared with presents.
-The house was decorated on the outside with
-olive branches when the child was a boy, or
-with garlands of wool when the child was a
-girl; and a repast was prepared for the
-guests. The child was carried round the
-fire by the nurse, and thus, as it were, presented
-to the gods of the house and to the
-family, and at the same time received its
-name, to which the guests were witnesses.
-The carrying of the child round the hearth
-was the principal part of the solemnity, from
-which its name was derived.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill022a" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill022a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Longitudinal Section of the Flavian Amphitheatre.</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp79" id="ill022b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill022b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Elevation of one side of the preceding Section.<br />
-
-EXPLANATION.<br />
-
-<div class="blockquotx">
-
-<p><span class="allsmcap">A</span>, The arena.</p>
-
-<p><em>p</em>, The wall or podium inclosing it.</p>
-
-<p><span class="allsmcap">P</span>, The podium itself, on which were chairs, or seats, for
-the senators, &amp;c.</p>
-
-<p><span class="allsmcap">M′</span>, The first maenianum, or slope of benches, for the
-equestrian order.</p>
-
-<p><span class="allsmcap">M″</span>, The second maenianum.</p>
-
-<p><span class="allsmcap">M‴</span>, The third maenianum, elevated considerably above
-the preceding one, and appropriated to the pullati.</p>
-
-<p><span class="allsmcap">W</span>, The colonnade, or gallery, which contained seats for
-women.</p>
-
-<p><span class="allsmcap">E</span>, The narrow gallery round the summit of the interior,
-for the attendants who worked the velarium.</p>
-
-<p><em>pr</em>, <em>pr</em>, The præcinctiones, or landings, at the top of the
-first and second maenianum; in the pavement of
-which were grated apertures, at intervals, to admit
-light into the vomitoria beneath them.</p>
-
-<p><span class="allsmcap">V V V V</span>, Vomitoria.</p>
-
-<p><span class="allsmcap">G G G</span>, The three external galleries through the circumference
-of the building, open to the arcades of the
-exterior.</p>
-
-<p><em>g g</em>, Inner gallery.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The situation and arrangement of the staircases, &amp;c., are
-not expressed, as they could not be rendered intelligible
-without plans at various levels of the building.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Amphitheatrum">AMPHĬTHĔĀTRUM, an amphitheatre,
-was a place for the exhibition of public shows
-of combatants, wild beasts, and naval engagements,
-and was entirely surrounded with
-seats for the spectators; whereas, in those
-for dramatic performances, the seats were
-arranged in a semicircle facing the stage.
-An amphitheatre is therefore frequently described
-as a double theatre, consisting of two
-such semicircles, or halves, joined together,
-the spaces allotted to their orchestras becoming
-the inner inclosure, or area, termed the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arena</i>. The form, however, of the ancient
-amphitheatres was not a circle, but invariably
-an ellipse. Gladiatorial shows and combats
-of wild beasts (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">venationes</i>) were first exhibited
-in the forum and the circus; and it
-appears that the ancient custom was still
-preserved till the time of Julius Caesar. The
-first building in the form of an amphitheatre
-is said to have been erected by C. Scribonius
-Curio, one of Caesar’s partisans; but the
-account which is given of this building sounds
-rather fabulous. It is said to have consisted
-of two wooden theatres, made to revolve on
-pivots, in such a manner that they could, by
-means of windlasses and machinery, be turned
-round face to face, so as to form one building.
-Soon after Caesar himself erected, in the
-Campus Martius, a stationary amphitheatre,
-made of wood; to which building the name
-of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amphitheatrum</i> was for the first time given.
-The first stone amphitheatre was built by
-Statilius Taurus, in the Campus Martius, at
-the desire of Augustus. This was the only
-stone amphitheatre at Rome till the time of
-Vespasian. One was commenced by Caligula,
-but was not continued by Claudius. The one
-erected by Nero in the Campus Martius was
-only a temporary building, made of wood.
-The amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus was
-burnt in the fire of Rome in the time of Nero;
-and hence, as a new one was needed, Vespasian
-commenced the celebrated <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Amphitheatrum
-Flavium</i> in the middle of the city, in the
-valley between the Caelian, the Esquiline,
-and the Velia, on the spot originally occupied
-by the lake or large pond attached to Nero’s
-palace. Vespasian did not live to finish it.
-It was dedicated by Titus in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 80, but was
-not completely finished, till the reign of Domitian.
-This immense edifice, which is even yet
-comparatively entire, covered nearly six acres
-of ground, and was capable of containing
-about 87,000 spectators. It is called at the
-present day the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Colosseum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Colisaeum</i>. The
-interior of an amphitheatre was divided into
-three parts, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arena</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">podium</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gradus</i>.
-The clear open space in the centre of the
-amphitheatre was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arena</i>, because
-it was covered with sand, or sawdust, to
-prevent the gladiators from slipping, and to
-absorb the blood. The size of the arena was
-not always the same in proportion to the size
-of the amphitheatre, but its average proportion
-was one-third of the shorter diameter of
-the building. The arena was surrounded by
-a wall distinguished by the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">podium</i>;
-although such appellation, perhaps, rather
-belongs to merely the upper part of it, forming
-the parapet, or balcony, before the first
-or lowermost seats, nearest to the arena. The
-arena, therefore, was no more than an open
-oval court, surrounded by a wall about fifteen
-feet high; a height considered necessary, in
-order to render the spectators perfectly secure
-from the attacks of wild beasts. There were
-four principal entrances leading into the arena;
-two at the ends of each axis or diameter of it,
-to which as many passages led directly from
-the exterior of the building; besides secondary
-ones, intervening between them, and communicating
-with the corridors beneath the seats
-on the podium. The wall or enclosure of the
-arena is supposed to have been faced with
-marble, more or less sumptuous; besides
-which, there appears to have been, in some<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span>
-instances at least, a sort of net-work affixed
-to the top of the podium, consisting of railing,
-or rather open trellis-work of metal. As
-a further defence, ditches, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">euripi</i>, sometimes
-surrounded the arena. The term podium
-was also applied to the terrace, or gallery
-itself, immediately above the arena, which
-was no wider than to be capable of containing
-two, or at the most, three ranges of moveable
-seats, or chairs. This, as being by far the
-best situation for distinctly viewing the sports
-in the arena, and also more commodiously
-accessible than the seats higher up, was the
-place set apart for senators and other persons
-of distinction, such as foreign ambassadors;
-and it was here, also, that the emperor himself
-used to sit, in an elevated place, called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suggestus</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cubiculum</i>, and likewise the
-person who exhibited the games on a place
-elevated like a pulpit or tribunal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">editoris
-tribunal</i>). Above the podium were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gradus</i>,
-or seats of the other spectators, which
-were divided into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">maeniana</i>, or stories. The
-first <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">maenianum</i>, consisting of fourteen rows
-of stone or marble seats, was appropriated
-to the equestrian order. The seats appropriated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span>
-to the senators and equites were
-covered with cushions, which were first used
-in the time of Caligula. Then, after an interval
-or space, termed a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praecinctio</i>, and
-forming a continued landing-place from the
-several staircases in it, succeeded the second
-maenianum, where were the seats called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">popularia</i>, for the third class of spectators, or
-the populus. Behind this was the second praecinctio,
-bounded by a rather high wall; above
-which was the third maenianum, where there
-were only wooden benches for the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pullati</i>, or
-common people. The next and last division,
-namely, that in the highest part of the
-building, consisted of a colonnade, or gallery,
-where females were allowed to witness the
-spectacles of the amphitheatre, but some parts
-of it were also occupied by the pullati.
-Each maenianum was not only divided from
-the other by the praecinctio, but was intersected
-at intervals by spaces for passages left
-between the seats, <span id="Scalae_a">called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scalae</i></span>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scalaria</i>;
-and the portion between two such passages
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cuneus</i>, because the space gradually
-widened like a wedge, from the podium to
-the top of the building. The entrances to
-the seats from the outer porticoes were called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vomitoria</i>. At the very summit was the
-narrow platform for the men who had to
-attend to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">velarium</i>, or awning, by which
-the building was covered as a defence against
-the sun and rain. The velarium appears
-usually to have been made of wool, but more
-costly materials were sometimes employed.
-The first of the preceding cuts represents a
-longitudinal section of the Flavian amphitheatre,
-and the second, which is on a larger
-scale, a part of the above section, including
-the exterior wall, and the seats included
-between that and the arena. It will serve to
-convey an idea of the leading form and general
-disposition of the interior. For an account of
-the gladiatorial contests, and the shows of
-wild beasts, exhibited in the amphitheatre,
-see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Naumachia">Naumachia</a></span>, and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Venatio">Venatio</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="ill023a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill023a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Amphorae. (British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Amphora">AMPHŎRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφορεύς</span>), a vessel used for
-holding wine, oil, honey, &amp;c. The following
-cut represents amphorae in the British Museum.
-They are of various forms and sizes;
-in general they are tall and narrow, with a
-small neck, and a handle on each side of the
-neck (whence the name, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφί</span>, <em>on both
-sides</em>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φέρω</span>, to carry), and terminating at
-the bottom in a point, which was let into a
-stand or stuck in the ground, so that the
-vessel stood upright: several amphorae have
-been found in this position in the cellars at
-Pompeii. Amphorae were commonly made
-of earthenware. Homer mentions amphorae
-of gold and stone, and the Egyptians had
-them of brass; glass vessels of this form
-have been found at Pompeii. The most common
-use of the amphora, both among the
-Greeks and the Romans, was for keeping
-wine. The cork was covered with pitch or
-gypsum, and (among the Romans) on the
-outside the title of the wine was painted, the
-date of the vintage being marked by the
-names of the consuls then in office; or, when
-the jars were of glass, little tickets (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pittoria</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tesserae</i>) were suspended from them, indicating
-these particulars.&mdash;The Greek amphoreus and
-the Roman amphora were also names of fixed
-measures. The amphoreus, which was also
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metretes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετρητής</span>) and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cadus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάδος</span>),
-was equal to three Roman urnae = 8 gallons,
-7·365 pints, imperial measure. The Roman
-amphora was two-thirds of the amphoreus,
-and was equal to 2 urnae = 8 congii = to 5
-gallons, 7·577 pints; its solid content was
-exactly a Roman cubic foot.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ampliatio">AMPLĬĀTĬO, an adjournment of a trial,
-which took place when the judices after hearing
-the evidence of the advocates were unable
-to come to a satisfactory conclusion. This
-they expressed by giving in the tablets, on
-which were the letters N. L. (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">non liquet</i>), and
-the praetor, by pronouncing the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amplius</i>,
-thereupon adjourned the trial to any
-day he chose. The defendant and the cause
-were then said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ampliari</i>.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp78" id="ill023b" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill023b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ampulla. (Sketched by G. Scharf from a relief at
-Athens, discovered in 1840.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Ampulla">AMPULLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λήκυθος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βομβύλιος</span>), a bottle,
-usually made among the Romans either of
-glass or earthenware, rarely of more valuable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span>
-materials. Ampullae were more or less globular.
-From their round and swollen shape,
-the word was used by Horace to indicate grand
-and turgid but empty language. (“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Projicit
-ampullas et sesquipedalia verba</span>,” <cite>Ar. Poet.</cite> 97.)
-Ampullae are frequently mentioned in connection
-with the bath, since every Roman took
-with him to the bath a bottle of oil for anointing
-the body after bathing. The dealer in
-bottles was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ampullarius</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp35" id="ill024a" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill024a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ampulla. (From a tomb at Myra in Lycia.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Ampyx">AMPYX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄμπυξ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc"><ins class="corr" id="tn-24" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'ἀμπυκτῆρ'">
-ἀμπυκτήρ</ins></span>, Lat. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">frontale</i>),
-a frontal, a broad band or plate of metal,
-which ladies of rank wore above the forehead
-as part of the head-dress. The frontal of a
-horse was called by the same name. The
-annexed cut exhibits the frontal on the head
-of Pegasus, in contrast with the corresponding
-ornament as shown on the heads of two
-females.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp82" id="ill024b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill024b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ampyces, Frontlets. (From Paintings on Vases.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Amuletum">ĂMŬLĒTUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίαπτον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίαμμα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλακτήριον</span>),
-an amulet. This word in Arabic
-(hamalet) means <em>that which is suspended</em>. It
-was probably brought into Europe by Arabian
-merchants, together with the articles to
-which it was applied. An amulet was any
-object,&mdash;a stone, a plant, an artificial production,
-or a piece of writing,&mdash;which was
-suspended from the neck, or tied to any part
-of the body, for the purpose of warding off
-calamities and securing advantages of any
-kind. Faith in the virtues of amulets was
-almost universal in the ancient world, so
-that the art of medicine consisted in a very
-considerable degree of directions for their
-application.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Amussis">ĂMUSSIS or ĂMUSSĬUM, a carpenter’s
-and mason’s instrument, the use of which
-was to obtain a true plane surface.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Anaceia">ĂNĂCEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάκεια</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάκειον</span>), a festival
-of the Dioscuri or Anactes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄνακτες</span>), as
-they were called at Athens. These heroes,
-however, received the most distinguished honours
-in the Dorian and Achaean states,
-where it may be supposed that every town
-celebrated a festival in their honour, though
-not under the name of Anaceia.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Anacrisis">ĂNACRĬSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάκρισις</span>), an examination,
-was used to signify the pleadings preparatory
-to a trial at Athens, the object of which was
-to determine, generally, if the action would
-lie. The magistrates were said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνακρίνειν
-τὴν δίκην</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοὺς ἀντιδίκους</span>, and the parties
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνακρίνεσθαι</span>. The process consisted in the
-production of proofs, of which there were
-five kinds:&mdash;1. The laws; 2. Written documents;
-3. Testimonies of witnesses present
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μαρτυρίαι</span>), or affidavits of absent witnesses
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκμαρτυρίαι</span>); 4. Depositions of slaves extorted
-by the rack; 5. The oath of the parties.
-All these proofs were committed to
-writing, and placed in a box secured by a
-seal (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐχῖνος</span>) till they were produced at the
-trial. If the evidence produced at the anacrisis
-was so clear and convincing that there
-could not remain any doubt, the magistrate
-could decide the question without sending the
-cause to be tried before the dicasts: this was
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diamartyria</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαμαρτυρία</span>). The archons
-were the proper officers for holding
-the anacrisis; they are represented by Athena
-(Minerva), in the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Eumenides</cite> of Aeschylus,
-where there is a poetical sketch of the process
-in the law courts. For an account of the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anacrisis</i> or examination, which each archon
-underwent previously to entering on office,
-see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Archon">Archon</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Anaglypha">ĂNĂGLỸPHA or ĂNĂGLYPTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάγλυφα</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάγλυπτα</span>), chased or embossed vessels made
-of bronze or of the precious metals, which
-derived their name from the work on them
-being in relief, and not engraved.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Anagnostes">ĂNĂGNOSTĒS, a slave, whose duty it was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span>
-to read or repeat passages from books during
-an entertainment, and also at other times.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Anagogia">ĂNĂGŌGĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀναγώγια</span>), a festival celebrated
-at Eryx, in Sicily, in honour of Aphrodite.
-The inhabitants of the place believed
-that, during this festival, the goddess went
-over into Africa.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Anatocismus">ĂNĂTŎCISMUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ancile">ANCĪLE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Salii">Salii</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ancora">ANCŎRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Andabata">ANDĂBĂTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiator</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Androgeonia">ANDRŎGĔŌNIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνδρογεώνια</span>), a festival
-with games, held every year in the Cerameicus
-at Athens, in honour of the hero Androgeus,
-son of Minos, who had overcome all
-his adversaries in the festive games of the
-Panathenaea, and was afterwards killed by
-his jealous rivals.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Androlepsia">ANDRŎLEPSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνδροληψία</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνδρολήψιον</span>),
-a legal means by which the Athenians
-were enabled to take vengeance upon a community
-in which an Athenian citizen had
-been murdered, by seizing three individuals
-of that state or city, as hostages, until satisfaction
-was given.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Andronitis">ANDRŌNĪTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>, Greek.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Angaria">ANGĂRĪA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγγαρεία</span>, Hdt. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγγαρήϊον</span>), a
-word borrowed from the Persians, signifying
-a system of posting by relays of horses, which
-was used among that people, and which, according
-to Xenophon, was established by
-Cyrus. The term was adopted by the Romans
-under the empire to signify compulsory
-service in forwarding the messages of the
-state. The Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">angaria</i>, also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">angariarum
-exhibitio</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praestatio</i>, included the
-maintenance and supply, not only of horses,
-but of ships and messengers, in forwarding
-both letters and burdens; it is defined as a
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">personale munus</i>; and there was no ground
-of exemption from it allowed, except by the
-favour of the emperor.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Angiportus">ANGĬPORTUS, or ANGĬPORTUM, a narrow
-lane between two rows of houses, which
-might either be what the French call a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cul-de-sac</i>,
-or it might terminate at both ends in
-some public street.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Angusticlavii">ANGUSTICLĀVĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Clavus_l">Clavus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Annales">ANNĀLES MAXĬMI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pontifex">Pontifex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Annona">ANNŌNA (from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">annus</i>, like <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pomona</i> from
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pomum</i>).&mdash;(1) The produce of the year in
-corn, fruit, wine, &amp;c., and hence,&mdash;(2) provisions
-in general, especially the corn, which,
-in the later years of the republic, was collected
-in the storehouses of the state, and
-sold to the poor at a cheap rate in times of
-scarcity; and which, under the emperors,
-was distributed to the people gratuitously, or
-given as pay and rewards;&mdash;(3) the price of
-provisions;&mdash;(4) a soldier’s allowance of provisions
-for a certain time. The word is used
-also in the plural for yearly or monthly distributions
-of pay in corn, &amp;c.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Annulus">ANNŬLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δακτύλιος</span>), a ring. It is probable
-that the custom of wearing rings was
-very early introduced into Greece from Asia,
-where it appears to have been almost universal.
-They were worn not merely as ornaments,
-but as articles for use, as the ring
-always served as a seal. A seal was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sphragis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφραγίς</span>), and hence this name was
-given to the ring itself, and also to the gem
-or stone for a ring in which figures were engraved.
-Rings in Greece were mostly worn
-on the fourth finger (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παράμεσος</span>). At Rome,
-the custom of wearing rings was believed to
-have been introduced by the Sabines, who
-were described in the early legends as wearing
-golden rings with precious stones of great
-beauty. But, whenever introduced at Rome,
-it is certain that they were at first always of
-iron; that they were destined for the same
-purpose as in Greece, namely, to be used as
-seals; and that every free Roman had a right
-to use such a ring. This iron ring was worn
-down to the last period of the republic by
-such men as loved the simplicity of the good
-old times. In the course of time, however,
-it became customary for all the senators,
-chief magistrates, and at last for the equites
-also, to wear a golden seal-ring. The right
-of wearing a gold ring, which was subsequently
-called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus annuli aurei</i>, or the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus annulorum</i>, remained for several centuries
-at Rome the exclusive privilege of senators,
-magistrates, and equites, while all other
-persons continued to wear iron ones. During
-the empire the right of granting the annulus
-aureus belonged to the emperors, and some
-of them were not very scrupulous in conferring
-this privilege. Augustus gave it to
-Mena, a freedman, and to Antonius Musa,
-a physician. The emperors Severus and
-Aurelian conferred the right of wearing
-golden rings upon all Roman soldiers; and
-Justinian at length allowed all the citizens of
-the empire, whether ingenui or libertini, to
-wear such rings. The ring of a Roman emperor
-was a kind of state seal, and the emperor
-sometimes allowed the use of it to such
-persons as he wished to be regarded as his
-representatives. During the republic and
-the early times of the empire the jus annuli
-seems to have made a person ingenuus (if he
-was a libertus), and to have raised him to
-the rank of eques, provided he had the requisite
-equestrian census, and it was probably
-never granted to any one who did not possess
-this census. Those who lost their property,
-or were found guilty of a criminal offence,
-lost the jus annuli. The principal value of
-a ring consisted in the gem set in it, or rather<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span>
-in the workmanship of the engraver. The
-stone most frequently used was the onyx
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαρδῶνος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαρδόνυξ</span>), on account of its various
-colours, of which the artist made the most
-skilful use. In the art of engraving upon
-gems the ancients far surpassed anything
-that modern times can boast of. The devices
-engraved upon rings were very various:
-they were portraits of ancestors or of friends,
-subjects connected with mythology; and in
-many cases a person had engraved upon his
-seal some symbolical allusion to the real or
-mythical history of his family. The bezel or
-part of the ring which contained the gem
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pala</i>. With the increasing love of
-luxury and show, the Romans, as well as the
-Greeks, covered their fingers with rings.
-Some persons also wore rings of immoderate
-size, and others used different rings for summer
-and winter. Much superstition appears
-to have been connected with rings, especially
-in the East and in Greece. Some persons
-made it a lucrative trade to sell rings which
-were believed to possess magic powers,
-and to preserve the wearers from external
-danger.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Annus">ANNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Anquisitio">ANQUĪSĪTĬO, signified, in criminal trials
-at Rome, the investigation of the facts of the
-case with reference to the penalty that was
-to be imposed: accordingly the phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecunia
-capitis</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capitis anquirere</i> are used.
-Under the emperors the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anquisitio</i> lost
-its original meaning, and was employed to
-indicate an accusation in general; in which
-sense it also occurs even in the times of the
-republic.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp78" id="ill026" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill026.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Temple in Antis. (Temple of Artemis at Eleusia.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Antae">ANTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραστάδες</span>), square pillars, which
-were commonly joined to the side-walls of a
-building, being placed on each side of the
-door, so as to assist in forming the portico.
-These terms are seldom found except in the
-plural; because the purpose served by antae
-required that they should be erected corresponding
-to each other and supporting the
-extremities of the same roof. The temple <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in
-antis</i> was one of the simplest kind. It had
-in front antae attached to the walls which
-inclosed the cella; and in the middle, between
-the antae, two columns supporting the
-architrave.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Anteambulones">ANTĔAMBŬLŌNES, slaves who were accustomed
-to go before their masters, in order
-to make way for them through the crowd.
-The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anteambulones</i> was also given to
-the clients, who were accustomed to walk
-before their patroni, when the latter appeared
-in public.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Antecessores">ANTĔCESSŌRES, called also ANTĔCURSŌRES,
-horse-soldiers, who were accustomed
-to precede an army on march, in order to
-choose a suitable place for the camp, and to
-make the necessary provisions for the army.
-They do not appear to have been merely
-scouts, like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">speculatores</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Antecoena">ANTĔCOENA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Antefixa">ANTĔFIXA, terra-cottas, which exhibited
-various ornamental designs, and were used
-in architecture to cover the frieze (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">zophorus</i>)
-of the entablature. These terra-cottas do not
-appear to have been used among the Greeks,
-but were probably Etruscan in their origin,
-and were thence taken for the decoration of
-Roman buildings. The name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">antefixa</i> is
-evidently derived from the circumstance that
-they were <em>fixed before</em> the buildings which
-they adorned. Cato, the censor, complained
-that the Romans of his time began to despise
-ornaments of this description, and to prefer
-the marble friezes of Athens and Corinth.
-The rising taste which Cato deplored may
-account for the superior beauty of the antefixa
-preserved in the British Museum, which
-were discovered at Rome.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Antenna">ANTENNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Antepilani">ANTĔPĪLĀNI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Antesignani">ANTĔSIGNĀNI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Anthesphoria">ANTHESPHŎRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνθεσφόρια</span>), a flower-festival,
-principally celebrated in Sicily, in
-honour of Demeter and Persephone, in commemoration
-of the return of Persephone to
-her mother in the beginning of spring.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Anthesteria">ANTHESTĒRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Antidosis">ANTĬDŎSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντίδοσις</span>), in its literal and
-general meaning, “an exchange,” was, in
-the language of the Attic courts, peculiarly
-applied to proceedings under a law which is
-said to have originated with Solon. By this,
-a citizen nominated to perform a leiturgia,
-such as a trierarchy or choregia, or to rank
-among the property-tax payers, in a class
-disproportioned to his means, was empowered<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span>
-to call upon any qualified person not so
-charged to take the office in his stead, or
-submit to a complete exchange of property,
-the charge in question of course attaching to
-the first party, if the exchange were finally
-effected. For the proceedings the courts were
-opened at a stated time every year by the
-magistrates that had official cognisance of the
-particular subject; such as the strategi in
-cases of trierarchy and rating to the property-taxes,
-and the archon in those of choregia.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Antigraphe">ANTĬGRĂPHE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντιγραφή</span>) originally signified
-the writing put in by the defendant,
-his “plea” in all causes whether public or
-private, in answer to the indictment or bill
-of the prosecutor. It is, however, also applied
-to the bill or indictment of the plaintiff
-or accuser.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Antlia">ĀNTLĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄντλια</span>), any machine for raising
-water, a pump. The most important of these
-machines were:&mdash;(1) The tympanum; a
-tread-wheel, worked by men treading on it.&mdash;(2)
-A wheel having wooden boxes or buckets,
-so arranged as to form steps for those who
-trod the wheel.&mdash;(3) The chain pump.&mdash;(4)
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cochlea</i>, or Archimedes’s screw.&mdash;(5) The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ctesibica machina</i>, or forcing-pump.&mdash;Criminals
-were condemned to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">antlia</i> or
-tread-mill. The antlia with which Martial
-(ix. 19) watered his garden, was probably the
-pole and bucket universally employed in
-Italy, Greece, and Egypt. The pole is curved,
-as shown in the annexed figure; because
-it is the stem of a fir or some other tapering
-tree.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill027a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill027a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Antlia.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Antyx">ANTYX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄντυξ</span>), the rim or border of any
-thing, especially of a shield or chariot. The
-rim of the large round shield of the ancient
-Greeks was thinner than the part which it
-enclosed; but on the other hand, the antyx
-of a chariot must have been thicker than the
-body to which it gave both form and strength.
-In front of the chariot the antyx was often
-raised above the body, into the form of a
-curvature, which served the purpose of a
-hook to hang the reins upon.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill027b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill027b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Antyx. (From an Etruscan tomb.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Apagoge">ĂPĂGŌGĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπαγωγή</span>), a summary process,
-allowed in certain cases by the Athenian law.
-The term denotes not merely the act of apprehending
-a culprit caught <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in ipso facto</i>, but
-also the written information delivered to the
-magistrate, urging his apprehension. The
-cases in which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apagoge</i> was most generally
-allowed were those of theft, murder,
-ill-usage of parents, &amp;c.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Apaturia">ĂPĂTŪRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπατούρια</span>) was a political
-festival, which the Athenians had in common
-with all the Greeks of the Ionian name, with
-the exception of those of Colophon and
-Ephesus. It was celebrated in the month of
-Pyanepsion, and lasted for three days. The
-name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπατούρια</span> is not derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπατᾶν</span>,
-to deceive, but is composed of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀ = ἅμα</span> and
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πατύρια</span>, which is perfectly consistent with
-what Xenophon says of the festival, that
-when it is celebrated the fathers and relations
-assemble together. According to this
-derivation, it is the festival at which the
-phratriae met to discuss and settle their own
-affairs. But, as every citizen was a member
-of a phratria, the festival extended over the
-whole nation, who assembled <em>according to
-phratriae</em>. The festival lasted three days.
-The third day was the most important; for
-on that day, children born in that year, in
-the families of the phratriae, or such as were
-not yet registered, were taken by their fathers,
-or in their absence by their representatives
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύριοι</span>), before the assembled
-members of the phratria. For every child a
-sheep or a goat was sacrificed. The father,
-or he who supplied his place, was obliged to
-establish by oath that the child was the offspring
-of free-born parents, and citizens of
-Athens. After the victim was sacrificed, the
-phratores gave their votes, which they took
-from the altar of Zeus Phratrius. When the
-majority voted against the reception, the
-cause might be tried before one of the courts
-of Athens; and if the claims of the child
-were found unobjectionable, its name, as well<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span>
-as that of the father, was entered into the
-register of the phratria, and those who had
-wished to effect the exclusion of the child
-were liable to be punished.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aperta">ĂPERTA NĀVIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Apex">ĂPEX, a cap worn by the flamines and
-salii at Rome. The essential part of the
-apex, to which alone the name properly belonged,
-was a pointed piece of olive-wood,
-the base of which was surrounded with a
-lock of wool. This was worn on the top of
-the head, and was held there either by fillets
-only, or, as was more commonly the case, by
-the aid of a cap which fitted the head, and
-was also fastened by means of two strings or
-bands. The albogalerus, a white cap made
-of the skin of a white victim sacrificed to
-Jupiter, and worn by the flamen dialis, had the
-apex fastened to it by means of an olive twig.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="ill028" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill028.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Apices, caps worn by the Salii. (From bas-reliefs and
-coins.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Aphlaston">APHLASTON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄφλαστον</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aphractus">ĂPHRACTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aphrodisia">ĂPHRŎDĪSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀφροδίσια</span>) were festivals
-celebrated in honour of Aphrodité, in a great
-number of towns in Greece, but particularly
-in the island of Cyprus. Her most ancient
-temple was at Paphos. No bloody sacrifices
-were allowed to be offered to her, but only
-pure fire, flowers, and incense.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aplustre">APLUSTRE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Apocleti">ĂPŎCLĒTI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποκλητοὶ</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aetolicum">Aetolicum Foedus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Apodectae">ĂPODECTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποδέκται</span>), public officers
-at Athens, who were introduced by Cleisthenes
-in the place of the ancient colacretae (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κωλακρέται</span>).
-They were ten in number, one for
-each tribe, and their duty was to collect all
-the ordinary taxes, and distribute them
-among the separate branches of the administration
-which were entitled to them.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Apographe">ĂPŎGRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπογραφή</span>), literally, “a
-list, or register;” signified also, (1) An accusation
-in public matters, more particularly
-when there were several defendants. It
-differed but little, if at all, from the ordinary
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">graphe</i>.&mdash;(2) A solemn protest or assertion
-in writing before a magistrate, to the intent
-that it might be preserved by him till it was
-required to be given in evidence.&mdash;(3) A
-specification of property, said to belong to
-the state, but actually in the possession of a
-private person; which specification was made
-with a view to the confiscation of such property
-to the state.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Apollinares">ĂPOLLĬNĀRES LŪDI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ludi">Ludi Apollinares</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Apollonia">ĂPOLLŌNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπολλώνια</span>), the name of a
-propitiatory festival solemnized at Sicyon, in
-honour of Apollo and Artemis.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Apophoreta">ĂPŎPHŎRĒTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποφόρητα</span>) were presents,
-which were given to friends at the end of an
-entertainment to take home with them.
-These presents appear to have been usually
-given on festival days, especially during the
-Saturnalia.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aporrheta">ĂPORRHĒTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπόῤῥητα</span>), literally “things
-forbidden,” has two peculiar, but widely different,
-acceptations in the Attic dialect. In
-one of these it implies contraband goods; in
-the other, it denotes certain contumelious
-epithets, from the application of which both
-the living and the dead were protected by
-special laws.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Apostoleus">ĂPŎSTŎLEUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποστολεύς</span>), the name of a
-public officer at Athens. There were ten
-magistrates of this name, and their duty was
-to see that the ships were properly equipped
-and provided by those who were bound to
-discharge the trierarchy. They had the
-power, in certain cases, of imprisoning the
-trierarchs who neglected to furnish the ships
-properly.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Apotheca">ĂPŎTHĒCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποθήκη</span>), a place in the
-upper part of the house, in which the Romans
-frequently placed the earthen amphorae
-in which their wines were deposited. This
-place, which was quite different from the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella vinaria</i>, was above the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fumarium</i>; since
-it was thought that the passage of the smoke
-through the room tended greatly to increase
-the flavour of the wine. The position of the
-apotheca explains the expression in Horace
-(<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Carm.</cite> ii. 21, 7), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Descende</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testa</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Apotheosis">ĂPŎTHĔŌSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποθέωσις</span>), the enrolment
-of a mortal among the gods. The mythology
-of Greece contains numerous instances of the
-deification of mortals; but in the republican
-times of Greece we find few examples of such
-deification. The inhabitants of Amphipolis,
-however, offered sacrifices to Brasidas after
-his death. In the Greek kingdoms, which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span>
-arose in the East on the dismemberment of
-the empire of Alexander, it appears to have
-been not uncommon for the successor to the
-throne to offer divine honours to the former
-sovereign. Such an apotheosis of Ptolemy,
-king of Egypt, is described by Theocritus in
-his 17th Idyl. The term apotheosis, among
-the Romans, properly signified the elevation
-of a deceased emperor to divine honours.
-This practice, which was common upon the
-death of almost all the emperors, appears to
-have arisen from the opinion which was
-generally entertained among the Romans,
-that the souls or manes of their ancestors
-became deities; and as it was common for
-children to worship the manes of their
-fathers, so it was natural for divine honours
-to be publicly paid to a deceased emperor,
-who was regarded as the parent of his
-country. This apotheosis of an emperor was
-usually called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consecratio</i>; and the emperor
-who received the honour of an apotheosis
-was usually said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in deorum numerum referri</i>,
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consecrari</i>, and whenever he is spoken of
-after his death, the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">divus</i> is prefixed
-to his name. The funeral pile on which the
-body of the deceased emperor was burnt, was
-constructed of several stories in the form of
-chambers rising one above another, and in
-the highest an eagle was placed, which was
-let loose as the fire began to burn, and which
-was supposed to carry the soul of the emperor
-from earth to heaven.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Apparitor">APPĀRĬTOR, the general name for a
-public servant of the magistrates at Rome,
-namely, the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Accensus">Accensus</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Carnifex">Carnifex</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Coactor">Coactor</a></span>,
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Interpres">Interpres</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Lictor">Lictor</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Praecones">Praeco</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Scribae">Scriba</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Stator">Stator</a></span>,
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Viator">Viator</a></span>, of whom an account is given in
-separate articles. They were called apparitores
-because they were at hand to execute
-the commands of the magistrates (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quod iis
-apparebant</i>). Their service or attendance
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apparitio</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Appellatio">APPELLĀTĬO, appeal.&mdash;(1) <span class="smcap">Greek</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφεσις</span>
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀναδικία</span>.) Owing to the constitution of
-the Athenian tribunals, each of which was
-generally appropriated to its peculiar subjects
-of cognisance, and therefore could not
-be considered as homogeneous with or subordinate
-to any other, there was little opportunity
-for bringing appeals properly so called.
-It is to be observed also, that in general a
-cause was finally and irrevocably decided by
-the verdict of the dicasts (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη αὐτοτελής</span>).
-There were only a few exceptions in which
-appeals and new trials might be resorted to.&mdash;(2)
-<span class="smcap">Roman.</span> The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">appellatio</i>, and the
-corresponding verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">appellare</i>, are used in the
-early Roman writers to express the application
-of an individual to a magistrate, and
-particularly to a tribune, in order to protect
-himself from some wrong inflicted, or threatened
-to be inflicted. It is distinguished from
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocatio</i>, which in the early writers is used
-to signify an appeal to the populus in a
-matter affecting life. It would seem that the
-provocatio was an ancient right of the Roman
-citizens. The surviving Horatius, who murdered
-his sister, appealed from the duumviri
-to the populus. The decemviri took away
-the provocatio; but it was restored by the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Valeria et Horatia</i>, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449, in the year
-after the decemvirate, and it was at the same
-time enacted, that in future no magistrate
-should be made from whom there should be
-no appeal. On this Livy remarks, that the
-plebs were now protected by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocatio</i>
-and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribunicium auxilium</i>; this latter
-term has reference to the appellatio properly
-so called. The complete phrase to express
-the provocatio is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocare ad populum</i>; and
-the phrase which expresses the appellatio is
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">appellare ad</i>, &amp;c.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Apsis">APSIS or ABSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁψίς</span>), in architecture,
-signified first, any building or portion of a
-building of a circular form or vaulted, and
-more especially the circular and vaulted end
-of a Basilica.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aquae">ĂQUAE DUCTUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑδραγωγία</span>), literally, a
-water-conduit, but the word is used especially
-for the magnificent structures by means of
-which Rome and other cities of the Roman
-empire were supplied with water. A Roman
-aqueduct, often called simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aqua</i>, may be
-described in general terms as a channel, constructed
-as nearly as possible with a regular
-declivity from the source whence the water
-was derived to the place where it was delivered,
-carried through hills by means of
-tunnels, and over valleys upon a substruction
-of solid masonry or arches. The aqueduct is
-mentioned by Strabo as among the structures
-which were neglected by the Greeks, and
-first brought into use by the Romans.
-Springs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρῆναι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρουνοί</span>) were sufficiently
-abundant in Greece to supply the great cities
-with water; and they were frequently converted
-into public fountains by the formation
-of a head for their waters, and the erection
-of an ornamental superstructure. Of this
-we have an example in the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Enneacrunos</i> at
-Athens, which was constructed by Peisistratus
-and his sons. The Romans were in a very
-different position, with respect to the supply
-of water, from most of the Greek cities.
-They, at first, had recourse to the Tiber, and
-to wells sunk in the city; but the water
-obtained from those sources was very unwholesome,
-and must soon have proved insufficient,
-from the growth of the population.
-It was this necessity that led to the invention
-of aqueducts, in order to bring pure water<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span>
-from the hills which surround the Campagna.
-The number of aqueducts was gradually increased,
-partly at the public expense, and
-partly by the munificence of individuals, till,
-in the fourth century of the Christian era,
-they amounted to fourteen. Of these only
-four belong to the time of the republic, while
-five were built in the reigns of Augustus and
-Claudius.&mdash;1. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Appia</i>, begun by the
-censor Appius Claudius Caecus in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 313.
-Its sources were near the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Praenestina</i>,
-between the seventh and eighth mile-stones.&mdash;2.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anio Vetus</i> was commenced forty years
-later, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 273, by the censor M. Curius Dentatus,
-and was finished by M. Fulvius Flaccus.
-The water was derived from the river Anio,
-above Tibur, at a distance of 20 Roman miles
-from the city; but, on account of its windings,
-its actual length was 43 miles.&mdash;3. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Marcia</i>, one of the most important of
-the whole, was built by the praetor Q. Marcius
-Rex, by command of the senate, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-144. It commenced at the side of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via
-Valeria</i>, 36 miles from Rome.&mdash;4. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua
-Tepula</i>, built by the censors Cn. Servilius
-Caepio and L. Cassius Longinus in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 127,
-began at a spot in the Lucullan or Tusculan
-land, two miles to the right of the tenth
-milestone on the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Latina</i>. It was afterwards
-connected with.&mdash;5. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Julia</i>,
-built by Agrippa in his aedileship, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 33.
-It was conducted from a source two miles to
-the right of the twelfth milestone on the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via
-Latina</i>, first to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Tepula</i>, in which
-it was merged as far as the reservoir (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">piscina</i>)
-on the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Latina</i>, seven miles from
-Rome. From this reservoir the water was
-carried along two distinct channels, on the
-same substructions; the lower channel being
-called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Tepula</i>, and the upper the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Julia</i>; and this double aqueduct again
-was united with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Marcia</i>, over the
-watercourse of which the other two were
-carried.&mdash;6. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Virgo</i>, built by Agrippa,
-to supply his baths. From a source in a
-marshy spot by the 8th milestone on the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Collatina</i>, it was conducted by a very
-circuitous route.&mdash;7. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Alsietina</i>
-(sometimes called also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Augusta</i>), on the
-other side of the Tiber, was constructed by
-Augustus from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lacus Alsietinus</i> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lago di
-Martignano</i>), which lay 6500 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">passus</i> to the
-right of the 14th milestone on the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via
-Claudia</i>.&mdash;8, 9. The two most magnificent
-aqueducts were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Claudia</i> and the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anio Novus</i> (or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Aniena Nova</i>), both
-commenced by Caligula in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 36, and
-finished by Claudius in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 50. The water
-of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Claudia</i> was derived from two
-copious and excellent springs, near the 38th
-milestone on the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Sublacensis</i>. Its length
-was nearly 46½ miles. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anio Novus</i> began
-at the 42nd milestone. It was the longest
-and the highest of all the aqueducts, its
-length being nearly 59 miles, and some of its
-arches 109 feet high. In the neighbourhood
-of the city these two aqueducts were united,
-forming two channels on the same arches, the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Claudia</i> below and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anio Novus</i> above.
-These nine aqueducts were all that existed in
-the time of Frontinus, who was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curator</i>
-of the aqueducts in the reigns of Nerva and
-Trajan. There was also another aqueduct,
-not reckoned with the nine, because its waters
-were no longer brought all the way to Rome,
-viz.: 10. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Crabra</i>.&mdash;The following
-were of later construction. 11. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua
-Trajana</i>, brought by Trajan from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lacus
-Sabatinus</i> (now <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bracciano</i>).&mdash;12. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua
-Alexandrina</i>, constructed by Alexander Severus;
-its source was in the lands of Tusculum,
-about 14 miles from Rome.&mdash;13. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Septimiana</i>, built by Septimius Severus,
-was perhaps only a branch of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Julia</i>.&mdash;14.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Algentia</i> had its source at
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">M. Algidus</i> by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Tusculana</i>. Its builder
-is unknown.&mdash;Great pains were taken by
-successive emperors to preserve and repair
-the aqueducts. From the Gothic wars downwards,
-they have for the most part shared
-the fate of the other great Roman works of
-architecture; their situation and purpose
-rendering them peculiarly exposed to injury
-in war; but still their remains form the most
-striking features of the Campagna, over which
-their lines of ruined arches, clothed with ivy
-and the wild fig-tree, radiate in various directions.</p>
-
-<div class="figright illowp22" id="ill030" style="max-width: 6.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill030.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Triple Aqueduct.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Canalis">Three of them still serve for their
-ancient use. They are&mdash;(1.) The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acqua
-Vergine</i>, the ancient <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua
-Virgo</i>. (2.) The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acqua Felice</i>,
-named after the conventual
-name of its restorer Sixtus V.
-(Fra Felice), is, probably, a
-part of the ancient <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua
-Claudia</i>, though some take it
-for the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alexandrina</i>. (3.) The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acqua Paola</i>, the ancient
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alsietina</i>.&mdash;The following
-woodcut represents a restored
-section of the triple aqueduct
-of Agrippa:&mdash;<em>a.</em> the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua
-Marcia</i>; <em>b.</em> the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Tepula</i>;
-<em>c.</em> the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Julia</i>. The two
-latter are of brick and vaulted
-over. The air-vents are also
-shown.&mdash;The channel of an
-aqueduct (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">specus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">canalis</i>)
-was a trough of brick or
-stone, lined with cement, and
-covered with a coping, which
-was almost always arched;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span>
-and the water either ran directly through this
-trough, or it was carried through pipes laid
-along the trough. These pipes were of lead,
-or terra-cotta (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fictiles</i>), and sometimes, for the
-sake of economy, of leather. At convenient
-points on the course of the aqueduct, and
-especially near the middle and end, there was
-generally a reservoir (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">piscina</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">piscina limosa</i>)
-in which the water might deposit any sediment
-that it contained. The water was received,
-when it reached the walls of the city,
-in a vast reservoir called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castellum</i>, which
-formed the <em>head of water</em> and also served the
-purpose of a <em>meter</em>. From this principal
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castellum</i> the water flowed into other <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castella</i>,
-whence it was distributed for public and
-private use. The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castellum</i> is sometimes
-also applied to the intermediate reservoirs
-already mentioned. During the republic,
-the censors and aediles had the superintendence
-of the aqueducts. Augustus first
-established <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curatores</i> (or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefecti</i>) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquarum</i>,
-who were invested with considerable authority.
-They were attended outside the city
-by two lictors, three public slaves, a secretary,
-and other attendants. In the time of Nerva
-and Trajan, 460 slaves were constantly employed
-under the orders of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curatores
-aquarum</i> in attending to the aqueducts. They
-consisted of:&mdash;1. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">villici</i>, whose duty it
-was to attend to the pipes and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calices</i>. 2. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castellarii</i>, who had the superintendence of
-all the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castella</i>, both within and without the
-city. 3. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">circuitores</i>, so called because
-they had to go from post to post, to examine
-into the state of the works, and also to keep
-watch over the labourers employed upon
-them. 4. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silicarii</i>, or paviours. 5. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tectores</i>, or masons. These and other workmen
-appear to have been included under the
-general term of <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aquarii">Aquarii</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aquae_i">ĂQUAE ET IGNIS INTERDICTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aquarii">ĂQUĀRĬI, slaves who carried water for
-bathing, &amp;c., into the female apartments.
-The aquarii were also public officers who
-attended to the aqueducts. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aquae">Aquae Ductus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aquila">ĂQUĬLA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Signa">Signa Militaria</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill031a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill031a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Arae, Altars.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Ara">ĀRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βωμός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυτήριον</span>), an altar. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ara</i> was
-a general term denoting any structure elevated
-above the ground, and used to receive
-upon it offerings made to the gods. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Altare</i>,
-probably contracted from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alta ara</i>, was properly
-restricted to the larger, higher, and
-more expensive structures. Four specimens
-of ancient altars are given below; the two in
-the former woodcut are square, and those in
-the latter round, which is the less common
-form. At the top of three of the above altars
-we see the hole intended to receive the fire
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐσχαρίς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐσχάρα</span>): the fourth was probably
-intended for the offering of fruits or other
-gifts, which were presented to the gods without
-fire. When the altars were prepared for
-sacrifice, they were commonly decorated with
-garlands or festoons. These were composed
-of certain kinds of leaves and flowers, which
-were considered consecrated to such uses,
-and were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">verbenae</i>. The altars constructed
-with most labour and skill belonged
-to temples; and they were erected either
-before the temple or within the cella of the
-temple, and principally before the statue of
-the divinity to whom it was dedicated. The
-altars in the area before the temple were
-altars of burnt-offerings, at which animal
-sacrifices (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">victimae</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφάγια</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερεῖα</span>) were presented:
-only incense was burnt, or cakes and
-bloodless sacrifices offered on the altars within
-the building.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill031b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill031b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Arae, Altars.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Aratrum">ĂRĀTRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄροτρον</span>), a plough. Among
-the Greeks and Romans the three most essential
-parts of the plough were,&mdash;the plough-tail
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γύης</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buris</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bura</i>), the share-beam
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔλυμα</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dens</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dentale</i>), that is, the piece of
-wood to which the share is fixed, and the pole
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥυμός</span>], <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστοβοεύς</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">temo</i>). In the time and
-country of Virgil it was the custom to force a
-tree into the crooked form of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buris</i>, or
-plough-tail. The upper end of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buris</i> being
-held by the ploughman, the lower part,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span>
-below its junction with the pole, was used to
-hold the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dentale</i> or share-beam, which was
-either sheathed with metal, or driven bare
-into the ground, according to circumstances.
-The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vomer</i> was sometimes applied to the
-end of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dentale</i>. To these three parts, the
-two following are added in the description of
-the plough by Virgil:&mdash;1. The <em>earth-boards</em>,
-or <em>mould-boards</em> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aures</i>), rising on each side,
-bending outwardly in such a manner as to
-throw on either hand the soil which had been
-previously loosened and raised by the share,
-and adjusted to the share-beam (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dentale</i>),
-which was made double for the purpose of
-receiving them. 2. The <em>handle</em> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stiva</i>). Virgil
-describes this part as used to turn the
-plough at the end of the furrow; and it is
-defined by an ancient commentator on Virgil
-as the “handle by which the plough is directed.”
-It is probable that as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dentalia</i>,
-the two share-beams, were in the form of
-the Greek letter Λ, which Virgil describes by
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duplici dorso</i>, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buris</i> was fastened to the
-left share-beam and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stiva</i> to the right, so
-that the plough of Virgil was more like the
-modern Lancashire plough, which is commonly
-held behind with both hands. Sometimes,
-however, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stiva</i> was used alone and
-instead of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buris</i> or tail. In place of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stiva</i>
-the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capulus</i> is sometimes employed. The
-only other part of the plough requiring notice
-is the coulter (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">culter</i>), which was used by the
-Romans as it is with us. It was inserted
-into the pole so as to depend vertically before
-the share, cutting through the roots which
-came in its way, and thus preparing for the
-more complete overturning of the soil by the
-share. Two small wheels were also added
-to some ploughs. The plough, as described
-by Virgil, corresponds in all essential particulars
-with the plough now used about Mantua
-and Venice. The Greeks and Romans
-usually ploughed their land three times for
-each crop. The first ploughing was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proscindere</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">novare</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεοῦσθαι, νεάζεσθαι</span>);
-the second <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">offringere</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">iterare</i>; and the
-third, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lirare</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tertiare</i>. The field which
-underwent the “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">proscissio</span>” was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vervactum</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">novale</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεός</span>), and in this process
-the coulter was employed, because the fresh
-surface was entangled with numberless roots
-which required to be divided before the soil
-could be turned up by the share. The term
-“<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">offringere</i>” from <em>ob</em> and <em>frangere</em>, was applied
-to the second ploughing; because the
-long parallel clods already turned up were
-broken and cut across, by drawing the plough
-through them at right angles to its former
-direction. The field which underwent this
-process was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ager iteratus</i>. After the
-second ploughing the sower cast his seed.
-Also the clods were often, though not always,
-broken still further by a wooden mallet, or
-by harrowing (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">occatio</i>). The Roman ploughman
-then, for the first time, attached the earth-boards
-to his share. The effect of this adjustment
-was to divide the level surface of
-the “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ager <em>iteratus</em></span>” into ridges. These were
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porcae</i>, and also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lirae</i>, whence came
-the verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lirare</i>, to make ridges, and also
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">delirare</i>, to decline from the straight line.
-The earth-boards, by throwing the earth to
-each side in the manner already explained,
-both covered the newly-scattered seed, and
-formed between the ridges furrows (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὔλακες</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sulci</i>) for carrying off the water. In this
-state the field was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">seges</i> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίπολος</span>.
-When the ancients ploughed three times only,
-it was done in the spring, summer, and autumn
-of the same year. But in order to obtain
-a still heavier crop, both the Greeks and
-the Romans ploughed four times, the proscissio
-being performed in the latter part of the
-preceding year, so that between one crop and
-another two whole years intervened.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill032" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill032.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Aratrum, Plough (now used at Mantua).<br />
-<p>1. Buris. &nbsp;
-<span class="pad3">2. Temo.&nbsp;</span>
-<span class="pad3">3. Dentale.</span></p>
-<p>4. Culter.
-<span class="pad3">5. Vomer.</span>
-<span class="pad3">6 6. Aures.</span><br />
-</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Arbiter">ARBĬTER. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p id="Arca">ARCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κιβωτός</span>). (1) A chest, in which
-the Romans were accustomed to place their
-money; and the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex arca solvere</i> had the
-meaning of paying in ready money. The
-term arcae was usually applied to the chests
-in which the rich kept their money, and was
-opposed to the smaller <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">loculi</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacculus</i>, and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crumena</i>.&mdash;(2) The coffin in which persons<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span>
-were buried, or the bier on which the corpse
-was placed previously to burial.&mdash;(3) A strong
-cell made of oak, in which criminals and
-slaves were confined.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Arcera">ARCĔRA, a covered carriage or litter,
-spread with cloths, which was used in ancient
-times in Rome, to carry the aged and infirm.
-It is said to have obtained the name of arcera
-on account of its resemblance to an arca, or
-chest.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill033" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill033.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Arcera. (Ginzrot, Wagen, Tav. 19, fig. 2.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Archeion">ARCHEION (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχεῖον</span>) properly means any
-public place belonging to the magistrates, but
-is more particularly applied to the archive
-office, where the decrees of the people and
-other state documents were preserved. This
-office is sometimes merely called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ δημοσίον</span>.
-At Athens the archives were kept in the temple
-of the mother of the gods (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μήτρῳον</span>), and the
-charge of it was entrusted to the president
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστάτης</span>) of the senate of the Five-hundred.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Archiater">ARCHĬĀTER (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχίατρος</span>), a medical title
-under the Roman emperors, the exact signification
-of which has been the subject of much
-discussion, but which most probably means
-“the chief of the physicians.” The first
-person whom we find bearing this title is
-Andromachus, physician to Nero. In after
-times the order appears to have been divided,
-and we find two distinct classes of archiatri,
-viz., those of the palace and those of the
-people.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Archimimus">ARCHĬMĪMUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mimus">Mimus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Architectura">ARCHĬTECTŪRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc"><ins class="corr" id="tn-33" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'ἀρχιτεκτονια'">
-ἀρχιτεκτονία</ins></span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχιτεκτονική</span>),
-architecture. The necessity for a
-habitation, and the attempt to adorn those
-habitations which were intended for the gods,
-are the two causes from which the art derives
-its existence. In early times little
-attention was paid to domestic architecture.
-The resources of the art were lavished upon
-the temples of the gods; and hence the
-greater part of the history of Grecian architecture
-is inseparably connected with that of
-the temple, and has its proper place under
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a></span>, and the subordinate headings,
-such as <span class="smcap"><a href="#Columna">Columna</a></span>, &amp;c. But, though the first
-rise of architecture, as a fine art, is connected
-with the temple, yet, viewed as the science
-of construction, it must have been employed,
-even earlier, for other purposes, such as the
-erection of fortifications, palaces, treasuries,
-and other works of utility. Accordingly, it
-is the general opinion of antiquaries, that the
-very earliest edifices, of which we have any
-remains, are the so-called Cyclopean works,
-in which we see huge unsquared blocks of
-stone built together in the best way that
-their shapes would allow. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Murus">Murus</a>.</span>] In addition
-to these, however, there are other
-purposes for which architecture, still using
-the term in its lower sense, would be required
-in a very early stage of political society;
-such as the general arrangement of cities,
-the provision of a place for the transaction of
-public business, with the necessary edifices
-appertaining to it [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Agora">Agora</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Forum">Forum</a></span>], and the
-whole class of works which we embrace under
-the head of civil engineering, such as those
-for drainage [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cloaca">Cloaca</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Emissarium">Emissarius</a></span>], for communication
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Via">Via</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pons">Pons</a></span>], and for the supply
-of water [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aquae">Aquae ductus</a></span>]. Almost equally
-necessary are places devoted to public exercise,
-health, and amusement, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Gymnasium">Gymnasium</a></span>,
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Stadium">Stadium</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Hippodromus">Hippodromus</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a></span>,
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a></span>. Lastly, the
-skill of the architect has been from the
-earliest times employed to preserve the memory
-of departed men and past events; and
-hence we have the various works of monumental
-and triumphal architecture, which are
-described under the heads <span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Arcus">Arcus</a></span>,
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Columna">Columna</a></span>. The history of architecture may
-be divided into five periods. The first, which
-is chiefly mythical, comes down to the time
-of Cypselus, Ol. 30, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 660: the second
-period comes down to the termination of the
-Persian war, Ol. 75. 2, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 478: the third is
-the brilliant period from the end of the Persian
-war to the death of Alexander the Great,
-Ol. 114, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 323: the fourth period extends
-to the battle of Actium, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 31: the fifth
-period embraces the architecture of the Roman
-empire till it became mingled with the
-Gothic. Strongly fortified cities, palaces, and
-treasuries are the chief works of the earlier
-part of the first period; and to it may be
-referred most of the so-called Cyclopean remains;
-while the era of the Dorian invasion
-marks, in all probability, the commencement
-of the Dorian style of temple architecture.
-In the second period the art made rapid advances
-under the powerful patronage of the
-aristocracies in some cities, as at Sparta, and
-of the tyrants in others, as Cypselus at
-Corinth, Theagnes at Megara, Cleisthenes at
-Sicyon, the Peisistratids at Athens, and Polycrates
-at Samos. Architecture now assumed
-decidedly the character of a fine art, and
-became associated with the sister arts of
-sculpture and painting, which are essential<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span>
-to its development. Magnificent temples
-sprung up in all the principal Greek cities;
-and while the Doric order was brought almost,
-if not quite, to perfection, in Greece
-Proper, in the Doric colonies of Asia Minor,
-and in Central Italy and Sicily, the Ionic
-order appeared, already perfect at its first
-invention, in the great temple of Artemis at
-Ephesus. The ruins still existing at Paestum,
-Syracuse, Agrigentum, Selinus, Aegina, and
-other places, are imperishable monuments of
-this period. To it also belong the great works
-of the Roman kings. The commencement of
-the third and most brilliant period of the art
-was signalized by the rebuilding of Athens,
-the establishment of regular principles for
-the laying out of cities by Hippodamus of
-Miletus, and the great works of the age of
-Pericles, by the contemporaries of Phidias, at
-Athens, Eleusis, and Olympia. The first part
-of the fourth period saw the extension of the
-Greek architecture over the countries conquered
-by Alexander, and, in the West, the
-commencement of the new style, which arose
-from the imitation, with some alterations, of
-the Greek forms by Roman architects, to
-which the conquest of Greece gave, of course,
-a new impulse. By the time of Augustus,
-Rome was adorned with every kind of public
-and private edifice, surrounded by villas, and
-furnished with roads and aqueducts; and
-these various erections were adorned by the
-forms of Grecian art; but already Vitruvius
-begins to complain that the purity of that art
-is corrupted by the intermixture of heterogeneous
-forms. This process of deterioration
-went on rapidly during the fifth period,
-though combined at first with increasing
-magnificence in the scale and number of the
-buildings erected. The early part of this
-period is made illustrious by the numerous
-works of Augustus and his successors, especially
-the Flavii, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian,
-and the Antonines, at Rome and in the provinces;
-but from the time of the Antonines
-the decline of the art was rapid and decided.
-In one department a new impulse was given
-to architecture by the rise of Christian
-churches, which were generally built on the
-model of the Roman Basilica. One of the
-most splendid specimens of Christian architecture
-is the church of S. Sophia at Constantinople,
-built in the reign of Justinian, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>
-537, and restored, after its partial destruction
-by an earthquake, in 554. But, long before
-this time, the Greco-Roman style had become
-thoroughly corrupted, and that new style,
-which is called the Byzantine, had arisen out
-of the mixture of Roman architecture with
-ideas derived from the Northern nations.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Architheorus">ARCHITHĔŌRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχιθέωρος</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Delia">Delia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Archon">ARCHON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων</span>). The government of
-Athens began with monarchy, and, after passing
-through a dynasty<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and aristocracy, ended
-in democracy. Of the kings of Athens, considered
-as the capital of Attica, Theseus may
-be said to have been the first; for to him,
-whether as a real individual or a representative
-of a certain period, is attributed the
-union of the different and independent states
-of Attica under one head. The last was
-Codrus; in acknowledgment of whose patriotism
-in meeting death for his country,
-the Athenians are said to have determined
-that no one should succeed him with the
-title of king (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλεύς</span>). It seems, however,
-equally probable that it was the nobles who
-availed themselves of the opportunity to
-serve their own interests, by abolishing the
-kingly power for another, the possessors of
-which they called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Archontes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχοντες</span>) or
-rulers. These for some time continued to be
-like the kings of the house of Codrus, appointed
-for life: still an important point was
-gained by the nobles, the office being made
-accountable (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπεύθυνος</span>), which of course implies
-that the nobility had some control over
-it. This state of things lasted for twelve
-reigns of archons. The next step was to
-limit the continuance of the office to ten
-years, still confining it to the Medontidae, or
-house of Codrus, so as to establish what the
-Greeks called a dynasty, till the archonship
-of Eryxias, the last archon of that family
-elected as such. At the end of his ten years
-(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 684), a much greater change took place:
-the archonship was made annual, and its
-various duties divided among a college of
-nine, chosen by suffrage (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>) from the
-Eupatridae, or Patricians, and no longer
-elected from the Medontidae exclusively. This
-arrangement lasted till the time of Solon, who
-still continued the election by suffrage, but
-made the qualification for office depend, not
-on birth, but property. The election by lot
-is believed to have been introduced by Cleisthenes
-(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 508). The last change is supposed
-to have been made by Aristides, who
-after the battle of Plataeae (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 479) abolished
-the property qualification, throwing
-open the archonship and other magistracies
-to all the citizens; that is, to the Thetes, as
-well as the other classes, the former of whom
-were not allowed by Solon’s laws to hold any
-magistracy at all. Still, after the removal of
-the old restrictions, some security was left to
-insure respectability; for, previously to an
-archon entering on office, he underwent an
-examination, called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anacrisis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάκρισις</span>),
-as to his being a legitimate and a good citizen,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span>
-a good son, and qualified in point of property,
-but the latter limitation was either done away
-with by Aristides, or soon became obsolete.
-Yet, even after passing a satisfactory <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anacrisis</i>,
-each of the archons, in common with
-other magistrates, was liable to be deposed on
-complaint of misconduct made before the
-people, at the first regular assembly in each
-prytany. On such an occasion the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epicheirotonia</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιχειροτονία</span>), as it was called, took
-place: and we read that in one case the whole
-college of archons was deprived of office
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποχειροτονεῖσθαι</span>). In consequence of the
-democratical tendency of the assembly and
-courts of justice established by Solon, the
-archons lost the great political power which
-they at one time possessed. They became, in
-fact, not as of old directors of the government,
-but merely municipal magistrates, exercising
-functions and bearing titles described below.
-It has been already stated, that the duties of
-the single archon were shared by a college of
-nine. The first, or president of this body,
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Archon</i>, by way of pre-eminence,
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Archon Eponymus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων ἐπώνυμος</span>), from
-the year being distinguished by and registered
-in his name. The second was styled
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Archon Basileus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων βασιλεύς</span>), or the
-King Archon; the third <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Polemarchus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πολέμαρχος</span>),
-or commander-in-chief; the remaining
-six, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thesmothetae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεσμοθέται</span>), or legislators.
-As regards the duties of the archons,
-it is sometimes difficult to distinguish what
-belonged to them individually, and what collectively.
-It seems that a considerable portion
-of the judicial functions of the ancient
-kings devolved upon the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Archon Eponymus</i>,
-who was also constituted a sort of state protector
-of those who were unable to defend
-themselves. Thus he was to superintend
-orphans, heiresses, families losing their representatives,
-widows left pregnant, and to see
-that they were not wronged in any way.
-This archon had also the superintendence
-of the greater Dionysia, and the Thargelia.
-The functions of the <em>King Archon</em> were almost
-all connected with religion; his distinguishing
-title shows that he was considered a representative
-of the old kings in their capacity of
-high priest, as the Rex Sacrificulus was at
-Rome. Thus he presided at the Lenaea, or
-older Dionysia; superintended the mysteries
-and the games called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lampadephoriae</i>, and
-had to offer up sacrifices and prayers in the
-Eleusinium, both at Athens and Eleusis.
-Moreover, indictments for impiety, and controversies
-about the priesthood, were laid before
-him; and, in cases of murder, he brought
-the trial into the court of the areiopagus, and
-voted with its members. His wife, also, who
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Basilissa</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασίλισσα</span>), had to offer
-certain sacrifices, and therefore it was required
-that she should be a citizen of pure
-blood, without stain or blemish. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Polemarch</i>
-was originally, as his name denotes,
-the commander-in-chief, and we find him
-discharging military duties as late as the
-battle of Marathon, in conjunction with the
-ten <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Strategi</i>; he there took, like the kings of
-old, the command of the right wing of the
-army. This, however, seems to be the last
-occasion on record of this magistrate appointed
-by lot being invested with such important
-functions; and in after ages we find
-that his duties ceased to be military, having
-been, in a great measure, transferred to the
-protection and superintendence of the resident
-aliens, so that he resembled in many respects
-the praetor peregrinus at Rome. Thus, all
-actions affecting aliens, the isoteles and
-proxeni were brought before him previously
-to trial. Moreover, it was the polemarch’s
-duty to offer the yearly sacrifice to Artemis,
-in commemoration of the vow made by Callimachus,
-at Marathon, and to arrange the
-funeral games in honour of those who fell in
-war. The six <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thesmothetae</i> were extensively
-connected with the administration of justice,
-and appear to have been called legislators,
-because, in the absence of a written code,
-they might be said to make laws, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">thesmi</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεσμοί</span>), in the ancient language of Athens,
-though in reality they only explained them.
-They were required to review, every year,
-the whole body of laws, that they might
-detect any inconsistencies or superfluities,
-and discover whether any laws which were
-abrogated were in the public records amongst
-the rest. Their report was submitted to the
-people, who referred the necessary alterations
-to a legislative committee chosen for the purpose,
-and called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nomothetae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νομοθέται</span>). The
-chief part of the duties of the thesmothetae
-consisted in receiving informations, and bringing
-cases to trial in the courts of law, of the
-days of sitting in which they gave public
-notice. They did not try them themselves,
-but seem to have constituted a sort of grand
-jury, or inquest. The trial itself took place
-before the Dicastae. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dicastes">Dicastae</a>.</span>] It is necessary
-to be cautious in our interpretation of
-the words <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχή</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχοντες</span>, since they have
-a double meaning in the Attic orators, sometimes
-referring to the archons peculiarly so
-called, and sometimes to any other magistracy.
-The archons had various privileges and honours.
-The greatest of the former was the
-exemption from the trierarchies&mdash;a boon not
-allowed even to the successors of Harmodius
-and Aristogeiton. As a mark of their office,
-they wore a chaplet or crown of myrtle; and
-if any one struck or abused one of the archons,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span>
-when wearing this badge of office, he became
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄτιμος</span>), or infamous in the fullest
-extent, thereby losing his civic rights. The
-archons, at the close of their year of service,
-were admitted among the members of the
-areiopagus. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Areiopagus">Areiopagus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> By this is meant that the supreme power, though not
-monarchical, was confined to one family.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill036a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill036a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Arch of Tiryns. (Gell’s Itinerary, pl. 16.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Arcus">ARCUS (also fornix), an arch. A true
-arch is formed of a series of wedge-like
-stones, or of bricks, supporting each other,
-and all bound firmly together by their mutual
-pressure. It would seem that the arch, as
-thus defined, and as used by the Romans,
-was not known to the Greeks in the early
-periods of their history. But they made use
-of a contrivance, even in the heroic age, by
-which they were enabled to gain all the
-advantages of our archway in making corridors,
-or hollow galleries, and which in appearance
-resembled the pointed arch, such as
-is now termed Gothic. This was effected by
-cutting away the superincumbent stones in
-the manner already described, at an angle of
-about 45° with the horizon. The mode of
-construction and appearance of such arches
-is represented in the annexed drawing of the
-walls of Tiryns. The gate of Signia (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Segni</i>)
-in Latium exhibits a similar example. The
-principle of the true arch seems to have been
-known to the Romans from the earliest period;
-it is used in the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cloaca Maxima</i>. It is most
-probably an Etruscan invention. The use of
-it constitutes one leading distinction between
-Greek and Roman architecture, for by its
-application the Romans were enabled to execute
-works of far bolder construction than
-those of the Greeks. The Romans, however,
-never used any other form of arch than the
-semicircle. <span id="Arcu_t">The arcus triumphalis</span>, triumphal
-arch, was a structure peculiar to the Romans,
-erected in honour of an individual, or in
-commemoration of a conquest. Triumphal
-arches were built across the principal streets
-of Rome, and, according to the space of their
-respective localities, consisted of a single
-archway, or a central one for carriages, and
-two smaller ones on each side for foot-passengers.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span>
-Those actually made use of on the
-occasion of a triumphal entry and procession
-were merely temporary and hastily erected;
-and, having served their purpose, were taken
-down again, and sometimes replaced by others
-of more durable materials. Stertinius is the
-first upon record who erected anything of the
-kind. He built an arch in the Forum Boarium,
-about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 196, and another in the
-Circus Maximus, each of which was surmounted
-by gilt statues. There are twenty-one
-arches recorded by different writers, as
-having been erected in the city of Rome, five
-of which now remain:&mdash;1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arcus Drusi</i>,
-which was erected to the honour of Claudius
-Drusus on the Appian way. 2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arcus Titi</i>,
-at the foot of the Palatine, which was erected
-to the honour of Titus, after his conquest of
-Judaea; the bas-reliefs of this arch represent
-the spoils from the temple of Jerusalem
-carried in triumphal procession. 3. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arcus
-Septimii Severi</i>, which was erected by the
-senate (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 207) at the end of the Via
-Sacra, in honour of that emperor and his two
-sons, Caracalla and Geta, on account of his
-conquest of the Parthians and Arabians. 4.
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arcus Gallieni</i>, erected to the honour of Gallienus
-by a private individual, M. Aurelius
-Victor. 5. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arcus Constantini</i>, which was
-larger than the arch of Titus. As a specimen
-of the triumphal arches, a drawing of the arch
-of Drusus is given in the preceding page.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="ill036b" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill036b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Arch of Drusus at Rome</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Arcus_b">ARCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βιός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόξον</span>), the bow used for
-shooting arrows, is one of the most ancient
-of all weapons, but is characteristic of Asia
-rather than of Europe. In the Roman armies
-it was scarcely ever employed except by auxiliaries;
-and these auxiliaries, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sagittarii</i>,
-were chiefly Cretes and Arabians.
-The upper of the two figures below shows
-the Scythian or Parthian bow unstrung; the
-lower one represents the usual form of the
-Grecian bow, which had a double curvature,
-consisting of two circular portions united by
-the handle. When not used, the bow was
-put into a case (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοξοθήκη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γωρυτός</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la"><ins class="corr" id="tn-37" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text was not italicized">
-corytus</ins></i>),
-which was made of leather, and sometimes
-ornamented. It frequently held the arrows
-as well as the bow, and on this account is
-often confounded with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pharetra</i> or quiver.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill037" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill037.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><p>Arcus, Bow. (From paintings on vases.)</p>
-<p class="right">Corytus, Bow-case. (From a Relief in the<br />
-Vatican, Visconti, iv. tav. 43.)</p></div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Area">ĀRĔA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἅλως</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁλωά</span>), the threshing-floor,
-was a raised place in the field, open on all
-sides to the wind. Great pains were taken
-to make this floor hard; it was sometimes
-paved with flint stones, but more usually
-covered with clay and smoothed with a roller.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Areiopagus">ĂREIOPĂGUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ Ἄρειος πάγος</span>, or hill of
-Ares) was a rocky eminence, lying to the
-west of, and not far from the Acropolis at
-Athens. It was the place of meeting of the
-council (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡ ἐν Ἀρείῳ πάγῳ βουλή</span>), which was
-sometimes called <em>The Upper Council</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡ ἄνω
-βουλή</span>), to distinguish it from the senate of
-Five-hundred, which sat in the Cerameicus
-within the city. It was a body of very
-remote antiquity, acting as a criminal tribunal,
-and existed long before the time of
-Solon, but he so far modified its constitution
-and sphere of duty, that he may almost be
-called its founder. What that original constitution
-was, must in some degree be left to
-conjecture, though there is every reason to
-suppose that it was aristocratical, the members
-being taken, like the ephetae, from the
-noble patrician families. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ephetae">Ephetae</a>.</span>] By
-the legislation of Solon the Areiopagus was
-composed of the ex-archons, who, after an
-unexceptionable discharge of their duties,
-“went up” to the Areiopagus, and became
-members of it for life, unless expelled for
-misconduct. As Solon made the qualification
-for the office of archon to depend not on birth
-but on property, the council after his time
-ceased to be aristocratic in constitution; but,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span>
-as we learn from Attic writers, continued so
-in spirit. In fact, Solon is said to have
-formed the two councils, the senate and the
-Areiopagus, to be a check upon the democracy;
-that, as he himself expressed it, “the
-state riding upon them as anchors might be
-less tossed by storms.” Nay, even after the
-archons were no longer elected by suffrage,
-but by lot, and the office was thrown open by
-Aristides to all the Athenian citizens, the
-“upper council” still retained its former tone
-of feeling. Moreover, besides these changes
-in its constitution, Solon altered and extended
-its functions. Before his time it was only a
-criminal court, trying cases of “wilful murder
-and wounding, of arson and poisoning,”
-whereas he gave it extensive powers of a
-censorial and political nature. Thus we learn
-that he made the council an “overseer of
-everything, and the guardian of the laws,”
-empowering it to inquire how any one got
-his living and to punish the idle; and we are
-also told that the Areiopagites were “superintendents
-of good order and decency,” terms
-as unlimited and undefined as Solon not
-improbably wished to leave their authority.
-When heinous crimes had notoriously been
-committed, but the guilty parties were not
-known, or no accuser appeared, the Areiopagus
-inquired into the subject, and reported
-to the demus. <span id="Apophasis">The</span> report or information
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apophasis</i>. This was a
-duty which they sometimes undertook on
-their own responsibility, and in the exercise
-of an old established right, and sometimes on
-the order of the demus. Nay, to such an
-extent did they carry their power, that on
-one occasion they apprehended an individual
-(Antiphon), who had been acquitted by the
-general assembly, and again brought him to
-a trial, which ended in his condemnation and
-death. Again, we find them revoking an
-appointment whereby Aeschines was made
-the advocate of Athens before the Amphictyonic
-council, and substituting Hyperides in
-his room. They also had duties connected
-with religion, one of which was to superintend
-the sacred olives growing about Athens,
-and try those who were charged with destroying
-them; and in general it was their office
-to punish the impious and irreligious. Independent,
-then, of its jurisdiction as a criminal
-court in cases of wilful murder, which Solon
-continued to the Areiopagus, its influence
-must have been sufficiently great to have been
-a considerable obstacle to the aggrandisement
-of the democracy at the expense of the other
-parties in the state. Accordingly, we find
-that Pericles, who was opposed to the aristocracy,
-resolved to diminish its power and
-circumscribe its sphere of action. His coadjutor
-in this work was Ephialtes, a statesman
-of inflexible integrity, and also a military
-commander. They experienced much opposition
-in their attempts, not only in the assembly,
-but also on the stage, where Aeschylus
-produced his tragedy of the Eumenides, the
-object of which was to impress upon the
-Athenians the dignity, sacredness, and constitutional
-worth of the institution which
-Pericles and Ephialtes wished to reform.
-Still the opposition failed: a decree was
-carried by which, as Aristotle says, the Areiopagus
-was “mutilated,” and many of its
-hereditary rights abolished, though it is
-difficult to ascertain the precise nature of the
-alterations which Pericles effected. The jurisdiction
-of the Areiopagus in cases of murder
-was still left to them. In such cases the
-process was as follows:&mdash;The king archon
-brought the case into court, and sat as one of
-the judges, who were assembled in the open
-air, probably to guard against any contamination
-from the criminal. The accuser first
-came forwards to make a solemn oath that his
-accusation was true, standing over the slaughtered
-victims, and imprecating extirpation
-upon himself and his whole family were it
-not so. The accused then denied the charge
-with the same solemnity and form of oath.
-Each party then stated his case with all
-possible plainness, keeping strictly to the
-subject, and not being allowed to appeal in
-any way to the feelings or passions of the
-judges. After the first speech, a criminal
-accused of murder might remove from Athens,
-and thus avoid the capital punishment fixed
-by Draco’s <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thesmi</i>, which on this point were
-still in force. Except in cases of parricide,
-neither the accuser nor the court had power
-to prevent this; but the party who thus
-evaded the extreme punishment was not
-allowed to return home, and when any decree
-was passed at Athens to legalize the return
-of exiles, an exception was always made
-against those who had thus left their country.
-The Areiopagus continued to exist, in name
-at least, till a very late period. Thus we find
-Cicero mentioning the council in his letters;
-and an individual is spoken of as an Areiopagite
-under the emperors Gratian and Theodosius
-(<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 380). The case of St. Paul is
-generally quoted as an instance of the authority
-of the Areiopagus in religious matters;
-but the words of the sacred historian do not
-necessarily imply that he was brought before
-the council. It may, however, be remarked,
-that the Areiopagites certainly took cognizance
-of the introduction of new and unauthorised
-forms of religious worship, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίθετα ἱερά</span>,
-in contradistinction to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάτρια</span> or older
-rites of the state.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Arena">ĂRĒNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aretalogi">ĂRĔTĀLŎGI, persons who amused the
-company at the Roman dinner tables.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Argei">ARGĒI, the name given by the pontifices
-to the places consecrated by Numa for the
-celebration of religious services. Varro calls
-them the chapels of the argei, and says they
-were twenty-seven in number, distributed in
-the different districts of the city. There was
-a tradition that these argei were named from
-the chieftains who came with Hercules, the
-Argive, to Rome, and occupied the Capitoline,
-or, as it was anciently called, Saturnian hill.
-It is impossible to say what is the historical
-value or meaning of this legend; we may,
-however, notice its conformity with the statement
-that Rome was founded by the Pelasgians,
-with whom the name of Argos was
-connected. The name argei was also given
-to certain figures thrown into the Tiber from
-the Sublician bridge, on the Ides of May in
-every year. This was done by the pontifices,
-the vestals, the praetors, and other citizens,
-after the performance of the customary sacrifices.
-The images were thirty in number,
-made of bulrushes, and in the form of men.
-Ovid makes various suppositions to account
-for the origin of this rite; we can only conjecture
-that it was a symbolical offering, to
-propitiate the gods, and that the number was
-a representative either of the thirty patrician
-curiae at Rome, or perhaps of the thirty Latin
-townships.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Argentarii">ARGENTĀRĬI, bankers or money changers.
-(1) <span class="smcap">Greek</span>. The bankers at Athens were
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Trapezitae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τραπεζίται</span>), from their
-tables (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τραπεζαι</span>) at which they sat, while
-carrying on their business, and which were in
-the market place. Their principal occupation
-was that of changing money; but they frequently
-took money, at a moderate premium,
-from persons who did not like to occupy
-themselves with the management of their
-own affairs, and placed it out at interest.
-Their usual interest was 36 per cent.; a
-rate that at present scarcely occurs except
-in cases of money lent on bottomry. The
-only instance of a bank recognized and
-conducted on behalf of the state occurs at
-Byzantium, where at one time it was let by
-the republic to capitalists to farm. Yet the
-state probably exercised some kind of superintendence
-over the private bankers, since it
-is hardly possible otherwise to account for
-the unlimited confidence which they enjoyed.&mdash;(2)
-<span id="Depositum" class="smcap">Roman.</span> The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Argentarii</i> at Rome must
-be distinguished from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensarii</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummularii</i>,
-or public bankers. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mensarii">Mensarii</a>.</span>]
-The argentarii were private persons, who
-carried on business on their own responsibility,
-and were not in the service of the
-republic; but the shops or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabernae</i> about the
-forum, which they occupied, and in which
-they transacted their business, were state
-property. The business of the argentarii may
-be divided into the following branches. 1.
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Permutatio</i>, or the exchange of foreign coin
-for Roman, and in later times the giving of
-bills of exchange payable in foreign towns.
-2. The keeping of sums of money for other
-persons. Such money might be deposited by
-the owner merely to save himself the trouble
-of keeping it and making payments, and in
-this case it was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">depositum</i>; the argentarius
-then paid no interest, and the money
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vacua pecunia</i>. Or the money was
-deposited on condition of the argentarius paying
-interest; in this case the money was
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">creditum</i>. A payment made through a
-banker was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per mensam</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de mensa</i>, or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per mensae scripturam</i>, while a payment made
-by the debtor in person was a payment <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex arca</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de domo</i>. An argentarius never paid away
-any person’s money without being either authorised
-by him in person or receiving a
-cheque which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perscriptio</i>. The
-argentarii kept accurate accounts in books
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">codices</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rationes</i>, and there
-is every reason for believing that they were
-acquainted with what is called in book-keeping
-double entry. When a party found to be
-in debt paid what he owed, he had his name
-effaced (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomen expedire</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">expungere</i>) from
-the banker’s books. 3. Their connection
-with commerce and public auctions. In private
-sales and purchases, they sometimes
-acted as agents for either party (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">interpretes</i>),
-and sometimes they undertook to sell the
-whole estate of a person, as an inheritance.
-At public auctions they were almost invariably
-present, registering the articles sold,
-their prices, and purchasers, and receiving
-the payment from the purchasers. 4. The
-testing of the genuineness of coins (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">probatio
-nummorum</i>). This, however, seems originally
-to have been a part of the duty of public
-officers, the mensarii or nummularii, until in
-the course of time the opinion of an argentarius
-also came to be looked upon as decisive.
-5. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solidorum venditio</i>, that is, the obligation
-of purchasing from the mint the newly
-coined money, and circulating it among the
-people. This branch of their functions occurs
-only under the empire. The argentarii
-formed a collegium, divided into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">societates</i> or
-corporations, which alone had the right to
-admit new members of their guild. None
-but freemen could become members of such
-a corporation. It has already been observed
-that the argentarii had their shops round the
-forum: hence to become bankrupt was expressed
-by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foro cedere</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">abire</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foro mergi</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Argentum">ARGENTUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄργυρος</span>), silver. The relative
-value of gold and silver differed considerably
-at different periods in Greek and
-Roman history. Herodotus mentions it as
-13 to 1; Plato, as 12 to 1; Menander, as
-10 to 1; and Livy as 10 to 1, about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-189. According to Suetonius, Julius Caesar,
-on one occasion, exchanged silver for gold in
-the proportion of 9 to 1; but the most usual
-proportion under the early Roman emperors
-was about 12 to 1. The proportion in modern
-times, since the discovery of the American
-mines, has varied between 17 to 1 and 14
-to 1. In the earliest times the Greeks obtained
-their silver chiefly as an article of
-commerce from the Phocaeans and the Samians;
-but they soon began to work the rich
-mines of their own country and its islands.
-The chief mines were in Siphnos, Thessaly,
-and Attica. In the last-named country, the
-silver mines of Laurion furnished a most
-abundant supply, and were generally regarded
-as the chief source of the wealth of Athens.
-The Romans obtained most of their silver
-from the very rich mines of Spain, which
-had been previously worked by the Phoenicians
-and Carthaginians, and which, though
-abandoned for those of Mexico, are still not
-exhausted. By far the most important use of
-silver among the Greeks was for money.
-There are sufficient reasons for believing
-that, until some time after the end of the
-Peloponnesian war, the Athenians had no
-gold currency. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aurum">Aurum</a>.</span>] It may be remarked
-that all the words connected with money are
-derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄργυρος</span>, and not from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρυσός</span>, as
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταργυρόω</span>, “to bribe with money;” <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀργυραμοιβός</span>,
-“a money changer,” &amp;c.; and
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄργυρος</span> is itself not unfrequently used to
-signify money in general, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes</i> is in Latin.
-At Rome, on the contrary, silver was not
-coined till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 269, before which period
-Greek silver was in circulation at Rome; and
-the principal silver coin of the Romans, the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">denarius</i>, was borrowed from the Greek
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">drachma</i>. For further details respecting
-silver money, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Drachma">Drachma</a></span>.
-From a very early period, silver was used
-also in works of art; and the use of it for
-mere purposes of luxury and ostentation, as
-in plate, was very general both in Greece and
-Rome.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Argyraspides">ARGỸRASPĬDES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀργυράσπιδες</span>), a division
-of the Macedonian army, who were so called
-because they carried shields covered with
-silver plates.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Argyrocopeion">ARGỸROCŎPEION (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀργυροκοπεῖον</span>), the
-place where money was coined, the mint, at
-Athens.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aries">ĂRĬES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κριός</span>), the battering-ram, was used
-to batter down the walls of besieged cities.
-It consisted of a large beam, made of the
-trunk of a tree, especially of a fir or an ash.
-To one end was fastened a mass of bronze
-or iron (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεφαλή</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐμβολή</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προτομή</span>), which
-resembled in its form the head of a ram.
-The aries in its simplest state was borne
-and impelled by human hands, without other
-assistance. In an improved form, the ram
-was surrounded with iron bands, to which
-rings were attached for the purpose of suspending
-it by ropes or chains from a beam fixed
-transversely over it. By this contrivance
-the soldiers were relieved from the necessity
-of supporting the weight of the ram, and
-could with ease give it a rapid and forcible
-motion backwards and forwards. The use of
-this machine was further aided by placing
-the frame in which it was suspended upon
-wheels, and also by constructing over it a
-wooden roof, so as to form a “testudo,”
-which protected the besieging party from
-the defensive assaults of the besieged.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp56" id="ill040" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill040.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Aries, Battering Ram. (From Column of Trajan.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Aristocratia">ĀRISTOCRĂTĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀριστοκρατία</span>), signifies
-literally “the government of the best men,”
-and as used by Plato, Aristotle, Polybius, &amp;c.,
-it meant the government of a class whose
-supremacy was founded not on wealth merely,
-but on personal distinction. That there should
-be an aristocracy, moreover, it was essential
-that the administration of affairs should be
-conducted with a view to the promotion of
-the general interests, not for the exclusive or
-predominant advantage of the privileged class<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span>
-As soon as the government ceased to be thus
-conducted, or whenever the only title to political
-power in the dominant class was the
-possession of superior wealth, the constitution
-was termed an oligarchy (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀλιγαρχία</span>), which,
-in the technical use of the term, was always
-looked upon as a corruption (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρέκβασις</span>) of
-an aristocracy. In the practical application
-of the term aristocracy, however, the personal
-excellence which was held to be a necessary
-element was not of a higher kind than what,
-according to the deeply-seated ideas of the
-Greeks, was commonly hereditary in families
-of noble birth, and in early times would be
-the ordinary accompaniments of noble rank,
-namely, wealth, military skill, and superior
-education and intelligence. It is to be noted
-that the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀριστοκρατία</span> is never, like
-the English term <em>aristocracy</em>, the name of
-a class, but only of a particular political
-constitution.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill041" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill041.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><p>Greek Soldier. (From an ancient vase.)</p>
-  <p class="right">Roman Soldiers. (From Column of Trajan.)</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Arma">ARMA, ARMĀTŪRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔντεα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τεύχεα</span>, Hom.;
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅπλα</span>), arms, armour. Homer describes in
-various passages an entire suit of armour,
-and we observe that it consisted of the same
-portions which were used by the Greek soldiers
-ever after. Moreover, the order of putting
-them on is always the same. The heavy-armed
-warrior, having already a tunic around
-his body, and preparing for combat, puts on&mdash;1.
-his greaves (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κνημῖδες</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ocreae</i>); 2. his
-cuirass (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θώραξ</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lorica</i>), to which belonged
-the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτρη</span> underneath, and the zone (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζώνη</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζωστῆρ</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cingulum</i>), above; 3. his sword
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξίφος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ensis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gladius</i>), hung on the left side
-of his body by means of a belt which passed
-over the right shoulder; 4. the large round
-shield (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάκος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσπίς</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clipeus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scutum</i>), supported
-in the same manner; 5. his helmet
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόρυς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυνέη</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cassis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">galea</i>); 6. he took his
-spear (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγχος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόρυ</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta</i>), or in many cases,
-two spears. The form and use of these portions
-are described in separate articles, under
-their Latin names. The annexed cut exhibits
-them all. Those who were defended in the
-manner which has now been represented are
-called by Homer <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aspistae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσπισταί</span>), from
-their great shield (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσπίς</span>); also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">angemachi</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγχεμάχοι</span>), because they fought hand to
-hand with their adversaries; but much more
-commonly <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">promachi</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόμαχοι</span>), because they
-occupied the front of the army. In later
-times, the heavy-armed soldiers were called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hoplitae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁπλίται</span>), because the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hopla</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄπλα</span>) more especially denoted the defensive
-armour, the shield and thorax. By wearing
-these they were distinguished from the light-armed
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψιλοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄνοπλοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνῆται</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνῆτες</span>),
-who, instead of being defended by the
-shield and thorax, had a much slighter covering,
-sometimes consisting of skins, and sometimes
-of leather or cloth; and instead of the
-sword or lance, they commonly fought with
-darts, stones, bows and arrows, or slings.
-Besides the heavy and light-armed soldiers,
-another description of men, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peltastae</i><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πελτασταί</span>), also formed a part of the Greek
-army, though we do not hear of them in
-early times. Instead of the large round
-shield, they carried a smaller one called the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pelté</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέλτη</span>), and in other respects their armour,
-though heavier and more effective than
-that of the psili, was much lighter than that
-of the hoplites. The weapon on which they
-principally depended was the spear. The
-Roman legions consisted, as the Greek infantry
-for the most part did, of heavy and
-light-armed troops (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gravis et levis armatura</i>).
-The preceding figure represents two heavy-armed
-Roman soldiers. All the essential parts
-of the Roman heavy armour (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lorica</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ensis</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clipeus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">galea</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta</i>) are mentioned together,
-except the spear, in a well-known passage of
-St. Paul (<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Eph.</cite> vi. 17).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Armarium">ARMĀRĬUM, originally a place for keeping
-arms, afterwards a cupboard, in which
-were kept not only arms, but also clothes,
-books, money, and other articles of value.
-The armarium was generally placed in the
-atrium of the house.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Armilla">ARMILLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψάλιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψέλιον</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψέλλιον</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χλιδών</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc"><ins class="corr" id="tn-42" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'ἀμφιδεᾶ'">
-ἀμφιδέα</ins></span>), a bracelet or armlet, worn
-both by men and women. It was a favourite
-ornament of the Medes and Persians.
-Bracelets do not appear to have been worn
-among the Greeks by the male sex, but Greek
-ladies had bracelets of various materials,
-shapes, and styles of ornament. They frequently
-exhibited the form of snakes, and
-were in such cases called snakes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄφεις</span>) by
-the Athenians. According to their length,
-they went once, twice, or thrice round the
-arm, or even a greater number of times.
-The Roman generals frequently bestowed armillae
-upon soldiers for deeds of extraordinary
-merit.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill042" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill042.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><p>Armillae, Bracelets. (Museo Borbonico, vol. ii. tav. 14<br />
-  vol. vii. tav. 46.)</p>
-  <p class="right">Armilla, Bracelet. (On Statue of Sleeping<br />
-  Ariadne in Vatican.)</p></div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Armilustrium">ARMĬLUSTRĬUM, a Roman festival for
-the purification of arms. It was celebrated
-every year on the 19th of October, when the
-citizens assembled in arms, and offered sacrifices
-in the place called Armilustrum, or
-Vicus Armilustri.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Arra">ARRA, ARRĂBO, or ARRHA, ARRHABO,
-was the thing which purchasers and vendors
-gave to one another, whether it was a sum
-of money or anything else, as an evidence of
-the contract being made: it was no essential
-part of the contract of buying and selling,
-but only evidence of agreement as to price.
-The term arrha, in its general sense of an
-evidence of agreement, was also used on
-other occasions, as in the case of betrothment
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sponsalia</i>). Sometimes the word arrha is
-used as synonymous with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pignus</i>, but this is
-not the legal meaning of the term.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Arrhephoria">ARRHĒPHŎRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀῤῥηφόρια</span>), a festival
-celebrated at Athens in honour of Athena
-(Minerva). Four girls, of between seven
-and eleven years (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀῤῥηφόροι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐρσηφόροι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐῤῥηφόροι</span>),
-were selected every year by the king
-archon from the most distinguished families,
-two of whom superintended the weaving of
-the sacred peplus of Athena; the two others
-had to carry the mysterious and sacred vessels
-of the goddess. These latter remained a
-whole year on the Acropolis; and when the
-festival commenced, the priestess of the goddess
-placed vessels upon their heads, the contents
-of which were neither known to them
-nor to the priestess. With these they descended
-to a natural grotto within the district
-of Aphrodite in the gardens. Here they deposited
-the sacred vessels, and carried back
-something else, which was covered and likewise<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span>
-unknown to them. After this the girls
-were dismissed and others were chosen to supply
-their place in the acropolis.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Arrogatio">ARRŎGĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adoptio">Adoptio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Artaba">ARTĂBA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρτάβη</span>), a Persian measure of
-capacity = 1 medimnus and 3 choenices (Attic) = 102
-Roman sextarii = 12 gallons, 5·092
-pints.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Artemisia">ARTĔMĪSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρτεμίσια</span>), a festival celebrated
-at Syracuse in honour of Artemis
-Potamia and Soteira. It lasted three days,
-which were principally spent in feasting and
-amusements, Festivals of the same name,
-and in honour of the same goddess, were held
-in many places in Greece, but principally at
-Delphi.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Artopta">ARTOPTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pistor">Pistor</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Arura">ĂRŪRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρουρα</span>), a Greek measure of surface,
-mentioned by Herodotus, who says that
-it is a hundred Egyptian cubits in every direction.
-Now the Egyptian cubit contained
-nearly 17¾ inches; therefore the square of
-100 by 17¾ inches, <em>i.e.</em> nearly 148 feet, gives
-the number of square feet (English) in the
-arura, viz. 21,904.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aruspex">ĂRUSPEX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Haruspices">Haruspex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Arvales">ARVĀLES FRĀTRES, formed a college or
-company of twelve priests, and were so called
-from offering public sacrifices for the fertility
-of the fields. That they were of extreme antiquity
-is proved by the legend which refers
-their institution to Romulus, of whom it is
-said, that when his nurse Acca Laurentia lost
-one of her twelve sons, he allowed himself
-to be adopted by her in his place, and called
-himself and the remaining eleven “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fratres
-Arvales</span>.” We also find a college called the
-Sodales Titii, and as the latter were confessedly
-of Sabine origin, and instituted for
-the purpose of keeping up the Sabine religious
-rites, it is probable that these colleges
-corresponded one to the other&mdash;the Fratres
-Arvales being connected with the Latin, and
-the Sodales Titii with the Sabine element of
-the Roman state. The office of the fratres
-arvales was for life, and was not taken away
-even from an exile or captive. One of their
-annual duties was to celebrate a three days’
-festival in honour of Dea Dia, supposed to be
-Ceres, sometimes held on the 17th, 19th, and
-20th, sometimes on the 27th, 29th, and 30th
-of May. But besides this festival of the Dea
-Dia, the fratres arvales were required on various
-occasions, under the emperors, to make
-vows and offer up thanksgivings. Under Tiberius,
-the Fratres Arvales performed sacrifices
-called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ambarvalia</i>, at various places
-on the borders of the ager Romanus, or original
-territory of Rome; and it is probable
-that this was a custom handed down from
-time immemorial, and, moreover, that it was
-a duty of the priesthood to invoke a blessing
-on the whole territory of Rome. There were
-also the private <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ambarvalia</i>, which were so
-called from the victim (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hostia ambarvalis</i>)
-that was slain on the occasion being led three
-times round the corn-fields, before the sickle
-was put to the corn. This victim was accompanied
-by a crowd of merry-makers, the
-reapers and farm-servants dancing and singing,
-as they marched, the praises of Ceres,
-and praying for her favour and presence,
-while they offered her the libations of milk,
-honey, and wine. This ceremony was also
-called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lustratio</i>, or purification.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Arx">ARX signifies a height within the walls of
-a city, upon which a citadel was built, and
-thus came to be applied to the citadel itself.
-Thus one of the summits of the Capitoline
-hill at Rome is called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arx</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arx</i> was the
-regular place at Rome for taking the auspices,
-and was hence likewise called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auguraculum</i>;
-or, more probably, the auguraculum was a
-place in the Arx.</p>
-
-
-<p id="As">AS, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libra</i>, a pound, the unit of weight
-among the Romans. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Libra_a">Libra</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="As_c">AS, the unit of value in the Roman and
-old Italian coinages, was made of copper, or
-of the mixed metal called <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes">Aes</a></span>. It was originally
-of the weight of a pound of twelve
-ounces, whence it was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">as libralis</i> and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes grave</i>. The oldest form of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">as</i> is that
-which bears the figure of an animal (a bull,
-ram, boar, or sow). The next and most common
-form is that which has the two-faced
-head of Janus on one side, and the prow of a
-ship on the other (whence the expression
-used by Roman boys in tossing up, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Capita aut
-navim</i>.) Pliny informs us, that in the time
-of the first Punic war (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 264-241), in order
-to meet the expenses of the state, this
-weight of a pound was diminished, and asses
-were struck of the same weight as the sextans
-(that is, two ounces, or one-sixth of the
-ancient weight); and that thus the republic
-paid off its debts, gaining five parts in six;
-that afterwards, in the second Punic war, in
-the dictatorship of Q. Fabius Maximus (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-217), asses of one ounce were made, and the
-denarius was decreed to be equal to sixteen
-asses, the republic thus gaining one half; but
-that in military pay the denarius was always
-given for ten asses; and that soon after, by
-the Papirian law (about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 191), asses of
-half an ounce were made. The value of the
-as, of course, varied with its weight. Before
-the reduction to two ounces, ten asses were
-equal to the denarius = about 8½ pence English
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a></span>]. Therefore the as = 3·4
-farthings. By the reduction the denarius
-was made equal to sixteen asses; therefore
-the as = 2⅛ farthings. The as was divided<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span>
-into parts, which were named according to
-the number of ounces they contained. They
-were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deunx</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dextans</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dodrans</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">septunx</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">semis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quincunx</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triens</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrans</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">teruncius</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sextans</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sescunx</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sescuncia</i>, and
-uncia, consisting respectively of 11, 10, 9, 8,
-7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1½, and 1 ounces. Of these
-divisions the following were represented by
-coins; namely, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">semis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quincunx</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triens</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrans</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sextans</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uncia</i>. After the reduction
-in the weight of the as, coins were
-struck of the value of 2, 3, 4, and even 10
-asses, which were called respectively <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dussis</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dupondius</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tressis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrussis</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decussis</i>.
-Other multiples of the as were denoted by
-words of similar formation, up to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centussis</i>,
-100 asses; but most of them do not exist as
-coins. In certain forms of expression, in
-which <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes</i> is used for money without specifying
-the denomination, we must understand the
-as. Thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deni aeris</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mille aeris</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decies aeris</i>,
-mean respectively 10, 1000, 1,000,000 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">asses</i>.
-The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">as</i> was used also for any whole
-which was to be divided into equal parts;
-and those parts were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unciae</i>. Thus
-these words were applied not only to weight
-and money, but to measures of length, surface,
-and capacity, to inheritances, interest,
-houses, farms, and many other things. Hence
-the phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">haeres ex asse</i>, the heir to a whole
-estate; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">haeres ex dodrante</i>, the heir to three-fourths.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">as</i> was also called in ancient
-times <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">assarius</i> (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummus</i>), and in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ
-ἀσσάριον</span>. According to Polybius, the assarius
-was equal to half the obolus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ascia">ASCĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκέπαρνον</span>), an adze. The annexed
-cut shows two varieties of the adze.
-The instrument at the bottom was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acisculus</i>, and was chiefly used by masons.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp54" id="ill044a" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill044a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Asciae, adzes. (From ancient monuments and a coin.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Asclepieia">ASCLĒPIEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσκληπίεια</span>), the name of
-festivals which were probably celebrated in
-all places where temples of Asclepius (Aesculapius)
-existed. The most celebrated, however,
-was that of Epidaurus, which took place
-every five years, and was solemnized with
-contests of rhapsodists and musicians, and
-with solemn processions and games.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ascoliasmus">ASCŌLĬASMUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσκωλιασμός</span>, the leaping
-upon the leathern bag, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσκός</span>) was one of the
-many kinds of amusements in which the
-Athenians indulged during the Anthesteria
-and other festivals in honour of Dionysus.
-Having sacrificed a he-goat to the god, they
-made a bag out of the skin, smeared it with
-oil, and then tried to dance upon it.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill044b" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill044b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ascoliasmus. (From an ancient gem.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Asebeias">ĂSĔBEIAS GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσεβείας γραφή</span>), one
-of the many forms prescribed by the Attic
-laws for the impeachment of impiety. Any
-citizen not incapacitated by disfranchisement
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτιμία</span>) seems to have been a competent accuser;
-and citizens, resident aliens, and
-strangers, were equally liable to the accusation.
-Whether the causes were brought into
-the areiopagus, or the common heliastic
-court, seems to have been determined by the
-form of action adopted by the prosecutor, or
-the degree of competency to which the areiopagus<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span>
-rose or fell at the different periods of
-Athenian history.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Asiarchae">ĂSĬARCHAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσιάρχαι</span>) were, in the Roman
-province of Asia, the chief presidents of
-the religious rites, whose office it was to exhibit
-games and theatrical amusements every
-year, in honour of the gods and the Roman
-emperor, at their own expense, like the Roman
-aediles. They were ten in number,
-selected annually by the different towns of
-Asia, and approved of by the Roman proconsul;
-of these, one was the chief asiarch, and
-frequently, but not always, resided at Ephesus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Assarius">ASSĀRĬUS NUMMUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Assertor">ASSERTOR, or ADSERTOR, contains the
-same root as the verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adserere</i>, which, when
-coupled with the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manu</i>, signifies to lay
-hold of a thing, to draw it towards one. Hence
-the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adserere in libertatem</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liberali
-adserere manu</i>, applies to him who lays his
-hand on a person reputed to be a slave, and
-<em>asserts</em>, or maintains his freedom. The person
-who thus maintained the freedom of a reputed
-slave was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adsertor</i>. The person whose
-freedom was thus claimed was said to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adsertus</i>.
-The expressions <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liberalis causa</i>, and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liberalis manus</i>, which occur in connection
-with the verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adserere</i>, will easily be understood
-from what has been said. Sometimes
-the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adserere</i> alone was used as equivalent
-to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adserere in libertatem</i>. The expression
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">asserere in servitutem</i>, to claim a person
-as a slave, occurs in Livy.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Assessor">ASSESSOR, or ADSESSOR, literally one
-who sits by the side of another. Since the
-consuls, praetors, governors of provinces,
-and the judices, were often imperfectly acquainted
-with the law and forms of procedure,
-it was necessary that they should
-have the aid of those who had made the law
-their study. The assessors sat on the tribunal
-with the magistrate. Their advice or aid
-was given during the proceedings as well as
-at other times, but they never pronounced a
-judicial sentence.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Assidui">ASSĬDUI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Locupletes">Locupletes</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Astragalus">ASTRĂGĂLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀστράγαλος</span>), literally, that
-particular bone in the ankles of certain quadrupeds,
-which the Greeks, as well as the Romans,
-used for dice and other purposes.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Talus">Talus</a>.</span>] In architecture it signifies a certain
-moulding (the astragal) which seems to have
-derived its name from its resemblance to a
-string or chain of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tali</i>, and it is in fact always
-used in positions where it seems intended to
-bind together the parts to which it is applied.
-It belongs properly to the more highly decorated
-forms of the Ionic order, in which it
-appears as a lower edging to the larger mouldings,
-especially the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">echinus</i> (ovolo), particularly
-in the capital, as shown in the following
-woodcut.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill045" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill045.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Astragalus. (Capital of an Ionic Column. Dilettanti
-Society, Ionian Antiquities.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Astrateias">ASTRĂTEIAS GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀστρατείας
-γραφή</span>), the accusation instituted at Athens
-against persons who failed to appear among
-the troops after they had been enrolled for a
-campaign by the generals. The defendant, if
-convicted, incurred disfranchisement (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτιμία</span>)
-both in his own person and that of his descendants.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Astrologia">ASTRŎLŎGĬA, astrology. A belief very
-early arose, which still prevails unshaken in
-the East, that a close connection subsisted
-between the position and movements of the
-heavenly bodies and the fate of man. Few
-doubted that the destiny of a child might be
-predicted with certainty by those who were
-skilled to interpret the position of the stars
-at the moment of his birth, and that the result
-of any undertaking might be foretold from
-the aspect of the firmament when it was
-commenced. Hence a numerous and powerful
-class of men arose who were distinguished
-by various designations. From the country
-where their science was first developed, they
-were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Chaldaei</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Babylonii</i>; from observing
-the stars, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">astronomi</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">astrologi</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">planetarii</i>;
-from employing diagrams such as
-were used by geometricians, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mathematici</i>;
-from determining the lot of man at his natal
-hour, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">genethliaci</i>; from prophesying the
-consummation of his struggles, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποτελεσματικοί</span>;
-while their art was known as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀστρολογία</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετεωρολογία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γενεθλιαλογία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποτελεσματική</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ars Chaldaeorum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mathesis</i>, or, from
-the tables they consulted, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πινακική</span>. Their
-calculations were termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Babylonii numeri</i>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλδαίων μέθοδοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλδαίων ψηφίδες</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rationes
-Chaldaicae</i>; their responses when consulted
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Chaldaeorum monita</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Chaldaeorum natalicia
-praedicta</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Astrologorum praedicta</i>. The stars
-and constellations to which attention was
-chiefly directed were the planets and the
-signs of the zodiac, some of which were supposed
-to exert uniformly a benign influence
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγαθοποιοὶ ἀστέρες</span>), such as Venus, Jupiter,
-Luna, Virgo, Libra, Taurus; others to be
-uniformly malign (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κακοποιοὶ ἀστέρες</span>), such as
-Saturnus, Mars, Scorpio, Capricornus; others<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span>
-to be doubtful (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίκοινοι ἀστέρες</span>), such as
-Mercurius. The exact period of birth (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hora
-genitalis</i>) being the critical moment, the computations
-founded upon it were styled <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένεσις</span>
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">genitura</i>), <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὡροσκόπος</span> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">horoscopus</i>), or simply
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θέμα</span>, and the star or stars in the ascendant
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sidus natalitium</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sidera natalitia</i>. Astrologers
-seem to have found their way very early
-into Italy. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 139 an edict was promulgated
-by C. Cornelius Hispallus, at that time
-praetor, by which the Chaldaeans were ordered
-to quit Italy within ten days, and they
-were again banished from the city in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 33,
-by M. Agrippa, who was then aedile. Another
-severe ordinance was levelled by Augustus
-against this class, but the frequent occurrence
-of such phrases as “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">expulit et
-mathematicos</span>,” “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulsis Italia mathematicis</span>,”
-in the historians of the empire prove how
-firm a hold these pretenders must have obtained
-over the public mind, and how profitable
-the occupation must have been which
-could induce them to brave disgrace, and
-sometimes a cruel death.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Astynomi">ASTỸNŎMI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀστυνόμοι</span>), or street-police
-of Athens, were ten in number, five for the
-city, and as many for the Peiraeeus. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">astynomi</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agoranomi</i> divided between
-them most of the functions of the Roman
-aediles. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Agoranomi">Agoranomi</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Asylum">ĂSῩLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄσυλον</span>). In the Greek states
-the temples, altars, sacred groves, and statues
-of the gods, generally possessed the privilege
-of protecting slaves, debtors, and criminals,
-who fled to them for refuge. The
-laws, however, do not appear to have recognised
-the right of all such sacred places to
-afford the protection which was claimed, but
-to have confined it to a certain number of
-temples, or altars, which were considered in
-a more especial manner to have the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσυλία</span>,
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus asyli</i>. There were several places in
-Athens which possessed this privilege; of
-which the best known was the Theseium, or
-temple of Theseus, in the city, near the gymnasium,
-which was chiefly intended for the
-protection of ill-treated slaves, who could
-take refuge in this place, and compel their
-masters to sell them to some other person.
-In the time of Tiberius, the number of places
-possessing the jus asyli in the Greek cities in
-Greece and Asia Minor became so numerous,
-as seriously to impede the administration of
-justice; and, consequently, the senate, by the
-command of the emperor, limited the jus
-asyli to a few cities. The asylum, which
-Romulus is said to have opened at Rome to
-increase the population of the city, was a
-place of refuge for the inhabitants of other
-states, rather than a sanctuary for those who
-had violated the laws of the city. In the
-republican and early imperial times, a right
-of asylum, such as existed in the Greek states,
-does not appear to have been recognised by
-the Roman law; but it existed under the
-empire, and a slave could fly to the temples of
-the gods, or the statues of the emperors, to
-avoid the ill-usage of his master.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ateleia">ĂTĔLEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτέλεια</span>), immunity from public
-burthens, was enjoyed at Athens by the
-archons for the time being; by the descendants
-of certain persons, on whom it had been
-conferred as a reward for great services, as
-in the case of Harmodius and Aristogeiton;
-and by the inhabitants of certain foreign states.
-It was of several kinds: it might be a general
-immunity (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτέλεια ἁπάντων</span>); or a more special
-exemption, as from custom-duties, from
-the liturgies, or from providing sacrifices.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Atellanae">ĀTELLĀNAE FĂBŬLAE were a species
-of farce or comedy, so called from Atella, a
-town of the Osci, in Campania. From this
-circumstance, and from being written in the
-Oscan dialect, they were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ludi
-Osci</i>. These Atellane plays were not <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetextatae</i>,
-<em>i.e.</em> comedies in which magistrates and
-persons of rank were introduced, nor <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabernariae</i>,
-the characters in which were taken
-from low life; they rather seem to have been
-a union of high comedy and its parody.
-They were also distinguished from the mimes
-by the absence of low buffoonery and ribaldry,
-being remarkable for a refined humour,
-such as could be understood and appreciated
-by educated people. They were not
-performed by regular actors (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">histriones</i>), but
-by Roman citizens of noble birth, who were
-not on that account subjected to any degradation,
-but retained their rights as citizens,
-and might serve in the army. The Oscan or
-Opican language, in which these plays were
-written, was spread over the whole of the
-south of Italy, and from its resemblance to
-the Latin could easily be understood by the
-more educated Romans.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Athenaeum">ĂTHĒNAEUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀθήναιον</span>), a school (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludus</i>)
-founded <ins class="corr" id="tn-46" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'by the Emperior'">
-by the Emperor</ins> Hadrian at Rome,
-for the promotion of literary and scientific
-studies (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ingenuarum artium</i>), and called
-Athenaeum from the town of Athens, which
-was still regarded as the seat of intellectual
-refinement. The Athenaeum was situated on
-the Capitoline hill. It was a kind of university,
-with a staff of professors, for the
-various branches of study. Besides the instruction
-given by these magistri, poets, orators,
-and critics were accustomed to recite
-their compositions there, and these prelections
-were sometimes honoured with the presence
-of the emperors themselves. The Athenaeum
-seems to have continued in high repute till
-the fifth century.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Athletae">ATHLĒTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀθληταί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀθλητῆρες</span>), persons
-who contended in the public games of the
-Greeks and Romans for prizes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἆθλα</span>, whence
-the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀθληταί</span>), which were given to
-those who conquered in contests of agility
-and strength. The name was in the later
-period of Grecian history, and among the
-Romans, properly confined to those persons
-who entirely devoted themselves to a course
-of training which might fit them to excel in
-such contests, and who, in fact, made athletic
-exercises their profession. The athletae
-differed, therefore, from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agonistae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγωνισταί</span>),
-who only pursued gymnastic exercises
-for the sake of improving their health
-and bodily strength, and who, though they
-sometimes contended for the prizes in the
-public games, did not devote their whole
-lives, like the athletae, to preparing for these
-contests. Athletae were first introduced at
-Rome, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 186, in the games exhibited by
-M. Fulvius, on the conclusion of the Aetolian
-war. Aemilius Paullus, after the conquest of
-Perseus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 167, is said to have exhibited
-games at Amphipolis, in which athletae contended.
-Under the Roman emperors, and
-especially under Nero, who was passionately
-fond of the Grecian games, the number of
-athletae increased greatly in Italy, Greece,
-and Asia Minor. Those athletae who conquered
-in any of the great national festivals
-of the Greeks were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hieronicae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερονῖκαι</span>),
-and received the greatest honours and
-rewards. Such a conqueror was considered
-to confer honour upon the state to which he
-belonged; he entered his native city through
-a breach made in the walls for his reception,
-in a chariot drawn by four white horses, and
-went along the principal street of the city to
-the temple of the guardian deity of the state.
-Those games, which gave the conquerors the
-right of such an entrance into the city, were
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Iselastici</i> (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσελαύνειν</span>). This
-term was originally confined to the four great
-Grecian festivals, the Olympian, Isthmian,
-Nemean, and Pythian, but was afterwards
-applied to other public games. In the Greek
-states, the victors in these games not only
-obtained the greatest glory and respect, but
-also substantial rewards. They were generally
-relieved from the payment of taxes, and
-also enjoyed the first seat (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προεδρία</span>) in all
-public games and spectacles. Their statues
-were frequently erected at the cost of the
-state, in the most frequented part of the city,
-as the market-place, the gymnasia, and the
-neighbourhood of the temples. At Athens,
-according to a law of Solon, the conquerors in
-the Olympic games were rewarded with a
-prize of 500 drachmae; and the conquerors
-in the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian, with
-one of 100 drachmae; and at Sparta they had
-the privilege of fighting near the person of
-the king. The privileges of the athletae were
-secured, and in some respects increased, by
-the Roman emperors. The term athletae,
-though sometimes applied metaphorically to
-other combatants, was properly limited to
-those who contended for the prize in the five
-following contests:&mdash;1. <em>Running</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δρόμος</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cursus</i>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Stadium">Stadium</a>.</span>] 2. <em>Wrestling</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάλη</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lucta</i>). 3. <em>Boxing</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυγμή</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pugilatus</i>). 4. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pentathlum</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πένταθλον</span>), or, as the Romans
-called it, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quinquertium</i>. 5. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pancratium</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παγκράτιον</span>). Of all these an account is given
-in separate articles. Great attention was
-paid to the training of the athletae. They
-were generally trained in the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">palaestrae</i>,
-which, in the Grecian states, were distinct
-places from the gymnasia. Their exercises
-were superintended by the gymnasiarch, and
-their diet was regulated by the aliptes.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aliptae">Aliptae</a>.</span>]&mdash;The athletae were accustomed
-to contend naked. In the descriptions of the
-games given in the Iliad, the combatants are
-represented with a girdle about their loins;
-and the same practice, as we learn from
-Thucydides, anciently prevailed at the
-Olympic games, but was discontinued afterwards.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Atimia">ĂTĪMĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτιμία</span>), the forfeiture of a man’s
-civil rights at Athens. It was either total or
-partial. A man was totally deprived of his
-rights, both for himself and for his descendants
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καθάπαξ ἄτιμος</span>), when he was convicted
-of murder, theft, false witness, partiality
-as arbiter, violence offered to a magistrate,
-and so forth. This highest degree of
-atimia excluded the person affected by it from
-the forum, and from all public assemblies;
-from the public sacrifices, and from the law
-courts; or rendered him liable to immediate
-imprisonment, if he was found in any of these
-places. It was either temporary or perpetual,
-and either accompanied or not with
-confiscation of property. Partial atimia only
-involved the forfeiture of some few rights, as,
-for instance, the right of pleading in court.
-Public debtors were suspended from their
-civic functions till they discharged their debt
-to the state. People who had once become
-altogether atimi were very seldom restored to
-their lost privileges. The converse term to
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimia</i> was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epitimia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιτιμία</span>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Atlantes">ATLANTES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄτλαντες</span>) and TĔLĂMŌNES
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελαμῶνες</span>), terms used in architecture, the
-former by the Greeks, the latter by the Romans,
-to designate those male figures which
-are sometimes fancifully used, like the female
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caryatides</i>, in place of columns. Both words
-are derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τλῆναι</span>, and the former evidently
-refers to the fable of Atlas, who supported<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span>
-the vault of heaven, the latter <em>perhaps</em>
-to the strength of the Telamonian Ajax.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp72" id="ill048" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill048.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Atlantes. (From Temple at Agrigentum:
-Professor Cockerell.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Atramentum">ĀTRĀMENTUM, a term applicable to any
-black colouring substance, for whatever purpose
-it may be used, like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">melan</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέλαν</span>)
-of the Greeks. There were, however, three
-principal kinds of atramentum: one called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">librarium</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriptorium</i> (in Greek, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφικὸν
-μέλαν</span>), writing-ink; another called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sutorium</i>,
-which was used by the shoemakers for dyeing
-leather; the third <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tectorium</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pictorium</i>,
-which was used by painters for some purposes,
-apparently as a sort of varnish. The
-inks of the ancients seem to have been more
-durable than our own; they were thicker
-and more unctuous, in substance and durability
-more resembling the ink now used by
-printers. An inkstand was discovered at
-Herculaneum, containing ink as thick as oil,
-and still usable for writing. The ancients
-used inks of various colours. Red ink, made
-of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minium</i> or vermilion, was used for writing
-the titles and beginning of books. So also
-was ink made of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rubrica</i>, “red ochre;” and
-because the headings of <em>laws</em> were written
-with rubrica, the word rubric came to be
-used for the civil law. So <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">album</i>, a white or
-whited table, on which the praetors’ edicts
-were written, was used in a similar way. A
-person devoting himself to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">album</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rubrica</i>,
-was a person devoting himself to the law.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Album">Album</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Atrium">ĀTRĬUM (called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλή</span> by the Greeks and
-by Virgil, and also <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεσαύλιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίστυλον</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίστῳον</span>) is used in a distinctive as well as
-collective sense, to designate a particular part
-in the private houses of the Romans [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>],
-and also a class of public buildings, so called
-from their general resemblance in construction
-to the atrium of a private house. An
-atrium of the latter description was a building
-by itself, resembling in some respects the
-open basilica [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Basilica">Basilica</a></span>], but consisting of
-three sides. Such was the Atrium Publicum
-in the capitol, which, Livy informs us, was
-struck with lightning, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 216. It was at
-other times attached to some temple or other
-edifice, and in such case consisted of an
-open area and surrounding portico in front
-of the structure. Several of these buildings
-are mentioned by the ancient historians, two
-of which were dedicated to the same goddess,
-Libertas. The most celebrated, as well as
-the most ancient, was situated on the Aventine
-Mount. In this atrium there was a
-tabularium, where the legal tablets (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae</i>)
-relating to the censors were preserved. The
-other Atrium Libertatis was in the neighbourhood
-of the Forum Caesaris, and was
-immediately behind the Basilica Paulli or
-Aemilia.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Auctio">AUCTĬO signifies generally “an increasing,
-an enhancement,” and hence the name is applied
-to a public sale of goods, at which persons
-bid against one another. The sale was
-sometimes conducted by an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">argentarius</i>, or by
-a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister auctionis</i>; and the time, place,
-and conditions of sale, were announced either
-by a public notice (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabula</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">album</i>, &amp;c.), or by
-a crier (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praeco</i>). The usual phrases to express
-the giving notice of a sale were, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctionem
-proscribere, praedicare</i>; and to determine
-on a sale, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctionem constituere</i>. The
-purchasers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emtores</i>), when assembled, were
-sometimes said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad tabulam adesse</i>. The
-phrases signifying to bid are, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liceri</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">licitari</i>,
-which was done either by word of mouth, or
-by such significant hints as are known to all
-people who have attended an auction. The
-property was said to be knocked down (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">addici</i>)
-to the purchaser. The praeco, or crier,
-seems to have acted the part of the modern
-auctioneer, so far as calling out the biddings,
-and amusing the company. Slaves, when
-sold by auction, were placed on a stone, or
-other elevated thing, as is the case when
-slaves are sold in the United States of North
-America; and hence the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">homo de lapide
-emtus</i>. It was usual to put up a spear
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta</i>) in auctions; a symbol derived, it is
-said, from the ancient practice of selling under
-a spear the booty acquired in war.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Auctor">AUCTOR, a word which contains the same
-element as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aug-eo</i>, and signifies generally one
-who enlarges, confirms, or gives to a thing
-its completeness and efficient form. The
-numerous technical significations of the word
-are derivable from this general notion. As he
-who gives to a thing that which is necessary
-for its completeness may in this sense be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span>
-viewed as the chief actor or doer, the word
-auctor is also used in the sense of one who
-originates or proposes a thing; but this cannot
-be viewed as its primary meaning. Accordingly,
-the word auctor, when used in
-connection with lex or senatus consultum,
-often means him who originates and proposes.&mdash;The
-expressions <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores fiunt</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores facti</i>, have given rise to much
-discussion. In the earlier periods of the Roman
-state, the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres</i> was equivalent to
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patricii</i>; in the later period, when the patricians
-had lost all importance as a political
-body, the term patres signified the senate.
-Hence some ambiguity has arisen. The expression
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores fiunt</i>, when used of
-the early period of Rome, means that the
-determinations of the populus in the comitia
-centuriata were confirmed by the patricians
-in the comitia curiata. Till the time of Servius
-Tullius there were only the comitia curiata,
-and this king first established the
-comitia centuriata, in which the plebs also
-voted, and consequently it was not till after
-this time that the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores fiunt</i>
-could be properly applied. Livy, however,
-uses it of an earlier period. The comitia
-curiata first elected the king, and then by
-another vote conferred upon him the imperium.
-The latter was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex curiata de
-imperio</i>, an expression not used by Livy,
-who employs instead the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores
-fiunt</i> (Liv. i. 17, 22, 32).&mdash;After the
-exile of the last Tarquin, the patres, that is
-the patricians, had still the privilege of confirming
-at the comitia curiata the vote of the
-comitia centuriata, that is, they gave to it
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patrum auctoritas</i>; or, in other words,
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres</i> were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctores facti</i>. In the
-fifth century of the city a change was made.
-By one of the laws of the plebeian dictator Q.
-Publilius Philo, it was enacted that in the
-case of leges to be enacted at the comitia centuriata,
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres</i> should be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctores</i>, that is,
-the curiae should give their assent before the
-vote of the comitia centuriata. By a lex
-Maenia of uncertain date the same change
-was made as to elections.&mdash;But both during
-the earlier period and afterwards no business
-could be brought before the comitia without
-first receiving the sanction of the senate; and
-accordingly the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores fiunt</i>
-came now to be applied to the approval of
-a measure by the senate before it was confirmed
-by the votes of the people. This preliminary
-approval was also termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatus
-auctoritas</i>.&mdash;When the word auctor is applied
-to him who recommends but does not
-originate a legislative measure, it is equivalent
-to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suasor</i>. Sometimes both auctor and
-suasor are used in the same sentence, and the
-meaning of each is kept distinct. With reference
-to dealings between individuals,
-auctor has the sense of owner. In this sense
-auctor is the seller (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">venditor</i>), as opposed to
-the buyer (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emtor</i>): and hence we have the
-phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">a malo auctore emere</i>. Auctor is also
-used generally to express any person under
-whose authority any legal act is done. In
-this sense, it means a tutor who is appointed
-to aid or advise a woman on account of the
-infirmity of her sex.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Auctoramentum">AUCTŌRĀMENTUM, the pay of gladiators.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Auctoritas">AUCTŌRĬTAS. The technical meanings
-of this word correlate with those of auctor.
-The auctoritas senatus was not a senatus-consultum;
-it was a measure, incomplete in
-itself, which received its completion by some
-other authority. Auctoritas, as applied to
-property, is equivalent to legal ownership,
-being a correlation of auctor.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Auditorium">AUDĪTŌRĬUM, as the name implies, is
-any place for hearing. It was the practice
-among the Romans for poets and others to
-read their compositions to their friends, who
-were sometimes called the auditorium; but
-the word was also used to express any place
-in which any thing was heard, and under the
-empire it was applied to a court of justice.
-Under the republic the place for all judicial
-proceedings was the comitium and the forum.
-But for the sake of shelter and convenience
-it became the practice to hold courts in the
-Basilicae, which contained halls, which were
-also called auditoria. It is first under M.
-Aurelius that the auditorium principis is
-mentioned, by which we must understand a
-hall or room in the imperial residence; and
-in such a hall Septimius Severus and the
-later emperors held their regular sittings
-when they presided as judges. The latest
-jurists use the word generally for any place
-in which justice was administered.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Augur">AUGUR, AUGŬRĬUM; AUSPEX, AUSPĬCĬUM.
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augur</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspex</i> meant a diviner
-by birds, but came in course of time, like
-the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰωνός</span>, to be applied in a more extended
-sense: his art was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">augurium</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicium</i>. Plutarch relates that the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">augures</i>
-were originally termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspices</i>. The
-word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspex</i> was supplanted by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">augur</i>, but
-the scientific term for the observation continued
-on the contrary to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicium</i> and
-not <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">augurium</i>. By Greek writers on Roman
-affairs, the augurs are called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰωνοπόλοι</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰωνοσκόποι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰωνισταί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ ἐπ’ οἰωνοῖς ἱερεῖς</span>.
-The belief that the flight of birds gave some
-intimation of the will of the gods seems to
-have been prevalent among many nations of
-antiquity, and was common to the Greeks, as
-well as the Romans; but it was only among<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span>
-the latter people that it was reduced to a
-complete system, governed by fixed rules,
-and handed down from generation to generation.
-In Greece, the oracles supplanted the
-birds, and the future was learnt from Apollo
-and other gods, rarely from Zeus, who possessed
-very few oracles in Greece. The contrary
-was the case at Rome: it was from
-Jupiter that the future was learnt, and the
-birds were regarded as his messengers. It
-must be remarked in general, that the Roman
-auspices were essentially of a practical nature;
-they gave no information respecting the
-course of future events, they did not inform
-men <em>what was to happen</em>, but simply taught
-them <em>what they were to do, or not to do</em>;
-they assigned no reason for the decision of
-Jupiter&mdash;they simply announced, yes or no.
-The words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">augurium</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicium</i> came to
-be used in course of time to signify the observation
-of various kinds of signs. They
-were divided into five sorts: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex caelo</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex
-avibus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex tripudiis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex quadrupedibus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex diris</i>.
-Of these, the last three formed no part of the
-ancient auspices.&mdash;1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ex caelo.</i> This included
-the observation of the various kinds of
-thunder and lightning, and was regarded as
-the most important, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">maximum auspicium</i>.
-Whenever it was reported by a person authorised
-to take the auspices, that Jupiter thundered
-or lightened, the comitia could not be
-held.&mdash;2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ex avibus.</i> It was only a few
-birds which could give auguries among the
-Romans. They were divided into two classes:
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Oscines</i>, those which gave auguries by singing,
-or their voice, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alites</i>, those which
-gave auguries by their flight. To the former
-class belonged the raven (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corvus</i>) and the
-crow (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornix</i>), the first of these giving a
-favourable omen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicium ratum</i>) when it
-appeared on the right, the latter, on the contrary,
-when it was seen on the left: likewise
-the owl (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">noctua</i>) and the hen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gallina</i>). To
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aves alites</i> belonged first of all the eagle
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquila</i>), which is called pre-eminently the
-bird of Jupiter (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jovis ales</i>), and next the vulture
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vultur</i>). Some birds were included both
-among the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">oscines</i> and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alites</i>: such were
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Picus Martius</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Feronius</i>, and the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Parra</i>. These were the principal birds consulted
-in the auspices. When the birds favoured
-an undertaking, they were said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">addicere</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">admittere</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">secundare</i>, and were then
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">addictivae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">admissivae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">secundae</i>, or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praepetes</i>: when unfavourable they were said
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">abdicere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arcere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">refragari</i>, &amp;c., and were
-then called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adversae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alterae</i>. The birds
-which gave unfavourable omens were termed
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funebres</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inhibitae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lugubres</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">malae</i>, &amp;c., and
-such auspices were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clivia</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clamatoria</i>.&mdash;3.
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ex tripudiis.</i> These auspices
-were taken from the feeding of chickens, and
-were especially employed on military expeditions.
-The chickens were kept in a cage,
-under care of a person called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pullarius</i>; and
-when the auspices were to be taken, the
-pullarius opened the cage and threw to the
-chickens pulse or a kind of soft cake. If
-they refused to come out or to eat, or uttered
-a cry (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">occinerent</i>), or beat their wings, or
-flew away, the signs were considered unfavourable.
-On the contrary, if they ate
-greedily, so that something fell from their
-mouth and struck the earth, it was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tripudium solistimum</i> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tripudium</i> quasi <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">terripavium</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solistimum</i>, from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solum</i>, according to
-the ancient writers), and was held a favourable
-sign.&mdash;4. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ex quadrupedibus.</i> Auguries
-could also be taken from four-footed animals;
-but these formed no part of the original
-science of the augurs, and were never employed
-by them in taking auspices on behalf
-of the state, or in the exercise of their art
-properly so called. They must be looked
-upon simply as a mode of private divination.
-When a fox, a wolf, a horse, a dog, or any
-other kind of quadruped ran across a person’s
-path or appeared in an unusual place, it
-formed an augury.&mdash;5. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ex diris</i>, sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">signis</i>.
-Under this head was included every kind of
-augury which does not fall under any of the
-four classes mentioned above, such as sneezing,
-stumbling, and other accidental things.
-There was an important augury of this kind
-connected with the army, which was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex acuminibus</i>, that is, the flames appearing
-at the points of spears or other weapons.
-The ordinary manner of taking the auspices,
-properly so called (i.e. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex caelo</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex avibus</i>),
-was as follows: The person who was to take
-them first marked out with a wand (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lituus</i>)
-a division in the heavens called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tescum</i>, within which he intended to make
-his observations. The station where he was
-to take the auspices was also separated by a
-solemn formula from the rest of the land,
-and was likewise called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tescum</i>.
-He then proceeded to pitch a tent in it (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabernaculum
-capere</i>), and this tent again was also
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum</i>, or, more accurately, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum
-minus</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a>.</span>] Within the walls of
-Rome, or, more properly speaking, within
-the pomoerium, there was no occasion to select
-a spot and pitch a tent on it, as there
-was a place on the Arx on the summit of the
-Capitoline hill, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Auguraculum</i>, which
-had been consecrated once for all for this purpose.
-In like manner there was in every
-Roman camp a place called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">augurale</i>, which
-answered the same purpose; but on all other
-occasions a place had to be consecrated, and
-a tent to be pitched, as, for instance, in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span>
-Campus Martius, when the comitia centuriata
-were to be held. The person who was then
-taking the auspices waited for the favourable
-signs to appear; but it was necessary during
-this time that there should be no interruption
-of any kind whatsoever (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silentium</i>), and hence
-the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silentium</i> was used in a more extended
-sense to signify the absence of every
-thing that was faulty. Every thing, on the
-contrary, that rendered the auspices invalid
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitium</i>; and hence we constantly
-read in Livy and other writers of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitio magistratus
-creati</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitio lex lata</i>, &amp;c. The watching
-for the auspices was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectio</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">servare de coelo</i>, the declaration of what was
-observed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nuntiatio</i>, or, if they were unfavourable,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obnuntiatio</i>. In the latter case, the
-person who took the auspices seems usually
-to have said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alio die</i>, by which the business
-in hand, whether the holding of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia</i>
-or any thing else, was entirely stopped.&mdash;In
-ancient times no one but a patrician could
-take the auspices. Hence the possession of
-the auspices (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">habere auspicia</i>) is one of the
-most distinguished prerogatives of the patricians;
-they are said to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">penes patrum</i>, and
-are called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia patrum</i>. It would further
-appear that every patrician might take the
-auspices; but here a distinction is to be observed
-between the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia privata</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia
-publica</i>. One of the most frequent
-occasions on which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia privata</i> were
-taken, was in case of a marriage: and this
-was one great argument used by the patricians
-against <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">connubium</i> between themselves
-and the plebeians, as it would occasion, they
-urged, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perturbationem auspiciorum publicorum
-privatorumque</i>. In taking these private
-auspices, it would appear that any patrician
-was employed who knew how to form <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templa</i>
-and was acquainted with the art of augury.
-The case, however, was very different with
-respect to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia publica</i>, generally
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia</i> simply, or those which concerned
-the state. The latter could only be
-taken by the persons who represented the
-state, and who acted as mediators between
-the gods and the state; for though all the
-patricians were eligible for taking the auspices,
-yet it was only the magistrates who
-were in actual possession of them. In case,
-however, there was no patrician magistrate,
-the auspices became vested in the whole body
-of the patricians (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia ad patres redeunt</i>),
-who had recourse to an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">interregnum</i> for the
-renewal of them, and for handing them over
-in a perfect state to the new magistrates:
-hence we find the expressions <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repetere de integro
-auspicia</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">renovare per interregnum
-auspicia</i>.&mdash;The distinction between the duties
-of the magistrates and the augurs in taking
-the auspices is one of the most difficult points
-connected with this subject, but perhaps a
-satisfactory solution of these difficulties may
-be found by taking an historical view of the
-question. We are told not only that the
-kings were in possession of the auspices, but
-that they themselves were acquainted with
-the art and practised it. Romulus is stated
-to have appointed three augurs, but only as
-his assistants in taking the auspices, a fact
-which it is important to bear in mind. Their
-dignity gradually increased in consequence of
-their being employed at the inauguration of
-the kings, and also in consequence of their
-becoming the preservers and depositaries of
-the science of augury. Formed into a collegium,
-they handed down to their successors
-the various rules of the science, while the
-kings, and subsequently the magistrates of
-the republic, were liable to change. Their
-duties thus became two-fold, to assist the magistrates
-in taking up auspices, and to preserve
-a scientific knowledge of the art. As
-the augurs were therefore merely the assistants
-of the magistrates, they could not take
-the auspices without the latter, though the
-magistrates on the contrary could dispense
-with their assistance. At the same time it
-must be borne in mind, that as the augurs
-were the interpreters of the science, they
-possessed the right of declaring whether the
-auspices were valid or invalid. They thus
-possessed in reality a veto upon every important
-public transaction; and they frequently
-exercised this power as a political
-engine to vitiate the election <ins class="corr" id="tn-51" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'of each parties'">
-of such parties</ins> as were unfavourable to the enclusive privileges
-of the patricians. But although the
-augurs could declare that there was some
-fault in the auspices, yet, on the other hand,
-they could not, by virtue of their office, declare
-that any unfavourable sign had appeared
-to them, since it was not to them that the
-auspices were sent. Thus we are told that
-the augurs did not possess the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectio</i>. This
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectio</i> was of two kinds, one more extensive
-and the other more limited. In the one case
-the person who exercised it could put a stop
-to the proceedings of any other magistrate by
-his obnuntiatio: this was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectio et
-nuntiatio</i> (perhaps also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectio cum nuntiatione</i>),
-and belonged only to the highest magistrates,
-the consuls, dictators, interreges,
-and, with some modifications, to the praetors.
-In the other case, the person who took the
-auspices only exercised the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectio</i> in reference
-to the duties of his own office, and could
-not interfere with any other magistrate: this
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectio sine nuntiatione</i>, and belonged
-to the other magistrates, the censors,
-aediles, and quaestors. Now as the augurs<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span>
-did not possess the auspices, they consequently
-could not possess the spectio (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">habere
-spectionem</i>); but as the augurs were constantly
-employed by the magistrates to take
-the auspices, they <em>exercised</em> the spectio, though
-they did not <em>possess</em> it in virtue of their office.
-When they were employed by the magistrates
-in taking the auspices, they possessed the
-right of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nuntiatio</i>, and thus had the
-power, by the declaration of unfavourable
-signs (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obnuntiatio</i>), to put a stop to all important
-public transactions.&mdash;The auspices
-were not conferred upon the magistrates in
-any special manner. It was the act of their
-election which made them the recipients of
-the auspices, since the comitia, in which they
-were appointed to their office, were held <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicato</i>,
-and consequently their appointment
-was regarded as ratified by the gods. The
-auspices, therefore, passed immediately into
-their hands upon the abdication of their predecessors
-in office.&mdash;The auspices belonging
-to the different magistrates were divided into
-two classes, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia maxima</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">majora</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minora</i>. The former, which belonged
-originally to the kings, passed over to the
-consuls, censors, and praetors, and likewise
-to the extraordinary magistrates, the dictators,
-interreges, and consular tribunes. The
-quaestors and the curule aediles, on the contrary,
-had only the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia minora</i>.&mdash;It was
-a common opinion in antiquity that a college
-of three augurs was appointed by Romulus,
-answering to the number of the early tribes,
-the Ramnes, Tities, and Lucerenses, but the
-accounts vary respecting their origin and
-number. At the passing of the Ogulnian
-law (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 300) the augurs were four in number.
-This law increased the number of pontiffs
-to eight, by the addition of four plebeians,
-and that of the augurs to nine by the addition
-of five plebeians. The number of nine
-augurs lasted down to the dictatorship of
-Sulla, who increased them to fifteen, a multiple
-of the original three, probably with a
-reference to the early tribes. A sixteenth
-was added by Julius Caesar after his return
-from Egypt. The members of the college of
-augurs possessed the right of self-election
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cooptatio</i>) until <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 103, the year of the
-Domitian law. By this law it was enacted
-that vacancies in the priestly colleges should
-be filled up by the votes of a minority of the
-tribes, <em>i.e.</em> seventeen out of thirty-five chosen
-by lot. The Domitian law was repealed by
-Sulla <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 81, but again restored <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63,
-during the consulship of Cicero, by the tribune
-T. Annius Labienus, with the support
-of Caesar. It was a second time abrogated
-by Antony <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 44; whether again restored
-by Hirtius and Pansa in their general annulment
-of the acts of Antony, seems uncertain.
-The emperors possessed the right of electing
-augurs at pleasure. The augurs were elected
-for life, and even if capitally convicted, never
-lost their sacred character. When a vacancy
-occurred, the candidate was nominated by
-two of the elder members of the college, the
-electors were sworn, and the new member
-was then solemnly inaugurated. On such
-occasion there was always a splendid banquet
-given, at which all the augurs were expected
-to be present. The only distinction in the
-college was one of age; an elder augur
-always voted before a younger, even if the
-latter filled one of the higher offices in the
-state. The head of the college was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister collegii</i>. As insignia of their office
-the augurs wore the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trabea</i>, or public dress,
-and carried in their hand the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lituus</i> or curved
-wand. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lituus">Lituus</a>.</span>] On the coins of the Romans,
-who filled the office of augur, we constantly
-find the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lituus</i>, and along with it, not
-unfrequently, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capis</i>, an earthen vessel
-which was used by them in sacrifices. The
-science of the augurs was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus augurum</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus augurium</i>, and was preserved in books
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libri augurales</i>), which are frequently mentioned
-in the ancient writers. The expression
-for consulting the augurs was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">referre ad
-augures</i>, and their answers were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decreta</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">responsa augurum</i>. The science of
-augury had greatly declined in the time of
-Cicero; and although he frequently deplores
-its neglect in his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Divinatione</i>, yet neither
-he nor any of the educated classes appears to
-have had any faith in it.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill052" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill052.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Coin representing the lituus and capis on the reverse.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Auguraculum">AŪGŬRĀCŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arx">Arx</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a></span>, <a href="#Page_50">p. 50</a>, b.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Augurale">AUGŬRĀLE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a></span>, <a href="#Page_50">p. 50</a>, b.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Augurium">AUGŬRIUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Augustales">AUGUSTĀLES&mdash;(1) (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludi</i>, also called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augustalia</i>, sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">certamina</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludicra</i>), games
-celebrated in honour of Augustus, at Rome
-and in other parts of the Roman empire.
-After the battle of Actium, a quinquennial
-festival was instituted; and the birthday of
-Augustus, as well as that on which the victory
-was announced at Rome, were regarded
-as festival days. It was not, however, till
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 11 that the festival on the birthday of
-Augustus was formally established by a decree
-of the senate, and it is this festival<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span>
-which is usually meant when the Augustales
-or Augustalia are mentioned. It was celebrated
-iv. Id. Octobr. At the death of Augustus,
-this festival assumed a more solemn
-character, was added to the Fasti, and celebrated
-to his honour as a god. It was henceforth
-exhibited annually in the circus, at first
-by the tribunes of the plebs, at the commencement
-of the reign of Tiberius, but afterwards
-by the praetor peregrinus.&mdash;(2) The
-name of two classes of priests, one at Rome
-and the other in the municipia. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augustales</i>
-at Rome, properly called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sodales Augustales</i>,
-were an order of priests instituted by
-Tiberius to attend to the worship of Augustus
-and the Julia gens. They were chosen by
-lot from among the principal persons of
-Rome, and were twenty-one in number, to
-which were added Tiberius, Drusus, Claudius,
-and Germanicus, as members of the imperial
-family. They were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacerdotes Augustales</i>,
-and sometimes simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augustales</i>.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augustales</i> in the municipia are supposed
-by most modern writers to have been a class
-of priests selected by Augustus from the libertini
-to attend to the religions rites connected
-with the worship of the Lares, which that
-emperor was said to have put up in places
-where two or more ways met; but there are
-good reasons for thinking that they were instituted
-in imitation of the Augustales at
-Rome, and for the same object, namely, to
-attend to the worship of Augustus. They
-formed a collegium and were appointed by
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decuriones</i>, or senate of the municipia.
-The six principal members of the college were
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Seviri</i>, a title which seems to have been
-imitated from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Seviri</i> in the equestrian
-order at Rome.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Augustus">AUGUSTUS, a name bestowed upon Octavianus
-in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 27, by the senate and the Roman
-people. It was a word used in connection
-with religion, and designated a person as
-sacred and worthy of worship; hence the
-Greek writers translate it by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σεβαστός</span>. It
-was adopted by all succeeding emperors, as if
-descended, either by birth or adoption, from
-the first emperor of the Roman world. The
-name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augusta</i> was frequently bestowed
-upon females of the imperial family; but
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augustus</i> belonged exclusively to the reigning
-emperor till towards the end of the second
-century of the Christian aera, when M. Aurelius
-and L. Verus both received this surname.
-From this time we frequently find
-two or even a greater number of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augusti</i>.
-From the time of Probus the title became
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perpetuus Augustus</i>, and from Philippus or
-Claudius Gothicus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">semper Augustus</i>, the latter
-of which titles was borne by the so-called Roman
-emperors in Germany. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caesar">Caesar</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aulaeum">AULAEUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Siparium">Siparium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aureus">AURĔUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aurum">Aurum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Auriga">AURĪGA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill053" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill053.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Aureus Nummus. (British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Aurum">AURUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρυσός</span>), gold. Gold was scarce
-in Greece. The chief places from which the
-Greeks procured their gold were India, Arabia,
-Armenia, Colchis, and Troas. It was found
-mixed with the sands of the Pactolus and
-other rivers. Almost the only method of
-purifying gold, known to the ancients, seems
-to have been that of grinding and then roasting
-it, and by this process they succeeded in
-getting it very pure. This is what we are to
-understand by the phrase <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρυσίον ἄπεφθον</span> in
-Thucydides, and by the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obrussa</i> in
-Pliny. The art of gilding was known to the
-Greeks from the earliest times of which we
-have any information. The time when gold
-was first coined at Athens is very uncertain,
-but on the whole it appears most probable
-that gold money was not coined there, or in
-Greece Proper generally, till the time of Alexander
-the Great, if we except a solitary issue
-of debased gold at Athens in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 407. But
-from a very early period the Asiatic nations,
-and the Greek cities of Asia Minor and the
-adjacent islands, as well as Sicily and Cyrene,
-possessed a gold coinage, which was more or
-less current in Greece. Herodotus says that
-the Lydians were the first who coined gold,
-and the stater of Croesus appears to have
-been the earliest gold coin known to the
-Greeks. The Daric was a Persian coin.
-Staters of Cyzicus and Phocaea had a considerable
-currency in Greece. There was a
-gold coinage in Samos as early as the time of
-Polycrates. The islands of Siphnos and Thasos,
-which possessed gold mines, appear to
-have had a gold coinage at an early period.
-The Macedonian gold coinage came into circulation
-in Greece in the time of Philip, and
-continued in use till the subjection of Greece
-to the Romans. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dareicus">Daricus</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Stater">Stater</a></span>.] The
-standard gold coin of Rome was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aureus
-nummus</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">denarius aureus</i>, which, according
-to Pliny, was first coined 62 years after
-the first silver coinage [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Argentum">Argentum</a></span>], that is,
-in the year 207 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> The lowest denomination
-was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scrupulum</i>, which was made
-equal to 20 sestertii. The weight of the
-scrupulum was 18·06 grains. The annexed
-cut represents a gold coin of 60 sestertii.
-Pliny adds that afterwards aurei were coined<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span>
-of 40 to the pound, which weight was diminished,
-till under Nero they were 45 to the
-pound. The average weight of the aurei of
-Augustus, in the British Museum, is 121·26
-grains: and as the weight was afterwards
-diminished, we may take the average at 120
-grains. The value of the aureus in terms of
-the sovereign = 1<em>l.</em> 1<em>s.</em> 1<em>d.</em> and a little more
-than a halfpenny. This is its value according
-to the present worth of gold; but its
-current value in Rome was different from
-this, on account of the difference in the worth
-of the metal. The aureus passed for 25 denarii;
-therefore, the denarius being 8½<em>d.</em>, it
-was worth 17<em>s.</em> 8½<em>d.</em> The ratio of the value
-of gold to that of silver is given in the article
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Argentum">Argentum</a></span>. Alexander Severus coined pieces
-of one-half and one-third of the aureus, called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Semissis</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tremissis</i>, after which time the
-aureus was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solidus</i>. Constantine the
-Great coined aurei of 72 to the pound; at
-which standard the coin remained to the end
-of the empire.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill054" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill054.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Aureus of Augustus. (British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Aurum_c">AURUM CŎRŌNĀRĬUM. When a general
-in a Roman province had obtained a victory,
-it was the custom for the cities in his own
-provinces, and for those from the neighbouring
-states, to send golden crowns to him,
-which were carried before him in his triumph
-at Rome. In the time of Cicero it appears
-to have been usual for the cities of the provinces,
-instead of sending crowns on occasion
-of a victory, to pay money, which was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aurum coronarium</i>. This offering, which
-was at first voluntary, came to be regarded
-as a regular tribute, and was sometimes
-exacted by the governors of the provinces,
-even when no victory had been gained.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aurum_v">AURUM VĪCĒSĬMĀRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Auspex">AUSPEX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Auspicium">AUSPĬCĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Authepsa">AUTHEPSA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐθέψης</span>), which literally
-means “self-boiling,” or “self-cooking,” was
-the name of a vessel which is supposed to
-have been used for heating water, or for
-keeping it hot.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Autonomi">AUTŎNŎMI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐτονόμοι</span>), the name given
-by the Greeks to those states which were
-governed by their own laws, and were not
-subject to any foreign power. This name
-was also given to those cities subject to the
-Romans, which were permitted to enjoy
-their own laws and elect their own magistrates.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Auxilia">AUXĬLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Socii">Socii</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Axamenta">AXĀMENTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Salii">Salii</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Axine">AXĪNĒ. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Securis">Securis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Axis">AXIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Currus">Currus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Axones">AXŎNES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄξονες</span>), also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">kurbeis</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύρβεις</span>), wooden tablets of a square or pyramidal
-form, made to turn on an axis, on
-which were written the laws of Solon. According
-to some writers the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Axones</i> contained
-the civil, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Kurbeis</i> the religious laws;
-according to others the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Kurbeis</i> had four
-sides and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Axones</i> three. But at Athens,
-at all events, they seem to have been identical.
-They were at first preserved in the
-Acropolis, but were afterwards placed in the
-agora, in order that all persons might be able
-to read them.</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="B_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">B</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Balista" class="drop-capy">BĀLISTA, BALLISTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tormentum">Tormentum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Balneum">BALNĔUM or BĂLĬNĔUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λοετρόν</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λουτρόν, βαλανεῖον</span>, also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balneae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balineae</i>),
-a bath. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Balneum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balineum</i> signifies, in
-its primary sense, a bath or bathing vessel,
-such as most Romans possessed in their own
-houses; and from that it came to mean the
-chamber which contained the bath. When
-the baths of private individuals became more
-sumptuous, and comprised many rooms, the
-plural <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balnea</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balinea</i> was adopted, which
-still, in correct language, had reference only
-to the baths of private persons. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Balneae</i> and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balineae</i>, which have no singular number,
-were the public baths. But this accuracy
-of diction is neglected by many of the later
-writers. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thermae</i> (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θέρμη</span>, warmth)
-means properly warm springs, or baths of
-warm water, but was afterwards applied to
-the structures in which the baths were placed,
-and which were both hot and cold. There
-was, however, a material distinction between
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balneae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">thermae</i>, inasmuch as the
-former was the term used under the republic,
-and referred to the public establishments of
-that age, which contained no appliances for
-luxury beyond the mere convenience of hot
-and cold baths, whereas the latter name was
-given to those magnificent edifices which grew
-up under the empire, and which comprised
-within their range of buildings all the appurtenances
-belonging to the Greek gymnasia, as
-well as a regular establishment appropriated
-for bathing.&mdash;Bathing was a practice familiar
-to the Greeks of both sexes from the earliest
-times. The artificial warm bath was taken
-in a vessel called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">asaminthus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσάμινθος</span>) by
-Homer, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">puelus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύελος</span>) by the later
-Greeks. It did not contain water itself, but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span>
-was only used for the bather to sit in, while
-the warm water was poured over him. On
-Greek vases, however, we never find anything
-corresponding to a modern bath in which
-persons can stand or sit; but there is always
-a round or oval basin (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λουτήρ</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λουτήριον</span>),
-resting on a stand, by the side of which those
-who are bathing are standing undressed and
-washing themselves. In the Homeric times
-it was customary to take first a cold and
-afterwards a warm bath; but in later times
-it was the usual practice of the Greeks to
-take first a warm or vapour, and afterwards
-a cold bath. At Athens the frequent use of
-the public baths, most of which were warm
-baths (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βαλανεῖα</span>, called by Homer <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θερμὰ
-λοετρά</span>), was regarded in the time of Socrates
-and Demosthenes as a mark of luxury and
-effeminacy. Accordingly, Phocion was said
-to have never bathed in a public bath, and
-Socrates to have used it very seldom. After
-bathing both sexes anointed themselves, in
-order that the skin might not be left harsh
-and rough, especially after warm water. Oil
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔλαιον</span>) is the only ointment mentioned by
-Homer, but in later times precious unguents
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μῦρα</span>) were used for this purpose. The bath
-was usually taken before the principal meal
-of the day (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεῖπνον</span>). The Lacedaemonians,
-who considered warm water as enervating,
-used two kinds of baths; namely, the cold
-daily bath in the Eurotas, and a dry sudorific
-bath in a chamber heated with warm air by
-means of a stove, and from them the chamber
-used by the Romans for a similar purpose
-was termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Laconicum</i>. A sudorific or vapour
-bath (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυρία</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυριατήριον</span>) is mentioned
-as early as the time of Herodotus. At what
-period the use of the warm bath was introduced
-among the Romans is not recorded;
-but we know that Scipio had a warm bath in
-his villa at Liternum, and the practice of
-heating an apartment with warm air by flues
-placed immediately under it, so as to produce
-a vapour bath, is stated to have been invented
-by Sergius Orata, who lived in the age of
-Crassus, before the Marsic war. By the time
-of Cicero the use of baths of warm water and
-hot air had become common, and in his time
-there were baths at Rome which were open
-to the public upon payment of a small fee.
-In the public baths at Rome the men and
-women used originally to bathe in separate
-sets of chambers; but under the empire it
-became the common custom for both sexes to
-bathe indiscriminately in the same bath.
-This practice was forbidden by Hadrian and
-M. Aurelius; and Alexander Severus prohibited
-any baths, common to both sexes, from
-being opened in Rome. The price of a bath
-was a quadrant, the smallest piece of coined
-money, from the age of Cicero downwards,
-which was paid to the keeper of the bath
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balneator</i>). Children below a certain age
-were admitted free. It was usual with the
-Romans to take the bath after exercise, and
-before the principal meal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coena</i>) of the day;
-but the debauchees of the empire bathed also
-after eating as well as before, in order to
-promote digestion, and to acquire a new
-appetite for fresh delicacies.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill055" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill055.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Roman Bath. (Fresco from the Thermae of Titus.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Upon quitting
-the bath the Romans as well as the Greeks
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span>were anointed with oil. The Romans did not
-content themselves with a single bath of hot
-or cold water; but they went through a
-course of baths in succession, in which the
-agency of air as well as water was applied.
-It is difficult to ascertain the precise order in
-which the course was usually taken; but it
-appears to have been a general practice to
-close the pores, and brace the body after the
-excessive perspiration of the vapour bath,
-either by pouring cold water over the head,
-or by plunging at once into the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">piscina</i>. To
-render the subjoined remarks more easily intelligible,
-the preceding woodcut is inserted,
-which is taken from a fresco painting upon
-the walls of the thermae of Titus at Rome.
-The chief parts of a Roman bath were as
-follow:&mdash;1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Apodyterium.</i> Here the bathers
-were expected to take off their garments,
-which were then delivered to a class of slaves,
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capsarii</i>, whose duty it was to take
-charge of them. These men were notorious
-for dishonesty, and were leagued with all the
-thieves of the city, so that they connived at
-the robberies which they were placed to prevent.
-There was probably an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Elaeothesium</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Unctorium</i>, as appears from the preceding
-cut, in connection with the apodyterium,
-where the bathers might be anointed with
-oil.&mdash;2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Frigidarium</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cella Frigidaria</i>,
-where the cold bath was taken. The cold
-bath itself was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Natatio</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Natatorium</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Piscina</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Baptisterium</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Puteus</i>.&mdash;3. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tepidarium</i>
-would seem from the preceding cut
-to have been a bathing room, for a person is
-there apparently represented pouring water
-over a bather. But there is good reason for
-thinking that this was not the case. In most
-cases the tepidarium contained no water at
-all, but was a room merely heated with warm
-air of an agreeable temperature, in order to
-prepare the body for the great heat of the
-vapour and warm baths, and upon returning
-from the latter, to obviate the danger of a
-too sudden transition to the open air.&mdash;4. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caldarium</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Concamerata Sudatio</i> contained
-at one extremity the vapour bath (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Laconicum</i>),
-and at the other the warm bath (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balneum</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calda lavatio</i>), while the centre space
-between the two ends was termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sudatio</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sudatorium</i>. In larger establishments the
-vapour bath and warm bath were in two
-separate cells, as we see in the preceding
-cut: in such cases the former part <em>alone</em> was
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">concamerata sudatio</i>. The whole rested
-on a suspended pavement (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suspensura</i>), under
-which was a fire (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hypocaustum</i>), so that the
-flames might heat the whole apartment. (See
-cut.) <span id="Calida">The</span> warm water bath (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balneum</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calda lavatio</i>), which is also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">piscina</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calida piscina</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">labrum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solium</i>, appears
-to have been a capacious marble vase, sometimes
-standing upon the floor, like that in the
-preceding cut, and sometimes either partly
-elevated above the floor, as it was at Pompeii,
-or entirely sunk into it. After having gone,
-through the regular course of perspiration,
-the Romans made use of instruments called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strigiles</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strigles</i>, to scrape off the perspiration.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp43" id="ill056a" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill056a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Strigil. (From a Relief at Athens.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The strigil was also used by the Greeks,
-who called it <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stlengis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στλεγγίς</span>) or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">xystra</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξύστρα</span>). The figure in the cut on <a href="#ill024a">p. 24</a> is
-represented with a strigil in his hand. As
-the strigil was not a blunt instrument, its
-edge was softened by the application of oil,
-which was dropped upon it from a small
-vessel called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">guttus</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ampulla</i>, which had a
-narrow neck, so as to discharge its contents
-drop by drop, from whence the name is taken.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp43" id="ill056b" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill056b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Strigil and Guttus. (From a Statue in the Vatican.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thermae</i>, spoken of above, the baths
-were of secondary importance. They were a
-Roman adaptation of the Greek gymnasium,
-contained exedrae for the philosophers and
-rhetoricians to lecture in, porticoes for the
-idle, and libraries for the learned, and were
-adorned with marbles, fountains, and shaded
-walks and plantations. M. Agrippa, in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span>
-reign of Augustus, was the first who afforded
-these luxuries to his countrymen, by bequeathing
-to them the thermae and gardens which
-he had erected in the Campus Martius. The
-example set by Agrippa was followed by
-Nero, and afterwards by Titus, the ruins of
-whose thermae are still visible, covering a
-vast extent, partly under ground and partly
-above the Esquiline hill. Thermae were also
-erected by Trajan, Caracalla, and Diocletian,
-of the two last of which ample remains still
-exist. Previously to the erection of these
-establishments for the use of the population,
-it was customary for those who sought the
-favour of the people to give them a day’s
-bathing free of expense. From thence it is
-fair to infer that the quadrant paid for admission
-into the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balneae</i> was not exacted at the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">thermae</i>, which, as being the works of the
-emperors, would naturally be opened with
-imperial generosity to all, and without any
-charge.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Balteus">BALTĔUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελαμών</span>), a belt, a shoulder
-belt, was used to suspend the sword. See
-the figs. on <a href="#ill041">p. 41</a>. In the Homeric times the
-Greeks used a belt to support the shield. The
-balteus was likewise employed to suspend
-the quiver, and sometimes together with it
-the bow. More commonly the belt, whether
-employed to support the sword, the shield,
-or the quiver, was made of leather, and was
-frequently ornamented with gold, silver, and
-precious stones. In a general sense <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balteus</i>
-was applied not only to the belt which passed
-over the shoulder, but also to the girdle
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cingulum</i>), which encompassed the waist.
-In architecture, Vitruvius applies the term
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Baltei</i> to the bands surrounding the volute
-on each side of an Ionic capital. Other
-writers apply it to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praecinctiones</i> of an
-amphitheatre. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Barathron">BĂRATHRON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βάραθρον</span>), also called <span class="smcap">Orugma</span>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄρυγμα</span>), a deep cavern or chasm, like
-the Ceadas at Sparta, behind the Acropolis at
-Athens, into which criminals were thrown.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ceadas">Ceadas</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Barba">BARBA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πώγων</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένειον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπήνη</span>), the beard.
-The Greeks seem generally to have worn the
-beard till the time of Alexander the Great;
-and a thick beard was considered as a mark
-of manliness. The Greek philosophers in
-particular were distinguished by their long
-beards as a sort of badge. The Romans in
-early times wore the beard uncut, and the
-Roman beards are said not to have been
-shaved till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 300, when P. Ticinius Maena
-brought over a barber from Sicily; and Pliny
-adds, that the first Roman who is said to
-have been shaved every day was Scipio
-Africanus. His custom, however, was soon
-followed, and shaving became a regular thing.
-In the later times of the republic there were
-many who shaved the beard only partially,
-and trimmed it, so as to give it an ornamental
-form; to them the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bene barbati</i> and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">barbatuli</i> are applied. In the general way at
-Rome, a long beard (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">barba promissa</i>) was
-considered a mark of slovenliness and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">squalor</i>.
-The first time of shaving was regarded as the
-beginning of manhood, and the day on which
-this took place was celebrated as a festival.
-There was no particular time fixed for this
-to be done. Usually, however, it was done
-when the young Roman assumed the toga
-virilis. The hair cut off on such occasions
-was consecrated to some god. Thus Nero
-put his up in a gold box, set with pearls, and
-dedicated it to Jupiter Capitolinus. Under
-the emperor Hadrian the beard began to
-revive. Plutarch says that the emperor wore
-it to hide some scars on his face. The practice
-afterwards became common, and till the
-time of Constantine the Great, the emperors
-appear in busts and coins with beards. The
-Romans let their beards grow in time of
-mourning; the Greeks, on the other hand,
-on such occasions shaved the beard close.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Barbitus">BARBĬTUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βάρβιτος</span>), or BARBĬTON
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βάρβιτον</span>), a stringed instrument, the original
-form of which is uncertain. Later
-writers use it as synonymous with the lyra.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lyra">Lyra</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bascauda">BASCAUDA, a British basket. This term,
-which remains with very little variation in
-the Welsh “basgawd” and the English
-“basket,” was conveyed to Rome together
-with the articles denoted by it.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Basilica">BĂSĬLĬCA (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aedes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aula</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porticus</i>&mdash;<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλική</span>,
-also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">regia</i>), a building which served
-as a court of law and an exchange, or place
-of meeting for merchants and men of business.
-The word was adopted from the Athenians,
-whose second archon was styled <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">archon
-basileus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων βασιλεύς</span>), and the tribunal
-where he adjudicated <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stoa basileius</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡ βασίλειος
-στοά</span>), the substantive <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aula</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porticus</i> in
-Latin being omitted for convenience, and
-the distinctive epithet converted into a substantive.
-The first edifice of this description
-at Rome was not erected until <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 182. It
-was situated in the forum adjoining the curia,
-and was denominated <ins class="corr" id="tn-57" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'Basilica Portia, in'">
-Basilica Porcia, in</ins> commemoration
-of its founder, M. Porcius Cato.
-Besides this there were twenty others erected
-at different periods, within the city of Rome.
-The forum, or, where there was more than
-one, the one which was in the most frequented
-and central part of the city, was always selected
-for the site of a basilica; and hence it
-is that the classic writers not unfrequently
-use the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">forum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">basilica</i> synonymously.
-The ground plan of all these buildings<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span>
-is rectangular, and their width not more
-than half, nor less than one-third of the
-length. This area was divided into three
-naves, consisting of a centre (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">media porticus</i>),
-and two side aisles, separated from the centre
-one, each by a single row of columns. At one
-end of the centre aisle was the tribunal of the
-judge, in form either rectangular or circular, as
-is seen in the annexed plan of the basilica at
-Pompeii. In the centre of the tribunal was
-placed the curule chair of the praetor, and seats
-for the judices and the advocates. The two side
-aisles, as has been said, were separated from
-the centre one by a row of columns, behind
-each of which was placed a square pier or
-pilaster (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">parastata</i>), which supported the
-flooring of an upper portico, similar to the
-gallery of a modern church. The upper
-gallery was in like manner decorated with
-columns, of lower dimensions than those
-below; and these served to support the roof,
-and were connected with one another by a
-parapet-wall or balustrade (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pluteus</i>), which
-served as a defence against the danger of
-falling over, and screened the crowd of loiterers
-above (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub-basilicani</i>) from the people of
-business in the area below. Many of these
-edifices were afterwards used as Christian
-churches, and many churches were built
-after the model above described. Such churches
-were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">basilicae</i>, which name they retain
-to the present day, being still called at Rome
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">basiliche</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill058" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill058.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ground Plan of a Basilica.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Basterna">BASTERNA, a kind of litter (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lectica</i>) in
-which women were carried in the time of the
-Roman emperors. It appears to have resembled
-the Lectica [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lectica">Lectica</a></span>] very closely; and
-the only difference apparently was, that the
-lectica was carried by slaves, and the basterna
-by two mules.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Baxa">BAXA, or BAXĔA, a sandal made of vegetable
-leaves, twigs, or fibres, worn on the
-stage by comic actors.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bema">BĒMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βῆμα</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ecclesia">Ecclesia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bendideia">BENDĬDEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βενδίδεια</span>), a Thracian festival
-in honour of the goddess Bendis, who is
-said to be identical with the Grecian Artemis
-and with the Roman Diana. The festival
-was of a bacchanalian character. From
-Thrace it was brought to Athens, where it
-was celebrated in the Peiraeeus, on the 19th
-or 20th of the month Thargelion, before the
-Panathenaea Minora. The temple of Bendis
-was called Bendideion.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Beneficium">BĔNĔFĬCĬUM, BĔNĔFĬCĬĀRĬUS. The
-term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">beneficium</i> is of frequent occurrence in
-the Roman law, in the sense of some special
-privilege or favour granted to a person in
-respect of age, sex, or condition. But the
-word was also used in other senses. In the
-time of Cicero it was usual for a general, or
-a governor of a province, to report to the
-treasury the names of those under his command
-who had done good service to the state:
-those who were included in such report were
-said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in beneficiis ad aerarium deferri</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">In beneficiis</i>
-in these passages may mean that the
-persons so reported were considered as persons
-who had deserved well of the state; and
-so the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">beneficium</i> may have reference to
-the services of the individuals; but as the
-object for which their services were reported
-was the benefit of the individuals, it seems
-that the term had reference also to the reward,
-immediate or remote, obtained for their services.
-The honours and offices of the Roman
-state, in the republican period, were called
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">beneficia</i> of the Populus Romanus. Beneficium
-also signified any promotion conferred
-on or grant made to soldiers, who were
-thence called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">beneficiarii</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bestiarii">BESTIĀRĬI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θηριομάχοι</span>), persons who
-fought with wild beasts in the games of the
-circus. They were either persons who fought
-for the sake of pay (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctoramentum</i>), and
-who were allowed arms, or they were criminals,
-who were usually permitted to have no
-means of defence against the wild beasts.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bibliopola">BIBLĬŎPŌLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βιβλιοπώλης</span>), also called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">librarius</i>, a bookseller. The shop was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apotheca</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taberna libraria</i>, or merely <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libraria</i>.
-The Romans had their Paternoster-row;
-for the bibliopolae or librarii lived
-mostly in one street, called Argiletum. Another
-favourite quarter of the booksellers was
-the Vicus Sandalarius. There seems also to
-have been a sort of bookstalls by the temples
-of Vertumnus and Janus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bibliotheca">BIBLĬŎTHĒCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βιβλιοθήκη</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποθήκη
-βιβλίων</span>), primarily, the place where a collection
-of books was kept; secondarily, the collection
-itself. Public collections of books
-appear to have been very ancient. That of
-Peisistratus (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 550) was intended for public
-use; it was subsequently removed to Persia
-by Xerxes. About the same time Polycrates,
-tyrant of Samos, is said to have founded a
-library. In the best days of Athens, even
-private persons had large collections of books;
-but the most important and splendid public
-library of antiquity was that founded by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span>
-Ptolemies at Alexandria, begun under Ptolemy
-Soter, but increased and re-arranged in an
-orderly and systematic manner by Ptolemy
-Philadelphus, who also appointed a fixed
-librarian, and otherwise provided for the usefulness
-of the institution. A great part of
-this splendid library was consumed by fire in
-the siege of Alexandria by Julius Caesar; but
-it was soon restored, and continued in a
-flourishing condition till it was destroyed by
-the Arabs, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 640. The Ptolemies were not
-long without a rival in zeal. Eumenes, king of
-Pergamus, became a patron of literature and
-the sciences, and established a library, which,
-in spite of the prohibition against exporting
-papyrus issued by Ptolemy, who was jealous
-of his success, became very extensive, and
-perhaps next in importance to the library of
-Alexandria. The first public library in Rome
-was that founded by Asinius Pollio, and was
-in the atrium Libertatis on Mount Aventine.
-The library of Pollio was followed by that of
-Augustus in the temple of Apollo on Mount Palatine
-and by another, bibliothecae Octavianae,
-in the theatre of Marcellus. There were also
-libraries on the Capitol, in the temple of
-Peace, in the palace of Tiberius, besides the
-Ulpian library, which was the most famous,
-founded by Trajan. Libraries were also
-usually attached to the Thermae. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]
-Private collections of books were made at
-Rome soon after the second Punic war.
-The zeal of Cicero, Atticus, and others,
-in increasing their libraries is well known.
-It became, in fact, the fashion to have a
-room elegantly furnished as a library, and
-reserved for that purpose. The charge of the
-libraries in Rome was given to persons called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">librarii</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bicos">BĪCOS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βῖκος</span>), the name of an earthen
-vessel in common use among the Greeks, for
-holding wine, and salted meat and fish.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bidental">BĬDENTAL, the name given to a place
-where any one had been struck by lightning,
-or where any one had been killed by lightning
-and buried. Such a place was considered
-sacred. Priests, who were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bidentales</i>,
-collected the earth which had been torn up
-by lightning, and every thing that had been
-scorched, and burnt it in the ground with a
-sorrowful murmur. The officiating priest
-was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">condere fulgur</i>; he further consecrated
-the spot by sacrificing a two-year-old
-sheep (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bidens</i>), whence the name of the place
-and of the priest, and he also erected an altar,
-and surrounded it with a wall or fence. To
-move the bounds of a bidental, or in any way
-to violate its sacred precincts, was considered
-as sacrilege.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bidiaei">BIDIAEI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βιδιαῖοι</span>), magistrates in Sparta,
-whose business was to inspect the gymnastic
-exercises. They were either five or six in
-number.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Biga">BĪGA or BĪGAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Currus">Currus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bigatus">BĪGĀTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bipennis">BĬPENNIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Securis">Securis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Biremis">BĬRĒMIS. (1.) A ship with two banks of
-oars. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>] Such ships were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dicrota</i>
-by the Greeks, which term is also
-used by Cicero.&mdash;(2.) A boat rowed by two
-oars.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bissextus">BISSEXTUS ANNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium</a>,
-Roman.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Boedromia">BŎĒDRŎMĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βοηδρόμια</span>), a festival celebrated
-at Athens on the seventh day of the
-month Boëdromion, in honour of Apollo Boëdromius.
-The name Boëdromius, by which
-Apollo was called in Boeotia and many other
-parts of Greece, seems to indicate that by
-this festival he was honoured as a martial
-god, who, either by his actual presence or
-by his oracles, afforded assistance in the dangers
-of war.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Boeotarches">BOEŌTARCHĒS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βοιωτάρχης</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βοιωτάρχος</span>),
-the name of the chief magistrates of the
-Boeotian confederacy, chosen by the different
-states. Their duties were chiefly of a military
-character. Each state of the confederacy
-elected one boeotarch, the Thebans two. The
-total number from the whole confederacy
-varied with the number of the independent
-states, but at the time of the Peloponnesian
-war they appear to have been ten or twelve.
-The boeotarchs, when engaged in military service,
-formed a council of war, the decisions
-of which were determined by a majority of
-votes, the president being one of the two
-Theban boeotarchs, who commanded alternately.
-Their period of service was a year,
-beginning about the winter solstice; and
-whoever continued in office longer than his
-time was punishable with death, both at
-Thebes and in other cities.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bona">BŎNA, property. The phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in bonis</i> is
-frequently used as opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dominium</i> or
-<em>Quiritarian ownership</em> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex jure Quiritium</i>).
-The ownership of certain kinds of things among
-the Romans could only be transferred from one
-person to another with certain formalities, or
-acquired by usucapion (that is, the uninterrupted
-possession of a thing for a certain
-time). But if it was clearly the intention of
-the owner to transfer the ownership, and the
-necessary forms only were wanting, the purchaser
-had the thing <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in bonis</i>, and he had the
-enjoyment of it, though the original owner
-was still <em>legally</em> the owner, and was said to
-have the thing <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex jure Quiritium</i>, notwithstanding
-he had parted with the thing. The
-person who possessed a thing <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in bonis</i> was
-protected in the enjoyment of it by the praetor,
-and consequently after a time would<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span>
-obtain the Quiritarian ownership of it by
-usucapion. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Usucapio">Usucapio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bona_c">BŎNA CĂDŪCA. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caducum</i> literally signifies
-that which falls: thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">glans caduca</i>
-is the mast which falls from a tree. The
-strict legal sense of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caducum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bona caduca</i>
-is as follows:&mdash;If a thing is left by testament
-to a person, so that he can take it by the jus
-civile, but from some cause has not taken it,
-that thing is called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caducum</i>, as if it had <em>fallen</em>
-from him. Or if a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">heres ex parte</i>, or a legatee,
-died before the opening of the will, the
-thing was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caducum</i>. That which was caducum
-came, in the first place, to those among
-the heredes who had children; and if the
-heredes had no children, it came among those
-of the legatees who had children. In case
-there was no prior claimant the caducum
-belonged to the aerarium; and subsequently
-to the fiscus. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bona_f">BŎNA FĬDES implies, generally speaking,
-the absence of all fraud and unfair dealing or
-acting. In various actions arising out of
-mutual dealings, such as buying and selling,
-lending and hiring, partnership and others,
-bona fides is equivalent to aequum and justum;
-and such actions were sometimes called
-bonae fidei actiones. The formula of the
-praetor, which was the authority of the judex,
-empowered him in such cases to inquire and
-determine <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex bona fide</i>, that is, according to
-the real merits of the case: sometimes aequius
-melius was used instead of ex bona fide.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bonorum">BŎNŌRUM CESSĬO. There were two
-kinds of bonorum cessio, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jure</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">extra jus</i>.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jure cessio</i> was a mode of transferring
-ownership by means of a fictitious suit. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bonorum cessio extra jus</i> was introduced by
-a Julian law, passed either in the time of
-Julius Caesar or Augustus, which allowed an
-insolvent debtor to give up his property to his
-creditors. The debtor thus avoided the infamia
-consequent on the bonorum emtio,
-which was involuntary, and he was free from
-all personal execution. He was also allowed
-to retain a small portion of his property for
-his support. The property thus given up
-was sold, and the proceeds distributed among
-the creditors.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bonorum_c">BŎNŌRUM COLLĀTĬO. By the strict
-rules of the civil law an emancipated son had
-no right to the inheritance of his father, whether
-he died testate or intestate. But, in
-course of time, the praetor granted to emancipated
-children the privilege of equal succession
-with those who remained in the power
-of the father at the time of his death; but
-only on condition that they should bring into
-one common stock with their father’s property,
-and for the purpose of an equal division
-among all the father’s children, whatever
-property they had at the time of the father’s
-death, and which would have been acquired
-for the father in case they had still remained
-in his power. This was called bonorum collatio.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bonorum_e">BŎNŌRUM EMTĬO ET EMTOR. The
-expression bonorum emtio applies to a sale of
-the property either of a living or of a dead
-person. It was in effect, as to a living debtor,
-an execution. In the case of a dead person,
-his property was sold when it was ascertained
-that there was neither heres nor bonorum
-possessor, nor any other person entitled to
-succeed to it. In the case of the property of
-a living person being sold, the praetor, on
-the application of the creditors, ordered it to
-be possessed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">possideri</i>) by the creditors for
-thirty successive days, and notice to be given
-of the sale. This explains the expression in
-Livy (ii. 24): “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ne quis militis, donec in
-castris esset, bona <em>possideret</em> aut venderet.</span>”</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bonorum_p">BŎNŌRUM POSSESSĬO was the right of
-suing for or retaining a patrimony or thing
-which belonged to another at the time of his
-death. The bonorum possessio was given by
-the edict both <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contra tabulas</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">secundum tabulas</i>,
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intestati</i>. 1. An emancipated son
-had no legal claim on the inheritance of his
-father; but if he was omitted in his father’s
-will, or not expressly exheredated, the praetor’s
-edict gave him the bonorum possessio
-contra tabulas, on condition that he would
-bring into hotchpot (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bonorum collatio</i>) with
-his brethren who continued in the parent’s
-power, whatever property he had at the time
-of the parent’s death. 2. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bonorum possessio
-secundum tabulas</i> was that possession
-which the praetor gave, conformably to the
-words of the will, to those named in it as
-heredes, when there was no person intitled to
-make a claim against the will, or none who
-chose to make such a claim. 3. In the case
-of intestacy (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intestati</i>) there were seven degrees
-of persons who might claim the bonorum
-possessio, each in his order, upon there being
-no claim of a prior degree. The first three
-degrees were children, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legitimi heredes</i>, and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proximi cognati</i>. Emancipated children could
-claim as well as those who were not emancipated,
-and adoptive as well as children
-of the blood; but not children who had been
-adopted into another family. If a freedman
-died intestate, leaving only a wife (in manu)
-or an adoptive son, the patron was entitled
-to the bonorum possessio of one half of his
-property.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Boonae">BŎŌNAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βοῶναι</span>), persons in Athens who
-purchased oxen for the public sacrifices and
-feasts. They are spoken of by Demosthenes
-in conjunction with the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροποιοί</span> and those
-who presided over the mysteries.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Boreasmus">BORĔASMUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βορεασμός</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βορεασμοί</span>), a
-festival celebrated by the Athenians in honour
-of Boreas, which, as Herodotus seems to
-think, was instituted during the Persian war,
-when the Athenians, being commanded by an
-oracle to invoke their <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γαμβρὸς ἐπίκουρος</span>, prayed
-to Boreas. But considering that Boreas was
-intimately connected with the early history of
-Attica, we have reason to suppose that even
-previous to the Persian wars certain honours
-were paid to him, which were perhaps only
-revived and increased after the event recorded
-by Herodotus. The festival, however,
-does not seem ever to have had any great
-celebrity.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Boule">BOULĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βουλή&mdash;ἡ τῶν πεντακοσίων</span>). In
-the heroic ages, represented to us by Homer,
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">boulé</i> is simply an aristocratical council
-of the elders amongst the nobles, sitting
-under their king as president, which decided
-on public business and judicial matters, frequently
-in connection with, but apparently
-not subject to an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agora</i>, or meeting of the
-freemen of the state. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Agora">Agora</a>.</span>] This form
-of government, though it existed for some
-time in the Ionian, Aeolian, and Achaean
-states, was at last wholly abolished in these
-states. Among the Dorians, however, especially
-among the Spartans, this was not the
-case, for they retained the kingly power of
-the Heracleidae, in conjunction with the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gerousia</i> or assembly of elders, of which the
-kings were members. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gerousia">Gerousia</a>.</span>] At Athens
-on the contrary, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">boulé</i> was a representative,
-and in most respects a popular body
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημοτικόν</span>). The first institution of the
-Athenian <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">boulé</i> is generally attributed to
-Solon; but there are strong reasons for supposing
-that, as in the case of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Areiopagus</i>,
-he merely modified the constitution of a body
-which he found already existing. But be
-this as it may, it is admitted that Solon
-made the number of his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">boulé</i> 400, 100 from
-each of the four tribes. When the number of
-the tribes was raised to ten by Cleisthenes
-(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 510), the council also was increased to
-500, fifty being taken from each of the ten
-tribes. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bouleutae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βουλευταί</span>) or councillors
-were appointed by lot, and hence they
-are called councillors made by the bean (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ
-ἀπὸ τοῦ κυάμου βουλευταί</span>), from the use of
-beans in drawing lots. They were required
-to submit to a scrutiny or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">docimasia</i>, in which
-they gave evidence of being genuine citizens,
-of never having lost their civic rights by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimia</i>,
-and also of being above 30 years of age.
-They remained in office for a year, receiving
-a drachma (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μισθὸς βουλευτικός</span>) for each day
-on which they sat: and independent of the
-general account (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐθύναι</span>), which the whole
-body had to give at the end of the year, any
-single member was liable to expulsion for
-misconduct by his colleagues. The senate of
-500 was divided into ten sections of fifty
-each, the members of which were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytanes</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρυτάνεις</span>), and were all of the same
-tribe; they acted as presidents both of the
-council and the assemblies during thirty-five
-or thirty-six days, as the case might be, so
-as to complete the lunar year of 354 days
-(12×29½). Each tribe exercised these functions
-in turn; the period of office was called
-a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytany</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρυτανεία</span>), and the tribe that presided
-the <em>presiding tribe</em>; the order in which
-the tribes presided was determined by lot,
-and the four supernumerary days were given
-to the tribes which came last in order. Moreover,
-to obviate the difficulty of having too
-many in office at once, every fifty was subdivided
-into five bodies of ten each; its prytany
-also being portioned out into five periods
-of seven days each; so that only ten senators
-presided for a week over the rest, and were
-thence called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proedri</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόεδροι</span>). Again, out
-of these proedri an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epistates</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστάτης</span>) was
-chosen for one day to preside as a chairman
-in the senate, and the assembly of the people;
-during his day of office he kept the public
-records and seal. The prytanes had the right
-of convening the council and the assembly
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκκλησία</span>). The duty of the proedri and
-their president was to propose subjects for
-discussion, and to take the votes both of the
-councillors and the people; for neglect of
-their duty they were liable to a fine. Moreover,
-whenever a meeting, either of the
-council or of the assembly, was convened, the
-chairman of the proedri selected by lot nine
-others, one from each of the non-presiding
-tribes; these also were called proedri, and
-possessed a chairman of their own, likewise
-appointed by lot from among themselves.
-But the proedri who proposed the subject for
-discussion to the assembly belonged to the
-presiding tribe. It is observed, under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Areiopagus">Areiopagus</a></span>,
-that the chief object of Solon, in forming
-the senate and the areiopagus, was to
-control the democratical powers of the state:
-for this purpose he ordained that the senate
-should discuss and vote upon all matters
-before they were submitted to the assembly,
-so that nothing could be laid before the
-people on which the senate had not come to
-a previous decision. This decision, or bill,
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">probouleuma</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προβούλευμα</span>); but
-then not only might this <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">probouleuma</i> be rejected
-or modified by the assembly, but the
-latter also possessed and exercised the power
-of coming to a decision completely different
-from the will of the senate. In addition to
-the bills which it was the duty of the senate
-to propose of their own accord, there were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span>
-others of a different character, viz. such as
-any private individual might wish to have
-submitted to the people. To accomplish this,
-it was first necessary for the party to obtain,
-by petition, the privilege of access to the
-senate, and leave to propose his motion; and
-if the measure met with their approbation, he
-could then submit it to the assembly. A proposal
-of this kind, which had the sanction of
-the senate, was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">probouleuma</i>, and
-frequently related to the conferring of some
-particular honour or privilege upon an individual.
-Thus the proposal of Ctesiphon for
-crowning Demosthenes is so styled. In the
-assembly the bill of the senate was first read,
-perhaps by the crier, after the introductory
-ceremonies were over; and then the proedri
-put the question to the people, whether they
-approved of it. The people declared their
-will by a show of hands (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προχειροτονία</span>). If
-it was confirmed it became a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">psephisma</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψήφισμα</span>), or decree of the people, binding
-upon all classes. The form for drawing up
-such decrees varied in different ages. In the
-time of Demosthenes the decrees commence
-with the name of the archon; then come the
-day of the month, the tribe in office, and,
-lastly, the name of the proposer. The motive
-for passing the decree is next stated; and
-then follows the decree itself, prefaced with
-the formula <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεδόχθαι τῇ βουλῇ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ</span>. The
-senate-house was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bouleuterion</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βουλευτηριον</span>).
-The prytanes also had a building to
-hold their meetings in, where they were entertained
-at the public expense during their
-prytany. This was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Prytaneion</i>,
-and was used for a variety of purposes. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Prytaneium">Prytaneion</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bracae">BRĀCAE, or BRACCAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀναξυρίδες</span>),
-trowsers, pantaloons, were common to all the
-nations which encircled the Greek and Roman
-population, extending from the Indian to the
-Atlantic ocean, but were not worn by the
-Greeks and Romans themselves. Accordingly
-the monuments containing representations of
-people different from the Greeks and Romans
-exhibit them in trowsers, thus distinguishing
-them from the latter people.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Brauronia">BRAURŌNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βραυρώνια</span>), a festival celebrated
-in honour of Artemis Brauronia, in the
-Attic town of Brauron, where Orestes and
-Iphigeneia, on their return from Tauris, were
-supposed by the Athenians to have landed,
-and left the statue of the Taurian goddess. It
-was held every fifth year, and the chief solemnity
-consisted in the Attic girls between the
-ages of five and ten years going in solemn
-procession to the sanctuary, where they were
-consecrated to the goddess. During this act
-the priests sacrificed a goat, and the girls
-performed a propitiatory rite, in which they
-imitated bears. This rite may have simply
-risen from the circumstance that the bear was
-sacred to Artemis, especially in Arcadia.
-There was also a quinquennial festival called
-Brauronia, which was celebrated by men and
-dissolute women, at Brauron, in honour of
-Dionysus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bruttiani">BRUTTĬĀNI, slaves whose duty it was to
-wait upon the Roman magistrates. They are
-said to have been originally taken from among
-the Bruttians.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Buccina">BUCCĬNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βυκάνη</span>), a kind of horn trumpet,
-anciently made out of a shell (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buccinum</i>), the
-form of which is exhibited in the specimen
-annexed. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buccina</i> was distinct from the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornu</i>; but it is often confounded with it.
-The buccina seems to have been chiefly distinguished
-by the twisted form of the shell,
-from which it was originally made. In later
-times it was carved from horn, and perhaps
-from wood or metal, so as to imitate the
-shell. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buccina</i> was chiefly used to proclaim
-the watches of the day and of the
-night, hence called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buccina prima</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">secunda</i>,
-&amp;c. It was also blown at funerals, and at
-festive entertainments both before sitting
-down to table and after.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill062a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill062a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Buccina, Trumpet. (Blanchini, De Mus. Instrum. Vet.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Bulla">BULLA, a circular plate or boss of metal,
-so called from its resemblance in form to a
-bubble floating upon water. Bright studs of
-this description were used to adorn the sword<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span>
-belt; but we most frequently read of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bullae</i>
-as ornaments worn by children, suspended
-from the neck, and especially by the sons of
-the noble and wealthy. Such an one is called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">heres bullatus</i> by Juvenal. The bulla was
-usually made of thin plates of gold. The
-use of the bulla, like that of the praetexta,
-was derived from the Etruscans. It was
-originally worn only by the children of the
-patricians, but subsequently by all of free
-birth.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp41" id="ill062b" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill062b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Bulla. (From the Collection of Mr. Rogers; the gold chord
-added from a specimen in the Brit. Mus.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Buris">BŪRIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aratrum">Aratrum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Bustum">BUSTUM. It was customary among the
-Romans to burn the bodies of the dead before
-burying them. When the spot appointed for
-that purpose adjoined the place of sepulture,
-it was termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bustum</i>; when it was separate
-from it, it was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ustrina</i>. From this
-word the gladiators, who were hired to fight
-round the burning pyre of the deceased, were
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bustuarii</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Buxum">BUXUM or BUXUS, probably means the
-wood of the box-tree, but was given as a
-name to many things made of this wood.
-The tablets used for writing on, and covered
-with wax (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae ceratae</i>), were usually
-made of box. In the same way the Greek
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυξίον</span>, formed from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύξος</span>, “box-wood,”
-came to be applied to any tablets, whether
-they were made of this wood or any other
-substance. Tops and combs were made of
-box-wood, and also all wind instruments,
-especially the flute.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Byssus">BYSSUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βύσσος</span>), linen, and not cotton.
-The word byssus appears to come from the
-Hebrew <em>butz</em>, and the Greeks probably got it
-through the Phoenicians.</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="C_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">C</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Cabeiria" class="drop-capy">CĂBEIRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καβείρια</span>), mysteries, festivals,
-and orgies, solemnised in all places in
-which the Pelasgian Cabeiri were worshipped,
-but especially in Samothrace, Imbros, Lemnos,
-Thebes, Anthedon, Pergamus, and Berytos.
-Little is known respecting the rites observed
-in these mysteries, as no one was allowed to
-divulge them. The most celebrated were
-those of the island of Samothrace, which, if
-we may judge from those of Lemnos, were
-solemnised every year, and lasted for nine
-days. Persons on their admission seem to
-have undergone a sort of examination respecting
-the life they had led hitherto, and were
-then purified of all their crimes, even if they
-had committed murder.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caduceus">CĀDŪCĔUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηρύκειον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηρύκιον</span>), the staff
-or mace carried by heralds and ambassadors
-in time of war. This name is also given to
-the staff with which Hermes or Mercury is
-usually represented, as is shown in the following
-figure of that god. From <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caduceus</i>
-was formed the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caduceator</i>, which signified
-a person sent to treat of peace. The
-persons of the caduceatores were considered
-sacred.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp60" id="ill063" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill063.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Hermes bearing the Caduceus. (Museo Borbonico,
-vol. vi. pl. 2.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Caducum">CĂDŪCUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Bona_c">Bona Caduca</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cadus">CĂDUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάδος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάδδος</span>), a large vessel
-usually made of earthenware, which was
-used for keeping wine, drawing water, &amp;c.
-The name of cadus was sometimes given to
-the vessel or urn in which the counters or
-pebbles of the dicasts were put, when they
-gave their vote on a trial, but the diminutive
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καδίσκος</span> was more commonly used in this
-signification.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caelatura">CAELĀTŪRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τορευτική</span>), a branch of the
-fine arts, under which all sorts of ornamental
-work in metal, except actual statues, appear
-to be included. The principal processes,
-which these words were used to designate,
-seem to have been of three kinds: hammering
-metal plates into moulds or dies, so as to
-bring out a raised pattern; engraving the
-surface of metals with a sharp tool; and
-working a pattern of one metal upon or into
-the surface of another: in short, the various
-processes which we describe by the words
-<em>chasing</em>, <em>damascening</em>, &amp;c. The objects on
-which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caelator</i> exercised his art were
-chiefly weapons and armour&mdash;especially
-shields, chariots, tripods, and other votive
-offerings, quoits, candelabra, thrones, curule
-chairs, mirrors, goblets, dishes, and all kinds
-of gold and silver plate. The ornamental
-work with which the chaser decorated such
-objects consisted either of simple running
-patterns, chiefly in imitation of plants and
-flowers, or of animals, or of mythological<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span>
-subjects, and, for armour, of battles. The
-mythological subjects were reserved for the
-works of the greatest masters of the art:
-they were generally executed in very high
-relief (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anaglypha</i>). In the finest works, the
-ornamental pattern was frequently distinct
-from the vessel, to which it was either fastened
-permanently, or so that it could be
-removed at pleasure, the vessel being of silver,
-and the ornaments of gold, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crustae aut emblemata</i>.
-The art of ornamental metal-work
-was in an advanced stage of progress among
-the Greeks of the heroic period, as we see
-from numerous passages of Homer: but its
-origin, in the high artistic sense, is to be
-ascribed to Phidias, and its complete development
-to Polycletus. In the last age of the
-Roman Republic, the prevailing wealth and
-luxury, and the presence of Greek artists at
-Rome, combined to bring the art more than
-ever into requisition. After this period it
-suddenly fell into disuse.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caelibatus">CAELĬBĀTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes_u">Aes Uxorium</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex_jpp">Lex Julia
-et Papia Poppaea</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caeritum">CAERĬTUM TĂBŬLAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarii">Aerarii</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caesar">CAESAR, a title of the Roman emperors,
-was originally a family name of the Julia
-gens; it was assumed by Octavianus as the
-adopted son of the great dictator, C. Julius
-Caesar, and was by him handed down to his
-adopted son Tiberius. It continued to be
-used by Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, as
-members either by adoption or female descent
-of Caesar’s family; but although the
-family became extinct with Nero, succeeding
-emperors still retained the name as part of
-their titles, and it was the practice to prefix
-it to their own names, as for instance, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Imperator
-Caesar Domitianus Augustus</i>. When
-Hadrian adopted Aelius Varus, he allowed
-the latter to take the title of Caesar; and
-from this time, though the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augustus</i>
-continued to be confined to the reigning emperor,
-that of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caesar</i> was also granted to the
-second person in the state and the heir presumptive
-to the throne. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augustus">Augustus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Calamistrum">CĂLĂMISTRUM, an instrument made of
-iron, and hollow like a reed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calamus</i>), used
-for curling the hair. For this purpose it was
-heated, the person who performed the office
-of heating it in wood ashes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cinis</i>) being
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ciniflo</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cinerarius</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Calamus">CĂLĂMUS, a sort of reed which the ancients
-used as a pen for writing. The best
-sorts were got from Aegypt and Cnidus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Calantica">CĂLANTĬCA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coma">Coma</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Calathus">CĂLĂTHUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάλαθος</span>, also called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάλαρος</span>),
-usually signified the basket in which women
-placed their work, and especially the materials
-for spinning. In the following cut a
-slave, belonging to the class called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quasillariae</i>,
-is presenting her mistress with the calathus.
-Baskets of this kind were also used
-for other purposes, such as for carrying fruits,
-flowers, &amp;c. The name of calathi was also
-given to cups for holding wine. Calathus was
-properly a Greek word, though used by
-the Latin writers. The Latin word corresponding
-to it was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">qualus</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quasillus</i>. From
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quasillus</i> came <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quasillaria</i>, the name of the
-slave who spun, and who was considered the
-meanest of the female slaves.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp70" id="ill064" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill064.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Slave presenting a Calathus. (From a Painting on a Vase.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Calceus">CALCĔUS, CALCĔĀMEN, CALCĔĀMENTUM
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποδήμα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέδιλον</span>), a shoe or boot, anything
-adapted to cover and preserve the feet
-in walking. The use of shoes was by no
-means universal among the Greeks and Romans.
-The Homeric heroes are represented
-without shoes when armed for battle. Socrates,
-Phocion, and Cato, frequently went
-barefoot. The Roman slaves had no shoes.
-The covering of the feet was removed before
-reclining at meals. People in grief, as for
-instance at funerals, frequently went barefooted.
-Shoes may be divided into those in
-which the mere sole of a shoe was attached
-to the sole of the foot by ties or bands, or by
-a covering for the toes or the instep [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Solea">Solea</a></span>;
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Crepida">Crepida</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Soccus">Soccus</a></span>]; and those which ascended
-higher and higher, according as they covered
-the ankles, the calf, or the whole of the leg.
-To calceamenta of the latter kind, <em>i.e.</em> to
-shoes and boots, as distinguished from sandals
-and slippers, the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calceus</i> was applied
-in its proper and restricted sense. There
-were also other varieties of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calceus</i> according
-to its adaptation to particular professions
-or modes of life. Thus the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Caliga">Caliga</a></span> was
-principally worn by soldiers; the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pero">Pero</a></span> by
-labourers and rustics; and the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cothurnus">Cothurnus</a></span> by
-tragedians, hunters, and horsemen. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calcei</i> probably did not much differ from our
-shoes, and are exemplified in a painting at
-Herculaneum, which represents a female<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span>
-wearing bracelets, a wreath of ivy, and a
-panther’s skin, while she is in the attitude of
-dancing and playing on the cymbals. The
-form and colour of the calceus indicated rank
-and office. Roman senators wore high shoes
-like buskins, fastened in front with four black
-thongs. They were also sometimes adorned
-with a small crescent: we do not find on any
-ancient statues the crescent, but we may regard
-the bottom right hand figure in the
-annexed cut as representing the shoe of a
-senator. Among the calcei worn by senators,
-those called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mullei</i>, from their resemblance to
-the scales of the red mullet, were particularly
-admired; as well as others called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alutae</i>, because
-the leather was softened by the use of alum.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill065" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill065.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><p>Greek Shoes. (From ancient Vases.)</p>
-<p class="right">Roman Shoes. (Museo Borbonico.)</p></div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Calculator">CALCŬLĀTOR (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λογιστής</span>), a keeper of accounts
-in general, and also a teacher of arithmetic.
-In Roman families of importance
-there was a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calculator</i> or account-keeper, who
-is, however, more frequently called by the
-name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dispensator</i>, or procurator: he was a
-kind of steward.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Calculi">CALCŬLI, little stones or pebbles, used for
-various purposes, as, for instance, among the
-Athenians for voting. Calculi were used in
-playing a sort of draughts. Subsequently,
-instead of pebbles, ivory, or silver, or gold,
-or other men (as we call them) were used;
-but they still bore the name of calculi. Calculi
-were also used in reckoning; and hence
-the phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calculum ponere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calculum subducere</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caldarium">CALDĀRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Calendae">CĂLENDAE or KĂLENDAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Calendarium">CĂLENDĀRĬUM or KĂLENDĀRĬUM,
-generally signified an account-book, in which
-were entered the names of a person’s debtors,
-with the interest which they had to pay, and
-it was so called because the interest had to
-be paid on the calends of each month. The
-word, however, was also used in the signification
-of a modern calendar or almanac.
-(1) <span class="smcap">Greek Calendar.</span> The Greek year was
-divided into twelve lunar months, depending
-on the actual changes of the moon. The first
-day of the month (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νουμηνία</span>) was not the day
-of the conjunction, but the day on the evening
-of which the new moon appeared; consequently
-full moon was the middle of the
-month. The lunar month consists of twenty-nine
-days and about thirteen hours; accordingly
-some months were necessarily reckoned
-at twenty-nine days, and rather more of them
-at thirty days. The latter were called <em>full</em>
-months (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πληρεῖς</span>), the former <em>hollow</em> months
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοῖλοι</span>). As the twelve lunar months fell
-short of the solar year, they were obliged
-every other year to interpolate an intercalary
-month (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μὴν ἐμβολιμαῖος</span>) of thirty or twenty-nine
-days. The ordinary year consisted of
-354 days, and the interpolated year, therefore,
-of 384 or 383. This interpolated year (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριέτηρις</span>)
-was seven days and a half too long,
-and to correct the error, the intercalary month
-was from time to time omitted. The Attic
-year began with the summer solstice: the
-following is the sequence of the Attic months
-and the number of days in each:&mdash;Hecatombaeon
-(30), Metageitnion (29), Boedromion
-(30), Pyanepsion (29), Maemacterion
-(30), Poseideon (29), Gamelion (30), Anthesterion
-(29), Elaphebolion (30), Munychion
-(29), Thargelion (30), Scirophorion (29).
-The intercalary month was a second Poseideon
-inserted in the middle of the year. Every
-Athenian month was divided into three decads.
-The days of the first decad were designated
-as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱσταμένου</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχομένου μηνος</span>, and
-were counted on regularly from one to ten;
-thus, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δευτέρα ἀρχομένου</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱσταμένου</span> is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span>
-“the second day of the month.” The days of the
-second decad were designated as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπὶ δέκα</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεσοῦντος</span>, and were counted on regularly
-from the 11th to the 20th day, which was
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἴκας</span>. There were two ways of counting
-the days of the last decad; they were
-either reckoned onwards from the 20th (thus,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρώτη ἐπὶ εἰκάδι</span> was the 21st), or backwards
-from the last day, with the addition <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φθίνοντος</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παυομένου</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λήγοντος</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπίοντος</span>; thus, the
-twenty-first day of a hollow month was <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνάτη
-φθίνοντος</span>; of a full month, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκάτη φθίνοντος</span>.
-The last day of the month was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕνη καὶ
-νέα</span>, “the old and new,” because as the lunar
-month really consisted of more than twenty-nine
-and less than thirty days, the last day
-might be considered as belonging equally to
-the old and new month. Separate years were
-designated at Athens by the name of the
-chief archon, hence called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">archon eponymus</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων ἐπώνυμος</span>), or “the name giving archon;”
-at Sparta, by the first of the ephors;
-at Argos, by the priestess of <span class="smcap">Juno</span>, &amp;c.&mdash;(2)
-<span id="Calendarium_r" class="smcap">Roman Calendar.</span> The old Roman, frequently
-called the Romulian year, consisted
-of only ten months, which were called Martius,
-Aprilis, Maius, Junius, Quinctilis, Sextilis,
-September, October, November, December.
-That March was the first month in the
-year is implied in the last six names. Of
-these months, four, namely, Martius, Maius,
-Quinctilis, and October, consisted of thirty-one
-days, the other six of thirty. The four
-former were distinguished in the latest form
-of the Roman calendar by having their nones
-two days later than any of the other months.
-The symmetry of this arrangement will appear
-by placing the numbers in succession:&mdash;31,
-30; 31, 30; 31, 30, 30; 31, 30, 30.
-The Romulian year therefore consisted of 304
-days, and contained thirty-eight nundinae or
-weeks; every eighth day, under the name of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nonae</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nundinae</i>, being especially devoted
-to religious and other public purposes. Hence
-we find that the number of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies fasti</i> afterwards
-retained in the Julian calendar tally
-exactly with these thirty-eight nundines; besides
-which, it may be observed that a year
-of 304 days bears to a solar year of 365 days
-nearly the ratio of five to six, six of the Romulian
-years containing 1824, five of the
-solar years 1825 days; and hence we may
-explain the origin of the well-known quinquennial
-period called the lustrum, which
-ancient writers expressly call an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">annus magnus</i>;
-that is, in the modern language of chronology,
-a cycle. It was consequently the
-period at which the Romulian and solar years
-coincided. The next division of the Roman
-year was said to have been made by Numa
-Pompilius, who instituted a lunar year of 12
-months and 355 days. Livy says that Numa
-so regulated his lunar year of twelve months
-by the insertion of intercalary months, that
-at the end of every <em>nineteenth</em> year (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vicesimo
-anno</i>) it again coincided with the same point
-in the sun’s course from which it started. It
-is well known that 19 years constitute a most
-convenient cycle for the junction of a lunar
-and solar year. It seems certain that the
-Romans continued to use a lunar year for
-some time after the establishment of the republic;
-and it was probably at the time of
-the decemviral legislation that the lunar year
-was abandoned. By the change which was
-then made the year consisted of 12 months,
-the length of each of which was as follows:&mdash;</p>
-
-<table class="autotable" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Martius,</td>
-<td class="tdr">31</td>
-<td class="tdl">days.</td>
-<td class="tdl">September,</td>
-<td class="tdr">29</td>
-<td class="tdl">days.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Aprilis,</td>
-<td class="tdr">29</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-<td class="tdl">October,</td>
-<td class="tdr">31</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Maius,</td>
-<td class="tdr">31</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-<td class="tdl">November,</td>
-<td class="tdr">29</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Junius,</td>
-<td class="tdr">29</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-<td class="tdl">December,</td>
-<td class="tdr">29</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Quinctilis,</td>
-<td class="tdr">31</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-<td class="tdl">Januarius,</td>
-<td class="tdr">29</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sextilis,</td>
-<td class="tdr">29</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-<td class="tdl">Februarius,</td>
-<td class="tdr">28</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class="noindent">The year thus consisted of 355 days, and this
-was made to correspond with the solar year
-by the insertion of an intercalary month
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensis intercalaris</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intercalarius</i>), called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mercedonius</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mercidonius</i>. This month of
-22 or 23 days seems to have been inserted in
-alternate years. As the festivals of the Romans
-were for the most part dependent upon
-the calendar, the regulation of the latter was
-entrusted to the college of pontifices, who in
-early times were chosen exclusively from the
-body of patricians. It was therefore in the
-power of the college to add to their other
-means of oppressing the plebeians, by keeping
-to themselves the knowledge of the days
-on which justice could be administered, and
-assemblies of the people could be held. In
-the year 304 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, one Cn. Flavius, a secretary
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriba</i>) of Appius Claudius, is said fraudulently
-to have made the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fasti</i> public. The
-other privilege of regulating the year by the
-insertion of the intercalary month gave the
-pontiffs great political power, which they
-were not backward to employ. Every thing
-connected with the matter of intercalation
-was left to their unrestrained pleasure; and
-the majority of them, on personal grounds,
-added to or took from the year by capricious
-intercalations, so as to lengthen or shorten
-the period during which a magistrate remained
-in office, and seriously to benefit or
-injure the farmer of the public revenue. The
-calendar was thus involved in complete confusion,
-and accordingly we find that in the
-time of Cicero the year was three months in
-advance of the real solar year. At length, in
-the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 46, Caesar, now master of the
-Roman world, employed his authority, as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span>
-pontifex maximus, in the correction of this
-serious evil. The account of the way in
-which he effected this is given by Censorinus:&mdash;“The
-confusion was at last carried so
-far that C. Caesar, the pontifex maximus, in
-his third consulate, with Lepidus for his colleague,
-inserted between November and December
-two intercalary months of 67 days,
-the month of February having already received
-an intercalation of 23 days, and thus
-made the whole year to consist of 445 days.
-At the same time he provided against a repetition
-of similar errors, by casting aside the
-intercalary month, and adapting the year to
-the sun’s course. Accordingly, to the 355
-days of the previously existing year he added
-ten days, which he so distributed between
-the seven months having 29 days that January,
-Sextilis, and December received two
-each, the others but one; and these additional
-days he placed at the end of the several
-months, no doubt with the wish not to
-remove the various festivals from those positions
-in the several months which they had
-so long occupied. Hence in the present
-calendar, although there are seven months of
-31 days, yet the four months, which from the
-first possessed that number, are still distinguishable
-by having their nones on the
-seventh, the rest having them on the fifth of
-the month. Lastly, in consideration of the
-quarter of a day, which he regarded as
-completing the true year, he established the
-rule that, at the end of every four years, a
-single day should be intercalated, where the
-month had been hitherto inserted, that is,
-immediately after the terminalia; which day
-is now called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bissextum</i>.” The mode of
-denoting the days of the month will cause no
-difficulty, if it be recollected that the kalends
-always denote the first of the month; that
-the nones occur on the seventh of the four
-months of March, May, Quinctilis or July,
-and October, and on the fifth of the other
-months; that the ides always fall eight days
-later than the nones; and lastly, that the
-intermediate days are in all cases reckoned
-backwards upon the Roman principle of
-counting both extremes. For the month of
-January the notation will be as follows:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p class="pad3 noindent">
-1. Kal. Jan.<br />
-2. a. d. IV. Non. Jan.<br />
-3. a. d. III. Non. Jan.<br />
-4. Prid. Non. Jan.<br />
-5. Non. Jan.<br />
-6. a. d. VIII. Id. Jan.<br />
-7. a. d. VII. Id. Jan.<br />
-8. a. d. VI. Id. Jan.<br />
-9. a. d. V. Id. Jan.<br />
-10. a. d. IV. Id. Jan.<br />
-11. a. d. III. Id. Jan.<br />
-12. Prid. Id. Jan.<br />
-13. Id. Jan.<br />
-14. a. d. XIX. Kal. Feb.<br />
-15. a. d. XVIII. Kal. Feb.<br />
-16. a. d. XVII. Kal. Feb.<br />
-17. a. d. XVI. Kal. Feb.<br />
-18. a. d. XV. Kal. Feb.<br />
-19. a. d. XIV. Kal. Feb.<br />
-20. a. d. XIII. Kal. Feb.<br />
-21. a. d. XII. Kal. Feb.<br />
-22. a. d. XI. Kal. Feb.<br />
-23. a. d. X. Kal. Feb.<br />
-24. a. d. IX. Kal. Feb.<br />
-25. a. d. VIII. Kal. Feb.<br />
-26. a. d. VII. Kal. Feb.<br />
-27. a. d. VI. Kal. Feb.<br />
-28. a. d. V. Kal. Feb.<br />
-29. a. d. IV. Kal. Feb.<br />
-30. a. d. III. Kal. Feb.<br />
-31. Prid. Kal. Feb.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="noindent">The letters <em>a d</em> are often, through error, written
-together, and so confounded with the
-preposition <em>ad</em> which would have a different
-meaning, for <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad kalendas</i> would signify <em>by</em>,
-i.e. <em>on or before the kalends</em>. The letters are
-in fact an abridgment of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ante diem</i>, and the
-full phrase for “on the second of January,”
-would be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ante diem quartum nonas Januarias</i>.
-The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ante</i> in this expression seems really
-to belong in sense to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nonas</i>, and to be the
-cause why <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nonas</i> is an accusative. Whether
-the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">kalendae Januarii</i> was ever used
-by the best writers is doubtful. The words
-are commonly abbreviated; and those passages
-where Aprilis, Decembris, &amp;c. occur are
-of no avail, as they are probably accusatives.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ante</i> may be omitted, in which case the
-phrase will be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">die quarto nonarum</i>. In the
-leap year (to use a modern phrase), the last
-days of February were called,&mdash;</p>
-
-<p class="pad2 noindent">
-Feb. 23. a. d. VII. Kal. Mart.<br />
-Feb. 24. a. d. VI. Kal. Mart. posteriorem.<br />
-Feb. 25. a. d. VI. Kal. Mart. priorem.<br />
-Feb. 26. a. d. V. Kal. Mart.<br />
-Feb. 27. a. d. IV. Kal. Mart.<br />
-Feb. 28. a. d. III. Kal. Mart.<br />
-Feb. 29. Prid. Kal. Mart.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="noindent">In which the words <em>prior</em> and <em>posterior</em> are
-used in reference to the retrograde direction
-of the reckoning. From the fact that the
-intercalated year has two days called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ante
-diem sextum</i>, the name bissextile has been
-applied to it. The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">annus bissextilis</i>,
-however, does not occur in any classical
-writer, but in place of it the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">annus
-bissextus</i>.&mdash;The names of two of the months
-were changed in honour of Julius Caesar and
-Augustus. Julius was substituted for Quinctilis,
-the month in which Caesar was born,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span>
-in the second Julian year, that is, the year
-of the dictator’s death, for the first Julian
-year was the first year of the <em>corrected</em> Julian
-calendar, that is, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 45. The name Augustus
-in place of Sextilis was introduced by the
-emperor himself in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 27. The month of
-September in like manner received the name
-of Germanicus from the general so called,
-and the appellation appears to have existed
-even in the time of Macrobius. Domitian,
-too, conferred his name upon October; but
-the old word was restored upon the death of
-the tyrant.&mdash;The Julian calendar supposes
-the mean tropical year to be 365 d. 6 h.;
-but this exceeds the real amount by 11′ 12″,
-the accumulation of which, year after year,
-caused at last considerable inconvenience.
-Accordingly, in the year 1582, Pope Gregory
-XIII. again reformed the calendar. The ten
-days by which the year had been unduly retarded
-were struck out by a regulation that
-the day after the fourth of October in that
-year should be called the fifteenth; and it
-was ordered that whereas hitherto an intercalary
-day had been inserted every four years,
-for the future three such intercalations in the
-course of four hundred years should be omitted,
-viz., in those years which are divisible
-without remainder by 100, but not by 400.
-Thus, according to the Julian calendar, the
-years 1600, 1700, 1800, 1900, 2000, were to
-be bissextile as before. The bull which
-effected this change was issued Feb. 24th,
-1582. The Protestant parts of Europe resisted
-what they called a papistical invention
-for more than a century. In England the
-Gregorian calendar was first adopted in 1752.
-In Russia, and those countries which belonged
-to the Greek church, the Julian year,
-or <em>old style</em>, as it is called, still prevails. In
-the ancient calendars the letters A, B, C, D,
-E, F, G, H, were used for the purpose of fixing
-the nundines in the week of eight days;
-precisely in the same way in which the first
-seven letters are still employed in ecclesiastical
-calendars, to mark the days of the Christian
-week.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caliga">CĂLĬGA, a strong and heavy sandal worn
-by the Roman soldiers, but not by the superior
-officers. Hence the common soldiers,
-including centurions, were distinguished by
-the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caligati</i>. The emperor Caligula
-received that cognomen when a boy, in consequence
-of wearing the caliga, and being
-inured to the life of a common soldier. The
-cuts on pp. <a href="#ill001b">1</a>, <a href="#ill041">41</a>, show the difference between
-the caliga of the common soldier and the calceus
-worn by men of higher rank.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Calix">CĂLIX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύλιξ</span>). (1) a drinking-cup used at
-symposia and on similar occasions.&mdash;(2) A
-vessel used in cooking.&mdash;(3) A tube in the
-aquaeducts attached to the extremity of each
-pipe, where it entered the castellum.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp83" id="ill068" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill068.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Calices, Drinking-cups. (Museo Borbonico, vol. v. pl. 18.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Callis">CALLIS, a beaten path or track made by
-the feet of cattle. The sheep-walks in the
-mountainous parts of Campania and Apulia
-were the property of the Roman state; and
-as they were of considerable value, one of the
-quaestors usually had these <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calles</i> assigned to
-him as his province, whence we read of the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Callium provincia</i>. His principal duties were
-to receive the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriptura</i>, or tax paid for the
-pasturage of the cattle, and to protect life and
-property in these wild and mountainous districts.
-When the senate wished to put a
-slight upon the consuls on one occasion they
-endeavoured to assign to them as their provinces,
-the care of the woods (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silvae</i>) and
-sheep-walks (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calles</i>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Callisteia">CALLISTEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλλιστεῖα</span>), a festival, or
-perhaps merely a part of one, held by the
-women of Lesbos; at which they assembled in
-the sanctuary of Hera, and the fairest received
-the prize of beauty. Similar contests of beauty
-are said to have been held in other places.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Calones">CĀLŌNES, the slaves or servants of the
-Roman soldiers, so called from carrying
-wood (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κᾶλα</span>) for their use. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calo</i>,
-however, was also applied to farm-servants.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calones</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lixae</i> are frequently spoken
-of together, but they were not the same: the
-latter were freemen, who merely followed the
-camp for the purposes of gain and merchandise,
-and were so far from being indispensable
-to an army, that they were sometimes forbidden
-to attend it.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Calumnia">CĂLUMNĬA. When an accuser failed in
-his proof, and the accused party was acquitted,
-there might be an inquiry into the
-conduct and motives of the accuser. If the
-person who made this judicial inquiry found
-that the accuser had merely acted from error<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span>
-of judgment, he acquitted him in the form
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">non probasti</i>; if he convicted him of evil intention,
-he declared his sentence in the words
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calumniatus es</i>, which sentence was followed
-by the legal punishment. The punishment
-for <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calumnia</i> was fixed by the lex Remmia, or
-as it is sometimes, perhaps incorrectly, named,
-the lex Memmia. But it is not known when
-this lex was passed, nor what were its penalties.
-It appears from Cicero, that the false
-accuser might be branded on the forehead
-with the letter K, the initial of Kalumnia.
-The punishment for calumnia was also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsilium,
-relegatio in insulam</i>, or loss of rank
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordinis amissio</i>); but probably only in criminal
-cases, or in matters relating to status.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Camara">CĂMĂRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καμάρα</span>), or CĂMĔRA. (1) A
-particular kind of arched ceiling, formed by
-semicircular bands or beams of wood, arranged
-at small lateral distances, over which
-a coating of lath and plaster was spread, and
-the whole covered in by a roof, resembling in
-construction the hooped awnings in use
-amongst us.&mdash;(2) A small boat used in early
-times by the people who inhabited the shores
-of the Palus Maeotis, capable of containing
-from twenty-five to thirty men. These boats
-were made to work fore and aft, like the fast-sailing
-proas of the Indian seas, and continued
-in use until the age of Tacitus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Camilli">CĂMILLI, CĂMILLAE, boys and girls
-employed in the religious rites and ceremonies
-of the Romans. They were required to
-be perfect in form, and sound in health, free
-born, and with both their parents alive; or,
-in other words, according to the expression of
-the Romans, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pueri seu puellae ingenui, felicissimi,
-patrimi matrimique</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caminus">CĂMĪNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Campestre">CAMPESTRE (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subligar</i>), a kind of
-girdle or apron, which the Roman youths
-wore around their loins, when they exercised
-naked in the Campus Martius. The campestre
-was sometimes worn in warm weather, in
-place of the tunic under the toga.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Campus">CAMPUS MARTĬUS. [See <span class="smcap">Classical Dictionary</span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Canabus">CĂNĂBUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάναβος</span>), a figure of wood in
-the form of a skeleton, round which the clay
-or plaster was laid in forming models. Figures
-of a similar kind, formed to display the
-muscles and veins, were studied by painters in
-order to acquire some knowledge of anatomy.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Canathron">CĀNATHRON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάναθρον</span>), a carriage, the
-upper part of which was made of basket-work,
-or more properly the basket itself, which was
-fixed in the carriage.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cancellarius">CANCELLĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cancelli">Cancelli</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cancelli">CANCELLI, lattice-work, placed before a
-window, a door-way, the tribunal of a judge,
-or any other place. Hence was derived the
-word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cancellarius</i>, which originally signified
-a porter, who stood at the latticed or grated
-door of the emperor’s palace. The cancellarius
-also signified a legal scribe or secretary,
-who sat within the cancelli or lattice-work.
-The chief scribe or secretary was
-called Cancellarius <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατ’ ἐξοχήν</span>, and was eventually
-invested with judicial power at Constantinople.
-From this word has come the
-modern Chancellor.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Candela">CANDĒLA, a candle, made either of wax
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cerea</i>), or tallow (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sebacea</i>), was used universally
-by the Romans before the invention
-of oil lamps (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lucernae</i>). In later times candelae
-were only used by the poorer classes;
-the houses of the more wealthy were always
-lighted by lucernae.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Candelabrum">CANDĒLABRUM, originally a candlestick,
-but afterwards the name of a stand for supporting<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span>
-lamps (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λυχνοῦχοι</span>), in which signification
-it most commonly occurs. The candelabra
-of this kind were usually made to stand
-upon the ground, and were of a considerable
-height. The most common kind were made
-of wood; but those which have been found
-in Herculaneum and Pompeii are mostly of
-bronze. Sometimes they were made of the
-more precious metals, and even of jewels.
-The candelabra did not always stand upon
-the ground, but were also placed upon the
-table. Such candelabra usually consisted of
-pillars, from the capitals of which several
-lamps hung down, or of trees, from whose
-branches lamps also were suspended.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp30" id="ill069" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill069.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Candelabrum in the Vatican. (Visconti, vol. <span class="allsmcap">IV</span>. tav. 5.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Candidatus">CANDĬDĀTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Candys">CANDYS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάνδυς</span>), a robe worn by the
-Medes and Persians over their trowsers and
-other garments. It had wide sleeves, and
-was made of woollen cloth, which was either
-purple or of some other splendid colour. In
-the Persepolitan sculptures, from which the
-annexed figures are taken, nearly all the
-principal personages wear it.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp77" id="ill070a" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill070a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Candys, Persian Cloak. (From Bas-relief at Persepolis.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Canephoros">CĂNĒPHŎROS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κανηφόρος</span>), a virgin who
-carried a flat circular basket (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάνεον</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">canistrum</i>)
-at sacrifices, in which the chaplet of
-flowers, the knife to slay the victim, and
-sometimes the frankincense were deposited.
-The name, however, was more particularly
-applied to two virgins of the first Athenian
-families who were appointed to officiate as
-canephori at the Panathaenaea. The preceding
-cut represents the two canephori
-approaching a candelabrum. Each of them
-elevates one arm to support the basket while
-she slightly raises her tunic with the other.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp52" id="ill070b" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill070b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Canephori. (British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Cantharus">CANTHĂRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάνθαρος</span>), a kind of drinking
-cup, furnished with handles. It was the cup
-sacred to Bacchus, who is frequently represented
-on ancient vases holding it in his hand.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="ill070c" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill070c.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Cantharus. (From an ancient Vase.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Canticum">CANTĬCUM, an interlude between the acts
-of a Roman comedy, and sometimes, perhaps,
-of a tragedy. It consisted of flute music,
-accompanied by a kind of recitative performed
-by a single actor, or if there were two, the
-second was not allowed to speak with the
-first. In the canticum, as violent gesticulation
-was required, it appears to have been
-the custom, from the time of Livius Andronicus,
-for the actor to confine himself to
-the gesticulation, while another person sang
-the recitative.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Capillus">CĂPILLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coma">Coma</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Capistrum">CĂPISTRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φορβειά</span>), a halter, or tie for
-horses, asses, or other animals, placed round
-the head or neck, and made of osiers or other
-fibrous materials. The Greek word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φορβειά</span>
-was also applied to a contrivance used by
-pipers and trumpeters to compress their
-mouths and cheeks, and thus to aid them in
-blowing. It is often seen in works of ancient
-art, and was said to be the invention of
-Marsyas. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tibia">Tibia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Capite">CĂPĬTE CENSI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caput">Caput</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Capitis">CĂPĬTIS DĒMĬNŪTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caput">Caput</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Capitolini">CĂPĬTŌLĪNI LŪDI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ludi">Ludi</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Capitolium">CĂPĬTŌLĬUM. [See <span class="smcap">Class. Dictionary.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Capitulum">CĂPĬTŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Columna">Columna</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Capsa">CAPSA, or SCRĪNĬUM, a box for holding
-books among the Romans. These boxes
-were of a cylindrical form. There does not
-appear to have been any difference between
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capsa</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scrinium</i>, except that the latter
-word was usually applied to those boxes which
-held a considerable number of rolls. The
-slaves who had the charge of these book-chests<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span>
-were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capsarii</i>, and also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custodes
-scriniorum</i>; and the slaves who carried in a
-capsa behind their young masters the books,
-&amp;c. of the sons of respectable Romans, when
-they went to school, were called by the same
-name.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp71" id="ill071" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill071.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">The Muse Clio with a Capsa. (Pitture d’Ercolano, vol. ii. pl. 2.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Capsarii">CAPSĀRĬI, the name of three different
-classes of slaves. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Capsa">Capsa</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caput">CĂPUT, the head. The term “head” is
-often used by the Roman writers as equivalent
-to “person,” or “human being.” By
-an easy transition it was used to signify
-“life:” thus, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capite damnari</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plecti</i>, &amp;c., are
-equivalent to capital punishment. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caput</i> is
-also used to express a man’s <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">status</i>, or civil
-condition; and the persons who were registered
-in the tables of the censor are spoken
-of as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capita</i>, sometimes with the addition of
-the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">civium</i>, and sometimes not. Thus
-to be registered in the census was the same
-thing as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caput habere</i>: and a slave and a
-filius familias, in this sense of the word, were
-said to have no <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caput</i>. The sixth class of
-Servius Tullius comprised the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proletarii</i> and
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capite censi</i>, of whom the latter, having
-little or no property, were barely rated as so
-many <em>head</em> of citizens.&mdash;He who lost or
-changed his status was said to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capite
-minutus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deminutus</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capitis minor</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Capitis
-minutio</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deminutio</i> was a change of a
-person’s status or civil condition, and consisted
-of three kinds.&mdash;A Roman citizen possessed
-freedom (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libertas</i>), citizenship (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">civitas</i>),
-and family (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familias</i>): the loss of all three
-constituted the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">maxima capitis deminutio</i>.
-This capitis deminutio was sustained by those
-who refused to be registered at the census, or
-neglected the registration, and were thence
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">incensi</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">incensus</i> was liable to
-be sold, and so to lose his liberty. Those
-who refused to perform military service might
-also be sold.&mdash;The loss of citizenship and
-family only, as when a man was interdicted
-from fire and water, was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">media capitis
-deminutio</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium</a>.</span>]&mdash;The change of family
-by adoption, and by the in manum conventio,
-was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minima capitis deminutio</i>.&mdash;A
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicium capitale</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">poena capitalis</i>, was
-one which affected a citizen’s caput.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caput_f">CĂPUT. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caput_e">CĂPUT EXTŌRUM. The Roman soothsayers
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">haruspices</i>) pretended to a knowledge
-of coming events from the inspection of the
-entrails of victims slain for that purpose.
-The part to which they especially directed
-their attention was the liver, the convex
-upper portion of which seems to have been
-called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caput extorum</i>. Any disease or
-deficiency in this organ was considered an
-unfavourable omen; whereas, if healthy and
-perfect, it was believed to indicate good fortune.
-If no caput was found, it was a bad sign
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nihil tristius accidere potuit</i>); if well defined
-or double, it was a lucky omen.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Caracalla">CĂRĂCALLA, an outer garment used in
-Gaul, and not unlike the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lacerna</i>. It
-was first introduced at Rome by the emperor
-Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus, who compelled
-all the people that came to court to wear it,
-whence he obtained the surname of Caracalla.
-This garment, as worn in Gaul, does not
-appear to have reached lower than the knee,
-but Caracalla lengthened it so as to reach the
-ankle.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Carcer">CARCER (<em>kerker</em>, German; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γοργύρα</span>,
-Greek), a prison, is connected with <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕρκος</span>
-and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἵργω</span>, the guttural being interchanged
-with the aspirate. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> Imprisonment
-was seldom used amongst the Greeks as a
-legal punishment for offences; they preferred
-banishment to the expense of keeping prisoners
-in confinement. The prisons in different
-countries were called by different names;
-thus there was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ceadas</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεάδας</span>), at Sparta;
-and, among the Ionians, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gorgyra</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γοργύρα</span>),
-as at Samos. The prison at Athens
-was in former times called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Desmoterion</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεσμωτήριον</span>),
-and afterwards, by a sort of euphemism,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἴκημα</span>. It was chiefly used as a guard-house
-or place of execution, and was under the
-charge of the public officers called the Eleven.&mdash;(2)
-<span class="smcap">Roman.</span> A prison was first built at Rome
-by Ancus Martius, overhanging the forum.
-This was enlarged by Servius Tullius, who
-added to it a souterrain, or dungeon, called
-from him the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tullianum</i>. Sallust describes
-this as being twelve feet under ground,
-walled on each side, and arched over with
-stone work. For a long time this was the
-only prison at Rome, being, in fact, the
-“Tower,” or state prison of the city, which
-was sometimes doubly guarded in times of
-alarm, and was the chief object of attack in
-many conspiracies. There were, however,
-other prisons besides this, though, as we
-might expect, the words of Roman historians
-generally refer to this alone. In the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tullianum</i>
-prisoners were generally executed,
-and this part of the prison was also called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">robur</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Carceres">CARCĔRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Carchesium">CARCHĒSĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρχήσιον</span>). (1) A beaker or
-drinking-cup, which was used by the Greeks
-in very early times. It was slightly contracted
-in the middle, and its two handles
-extended from the top to the bottom. It was
-much employed in libations of wine, milk,
-and honey.&mdash;(2) The upper part of the mast
-of a ship. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Carmentalia">CARMENTĀLĬA, a festival celebrated in
-honour of Carmenta or Carmentis, who is
-fabled to have been the mother of Evander,
-who came from Pallantium in Arcadia, and
-settled in Latium: he was said to have
-brought with him a knowledge of the arts,
-and the Latin alphabetical characters as distinguished
-from the Etruscan. This festival
-was celebrated annually on the 11th of January.
-A temple was erected to the same
-goddess, at the foot of the Capitoline hill,
-near the Porta Carmentalis, afterwards called
-Scelerata. The name Carmenta is said to
-have been given to her from her prophetic
-character, carmens or carmentis being synonymous
-with vates. The word is, of course,
-connected with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carmen</i>, as prophecies were
-generally delivered in verse.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Carneia">CARNEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρνεῖα</span>), a great national festival,
-celebrated by the Spartans in honour of
-Apollo Carneios. The festival began on the
-seventh day of the month of Carneios = Metageitnion
-of the Athenians, and lasted for
-nine days. It was of a warlike character,
-similar to the Attic Boëdromia. During the
-time of its celebration nine tents were pitched
-near the city, in each of which nine men
-lived in the manner of a military camp, obeying
-in everything the commands of a herald.
-The priest conducting the sacrifices at the
-Carneia was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agetes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγητής</span>), whence
-the festival was sometimes designated by the
-name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agetoria</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agetoreion</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγητόρια</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγητόρειον</span>), and from each of the Spartan
-tribes five men (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καρνεᾶται</span>) were chosen as
-his ministers, whose office lasted four years,
-during which period they were not allowed
-to marry. When we read in Herodotus and
-Thucydides that the Spartans during the
-celebration of this festival were not allowed
-to take the field against an enemy, we must
-remember that this restriction was not peculiar
-to the Carneia, but common to all the
-great festivals of the Greeks: traces of it are
-found even in Homer.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Carnifex">CARNĬFEX, the public executioner at
-Rome, who executed slaves and foreigners,
-but not citizens, who were punished in a
-manner different from slaves. It was also
-his business to administer the torture. This
-office was considered so disgraceful, that he
-was not allowed to reside within the city,
-but lived without the Porta Metia or Esquilina,
-near the place destined for the punishment
-of slaves, called Sestertium under the
-emperors.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Carpentum">CARPENTUM, a cart; also a two-wheeled
-carriage, enclosed, and with an arched or
-sloping cover overhead. The carpentum was
-used to convey the Roman matrons in the
-public festal processions; and this was a high
-distinction, since the use of carriages in the
-city was entirely forbidden during the whole
-of the republican period. Hence the privilege
-of riding in a carpentum in the public festivals
-was sometimes granted to females of the imperial
-family. This carriage contained seats for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span>
-two, and sometimes for three persons, besides
-the coachman. It was commonly drawn by
-a pair of mules, but more rarely by oxen or
-horses, and sometimes by four horses like a
-quadriga.&mdash;Carpenta, or covered carts, were
-much used by the Britons, the Gauls, and
-other northern nations. These, together with
-the carts of the more common form, including
-baggage-waggons, appear to have been comprehended
-under the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carri</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carra</i>,
-which is the Celtic name with a Latin termination.
-The Gauls took a great multitude of
-them on their military expeditions, and when
-they were encamped, arranged them in close
-order, so as to form extensive lines of circumvallation.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Carrago">CARRĀGO, a kind of fortification, consisting
-of a great number of waggons placed
-round an army. It was employed by barbarous
-nations, as, for instance, the Scythians,
-Gauls, and Goths. Carrago also signifies sometimes
-the baggage of an army.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Carruca">CARRŪCA, a carriage, the name of which
-only occurs under the emperors. It appears
-to have been a species of rheda [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Rheda">Rheda</a></span>],
-had four wheels, and was used in travelling.
-These carriages were sometimes used in Rome
-by persons of distinction, like the carpenta;
-in which case they appear to have been
-covered with plates of bronze, silver, and even
-gold, which were sometimes ornamented with
-embossed work.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Carrus">CARRUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Carpentum">Carpentum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Carya">CĂRỸA or CĂRỸĀTIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρύα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρυατίς</span>),
-a festival celebrated at Caryae, in Laconia, in
-honour of Artemis Caryatis. It was celebrated
-every year by Lacedaemonian maidens with
-national dances of a very lively kind.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caryatides">CĂRỸĀTĬDES, female figures used in
-architecture instead of columns. Their name
-is usually derived from Caryae, a city in
-Arcadia, near the Laconian border, the
-women of which are said to have been reduced
-to slavery by the Greeks, because
-Caryae had joined the Persians at the invasion
-of Greece. But this tale is probably
-apocryphal. One of the porticos of the
-Erechtheum at Athens is supported by Caryatides.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cassis">CASSIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Galea">Galea</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Castellum">CASTELLUM ĂQUAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aquae">Aquae Ductus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Castra">CASTRA. Roman armies never halted for
-a single night without forming a regular entrenchment,
-termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castra</i>, capable of receiving
-within its limits the whole body of fighting
-men, their beasts of burden, and the baggage.
-So completely was this recognised as a part of
-the ordinary duties of each march, that <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pervenire
-ad locum tertiis ... quartis ... septuagesimis
-castris</i> are the established phrases
-for expressing the number of days occupied
-in passing from one point to another. Whenever
-circumstances rendered it expedient for
-a force to occupy the same ground for any
-length of time, then the encampment was
-distinguished as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castra stativa</i>. In wild and
-barbarian lands, where there were no large
-towns and no tribes on whose faith reliance
-could be placed, armies, whether of invasion
-or occupation, were forced to remain constantly
-in camps. They usually, however,
-occupied different ground in summer and in
-winter, whence arose the distinction between
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castra aestiva</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castra hiberna</i>, both alike
-being <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stativa</i>. But whether a camp was
-temporary or permanent, whether tenanted
-in summer or in winter, the main features of
-the work were always the same for the same
-epoch. In hiberna, huts of turf or stone
-would be substituted for the open tents of the
-aestiva (hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aedificare hiberna</i>), and in stativa
-held for long periods the defences would
-present a more substantial and finished aspect,
-but the general outline and disposition of the
-parts were invariable. Polybius has transmitted
-to us a description of a Roman camp,
-from which the annexed plan has been drawn
-up. It is such as would be formed at the
-close of an ordinary day’s march by a regular
-consular army consisting of two Roman legions
-with the full contingent of Socii. Each legion
-is calculated at 4200 infantry and 300 cavalry;
-the Socii furnished an equal number of infantry,
-and twice as many cavalry, so that
-the whole force would amount to 16,800 foot
-and 1800 horse. Skill in the selection of a
-spot for a camp (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capere locum castris</i>) was
-ever considered as a high quality in a general,
-and we find it recorded among the praises of
-the most renowned commanders that they
-were wont in person to perform this duty.
-Under ordinary circumstances, however, the
-task was devolved upon one of the military
-tribunes, and a certain number of centurions
-appointed from time to time for the purpose.
-These having gone forward in advance of the
-army until they reached the place near which
-it was intended to halt, and having taken a
-general survey of the ground, selected a spot
-from whence a good view of the whole proposed
-area might be obtained. This spot was
-considerably within the limits of the contemplated
-enclosure, and was marked by a small
-white flag. The next object was to ascertain
-in what direction water and fodder might be
-most easily and securely provided. These
-two preliminary points being decided, the
-business of measuring out the ground (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metari
-castra</i>) commenced, and was executed, as we
-learn from various sources, with graduated
-rods (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decempedae</i>) by persons denominated
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metatores</i>. In practice the most important<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span>
-points were marked by white poles, some of
-which bore flags of various colours, so that
-the different battalions on reaching the ground
-could at once discover the place assigned to
-them.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp71" id="ill074" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill074.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><p class="negin1">A, praetorium.&mdash;B, tents of the tribunes.&mdash;C, tents of the praefecti sociorum.&mdash;D, street 100 feet wide.&mdash;E, F, G, and
-H, streets 50 feet wide.&mdash;L, select foot and volunteers.&mdash;K, select horse and volunteers.&mdash;M, extraordinary horse of the
-allies.&mdash;N, extraordinary foot of the allies.&mdash;O, reserved for occasional auxiliaries.&mdash;Q, the street called Quintana,
-50 feet wide.&mdash;V P, via principalis, 100 feet wide.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The white flag A, which served as the
-starting point of the whole construction,
-marked the position of the consul’s tent, or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetorium</i>, so called because <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetor</i> was the
-ancient term for any one invested with supreme
-command. A square area was left open, extending
-a hundred feet each way from the
-praetorium. The camp was divided into two
-parts, the upper and the lower. The upper
-part formed about a third of the whole. In
-it was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetorium</i> (A) or general’s tent.
-A part of the praetorium was called the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augurale</i>, as the auguries were there taken
-by the general. On the right and left of the
-praetorium were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">forum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quaestorium</i>;
-the former a sort of market-place, the latter
-appropriated to the quaestor and the camp
-stores under his superintendence. On the
-sides of and facing the forum and quaestorium,
-were stationed select bodies of horse<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span>
-(K) taken from the extraordinaries, with
-mounted volunteers, who served out of respect
-to the consul, and were stationed near him.
-And parallel to these were posted similar
-bodies of foot-soldiers (L). Before the quaestorium
-and the forum were the tents of the
-twelve tribunes of the two legions (B), and
-before the select bodies of horse and infantry
-the tents of the praefecti sociorum were probably
-placed (C). Again, behind the praetorium,
-the quaestorium, and the forum, ran a
-street or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">via</i> (D), 100 feet broad, from one
-side of the camp to the other. Along the
-upper side of this street was ranged the main
-body of the “extraordinary” horse (M): they
-were separated into two equal parts by a
-street fifty feet broad (E). At the back of
-this body of cavalry was posted a similar
-body of infantry (N), selected from the allies,
-and facing the opposite way, <em>i.e.</em> towards the
-ramparts of the camp. The vacant spaces
-(O) on each side of these troops were reserved
-for foreigners and occasional auxiliaries. The
-lower part of the camp was divided from the
-upper by a street, called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Principalis</i>
-(V P), or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principia</i>, a hundred feet broad.
-Here the tribunal of the general was erected,
-from which he harangued the soldiers, and
-here the tribunes administered justice. Here
-also the principal standards, the altars of the
-gods, and the images of the emperors were
-placed. The lower part of the camp was
-occupied by the two legions and the troops of
-the allies according to the arrangement of the
-preceding cut. Between the ramparts and
-the tents was left a vacant space of 200 feet
-on every side, which was useful for many
-purposes: thus it served for the reception of
-any booty that was taken, and facilitated the
-entrance and exit of the army. The camp
-had four gates, one at the top and bottom,
-and one at each of the sides; the top or back-gate,
-which was the side most away from the
-enemy, was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decumana</i>. The bottom
-or the front gate was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">practoria</i>, the gates
-of the sides were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porta principalis dextra</i>,
-and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porta principalis sinistra</i>. The whole
-camp was surrounded by a trench (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fossa</i>),
-generally nine feet deep and twelve broad,
-and a rampart (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallum</i>) made of the earth
-that was thrown up (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agger</i>), with stakes
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">valli</i>) fixed at the top of it. The labour of
-this work was so divided, that the allies completed
-the two sides of the camp alongside of
-which they were stationed, and the two
-Roman legions the rest.&mdash;In describing the
-Roman camp and its internal arrangements,
-we have confined ourselves to the information
-given by Polybius, which, of course,
-applies only to his age, and to armies constituted
-like those he witnessed. When the
-practice of drawing up the army according to
-cohorts, ascribed to Marius or Caesar [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>],
-had superseded the ancient division
-into maniples, and the distinction of triarii,
-&amp;c., the internal arrangements of the camp
-must have been changed accordingly. In each
-legion the tribunes divided themselves into
-three sections of two each, and each section in
-turn undertook for two months the superintendence
-of all matters connected with the
-camp. Out of the twenty maniples of Principes
-and Triarii in each legion, two were
-appointed to take charge of the broad passage
-or street called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principia</i>, extending right
-across the camp in front of the tents of the
-tribunes. Of the remaining eighteen maniples
-of Principes and Hastati in each legion,
-three were assigned by lot to each of the six
-tribunes, and of these three maniples one in
-turn rendered each day certain services to the
-tribune to whom it was specially attached.
-One maniple was selected each day from the
-whole legionary force, to keep guard beside
-the tent of the general. Three sentinels were
-usually posted at the tents of the quaestor,
-and of the legati: and by night sentinels
-kept watch at every maniple, being chosen
-out of the maniple which they guarded. The
-Velites mounted guard by day and by night
-along the whole extent of the vallum: to
-them also in bodies of ten was committed the
-charge of the gates, while strong bodies of
-infantry and cavalry were thrown forward in
-advance of each gate, to resist any sudden
-onset, and give timely notice of the approach
-of the enemy.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Excubiae</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">excubias agere</i>;
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">excubare</i>; are the general terms used with
-reference to mounting guard whether by
-night or by day. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vigiliae</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vigilias agere</i>;
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vigilare</i>; are restricted to night duty: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Excubiae</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vigiliae</i> frequently denote not only
-the service itself, but also the individuals
-who performed it. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Stationes</i> is used specially
-to denote the advanced posts thrown forward
-in front of the gates. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Custodes</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Custodiae</i>
-the parties who watched the gates themselves,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praesidia</i> the sentinels on the ramparts, but
-all these words are employed in many other
-significations also. The duty of going the
-rounds (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vigilias circuire s. circumire</i>) was
-committed to the Equites, and for this purpose
-each legion supplied daily four, picked
-out from each turma in rotation by the commander
-of the troop. The eight persons thus
-selected decided by lot in which watch they
-should make their rounds, two being assigned
-to each watch. They then repaired to the
-tribune, and each individual received a
-written order specifying the posts which he
-was to visit, every post being visited in each
-watch by one or other of the two to whom<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span>
-the watch belonged. Sometimes we find
-centurions, tribunes, and even the general in
-chief represented as going the rounds, but,
-under ordinary circumstances, the duty was
-performed as we have described. The watchword
-for the night was not communicated
-verbally, but by means of a small rectangular
-tablet of wood (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλατεῖον ἐπιγεγραμμένον</span>&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tessera</i>)
-upon which it was written.&mdash;<em>Breaking
-up a Camp.</em> On the first signal being given
-by the trumpet, the tents were all struck and
-the baggage packed, the tents of the general
-and the tribunes being disposed of before the
-others were touched. At the second signal
-the baggage was placed upon the beasts of
-burden; at the third, the whole army began
-to move.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Catalogus">CĂTĂLŎGUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατάλογος</span>), the catalogue of
-those persons in Athens who were liable to
-regular military service. At Athens, those
-persons alone who possessed a certain amount
-of property were allowed to serve in the regular
-infantry, whilst the lowest class, the
-thetes, had not this privilege. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Census">Census</a>.</span>]
-Thus the former are called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ ἐκ καταλόγου
-στρατεύοντες</span>, and the latter <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ ἔξω τοῦ καταλόγου</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cataphracta">CĂTĂPHRACTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lorica">Lorica</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cataphracti">CĂTĂPHRACTI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατάφρακτοι</span>). (1) Heavy-armed
-cavalry, the horses of which were also
-covered with defensive armour. Among
-many of the Eastern nations, who placed
-their chief dependence upon their cavalry, we
-find horses protected in this manner; but
-among the Romans we do not read of any
-troops of this description till the later times
-of the empire, when the discipline of the legions
-was destroyed, and the chief dependence
-began to be placed on the cavalry. This
-species of troops was common among the
-Persians from the earliest times, from whom
-it was adopted by their Macedonian conquerors.
-They were called by the Persians
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clibanarii</i>.&mdash;(2) Decked vessels, in opposition
-to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aphracti</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Catapirater">CĂTĂPĪRĀTĒR (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταπειρατηρία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βολίς</span>), the
-lead used in sounding (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐν τῷ βολίζειν</span>), or fathoming
-the depth of water in navigation.
-The mode of employing this instrument appears
-to have been precisely the same as that
-now in use.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Catapulta">CĂTĂPULTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tormentum">Tormentum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cataracta">CĂTĂRACTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταῤῥάκτης</span>), a portcullis,
-so called because it fell with great force and
-a loud noise. It was an additional defence,
-suspended by iron rings and ropes, before the
-gates of a city, in such a manner that, when
-the enemy had come up to the gates, the portcullis
-might be let down so as to shut them
-in, and to enable the besieged to assail them
-from above.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cateia">CĂTEIA, a missile used in war by the Germans,
-Gauls, and some of the Italian nations,
-supposed to resemble the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aclis">Aclis</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Catena">CĂTĒNA, dim. CĂTELLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄλυσις</span>, dim.
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλύσιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλυσίδιον</span>), a chain. The chains
-which were of superior value, either on account
-of the material or the workmanship,
-are commonly called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">catellae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλύσια</span>), the
-diminutive expressing their fineness and delicacy
-as well as their minuteness. The specimens
-of ancient chains which we have in
-bronze lamps, in scales, and in ornaments for
-the person, especially necklaces, show a great
-variety of elegant and ingenious patterns.
-Besides a plain circle or oval, the separate
-link is often shaped like the figure 8, or is a
-bar with a circle at each end, or assumes other
-forms, some of which are here shown. The
-links are also found so closely entwined, that
-the chain resembles platted wire or thread,
-like the gold chains now manufactured at
-Venice. This is represented in the lowest figure
-of the woodcut.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill076a" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill076a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ancient Chains.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Catervarii">CĂTERVĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp58" id="ill076b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill076b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Cathedra. (From a Painting on a Vase.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Cathedra">CĂTHEDRA, a seat or chair, was more
-particularly applied to a soft seat used by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span>
-women, whereas <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella</i> signified a seat common
-to both sexes. The cathedrae were, no doubt,
-of various forms and sizes; but they usually
-appear to have had backs to them. On the
-cathedra in the annexed cut is seated a bride,
-who is being fanned by a female slave with a
-fan made of peacock’s feathers. Women were
-also accustomed to be carried abroad in these
-cathedrae instead of in lecticae, which practice
-was sometimes adopted by effeminate
-persons of the other sex. The word cathedra
-was also applied to the chair or pulpit from
-which lectures were read.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Catinus">CĂTĪNUS, or CĂTĪNUM, a large dish, on
-which fish and meat were served up at table.
-Hence Horace speaks of an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">angustus catinus</i>
-as an indication of niggardliness on the part
-of the host.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cavaedium">CĂVAEDĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cavea">CĂVĔA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caupona">CAUPŌNA. (1) An inn, where travellers
-obtained food and lodging; in which sense it
-answered to the Greek words <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πανδοκεῖον, καταγώγιον</span>,
-and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατάλυσις</span>. Inns for the accommodation
-of persons of all classes existed
-among the Greeks and Romans, although they
-were not equal either in size or convenience
-to similar places in modern times. An inn
-was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taberna</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taberna diversoria</i>,
-or simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diversorium</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deversorium</i>.&mdash;(2) A
-shop, where wine and ready-dressed meat
-were sold, thus corresponding to the Greek
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καπηλεῖον</span>. The person who kept a caupona
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caupo</i>. In Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάπηλος</span> signifies
-in general a retail trader, who sold goods in
-small quantities; but the word is more particularly
-applied to a person who sold ready-dressed
-provisions, and especially wine in
-small quantities. In these <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καπηλεῖα</span> only persons
-of the very lowest class were accustomed
-to eat and drink. In Rome itself there were,
-no doubt, inns to accommodate strangers;
-but these were probably only frequented by
-the lower classes, since all persons in respectable
-society could easily find accommodation
-in the houses of their friends. There were,
-however, in all parts of the city, numerous
-houses where wine and ready-dressed provisions
-were sold. The houses where persons
-were allowed to eat and drink were usually
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">popinae</i> and not <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cauponae</i>; and the
-keepers of them, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">popae</i>. They were principally
-frequented by slaves and the lower
-classes, and were consequently only furnished
-with stools to sit upon instead of couches.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thermopolia</i>, where the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calida</i> or warm
-wine and water was sold, appear to have
-been the same as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">popinae</i>. Many of these
-popinae were little better than the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lupanaria</i>
-or brothels; whence Horace calls them <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">immundas
-popinas</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ganeae</i>, which are
-sometimes mentioned in connection with the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">popinae</i>, were brothels, whence they are often
-classed with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lustra</i>. Under the emperors
-many attempts were made to regulate the popinae,
-but apparently with little success. All
-persons who kept inns or houses of public
-entertainment of any kind were held in low
-estimation both among the Greeks and Romans.
-They appear to have fully deserved
-the bad reputation which they possessed, for
-they were accustomed to cheat their customers
-by false weights and measures, and by all the
-means in their power.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Causia">CAUSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καυσία</span>), a hat with a broad brim,
-which was made of felt, and worn by the
-Macedonian kings. Its form is seen in the
-annexed figure. The Romans adopted it
-from the Macedonians.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp66" id="ill077" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill077.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Causia, Hat. (From a Painting on a Vase.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Cautio">CAUTĬO, CĂVĒRE. These words are of
-frequent occurrence, and have a great variety
-of significations, according to the matter to
-which they refer. Their general signification
-is that of security given by one person to
-another, or security which one person obtains
-by the advice or assistance of another.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cautio</i> was most frequently a writing,
-which expressed the object of the parties to
-it; accordingly the word cautio came to signify
-both the instrument (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">chirographum</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">instrumentum</i>) and the object which it was
-the purpose of the instrument to secure.
-Cicero uses the expression <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cautio chirographi
-mei</i>. The phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cavere aliquid alicui</i> expressed
-the fact of one person giving security
-to another as to some particular thing or act.
-The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cautio</i> was also applied to the release
-which a debtor obtained from his creditor
-on satisfying his demand; in this sense
-cautio is equivalent to a modern receipt; it is
-the debtor’s security against the same demand
-being made a second time. Thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cavere ab
-aliquo</i> signifies to obtain this kind of security.
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cavere</i> is also applied to express the
-professional advice and assistance of a lawyer
-to his client for his conduct in any legal matter.
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cavere</i> and its derivatives are also used<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span>
-to express the provisions of a law, by which
-any thing is forbidden or ordered, as in the
-phrase, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cautum est lege</i>, &amp;c. It is also used
-to express the words in a will, by which a
-testator declares his wish that certain things
-should be done after his death.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ceadas">CĔADAS or CAEADAS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεάδας</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καιάδας</span>),
-a deep cavern or chasm, like the Barathron
-at Athens, into which the Spartans
-were accustomed to thrust persons condemned
-to death.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Celeres">CĔLĔRES, are said by Livy to have been
-three hundred horsemen, who formed the
-body-guard of Romulus both in peace and
-war. There can, however, be little doubt
-that these Celeres were not simply the body-guard
-of the king, but were the same as the
-equites, or horsemen, a fact which is expressly
-stated by some writers. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a>.</span>]
-The etymology of Celeres is variously given.
-Some writers derived it from their leader
-Celer, who was said to have slain Remus, but
-most writers connected it with the Greek
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κέλης</span>, in reference to the quickness of their
-service. The Celeres were under the command
-of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tribunus Celerum</i>, who stood in
-the same relation to the king as the magister
-equitum did in a subsequent period to the
-dictator. He occupied the second place in
-the state, and in the absence of the king had
-the right of convoking the comitia. Whether
-he was appointed by the king, or elected by
-the comitia, has been questioned, but the
-former is the more probable.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cella">CELLA, in its primary sense, means a
-store-room of any kind. Of these there were
-various descriptions, which took their distinguishing
-denominations from the articles
-they contained, as, for instance, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella penuaria</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">penaria</i>, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella olearia</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella
-vinaria</i>. The slave to whom the charge of
-these stores was intrusted, was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cellarius</i>,
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">promus</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">condus</i>, “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">quia <em>promit</em>
-quod <em>conditum est</em></span>,” and sometimes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">promus
-condus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">procurator peni</i>. This answers
-to our butler and housekeeper. Any number
-of small rooms clustered together like the cells
-of a honeycomb were also termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cellae</i>;
-hence the dormitories of slaves and menials
-are called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cellae</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cellae familiaricae</i>, in
-distinction to a bed-chamber, which was
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cubiculum</i>. Thus a sleeping-room at a public-house
-is also termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cella ostiarii</i>, or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">janitoris</i>, is the porter’s lodge. In the baths
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella caldaria</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tepidaria</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">frigidaria</i>,
-were those which contained respectively the
-warm, tepid, and cold bath. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneae</a>.</span>]
-The interior of a temple, that is the part included
-within the outside shell (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σηκός</span>), was
-also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i>. There was sometimes more
-than one <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i> within the same peristyle or
-under the same roof, in which case each cell
-took the name of the deity whose statue it
-contained, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i> Jovis, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i> Junonis, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i>
-Minervae, as in the temple of Jupiter on the
-Capitoline.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cenotaphium">CĔNOTĂPHĬUM, a cenotaph (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κενός</span> and
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάφος</span>), was an empty or honorary tomb,
-erected as a memorial of a person whose body
-was buried elsewhere, or not found for burial
-at all.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Censor">CENSOR (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιμητής</span>), the name of two magistrates
-of high rank in the Roman republic.
-Their office was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Censura</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιμητεία</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιμητία</span>). The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Census</i>, which was a register
-of Roman citizens and of their property, was
-first established by Servius Tullius, the fifth
-king of Rome. After the expulsion of the
-kings it was taken by the consuls; and special
-magistrates were not appointed for the
-purpose of taking it till the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 443.
-The reason of this alteration was owing to
-the appointment in the preceding year of
-tribuni militum with consular power in place
-of the consuls; and as these tribunes might
-be plebeians, the patricians deprived the consuls,
-and consequently their representatives,
-the tribunes, of the right of taking the census,
-and entrusted it to two magistrates, called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Censores</i>, who were to be chosen exclusively
-from the patricians. The magistracy continued
-to be a patrician one till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 351,
-when C. Marcius Rutilus was the first plebeian
-censor. Twelve years afterwards, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-339, it was provided by one of the Publilian
-laws, that one of the censors must necessarily
-be a plebeian, but it was not till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 280 that
-a plebeian censor performed the solemn purification
-of the people (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lustrum condidit</i>). In
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 131 the two censors were for the first
-time plebeians.&mdash;The censors were elected in
-the comitia centuriata held under the presidency
-of a consul. As a general principle,
-the only persons eligible to the office were
-those who had previously been consuls; but
-a few exceptions occur. At first there was
-no law to prevent a person being censor a
-second time; but the only person, who was
-twice elected to the office, was C. Marcius
-Rutilus in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 265; and he brought forward
-a law in this year, enacting that no one
-should be chosen censor a second time, and
-received in consequence the surname of Censorinus.&mdash;The
-censorship is distinguished
-from all other Roman magistracies by the
-length of time during which it was held.
-The censors were originally chosen for a whole
-lustrum, that is, a period of five years; but
-their office was limited to eighteen months,
-as early as ten years after its institution (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-433), by a law of the dictator Mam. Aemilius
-Mamercinus. The censors also held a very<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span>
-peculiar position with respect to rank and
-dignity. No imperium was bestowed upon
-them, and accordingly they had no lictors.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus censurae</i> was granted to them by a
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex centuriata</i>, and not by the curiae, and in
-that respect they were inferior in power to
-the consuls and praetors. But notwithstanding
-this, the censorship was regarded as the
-highest dignity in the state, with the exception
-of the dictatorship; it was a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sanctus
-magistratus</i>, to which the deepest reverence
-was due. They possessed of course the sella
-curulis. The funeral of a censor was always
-conducted with great pomp and splendour,
-and hence a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funus censorium</i> was voted even
-to the emperors.&mdash;The censorship continued
-in existence for 421 years, namely, from <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-443 to <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 22; but during this period many
-lustra passed by without any censor being
-chosen at all. Its power was limited by one
-of the laws of the tribune Clodius (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 58).
-After the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 22 the emperors discharged
-the duties of the censorship under the name
-of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praefectura Morum</i>.&mdash;The duties of the
-censors may be divided into three classes, all
-of which were however closely connected with
-one another: I. <em>The Census</em>, or register of
-the citizens and of their property, in which
-were included the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lectio senatus</i>, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">recognitio
-equitum</i>; II. <em>The Regimen Morum</em>;
-and III. <em>The administration of the finances of
-the state</em>, under which were classed the superintendence
-of the public buildings and the
-erection of all new public works.&mdash;I. The
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Census">Census</a></span>, the first and principal duty of the
-censors, for which the proper expression is
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">censum agere</i>, was always held in the Campus
-Martius, and from the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 435 in a
-special building called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Villa Publica</i>. After
-the auspicia had been taken, the citizens were
-summoned by a public crier (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praeco</i>) to appear
-before the censors. Each tribe was
-called up separately, and every paterfamilias
-had to appear in person before the censors,
-who were seated in their curule chairs. The
-census was conducted <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad arbitrium censoris</i>;
-but the censors laid down certain rules,
-sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">leges censui censendo</i>, in
-which mention was made of the different
-kinds of property subject to the census, and
-in what way their value was to be estimated.
-According to these laws each citizen had to
-give an account of himself, of his family, and of
-his property upon oath, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex animi sententia</i>.
-First he had to give his full name (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praenomen</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomen</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognomen</i>) and that of his
-father, or if he were a freedman that of his
-patron, and he was likewise obliged to state
-his age. He was then asked, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tu, ex animi
-tui sententia, uxorem habes?</i> and if married
-he had to give the name of his wife, and
-likewise the number, names, and ages of his
-children, if any. Single women (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viduae</i>) and
-orphans (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">orbi orbaeque</i>) were represented by
-their tutores; their names were entered in
-separate lists, and they were not included in
-the sum total of capita. After a citizen had
-stated his name, age, family, &amp;c., he then
-had to give an account of all his property, so
-far as it was subject to the census. In making
-this statement he was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">censere</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">censeri</i>,
-as a deponent, “to value or estimate
-himself,” or as a passive “to be valued or
-estimated:” the censor, who received the
-statement, was also said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">censere</i>, as well as
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">accipere censum</i>. Only such things were
-liable to the census (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">censui censendo</i>) as were
-property <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex jure Quiritium</i>. Land formed the
-most important article in the census; next
-came slaves and cattle. The censors also
-possessed the right of calling for a return of
-such objects as had not usually been given in,
-such as clothing, jewels, and carriages. We
-can hardly doubt that the censors possessed
-the power of setting a higher valuation on the
-property than the citizens themselves had
-put. The tax (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tributum</i>) was usually one
-per thousand upon the property entered in
-the books of the censors; but on one occasion
-the censors, as a punishment, compelled a
-person to pay eight per thousand (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">octuplicato
-censu</i>, Liv. iv. 24). A person who voluntarily
-absented himself from the census, and
-thus became <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">incensus</i>, was subject to the severest
-punishment. It is probable that service
-in the army was a valid excuse for absence.
-After the censors had received the
-names of all the citizens with the amount of
-their property, they then had to make out the
-lists of the tribes, and also of the classes and
-centuries; for by the legislation of Servius
-Tullius the position of each citizen in the
-state was determined by the amount of his
-property. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia_ce">Comitia Centuriata</a>.</span>] These
-lists formed a most important part of the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tabulae Censoriae</i>, under which name were
-included all the documents connected in any
-way with the discharge of the censors’ duties.
-These lists, as far at least as they were connected
-with the finances of the state, were
-deposited in the aerarium, which was the
-temple of Saturn; but the regular depository
-for all the archives of the censors was in
-earlier times the Atrium Libertatis, near the
-Villa publica, and in later times the temple of
-the Nymphs. The censors had also to make
-out the lists of the senators for the ensuing
-lustrum, or till new censors were appointed;
-striking out the names of such as they considered
-unworthy, and making additions to
-the body from those who were qualified.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a>.</span>] In the same manner they held a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span>
-review of the equites equo publico, and added
-and removed names as they judged proper.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a>.</span>] After the lists had been completed,
-the number of citizens was counted
-up, and the sum total announced; and accordingly
-we find that, in the account of a
-census, the number of citizens is likewise
-usually given. They are in such cases spoken
-of as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capita</i>, sometimes with the addition of
-the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">civium</i>, and sometimes not; and
-hence to be registered in the census was the
-same thing as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caput habere</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caput">Caput</a>.</span>]&mdash;II.
-<span class="smcap">Regimen Morum.</span> This was the most important
-branch of the censors’ duties, and the
-one which caused their office to be the most
-revered and the most dreaded in the Roman
-state. It naturally grew out of the right
-which they possessed of excluding unworthy
-persons from the lists of citizens. They
-were constituted the conservators of public
-and private virtue and morality; they were
-not simply to prevent crime or particular acts
-of immorality, but their great object was to
-maintain the old Roman character and habits,
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mos majorum</i>. The proper expression for
-this branch of their power was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">regimen morum</i>,
-which was called in the times of the
-empire <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cura</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefectura morum</i>. The
-punishment inflicted by the censors in the
-exercise of this branch of their duties was
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nota</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Notatio</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Animadversio
-Censoria</i>. In inflicting it they were guided
-only by their conscientious convictions of
-duty; they had to take an oath that they
-would act neither through partiality nor favour;
-and in addition to this, they were
-bound in every case to state in their lists,
-opposite the name of the guilty citizen, the
-cause of the punishment inflicted on him,&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Subscriptio
-censoria</i>. The consequence of
-such a nota was only <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ignominia</i> and not infamia
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Infamia">Infamia</a></span>], and the censorial verdict
-was not a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicium</i> or res <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicata</i>, for its
-effects were not lasting, but might be removed
-by the following censors, or by a lex.
-A nota censoria was moreover not valid, unless
-both censors agreed. The ignominia was
-thus only a transitory capitis deminutio,
-which does not appear even to have deprived
-a magistrate of his office, and certainly did
-not disqualify persons labouring under it for
-obtaining a magistracy, for being appointed
-as judices by the praetor, or for serving in
-the Roman armies. This superintendence of
-the conduct of Roman citizens extended so
-far, that it embraced the whole of the public
-and private life of the citizens. Thus we
-have instances of their censuring or punishing
-persons for not marrying, for breaking a
-promise of marriage, for divorce, for bad conduct
-during marriage, for improper education
-of children, for living in an extravagant and
-luxurious manner, and for many other irregularities
-in private life. Their influence was
-still more powerful in matters connected with
-the public life of the citizens. Thus we find
-them censuring or punishing magistrates who
-were forgetful of the dignity of their office or
-guilty of bribery, as well as persons who
-were guilty of improper conduct towards magistrates,
-of perjury, and of neglect of their
-duties both in civil and military life. The
-punishments inflicted by the censors are generally
-divided into four classes:&mdash;1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Motio</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ejectio e senatu</i>, or the exclusion of a man
-from the number of senators. This punishment
-might either be a simple exclusion from
-the list of senators, or the person might at
-the same time be excluded from the tribes
-and degraded to the rank of an aerarian.
-The censors in their new lists omitted the
-names of such senators as they wished to
-exclude, and in reading these new lists in
-public, passed over the names of those who
-were no longer to be senators. Hence the
-expression <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praeteriti senatores</i> is equivalent
-to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">e senatu ejecti</i>. 2. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ademptio equi</i>, or
-the taking away the equus publicus from an
-eques. This punishment might likewise be
-simple, or combined with the exclusion from
-the tribes and the degradation to the rank of
-an aerarian. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a>.</span>] 3. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">motio e
-tribu</i>, or the exclusion of a person from his
-tribe. If the further degradation to the rank
-of an aerarian was combined with the motio
-e tribu, it was always expressly stated. 4.
-The fourth punishment was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">referre in
-aerarios</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">facere aliquem aerarium</i>, and
-might be inflicted on any person who was
-thought by the censors to deserve it. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarii">Aerarii</a>.</span>]&mdash;III.
-<span class="smcap">The Administration of the Finances
-of the State</span>, was another part of
-the censors’ office. In the first place the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tributum</i>, or property-tax, had to be paid by
-each citizen according to the amount of his
-property registered in the census, and, accordingly,
-the regulation of this tax naturally
-fell under the jurisdiction of the censors.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tributum">Tributum</a>.</span>] They also had the superintendence
-of all the other revenues of the state, the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vectigalia</i>, such as the tithes paid for the
-public lands, the salt-works, the mines, the
-customs, &amp;c. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vectigalia">Vectigalia</a>.</span>] All these branches
-of the revenue the censors were accustomed
-to let out to the highest bidder for the space
-of a lustrum or five years. The act of letting
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">venditio</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">locatio</i>, and seems to
-have taken place in the month of March.
-The censors also possessed the right, though
-probably not without the concurrence of the
-senate, of imposing new vectigalia, and even
-of selling the land belonging to the state.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span>
-The censors, however, did not receive the revenues
-of the state. All the public money
-was paid into the aerarium, which was entirely
-under the jurisdiction of the senate;
-and all disbursements were made by order of
-this body, which employed the quaestors as
-its officers. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a></span>.]&mdash;In one
-important department the censors were entrusted
-with the expenditure of the public
-money; though the actual payments were
-no doubt made by the quaestors. The censors
-had the general superintendence of all
-the public buildings and works (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opera publica</i>);
-and to meet the expenses connected
-with this part of their duties, the senate voted
-them a certain sum of money or certain revenues,
-to which they were restricted, but
-which they might at the same time employ
-according to their discretion. They had to
-see that the temples and all other public buildings
-were in a good state of repair (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aedes
-sacras tueri</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sarta tecta exigere</i>), that no
-public places were encroached upon by the
-occupation of private persons (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">loca tueri</i>), and
-that the aquaeducts, roads, drains, &amp;c. were
-properly attended to. The repairs of the
-public works and the keeping of them in proper
-condition were let out by the censors by
-public auction to the lowest bidder. The
-persons who undertook the contract were
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conductores</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">redemptores</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">susceptores</i>, &amp;c.; and the duties they had to
-discharge were specified in the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges Censoriae</i>.
-The censors had also to superintend
-the expenses connected with the worship of
-the gods. In these respects it is not easy to
-define with accuracy the respective duties of
-the censors and aediles: but it may be remarked
-in general that the superintendence
-of the aediles had more of a police character,
-while that of the censors had reference to all
-financial matters.&mdash;After the censors had performed
-their various duties and taken the
-census, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lustrum</i> or solemn purification of
-the people followed. When the censors entered
-upon their office, they drew lots to see
-which of them should perform this purification
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lustrum facere</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">condere</i>), but both
-censors were obliged of course to be present
-at the ceremony. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lustrum">Lustrum</a>.</span>]&mdash;In the Roman
-and Latin colonies and in the municipia
-there were censors, who likewise bore the
-name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quinquennales</i>. They are spoken of
-under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a></span>. A census was sometimes
-taken in the provinces, even under the republic;
-but there seems to have been no
-general census taken in the provinces till the
-time of Augustus. At Rome the census still
-continued to be taken under the empire, but
-the old ceremonies connected with it were no
-longer continued, and the ceremony of the
-lustration was not performed after the time
-of Vespasian.&mdash;The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">census</i>, besides the
-meaning of “valuation” of a person’s estate,
-has other significations, which must be briefly
-mentioned: 1. It signified the amount of a
-person’s property, and hence we read of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">census senatorius</i>, the estate of a senator;
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">census equestris</i>, the estate of an eques.
-2. The lists of the censors. 3. The tax
-which depended upon the valuation in the
-census.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Census">CENSUS.&mdash;(1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span>&mdash;The Greek term
-for a man’s property as ascertained by the
-census, as well as for the act of ascertaining
-it, is <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τίμημα</span>. The only Greek state concerning
-whose arrangement of the census we have
-any satisfactory information, is Athens. Previous
-to the time of Solon no census had been
-instituted at Athens. According to his census,
-all citizens were divided into four classes:
-1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pentacosiomedimni</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντακοσιομέδιμνοι</span>),
-or persons possessing landed property which
-yielded an annual income of at least 500
-medimni of dry or liquid produce. 2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hippeis</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱππεῖς</span>), i.e. knights or persons able
-to keep a war-horse, were those whose lands
-yielded an annual produce of at least 300 medimni,
-whence they are also called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριακοσιομέδιμνοι</span>.
-3. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Zeugitae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζευγῖται</span>), i.e. persons
-able to keep a yoke of oxen (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζεῦγος</span>), were
-those whose annual income consisted of at
-least 150 medimni. 4. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thetes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θῆτες</span>)
-contained all the rest of the free population,
-whose income was below that of the Zeugitae.
-The constitution of Athens, so long as it was
-based upon these classes, was a timocracy
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιμοκρατία</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπὸ τιμημάτων πολιτεία</span>). The
-highest magistracy at Athens, or the archonship,
-was at first accessible only to persons
-of the first class, until Aristides threw all the
-state offices open to all classes indiscriminately.
-The maintenance of the republic
-mainly devolved upon the first three classes,
-the last being exempted from all taxes. As
-the land in the legislation of Solon was regarded
-as the capital which yielded an annual
-income, he regulated his system of taxation
-by the value of the land, which was treated
-as the taxable capital. Lists of this taxable
-property (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπογραφαί</span>) were kept at first by
-the naucrari, who also had to conduct the
-census, and afterwards by the demarchi.&mdash;As
-property is a fluctuating thing, the census
-was repeated from time to time, but the
-periods differed in the various parts of
-Greece, for in some a census was held every
-year, and in others every two or four years.
-At Athens every person had to state the
-amount of his property, and if there was any
-doubt about his honesty, it seems that a
-counter-valuation (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντιτίμησις</span>) might be made.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span>
-This system of taxation according to classes,
-and based upon the possession of productive
-estates, underwent a considerable change in
-the time of the Peloponnesian war, though the
-divisions into classes themselves continued
-to be observed for a considerable time after.
-As the wants of the republic increased, and
-as many citizens were possessed of large
-property, without being landed proprietors,
-the original land-tax was changed into a
-property-tax. This property-tax was called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφορά</span>, concerning which see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Eisphora">Eisphora</a></span>.
-Compare <span class="smcap"><a href="#Leiturgia">Leiturgiae</a></span>; and for the taxes paid
-by resident aliens, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Metoici">Metoici</a></span>.&mdash;(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span>
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Censor">Censor</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Centesima">CENTESĬMA, namely <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pars</i>, or the hundredth
-part, also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vectigal rerum venalium</i>,
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centesima rerum venalium</i>, was a tax
-of one per cent. levied at Rome and in Italy
-upon all goods that were exposed for public
-sale at auctions. It was collected by persons
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coactores</i>. This tax was perhaps introduced
-after the civil war between Marius
-and Sulla. Its produce was assigned by
-Augustus to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aerarium militare</i>. Tiberius
-reduced the tax to one half per cent. (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ducentesima</i>),
-after he had changed Cappadocia
-into a province, and had thereby increased
-the revenue of the empire. Caligula in the
-beginning of his reign abolished the tax altogether
-for Italy.</p>
-
-<p id="Centumviri">CENTUMVĬRI, were judices, who resembled
-other judices in this respect, that they
-decided cases under the authority of a magistratus;
-but they differed from other judices
-in being a definite body or collegium. This
-collegium seems to have been divided into
-four parts, each of which sometimes sat by
-itself. The origin of the court is unknown.
-According to an ancient writer, three were
-chosen out of each tribe, and consequently
-the whole number out of the 35 tribes would
-be 105, who, in round numbers, were called
-the hundred men. If the centumviri were
-chosen from the tribes, this seems a strong
-presumption in favour of the high antiquity
-of the court. It was the practice to set up a
-spear in the place where the centumviri were
-sitting, and accordingly the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta</i>, or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta centumviralis</i>, is sometimes used as
-equivalent to the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicium centumvirale</i>.
-The praetor presided in this court.
-The jurisdiction of the centumviri was chiefly
-confined to civil matters, but it appears that
-crimina sometimes came under their cognizance.
-The younger Pliny, who practised
-in this court, makes frequent allusions to it
-in his letters.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Centuria">CENTŬRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Centuriata">CENTŬRĬĀTA CŎMĪTĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Centurio">CENTŬRĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Centussis">CENTUSSIS. [As.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cera">CĒRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηρός</span>), wax. For its employment
-in painting, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pictura">Pictura</a></span>; and for its application
-as a writing material, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabulae">Tabulae</a></span> and
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Testamentum">Testamentum</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cerealia">CĔRĔĀLĬA, a festival celebrated at Rome
-in honour of Ceres, whose wanderings in
-search of her lost daughter Proserpine were
-represented by women, clothed in white, running
-about with lighted torches. During its
-continuance, games were celebrated in the
-Circus Maximus, the spectators of which appeared
-in white; but on any occasion of
-public mourning the games and festivals were
-not celebrated at all, as the matrons could
-not appear at them except in white. The
-day of the Cerealia is doubtful; some think
-it was the ides or 13th of April, others the
-7th of the same month.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cerevisia">CĔRĔVĪSĬA, CERVĪSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζύθος</span>), ale or
-beer, was almost or altogether unknown to
-the Greeks and Romans; but it was used very
-generally by the surrounding nations, whose
-soil and climate were less favourable to the
-growth of vines. According to Herodotus, the
-Egyptians commonly drank “barley wine;”
-and Diodorus Siculus says that the Egyptian
-beer was nearly equal to wine in strength and
-flavour. The Iberians and Thracians, and the
-people in the north of Asia Minor, instead of
-drinking their beer out of cups, placed it
-before them in a large bowl or vase, which
-was sometimes of gold or silver. This being
-full to the brim with the grains, as well as
-the fermented liquor, the guests, when they
-pledged one another, drank together out of
-the same bowl by stooping down to it,
-although, when this token of friendship was
-not intended, they adopted the more refined
-method of sucking up the fluid through tubes
-of cane. The Suevi and other northern nations
-offered to their gods libations of beer,
-and expected that to drink it in the presence
-of Odin would be among the delights of
-Valhalla.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ceroma">CĒRŌMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κήρωμα</span>), the oil mixed with
-wax (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηρός</span>) with which wrestlers were
-anointed; also the place where they were
-anointed, and, in later times, the place where
-they wrestled.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ceruchi">CĔRŪCHI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cestrum">CESTRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pictura">Pictura</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cestus">CESTUS. (1) The thongs or bands of leather,
-which were tied round the hands of
-boxers, in order to render their blows more
-powerful (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμάντες</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμάντες πυκτικοί</span>). The
-cestus was used by boxers in the earliest
-times, and is mentioned in the Iliad; but in
-the heroic times it consisted merely of thongs
-of leather, and differed from the cestus used
-in later times in the public games, which was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span>
-a most formidable weapon, being frequently
-covered with knots and nails, and loaded
-with lead and iron.&mdash;(2) A band or tie of any
-kind, but more particularly the zone or girdle
-of Venus, on which was represented every
-thing that could awaken love.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill083" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill083.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Cestus. (Fabretti, de Col. Traj., p. 261.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Cetra">CETRA, or CAETRA, a target, <em>i.e.</em> a small
-round shield, made of the hide of a quadruped.
-It formed part of the defensive armour
-of the Osci, and of the people of Spain, Mauritania,
-and Britain, and seems to have been
-much the same as the target of the Scotch
-Highlanders. The Romans do not appear to
-have used the cetra; but we find mention of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cetratae cohortes</i> levied in the provinces.
-Livy compares it to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pelta</i> of the Greeks
-and Macedonians, which was also a small
-light shield.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Chalcioecia">CHALCĬOĒCĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκιοίκια</span>), an annual
-festival, with sacrifices, held at Sparta in
-honour of Athena, surnamed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Chalcioecus</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλκίοικος</span>), i.e. the goddess of the brazen-house.
-Young men marched on the occasion
-in full armour to the temple of the goddess;
-and the ephors, although not entering the
-temple, but remaining within its sacred precincts,
-were obliged to take part in the
-sacrifice.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Chalcus">CHALCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκοῦς</span>), a denomination of
-Greek copper-money. Bronze or copper (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκός</span>)
-was very little used by the Greeks for
-money till after the time of Alexander the
-Great. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκία πονηρὰ</span> at Athens issued
-in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 406 were a peculiar exception; and
-they were soon afterwards called in, and the
-silver currency restored. It is not improbable,
-however, that the copper coin called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκοῦς</span>
-was in circulation in Athens still earlier.
-The smallest silver coin at Athens was the
-quarter-obol, and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκοῦς</span> was the half of
-that, or the eighth of an obol. Its value was
-somewhat more than 3-4ths of a farthing.
-The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκοῦς</span> in later times was divided into
-lepta, of which it contained seven. In later
-times the obol was coined of copper as well as
-silver.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Charistia">CHĂRISTĬA (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαρίζομαι</span>, to grant a
-favour or pardon), a solemn feast among the
-Romans, to which none but relations and
-members of the same family were invited, in
-order that any quarrel or disagreement which
-had arisen amongst them might be made up.
-The day of celebration was the 19th of February.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cheironomia">CHEIRŎNŎMĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειρονομία</span>), a mimetic
-movement of the hands, which formed a part
-of the art of dancing among the Greeks and
-Romans. In gymnastics it was applied to
-the movements of the hands in pugilistic
-combat.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cheirotonia">CHEIRŎTŎNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>). In the
-Athenian assemblies two modes of voting were
-practised, the one by pebbles (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψηφίζεσθαι</span>),
-the other by a show of hands (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονεῖν</span>).
-The latter was employed in the election of
-those magistrates who were chosen in the
-public assemblies, and who were hence called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονητοί</span>, in voting upon laws, and in
-some kinds of trials on matters which concerned
-the people. We frequently find, however,
-the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψηφίζεσθαι</span> used where the
-votes were really given by show of hands.
-The manner of voting by a show of hands
-was as follows:&mdash;The herald said: “Whoever
-thinks that Meidias is guilty, let him
-lift up his hand.” Then those who thought
-so stretched forth their hands. Then the
-herald said again: “Whoever thinks that
-Meidias is not guilty, let him lift up his
-hand;” and those who were of this opinion
-stretched forth their hands. The number of
-hands was counted each time by the herald;
-and the president, upon the herald’s report,
-declared on which side the majority voted.
-It is important to understand clearly the
-compounds of this word. A vote condemning
-an accused person is <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταχειροτονία</span>: one acquitting
-him, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποχειροτονία</span>; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιχειροτονεῖν</span> is
-to confirm by a majority of votes: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιχειροτονία
-τῶν νομῶν</span> was a revision of the laws,
-which took place at the beginning of every year:
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιχειροτονία τῶν ἀρχῶν</span> was a vote taken in the
-first assembly of each prytany on the conduct
-of the magistrates; in these cases, those who
-voted for the confirmation of the law, or for
-the continuance in office of the magistrate,
-were said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιχειροτονεῖν</span>, those on the other
-side <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποχειροτονεῖν</span>: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαχειροτονία</span> is a vote for
-one of two alternatives: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντιχειροτονεῖν</span>, to
-vote against a proposition. The compounds
-of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψηφίζεσθαι</span> have similar meanings.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Chirographum">CHĪRŎGRĂPHUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειρόγραφον</span>), meant
-first, as its derivation implies, a hand-writing
-or autograph. In this its simple sense, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χείρ</span>
-in Greek and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manus</i> in Latin are often substituted
-for it. From this meaning was easily
-derived that of a signature to a will or other<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[84]</span>
-instrument, especially a note of hand given
-by a debtor to his creditor.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Chiton">CHITON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χιτών</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tunica">Tunica</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Chlaena">CHLAENA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χλαῖνα</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pallium">Pallium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp81" id="ill084a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill084a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Chlamys. (The Figure on the left from a Painting on a
-Vase; that on the right from the Brit. Mus.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Chlamys">CHLĂMỸS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χλαμύς</span>, <em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χλαμύδιον</span>), a
-scarf, denoted an article of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amictus</i>, or
-outer raiment of the Greeks. It was for the
-most part woollen; and it differed from the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">himation</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμάτιον</span>), or cloak, the usual amictus
-of the male sex, in being smaller, finer, and
-oblong instead of square, its length being
-generally about twice its breadth. The scarf
-does not appear to have been much worn by
-children. It was generally assumed on
-reaching adolescence, and was worn by the
-ephebi from about seventeen to twenty years
-of age, and hence was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χλαμὺς ἐφηβηική</span>.
-It was also worn by the military, especially
-of high rank, over their body armour, and by
-hunters and travellers, more particularly on
-horseback. The usual mode of wearing the
-scarf was to pass one of its shorter sides
-round the neck, and to fasten it by means of
-a brooch (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fibula</i>), either over the breast (cut,
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#ill200b">Hasta</a></span>), in which case it hung down the back,
-or over the right shoulder, so as to cover the
-left arm (cut, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Causia">Causia</a></span>). In the following cut
-it is worn again in another way. The aptitude
-of the scarf to be turned in every possible
-form around the body, made it useful
-even for defence. The hunter used to wrap
-his chlamys about his left arm when pursuing
-wild animals, and preparing to fight with
-them. The annexed woodcut exhibits a
-figure of Neptune armed with the trident in
-his right hand, and having a chlamys to
-protect the left. When Diana goes to the
-chase, as she does not require her scarf for
-purposes of defence, she draws it from behind
-over her shoulders, and twists it round her
-waist so that the belt of her quiver passes across
-it. (See <a href="#ill084b">woodcut</a>.) Among the Romans the
-scarf came more into use under the emperors.
-Caligula wore one enriched with gold.
-Severus, when he was in the country or on
-an expedition, wore a scarf dyed with the
-coccus.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp90" id="ill084b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill084b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Chlamys. (Neptune from a Coin, and Diana from a
-Statue in the Vatican.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Choenix">CHOENIX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χοῖνιξ</span>), a Greek measure of
-capacity, the size of which is differently
-given; it was probably of different sizes in
-the several states. Some writers make it
-equal to three cotylae (nearly 1½ pints English);
-others to four cotylae (nearly 2 pints
-English); others again make it eight cotylae
-(nearly 4 pints English).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Choregus">CHŎRĒGUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χορηγός</span>), a person who had
-to bear the expenses of the choregia (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χορηγία</span>),
-one of the regularly recurring state burthens
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐγκύκλιοι λειτουργίαι</span>) at Athens. The choregus
-was appointed by his tribe, though we
-are not informed according to what order.
-The same person might serve as choregus for
-two tribes at once; and after <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 412 a decree
-was passed allowing two persons to unite
-and undertake a choregia together. The duties
-of the choregia consisted in providing
-the choruses for tragedies and comedies, the
-lyric choruses of men and boys, the pyrrhicists,
-the cyclic choruses, and the choruses of
-flute-players for the different religious festivals
-at Athens. When a poet intended to
-bring out a play, he had to get a chorus assigned
-him by the archon [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a></span>], who
-nominated a choregus to fulfil the requisite
-duties. He had first to collect his chorus,
-and then to procure a teacher (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χοροδιδάσκαλος</span>),
-whom he paid for instructing the choreutae.
-The chorus were generally maintained, during
-the period of their instruction, at the expense
-of the choregus. The choregus who exhibited<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[85]</span>
-the best musical or theatrical entertainment
-received as a prize a tripod, which he
-had the expense of consecrating, and sometimes
-he had also to build the monument on
-which it was placed. There was a whole
-street at Athens formed by the line of these
-tripod-temples, and called “The Street of the
-Tripods.”</p>
-
-<p id="Chorus">CHŎRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χορός</span>) probably signified originally
-a company of dancers dancing in a ring.
-In later times, a choric performance always
-implies the singing or musical recitation of a
-poetical composition, accompanied by appropriate
-dancing and gesticulation, or at least
-by a measured march. In all the Dorian
-states, especially among the Spartans, choral
-performances were cultivated with great assiduity.
-Various causes contributed to this, as,
-for example, their universal employment in
-the worship of Apollo, the fact that they were
-not confined to the men, but that women
-also took part in them, and that many of the
-dances had a gymnastic character given them,
-and were employed as a mode of training to
-martial exercises. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Saltatio">Saltatio</a>.</span>] Hence Doric
-lyric poetry became almost exclusively choral,
-which was not the case with the other great
-school of Greek lyric poetry, the Aeolian; so
-that the Doric dialect came to be looked upon
-as the appropriate dialect for choral compositions,
-and Doric forms were retained by the
-Athenians even in the choral compositions
-which were interwoven with their dramas.
-The instrument commonly used in connection
-with the Doric choral poetry was the cithara.
-A great impetus was given to choral poetry
-by its application to the dithyramb. This ancient
-Bacchanalian performance seems to have
-been a hymn sung by one or more of an irregular
-band of revellers, to the music of the
-flute. Arion, a contemporary of Periander,
-was the first who gave a regular choral form
-to the dithyramb. This chorus, which ordinarily
-consisted of fifty men or youths, danced
-in a ring round the altar of Dionysus. Hence
-such choruses were termed <em>cyclic</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύκλιοι
-χοροί</span>). With the introduction of a regular
-choral character, Arion also substituted the
-cithara for the flute. It was from the dithyramb
-that the Attic tragedy was developed.
-For details see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Tragoedia">Tragoedia</a></span>. From the time
-of Sophocles onwards the regular number of
-the chorus in a tragedy was 15; but it is
-impossible to arrive at any definite conclusion
-with regard to the number of the chorus in
-the early dramas of Aeschylus. The fact
-that the number of the dithyrambic chorus
-was 50, and that the mythological number
-of the Oceanides and Danaides was the same,
-tempts one to suppose that the chorus in the
-Prometheus and the Supplices consisted of
-50. Most writers, however, agree in thinking
-that such a number was too large to have
-been employed. The later chorus of 15 was
-arranged in a quadrangular form (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετράγωνος</span>).
-It entered the theatre by the passage
-to the right of the spectators. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum</a>.</span>]
-Its entrance was termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάροδος</span>; its leaving
-the stage in the course of the play <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετάστασις</span>;
-its re-entrance <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιπάροδος</span>; its exit <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄφοδος</span>.
-As it entered in three lines, with the spectators
-on its left, the stage on its right, the
-middle choreutes of the left row (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίτος ἀριστέρου</span>)
-was the Coryphaeus or Hegemon, who
-in early times at least was not unfrequently
-the choregus himself. Of course the positions
-first taken up by the choreutae were
-only retained till they commenced their evolutions.
-To guide them in these, lines were
-marked upon the boards with which the
-orchestra was floored. The flute as well as
-the cithara was used as an accompaniment to
-the choric songs. The dance of the tragic
-chorus was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐμμέλεια</span>.&mdash;The ordinary
-number of the chorus in a comedy was 24.
-Like the tragic chorus it was arranged in a
-quadrangular form, and entered the orchestra
-from opposite sides, according as it was supposed
-to come from the city or from the
-country. It consisted sometimes half of male
-and half of female choreutae. The dance of
-the comic chorus was the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόρδαξ</span>. In the
-Satyric drama the chorus consisted of Satyrs:
-its number is quite uncertain. Its dance was
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σίκιννις</span>. When a poet intended to
-bring forward a play, he had to apply for a
-chorus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χορὸν αἰτεῖν</span>) to the archons, to the
-king archon if the play was to be brought
-forward at the Lenaea, to the archon eponymus
-if at the great Dionysia. If the play
-were thought to deserve it, he received a
-chorus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χορὸν λαμβάνειν</span>), the expenses of
-which were borne by a choregus. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Choregus">Choregus</a>.</span>]
-The poet then either trained (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διδάσκειν</span>)
-the chorus himself, or entrusted that business
-to a professed chorus trainer (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χοροδιδάσκαλος</span>),
-who usually had an assistant (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποδιδάσκαλος</span>).
-For training the chorus in its evolutions there
-was also an <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀρχηστοδιδάσκαλος</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Chous">CHOUS, or CHOEUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χοῦς</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χοεῦς</span>), was
-equal to the Roman congius, and contained six
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξέσται</span>, or sextarii (nearly six pints English).
-It seems that there was also a smaller measure
-of the same name, containing two sextarii
-(nearly two pints English).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Chronologia">CHRŎNOLŎGĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρονολογία</span>), chronology.
-The Greeks reckoned their years generally
-according to their magistrates, in the early
-times according to the years of the reign of
-their kings, and afterwards according to their
-annual magistrates. At Athens the year was
-called by the name of one of the nine archons,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[86]</span>
-who from this circumstance was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων
-ἐπώνυμος</span>, or the archon par excellence; and
-at Sparta the years were called after one of
-the five ephors, who for this reason was likewise
-termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπώνυμος</span>. In Argos time was
-counted according to the years of the high
-priestess of Hera, who held her office for life
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡρεσίς</span>); and the inhabitants of Elis probably
-reckoned according to the Olympic games,
-which were celebrated every fifth year during
-the first full moon which followed after the
-summer solstice. Thus there was no era
-which was used by <em>all</em> the Greeks in common
-for the ordinary purposes of life.&mdash;Timaeus,
-who flourished about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 260, was the first
-historian who counted the years by Olympiads,
-each of which contained four years.
-The beginning of the Olympiads is commonly
-fixed in the year 3938 of the Julian period,
-or in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 776. If we want to reduce any
-given Olympiad to years before Christ, <em>e.g.</em>
-Ol. 87, we take the number of the Olympiads
-actually elapsed, that is, 86, multiply it by 4,
-and deduct the number obtained from 776, so
-that the first year of the 87th Ol. will be the
-same as the year 432 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> If the number of
-Olympiads amounts to more than 776 years,
-that is, if the Olympiad falls after the birth
-of Christ, the process is the same as before,
-but from the sum obtained by multiplying
-the Olympiads by 4, we must deduct the
-number 776, and what remains is the number
-of the years after Christ. As the Olympic
-games were celebrated 293 times, we have
-293 Olympic cycles, that is, 1172 years, 776
-of which fall before, and 396 after Christ.&mdash;Some
-writers also adopted the Trojan era, the
-fall of Troy being placed by Eratosthenes and
-those who adopted this era, in the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-1184. After the time of Alexander the Great,
-several other eras were introduced in the
-kingdoms that arose out of his empire. The
-first was the Philippic era, sometimes also
-called the era of Alexander or the era of
-Edessa; it began on the 12th of November
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 324, the date of the accession of Philip
-Arrhidaeus. The second was the era of the
-Seleucidae, beginning on the 1st of October
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 312, the date of the victory of Seleucus
-Nicator at Gaza, and of his re-conquest of
-Babylonia. This era was used very extensively
-in the East. The Chaldaean era differed
-from it only by six months, beginning
-in the spring of <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 311. Lastly, the eras of
-Antioch, of which there were three, but the
-one most commonly used began in November
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 49.&mdash;The Romans during the time of the
-republic reckoned their years by the names
-of the consuls, which were registered in the
-Fasti. Along with this era there existed
-another, used only by the historians. It
-reckoned the years from the foundation of the
-city (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ab urbe condita</i>); but the year of the
-foundation of the city was a question of uncertainty
-among the Romans themselves. M.
-Terentius Varro placed it on the 21st of April
-in the third year of the 6th Olympiad, that
-is, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 753; and this is the era most commonly
-used. To find out the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> corresponding
-to the year <span class="allsmcap">A.U.C.</span>, subtract the year
-<span class="allsmcap">A.U.C.</span> from 754; thus 605 <span class="allsmcap">A.U.C.</span> = 149 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-To find out the year <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> corresponding to
-the year <span class="allsmcap">A.U.C.</span>, subtract 753 from the year
-<span class="allsmcap">A.U.C.</span>; thus 767 <span class="allsmcap">A.U.C.</span> = 14 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Chrysendeta">CHRȲSENDĔTA, costly dishes used by the
-Romans at their entertainments, apparently
-made of silver, with golden ornaments.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cidaris">CIDĂRIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tiara">Tiara</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cinctus">CINCTUS GABĪNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Toga">Toga</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cingulum">CINGŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Zona">Zona</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cinerarius">CĬNĔRĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calamistrum">Calamistrum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cineres">CĬNĔRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ciniflo">CĬNĬFLO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calamistrum">Calamistrum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cippus">CIPPUS, a low column, sometimes round,
-but more frequently rectangular. Cippi were
-used for various purposes; the decrees of the
-senate were sometimes inscribed upon them;
-and with distances engraved upon them, they
-also served as mile-stones. They were, however,
-more frequently employed as sepulchral
-monuments. It was also usual to place at
-one corner of the burying-ground a cippus,
-on which the extent of the burying-ground
-was marked, towards the road (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in fronte</i>),
-and backwards to the fields (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in agrum</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp54" id="ill086" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill086.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Cippus, in the Vatican.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[87]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Circenses">CIRCENSES LŪDI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Circitores">CIRCĬTŌRES, or CIRCŬĬTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill087" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill087.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ground Plan of the Circus.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Circus">CIRCUS. When Tarquinius Priscus had
-taken the town of Apiolae from the Latins,
-he commemorated his success by an exhibition
-of races and pugilistic contests in the
-Murcian valley, between the Palatine and
-Aventine hills, around which a number of
-temporary platforms were erected by the
-patres and equites, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectacula</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fori</i>, or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foruli</i>, from their resemblance to the deck of
-a ship; each one raising a stage for himself,
-upon which he stood to view the games.
-This course, with its surrounding scaffoldings,
-was termed circus; either because the spectators
-stood round to see the shows, or because
-the procession and races went round in
-a circuit. Previously, however, to the death
-of Tarquin, a permanent building was constructed
-for the purpose, with regular tiers
-of seats in the form of a theatre. To this the
-name of Circus Maximus was subsequently
-given, as a distinction from the Flaminian
-and other similar buildings, which it surpassed
-in extent and splendour; and hence
-it is often spoken of as <em>the</em> Circus, without
-any distinguishing epithet. Of the Circus
-Maximus scarcely a vestige now remains;
-but this loss is fortunately supplied by the
-remains of a small circus on the Via Appia,
-the ground-plan of which is in a state of considerable
-preservation: it is represented in
-the annexed cut, and may be taken as a model
-of all others. Around the double lines
-(A, A) were arranged the seats (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gradus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sedilia</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subsellia</i>), as in a theatre, termed collectively
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cavea</i>; the lowest of which were
-separated from the ground by a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">podium</i>, and
-the whole divided longitudinally by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praecinctiones</i>,
-and diagonally into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cunei</i>, with their
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vomitoria</i> attached to each. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]
-Towards the extremity of the upper
-branch of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cavea</i>, the general outline is
-broken by an outwork (B), which was probably
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulvinar</i>, or station for the emperor,
-as it is placed in the best situation for
-seeing both the commencement and end of
-the course, and in the most prominent part
-of the circus. In the opposite branch is observed
-another interruption to the uniform
-line of seats (C), betokening also, from its
-construction, a place of distinction; which
-might have been assigned to the person at
-whose expense the games were given (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">editor
-spectaculorum</i>). In the centre of the area
-was a low wall (D) running lengthways down
-the course, which, from its resemblance to
-the position of the dorsal bone in the human
-frame, was termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spina</i>. At each extremity
-of the spina were placed, upon a base (E, E),
-three wooden cylinders, of a conical shape,
-like cypress trees, which were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metae</i>&mdash;the
-goals. Their situation is distinctly seen
-in the cut on <a href="#ill089">p. 89</a>. The most remarkable
-objects upon the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spina</i> were two columns (F)
-supporting seven conical balls, which, from
-their resemblance to eggs, were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ova</i>.
-Their use was to enable the spectators to
-count the number of rounds which had been
-run; and they were seven in number, because
-seven was the number of the circuits
-made in each race. As each round was run,
-one of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ova</i> was either put up or taken
-down. An egg was adopted for this purpose,
-in honour of Castor and Pollux. At the
-other extremity of the spina were two similar
-columns (G), sustaining dolphins, termed
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">delphinae</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">delphinarum columnae</i>, which
-do not appear to have been intended to be
-removed, but only placed there as corresponding
-ornaments to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ova</i>; and the figure
-of the dolphin was selected in honour of
-Neptune. These figures are also seen in the
-cut on <a href="#ill089">p. 89</a>. At the extremity of the circus
-in which the two horns of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cavea</i> terminate,
-were placed the stalls for the horses and
-chariots (H, H), commonly called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carceres</i>,
-but more anciently the whole line of building
-at this end of the circus was termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">oppidum</i>:
-hence in the circus, of which the plan is
-given above, we find two towers (I, I) at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[88]</span>
-each end of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carceres</i>. The number of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carceres</i> is supposed to have been usually
-twelve, as in this plan.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill088a" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill088a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Carceres opening of the Gates. (From a marble at Velletri.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill088b" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill088b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Carceres, with Gates open. (Marble in British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>They were vaults,
-closed in front by gates of open wood-work
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cancelli</i>), which were opened simultaneously
-upon the signal being given, by removing a
-rope attached to pilasters of the kind called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermae</i>, placed for that purpose between
-each stall, upon which the gates were immediately
-thrown open by a number of men, as
-represented in the preceding woodcut. The
-cut below represents a set of four <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carceres</i>,
-with their <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermae</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cancelli</i> open, as left
-after the chariots had started; in which the
-gates are made to open inwards. The preceding
-account and woodcuts will be sufficient
-to explain the meaning of the various words
-by which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carceres</i> were designated in
-poetical language, namely, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">claustra</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crypta</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fauces</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ostia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fores carceris</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repagula</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">limina
-equorum</i>. There were five entrances to the
-circus; one (L) in the centre of the carceres,
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porta pompae</i>, because it was the one
-through which the Circensian procession entered,
-and the others at M, M, N, and O. At
-the entrance of the course, exactly in the
-direction of the line (J, K), were two small
-pedestals (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hermuli</i>) on each side of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">podium</i>,
-to which was attached a chalked rope
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alba linea</i>), for the purpose of making the
-start fair, precisely as is practised at Rome
-for the horse-races during Carnival. Thus,
-when the doors of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carceres</i> were thrown
-open, if any of the horses rushed out before
-the others, they were brought up by this rope
-until the whole were fairly abreast, when it
-was loosened from one side, and all poured
-into the course at once. This line was also
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calx</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">creta</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metae</i> served
-only to regulate the turnings of the course,
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alba linea</i> answered to the starting and
-winning post of modern days.&mdash;From this
-description the Circus Maximus differed little,
-except in size and magnificence of embellishment.
-The numbers which the Circus Maximus
-was capable of containing are computed
-at 150,000 by Dionysius, 260,000 by Pliny,
-and 385,000 by P. Victor, all of which are
-probably correct, but have reference to different
-periods of its history. Its length, in
-the time of Julius Caesar, was three stadia,
-the width one, and the depth of the buildings
-occupied half a stadium. When the Circus
-Maximus was permanently formed by Tarquinius
-Priscus, each of the thirty curiae had
-a particular place assigned to it; but as no
-provision was made for the plebeians in this
-circus, it is supposed that the Circus Flaminius
-was designed for the games of the commonalty,
-who in early times chose their tribunes
-there, on the Flaminian field. However,
-in the latter days of the republic, these invidious
-distinctions were lost, and all classes
-sat promiscuously in the circus. The seats
-were then marked off at intervals by a line
-or groove drawn across them (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">linea</i>), so that
-the space included between two lines afforded
-sitting room for a certain number of spectators.
-Under the empire, however, the senators
-and equites were separated from the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[89]</span>
-common people. The seat of the emperor
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulvinar or cubiculum</i>) was most likely in
-the same situation in the Circus Maximus as
-in the one above described.&mdash;The Circensian
-games (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ludi Circenses</i>) were first instituted
-by Romulus, according to the legends, when
-he wished to attract the Sabine population to
-Rome, for the purpose of furnishing his own
-people with wives, and were celebrated in
-honour of the god Consus, or Neptunus
-Equestris, from whom they were styled <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Consuales</i>.
-But after the construction of the
-Circus Maximus they were called indiscriminately
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Circenses</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Romani</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Magni</i>. They
-embraced six kinds of games:&mdash;I. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus_i">Cursus</a></span>;
-II. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus_ii">Ludus Trojae</a></span>; III. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus_iii">Pugna Equestris</a></span>;
-IV. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus_iv">Certamen Gymnicum</a></span>; V. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus_v">Venatio</a></span>; VI.
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus_vi">Naumachia</a></span>. The two last were not peculiar
-to the circus, but were exhibited also in the
-amphitheatre, or in buildings appropriated
-for them. The games commenced with a
-grand procession (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pompa Circensis</i>), in which
-all those who were about to exhibit in the
-circus, as well as persons of distinction, bore
-a part. The statues of the gods formed the
-most conspicuous feature in the show, which
-were paraded upon wooden platforms, called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fercula</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">thensae</i>. The former were borne
-upon the shoulders, as the statues of saints
-are carried in modern processions; the latter
-were drawn along upon wheels.&mdash;I. <span id="Circus_i" class="smcap">Cursus</span>,
-the races. The carriage usually employed in
-the circus was drawn by two or four horses
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bigae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrigae</i>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Currus">Currus</a>.</span>] The usual
-number of chariots which started for each
-race was four. The drivers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aurigae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agitatores</i>)
-were also divided into four companies,
-each distinguished by a different colour, to
-represent the four seasons of the year, and
-called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">factio</i>: thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">factio prasina</i>, the green,
-represented the spring; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">factio russata</i>, red,
-the summer; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">factio veneta</i>, azure, the autumn;
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">factio alba</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">albata</i>, white, the
-winter. Originally there were but two factions,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">albata</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">russata</i>, and consequently
-only two chariots started at each race. The
-driver stood in his car within the reins, which
-went round his back. This enabled him to
-throw all his weight against the horses, by
-leaning backwards; but it greatly enhanced
-his danger in case of an upset. To avoid
-this peril, a sort of knife or bill-hook was
-carried at the waist, for the purpose of cutting
-the reins in a case of emergency. When
-all was ready, the doors of the carceres were
-flung open, and the chariots were formed
-abreast of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alba linea</i> by men called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">moratores</i>
-from their duty; the signal for the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[90]</span>
-start was then given by the person who presided
-at the games, sometimes by sound of
-trumpet, or more usually by letting fall a
-napkin; whence the Circensian games are
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectacula mappae</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alba linea</i>
-was then cast off, and the race commenced,
-the extent of which was seven times round
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spina</i>, keeping it always on the left. A
-course of seven circuits was termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unus
-missus</i>, and twenty-five was the number of
-races run in each day, the last of which was
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">missus aerarius</i>, because in early times
-the expense of it was defrayed by a collection
-of money (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes</i>) made amongst the people.
-The victor descended from his car at the conclusion
-of the race, and ascended the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spina</i>,
-where he received his reward (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bravium</i>, from
-the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βραβεῖον</span>), which consisted in a
-considerable sum of money.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp94" id="ill089" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill089.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Chariot Race in the Circus. (Florentine Gem.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The horse-racing
-followed the same rules as the chariots.
-The enthusiasm of the Romans for these
-races exceeded all bounds. Lists of the
-horses (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libella</i>), with their names and colours,
-and those of the drivers, were handed about,
-and heavy bets made upon each faction; and
-sometimes the contests between two parties
-broke out into open violence and bloody quarrels,
-until at last the disputes which originated
-in the circus had nearly lost the Emperor
-Justinian his crown.&mdash;II. <span id="Circus_ii" class="smcap">Ludus Trojae</span>,
-a sort of sham-fight, said to have been invented
-by Aeneas, performed by young men
-of rank on horseback, and often exhibited by
-the emperors.&mdash;III. <span id="Circus_iii" class="smcap">Pugna equestris et
-pedestris</span>, a representation of a battle, upon
-which occasions a camp was formed in the
-circus.&mdash;IV. <span id="Circus_iv" class="smcap">Certamen Gymnicum.</span> See <span class="smcap"><a href="#Athletae">Athletae</a></span>,
-and the references to the articles there
-given.&mdash;V. [<span id="Circus_v" class="smcap"><a href="#Venatio">Venatio</a>.</span>]&mdash;VI. [<span id="Circus_vi" class="smcap"><a href="#Naumachia">Naumachia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<div class="figleft illowp100" id="ill090a" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill090a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Cisium. (From monument
-at Igel, near Treves.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Cisium">CĬSĬUM, a light open carriage with two
-wheels, adapted to carry two persons rapidly
-from place to place. The cisia were quickly
-drawn by mules.
-Cicero mentions the
-case of a messenger
-who travelled 56
-miles in 10 hours
-in such vehicles,
-which were kept for
-hire at the stations
-along the great
-roads; a proof that
-the ancients considered six Roman miles per
-hour as an extraordinary speed.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp34" id="ill090b" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill090b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Cista. (From a Painting on a Vase.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figright illowp75" id="ill090c" style="max-width: 6.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill090c.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p id="Cista">CISTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κίστη</span>). (1) A small box or chest,
-in which anything might be placed, but more
-particularly applied to the small boxes which
-were carried in procession in the festivals of
-Demeter and Dionysus. These boxes, which
-were always kept closed in the public processions,
-contained sacred things connected with
-the worship of these deities. In the representations
-of Dionysiac processions on ancient
-vases women carrying cistae are frequently
-introduced.&mdash;(2) The ballot-box, into which
-those who voted in the comitia and in the
-courts of justice cast their tabellae. It is represented
-in the annexed cut, and
-should not be confounded with the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">situla</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sitella</i>, into which sortes
-or lots were thrown. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Situla">Situla</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cistophorus">CISTŎPHŎRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κιστοφόρος</span>), a silver coin,
-which is supposed to belong to Rhodes, and
-which was in general circulation in Asia
-Minor at the time of the conquest of that
-country by the Romans. It took its name
-from the device upon it, which was either the
-sacred chest (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cista</i>) of Bacchus, or more probably
-a flower called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κιστός</span>. Its value is
-extremely uncertain: some writers suppose
-it to have been worth in our money about
-7¼<em>d.</em></p>
-
-
-<p id="Cithara">CĬTHĂRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lyra">Lyra</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Civis">CĪVIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Civitas">CĪVĬTAS, citizenship. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πολιτεία</span>).
-Aristotle defines a citizen (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πολίτης</span>) to
-be one who is a partner in the legislative and
-judicial power (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέτοχος κρίσεως καὶ ἀρχῆς</span>).
-No definition will equally apply to all the
-different states of Greece, or to any single
-state at different times; the above seems to
-comprehend more or less properly all those
-whom the common use of language entitled
-to the name. A state in the heroic ages was
-the government of a prince; the citizens were
-his subjects, and derived all their privileges,
-civil as well as religious, from their nobles
-and princes. The shadows of a council and
-assembly were already in existence, but their
-business was to obey. Upon the whole the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[91]</span>
-notion of citizenship in the heroic ages only
-existed so far as the condition of aliens or of
-domestic slaves was its negative. The rise
-of a dominant class gradually overthrew the
-monarchies of ancient Greece. Of such a
-class, the chief characteristics were good birth
-and the hereditary transmission of privileges,
-the possession of land, and the performance
-of military service. To these characters the
-names <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gamori</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γάμοροι</span>), <em>knights</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππεῖς</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">eupatridae</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐπατρίδαι</span>), &amp;c. severally correspond.
-Strictly speaking, these were the only
-citizens; yet the lower class were quite distinct
-from bondmen or slaves. It commonly
-happened that the nobility occupied the fortified
-towns, while the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆμος</span>) lived in
-the country and followed agricultural pursuits:
-whenever the latter were gathered
-within the walls, and became seamen or
-handicraftsmen, the difference of ranks was
-soon lost, and wealth made the only standard.
-The quarrels of the nobility among themselves,
-and the admixture of population arising from
-immigrations, all tended to raise the lower
-orders from their political subjection. It
-must be remembered, too, that the possession
-of domestic slaves, if it placed them in no
-new relation to the governing body, at any
-rate gave them leisure to attend to the higher
-duties of a citizen, and thus served to increase
-their political efficiency. During the convulsions
-which followed the heroic ages, naturalisation
-was readily granted to all who desired
-it; as the value of citizenship increased, it
-was, of course, more sparingly bestowed. The
-ties of hospitality descended from the prince
-to the state, and the friendly relations of the
-Homeric heroes were exchanged for the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προξενίαι</span> of a later period. In political intercourse,
-the importance of these last soon began
-to be felt, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Proxenus</i> at Athens, in
-after times, obtained rights only inferior to
-actual citizenship. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hospitium">Hospitium</a>.</span>] The isopolite
-relation existed, however, on a much
-more extended scale. Sometimes particular
-privileges were granted: as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιγαμία</span>, the
-right of intermarriage; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγκτησις</span>, the right
-of acquiring landed property; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτέλεια</span>, immunity
-from taxation, especially <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτέλεια μετοικίου</span>,
-from the tax imposed on resident aliens.
-All these privileges were included under the
-general term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰσοτέλεια</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰσοπολίτεια</span>, and the
-class who obtained them were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰσοτελεῖς</span>.
-They bore the same burthens with the citizens,
-and could plead in the courts or transact
-business with the people, without the intervention
-of a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης</span>, or patron. Respecting
-the division of the Athenian citizens into
-tribes, phratriae and demes, see the articles
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Demus">Demus</a></span>.&mdash;If we would picture to
-ourselves the true notion which the Greeks
-embodied in the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">polis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόλις</span>), we must
-lay aside all modern ideas respecting the
-nature and object of a state. With us practically,
-if not in theory, the <em>essential</em> object of
-a state hardly embraces more than the protection
-of life and property. The Greeks, on
-the other hand, had the most vivid conception
-of the state as a whole, every part of which
-was to co-operate to some great end to which
-all other duties were considered as subordinate.
-Thus the aim of democracy was said
-to be liberty; wealth, of oligarchy; and education,
-of aristocracy. In all governments
-the endeavour was to draw the social union
-as close as possible, and it seems to have been
-with this view that Aristotle laid down a
-principle which answered well enough to the
-accidental circumstances of the Grecian states,
-that a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">polis</i> must be of a certain size. This
-unity of purpose was nowhere so fully carried
-out as in the government of Sparta. The
-design of Spartan institutions was evidently
-to unite the governing body among themselves
-against the superior numbers of the subject
-population. The division of lands, the syssitia,
-the education of their youth, all tended
-to this great object. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Helotes">Helotes</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Perioeci">Perioeci</a></span>.]
-In legal rights all Spartans were equal: but
-there were yet several gradations, which,
-when once formed, retained their hold on the
-aristocratic feelings of the people. First,
-there was the dignity of the Heraclide families;
-and, connected with this, a certain pre-eminence
-of the Hyllean tribe. Another distinction
-was that between the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Homoioi</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅμοιοι</span>)
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hypomeiones</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπομείονες</span>), which, in later
-times, appears to have been considerable.
-The latter term probably comprehended those
-citizens who, from degeneracy of manners or
-other causes, had undergone some kind of
-civil degradation. To these the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Homoioi</i> were
-opposed, although it is not certain in what
-the precise difference consisted. All the
-Spartan citizens were included in the three
-tribes, Hylleans, Dymanes or Dymanatae, and
-Pamphilians, each of which was divided into
-ten obes or phratries. The citizens of Sparta,
-as of most oligarchical states, were landowners,
-although this does not seem to have been
-looked upon as an essential of citizenship.&mdash;(2)
-<span class="smcap">Roman.</span> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Civitas</i> means the whole body
-of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cives</i>, or members, of any given state, and
-the word is frequently used by the Roman
-writers to express the rights of a Roman
-citizen, as distinguished from those of other
-persons not Roman citizens, as in the phrases,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dare civitatem</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">donare civitate</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">usurpare civitatem</i>.
-Some members of a political community
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cives</i>) may have more political rights
-than others; and this was the case at Rome
-under the republic, in which we find a distinction<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[92]</span>
-made between two great classes of
-Roman citizens, one that had, and another
-that had not, a share in the sovereign power
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">optimo jure</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">non optimo jure cives</i>). That
-which peculiarly distinguished the higher
-class, or the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">optimo jure cives</i>, was the right
-to vote in a tribe (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus suffragiorum</i>), and the
-capacity of enjoying magistracy (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus honorum</i>).
-The inferior class, or the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">non optimo
-jure cives</i>, did not possess the above rights,
-which the Romans called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus publicum</i>, but
-they only had the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus privatum</i>, which comprehended
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus connubii</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus commercii</i>,
-and those who had not these had no citizenship.&mdash;Under
-the empire we find the free
-persons who were within the political limits
-of the Roman state divided into three great
-classes. The same division probably existed
-in an early period of the Roman state, and
-certainly existed in the time of Cicero. These
-classes were, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cives</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Latini</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Peregrini</i>.
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Civis</i> is he who possesses the complete rights
-of a Roman citizen. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Peregrinus</i> was incapable
-of exercising the rights of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">commercium</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">connubium</i>, which were the characteristic
-rights of a Roman citizen; but he had a
-capacity for making all kinds of contracts
-which were allowable by the jus gentium.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Latinus</i> was in an intermediate state;
-he had not the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">connubium</i>, and consequently
-he had not the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patria potestas</i> nor rights of
-agnatio; but he had the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">commercium</i> or the
-right of acquiring quiritarian ownership, and
-he had also a capacity for all acts incident to
-quiritarian ownership, as the power of making
-a will in Roman form, and of becoming heres
-under a will. The rights of a Roman citizen
-were acquired in several ways, but most commonly
-by a person being born of parents who
-were Roman citizens. A slave might obtain
-the civitas by manumission (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vindicta</i>), by the
-census, and by a testamentum, if there was
-no legal impediment; but it depended on
-circumstances whether he became a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">civis
-Romanus</i>, a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Latinus</i>, or in the number of the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peregrini dediticii</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Manumissio">Manumissio</a>.</span>] The
-civitas could be conferred on a foreigner by a
-lex, as in the case of Archias, who was a
-civis of Heraclea, a civitas which had a foedus
-with Rome, and who claimed the civitas Romana
-under the provisions of a lex of Silvanus
-and Carbo, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 89. By the provisions of
-this lex, the person who chose to take the
-benefit of it was required, within sixty days
-after the passing of the lex, to signify to the
-praetor his wish and consent to accept the
-civitas (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">profiteri</i>). This lex was intended to
-give the civitas, under certain limitations, to
-foreigners who were citizens of foederate
-states (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foederatis civitatibus adscripti</i>).
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Foederatae">Foederatae Civitates</a>.</span>] Thus the great
-mass of the Italians obtained the civitas, and
-the privileges of the former civitates foederatae
-were extended to the provinces, first to
-part of Gaul, and then to Sicily, under the
-name of Jus Latii or Latinitas. This Latinitas
-gave a man the right of acquiring the
-Roman citizenship by having exercised a
-magistratus in his own civitas; a privilege
-which belonged to the foederatae civitates of
-Italy before they obtained the Roman civitas.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Clarigatio">CLĀRĬGĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fetiales">Fetiales</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Classicum">CLASSĬCUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cornu">Cornu</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Clavus">CLĀVUS ANNĀLIS. In the early ages of
-Rome, when letters were yet scarcely in use,
-the Romans kept a reckoning of their years by
-driving a nail (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clavus</i>), on the ides of each
-September, into the side walls of the temple
-of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, which ceremony
-was performed by the consul or a dictator.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Clavus_g">CLĀVUS GŬBERNĀCŬLI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Clavus_l">CLĀVUS LĀTUS, CLĀVUS ANGUSTUS.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clavus</i>, as an article of dress, seems to
-have been a purple band worn upon the tunic
-and toga, and was of two fashions, one broad
-and the other narrow, denominated respectively
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clavus latus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clavus angustus</i>. The
-former was a single broad band of purple,
-extending perpendicularly from the neck
-down the centre of the tunic; the latter probably
-consisted of two narrow purple slips,
-running parallel to each from the top to the
-bottom of the tunic, one from each shoulder.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">latus clavus</i> was a distinctive badge of
-the senatorian order; and hence it is used to
-signify the senatorial dignity, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">laticlavius</i>,
-the person who enjoys it. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">angustus
-clavus</i> was the decoration of the equestrian
-order; but the right of wearing the latus
-clavus was also given to the children of
-equestrians, at least in the time of Augustus,
-as a prelude to entering the senate-house.
-This, however, was a matter of personal indulgence,
-and was granted only to persons of
-very ancient family and corresponding wealth,
-and then by special favour of the emperor.
-In such cases the latus clavus was assumed
-with the toga virilis, and worn until the age
-arrived at which the young equestrian was
-admissible into the senate, when it was relinquished
-and the angustus clavis resumed, if a
-disinclination on his part, or any other circumstances,
-prevented him from entering the
-senate, as was the case with Ovid. But it
-seems that the latus clavus could be again
-resumed if the same individual subsequently
-wished to become a senator, and hence a
-fickle character is designated as one who is
-always changing his clavus. The latus clavus
-is said to have been introduced at Rome by
-Tullus Hostilius, and to have been adopted by
-him after his conquest of the Etruscans; nor<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[93]</span>
-does it appear to have been confined to any
-particular class during the earlier periods,
-but to have been worn by all ranks promiscuously.
-It was laid aside in public mourning.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Clepsydra">CLEPSȲDRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Horologium">Horologium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cleruchi">CLĒRŪCHI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κληροῦχοι</span>), the name of
-Athenian citizens who occupied conquered
-lands; their possession was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cleruchia</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κληρουχία</span>). The Athenian Cleruchi differed
-from the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄποικοι</span> or ordinary colonists. The
-only object of the earlier colonies was to
-relieve surplus population, or to provide a
-home for those whom internal quarrels had
-exiled from their country. Most usually they
-originated in private enterprise, and became
-independent of, and lost their interest in, the
-parent state. On the other hand, it was
-essential to the very notion of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cleruchia</i> that
-it should be a public enterprise, and should
-always retain a connection more or less intimate
-with Athens herself. The connection
-with the parent state subsisted in all degrees.
-Sometimes, as in the case of Lesbos, the
-holders of land did not reside upon their
-estates, but let them to the original inhabitants,
-while themselves remained at Athens.
-The condition of these cleruchi did not differ
-from that of Athenian citizens who had estates
-in Attica. All their political rights they
-not only retained, but exercised as Athenians.
-Another case was where the cleruchi resided
-on their estates, and either with or without
-the old inhabitants, formed a new community.
-These still retained the rights of Athenian
-citizens, which distance only precluded them
-from exercising: they used the Athenian
-courts; and if they or their children wished
-to return to Athens, naturally and of course
-they regained the exercise of their former
-privileges. Sometimes, however, the connection
-might gradually dissolve, and the cleruchi
-sink into the condition of mere allies, or
-separate wholly from the mother country.
-It was to Pericles that Athens was chiefly
-indebted for the extension and permanence
-of her colonial settlements. His principal object
-was to provide for the redundancies of
-population, and raise the poorer citizens to
-a fortune becoming the dignity of Athenian
-citizens. It was of this class of persons that
-the settlers were chiefly composed; the state
-provided them with arms, and defrayed the
-expenses of their journey. The Cleruchiae
-were lost by the battle of Aegospotami, but
-partially restored on the revival of Athenian
-power.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cleteres">CLĒTĒRES or CLĒTORES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλητῆρες</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλῆτορες</span>), summoners, were at Athens not
-official persons, but merely witnesses to the
-prosecutor that he had served the defendant
-with a notice of the action brought against him,
-and the day upon which it would be requisite
-for him to appear before the proper magistrate.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Clibanarii">CLĪBĂNĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cataphracti">Cataphracti</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cliens">CLĬENS is said to contain the same element
-as the verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cluere</i>, to “hear” or “obey,”
-and may be accordingly compared with the
-German word <em>höriger</em>, “a dependant,” from
-<em>hören</em>, “to hear.” In the earliest times of
-the Roman state we find a class of persons
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clientes</i>, who must not be confounded
-with the plebeians, from whom they were
-distinct. The clients were not slaves: they
-had property of their own and freedom, and
-appear to have had votes in the comitia centuriata,
-but they did not possess the full rights
-of Roman citizens; and the peculiarity of
-their condition consisted in every client being
-in a state of dependence upon or subjection to
-some patrician, who was called his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patronus</i>,
-and to whom he owed certain rights and
-duties. The patronus, on the other hand,
-likewise incurred certain obligations towards
-his client. This relationship between patronus
-and cliens was expressed by the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clientela</i>,
-which also expressed the whole body of a
-man’s clients. The relative rights and duties
-of the patrons and the clients were, according
-to Dionysius, as follows:&mdash;The patron was the
-legal adviser of the cliens; he was the client’s
-guardian and protector, as he was the guardian
-and protector of his own children; he
-maintained the client’s suit when he was
-wronged, and defended him when another
-complained of being wronged by him: in a
-word, the patron was the guardian of the
-client’s interests, both private and public.
-The client contributed to the marriage portion
-of the patron’s daughter, if the patron
-was poor; and to his ransom, or that of his
-children, if they were taken prisoners; he
-paid the costs and damages of a suit which
-the patron lost, and of any penalty in which
-he was condemned; he bore a part of the
-patron’s expenses incurred by his discharging
-public duties, or filling the honourable places
-in the state. Neither party could accuse the
-other, or bear testimony against the other, or
-give his vote against the other. This relationship
-between patron and client subsisted
-for many generations, and resembled in all
-respects the relationship by blood. The
-relation of a master to his liberated slave
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libertus</i>) was expressed by the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patronus</i>,
-and the libertus was the cliens of his
-patronus. Distinguished Romans were also
-the protectors of states and cities, which were
-in a certain relation of subjection or dependence
-to Rome. In the time of Cicero we also
-find <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patronus</i> in the sense of adviser, advocate,
-or defender, opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cliens</i> in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[94]</span>
-sense of the person defended or the consultor,&mdash;a
-use of the word which must be referred
-to the original character of the patronus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Clientela">CLĬENTĒLA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cliens">Cliens</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Clipeus">CLĬPĔUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσπίς</span>), the large shield worn
-by the Greeks and Romans, which was originally
-of a circular form, and is said to have
-been first used by Proetus and Acrisius of
-Argos, and therefore is called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clipeus Argolicus</i>,
-and likened to the sun. But the clipeus
-is often represented in Roman sculpture of an
-oblong oval, which makes the distinction between
-the common buckler and that of Argos.
-The outer rim was termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄντυξ</span> by the Greeks;
-and in the centre was a projection called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀμφάλος</span> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">umbo</i>, which served as a sort of
-weapon by itself, or caused the missiles of the
-enemy to glance off from the shield. In the
-Homeric times, the Greeks merely used a
-leather strap (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελαμών</span>) to support the shield,
-but subsequently a handle (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄχανον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀχάνη</span>).
-The usual form of the clipeus is exhibited in
-the figure of the Greek warrior on <a href="#ill041">p. 41</a>.
-When the census was instituted by Servius
-Tullius at Rome, the first class only used the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clipeus</i>, and the second were armed with the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scutum</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Scutum">Scutum</a></span>]; but after the Roman soldiery
-received pay, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clipeus</i> was discontinued
-altogether for the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scutum</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Clitellae">CLĪTELLAE, a pair of panniers, and therefore
-only used in the plural number.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cloaca">CLŎĀCA, a sewer, a drain. Rome was
-intersected by numerous sewers, some of
-which were of an immense size: the most
-celebrated of them was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cloaca maxima</i>,
-the construction of which is ascribed to Tarquinius
-Priscus. It was formed by three
-tiers of arches, one within the other, the
-innermost of which is a semicircular vault of
-14 feet in diameter. The manner of its construction
-is shown in the preceding cut.
-Under the republic, the administration of the
-sewers was entrusted to the censors: but
-under the empire, particular officers were
-appointed for that purpose, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cloacarum
-curatores</i>, who employed condemned criminals
-in cleansing and repairing them.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill094a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill094a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Cloaca Maxima at Rome.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Coa">CŌA VESTIS, the Coan robe, was a transparent
-dress, chiefly worn by women of loose
-reputation. It has been supposed to have
-been made of silk, because in Cos silk was
-spun and woven at a very early period.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp61" id="ill094b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill094b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Coa Vestis. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Coactor">CŎACTOR, the name of collectors of various
-sorts, <em>e.g.</em> the servants of the publicani, or
-farmers of the public taxes, who collected the
-revenues for them, and those who collected
-the money from the purchasers of things sold
-at a public auction. Horace informs us that
-his father was a coactor of this kind. Moreover,
-the servants of the money-changers were so
-called, from collecting their debts for them.
-The “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">coactores agminis</span>” were the soldiers
-who brought up the rear of a line of march.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cochlea">CŎCHLĔA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοχλίας</span>), which properly means
-a snail, was also used to signify other things
-of a spiral form. (1) A screw, used in
-working clothes-presses, and oil and wine
-presses.&mdash;(2) A spiral pump for raising
-water, invented by Archimedes, from whom
-it has ever since been called the Archimedean
-screw.&mdash;(3) A peculiar kind of door through
-which the wild beasts passed from their dens
-into the arena of the amphitheatre.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cochlear">COCHLĔAR. (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοχλιάριον</span>), a kind of spoon,
-which appears to have terminated with a
-point at one end, and at the other was broad
-and hollow like our own spoons. The pointed
-end was used for drawing snails (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cochleae</i>)
-out of their shells, and eating them, whence
-it derived its name; and the broader part
-for eating eggs, &amp;c. Cochlear was also the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[95]</span>
-name given to a small measure like our
-spoonful.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Codex">CŌDEX, identical with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caudex</i>, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Claudius</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Clodius</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">claustrum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clostrum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cauda</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coda</i>, originally signified the trunk or
-stem of a tree. The name codex was especially
-applied to wooden tablets bound together
-and lined with a coat of wax, for the purpose
-of writing upon them, and when, at a later
-age, parchment or paper, or other materials
-were substituted for wood, and put together
-in the shape of a book, the name of codex was
-still given to them. In the time of Cicero
-we find it also applied to the tablet on which
-a bill was written. At a still later period,
-during the time of the emperors, the word
-was used to express any collection of laws or
-constitutions of the emperors, whether made
-by private individuals or by public authority,
-as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Codex Gregorianus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Codex Theodosianus</i>,
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Codex Justinianeus</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Coemptio">COEMPTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Coena">COENA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεῖπνον</span>), the principal meal of the
-Greeks and Romans, dinner. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span>
-Three names of meals occur in the Iliad and
-Odyssey&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ariston</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄριστον</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deipnon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεῖπνον</span>),
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dorpon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόρπον</span>). The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ariston</i> uniformly
-means the early, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dorpon</i> does the
-late meal; but <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deipnon</i>, on the other hand,
-is used for either, apparently without any
-reference to time. In the Homeric age it
-appears to have been usual to sit during mealtimes.
-Beef, mutton, and goat’s flesh were
-the ordinary meats, usually eaten roasted.
-Cheese, flour, and occasionally fruits, also
-formed part of the Homeric meals. Bread,
-brought on in baskets, and salt (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἃλς</span>, to which
-Homer gives the epithet <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεῖος</span>), are mentioned.
-The Greeks of a later age usually partook of
-three meals, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acratisma</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκράτισμα</span>),
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ariston</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deipnon</i>. The last, which corresponds
-to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dorpon</i> of the Homeric poems,
-was the evening meal or dinner; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ariston</i>
-was the luncheon; and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acratisma</i>, which
-answers to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ariston</i> of Homer, was the
-early meal or breakfast. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acratisma</i> was
-taken immediately after rising in the morning.
-It usually consisted of bread, dipped in unmixed
-wine (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκρατος</span>), whence it derived its
-name. Next followed the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ariston</i> or luncheon;
-but the time at which it was taken is uncertain.
-It is frequently mentioned in Xenophon’s
-Anabasis, and appears to have been
-taken at different times, as would naturally
-be the case with soldiers in active service.
-We may conclude from many circumstances
-that this meal was taken about the middle of
-the day, and that it answered to the Roman
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prandium</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ariston</i> was usually a simple
-meal, but of course varied according to the
-habits of individuals. The principal meal
-was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deipnon</i>. It was usually taken
-rather late in the day, frequently not before
-sunset. The Athenians were a social people,
-and were very fond of dining in company.
-Entertainments were usually given, both in
-the heroic ages and later times, when sacrifices
-were offered to the gods, either on public
-or private occasions; and also on the anniversary
-of the birthdays of members of the
-family, or of illustrious persons, whether
-living or dead. When young men wished to
-dine together they frequently contributed
-each a certain sum of money, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">symbole</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμβολή</span>), or brought their own provisions
-with them. When the first plan was adopted,
-they were said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπὸ συμβολῶν δειπνεῖν</span>, and one
-individual was usually entrusted with the
-money to procure the provisions, and make
-all the necessary preparations. This kind of
-entertainment, in which each guest contributed
-to the expense, is mentioned in Homer
-under the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔρανος</span>. An entertainment
-in which each person brought his own provisions
-with him, or at least contributed something
-to the general stock, was called a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεῖπνον
-ἀπὸ σπυρίδος</span>, because the provisions were
-brought in baskets.&mdash;The most usual kind of
-entertainments, however, were those in which
-a person invited his friends to his own house.
-It was expected that they should come dressed
-with more than ordinary care, and also have
-bathed shortly before. As soon as the guests
-arrived at the house of their host, their shoes
-or sandals were taken off by the slaves and
-their feet washed. After their feet had been
-washed, the guests reclined on the couches.
-It has already been remarked that Homer
-never describes persons as reclining, but
-always as sitting at their meals; but at what
-time the change was introduced is uncertain.
-The Dorians of Crete always sat; but the
-other Greeks reclined. The Greek women
-and children, however, like the Roman, continued
-to sit at their meals. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Accubatio">Accubatio</a>.</span>]
-It was usual for only two persons to recline
-on each couch. After the guests had placed
-themselves on the couches, the slaves brought
-in water to wash their hands. The dinner
-was then served up; whence we read of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὰς
-τραπέζας εἰσφέρειν</span>, by which expression we
-are to understand not merely the dishes, but
-the tables themselves, which were small
-enough to be moved with ease. In eating,
-the Greeks had no knives or forks, but made
-use of their fingers only, except in eating
-soups or other liquids, which they partook of
-by means of a spoon, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μυστίλη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μύστρον</span>,
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μύστρος</span>. It would exceed the limits of
-this work to give an account of the different
-dishes which were introduced at a Greek
-dinner, though their number is far below<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[96]</span>
-those which were usually partaken of at a
-Roman entertainment. The most common
-food among the Greeks was the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μάζα</span>, a kind
-of frumenty or soft cake, which was prepared
-in different ways. Wheaten or barley bread
-was the second most usual species of food; it
-was sometimes made at home, but more
-usually bought at the market of the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρτοπῶλαι</span>
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρτοπώλιδες</span>. The vegetables ordinarily
-eaten were mallows (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μαλάχη</span>), lettuces (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θρίδαξ</span>),
-cabbages (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥάφανοι</span>), beans (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύαμοι</span>), lentils
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φακαῖ</span>), &amp;c. Pork was the most favourite
-animal food, as was the case among the Romans.
-It is a curious fact, which Plato has
-remarked, that we never read in Homer of
-the heroes partaking of fish. In later times,
-however, fish was one of the most favourite
-foods of the Greeks. A dinner given by an
-opulent Athenian usually consisted of two
-courses, called respectively <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρῶται τράπεζαι</span>
-and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεύτεραι τράπεζαι</span>. The first course embraced
-the whole of what we consider the
-dinner, namely, fish, poultry, meat, &amp;c.; the
-second, which corresponds to our dessert and
-the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bellaria</i>, consisted of different
-kinds of fruit, sweetmeats, confections, &amp;c.
-When the first course was finished, the tables
-were taken away, and water was given to the
-guests for the purpose of washing their hands.
-Crowns made of garlands of flowers were also
-then given to them, as well as various kinds
-of perfumes. Wine was not drunk till the
-first course was finished; but as soon as the
-guests had washed their hands, unmixed wine
-was introduced in a large goblet, of which
-each drank a little, after pouring out a small
-quantity as a libation. This libation was
-said to be made to the “good spirit”
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγαθοῦ δαίμονος</span>), and was usually accompanied
-with the singing of the paean and the
-playing of flutes. After this libation mixed
-wine was brought in, and with their first cup
-the guests drank to <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διὸς Σωτῆρος</span>. With the
-libations the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deipnon</i> closed; and at the introduction
-of the dessert (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεύτεραι τράπεζαι</span>)
-the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πότος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμπόσιον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κῶμος</span> commenced, of
-which an account is given under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Symposium">Symposium</a></span>.&mdash;(2)
-<span class="smcap">Roman.</span> As the Roman meals are not
-always clearly distinguished, it will be convenient
-to treat of all under the most important
-one; and we shall confine ourselves to the
-description of the ordinary life of the middle
-ranks of society in the Augustan age, noticing
-incidentally the most remarkable deviations.
-The meal with which the Roman sometimes
-began the day was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jentaculum</i>, which was
-chiefly taken by children, or sick persons, or
-the luxurious. An irregular meal (if we may
-so express it) was not likely to have any very
-regular time: two epigrams of Martial, however,
-seem to fix the hour at about three or
-four o’clock in the morning. Bread formed
-the substantial part of this early breakfast, to
-which cheese, or dried fruit, as dates and
-raisins, were sometimes added. Next followed
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prandium</i> or luncheon, with persons of
-simple habits a frugal meal, usually taken
-about twelve or one o’clock. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coena</i>, or
-principal meal of the day, corresponding to
-our “dinner,” was usually taken about three
-o’clock in the time of Cicero and Augustus,
-though we read of some persons not dining
-till near sunset. A Roman dinner at the
-house of a wealthy man usually consisted of
-three courses. The first was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">promulsis</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">antecoena</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gustatio</i>, and was made up of
-all sorts of stimulants to the appetite. Eggs
-also were so indispensable to the first course
-that they almost gave a name to it (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ab ovo
-usque ad mala</i>). The frugality of Martial
-only allowed of lettuce and Sicenian olives;
-indeed he himself tells us that the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">promulsis</i>
-was a refinement of modern luxury. It would
-far exceed our limits to mention all the dishes
-which formed the second course of a Roman
-dinner. Of birds, the Guinea hen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Afra avis</i>),
-the pheasant (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phasiana</i>, so called from Phasis,
-a river of Colchis), and the thrush, were
-most in repute; the liver of a capon steeped
-in milk, and beccaficos (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ficedulae</i>) dressed
-with pepper, were held a delicacy. The peacock,
-according to Macrobius, was first introduced
-by Hortensius the orator, at an inaugural
-supper, and acquired such repute among
-the Roman gourmands as to be commonly sold
-for fifty denarii. Other birds are mentioned,
-as the duck (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anas</i>), especially its head and
-breast; the woodcock (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">attagen</i>), the turtle,
-and flamingo (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phoenicopterus</i>), the tongue of
-which, Martial tells us, particularly commended
-itself to the delicate palate. Of fish,
-the variety was perhaps still greater; the
-charr (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scarus</i>), the turbot (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rhombus</i>), the sturgeon
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acipenser</i>), the mullet (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mullus</i>), were
-highly prized, and dressed in the most various
-fashions. Of solid meat, pork seems to have
-been the favourite dish, especially sucking
-pig. Boar’s flesh and venison were also in
-high repute: the former is described by
-Juvenal as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">animal propter convivia natum</i>.
-Condiments were added to most of these
-dishes: such were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">muria</i>, a kind of
-pickle made from the tunny fish; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">garum
-sociorum</i>, made from the intestines of the
-mackerel (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scomber</i>), so called because brought
-from abroad; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alec</i>, a sort of brine; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">faex</i>, the
-sediment of wine, &amp;c. Several kinds of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fungi</i>
-are mentioned, truffles (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">boleti</i>), mushrooms
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tuberes</i>), which either made dishes by themselves,
-or formed the garniture for larger
-dishes. It must not be supposed that the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">artistes</i> of imperial Rome were at all behind<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[97]</span>
-ourselves in the preparation and arrangements
-of the table. In a large household, the functionaries
-to whom this important duty was
-entrusted were four, the butler (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">promus</i>), the
-cook (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">archimagirus</i>), the arranger of the dishes
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">structor</i>), and the carver (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carptor</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scissor</i>).
-Carving was taught as an art, and performed
-to the sound of music, with appropriate gesticulations.</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la">
-    <div class="verse indent0">&mdash;&mdash;“minimo sane discrimine refert,</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">Quo vultu lepores, et quo gallina secetur.”</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="noindent">In the supper of Petronius, a large round
-tray (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ferculum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repositorium</i>) is brought in,
-with the signs of the zodiac figured all round
-it, upon each of which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">artiste</i> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">structor</i>)
-had placed some appropriate viand, a goose
-on Aquarius, a pair of scales with tarts (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriblitae</i>)
-and cheesecakes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">placentae</i>) in each
-scale on Libra, &amp;c. In the middle was
-placed a hive supported by delicate herbage.
-Presently four slaves come forward dancing
-to the sound of music, and take away the
-upper part of the dish; beneath appear all
-kinds of dressed meats; a hare with wings to
-imitate Pegasus, in the middle; and four
-figures of Marsyas at the corners, pouring
-hot sauce (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">garum piperatum</i>) over the fish,
-that were swimming in the Euripus below. So
-entirely had the Romans lost all shame of
-luxury, since the days when Cincius, in supporting
-the Fannian law, charged his own
-age with the enormity of introducing the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porcus Trojanus</i>, a sort of pudding stuffed
-with the flesh of other animals.&mdash;The third
-course was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bellaria</i> or dessert, to which
-Horace alludes when he says of Tigellius <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ab
-ovo usque ad mala citaret</i>; it consisted of
-fruits (which the Romans usually ate uncooked),
-such as almonds (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amygdalae</i>), dried
-grapes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uvae passae</i>), dates (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">palmulae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caryotae</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dactyli</i>); of sweetmeats and confections,
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edulia mellita</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dulciaria</i>, such as cheesecakes
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cupediae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crustula</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liba</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">placentae</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">artolagani</i>), almond cakes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coptae</i>), tarts
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriblitae</i>), whence the maker of them was
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pistor dulciarius</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">placentarius</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libarius</i>,
-&amp;c. We will now suppose the table
-spread and the guests assembled, each with
-his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mappa</i> or napkin, and in his dinner dress,
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coenatoria</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cubitoria</i>, usually of a
-bright colour, and variegated with flowers.
-First they took off their shoes, for fear of
-soiling the couch, which was often inlaid
-with ivory or tortoise-shell, and covered with
-cloth of gold. Next they lay down to eat,
-the head resting on the left elbow and supported
-by cushions. There were usually, but
-not always, three on the same couch, the
-middle place being esteemed the most honourable.
-Around the tables stood the servants
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ministri</i>) clothed in a tunic, and girt with
-napkins; some removed the dishes and wiped
-the tables with a rough cloth, others gave the
-guests water for their hands, or cooled the
-room with fans. Here stood an eastern youth
-behind his master’s couch, ready to answer
-the noise of the fingers, while others bore a
-large platter of different kinds of meat to the
-guests. Dinner was set out in a room called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coenatio</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diaeta</i> (which two words perhaps
-conveyed to a Roman ear nearly the same
-distinction as our dining-room and parlour).
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coenatio</i>, in rich men’s houses, was fitted
-up with great magnificence. Suetonius mentions
-a supper-room in the golden palace of
-Nero, constructed like a theatre, with shifting
-scenes to change with every course. In the
-midst of the coenatio were set three couches<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[98]</span>
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triclinia</i>), answering in shape to the square,
-as the long semicircular couches (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sigmata</i>)
-did to the oval tables. An account of the
-disposition of the couches, and of the place
-which each guest occupied, is given in the
-article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Triclinium">Triclinium</a></span>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill097" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill097.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">A Feast. (Vatican Virgil MS.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Coenaculum">COENĀCŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Coenatio">COENĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cognati">COGNĀTI, COGNĀTĬO. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognatio</i> was
-the relationship of blood which existed between
-those who were sprung from a common
-pair; and all persons so related were called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognati</i>. The foundation of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognatio</i> is a
-legal marriage. The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognatus</i> (with
-some exceptions) comprehends <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agnatus</i>; an
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agnatus</i> may be a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognatus</i>, but a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognatus</i> is
-only an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agnatus</i> when his relationship by
-blood is traced through males. Those who
-were of the same blood by both parents were
-sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">germani</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consanguinei</i> were
-those who had a common father only; and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uterini</i> those who had a common mother
-only.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cognitor">COGNĬTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actio">Actio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cognomen">COGNŌMEN. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nomen">Nomen</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cohors">CŎHORS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Colacretae">CŌLĂCRĔTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κωλακρέται</span>, also called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κωλαγρέται</span>), the name of very ancient magistrates
-at Athens, who had the management of
-all financial matters in the time of the kings.
-Cleisthenes deprived them of the charge of
-the finances, which he transferred to the
-Apodectae. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Apodectae">Apodectae</a>.</span>] From this time
-the Colacretae had only to provide for the
-meals in the Prytaneium, and subsequently to
-pay the fees to the dicasts, when the practice
-of paying the dicasts was introduced by
-Pericles.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Collegium">COLLĒGĬUM. The persons who formed
-a collegium were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">collegae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sodales</i>.
-The word collegium properly expressed the
-notion of several persons being united in any
-office or for any common purpose; it afterwards
-came to signify a body of persons, and
-the union which bound them together. The
-collegium was the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑταιρία</span> of the Greeks. The
-legal notion of a collegium was as follows:&mdash;A
-collegium or corpus, as it was also called,
-must consist of three persons at least. Persons
-who legally formed such an association
-were said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corpus habere</i>, which is equivalent
-to our phrase of being incorporated; and in
-later times they were said to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corporati</i>,
-and the body was called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corporatio</i>. Associations
-of individuals, who were entitled to
-have a corpus, could hold property in common.
-Such a body, which was sometimes also called
-a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">universitas</i>, was a legal unity. That which
-was due to the body, was not due to the individuals
-of it; and that which the body owed,
-was not the debt of the individuals. The
-common property of the body was liable to be
-seized and sold for the debts of the body. It
-does not appear how collegia were formed,
-except that some were specially established by
-legal authority. Other collegia were probably
-formed by voluntary associations of individuals
-under the provisions of some general
-legal authority, such as those of the publicani.
-Some of these corporate bodies resembled
-our companies or guilds; such were the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabrorum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pistorum</i>, &amp;c. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">collegia</i>. Others
-were of a religious character; such as the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pontificum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">augurum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fratrum arvalium collegia</i>.
-Others were bodies concerned about
-government and administration; as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribunorum
-plebis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quaestorum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decurionum collegia</i>. According
-to the definition of a collegium, the
-consuls being only two in number were not
-a collegium, though each was called collega
-with respect to the other, and their union in
-office was called collegium. When a new
-member was taken into a collegium, he was
-said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">co-optari</i>, and the old members were said
-with respect to him, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">recipere in collegium</i>.
-The mode of filling up vacancies would vary
-in different collegia. The statement of their
-rules belongs to the several heads of <span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a></span>,
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pontifex">Pontifex</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Colonia">CŎLŌNĬA, a colony, contains the same
-element as the verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colere</i>, “to cultivate,” and
-as the word colonus, which probably originally
-signified a “tiller of the earth.” (1)
-<span class="smcap">Greek.</span> The usual Greek words for a colony
-are <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποικία</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κληρουχία</span>. The latter word,
-which signified a division of conquered lands
-among Athenian citizens, and which corresponds
-in some respects to the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colonia</i>,
-is explained in the article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cleruchi">Cleruchi</a></span>. The
-earlier Greek colonies, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποικίαι</span>, were
-usually composed of mere bands of adventurers,
-who left their native country, with their
-families and property, to seek a new home for
-themselves. Some of the colonies, which
-arose in consequence of foreign invasion or
-civil wars, were undertaken without any
-formal consent from the rest of the community;
-but usually a colony was sent out with the
-approbation of the mother country, and under
-the management of a leader (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰκιστής</span>) appointed
-by it. But whatever may have been
-the origin of the colony, it was always considered
-in a political point of view independent
-of the mother country, called by the
-Greeks <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metropolis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μητρόπολις</span>), the “mother-city,”
-and entirely emancipated from its control.
-At the same time, though a colony was
-in no political subjection to its parent state,
-it was united to it by the ties of filial affection;
-and, according to the generally received
-opinions of the Greeks, its duties to the parent
-state corresponded to those of a daughter to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[99]</span>
-her mother. Hence, in all matters of common
-interest, the colony gave precedence to the
-mother state; and the founder of the colony
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰκιστής</span>), who might be considered as the
-representative of the parent state, was usually
-worshipped, after his death, as a hero.
-Also, when the colony became in its turn a
-parent, it usually sought a leader for the
-colony which it intended to found from the
-original mother country; and the same feeling
-of respect was manifested by embassies
-which were sent to honour the principal
-festivals of the parent state, and also by bestowing
-places of honour and other marks of
-respect upon the ambassadors and other members
-of the parent state, when they visited
-the colony at festivals and on similar occasions.
-The colonists also worshipped in their new
-settlement the same deities as they had been
-accustomed to honour in their native country:
-the sacred fire, which was constantly kept
-burning on their public hearth, was taken
-from the Prytaneium of the parent city; and
-sometimes the priests also were brought from
-the mother state. In the same spirit, it was
-considered a violation of sacred ties for a
-mother country and a colony to make war
-upon one another. The preceding account of
-the relations between the Greek colonies and
-the mother country is supported by the history
-which Thucydides gives us of the quarrel
-between Corcyra and Corinth. Corcyra was
-a colony of Corinth, and Epidamnus a
-colony of Corcyra; but the leader (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰκιστής</span>)
-of the colony of Epidamnus was a Corinthian
-who was invited from the metropolis Corinth.
-In course of time, in consequence of civil dissensions,
-and attacks from the neighbouring
-barbarians, the Epidamnians apply for aid to
-Corcyra, but their request is rejected. They
-next apply to the Corinthians, who took
-Epidamnus under their protection, thinking,
-says Thucydides, that the colony was no less
-theirs than the Corinthians’: and also induced
-to do so through hatred of the Corcyraeans,
-because they neglected them though
-they were colonists; for they did not give to
-the Corinthians the customary honours and
-deference in the public solemnities and sacrifices,
-which the other colonies were wont to
-pay to the mother country. The Corcyraeans,
-who had become very powerful by sea, took
-offence at the Corinthians receiving Epidamnus
-under their protection, and the result
-was a war between Corcyra and Corinth.
-The Corcyraeans sent ambassadors to Athens
-to ask assistance; and in reply to the objection
-that they were a colony of Corinth, they
-said, “that every colony, as long as it is
-treated kindly, respects the mother country:
-but when it is injured, is alienated from it;
-for colonists are not sent out as subjects, but
-that they may have equal rights with those
-that remain at home.” It is true that ambitious
-states, such as Athens, sometimes
-claimed dominion over other states on the
-ground of relationship; but as a general
-rule, colonies may be regarded as independent
-states, attached to their metropolis by ties of
-sympathy and common descent, but no further.
-The case of Potidaea, to which the
-Corinthians sent annually the chief magistrates
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημιουργοί</span>), appears to have been an
-exception to the general rule.&mdash;(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span>
-A kind of colonisation seems to have existed
-among the oldest Italian nations, who, on
-certain occasions, sent out their superfluous
-male population, with arms in their hands,
-to seek for a new home. But these were
-apparently mere bands of adventurers, and
-such colonies rather resembled the old Greek
-colonies, than those by which Rome extended
-her dominion and her name. Colonies were
-established by the Romans as far back as the
-annals or traditions of the city extend, and
-the practice was continued, without intermission,
-during the republic and under
-the empire. Colonies were intended to keep
-in check a conquered people, and also to
-repress hostile incursions; and their chief
-object was originally the extension and preservation
-of the Roman dominion in Italy.
-Cicero calls the old Italian colonies the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">propugnacula
-imperii</i>. Another object was to
-increase the power of Rome by increasing the
-population. Sometimes the immediate object
-of a colony was to carry off a number of turbulent
-and discontented persons. Colonies
-were also established for the purpose of providing
-for veteran soldiers, a practice which
-was begun by Sulla, and continued under the
-emperors; these coloniae were called militares.
-The old Roman colonies were in the
-nature of garrisons planted in conquered
-towns, and the colonists had a portion of the
-conquered territory (usually a third part)
-assigned to them. The inhabitants retained
-the rest of their lands, and lived together
-with the new settlers, who alone composed
-the proper colony. The conquered people
-must at first have been quite a distinct class
-from, and inferior to, the colonists. No
-colonia was established without a lex, plebiscitum,
-or senatusconsultum; a fact which
-shows that a Roman colony was never a mere
-body of adventurers, but had a regular organisation
-by the parent state. When a law
-was passed for founding a colony, persons
-were appointed to superintend its formation
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coloniam deducere</i>). These persons varied
-in number, but three was a common number
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triumviri ad colonos deducendos</i>). We also<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[100]</span>
-read of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duumviri</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quinqueviri</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vigintiviri</i> for
-the same purpose. The law fixed the quantity
-of land that was to be distributed, and
-how much was to be assigned to each person.
-No Roman could be sent out as a colonist
-without his free consent, and when the colony
-was not an inviting one, it was difficult to
-fill up the number of volunteers. The colonia
-proceeded to its place of destination in the
-form of an army (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub vexillo</i>), which is indicated
-on the coins of some coloniae. An urbs,
-if one did not already exist, was a necessary
-part of a new colony, and its limits were
-marked out by a plough, which is also indicated
-on ancient coins. The colonia had also a territory,
-which, whether marked out by the
-plough or not, was at least marked out by
-metes and bounds. Thus the urbs and territory
-of the colonia respectively corresponded
-to the urbs Roma and its territory. Religious
-ceremonies always accompanied the foundation
-of the colony, and the anniversary was
-afterwards observed. It is stated that a
-colony could not be sent out to the same
-place to which a colony had already been sent
-in due form (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicato deducta</i>). This merely
-means, that so long as the colony maintained
-its existence, there could be no new colony in
-the same place; a doctrine that would hardly
-need proof, for a new colony implied a new
-assignment of lands; but new settlers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">novi
-adscripti</i>) might be sent to occupy colonial
-lands not already assigned. Indeed it was
-not unusual for a colony to receive additions,
-and a colony might be re-established,
-if it seemed necessary, from any cause. The
-commissioners appointed to conduct the
-colony had apparently a profitable office, and
-the establishment of a new settlement gave
-employment to numerous functionaries, among
-whom Cicero enumerates&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apparitores</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scribae</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">librarii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praecones</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">architecti</i>. The
-foundation of a colony might then, in many
-cases, not only be a mere party measure, carried
-for the purpose of gaining popularity,
-but it would give those in power an opportunity
-of providing places for many of their
-friends.&mdash;The colonies founded by the Romans
-were divided into two great classes of colonies
-of Roman citizens and Latin colonies;
-names which had no reference to the persons
-who formed the colonies, but merely indicated
-their political rights with respect to Rome as
-members of the colony. The members of a
-Roman colony (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colonia civium Romanorum</i>)
-preserved all the rights of Roman citizens.
-The members of a Latin colony (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colonia
-Latina</i>) ceased to have the full rights of
-Roman citizens. Probably some of the old
-Latin colonies were established by the Romans
-in conjunction with other Latin states. After
-the conquest of Latium, the Romans established
-colonies, called Latin colonies, in
-various parts of Italy. Roman citizens, who
-chose to join such colonies, gave up their
-civic rights for the more solid advantage of a
-grant of land, and became <span class="smcap">Latini</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas</a>.</span>]
-Such colonies were subject to, and part of, the
-Roman state; but they did not possess the
-Roman franchise, and had no political bond
-among themselves.&mdash;The lex Julia, passed
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 90, gave the Roman franchise to the
-members of the Latin colonies and the Socii;
-and such Latin colonies and states of the Socii
-were then called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">municipia</i>, and became complete
-members of the Roman state. Thus
-there was then really no difference between
-these municipia and the Roman coloniae, except
-in their historical origin: the members
-of both were Roman citizens, and the Roman
-law prevailed in both.&mdash;In the colonies, as at
-Rome, the popular assembly had originally
-the sovereign power; they chose the magistrates,
-and could even make laws. When the
-popular assemblies became a mere form in
-Rome, and the elections were transferred by
-Tiberius to the senate, the same thing happened
-in the colonies, whose senates then
-possessed whatever power had once belonged
-to the community. The common name of this
-senate was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordo decurionum</i>; in later times,
-simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordo</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curia</i>; the members of it
-were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decuriones</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curiales</i>. Thus, in the
-later ages, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curia</i> is opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatus</i>, the
-former being the senate of a colony, and the
-latter the senate of Rome. But the terms
-senatus and senator were also applied to the
-senate and members of the senate of a colony.
-After the decline of the popular assemblies,
-the senate had the whole internal administration
-of a city, conjointly with the magistratus;
-but only a decurio could be a magistratus,
-and the choice was made by the decuriones.
-The highest magistratus of a colonia were the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duumviri</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quattuorviri</i>, so called, as the
-members might vary, whose functions may
-be compared with those of the consulate at
-Rome before the establishment of the praetorship.
-The name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duumviri</i> seems to have
-been the most common. Their principal
-duties were the administration of justice, and
-accordingly we find on inscriptions “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Duumviri
-J. D.” (<em>juri dicundo</em>), “Quattuorviri
-J. D.</span>” The name consul also occurs in inscriptions
-to denote this chief magistracy;
-and even dictator and praetor occur under the
-empire and under the republic. The office of
-the duumviri lasted a year.&mdash;In some Italian
-towns there was a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefectus juri dicundo</i>;
-he was in the place of, and not co-existent
-with, the duumviri. The duumviri were, as
-we have seen, originally chosen by the people;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[101]</span>
-but the praefectus was appointed annually in
-Rome, and sent to the town called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefectura</i>,
-which might be either a municipium
-or a colonia, for it was only in the matter of
-the praefectus that a town called a praefectura
-differed from other Italian towns. Arpinum
-is called both a municipium and a
-praefectura; and Cicero, a native of this
-place, obtained the highest honours that
-Rome could confer.&mdash;The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">censor</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curator</i>, or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quinquennalis</i>, all which names denote the
-same functionary, was also a municipal magistrate,
-and corresponded to the censor at
-Rome, and in some cases, perhaps, to the
-quaestor also. Censors are mentioned in
-Livy as magistrates of the twelve Latin colonies.
-The quinquennales were sometimes
-duumviri, sometimes quattuorviri; but they
-are always carefully distinguished from the
-duumviri and quattuorviri J. D.; and their
-functions were those of censors. They held
-their office for one year, and during the four
-intermediate years the functions were not
-exercised. The office of censor or quinquennalis
-was higher in rank than that of the
-duumviri J. D., and it could only be filled by
-those who had discharged the other offices of
-the municipality.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Colossus">CŎLOSSUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κολοσσός</span>) is used both by
-the Greeks and Romans to signify a statue
-larger than life; but as such statues were
-very common, the word was more frequently
-applied to designate figures of gigantic dimensions.
-Such figures were first executed
-in Egypt, and were afterwards made by the
-Greeks and Romans. Among the colossal
-statues of Greece, the most celebrated was
-the bronze <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colossus</i> at Rhodes, dedicated to
-the sun, the height of which was about 90 feet.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp61" id="ill101" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill101.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Colum. (Museo Borbonico, vol. viii. pl. 14.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Colum">CŌLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἠθμός</span>), a strainer or colander,
-was used for straining wine, milk, olive-oil,
-and other liquids. Those that were used as
-articles of luxury for straining wine were
-frequently made of some metal, such as bronze
-or silver. Occasionally a piece of linen cloth
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάκκος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saccus</i>) was placed over the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρύγοιπος</span>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colum</i>, and the wine (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σακκίας</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saccatus</i>)
-filtered through. The use of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saccus</i> was
-considered objectionable for all delicate wines,
-since it was believed to injure, if not entirely
-to destroy their flavour, and in every instance
-to diminish the strength of the liquor. For
-this reason it was employed by the dissipated
-in order that they might be able to swallow a
-greater quantity without becoming intoxicated.
-The double purpose of cooling and
-weakening was effectually accomplished by
-placing ice or snow in the filter, which under
-such circumstances became a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colum nivarium</i>,
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saccus nivarius</i>. The preceding woodcut
-shows the plan and profile of a silver
-colum.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Columbarium">CŎLUMBĀRĬUM, a dovecot or pigeon-house,
-also signified a sepulchral chamber
-formed to receive the ashes of the lower orders,
-or dependants of great families; and in the
-plural, the niches in which the cinerary urns
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ollae</i>) were deposited.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="ill102a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill102a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ancient Columns.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Columna">CŎLUMNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κίων</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στύλος</span>), a pillar or column.
-The use of the trunks of trees placed upright
-for supporting buildings, unquestionably
-led to the adoption of similar supports
-wrought in stone. As the tree required to
-be based upon a flat square stone, and to have
-a stone or tile of similar form fixed on its
-summit to preserve it from decay, so the column
-was made with a square base, and was
-covered with an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">abacus</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Abacus">Abacus</a>.</span>] Hence
-the principal parts of which every column
-consists are three, the base (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">basis</i>), the shaft
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scapus</i>), and the capital (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capitulum</i>). In the
-Doric, which is the oldest style of Greek
-architecture, we must consider all the columns
-in the same row as having one common
-base (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">podium</i>), whereas in the Ionic and Corinthian
-each column has a separate base,
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spira</i>. The capitals of these two latter
-orders show, on comparison with the Doric,
-a much richer style of ornament; and the
-character of lightness and elegance is further
-obtained in them by their more slender shaft,
-its height being much greater in proportion
-to its thickness. Of all these circumstances
-some idea may be formed by the inspection of
-the three accompanying specimens of pillars.
-The first on the left hand is Doric, the second
-Ionic, and the third Corinthian. In all the
-orders the shaft tapers from the bottom towards
-the top. The shaft was, however,
-made with a slight swelling in the middle,
-which was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">entasis</i>. It was, moreover,
-almost universally channelled or fluted.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[102]</span>
-Columns were used in the interior of buildings,
-to sustain the beams which supported
-the ceiling. Rows of columns were often employed
-within a building, to enclose a space
-open to the sky. Beams supporting ceilings
-passed from above the columns to the adjoining
-walls, so as to form covered passages or
-ambulatories (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στοαί</span>). Such a circuit of columns
-was called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peristyle</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίστυλον</span>), and
-the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atrium</i> was built upon this plan.
-The largest and most splendid temples enclosed
-an open space like an atrium, which
-was accomplished by placing one peristyle
-upon another. In such cases, the lower rows
-of columns being Doric, the upper were sometimes
-Ionic or Corinthian, the lighter being
-properly based upon the heavier. A temple
-so constructed was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hypaethral</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕπαιθρος</span>).
-But it was on the exterior of public
-buildings, and especially of temples, that columns
-were displayed in the most beautiful
-combinations, either surrounding the building
-entirely, or arranged in porticoes on one or
-more of its fronts. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a>.</span>] Their original
-and proper use was, of course, to support
-the roof of the building; and, amidst all
-the elaborations of architectural design, this
-object was still kept in view. On the summit
-of the row of columns rests the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">architrave</i>,
-i.e. <em>chief beam</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστύλιον</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epistylium</i>): above
-this is the <em>frieze</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζωοφόρος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζωφόρος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">zophorus</i>),
-in which the most ancient order, namely the
-Doric, shows, in its triglyphs, what were
-originally the ends of the cross-beams: in
-the other orders these ends are generally concealed,
-and the frieze forms a flat surface,
-which is frequently ornamented by figures in
-relief, whence its Greek name. Above the
-frieze projects the cornice (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κορωνίς</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coronis</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corona</i>), forming a handsome finish to the
-entablature (for so these three members taken
-together are called), and also, on the sides of
-the building, serving to unite the ends of the
-rafters of the roof. The triangular gable-end
-of the roof, above the entablature, is called
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pediment</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fastigium">Fastigium</a>.</span>]&mdash;Columns in
-long rows were used in aquaeducts, and single
-pillars were fixed in harbours for mooring
-ships.&mdash;Single columns were also erected to
-commemorate persons or events. Among
-these, some of the most remarkable were the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">columnae rostratae</i>, called by that name because
-three ship-beaks proceeded from each
-side of them, designed to record successful
-engagements at sea. The most important
-and celebrated of those which yet remain, is
-one erected in honour of the consul C. Duillius,
-on occasion of his victory over the Carthaginian
-fleet, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 261. Columns were also
-employed to commemorate the dead. The
-column on the right hand in the last woodcut
-exhibits that which the senate erected to
-the honour of the Emperor Trajan. Similar
-columns were erected to the memory of many
-of the Roman emperors.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="ill102b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill102b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Columna Rostrata. <span class="pad4">Columna Trajana.</span></div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Columnarium">CŎLUMNĀRĬUM, a tax imposed in the
-time of Julius Caesar upon the pillars that
-supported a house. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ostiarium</i> was a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[103]</span>
-similar tax. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ostiarium">Ostiarium</a>.</span>] The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">columnarium</i>,
-levied by Metellus Scipio in Syria in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-49-48, was a tax of a similar kind, but was
-simply an illegal means of extorting money
-from the provincials.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Colus">CŎLUS, a distaff. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fusus">Fusus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp65" id="ill103" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill103.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Greek Head-dresses. (From Ancient Vases.)<br />
-
-<p class="negin1">The left-hand figure on the top wears a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεκρύφαλος</span>
-proper (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">reticulum</i>). Of the two bottom figures, the one
-on the left-hand wears a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτρα</span>, and the one on the
-right a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάκκος</span>.]</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Coma">CŎMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόμη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κουρά</span>), the hair. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span>
-In the earliest times the Greeks wore their
-hair long, and thus they are constantly called
-in Homer <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρηκομόωντες Ἀχαιοί</span>. The Spartan
-boys always had their hair cut quite short (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐν
-χρῷ κείροντες</span>); but as soon as they reached
-the age of puberty (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφηβοι</span>), they let it grow
-long. Before going to battle they combed
-and dressed it with especial care. It seems that
-both Spartan men and women tied their hair
-in a knot over the crown of the head. The
-custom of the Athenians was different. They
-wore their hair long in childhood, and cut it
-off when they reached the age of puberty.
-The cutting off of the hair, which was always
-done when a boy became an <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφηβος</span>, was a
-solemn act, attended with religious ceremonies.
-A libation was first offered to Hercules,
-which was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰνιστήρια</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰνιαστήρια</span>,
-and the hair after being cut off was
-dedicated to some deity, usually a river-god.
-But when the Athenians passed into the age
-of manhood, they again let their hair grow.
-In ancient times at Athens the hair was
-rolled up into a kind of knot on the crown of
-the head, and fastened with golden clasps in
-the shape of grasshoppers. This fashion of
-wearing the hair was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρωβύλος</span>, and in
-the case of females <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόρυμβος</span>. The heads of
-females were frequently covered with a kind
-of band or a coif of net-work. Of these coiffures
-one was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφενδόνη</span>, which was a
-broad band across the forehead, sometimes
-made of metal, and sometimes of leather,
-adorned with gold. But the most common
-kind of head-dress for females was called by
-the general name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεκρύφαλος</span>, and this was
-divided into the three species of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεκρύφαλος</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάκκος</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτρα</span>. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεκρύφαλος</span>, in its
-narrower sense, was a caul or coif of net-work,
-corresponding to the Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">reticulum</i>.
-These hair-nets were frequently made of gold
-threads, sometimes of silk, or the Elean
-byssus, and probably of other materials. The
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάκκος</span> and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτρα</span> were, on the contrary,
-made of close materials. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάκκος</span> covered
-the head entirely like a sack or bag; it was
-made of various materials, such as silk, byssus,
-and wool. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτρα</span> was a broad band of
-cloth of different colours, which was wound
-round the hair, and was worn in various
-ways. It was originally an Eastern head-dress,
-and may, therefore, be compared to the
-modern turban. The Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calautica</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calvatica</i> is said by Servius to have been the
-same as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mitra</i>, but in a passage in the
-Digest they are mentioned as if they were
-distinct.&mdash;With respect to the colour of the
-hair, black was the most frequent, but <em>blonde</em>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξανθὴ κόμη</span>) was the most prized. In Homer,
-Achilles, Ulysses, and other heroes are represented
-with blonde hair. At a later time it
-seems to have been not unfrequent to dye
-hair, so as to make it either black or blonde,
-and this was done by men as well as by
-women, especially when the hair was growing
-gray.&mdash;(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span> Besides the generic <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coma</i>
-we also find the following words signifying the
-hair: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capillus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caesaries</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crines</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cincinnus</i>,
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cirrus</i>, the two last words being used to
-signify curled hair. In early times the Romans
-wore their hair long, and hence the
-Romans of the Augustan age designated their
-ancestors <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intonsi</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capillati</i>. But after the
-introduction of barbers into Italy about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-300, it became the practice to wear the hair
-short. The women, too, originally dressed
-their hair with great simplicity, but in the
-Augustan period a variety of different head-dresses
-came into fashion. Sometimes these
-head-dresses were raised to a great height by
-rows of false curls. So much attention did
-the Roman ladies devote to the dressing of
-the hair, that they kept slaves especially for
-this purpose, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ornatrices</i>, and had them
-instructed by a master in the art. Most of
-the Greek head-dresses mentioned above were
-also worn by the Roman ladies; but the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[104]</span>
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mitrae</i> appear to have been confined to prostitutes.
-One of the simplest modes of wearing
-the hair was allowing it to fall down in
-tresses behind, and only confining it by a
-band encircling the head. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vitta">Vitta</a>.</span>] Another
-favourite plan was platting the hair, and then
-fastening it behind with a large pin. Blonde
-hair was as much prized by the Romans as
-by the Greeks, and hence the Roman ladies
-used a kind of composition or wash to make
-it appear this colour (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spuma caustica</i>). False
-hair or wigs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φενάκη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πηνίκη</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">galerus</i>) were
-worn both by Greeks and Romans. Among
-both people likewise in ancient times the hair
-was cut close in mourning [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>]; and
-among both the slaves had their hair cut
-close as a mark of servitude.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Comissatio">CŌMISSĀTĬO (derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κῶμος</span>), the
-name of a drinking entertainment, which
-took place after the coena, from which, however,
-it must be distinguished. The comissatio
-was frequently prolonged to a late hour
-at night, whence the verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comissari</i> means
-“to revel,” and the substantive <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comissator</i> a
-“reveller,” or “debauchee.”</p>
-
-
-<p id="Comitia">CŎMĬTĬA. This word is formed from <em>co</em>,
-<em>cum</em>, or <em>con</em>, and <em>ire</em>, and therefore <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitium</i>
-is a place of meeting, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia</i> the meeting
-itself, or the assembled people. In the
-Roman constitution the comitia were the
-ordinary and legal meetings or assemblies of
-the people, and distinct from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contiones</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">concilia</i>. All the powers of government
-were divided at Rome between the senate,
-the magistrates, and the people in their assemblies.
-Properly speaking, the people
-alone (the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">populus</i>) was the real sovereign by
-whom the power was delegated to the magistrates
-and the senate. The sovereign people
-or populus, however, was not the same at all
-times. In the earliest times of Rome the
-populus consisted of the patricians (or patres)
-only, the plebs and the clients forming no
-part of the populus, but being without the
-pale of the state. The original populus was
-divided into thirty <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curiae</i>, and the assembly
-of these curiae (the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia curiata</i>) was the
-only assembly in which the populus was represented.
-A kind of amalgamation of the
-patricians and the plebs afterwards appeared
-in the comitia of the centuries, instituted by
-king Servius Tullius, and henceforth the term
-populus was applied to the united patricians and
-plebeians assembled in the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia centuriata</i>.
-But Servius had also made a local division of
-the whole Roman territory into thirty tribes,
-which held their meetings in assemblies called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia tributa</i>, which, in the course of time,
-acquired the character of national assemblies,
-so that the people thus assembled were likewise
-designated by the term populus.</p>
-
-<p>We shall examine in order the nature,
-power, and business of each of these different
-comitia. (1) <span id="Comitia_cu" class="smcap">Comitia curiata</span> consisted of
-the members of the thirty curiae, that is,
-the patricians, who formed exclusively the
-populus in the early times. They were convened,
-in the kingly period, by the king
-himself, or by his tribunus celerum, and in
-the king’s absence by the praefectus urbi.
-After the death of a king the comitia were
-held by the interrex. In the republican
-period, the president was always one of the
-high patrician magistrates, viz. a consul,
-praetor, or dictator. They were called together
-by lictors or heralds. The votes were
-given by curiae, each curia having one collective
-vote; but within a curia each citizen
-belonging to it had an independent vote, and
-the majority of the members of a curia determined
-the vote of the whole curia. The
-meeting was always held in the comitium.
-The comitia curiata did not possess much
-power in the kingly period. They could only
-be called together when the king (or his representative)
-chose, and could only determine
-upon matters which the king submitted to
-them. The main points upon which the populus
-had to decide were the election of the
-king, the passing of laws, declarations of war,
-the capital punishment of Roman citizens,
-and, lastly, certain affairs of the curiae and
-gentes. The priestly officers, such as the
-Curiones, Flamines Curiales, were likewise
-either elected by the curiae, or at least inaugurated
-by them. The right of finally deciding
-upon the life of Roman citizens (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicia
-de capite civis Romani</i>) is said to have been
-given to the populus by king Tullus Hostilius.
-It must further be remarked, that when the
-king had been elected, the populus held a
-second meeting, in which he was formally
-inducted into his new office. This formality
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex curiata de imperio</i>, whereby
-the king received his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imperium</i>, together
-with the right of holding the comitia. Down
-to the time of Servius Tullius, the comitia
-curiata were the only popular assemblies of
-Rome, and remained of course in the undiminished
-possession of the rights above described;
-but the constitution of that king
-brought about a great change, by transferring
-the principal rights which had hitherto been
-enjoyed by the curiae to a new national assembly
-or the comitia centuriata. But while
-the patricians were obliged to share their
-rights with the plebeians, they reserved for
-themselves the very important right of sanctioning
-or rejecting any measure which had
-been passed by the centuries. The sanction
-of decrees passed by the centuries is often expressed
-by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores fiunt</i>, and down to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[105]</span>
-the time of the Publilian law no decree of the
-centuries could become law without this sanction.
-By the Publilian law (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 339) it was
-enacted that the curiae should give their
-assent before the vote of the comitia centuriata;
-so that the veto of the curiae was thus
-virtually abolished. The comitia curiata thus
-became a mere formality, and, instead of the
-thirty curiae themselves giving their votes,
-the ceremony was performed by thirty lictors.
-The comitia of the curiae were also called
-<span id="Comitia_ca" class="smcap">Comitia calata</span> or “the summoned comitia”
-(from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calare</i>, i.e. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vocare</i>), when summoned
-for the purposes mentioned below:&mdash;1.
-On the calends it was proclaimed to the
-comitia calata on what day of the new
-month the nones fell, and perhaps also the
-ides as well as the nature of the other days,
-namely, whether they were fasti or nefasti,
-comitiales, feriae, &amp;c., because all these things
-were known in the early times to the pontiffs
-exclusively. 2. The inauguration of the
-flamines, and after the banishment of the
-kings, also that of the rex sacrorum. 3. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testamenti factio</i>, or the making of a will.
-4. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">detestatio sacrorum</i>, which was in all
-probability an act connected with the testamenti
-factio, that is, a solemn declaration, by
-which the heir was enjoined to undertake the
-sacra privata of the testator along with the
-reception of his property. The comitia calata
-were summoned by the college of pontiffs,
-who also presided in them.</p>
-
-<p>(2) <span id="Comitia_ce" class="smcap">Comitia centuriata.</span> The object of the
-legislation of Servius Tullius was to unite the
-different elements of which the Roman people
-consisted, into one great political body, in which
-power and influence were to be determined by
-property and age. The whole people was conceived
-as an army (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exercitus</i>), and was therefore
-divided into two parts, the cavalry
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equites</i>), and infantry (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pedites</i>). The infantry
-was divided into five classes, or, as
-Dionysius has it, into six classes, for he regards
-the whole body of people, whose property
-did not come up to the census of the
-fifth class, as a sixth. The class to which a
-citizen belonged determined the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tributum</i>, or
-war tax, he had to pay, as well as the kind
-of service he had to perform in the army and
-the armour in which he had to serve. But
-for the purpose of voting in the comitia, each
-class was subdivided into a number of centuries
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centuriae</i>, probably because each was
-conceived to contain 100 men, though the
-centuries may have greatly differed in the
-number of men they contained). Hence the
-name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Comitia Centuriata</i>. Each century
-was divided into the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">seniores</i> and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">juniores</i>.
-Each century, further, was counted as one
-vote, so that a class had as many votes as it
-contained centuries. In like manner, the
-equites were divided into a number of centuries
-or votes. The two principal authorities
-on these subdivisions are Livy and Dionysius.
-The annexed table will show the
-census as well as the number of centuries or
-votes assigned to each class.</p>
-
-
-<table class="autotable fs80" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3"><em>According to Livy.</em></td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3"><em>According to Dionysius.</em></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">I.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 100,000 asses.</td>
-<td class="tdr">I.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 100 minae.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">40 centuriae seniorum.</td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">40 centuriae seniorum.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">40 centuriae juniorum.</td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">40 centuriae juniorum.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; 2 centuriae fabrum.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">II.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 75,000 asses.</td>
-<td class="tdr">II.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 75 minae.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">10 centuriae seniorum.</td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">10 centuriae seniorum.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">10 centuriae juniorum.</td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">10 centuriae juniorum.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; 2 centuriae fabrum (one</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">voting with the seniores</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">and the other with the</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">juniores).</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">III.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 50,000 asses.</td>
-<td class="tdr">III.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 50 minae.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">10 centuriae seniorum.</td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">10 centuriae seniorum.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">10 centuriae juniorum.</td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">10 centuriae juniorum.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">IV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 25,000 asses.</td>
-<td class="tdr">IV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 25 minae.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">10 centuriae seniorum.</td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">10 centuriae seniorum.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">10 centuriae juniorum.</td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">10 centuriae juniorum.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; 2 centuriae cornicinum and</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">tubicinum (one voting with</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">the seniores, and the</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">other with the juniores).</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">V.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 11,000 asses.</td>
-<td class="tdr">V.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 12½ minae.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">15 centuriae seniorum.</td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">15 centuriae seniorum.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">15 centuriae juniorum.</td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">15 centuriae juniorum.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; 3 centuriae accensorum,</td>
-<td class="tdr">VI.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: below 12½</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">cornicinum, tubicinum.</td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">minae.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; 1 centuria capite censorum.</td>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; 1 centuria capite censorum.</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[106]</span></p>
-
-<p class="noindent">According to both Dionysius and Livy, the
-equites voted in eighteen centuries before the
-seniores of the first class; and hence there
-were, according to Livy, 194, and, according
-to Dionysius, 193 centuries or votes. The
-latter number is the more probable, since
-Livy’s even number of 194 centuries would
-have rendered it impossible to obtain an absolute
-majority. In this manner all Roman
-citizens, whether patricians or plebeians, who
-had property to a certain amount, were privileged
-to take part and vote in the centuriata
-comitia, and none were excluded except
-slaves, peregrini, women and the aerarii.
-The juniores were all men from the age of
-seventeen to that of forty-six, and the seniores
-all men from the age of forty-six upwards.
-The order of voting was arranged in such a
-manner, that if the eighteen centuries of the
-equites and the eighty centuries of the first
-class were agreed upon a measure, the question
-was decided at once, there being no need
-for calling upon the other classes to vote.
-Hence, although all Roman citizens appeared
-in these comitia on a footing of equality, yet
-by far the greater power was thrown into the
-hands of the wealthy.&mdash;As regards the functions
-of the comitia centuriata, they were&mdash;(a.)
-<em>The election of magistrates.</em> The magistrates
-that were elected by the centuries are
-the consuls (whence the assembly is called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia consularia</i>), the praetors (hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia
-praetoria</i>), the military tribunes with
-consular power, the censors, and the decemvirs.
-(b.) <em>Legislation.</em> The legislative power
-of the centuries at first consisted in their
-passing or rejecting a measure which was
-brought before them by the presiding magistrate
-in the form of a senatus consultum, so
-that the assembly had no right of originating
-any legislative measure, but voted only upon
-such as were brought before them as resolutions
-of the senate. (c.) <em>The decision upon
-war</em>, on the ground of a senatus consultum,
-likewise belonged to the centuries. Peace
-was concluded by a mere senatus consultum,
-and without any co-operation of the people.
-(d.) <em>The highest judicial power.</em> The comitia
-centuriata were in the first place the highest
-court of appeal, and in the second, they had
-to try all offences committed against the
-state; hence, all cases of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perduellio</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">majestas</i>:
-and no case involving the life of a Roman
-citizen could be decided by any other
-court. The sanction of the curiae to the
-measures of the centuriae has been already
-explained.&mdash;The comitia centuriata could be
-held only on <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies comitiales</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasti</i>, on which it
-was lawful to transact business with the people,
-and the number of such days in every year
-was about 190; but on <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies nefasti</i> (that is,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies festi</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feriati</i>, comp. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Dies">Dies</a></span>), and, at first
-also on the nundinae, no comitia could be
-held, until in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 287 the Hortensian law
-ordained that the nundinae should be regarded
-as dies fasti.&mdash;The place where the
-centuries met was the Campus Martius, which
-contained the septa for the voters, a tabernaculum
-for the president, and the villa publica
-for the augurs.&mdash;The president at the
-comitia was the same magistrate who convoked
-them, and this right was a privilege of
-the consuls, and, in their absence, of the
-praetors. An interrex and dictator also, or
-his representative, the magister equitum,
-might likewise convene and preside at the
-comitia. One of the main duties devolving
-upon the president, and which he had to perform
-before holding the comitia, was to consult
-the auspices (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicari</i>). When the
-auspices were favourable, the people were
-called together, which was done by three successive
-and distinct acts: the first was quite
-a general invitation to come to the assembly
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inlicium</i>). At the same time when this invitation
-was proclaimed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">circum moeros</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de
-moeris</i>, a horn was blown, which being the
-more audible signal, is mentioned by some
-writers alone, and without the inlicium.
-When upon this signal the people assembled
-in irregular masses, there followed the second
-call by the accensus, or the call <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad contionem</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conventionem</i>; that is, to a regular assembly,
-and the crowd then separated, grouping
-themselves according to their classes and
-ages. Hereupon the consul appeared, ordering
-the people to come <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad comitia centuriata</i>;
-and led the whole <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exercitus</i>&mdash;for, in these
-comitia, the Roman people are always conceived
-as an exercitus&mdash;out of the city, to the
-Campus Martius.&mdash;It was customary from
-the earliest times for an armed force to occupy
-the Janiculum, when the people were
-assembled in the Campus Martius, for the
-purpose of protecting the city against any
-sudden attack of the neighbouring people;
-and on the Janiculum a vexillum was hoisted
-during the whole time that the assembly
-lasted. This custom continued to be observed
-even at the time when Rome had no
-longer anything to fear from the neighbouring
-tribes.&mdash;When the people were thus regularly
-assembled, the business was commenced
-with a solemn sacrifice, and a prayer of the
-president, who then took his seat on his tribunal.
-The president then opened the business
-by explaining to the people the subject
-for which they had been convened, and concluded
-his exposition with the words, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">velitis,
-jubeatis Quirites</i>, e.g. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bellum indici</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ut
-M. Tullio aqua igni interdictum sit</i>, or whatever
-the subject might be. This formula was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[107]</span>
-the standing one in all comitia, and the whole
-exposition of the president was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogatio</i>.
-When the comitia were assembled for the
-purpose of an election, the presiding magistrate
-had to read out the names of the candidates,
-and might exercise his influence by
-recommending the one whom he thought
-most fit for the office in question. If the
-assembly had been convened for the purpose
-of passing a legislative measure, the president
-usually recommended the proposal, or he
-might grant to others, if they desired it, permission
-to speak about the measure, either
-in its favour or against it (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Contionem dare</i>).
-When the comitia acted as a court of justice,
-the president stated the crime, proposed the
-punishment to be inflicted upon the offender,
-and then allowed others to speak either in
-defence of the accused or against him. When
-the subject brought before the assembly was
-sufficiently discussed, the president called
-upon the people to prepare for voting by the
-words, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ite in suffragium, bene juvantibus diis</i>.
-He then passed the stream Petronia, and
-went to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">septa</i>.&mdash;Respecting the mode of
-voting, it is commonly supposed that the
-people were always polled by word of mouth,
-till the passing of the leges tabellariae about
-the middle of the second century before
-Christ, when the ballot by means of tabellae
-was introduced. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabellariae">Leges Tabellariae</a>.</span>] It
-appears, however, that the popular assemblies
-voted by ballot, as well as by word of
-mouth, long before the passing of the leges
-tabellariae, but that instead of using tabellae,
-they employed stones or pebbles (the Greek
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψῆφοι</span>), and that each voter received two
-stones, one white and the other black, the
-former to be used in the approval and the
-latter in the condemnation of a measure.
-The voting by word of mouth seems to have
-been adopted in elections and trials, and the
-use of pebbles to have been confined to the
-enactment and repeal of laws. Previous to
-the leges tabellariae, the rogatores, who subsequently
-collected the written votes, stood
-at the entrance of the septa, and asked every
-citizen for his vote, which was taken down,
-and used to determine the vote of each century.
-After the introduction of the ballot, if
-the business was the passing of a law, each
-citizen was provided with two tabellae, one
-inscribed V. R. <em>i.e.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Uti Rogas</i>, “I vote for
-the law,” the other inscribed A. <em>i.e.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antiquo</i>,
-“I am for the old law.” If the business
-was the election of a magistrate, each citizen
-was supplied with only one tablet, on which
-the names of the candidates were written, or
-the initials of their names; the voter then
-placed a mark (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">punctum</i>) against the one for
-whom he voted, whence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">puncta</i> are spoken of
-in the sense of votes. For further particulars
-respecting the voting in the comitia, see
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Diribitores">Diribitores</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Situla">Situla</a></span>. In judicial assemblies
-every citizen was provided with three
-tabellae, one of which was marked with A.
-<em>i.e.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Absolvo</i>, “I acquit;” the second with C.
-<em>i.e.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Condemno</i>, “I condemn;” and the third
-with N. L. <em>i.e.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Non Liquet</i>, “It is not clear
-to me.” The first of these was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tabella
-absolutoria</i> and the second <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tabella damnatoria</i>,
-and hence Cicero calls the former <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">litera
-salutaris</i>, and the latter <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">litera tristis</i>.&mdash;There
-were in the Campus Martius septa or inclosures
-(whether they existed from the earliest
-times is unknown), into which one class of
-citizens was admitted after another for the
-purpose of voting. The first that entered
-were the eighteen centuries of the equites,
-then followed the first class and so on. It
-very rarely happened that the lowest class
-was called upon to vote, as there was no necessity
-for it, unless the first class did not
-agree with the equites. After the time when
-the comitia of the centuries became amalgamated
-with those of the tribes, a large space
-near the villa publica was surrounded with
-an enclosure, and divided into compartments
-for the several tribes. The whole of this enclosure
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ovile, septa, carceres</i>, or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cancelli</i>; and in later times a stone building,
-containing the whole people, was erected; it
-was divided into compartments for the classes
-as well as the tribes and centuries; the access
-to these compartments was formed by
-narrow passages called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pontes</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ponticuli</i>.
-On entering, the citizens received their tablets,
-and when they had consulted within
-the enclosures, they passed out of them again
-by a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pons</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ponticulus</i>, at which they threw
-their vote into a chest (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cista</i>) which was
-watched by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogatores</i>. Hereupon the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogatores</i>
-collected the tablets, and gave them to
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diribitores</i>, who classified and counted the
-votes, and then handed them over to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custodes</i>,
-who again checked them off by points
-marked on a tablet. The order in which the
-centuries voted was determined in the Servian
-constitution, in the manner described
-above; but after the union of the centuries
-and tribes, the order was determined by lot;
-and this was a matter of no slight importance,
-since it frequently happened that the
-vote of the first determined the manner in
-which subsequent ones voted. In the case of
-elections, the successful candidate was proclaimed
-twice, first by the praeco, and then
-by the president, and without this renuntiatio
-the election was not valid. After all the
-business was done, the president pronounced
-a prayer, and dismissed the assembly with
-the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">discedite</i>.&mdash;Cases are frequently<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[108]</span>
-mentioned in which the proceedings of the
-assembly were disturbed, so that it was necessary
-to defer the business till another day.
-This occurred&mdash;1, when it was discovered
-that the auspices had been unfavourable, or
-when the gods manifested their displeasure
-by rain, thunder, or lightning; 2, when a
-tribune interceded; 3, when the sun set before
-the business was over, for it was a principle
-that the auspices were valid only for
-one day from sunrise to sunset; 4, when a
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">morbus comitialis</i> occurred, <em>i.e.</em> when one of
-the assembled citizens was seized with an
-epileptic fit; 5, when the vexillum was taken
-away from the Janiculum, this being a signal
-which all citizens had to obey; 6, when any
-tumult or insurrection broke out in the city.</p>
-
-<p>(3) <span id="Comitia_tr" class="smcap">Comitia tributa.</span> These assemblies
-likewise were called into existence by the
-constitution of Servius Tullius, who divided
-the Roman territory into thirty local tribes.
-It is a disputed question whether the patricians
-were originally included in these
-tribes; but, whether they were or not, it is
-certain, that by far the majority of the people
-in the tribes were plebeians, and that,
-consequently, the character of these assemblies
-was essentially plebeian. After the
-decemvirate, the patricians had certainly
-the right of voting in the assemblies of the
-tribes, which were then also convened by the
-higher magistrates. The assemblies of the
-tribes had originally only a local power; they
-were intended to collect the tributum, and to
-furnish the contingents for the army; they
-may further have discussed the internal affairs
-of each tribe, such as the making or keeping
-up of roads, wells, and the like. But their
-influence gradually increased, and they at
-length acquired the following powers:&mdash;1.
-<em>The election of the inferior magistrates</em>,
-whose office it was to protect the commonalty
-or to superintend the affairs of the tribes.
-Hence the tribunes of the plebs were elected
-in the comitia tributa. In like manner, the
-aediles were elected by them, though the
-curule aediles were elected at a different
-time from the plebeian aediles and under the
-presidency of a consul. At a still later time,
-the quaestors and tribunes of the soldiers,
-who had before been appointed by the consuls,
-were appointed in the assemblies of the
-tribes. The proconsuls to be sent into the
-provinces, and the prolongation of the imperium
-for a magistrate who was already in
-a province, were likewise points which were
-determined by the tribes in later times. The
-inferior magistrates elected by the tribes
-are:&mdash;the triumviri capitales, triumviri monetales,
-the curatores viarum, decemviri litibus
-judicandis, tribuni aerarii, magistri
-vicorum et pagorum, praefecti annonae, duumviri
-navales, quinqueviri muris turribusque
-reficiendis, triumviri coloniae deducendae,
-triumviri, quatuorviri, &amp;c., mensarii,
-and lastly, after the Domitian law, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 104,
-also the members of colleges of priests. The
-pontifex maximus had been elected by the
-people from an earlier time. 2. <em>The legislative
-power</em> of the comitia tributa was at first
-very insignificant, for all they could do was
-to make regulations concerning the local
-affairs of the tribes. But after a time, when
-the tribes began to be the real representatives
-of the people, matters affecting the whole
-people also were brought before them by the
-tribunes, which, framed as resolutions, were
-laid before the senate, where they might
-either be sanctioned or rejected. This practice
-of the tributa comitia gradually acquired
-for them the right of taking the initiative
-in any measure, or the right of originating
-measures, until, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449, this right was
-recognised and sanctioned by a law of L.
-Valerius Publicola and M. Horatius Barbatus.
-This law gave to the decrees passed by the
-tribes the power of a real <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex</i>, binding upon
-the whole people, provided they obtained the
-sanction of the senate and the populus, that
-is, the people assembled in the comitia curiata
-or in the comitia centuriata. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-339, the Publilian law enacted <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ut plebiscita
-omnes Quirites tenerent</i>. This law was either
-a re-enactment of the one passed in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449,
-or contained a more detailed specification of
-the cases in which plebiscita should be binding
-upon the whole nation, or, lastly, it
-made their validity independent of the sanction
-of other comitia, so that nothing would
-be required except the assent of the senate. In
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 287, the Hortensian law was passed,
-which seems to have been only a revival and
-a confirmation of the two preceding laws, for
-it was framed in almost the same terms; but
-it may also be, that the Hortensian law made
-the plebiscita independent of the sanction of
-the senate, so that henceforth the comitia
-tributa were quite independent in their legislative
-character. 3. <em>The judicial power</em> of
-the comitia tributa was much more limited
-than that of the comitia centuriata, inasmuch
-as they could take cognizance only of
-offences against the majesty of the people,
-while all crimes committed against the state
-were brought before the centuries. Even
-patricians, when they had offended against
-the commonalty or its members, were tried
-and fined by the tribes. This again constitutes
-a difference between the judicial power
-of the centuries and that of the tribes, for
-the former could inflict capital punishment,
-but the latter only fines. The comitia tributa<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[109]</span>
-might assemble either within or without
-the city, but not farther from it than
-1000 paces, because the power of the tribunes
-did not extend farther. For elections
-the Campus Martius was usually chosen, but
-sometimes also the forum, the Capitol, or the
-Circus Flaminius. The presidents were commonly
-the tribunes, who were supported by
-the aediles, and no matter could be brought
-before the tribes without the knowledge and
-consent of the tribunes. As the comitia tributa,
-however, more and more assumed the
-character of national assemblies, the higher
-magistrates also sometimes acted as presidents,
-though perhaps not without previously
-obtaining the permission of the tribunes.
-The preparations for the comitia tributa were
-less formal and solemn than for those of the
-centuries. In the case of elections, the candidates
-had to give in their names, and the
-president communicated them to the people.
-When a legislative measure was to be brought
-before the assembly, a tribune made the
-people acquainted with it in <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contiones</i>, and
-that on the three preceding nundines. The
-same was the case when the people were to
-meet as a court of justice. The auspicia
-were not consulted for the comitia of the
-tribes, but the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectio</i> alone was sufficient,
-and the tribunes had the right of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obnuntiatio</i>.
-In the comitia the tribune who had been
-chosen to preside sat on the tribunal supported
-by his colleagues, and laid before the
-people the subject of the meeting, concluding
-with the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">velitis, jubeatis Quirites</i>. The
-bill was never read by the tribune himself,
-but by a praeco, and then began the debates,
-in which persons might either oppose or recommend
-the measure, though private persons
-had to ask the tribunes for permission
-to speak. When the discussion was over the
-president called upon the people <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ite in suffragium</i>,
-as at the comitia centuriata. They
-then formed themselves into their tribes,
-which, like the centuries, ascertained their
-own votes in enclosures (septa). Which of
-the 35 tribes was to give its vote first, was
-determined by lot, and that tribe was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praerogativa</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">principium</i> (the others were
-termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jure vocatae</i>). The vote of the first
-tribe was given by some person of distinction
-whose name was mentioned in the plebiscitum,
-if it was of a legislative nature. The
-manner of collecting the votes was, on the
-whole, the same as in the comitia centuriata.
-The announcing of the result of the votes
-was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">renuntiatio</i>. If it so happened that
-two candidates had the same number of votes,
-the question was decided by drawing lots.
-The circumstances which might cause the
-meeting to break up and defer its business till
-another day, are the same as those which
-put an end to the comitia centuriata.</p>
-
-<p>(4) <em>The comitia centuriata mixed with the
-comitia tributa.</em>&mdash;The Servian constitution
-was retained unaltered so long as no great
-change took place in the republic; but when
-the coinage and the standard of property had
-become altered, when the constitution of the
-army had been placed on a different footing,
-and, above all, when the plebeians began to
-be recognized as a great and essential element
-in the Roman state, it must have been
-found inconvenient to leave to the equites and
-the first class so great a preponderance in
-the comitia of the centuries, and it became
-necessary to secure more power and influence
-to the democratic element. A change, therefore,
-took place, and the comitia centuriata
-became mixed with the comitia tributa; but
-neither the time nor the exact nature of this
-change is accurately ascertained. Some refer
-it to the censorship of C. Flaminius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 220,
-others to that of Q. Fabius and P. Decius,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 304. But there is evidence that it must
-be assigned to even an earlier date than this,
-for the (tribus) praerogativa is mentioned as
-early as <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 396 in the election of the consular
-tribunes, where the pure comitia tributa
-cannot be meant, and a centuria praerogativa
-is a thing unknown. With regard to
-the manner of the change, the most probable
-opinion is, that the citizens of each tribe were
-divided into five property classes, each consisting
-of seniores and juniores, so that each
-of the 35 tribes contained ten centuries, and
-all the tribes together 350 centuries. According
-to this new arrangement, the five ancient
-classes, divided into seniores and juniores,
-continued to exist as before, but henceforth
-they were most closely united with the tribes,
-whereas before the tribes had been mere
-local divisions and entirely independent of
-property. The union now effected was that
-the classes became subdivisions of the tribes,
-and that accordingly centuries occur both in
-the classes and in the tribes. Each tribe contained
-ten centuries, two of the first class
-(one of the seniores and one of the juniores),
-two of the second (likewise seniores and
-juniores), two of the third, two of the fourth,
-and two of the fifth class. The equites were
-likewise divided according to tribes and centuries,
-and they seem to have voted with the
-first class, and to have been in fact included
-in it, so as to be called centuries of the first
-class. The centuries of the cornicines, tubicines
-and fabri, which are no longer mentioned,
-probably ceased to exist as distinct
-centuries. The voting by tribes can hardly
-be conceived, except in those cases in which
-the ten centuries of every tribe were unanimous;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[110]</span>
-this may have been the case very
-often, and when it was so, the tribus praerogativa
-was certainly the tribe chosen by
-lot to give its unanimous vote first. But if
-there was any difference of opinion among the
-centuries making up a tribe, the true majority
-could only be ascertained by choosing by lot
-one of the 70 centuriae of the first class to
-give its vote first, or rather it was decided by
-lot from which tribe the two centuries of the
-first class were to be taken to give their vote
-first. (Hence the plural <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praerogativae</i>.) The
-tribe, moreover, to which those centuries
-belonged which voted first, was itself likewise
-called tribus praerogativa. Of the two centuries,
-again, that of seniores gave its vote
-before the juniores, and in the documents
-both were called by the name of their tribe,
-as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Galeria juniorum</i>, <em>i.e.</em> the juniores of the
-first class in the tribus Galeria, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aniensis juniorum,
-Veturia juniorum</i>. As soon as the
-praerogativa had voted, the renuntiatio took
-place, and the remaining centuries then deliberated
-whether they should vote the same
-way or not. When this was done all the
-centuries of the first tribe proceeded to vote
-at once, for there would not have been time
-for the 350 centuries to vote one after another,
-as was done by the 193 centuries in the
-comitia centuriata.&mdash;These comitia of the
-centuries combined with the tribes were far
-more democratical than the comitia of the
-centuries; they continued to be held, and
-preserved their power along with the comitia
-tributa, even after the latter had acquired
-their supreme importance in the republic.
-During the time of the moral and political
-corruption of the Romans, the latter appear
-to have been chiefly attended by the populace,
-which was guided by the tribunes, and the
-wealthier and more respectable citizens had
-little influence in them. When the libertini
-and all the Italians were incorporated in the
-old thirty-five tribes, and when the political
-corruption had reached its height, no trace of
-the sedate and moderate character was left by
-which the comitia tributa had been distinguished
-in former times. Under Augustus
-the comitia still sanctioned new laws and
-elected magistrates, but their whole proceedings
-were a mere farce, for they could not
-venture to elect any other persons than those
-recommended by the emperor. Tiberius deprived
-the people even of this shadow of their
-former power, and conferred the power of
-election upon the senate. When the elections
-were made by the senate the result was announced
-to the people assembled as comitia
-centuriata or tributa. Legislation was taken
-away from the comitia entirely, and was completely
-in the hands of the senate and the
-emperor. From this time the comitia may be
-said to have ceased to exist, as all the sovereign
-power formerly possessed by the people
-was conferred upon the emperor by the lex
-regia. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Regia">Lex Regia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Commeatus">COMMĔĀTUS, a furlough, or leave of absence
-from the army for a certain time.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Commentarius">COMMENTĀRĬUS or COMMENTĀRĬUM,
-a book of memoirs or memorandum-book,
-whence the expression <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caesaris Commentarii</i>.
-It is also used for a lawyer’s brief, the notes
-of a speech, &amp;c.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Commercium">COMMERCĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas</a> (Roman).</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Comoedia">CŌMOEDĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κωμῳδία</span>), comedy. (1)
-<span class="smcap">Greek.</span> Comedy took its rise at the vintage
-festivals of Dionysus. It originated with
-those who led off the phallic songs of the
-band of revellers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κῶμος</span>), who at the vintage
-festivals of Dionysus gave expression to the
-feelings of exuberant joy and merriment which
-were regarded as appropriate to the occasion,
-by parading about, partly on foot, partly in
-waggons, with the symbol of the productive
-powers of nature, singing a wild, jovial song
-in honour of Dionysus and his companions.
-These songs were commonly interspersed
-with, or followed by petulant, extemporal
-witticisms with which the revellers assailed
-the bystanders. This origin of comedy is
-indicated by the name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κωμῳδία</span>, which undoubtedly
-means “the song of the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κῶμος</span>,”
-though it has sometimes been derived from
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κώμη</span>, as if the meaning were “a village
-song.” It was among the Dorians that
-comedy first assumed any thing of a regular
-shape. The Megarians, both in the mother
-country and in Sicily, claimed to be considered
-as its originators, and so far as the
-comedy of Athens is concerned, the claim of
-the former appears well founded. Among
-the Athenians the first attempts at comedy
-were made at Icaria by Susarion, a native of
-Megara, about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 578. Susarion no doubt
-substituted for the more ancient improvisations
-of the chorus and its leader premeditated
-compositions. There would seem also
-to have been some kind of poetical contest,
-for we learn that the prize for the successful
-poet was a basket of figs and a jar of wine.
-It was also the practice of those who took
-part in the comus to smear their faces with
-wine-lees, either to prevent their features
-from being recognised, or to give themselves
-a more grotesque appearance. Hence comedy
-came to be called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρυγῳδία</span>, or lee-song.
-Others connected the name with the circumstance
-of a jar of new wine (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρύξ</span>) being the
-prize for the successful poet. It was, however,
-in Sicily, that comedy was earliest
-brought to something like perfection. Epicharmus
-was the first writer who gave it a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[111]</span>
-new form, and introduced a regular plot.
-In his efforts he appears to have been associated
-with Phormis, a somewhat older contemporary.
-The Megarians in Sicily claimed
-the honour of the invention of comedy, on
-account of Epicharmus having lived in Megara
-before he went to Syracuse. In Attica,
-the first comic poet of any importance whom
-we hear of after Susarion is Chionides, who
-is said to have brought out plays in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 488.
-Euetes, Euxenides, and Myllus were probably
-contemporaries of Chionides; he was
-followed by Magnes and Ecphantides. Their
-compositions, however, seem to have been
-little but the reproduction of the old Megaric
-farce of Susarion, differing, no doubt, in
-form, by the introduction of an actor or
-actors, separate from the chorus, in imitation
-of the improvements that had been made in
-tragedy.&mdash;That branch of the Attic drama
-which was called the <em>Old Comedy</em>, begins
-properly with Cratinus, who was to comedy
-very much what Aeschylus was to tragedy.
-The old comedy has been described as the
-comedy of caricature, and such indeed it was,
-but it was also a great deal more. As it appeared
-in the hands of its great masters Cratinus,
-Hermippus, Eupolis, and especially
-Aristophanes, its main characteristic was
-that it was throughout <em>political</em>. Everything
-that bore upon the political or social interests
-of the Athenians furnished materials for it.
-The old Attic comedy lasted from Ol. 80 to
-Ol. 94 (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 458-404). From Cratinus to
-Theopompus there were forty-one poets, fourteen
-of whom preceded Aristophanes. The
-later pieces of Aristophanes belong to the
-Middle rather than to the Old Comedy. The
-chorus in a comedy consisted of twenty-four.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a>.</span>] The dance of the chorus was the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόρδαξ</span>, the movements of which were capricious
-and licentious, consisting partly in a
-reeling to and fro, in imitation of a drunken
-man, and in various unseemly and immodest
-gestures. Comedies have choric songs, but
-no <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στάσιμα</span>, or songs between acts. The most
-important of the choral parts was the Parabasis,
-when the actors having left the stage, the
-chorus, which was ordinarily divided into four
-rows, containing six each, and was turned
-towards the stage, turned round, and advancing
-towards the spectators delivered an
-address to them in the name of the poet,
-either on public topics of general interest, or
-on matters which concerned the poet personally,
-criticising his rivals and calling attention
-to his merits; the address having
-nothing whatever to do with the action of the
-play. The parabasis was not universally introduced:
-three plays of Aristophanes, the
-Ecclesiazusae, Lysistrata, and Plutus, have
-none. As the old Attic comedy was the offspring
-of the political and social vigour and
-freedom of the age during which it flourished,
-it naturally declined and ceased with the decline
-and overthrow of the freedom and vigour
-which were necessary for its development.&mdash;It
-was replaced by a comedy of a
-somewhat different style, which was known
-as the <em>Middle Comedy</em>, the age of which
-lasted from the end of the Peloponnesian war
-to the overthrow of liberty by Philip of Macedon.
-(Ol. 94-110.) The comedy of this
-period found its materials in satirizing classes
-of people instead of individuals, in criticising
-the systems and merits of philosophers and
-literary men, and in parodies of the compositions
-of living and earlier poets, and travesties
-of mythological subjects. It formed
-a transition from the old to the new comedy,
-and approximated to the latter in the greater
-attention to the construction of plots which
-seem frequently to have been founded on
-amorous intrigues, and in the absence of that
-wild grotesqueness which marked the old
-comedy. As regards its external form, the
-plays of the middle comedy, generally speaking,
-had neither parabasis nor chorus. The most
-celebrated authors of the middle comedy were
-Antiphanes and Alexis.&mdash;The <em>New Comedy</em>
-was a further development of the last mentioned
-kind. It answered as nearly as may
-be to the modern comedy of manners or character.
-Dropping for the most part personal
-allusions, caricature, ridicule, and parody,
-which, in a more general form than in the
-old comedy, had maintained their ground in
-the middle comedy, the poets of the new
-comedy made it their business to reproduce
-in a generalized form a picture of the every-day
-life of those by whom they were surrounded.
-There were various standing characters
-which found a place in most plays,
-such as we find in the plays of Plautus and
-Terence, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">leno perjurus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amator fervidus</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">servulus callidus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amica illudens</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sodalis opitulator</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">miles proeliator</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">parasitus edax</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">parentes
-tenaces</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">meretrices procaces</i>. In
-the new comedy there was no chorus. It
-flourished from about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 340 to <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 260.
-The poets of the new comedy amounted to 64
-in number. The most distinguished was
-Menander.&mdash;(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span>&mdash;The accounts of
-the early stages of comic poetry among the
-Romans are scanty. Scenic entertainments
-were introduced at Rome in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 363 from
-Etruria, where it would seem they were a
-familiar amusement. Tuscan players (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludiones</i>),
-who were fetched from Etruria, exhibited
-a sort of pantomimic dance to the
-music of a flute, without any song accompanying
-their dance, and without regular<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[112]</span>
-dramatic gesticulation. The amusement became
-popular, and was imitated by the young
-Romans, who improved upon the original
-entertainment by uniting with it extemporaneous
-mutual raillery, composed in a rude
-irregular measure, a species of diversion
-which had been long known among the Romans
-at their agrarian festivals under the
-name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fescennina</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fescennina">Fescennina</a></span>]. It was
-123 years after the first introduction of these
-scenic performances before the improvement
-was introduced of having a regular plot.
-This advance was made by Livius Andronicus,
-a native of Magna Graecia, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 240. His
-pieces, which were both tragedies and comedies,
-were merely adaptations of Greek
-dramas. The representation of regular plays
-of this sort was now left to those who were
-histriones by profession, and who were very
-commonly either foreigners or slaves; the
-free-born youth of Rome confined their own
-scenic performances to the older, irregular
-farces, which long maintained their ground,
-and were subsequently called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exodia</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exodia">Exodia</a>;
-<a href="#Satura">Satura</a>.</span>] Livius, as was common at
-that time, was himself an actor in his own
-pieces. The first imitator of the dramatic
-works of Livius Andronicus was Cn. Naevius,
-a native of Campania. He composed
-both tragedies and comedies, which were
-either translations or imitations of those of
-Greek writers. The most distinguished successors
-of Naevius were Plautus, who chiefly
-imitated Epicharmus, and Terence, whose
-materials were drawn mostly from Menander,
-Diphilus, Philemon, and Apollodorus. The
-comedy of the Romans was throughout but
-an imitation of that of the Greeks, and
-chiefly of the new comedy. Where the characters
-were ostensibly Greek, and the scene
-laid in Athens or some other Greek town, the
-comedies were termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">palliatae</i>. All the
-comedies of Terence and Plautus belong to
-this class. When the story and characters
-were Roman, the plays were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">togatae</i>.
-But the fabulae togatae were in fact little else
-than Greek comedies clothed in a Latin dress.</p>
-
-<p>The togatae were divided into two classes,
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trabeatae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabernariae</i>, according as the
-subject was taken from high or from low life.
-In the comediae palliatae, the costume of the
-ordinary actors was the Greek pallium. The
-plays which bore the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetextatae</i>,
-were not so much tragedies as historical
-plays. It is a mistake to represent them as
-comedies. There was a species of tragi-comedy,
-named from the poet who introduced
-that style <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rhinthonica</i>. A tragedy the
-argument of which was Greek was termed
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crepidata</i>. The mimes are sometimes classed
-with the Latin comedies. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mimus">Mimus</a>.</span>] The
-mimes differed from the comedies in little
-more than the predominance of the mimic
-representation over the dialogue. Latin comedies
-had no chorus, any more than the
-dramas of the new comedy, of which they
-were for the most part imitations. Like
-them, too, they were introduced by a prologue,
-which answered some of the purposes
-of the parabasis of the old comedy, so far as
-bespeaking the good will of the spectators,
-and defending the poet against his rivals and
-enemies. It also communicated so much information
-as was necessary to understand
-the story of the play. The prologue was
-commonly spoken by one of the players, or,
-perhaps, by the manager of the troop. Respecting
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Atellanae fabulae</i> see that article.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Compitalia">COMPĬTĀLĬA, also called LŪDI COMPĬTĀLĬCĬI,
-a festival celebrated once a year in
-honour of the lares compitales, to whom sacrifices
-were offered at the places where two
-or more ways met. In the time of Augustus,
-the ludi compitalicii had gone out of fashion,
-but were restored by him. The compitalia
-belonged to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feriae conceptivae</i>, that is,
-festivals which were celebrated on days appointed
-annually by the magistrates or
-priests. The exact day on which this festival
-was celebrated appears to have varied,
-though it was always in the winter, generally
-at the beginning of January.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Compluvium">COMPLŪVĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Concilium">CONCĬLĬUM generally has the same
-meaning as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conventus</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conventio</i>, but the
-technical import of concilium in the Roman
-constitution was an assembly of a <em>portion</em> of
-the people as distinct from the general assemblies
-or comitia. Accordingly, as the
-comitia tributa embraced only a portion of
-the Roman people, viz. the plebeians, these
-comitia are often designated by the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">concilia
-plebis</i>. Concilium is also used by Latin
-writers to denote the assemblies or meetings
-of confederate towns or nations, at which
-either their deputies alone or any of the
-citizens met who had time and inclination,
-and thus formed a representative assembly.
-Such an assembly or diet is commonly designated
-as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">commune concilium</i>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ κοινόν</span>,
-e.g. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Achaeorum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aetolorum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Boeotorum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Macedoniae</i>,
-and the like.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Confarreatio">CONFARRĔĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Congiarium">CONGĬĀRĬUM (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scil. vas</i>, from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">congius</i>), a
-vessel containing a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">congius</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Congius">Congius</a>.</span>] In
-the early times of the Roman republic the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">congius</i> was the usual measure of oil or wine
-which was, on certain occasions, distributed
-among the people; and thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">congiarium</i> became
-a name for liberal donations to the
-people, in general, whether consisting of oil,
-wine, corn, money, or other things, while<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[113]</span>
-donations made to the soldiers were called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">donativa</i>, though they were sometimes also
-termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">congiaria</i>. Many coins of the Roman
-emperors were struck in commemoration of
-such congiaria. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Congiarium</i> was, moreover,
-occasionally used simply to designate a present
-or a pension given by a person of high
-rank, or a prince, to his friends.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="ill113" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill113.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Congiarium. (Coin of Trajan.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Congius">CONGĬUS, a Roman liquid measure, which
-contained six sextarii, or the eighth part of
-the amphora (nearly six pints Eng.) It was
-equal to the larger <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">chous</i> of the Greeks.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Connubium">CONNUBĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Conopeum">CŌNŌPĒUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κωνωπεῖον</span>), a gnat or musquito-curtain,
-<em>i.e.</em> a covering made to be expanded
-over beds and couches to keep away
-gnats and other flying insects, so called from
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κώνωψ</span>, a gnat. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Conopeum</i> is the origin of
-the English word <em>canopy</em>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Conquisitores">CONQUĪSĪTŌRES, persons employed to go
-about the country and impress soldiers, when
-there was a difficulty in completing a levy.
-Sometimes commissioners were appointed by
-a decree of the senate for the purpose of
-making a conquisitio.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Consanguinei">CONSANGUĬNĔI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cognati">Cognati</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Consecratio">CONSĔCRĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Apotheosis">Apotheosis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Consilium">CONSĬLĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Conventus">Conventus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Consualia">CONSUĀLĬA, a festival, with games, celebrated
-by the Romans, according to Ovid and
-others, in honour of Consus, the god of
-secret deliberations, or, according to Livy, of
-Neptunus Equestris. Some writers, however,
-say that Neptunus Equestris and Consus
-were only different names for one and
-the same deity. It was solemnised every
-year in the circus, by the symbolical ceremony
-of uncovering an altar dedicated to the
-god, which was buried in the earth. For
-Romulus, who was considered as the founder
-of the festival, was said to have discovered
-an altar in the earth on that spot. The solemnity
-took place on the 21st of August
-with horse and chariot races, and libations
-were poured into the flames which consumed
-the sacrifices. During these festive games
-horses and mules were not allowed to do any
-work, and were adorned with garlands of
-flowers. It was at their first celebration that,
-according to the ancient legend, the Sabine
-maidens were carried off.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Consul">CONSUL (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕπατος</span>), the title of the two
-chief officers or magistrates of the Roman
-republic. The word is probably composed of
-<em>con</em> and <em>sul</em>, which contains the same root as
-the verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">salio</i>, so that consules signifies
-“those who come together,” just as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praesul</i>
-means “one who goes before,” and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsul</i>,
-“one who goes out.” The consulship is said
-to have been instituted upon the expulsion of
-the kings in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 509, when the kingly power
-was transferred to two magistrates, whose
-office lasted only for one year, that it might
-not degenerate into tyranny by being vested
-longer in the same persons; and for the same
-reason two were appointed instead of one
-king, as neither could undertake anything
-unless it was sanctioned and approved by his
-colleague. Their original title was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetores</i>,
-or commanders of the armies, but this was
-changed into that of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consules</i> in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449,
-and the latter title remained in use until the
-latest periods of the Roman empire.&mdash;The
-consuls were at first elected from the patricians
-exclusively. Their office was suspended
-in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 451, and its functions were performed
-by ten high commissioners (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decemviri</i>),
-appointed to frame a code of laws. On
-the re-establishment of the consulship in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-449, the tribunes proposed that one of the
-consuls should be chosen from the plebeians,
-but this was strenuously resisted by the patricians,
-and a compromise effected by suspending
-the consular office, and creating in
-its stead military tribunes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni militum</i>)
-with consular power, who might be elected
-indifferently both from the patricians and
-plebeians. They were first appointed in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-444. The plebeians, however, were not satisfied
-with this concession, and still endeavoured
-to attain the higher dignity of the
-consulship. At length, after a serious and
-long-protracted struggle between the two
-orders, it was enacted by the Licinian law,
-in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 367, that henceforth the consulship
-should be divided between the patricians and
-plebeians, and that one of the consuls should
-always be a plebeian. Accordingly, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-366 L. Sextius was elected the first plebeian
-consul. This law, however, was not always
-observed, and it still frequently happened
-that both consuls were patricians, until, in
-later times, when the difference between the
-two orders had entirely ceased, and the plebeians
-were on a footing of perfect equality
-with the patricians, the consuls were elected<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[114]</span>
-from both orders indiscriminately.&mdash;During
-the later periods of the republic it was customary
-for persons to pass through several
-subordinate magistracies before they were
-elected consuls, though this rule was departed
-from in many particular cases. The
-age at which a person was eligible to the
-consulship was fixed in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 180, by the lex
-annalis [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Annalis">Lex Annalis</a></span>], at 43.&mdash;The election
-of the consuls always took place in the comitia
-of the centuries, some time before the
-expiration of the official year of the actual
-consuls, and the election was conducted
-either by the actual consuls themselves, or
-by an interrex or a dictator, and the persons
-elected, until they entered upon their office,
-were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consules designati</i>. While they
-were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">designati</i>, they were in reality no more
-than private persons, but still they might
-exercise considerable influence upon public
-affairs, for in the senate they were asked for
-their opinion first. If they had been guilty
-of any illegal act, either before or during
-their election, such as bribery (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ambitus</i>), they
-were liable to prosecution, and the election
-might be declared void.&mdash;The time at which
-the old consuls laid down their office and the
-consules designati entered upon theirs, differed
-at different times. The first consuls
-are said to have entered upon their office in
-October, then we find mention of the 1st of
-August, of the ides of December, the 1st of
-July, and very frequently of the ides of
-March, until, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 153, it became an established
-rule for the consuls to enter upon
-their duties on the 1st of January; and this
-custom remained down to the end of the republic.
-On that day the senators, equites,
-and citizens of all classes conducted in a procession
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deductio</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">processus consularis</i>) the
-new magistrates from their residence to the
-capitol, where, if the auspices were favourable,
-the consuls offered up sacrifices, and
-were inaugurated. From thence the procession
-went to the curia, where the senate
-assembled, and where the consuls returned
-thanks for their election. There they might
-also speak on any subject that was of importance
-to the republic, such as peace and
-war, the distribution of provinces, the general
-condition of the state, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feriae Latinae</i>,
-and the like. During the first five days of
-their office they had to convoke a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contio</i>, and
-publicly to take a solemn oath, by which, in
-the earliest times, they pledged themselves
-not to allow any one to assume regal power
-at Rome, but afterwards only to maintain the
-laws of the republic (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in leges jurare</i>). On the
-expiration of their office they had to take
-another oath, stating that they had faithfully
-obeyed the laws, and not done anything
-against the constitution. The new consuls
-on entering upon their office usually invited
-their friends to a banquet. When a consul
-died during his year of office, his colleague
-immediately convoked the comitia to elect a
-new one. A consul thus elected to fill a
-vacancy was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consul suffectus</i>, but his
-powers were not equal to those of an ordinary
-consul, for he could not preside at the
-elections of other magistrates, not even in
-the case of the death of his colleague. In the
-latter case, as well as when the consuls were
-prevented by illness or other circumstances,
-the comitia were held by an interrex or a
-dictator.&mdash;The outward distinctions of the
-consuls were, with few exceptions, the same
-as those which had formerly belonged to the
-kings. The principal distinction was the
-twelve lictors with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasces</i>, who preceded
-the consuls; but the axes did not appear in
-the fasces within the city. This outward
-sign of their power was taken by the consuls
-in turn every month, and while one
-consul was preceded by the twelve lictors
-with their fasces, the other was during the
-same month preceded by an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">accensus</i>, and
-followed by the lictors; and the one was
-called during that month <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consul major</i>, and
-the other <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consul minor</i>. Other distinctions
-of the consuls were the curule chair (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella
-curulis</i>), and the toga with the purple hem
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga praetexta</i>). The ivory sceptre (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scipio</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sceptrum</i>) and purple toga were not distinctions
-of the consuls in general, but only
-when they celebrated a triumph. Under the
-empire a consul was sometimes distinguished
-by the senate with a sceptre bearing an eagle
-on the top, but his regular ensigns consisted
-of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga picta</i>, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trabea</i>, and the fasces,
-both within and without the city.&mdash;The consuls
-were the highest ordinary magistrates at
-Rome. Their power was at first quite equal
-to that of the kings, except that it was
-limited to one year, and that the office of
-high priest, which had been vested in the
-king, was at the very beginning detached
-from the consulship, and given to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rex
-sacrorum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rex sacrificulus</i>. Yet the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia
-majora</i> continued to belong to the
-consuls. This regal power of the consuls,
-however, was gradually curtailed by various
-laws, especially by the institution of the tribunes
-of the plebs, whose province it was to
-protect the plebeians against the unjust or
-oppressive commands of the patrician magistrates.
-Nay, in the course of time, whole
-branches of the consular power were detached
-from it; the reason for which was, that, as
-the patricians were compelled to allow the
-plebeians a share in the highest magistracy,
-they stripped it of as much of its original<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[115]</span>
-power as they could, and reserved these detached
-portions for themselves. In this manner
-the censorship was detached from the
-consulship in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 443, and the praetorship
-in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 367. But notwithstanding all this,
-the consuls remained the highest magistrates,
-and all other magistrates, except the tribunes
-of the plebs, were obliged to obey their commands,
-and show them great outward respect.
-The functions of the consuls during
-the time of the republic may be conveniently
-described under the following heads:&mdash;1.
-They were in all civil matters the heads of
-the state, being invested with the imperium,
-which emanated from the sovereign people,
-and which they held during the time of their
-office. In this capacity they had the right of
-convoking both the senate and the assembly
-of the people; they presided in each (in the
-comitia of the curies as well as in those of
-the centuries), and they took care that the
-resolutions of the senate and people were
-carried into effect. They might also convoke
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contiones</i>, whenever they thought it necessary.
-In the senate they conducted the discussions,
-and put the questions to the vote,
-thus exercising the greatest influence upon
-all matters which were brought before the
-senate either by themselves or by others.
-When a decree was passed by the senate, the
-consuls were usually commissioned to see that
-it was carried into effect; though there are
-also instances of the consuls opposing a decree
-of the senate. 2. The supreme command
-of the armies belonged to the consuls
-alone by virtue of their imperium. Accordingly,
-when a war was decreed, they were
-ordered by a senatus consultum to levy the
-troops, whose number was determined by the
-senate, and they appointed most of the other
-military officers. While at the head of their
-armies they had full power of life and death
-over their soldiers, who, on their enrolment,
-had to take an oath (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacramentum</i>) to be
-faithful and obedient to the commands of the
-consuls. When the consuls had entered upon
-their office, the senate assigned them their
-provinces, that is, their spheres of action,
-and the consuls either settled between themselves
-which province each was to have, or,
-which was more common, they drew lots.
-Usually one consul remained at Rome, while
-the other went out at the head of the army:
-sometimes both left the city, and carried on
-war in different quarters; and sometimes,
-when the danger was very pressing, both
-consuls commanded the armies against one
-and the same enemy. If it was deemed advisable,
-the imperium of one or of both consuls
-was prolonged for the particular province
-in which they were engaged, in which case
-they had the title of proconsuls [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Proconsul">Proconsul</a></span>],
-and their successors either remained at
-Rome, or were engaged in other quarters.
-During the latter period of the republic the
-consuls remained at Rome during the time of
-their office, and on its expiration they had a
-foreign province (in the real sense of the
-word) assigned to them, where they undertook
-either the peaceful administration, or
-carried on war against internal or external
-enemies. While in their provinces, both
-the consuls and proconsuls had the power
-of life and death over the provincials, for
-they were looked upon there as the chief
-military commanders; and the provincials,
-being <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peregrini</i>, did not enjoy the privileges
-of Roman citizens. 3. The supreme jurisdiction
-was part of the consular imperium, and
-as such vested in the consuls so long as there
-were no praetors. In civil cases they administered
-justice to the patricians as well as
-plebeians, either acting themselves as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judices</i>,
-or appointing others as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judices</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arbitri</i>.
-In criminal cases there appears from early
-times to have been this difference: that patricians
-charged with capital offences were
-tried by the curies, while the plebeians came
-under the jurisdiction of the consuls, whose
-power, however, was in this case rather
-limited, partly by the intercession of the tribunes
-of the people, and partly by the right
-of appeal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocatio</i>) from the sentence of
-the consuls. The consuls might, further,
-summon any citizen before their tribunal,
-and, in case of disobedience, seize him (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prendere</i>),
-and fine him up to a certain amount.
-After the institution of the praetorship, the
-consuls no longer possessed any regular ordinary
-jurisdiction; and whenever they exercised
-it, it was an exception to the general
-custom, and only by a special command of
-the senate. 4. Previous to the institution
-of the censorship the consuls had to perform
-all the functions which afterwards belonged
-to the censors: they were accordingly the
-highest officers of finance, held the census,
-drew up the lists of the senators, equites, &amp;c.
-After the establishment of the censorship they
-still retained the general superintendence of
-the public economy, inasmuch as they had
-the keys of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aerarium</i>, and as the quaestors
-or paymasters were dependent on them.
-But still in the management of the finances
-the consuls were at all times under the control
-of the senate. 5. In all relations with
-foreign states the consuls were the representatives
-of the Roman republic. Hence they
-might conclude peace or treaties with foreign
-nations, which had, however, to be sanctioned
-by the senate and people at Rome;
-and unless this sanction was obtained a treaty<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[116]</span>
-was void. They received foreign ambassadors,
-and introduced them into the senate,
-and in short all negotiations with foreign
-princes or nations passed through their
-hands. 6. In matters connected with their
-own official functions, the consuls, like all
-other magistrates, had the power of issuing
-proclamations or orders (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edicta</i>), which might
-be binding either for the occasion only, or
-remain in force permanently.&mdash;Although the
-consular power had been gradually diminished,
-it was in cases of imminent danger
-restored to its original and full extent, by a
-decree of the senate calling upon the consuls
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">videant ne quid res publica detrimenti capiat</i>.
-In such cases the consuls received sovereign
-power, but they were responsible for the
-manner in which they had exercised it.&mdash;It
-has already been observed, that to avoid collision
-and confusion, the two consuls did not
-possess the same power at the same time, but
-that each had the imperium every other
-month. The one who possessed it, as the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consul major</i>, exercised all the rights of the
-office, though he always consulted his colleague.
-In the earliest times it was customary
-for the elder of the two consuls to take
-the imperium first, afterwards the one who
-had had the greater number of votes at the
-election, and had therefore been proclaimed
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">renuntiare</i>) first. In the time of Augustus
-it was enacted that the consul who had most
-children should take precedence of the other;
-and some distinction of rank continued to be
-observed down to the latest times of the empire.&mdash;Towards
-the end of the republic the
-consulship lost its power and importance.
-The first severe blow it received was from
-Julius Caesar, the dictator, for he received
-the consulship in addition to his dictatorship,
-or he arbitrarily ordered others to be elected,
-who were mere nominal officers, and were
-allowed to do nothing without his sanction.
-He himself was elected consul at first for five,
-then for ten years, and at last for life. Under
-Augustus the consulship was a mere shadow of
-what it had been: the consuls no longer held
-their office for a whole year, but usually for a
-few months only; and hence it happened
-that sometimes one year saw six, twelve, or
-even twenty-five consuls. Those who were
-elected the first in the year ranked higher
-than the rest, and their names alone were
-used to mark the year, according to the ancient
-custom of the Romans of marking the
-date of an event by the names of the consuls
-of the year in which the event occurred.
-During the last period of the empire it became
-the practice to have titular or honorary
-consuls, who were elected by the senate
-and confirmed by the emperor. Constantine
-appointed two consuls, one for Rome and
-another for Constantinople, who held their
-office for a whole year, and whose functions
-were only those of chief justices. All the
-other consuls were designated as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">honorarii</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consulares</i>. But though the consulship had
-thus become almost an empty title, it was
-still regarded as the highest dignity in the
-empire, and as the object of the greatest ambition.
-It was connected with very great
-expenses, partly on account of the public
-games which a consul had to provide, and
-partly on account of the large donations he
-had to make to the people. The last consul
-at Rome was Decimus Theodorus Paulinus,
-<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 536, and at Constantinople, Flavius Basilius
-junior, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 541.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Consularis">CONSŬLARIS, signified, under the republic,
-a person who had held the office of
-consul; but under the empire, it was the
-title of many magistrates and public officers,
-who enjoyed the insignia of consular dignity,
-without having filled the office of consul.
-Thus we find commanders of armies and governors
-of provinces called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Consulares</i> under
-the empire.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Contio">CONTĬO, a contraction for <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conventio</i>, that
-is, a meeting, or a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conventus</i>. In the technical
-sense, however, a contio was an assembly
-of the people at Rome convened by a
-magistrate for the purpose of making the
-people acquainted with measures which were
-to be brought before the next comitia, and of
-working upon them either to support or oppose
-the measure. But no question of any
-kind could be decided by a contio, and this
-constitutes the difference between contiones
-and comitia. Still contiones were also
-convened for other purposes, <em>e.g.</em> of persuading
-the people to take part in a war, or
-of bringing complaints against a party in the
-republic. Every magistrate had the right to
-convene contiones, but it was most frequently
-exercised by the consuls and tribunes, and
-the latter more especially exercised a great
-influence over the people in and through these
-contiones. A magistrate who was higher in
-rank than the one who had convened a contio,
-had the right to order the people to disperse,
-if he disapproved of the object. It should be
-remarked, that the term contio is also used
-to designate the speeches and harangues addressed
-to the people in an assembly, and
-that in a loose mode of speaking, contio denotes
-any assembly of the people.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Contubernales">CONTŬBERNĀLES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύσκηνοι</span>), signified
-originally men who served in the same army
-and lived in the same tent. The word is derived
-from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taberna</i> (afterwards <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabernaculum</i>),
-which was the original name for a
-military tent, as it was made of boards (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae</i>).<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[117]</span>
-Each tent was occupied by ten soldiers
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contubernales</i>), with a subordinate
-officer at their head, who was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decanus</i>,
-and in later times <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caput contubernii</i>. Young
-Romans of illustrious families used to accompany
-a distinguished general on his expeditions,
-or to his province, for the purpose of
-gaining under his superintendence a practical
-training in the art of war, or in the administration
-of public affairs, and were, like soldiers
-living in the same tent, called his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contubernales</i>.
-In a still wider sense, the name
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contubernales</i> was applied to persons connected
-by ties of intimate friendship, and
-living under the same roof; and hence, when
-a freeman and a slave, or two slaves, who
-were not allowed to contract a legal marriage,
-lived together as husband and wife,
-they were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contubernales</i>; and their
-connection, as well as their place of residence,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contubernium</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Contubernium">CONTŬBERNĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Contubernales">Contubernales</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Convenire">CONVĔNĪRE IN MĂNUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Conventus">CONVENTUS, was the name applied to
-the whole body of Roman citizens who were
-either permanently or for a time settled in a
-province. In order to facilitate the administration
-of justice, a province was divided into
-a number of districts or circuits, each of which
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conventus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">forum</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jurisdictio</i>.
-Roman citizens living in a province were entirely
-under the jurisdiction of the proconsul;
-and at certain times of the year, fixed by the
-proconsul, they assembled in the chief town
-of the district, and this meeting bore the
-name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conventus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνοδος</span>). Hence the expressions&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conventus
-agere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peragere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">convocare</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dimittere</i>. At this conventus litigant
-parties applied to the proconsul, who selected
-a number of judges from the conventus to try
-their causes. The proconsul himself presided
-at the trials, and pronounced the sentence
-according to the views of the judges,
-who were his assessors (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consilium</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consiliarii</i>).
-These conventus appear to have
-been generally held after the proconsul had
-settled the military affairs of the province; at
-least, when Caesar was proconsul of Gaul, he
-made it a regular practice to hold the conventus
-after his armies had retired to their
-winter quarters.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Convivium">CONVĪVĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Symposium">Symposium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cophinus">CŎPHĬNUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόφινος</span>, Engl. <em>coffin</em>), a large
-kind of wicker basket, made of willow
-branches. It would seem that it was used
-by the Greeks as a basket or cage for birds.
-The Romans used it for agricultural purposes,
-and it sometimes formed a kind of
-portable hot-bed. Juvenal, when speaking
-of the Jews, uses the expression <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cophinus et
-foenum</i> (a truss of hay), figuratively to designate
-their poverty.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Corbis">CORBIS, <em>dim</em>. CORBŬLA, CORBĬCŬLA, a
-basket of very peculiar form and common use
-among the Romans, both for agricultural and
-other purposes. It was made of osiers twisted
-together, and was of a conical or pyramidal
-shape. A basket answering precisely to this
-description, both in form and material, is still
-to be seen in every-day use among the Campanian
-peasantry, which is called in the language
-of the country “la corbella.”</p>
-
-
-<p id="Corbitae">CORBĪTAE, merchantmen of the larger
-class, so called because they hung out a
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corbis</i> at the mast-head for a sign. They
-were also termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">onerariae</i>; and hence Plautus,
-in order to designate the voracious appetites
-of some women, says, “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Corbitam cibi
-comesse possunt</span>.”</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill117a" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill117a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Cornu. (Bartholini de Tibiis.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp58" id="ill117b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill117b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Altar of Julius Victor. (Bartoli, Pict. Ant., p. 76.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Cornu">CORNU, a wind instrument, anciently
-made of horn, but afterwards of brass. Like
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tuba</i>, it differed from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tibia</i> in being a
-larger and more powerful instrument, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[118]</span>
-from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tuba</i> itself, in being curved nearly
-in the shape of a C, with a cross-piece to
-steady the instrument for the convenience of
-the performer. Hence Ovid says (<cite>Met.</cite> i. 98):</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la">
-    <div class="verse indent0">“Non tuba <em>directi</em>, non aeris cornua <em>flexi</em>.”</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="noindent">The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">classicum</i>, which originally meant a signal,
-rather than the musical instrument which gave
-the signal, was usually sounded with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornu</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la">
-    <div class="verse indent0">“Sonuit reflexo classicum cornu,</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">Lituusque <em>adunco</em> stridulos cantus</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">Elisit aere.”</div>
-    <div class="verse indent26">(Sen. <cite>Oed.</cite> 734.)</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="noindent">The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cornicines</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Liticines</i>, the persons who
-blew the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cornu</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lituus</i>, formed a collegium.
-In the preceding cut, M. Julius
-Victor, a member of the Collegium, holds a
-lituus in his right hand, and touches with
-his left a cornu on the ground. See engraving
-under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Tuba">Tuba</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill118" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill118.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Corona Civica, on a Coin of the Emperor Galba.<br />
-SPQR OB CS = Senatus Populusque Romanus ob
-civem servatum.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Corona">CŎRŌNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στέφανος</span>), a crown, that is, a
-circular ornament of metal, leaves, or flowers,
-worn by the ancients round the head or neck,
-and used as a festive as well as funereal decoration,
-and as a reward of talent, military
-or naval prowess, and civil worth. Its first
-introduction as an honorary reward is attributable
-to the athletic games, in some of
-which it was bestowed as a prize upon the
-victor. It was the only reward contended
-for by the Spartans in their gymnic contests,
-and was worn by them when going to battle.
-The Romans refined upon the practice of the
-Greeks, and invented a great variety of
-crowns formed of different materials, each
-with a separate appellation, and appropriated
-to a particular purpose.&mdash;I. <span id="Corona_ob" class="smcap">Corona Obsidionalis.</span>
-Amongst the honorary crowns
-bestowed by the Romans for military achievements,
-the most difficult of attainment, and
-the one which conferred the highest honour,
-was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corona obsidionalis</i>, presented by a
-beleaguered army after its liberation to the
-general who broke up the siege. It was
-made of grass, or weeds and wild flowers,
-thence called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corona graminea</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">graminea
-obsidionalis</i>, gathered from the spot on which
-the beleaguered army had been enclosed.&mdash;II.
-<span id="Corona_ci" class="smcap">Corona Civica</span>, the second in honour and
-importance, was presented to the soldier who
-had preserved the life of a Roman citizen in
-battle. It was made of the leaves of the oak.
-The soldier who had acquired this crown had
-a place reserved next to the senate at all the
-public spectacles; and they, as well as the
-rest of the company, rose up upon his entrance.
-He was freed from all public burthens,
-as were also his father, and his paternal
-grandfather; and the person who owed
-his life to him was bound, ever after, to
-cherish his preserver as a parent, and afford
-him all such offices as were due from a son
-to his father.&mdash;III. <span id="Corona_na" class="smcap">Corona Navalis</span> or <span id="Corona_ro" class="smcap">Rostrata</span>,
-called also <span id="Corona_cl" class="smcap">Classica</span>. It is difficult to
-determine whether these were two distinct
-crowns, or only two denominations for the
-same one. It seems probable that the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">navalis
-corona</i>, besides being a generic term, was
-inferior in dignity to the latter, and given
-to the sailor who first boarded an enemy’s
-ship; whereas the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rostrata</i> was given to a
-commander who destroyed the whole fleet,
-or gained any very signal victory. At all
-events, they were both made of gold; and
-one at least (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rostrata</i>) decorated with the
-beaks of ships like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rostra</i> in the forum.
-The Athenians likewise bestowed golden
-crowns for naval services; sometimes upon
-the person who got his trireme first equipped,
-and at others upon the captain who had his
-vessel in the best order.&mdash;IV. <span id="Corona_mu" class="smcap">Corona Muralis</span>,
-was presented by the general to the
-first man who scaled the wall of a besieged
-city. It was made of gold, and decorated
-with turrets.&mdash;V. <span id="Corona_ca" class="smcap">Corona Castrensis</span> or <span id="Corona_va" class="smcap">Vallaris</span>,
-was presented to the first soldier who
-surmounted the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallum</i>, and forced an entrance
-into the enemy’s camp. This crown
-was made of gold, and ornamented with the
-palisades (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">valli</i>) used in forming an entrenchment.&mdash;VI.
-<span id="Corona_tr" class="smcap">Corona Triumphalis.</span> There
-were three sorts of triumphal crowns: the
-first was made of laurel or bay leaves, and
-was worn round the head of the commander
-during his triumph; the second was of gold,
-which, being too large and massive to be
-worn, was held over the head of the general
-during his triumph, by a public officer. This
-crown, as well as the former one, was presented
-to the victorious general by his army.
-The third kind, likewise of gold and of great
-value, was sent as a present from the provinces
-to the commander. [<span id="Corona_au" class="smcap">Aurum Coronarium.</span>]&mdash;VII.
-<span id="Corona_ov" class="smcap">Corona Ovalis</span>, was given to
-a commander who obtained only an ovation.
-It was made of myrtle.&mdash;VIII. <span id="Corona_ol" class="smcap">Corona Oleagina</span>,
-was made of the olive leaf, and conferred
-upon the soldiers as well as their commanders.&mdash;The
-Greeks in general made but
-little use of crowns as rewards of valour in
-the earlier periods of their history, except as
-prizes in the athletic contests; but previous
-to the time of Alexander, crowns of gold<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[119]</span>
-were profusely distributed, amongst the
-Athenians at least, for every trifling feat,
-whether civil, naval, or military, which,
-though lavished without much discrimination
-as far as regards the character of the receiving
-parties, were still subjected to certain
-legal restrictions in respect of the time, place,
-and mode in which they were conferred.
-They could not be presented but in the public
-assemblies, and with the consent, that is by
-suffrage, of the people, or by the senators in
-their council, or by the tribes to their own
-members, or by the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημόται</span> to members of
-their own <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆμος</span>. According to the statement
-of Aeschines, the people could not lawfully
-present crowns in any place except in their
-assembly, nor the senators except in the senate-house;
-nor, according to the same authority,
-in the theatre, which is, however,
-denied by Demosthenes; nor at the public
-games, and if any crier there proclaimed the
-crowns he was subject to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimia</i>. Neither
-could any person holding an office receive a
-crown whilst he was <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπεύθυνος</span>, that is, before
-he had passed his accounts.&mdash;The second
-class of crowns were emblematical and not
-honorary, and the adoption of them was not
-regulated by law, but custom. Of these there
-were also several kinds.&mdash;I. <span id="Corona_sa" class="smcap">Corona Sacerdotalis</span>,
-was worn by the priests (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacerdotes</i>),
-with the exception of the pontifex maximus
-and his minister (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">camillus</i>), as well as the
-bystanders, when officiating at the sacrifice.
-It does not appear to have been confined to
-any one material.&mdash;II. <span id="Corona_fu" class="smcap">Corona Funebris</span> and
-<span id="Corona_se" class="smcap">Sepulchralis</span>. The Greeks first set the example
-of crowning the dead with chaplets of
-leaves and flowers, which was imitated by
-the Romans. Garlands of flowers were also
-placed upon the bier, or scattered from the
-windows under which the procession passed,
-or entwined about the cinerary urn, or as a
-decoration to the tomb. In Greece these
-crowns were commonly made of parsley.&mdash;III.
-<span id="Corona_co" class="smcap">Corona Convivialis.</span> The use of chaplets
-at festive entertainments sprung likewise
-from Greece. They were of various shrubs
-and flowers, such as roses (which were the
-choicest), violets, myrtle, ivy, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">philyra</i>, and
-even parsley.&mdash;IV. <span id="Corona_nu" class="smcap">Corona Nuptialis.</span> The
-bridal wreath was also of Greek origin, among
-whom it was made of flowers plucked by the
-bride herself, and not bought, which was of ill
-omen. Amongst the Romans it was made of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">verbena</i>, also gathered by the bride herself,
-and worn under the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">flammeum</i>, with which
-the bride was always enveloped. The bridegroom
-also wore a chaplet. The doors of
-his house were likewise decorated with garlands,
-and also the bridal couch.&mdash;V. <span id="Corona_nt" class="smcap">Corona
-Natalitia</span>, the chaplet suspended over the door
-of the vestibule, both in the houses of Athens
-and Rome, in which a child was born. At
-Athens, when the infant was male, the crown
-was made of olive; when female, of wool. At
-Rome it was of laurel, ivy, or parsley.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp66" id="ill119" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill119.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Females with Crowns. (From an ancient Painting.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Coronis">CŎRŌNIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κορωνίς</span>), the cornice of an entablature,
-is properly a Greek word signifying
-anything curved. It is also used by
-Latin writers, but the genuine Latin word for
-a <em>cornice</em> is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corona</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coronix</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cortina">CORTĪNA, the name of the table or hollow
-slab, supported by a tripod, upon which the
-priestess at Delphi sat to deliver her responses;
-and hence the word is used for the
-oracle itself. The Romans made tables of
-marble or bronze after the pattern of the
-Delphian tripod, which they used as we do
-our sideboards, for the purpose of displaying
-their plate at an entertainment. These were
-termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cortinae Delphicae</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Delphicae</i> simply.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Corybantica">CŎRỸBANTĬCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κορυβαντικά</span>), a festival
-and mysteries celebrated at Cnossus in Crete, by
-the Corybantes. (See <cite>Class. Dict.</cite>, <span class="smcap">Corybantes</span>.)</p>
-
-
-<p id="Corymbus">CŎRYMBUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόρυμβος</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coma">Coma</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Corvus">CORVUS, a sort of crane, used by C. Duilius
-against the Carthaginian fleet in the
-battle fought off Mylae, in Sicily (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 260).
-The Romans, we are told, being unused to
-the sea, saw that their only chance of victory
-was by bringing a sea-fight to resemble
-one on land. For this purpose they invented
-a machine, of which Polybius has left a minute
-description. In the fore part of the
-ship a round pole was fixed perpendicularly,
-twenty-four feet in height and about nine
-inches in diameter; at the top of this was a
-pivot, upon which a ladder was set, thirty-six
-feet in length and four in breadth. The
-ladder was guarded by cross-beams, fastened
-to the upright pole by a ring of wood, which
-turned with the pivot above. Along the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[120]</span>
-ladder a rope was passed, one end of which
-took hold of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corvus</i> by means of a ring.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corvus</i> itself was a strong piece of iron,
-with a spike at the end, which was raised or
-lowered by drawing in or letting out the
-rope. When an enemy’s ship drew near, the
-machine was turned outwards, by means of
-the pivot, in the direction of the assailant.
-Another part of the machine was a breast-work,
-let down from the ladder, and serving
-as a bridge, on which to board the enemy’s
-vessel. By means of these cranes the Carthaginian
-ships were either broken or closely
-locked with the Roman, and Duilius gained a
-complete victory.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Corytos">CŌRȲTOS or CŌRȲTUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γωρυτός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κωρυτός</span>),
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arcus">Arcus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cosmetae">COSMĒTAE, a class of slaves among the
-Romans, whose duty it was to dress and
-adorn ladies.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cosmi">COSMI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοσμοί</span>), the supreme magistrates
-in Crete, were ten in number, and were
-chosen, not from the body of the people, but
-from certain <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένη</span> or houses, which were probably
-of more pure Doric or Achaean descent
-than their neighbours. The first of them in
-rank was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">protocosmus</i>, and gave his
-name to the year. They commanded in war,
-and also conducted the business of the state
-with the representatives and ambassadors of
-other cities. Their period of office was a year;
-but any of them during that time might resign,
-and was also liable to deposition by his colleagues.
-In some cases, too, they might be
-indicted for neglect of their duties. On the
-whole, we may conclude that they formed the
-executive and chief power in most of the
-cities of Crete.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill120" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill120.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Cothurnus. (From Statues of Artemis&mdash;Diana.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Cothurnus">CŎTHURNUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόθορνος</span>), a boot. Its essential
-distinction was its height; it rose
-above the middle of the leg, so as to surround
-the calf, and sometimes it reached as high as
-the knees. It was worn principally by horsemen,
-by hunters, and by men of rank and
-authority. The sole of the cothurnus was
-commonly of the ordinary thickness; but it
-was sometimes made much thicker than usual,
-probably by the insertion of slices of cork.
-The object was, to add to the apparent stature
-of the wearer; and this was done in the case
-of the actors in Athenian tragedy, who had
-the soles made unusually thick as one of the
-methods adopted in order to magnify their
-whole appearance. Hence tragedy in general
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cothurnus</i>. As the cothurnus was
-commonly worn in hunting, it is represented
-as part of the costume of Artemis (Diana).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cottabus">COTTĂBUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κότταβος</span>), a social game which
-was introduced from Sicily into Greece, where
-it became one of the favourite amusements of
-young people after their repasts. The simplest
-way in which it originally was played
-was this:&mdash;One of the company threw out of
-a goblet a certain quantity of wine, at a certain
-distance, into a metal basin. While he
-was doing this, he either thought of or pronounced
-the name of his mistress; and if all
-the wine fell in the basin, and with a full
-sound, it was a good sign for the lover. This
-simple amusement soon assumed a variety of
-different characters, and became, in some
-instances, a regular contest, with prizes for
-the victor. One of the most celebrated modes
-in which it was carried on is called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δι’ ὀξυβάφων</span>.
-A basin was filled with water, with
-small empty cups (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀξύβαφα</span>) swimming upon
-it. Into these the young men, one after
-another, threw the remnant of the wine from
-their goblets, and he who had the good fortune
-to drown most of the bowls obtained the
-prize, consisting either of simple cakes, sweetmeats,
-or sesame-cakes.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cotyttia">CŎTYTTĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοττύτια</span>), a festival which was
-originally celebrated by the Edonians of
-Thrace, in honour of a goddess called Cotys,
-or Cotytto. It was held at night. The worship
-of Cotys, together with the festival of
-the Cotyttia, was adopted by several Greek
-states, chiefly those which were induced by
-their commercial interest to maintain friendly
-relations with Thrace. The festivals of this
-goddess were notorious among the ancients
-for the dissolute manner and the debaucheries
-with which they were celebrated.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cotyla">CŎTỸLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοτύλη</span>), a measure of capacity
-among the Romans and Greeks: by the former
-it was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hemina</i>; by the latter,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρυβλίον</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμίνα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμίμνα</span>. It was the
-half of the sextarius or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξέστης</span>, and contained
-6 cyathi, or nearly half a pint English.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Covinus">CŎVĪNUS (Celtic, <em>kowain</em>), a kind of car,
-the spokes of which were armed with long
-sickles, and which was used as a scythe-chariot
-chiefly by the ancient Belgians and
-Britons. The Romans designated, by the
-name of covinus, a kind of travelling carriage,
-which seems to have been covered on all sides
-with the exception of the front. It had no
-seat for a driver, but was conducted by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[121]</span>
-traveller himself, who sat inside. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">covinarii</i>
-(this word occurs only in Tacitus) seem
-to have constituted a regular and distinct part
-of a British army. Compare <span class="smcap"><a href="#Esseda">Essedum</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Crater">CRĀTER (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρατήρ</span>, Ionic <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρητήρ</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεράννυμι</span>,
-I mix), a vessel in which the wine, according
-to the custom of the ancients, who
-very seldom drank it pure, was mixed with
-water, and from which the cups were filled.
-Craters were among the first things on the
-embellishment of which the ancient artists
-exercised their skill; and the number of
-craters dedicated in temples seems everywhere
-to have been very great.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Crepida">CRĔPĬDA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρηπίς</span>), a slipper. Slippers
-were worn with the pallium, not with the toga,
-and were properly characteristic of the Greeks,
-though adopted from them by the Romans.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Crimen">CRĪMEN. Though this word occurs so
-frequently, it is not easy to fix its meaning.
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Crimen</i> is often equivalent to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">accusatio</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατηγορία</span>);
-but it frequently means an act which
-is legally punishable. Those delicta which
-were punishable according to special leges,
-senatus consulta, and constitutiones, and were
-prosecuted in judicia publica by an accusatio
-publica, were more especially called crimina;
-and the penalties in case of conviction were
-loss of life, of freedom, of civitas, and the
-consequent infamia, and sometimes pecuniary
-penalties also.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Crista">CRISTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Galea">Galea</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Crites">CRĬTES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κριτής</span>), a judge, was the name
-applied by the Greeks to any person who did
-not judge of a thing like a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δικαστής</span>, according
-to positive laws, but according to his own
-sense of justice and equity. But at Athens
-a number of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κριταί</span> was chosen by ballot from
-a number of selected candidates at every
-celebration of the Dionysia: they were called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ κριταί, κατ’ ἐξοχήν</span>. Their office was to
-judge of the merit of the different choruses
-and dramatic poems, and to award the prizes
-to the victors. Their number was five for
-comedy and the same number for tragedy,
-one being taken from every tribe.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Crobylus">CRŌBỸLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coma">Coma</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Crocota">CRŎCŌTA (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vestis</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κροκωτὸν</span> sc. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμάτιον</span>,
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κροκωτὸς</span> sc. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χιτών</span>), was a kind of gala-dress,
-chiefly worn by women on solemn
-occasions, and in Greece especially, at the
-festival of the Dionysia. Its name was derived
-from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crocus</i>, one of the favourite colours
-of the Greek ladies.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Crotalum">CRŎTĂLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cymbalum">Cymbalum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Crusta">CRUSTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caelatura">Caelatura</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Crux">CRUX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σταυρός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκόλοψ</span>), an instrument of
-capital punishment, used by several ancient
-nations, especially the Romans and Carthaginians.
-Crucifixion was of two kinds, the
-less usual sort being rather impalement than
-what we should describe by the word crucifixion,
-as the criminal was transfixed by a
-pole, which passed through the back and
-spine and came out at the mouth. The cross
-was of several kinds; one in the shape of an
-X, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crux Andreana</i>, because tradition
-reports St. Andrew to have suffered upon it;
-another was formed like a T. The third, and
-most common sort, was made of two pieces of
-wood crossed, so as to make four right angles.
-It was on this, according to the unanimous
-testimony of the fathers, that our Saviour
-suffered. The punishment, as is well known,
-was chiefly inflicted on slaves, and the worst
-kind of malefactors. The criminal, after sentence
-pronounced, carried his cross to the
-place of execution; a custom mentioned in
-the Gospels. Scourging appears to have
-formed a part of this, as of other capital
-punishments among the Romans; but the
-scourging of our Saviour is not to be regarded
-in this light, for it was inflicted before sentence
-was pronounced. The criminal was
-next stripped of his clothes and nailed or
-bound to the cross. The latter was the more
-painful method, as the sufferer was left to die
-of hunger. Instances are recorded of persons
-who survived nine days. It was usual to
-leave the body on the cross after death. The
-breaking of the legs of the thieves, mentioned
-in the Gospels, was accidental; because, by
-the Jewish law, it is expressly remarked, the
-bodies could not remain on the cross during
-the Sabbath-day.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Crypta">CRYPTA (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρύπτειν</span>, to conceal), a
-crypt. Amongst the Romans, any long narrow
-vault, whether wholly or partially below
-the level of the earth, is expressed by this
-term. The specific senses of the word are:&mdash;(1)
-A covered portico or arcade; called more
-definitely <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crypto-porticus</i>, because it was not
-supported by open columns like the ordinary
-portico, but closed at the sides, with windows
-only for the admission of light and air.&mdash;(2)
-A grotto, particularly one open at both extremities,
-forming what in modern language
-is denominated a “tunnel.” A subterranean
-vault used for any secret worship was also
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crypta</i>.&mdash;(3) When the practice of
-consuming the body by fire was relinquished
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>], and a number of bodies was consigned
-to one place of burial, as the catacombs
-for instance, this common tomb was
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crypta</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Crypteia">CRYPTEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρυπτεία</span>), the name of an
-atrocious practice at Sparta, said to have been
-introduced by Lycurgus. The following is
-the description given of the crypteia. The
-ephors, at intervals, selected from among the
-young Spartans, those who appeared to be
-best qualified for the task, and sent them in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[122]</span>
-various directions all over the country, provided
-with daggers and their necessary food.
-During the day-time, these young men concealed
-themselves; but at night they broke
-forth into the high-roads, and massacred those
-of the helots whom they met, or whom they
-thought proper.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cubicularii">CŬBĬCŬLĀRĬI, slaves who had the care
-of the sleeping and dwelling rooms. Faithful
-slaves were always selected for this office, as
-they had, to a certain extent, the care of their
-master’s person. It was the duty of the cubicularii
-to introduce visitors to their master.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cubiculum">CŬBĬCŬLUM usually means a sleeping and
-dwelling room in a Roman house [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>],
-but it is also applied to the pavilion or tent
-in which the Roman emperors were accustomed
-to witness the public games. It appears
-to have been so called, because the
-emperors were accustomed to recline in the
-cubicula, instead of sitting, as was anciently
-the practice, in a sella curulis.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cubitus">CŬBĬTUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πῆχυς</span>), a Greek and Roman
-measure of length, originally the length of
-the human arm from the elbow to the wrist,
-or to the knuckle of the middle finger. It
-was equal to a foot and a half, which gives
-1 foot 5·4744 inches Eng. for the Roman, and
-1 foot 6·2016 inches for the Greek cubit.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cucullus">CŬCULLUS, a cowl. As the cowl was
-intended to be used in the open air, and to
-be drawn over the head to protect it from the
-injuries of the weather, instead of a hat or
-cap, it was attached only to garments of the
-coarsest kind. The cucullus was also used
-by persons in the higher circles of society,
-when they wished to go abroad without being
-known.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cudo">CŪDO or CŪDON, a skull-cap made of
-leather or of the rough shaggy fur of any
-wild animal, such as were worn by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">velites</i>
-of the Roman armies, and apparently synonymous
-with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">galerus</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">galericulus</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Culeus">CŪLĔUS, or CULLĔUS, a Roman measure,
-which was used for estimating the produce of
-vineyards. It was the largest liquid measure
-used by the Romans, containing 20 amphorae,
-or 118 gallons, 7·546 pints.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Culina">CŬLĪNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>, <a href="#ill143a">p. 143</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp66" id="ill122" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill122.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Cultri (From Tombstone of a Cultrarius.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Culter">CULTER (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μάχαιρα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοπίς</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαγίς</span>), a
-knife with only one edge, which formed a
-straight line. The blade was pointed, and
-its back curved. It was used for a variety
-of purposes, but chiefly for killing animals
-either in the slaughter-house, or in hunting,
-or at the altars of the gods. The priest who
-conducted a sacrifice never killed the victim
-himself; but one of his ministri, appointed
-for that purpose, who was called either by
-the general name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minister</i>, or the more specific
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">popa</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cultrarius</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cultrarius">CULTRĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Culter">Culter</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cuneus">CŬNĔUS was the name applied to a body
-of foot soldiers, drawn up in the form of a
-wedge, for the purpose of breaking through
-an enemy’s line. The common soldiers called
-it a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caput porcinum</i>, or pig’s head. The name
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cuneus</i> was also applied to the compartments
-of seats in circular or semi-circular theatres,
-which were so arranged as to converge to the
-centre of the theatre, and diverge towards
-the external walls of the building, with passages
-between each compartment.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cuniculus">CŬNĪCŬLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπόνομος</span>), a mine or passage
-underground, was so called from its
-resemblance to the burrowing of a rabbit.
-Fidenae and Veii are said to have been
-taken by mines, which opened, one of them
-into the citadel, the other into the temple of
-Juno.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cupa">CŪPA, a wine-vat, a vessel very much
-like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dolium</i>, and used for the same purpose,
-namely, to receive the fresh must, and
-to contain it during the process of fermentation.
-The inferior wines were drawn for
-drinking from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cupa</i>, without being bottled
-in <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amphorae</i>, and hence the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vinum
-de cupa</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cupa</i> was either made of earthenware,
-like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dolium</i>, or of wood, and
-covered with pitch. It was also used for
-fruits and corn, forming rafts, and containing
-combustibles in war, and even for a sarcophagus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Curator">CŪRĀTOR. Till a Roman youth attained
-the age of puberty, which was generally fixed
-at fourteen years of age, he was incapable of
-any legal act, and was under the authority
-of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tutor</i> or guardian; but with the attainment
-of the age of puberty, he became capable
-of performing every legal act, and was
-freed from the control of his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tutor</i>. As,
-however, a person of that tender age was
-liable to be imposed upon, the lex Plaetoria
-enacted that every person between the time
-of puberty and twenty-five years of age should
-be under the protection of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curator</i>. The
-date of this lex is not known, though it is
-certain that the law existed when Plautus
-wrote (about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 200), who speaks of it as
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex quina vicemaria</i>. This law established
-a distinction of age, which was of great practical
-importance, by forming the citizens into<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[123]</span>
-two classes, those above and those below
-twenty-five years of age (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minores viginti
-quinque annis</i>). A person under the last-mentioned
-age was sometimes simply called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minor</i>. The object of the lex was to protect
-persons under twenty-five years of age against
-all fraud (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dolus</i>). A person who wasted his
-property (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prodigus</i>), and a person of unsound
-mind (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">furiosus, demens</i>), were also placed
-under the care of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curator</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Curatores">CŪRĀTŌRES were public officers of various
-kinds under the Roman empire, such as the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curatores annonae</i>, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curatores ludorum</i>, the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curatores regionum</i>, &amp;c.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Curia">CŪRĬA, signifies both a division of the
-Roman people and the place of assembly for
-such a division. Each of the three ancient
-Romulian tribes, the Ramnes, Tities, and
-Luceres, was subdivided into 10 curiae, so
-that the whole body of the populus or the
-patricians was divided into 30 curiae. The
-plebeians had no connection whatever with
-the curiae. All the members of the different
-gentes belonging to one curia were called, in
-respect of one another, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curiales</i>. The division
-into curiae was of great political importance
-in the earliest times of Rome, for
-the curiae alone contained the citizens, and
-their assembly alone was the legitimate representative
-of the whole people. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia_cu">Comitia
-curiata</a>.</span>] Each curia as a corporation had
-its peculiar sacra, and besides the gods of the
-state, they worshipped other divinities and
-with peculiar rites and ceremonies. For such
-religious purposes each curia had its own
-place of worship, called curia, in which the
-curiales assembled for the purpose of discussing
-political, financial, religious and other
-matters. The religious affairs of each curia
-were taken care of by a priest, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Curio</i>, who
-was assisted by another called curialis Flamen.
-As there were 30 curiae, there were
-likewise 30 curiones, who formed a college of
-priests, presided over by one of them, called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Curio Maximus</i>. The 30 curiae had each its
-distinct name, which are said to have been
-derived from the names of the Sabine women
-who had been carried off by the Romans,
-though it is evident that some derived their
-names from certain districts or from ancient
-eponymous heroes. Curia is also used to designate
-the place in which the senate held its
-meetings, such as curia Hostilia, curia Julia,
-curia Pompeii, and from this there gradually
-arose the custom of calling the senate itself
-in the Italian towns curia, but never the senate
-of Rome. The official residence of the
-Salii, which was dedicated to Mars, was likewise
-styled curia.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Curiata">CŪRIĀTA CŎMĬTĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Curio">CŪRĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Curia">Curia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Curius">CŪRĬUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύριος</span>), signified generally at
-Athens the person responsible for the welfare
-of such members of a family as the law presumed
-to be incapable of protecting themselves;
-as, for instance, minors and slaves,
-and women of all ages.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp72" id="ill123" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill123.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Currus. (Ancient Chariot preserved in the Vatican.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Currus">CURRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἅρμα</span>), a chariot, a car. These
-terms appear to have denoted those two-wheeled
-vehicles for the carriage of persons,
-which were open overhead, thus differing
-from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carpentum</i>, and closed in front, in
-which they differed from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cisium</i>. The
-most essential articles in the construction of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[124]</span>
-the currus were, 1. The rim (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄντυξ</span>) [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Antyx">Antyx</a></span>].
-2. The axle (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄξων</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">axis</i>). 3. The wheels
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύκλα, τροχοί</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rotae</i>), which revolved upon
-the axle, and were prevented from coming
-off by the insertion of pins (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμβολοι</span>) into the
-extremities of the axles. The parts of the
-wheel were:&mdash;(<em>a</em>) The nave (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλήμνη</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">modiolus</i>).
-(<em>b</em>) The spokes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κνῆμαι</span>, literally, the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legs, radii</i>.) (<em>c</em>) The felly (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἴτυς</span>). (<em>d</em>) The
-tire (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίσωτρον</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">canthus</i>). 4. The pole (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥυμός</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">temo</i>). All the parts above mentioned are
-seen in the preceding cut of an ancient chariot.
-The Greeks and Romans appear never to have
-used more than one pole and one yoke, and
-the currus thus constructed was commonly
-drawn by two horses, which were attached to
-it by their necks, and therefore called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίζυγες
-ἵπποι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνωρίς</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gemini jugales</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equi bijuges</i>,
-&amp;c. If a third horse was added, as was not
-unfrequently the case, it was fastened by
-traces. The horse so attached was called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρήορος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παράσειρος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σειραφόρος</span>, in Latin, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funalis</i>,
-and is opposed to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζυγῖται</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζύγιοι</span>,
-the yoke-horses. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἵππος παρήορος</span> is placed
-on the right of the two yoke-horses. (See
-woodcut.) The Latin name for a chariot and
-pair was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">biga</i>, generally <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bigae</i>. When a
-third horse was added, it was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triga</i>.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill124a" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill124a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Triga. (From a Painting on a Vase.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill124b" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill124b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Quadrigae. (From Paintings on a Vase and a Terra-cotta.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="A">A chariot and four was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadriga</i>,
-generally <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrigae</i>; in Greek, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετραορία</span>
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέθριππος</span>. The horses were commonly
-harnessed in a quadriga after the manner
-already represented, the two strongest horses
-being placed under the yoke, and the two
-others fastened on each side by means of
-ropes. This is clearly seen in the two quadrigae
-figured below, especially in the one on
-the right hand. It represents a chariot overthrown
-in passing the goal at the circus. The
-charioteer having fallen backwards, the pole
-and yoke are thrown upwards into the air;
-the two trace-horses have fallen on their
-knees, and the two yoke-horses are prancing
-on their hind legs.&mdash;The currus was adapted
-to carry two persons, and on this account was
-called in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίφρος</span>. One of the two was
-of course the driver. He was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡνίοχος</span>,
-because he held the reins, and his companion
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραβάτης</span>, from going by his side or near
-him. In the Homeric ages, chariots were
-commonly employed on the field of battle.
-The men of rank all took their chariots with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[125]</span>
-them, and in an engagement placed themselves
-in front. Chariots were not much
-used by the Romans. The most splendid
-kind were the quadrigae, in which the Roman
-generals and emperors rode when they
-triumphed. The body of the triumphal car
-was cylindrical, as we often see it represented
-on medals. It was enriched with
-gold and ivory. The utmost skill of the
-painter and the sculptor was employed to
-enhance its beauty and splendour. The
-triumphal car had in general no pole, the
-horses being led by men who were stationed
-at their heads.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp89" id="ill125a" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill125a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Marble Chariot in the Vatican.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Cursores">CURSŌRES, slaves whose duty it was to
-run before the carriage of their masters. They
-first came into fashion in the first century of
-the Christian aera. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cursores</i> was
-also applied to all slaves whom their masters
-employed in carrying letters, messages, &amp;c.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cursus">CURSUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Curulis">CŬRŪLIS SELLA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sella_cu">Sella Curulis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Custodes">CUSTŌDES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Custodes_c">CUSTŌDES, CUSTŌDĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Custos">CUSTOS URBIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Praefectus_u">Praefectus Urbi</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp48" id="ill125b" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill125b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Cyathi. (Museo Borbonico, vol. iv. pl. 12.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Cyathus">CỸĂTHUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύαθος</span>), a Greek and Roman
-liquid measure, containing one-twelfth of the
-sextarius, or ·0825 of a pint English. The
-form of the cyathus used at banquets was
-that of a small ladle, by means of which the
-wine was conveyed into the drinking-cups
-from the large vessel (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crater</i>) in which it was
-mixed. Two of these cyathi are represented
-in the preceding woodcut. The cyathus was
-also the name given to a cup holding the same
-quantity as the measure. Hence Horace says
-(<cite>Carm.</cite> iii. 8. 13):</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la">
-    <div class="verse indentq">“Sume, Maecenas, cyathos amici</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">Sospitis centum.”</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Cyclas">CYCLAS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυκλάς</span>), a circular robe worn by
-women, to the bottom of which a border was
-affixed, inlaid with gold. It appears to have
-been usually made of some thin material.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cyma">CȲMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κῦμα</span>), in architecture, an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ogee</i>, a
-wave-shaped moulding, consisting of two
-curves, the one concave and the other convex.
-There were two forms, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cyma recta</i>,
-which was concave above, and convex below,
-thus, <img class="cym" src="images/cyma1.jpg" alt="" />,
-and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cyma reversa</i>, which was
-convex above and concave below, thus <img class="cym" src="images/cyma2.jpg" alt="" />.
-The diminutive <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cymatium</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cumatium</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυμάτιον</span>)
-is also used, and is indeed the more
-common name.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cymba">CYMBA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύμβη</span>) is derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύμβος</span>, a
-hollow, and is employed to signify any small
-kind of boat used on lakes, rivers, &amp;c. It
-appears to have been much the same as the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acatium</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scapha</i>.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="ill126a" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill126a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Cymbala. (From a Bas-relief in the Vatican.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Cymbalum">CYMBĂLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύμβαλον</span>), a musical instrument,
-in the shape of two half globes, which
-were held one in each hand by the performer,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[126]</span>
-and played by being struck against each other.
-The word is derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύμβος</span>, a hollow.
-The cymbal was a very ancient instrument,
-being used in the worship of Cybelé, Bacchus,
-Juno, and all the earlier deities of the Grecian
-and Roman mythology. It probably
-came from the East. The crotalum (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρόταλον</span>)
-was a kind of cymbal. It appears to have
-been a split reed or cane, which clattered
-when shaken with the hand. Women who
-played on the crotalum were termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crotalistriae</i>.
-Such was Virgil’s Copa:</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la">
-    <div class="verse indent0">“Crispum sub crotalo docta movere latus.”</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The line alludes to the dance with crotala
-(similar to castanets).&mdash;For <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sistrum</i>, which
-some have referred to the class of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cymbala</i>,
-see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Sistrum">Sistrum</a></span>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp51" id="ill126b" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill126b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Crotala. (Borghese Vase now in the Louvre.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="D_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">D</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Dactylus" class="drop-capy">DACTỸLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δάκτυλος</span>), a Greek measure,
-answering to the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">digitus</i>, each
-signifying a <em>finger-breadth</em>, and being the
-sixteenth part of a foot. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Daedala">DAEDALA or DAEDĂLEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δαίδαλα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δαιδάλεια</span>),
-names used by the Greeks to signify
-those early works of art which were ascribed
-to the age of Daedalus, and especially the
-ancient wooden statues, ornamented with
-gilding and bright colours and real drapery,
-which were the earliest known forms of the
-images of the gods, after the mere blocks of
-wood or stone, which were at first used for
-symbols of them.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Daedala_d">DAEDĂLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δαίδαλα</span>), the name of two
-festivals, celebrated in Boeotia in honour of
-Hera, and called respectively the <em>Great</em> and
-the <em>Lesser Daedala</em>. The latter were celebrated
-by the Plataeans alone; in the celebration
-of the former, which took place only
-every sixtieth year, the Plataeans were joined
-by the other Boeotians.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Damaretion">DAMARĔTĪON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δαμαρέτειον χρύσιον</span>), a
-Sicilian coin, respecting which there is much
-dispute; but it was probably a gold coin,
-equal in value to fifty litrae or ten Attic
-drachmae of silver; that is, a half stater.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Damiurgi">DAMIURGI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Demiurgi">Demiurgi</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Damosia">DAMŎSĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Danace">DANĂCE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δανάκη</span>), properly the name of a
-foreign coin, was also the name given to the
-obolos, which was placed in the mouth of the
-dead to pay the ferryman in Hades.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Daphnephoria">DAPHNĒPHŎRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δαφνηφόρια</span>), a festival
-celebrated every ninth year at Thebes in
-honour of Apollo, surnamed Ismenius or Galaxius.
-Its name was derived from the laurel
-branches (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δάφναι</span>) which were carried by those
-who took part in its celebration.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dareicus">DĀREICUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δαρεικός</span>), or to give the name
-in full, the Stater of Dareius, a gold coin of
-Persia, stamped on one side with the figure
-of an archer crowned and kneeling upon one
-knee, and on the other with a sort of quadrata
-incusa or deep cleft. It is supposed to
-have derived its name from the first Dareius,
-king of Persia. It is equal to about 1<em>l.</em> 1<em>s.</em> 10<em>d.</em>
-1·76 farthings.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill126c" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill126c.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Dareicus. (British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[127]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Decaduchi">DĔCĂDŪCHI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκαδοῦχοι</span>), the members
-of a council of Ten, who succeeded the Thirty
-in the supreme power at Athens, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 403.
-They were chosen from the ten tribes, one
-from each; but, though opposed to the
-Thirty, they sent ambassadors to Sparta to
-ask for assistance against Thrasybulus and
-the exiles. They remained masters of Athens
-till the party of Thrasybulus obtained possession
-of the city and the democracy was restored.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Decarchia">DĔCARCHĬA or DĔCĂDARCHĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκαρχία</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκαδαρχία</span>), a supreme council established
-in many of the Grecian cities by the Lacedaemonians,
-who entrusted to it the whole
-government of the state under the direction
-of a Spartan harmost. It always consisted
-of the leading members of the aristocratical
-party.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Decasmus">DĔCASMUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκασμός</span>), bribery. There
-were two actions for bribery at Athens: one,
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκασμοῦ γραφή</span>, lay against the person
-who gave the bribe; and the other, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δώρων</span>
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δωροδοκίας γραφή</span>, against the person who
-received it. These actions applied to the
-bribery of citizens in the public assemblies
-of the people (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνδεκάζειν τὴν ἐκκλησίαν</span>), of
-the Heliaea or any of the courts of justice, of
-the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βουλή</span>, and of the public advocates. Actions
-for bribery were under the jurisdiction
-of the thesmothetae. The punishment on
-conviction of the defendant was death, or
-payment of ten times the value of the gift
-received, to which the court might add a
-further punishment (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστίμημα</span>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Decate">DĔCĂTE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκάτη</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Decumae">Decumae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Decempeda">DĔCEMPĔDA, a pole ten feet long, used
-by the agrimensores [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Agrimensores">Agrimensores</a></span>] in measuring
-land. Thus we find that the agrimensores
-were sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decempedatores</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Decemprimi">DĔCEMPRĪMI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Decemviri">DĔCEMVĬRI, or the “ten-men,” the name
-of various magistrates and functionaries at
-Rome, of whom the most important were:&mdash;(1)
-<span class="smcap">Decemviri Legibus Scribendis</span>, ten commissioners,
-who were appointed to draw up
-a code of laws. They were entrusted with
-supreme power in the state, and all the other
-magistracies were suspended. They entered
-upon their office at the beginning of the year
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 451; and they discharged their duties
-with diligence, and dispensed justice with
-impartiality. Each administered the government
-day by day in succession as during an
-interregnum; and the fasces were only carried
-before the one who presided for the
-day. They drew up a body of laws, distributed
-into ten sections; which, after being
-approved of by the senate and the comitia,
-were engraven on tables of metal, and set up
-in the comitium. On the expiration of their
-year of office, all parties were so well satisfied
-with the manner in which they had discharged
-their duties, that it was resolved to continue
-the same form of government for another
-year; more especially as some of the decemvirs
-said that their work was not finished.
-Ten new decemvirs were accordingly elected,
-of whom App. Claudius alone belonged to the
-former body. These magistrates framed
-several new laws, which were approved of by
-the centuries, and engraven on two additional
-tables. They acted, however, in a most
-tyrannical manner. Each was attended by
-twelve lictors, who carried not the rods only,
-but the axes, the emblem of sovereignty.
-They made common cause with the patrician
-party, and committed all kinds of outrages
-upon the persons and property of the plebeians
-and their families. When their year
-of office expired they refused to resign or to
-appoint successors. At length, the unjust
-decision of App. Claudius, in the case of Virginia,
-which led her father to kill her with his
-own hands to save her from prostitution, occasioned
-an insurrection of the people. The decemvirs
-were in consequence obliged to resign
-their office, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449; after which the usual magistracies
-were re-established. The ten tables
-of the former, and the two tables of the latter
-decemvirs, form together the laws of the
-Twelve Tables, which were the groundwork
-of the Roman laws. This, the first attempt
-to make a code, remained also the only attempt
-for near one thousand years, until the
-legislation of Justinian.&mdash;(2) <span class="smcap">Decemviri Litibus</span>
-or <span class="smcap">Stlitibus Judicandis</span>, were magistrates
-forming a court of justice, which took
-cognizance of civil cases. The history as well
-as the peculiar jurisdiction of this court during
-the time of the republic is involved in
-inextricable obscurity. In the time of Cicero
-it still existed, and the proceedings in it took
-place in the ancient form of the sacramentum.
-Augustus transferred to these decemvirs the
-presidency in the courts of the centumviri.
-During the empire, this court had jurisdiction
-in capital matters, which is expressly
-stated in regard to the decemvirs.&mdash;(3) <span class="smcap">Decemviri
-Sacris Faciundis</span>, sometimes called
-simply <span class="smcap">Decemviri Sacrorum</span>, were the members
-of an ecclesiastical collegium, and were
-elected for life. Their chief duty was to take
-care of the Sibylline books, and to inspect
-them on all important occasions by command
-of the senate. Under the kings the care of
-the Sibylline books was committed to two
-men (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duumviri</i>) of high rank. On the expulsion
-of the kings, the care of these books was
-entrusted to the noblest of the patricians, who
-were exempted from all military and civil
-duties. Their number was increased about
-the year 367 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> to ten, of whom five were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[128]</span>
-chosen from the patricians and five from the
-plebeians. Subsequently their number was
-still further increased to fifteen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quindecemviri</i>),
-probably by Sulla. It was also the
-duty of the decemviri to celebrate the games
-of Apollo, and the secular games.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Decennalia">DĔCENNĀLĬA or DĔCENNĬA, a festival
-celebrated with games every ten years by the
-Roman emperors. This festival owed its
-origin to the fact that Augustus refused the
-supreme power when offered to him for his
-life, and would only consent to accept it for
-ten years, and when these expired, for
-another period of ten years, and so on to the
-end of his life.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Decimatio">DĔCĬMĀTĬO, the selection, by lot, of every
-tenth man for punishment, when any number
-of soldiers in the Roman army had been
-guilty of any crime. The remainder usually
-had barley allowed to them instead of wheat.
-This punishment appears not to have been
-inflicted in the early times of the republic.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Decretum">DĒCRĒTUM seems to mean that which is
-determined in a particular case after examination
-or consideration. It is sometimes
-applied to a determination of the consuls, and
-sometimes to a determination of the senate.
-A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decretum</i> of the senate would seem to differ
-from a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatus-consultum</i>, in the way above
-indicated: it was limited to the special occasion
-and circumstances, and this would be
-true whether the decretum was of a judicial
-or a legislative character. But this distinction
-in the use of the two words, as applied
-to an act of the senate, was, perhaps, not
-always observed.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Decumae">DĔCŬMAE (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">partes</i>) formed a portion
-of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vectigalia</i> of the Romans, and were
-paid by subjects whose territory, either by
-conquest or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deditio</i>, had become the property
-of the state (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ager publicus</i>). They consisted,
-as the name denotes, of a tithe or tenth of
-the produce of the soil, levied upon the cultivators
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aratores</i>) or occupiers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">possessores</i>) of
-the lands, which, from being subject to this
-payment, were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agri decumani</i>. The tax
-of a tenth was, however, generally paid by corn
-lands: plantations and vineyards, as requiring
-no seed and less labour, paid a fifth of the
-produce. A similar system existed in Greece
-also. Peisistratus, for instance, imposed a
-tax of a tenth on the lands of the Athenians,
-which the Peisistratidae lowered to a twentieth.
-At the time of the Persian war the
-confederate Greeks made a vow, by which all
-the states who had surrendered themselves to
-the enemy were subjected to the payment of
-tithes for the use of the god at Delphi. The
-tithes of the public lands belonging to Athens
-were farmed out as at Rome to contractors,
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκατώναι</span>: the term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκατηλόγοι</span> was
-applied to the collectors; but the callings
-were, as we might suppose, often united in
-the same person. The title <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκατευταί</span> is applied
-to both. A <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκάτη</span>, or tenth of a different
-kind, was the arbitrary exaction imposed
-by the Athenians (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 410) on the cargoes
-of all ships sailing into or out of the Pontus.
-They lost it by the battle of Aegospotami
-(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 405); but it was re-established by
-Thrasybulus about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 391. The tithe was
-let out to farm.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Decuncis">DĔCUNCIS, another name for the Dextans.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Decuria">DĔCŬRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Decuriones">DĔCŬRĬŌNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a>: <a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Decussis">DĔCUSSIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dedicatio">DĒDĬCĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Inauguratio">Inauguratio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dediticii">DĒDĬTĬCĬI, were those who had taken up
-arms against the Roman people, and being
-conquered, had surrendered themselves. Such
-people did not individually lose their freedom,
-but as a community all political existence,
-and of course had no other relation to Rome
-than that of subjects.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Deductores">DĒDUCTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Deigma">DEIGMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεῖγμα</span>), a particular place in the
-Peiraeeus, as well as in the harbours of other
-states, where merchants exposed samples of
-their goods for sale. The samples themselves
-were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deigmata</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Deipnon">DEIPNON. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Delator">DĒLĀTOR, an informer. The delatores,
-under the emperors, were a class of men who
-gained their livelihood by informing against
-their fellow-citizens. They constantly brought
-forward false charges to gratify the avarice
-or jealousy of the different emperors, and
-were consequently paid according to the importance
-of the information which they gave.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Delectus">DĒLECTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Delia">DĒLĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δήλια</span>), the name of festivals and
-games celebrated in the island of Delos, to
-which the Cyclades and the neighbouring Ionians
-on the coasts belonged. The Delia had
-existed from very early times, and were celebrated
-every fifth year. That the Athenians
-took part in these solemnities at a very early
-period, is evident from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Deliastae</i> (afterwards
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωροί</span>) mentioned in the laws of
-Solon; the sacred vessel (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωρίς</span>), moreover,
-which they sent to Delos every year, was
-said to be the same which Theseus had sent
-after his return from Crete. In the course
-of time the celebration of this ancient panegyris
-in Delos had ceased, and it was not revived
-until <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 426, when the Athenians,
-after having purified the island in the winter
-of that year, restored the ancient solemnities,
-and added horse-races, which had never
-before taken place at the Delia. After this
-restoration, Athens, being at the head of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[129]</span>
-Ionian confederacy, took the most prominent
-part in the celebration of the Delia; and
-though the islanders, in common with Athens,
-provided the choruses and victims, the leader
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχιθέωρος</span>), who conducted the whole solemnity,
-was an Athenian, and the Athenians
-had the superintendence of the common sanctuary.
-From these solemnities, belonging to
-the great Delian panegyris, we must distinguish
-the <em>lesser Delia</em>, which were mentioned
-above, and which were celebrated
-every year, probably on the 6th of Thargelion.
-The Athenians on this occasion sent
-the sacred vessel (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωρίς</span>), which the priest of
-Apollo adorned with laurel branches, to Delos.
-The embassy was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωρία</span>; and
-those who sailed to the island, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωροί</span>; and
-before they set sail a solemn sacrifice was
-offered in the Delion, at Marathon, in order
-to obtain a happy voyage. During the absence
-of the vessel the city of Athens was purified,
-and no criminal was allowed to be executed.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Delphinia">DELPHĪNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δελφίνια</span>), a festival of the
-same expiatory character as the Apollonia,
-which was celebrated in various towns of
-Greece, in honour of Apollo, surnamed Delphinius.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Delphis">DELPHIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δελφίς</span>), an instrument of naval
-warfare. It consisted of a large mass of iron
-or lead suspended on a beam, which projected
-from the mast of the ship like a yard-arm.
-It was used to sink, or make a hole in,
-an enemy’s vessel, by being dropped upon it
-when alongside.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Delubrum">DĒLŪBRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Demarchi">DĒMARCHI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δήμαρχοι</span>), officers, who were
-the head-boroughs or chief magistrates of the
-demi in Attica, and are said to have been
-first appointed by Cleisthenes. Their duties
-were various and important. Thus, they
-convened meetings of the demus, and took
-the votes upon all questions under consideration;
-they made and kept a register of the
-landed estates in their districts, levied the
-monies due to the demus for rent, &amp;c. They
-succeeded to the functions which had been
-discharged by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">naucrari</i> of the old constitution.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Demensum">DĒMENSUM, an allowance of corn, given
-to Roman slaves monthly or daily. It
-usually consisted of four or five modii of corn
-a month.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Deminutio">DĒMĬNŪTIO CĂPĬTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caput">Caput</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Demiurgi">DĒMĬURGI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημιουργοί</span>), magistrates,
-whose title is expressive of their doing the
-service of the people, existed in several of
-the Peloponnesian states. Among the Eleans
-and Mantineans they seem to have been the
-chief executive magistracy. We also read of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demiurgi</i> in the Achaean league, who probably
-ranked next to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strategi</i>, and put questions
-to the vote in the general assembly of the
-confederates. Officers named <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epidemiurgi</i>, or
-upper demiurgi, were sent by the Corinthians
-to manage the government of their
-colony at Potidaea.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Democratia">DĒMŎCRĂTĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημοκρατία</span>), that form of
-constitution in which the sovereign political
-power is in the hands of the demus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆμος</span>)
-or commonalty. In a passage of Herodotus
-(iii. 80), the characteristics of a democracy
-are specified to be&mdash;1. Equality of legal
-rights (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰσονομίη</span>). 2. The appointment of
-magistrates by lot. 3. The accountability of
-all magistrates and officers. 4. The reference
-of all public matters to the decision of the
-community at large. Aristotle remarks&mdash;“The
-following points are characteristic of a
-democracy; that all magistrates should be
-chosen out of the whole body of citizens;
-that all should rule each, and each in turn
-rule all; that either all magistracies, or those
-not requiring experience and professional
-knowledge, should be assigned by lot; that
-there should be no property qualification, or
-but a very small one, for filling any magistracy;
-that the same man should not fill the
-same office twice, or should fill offices but few
-times, and but few offices, except in the case
-of military commands; that all, or as many
-as possible of the magistracies, should be of
-brief duration; that all citizens should be
-qualified to serve as dicasts; that the supreme
-power in everything should reside in
-the public assembly, and that no magistrate
-should be entrusted with irresponsible power
-except in very small matters.” It is somewhat
-curious that neither in practice nor in
-theory did the representative system attract
-any attention among the Greeks. That diseased
-form of a democracy, in which from
-the practice of giving pay to the poorer citizens
-for their attendance in the public assembly,
-and from other causes, the predominant
-party in the state came to be in fact the
-lowest class of the citizens, was by later
-writers termed an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ochlocracy</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀχλοκρατία</span>&mdash;the
-dominion of the mob).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Demosii">DĒMŎSĬI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημόσιοι</span>), public slaves at
-Athens, who were purchased by the state.
-The public slaves, most frequently mentioned,
-formed the city guard; it was their
-duty to preserve order in the public assembly,
-and to remove any person whom the
-prytaneis might order. They are generally
-called bowmen (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοξόται</span>); or from the native
-country of the majority, Scythians (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκύθαι</span>);
-and also Speusinians, from the name of the
-person who first established the force. They
-originally lived in tents in the market-place,
-and afterwards upon the Areiopagus. Their
-officers had the name of toxarchs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόξαρχοι</span>).<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[130]</span>
-Their number was at first 300, purchased
-soon after the battle of Salamis, but was afterwards
-increased to 1200.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Demus">DĒMUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆμος</span>), originally indicated a district
-or tract of land; and in this meaning of
-a country district, inhabited and under cultivation,
-it is contrasted with <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόλις</span>. When
-Cleisthenes, at Athens, broke up the four
-tribes of the old constitution, he substituted
-in their place ten local tribes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλαὶ τοπικαί</span>),
-each of which he subdivided into ten <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demi</i> or
-country parishes, possessing each its principal
-town; and in some one of these demi
-were enrolled all the Athenian citizens resident
-in Attica, with the exception, perhaps,
-of those who were natives of Athens itself.
-These subdivisions corresponded in some degree
-to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">naucrariae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναυκραρίαι</span>) of the old
-tribes, and were originally one hundred in
-number. These demi formed independent
-corporations, and had each their several magistrates,
-landed and other property, with a
-common treasury. They had likewise their
-respective convocations or “parish meetings,”
-convened by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demarchi</i>, in which was
-transacted the public business of the demus,
-such as the leasing of its estates, the elections
-of officers, the revision of the registers or
-lists of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημόται</span>, and the admission of new
-members. Independent of these bonds of
-union, each demus seems to have had its
-peculiar temples and religious worship.
-There were likewise judges, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δικασταὶ
-κατα δημους</span>, who decided cases where the matter
-in dispute was of less value than ten
-drachmae. Admission into a demus was necessary
-before any individual could enter upon
-his full rights and privileges as an Attic citizen.
-The register of enrolment was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ληξιαρχικὸν
-γραμματεῖον</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Denarius">DĒNĀRĬUS, the principal silver coin among
-the Romans, was so called because it was
-originally equal to ten asses; but on the reduction
-of the weight of the as [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a></span>], it was
-made equal to sixteen asses, except in military
-pay, in which it was still reckoned as
-equal to ten asses. The denarius was first
-coined five years before the first Punic war,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 269. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Argentum">Argentum</a>.</span>] The average value
-of the denarii coined at the end of the commonwealth
-is about 8½<em>d.</em>, and those under
-the empire about 7½<em>d.</em> If the denarius be
-reckoned in value 8½<em>d.</em>, the other Roman
-coins of silver will be of the following value:</p>
-
-
-<table class="autotable" width="70%" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdc">Pence.</td>
-<td class="tdc">Farth.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Teruncius</td>
-<td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; ·53125</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sembella</td>
-<td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-<td class="tdl">1·0625</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Libella</td>
-<td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-<td class="tdl">2·125</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sestertius</td>
-<td class="tdc">2</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp; ·5</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Quinarius or Victoriatus</td>
-<td class="tdc">4</td>
-<td class="tdl">1</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Denarius</td>
-<td class="tdc">8</td>
-<td class="tdl">2</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill130" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="p2 w100" src="images/ill130.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Denarius. (British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Some denarii were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">serrati</i>, because
-their edges were notched like a saw, which
-appears to have been done to prove that they
-were solid silver, and not plated; and others
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bigati</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrigati</i>, because on their reverse
-were represented chariots drawn by two
-and four horses respectively.</p>
-
-<p id="Designator">DĒSIGNĀTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Desultor">DĒSULTOR, a rider in the Roman games,
-who generally rode two horses at the same
-time, sitting on them without a saddle, and
-vaulting upon either of them at his pleasure.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Deunx">DĔUNX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>, <a href="#Libra_a">Libra</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dextans">DEXTANS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>, <a href="#Libra_a">Libra</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Diadema">DĬĂDĒMA, originally a white fillet, used to
-encircle the head. It is represented on the
-head of Dionysus, and was, in an ornamented
-form, assumed by kings as an emblem of sovereignty.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Diaetetae">DĬAETĒTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαιτηταί</span>), or arbitrators, at
-Athens, were of two kinds; the one public
-and appointed by lot (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κληρωτοί</span>), the other
-private, and chosen (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἱρετοί</span>) by the parties
-who referred to them the decision of a disputed
-point, instead of trying it before a court
-of justice; the judgments of both, according
-to Aristotle, being founded on equity rather
-than law. The number of public arbitrators
-seems to have been 40, four for each
-tribe. Their jurisdiction was confined to civil
-cases.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dialis">DĬĀLIS FLĀMEN. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Flamen">Flamen</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Diamastigosis">DĬĂMASTĪGŌSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαμαστίγωσις</span>), a solemnity
-performed at Sparta at the festival
-of Artemis Orthia. Spartan youths were
-scourged on the occasion at the altar of Artemis,
-by persons appointed for the purpose,
-until their blood gushed forth and covered
-the altar. Many anecdotes are related of the
-courage and intrepidity with which young
-Spartans bore the lashes of the scourge; some
-even died without uttering a murmur at their
-sufferings, for to die under the strokes was
-considered as honourable a death as that on
-the field of battle.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Diapsephisis">DĬĂPSĔPHĬSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαψήφισις</span>), a political
-institution at Athens, the object of which was
-to prevent aliens, or such as were the offspring
-of an unlawful marriage, from assuming
-the rights of citizens. By this method<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[131]</span>
-a trial of spurious citizens was to be
-held by the demotae, within whose deme intruders
-were suspected to exist.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Diasia">DĪĂSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διάσια</span>), a great festival celebrated
-at Athens, without the walls of the city, in
-honour of Zeus, surnamed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μειλίχιος</span>. The
-whole people took part in it, and the wealthier
-citizens offered victims, while the poorer
-classes burnt such incense as their country
-furnished. The diasia took place in the latter
-half of the month of Anthesterion with
-feasting and rejoicings, and was, like most
-other festivals, accompanied by a fair.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dicastes">DĬCASTĒS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δικαστής</span>), the name of a judge,
-or rather juryman, at Athens. The conditions
-of his eligibility were, that he should
-be a free citizen, in the enjoyment of his full
-franchise (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιτιμία</span>), and not less than thirty
-years of age, and of persons so qualified
-6,000 were selected by lot for the service
-of every year. Their appointment took place
-annually under the conduct of the nine archons
-and their official scribe; each of these
-ten personages drew by lot the names of
-600 persons of the tribe assigned to him;
-the whole number so selected was again divided
-by lot into ten sections of 500 each,
-together with a supernumerary one, consisting
-of 1000 persons, from among whom
-the occasional deficiencies in the sections of
-500 might be supplied. To each of the ten
-sections one of the ten first letters of the
-alphabet was appropriated as a distinguishing
-mark, and a small tablet (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πινάκιον</span>), inscribed
-with the letter of the section and the name
-of the individual, was delivered as a certificate
-of his appointment to each dicast. Before
-proceeding to the exercise of his functions,
-the dicast was obliged to swear the
-official oath. This oath being taken, and the
-divisions made as above mentioned, it remained
-to assign the courts to the several
-sections of dicasts in which they were to sit.
-This was not, like the first, an appointment
-intended to last during the year, but took
-place under the conduct of the thesmothetae,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de novo</i>, every time that it was necessary to
-impanel a number of dicasts. As soon as the
-allotment had taken place, each dicast received
-a staff, on which was painted the letter
-and the colour of the court awarded him,
-which might serve both as a ticket to procure
-admittance, and also to distinguish him
-from any loiterer that might endeavour
-clandestinely to obtain a sitting after business
-had begun. While in court, and probably
-from the hand of the presiding magistrate
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡγέμων δικαστηρίου</span>), he received the
-token or ticket that entitled him to receive
-his fee (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δικαστικόν</span>). This payment is said to
-have been first instituted by Pericles, and
-was originally a single obolus; it was increased
-by Cleon to thrice that amount about
-the 88th Olympiad.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dice">DĬCĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη</span>), signifies generally any proceedings
-at law by one party directly or mediately
-against others. The object of all
-such actions is to protect the body politic, or
-one or more of its individual members, from
-injury and aggression; a distinction which has
-in most countries suggested the division of all
-causes into two great classes, the public and
-the private, and assigned to each its peculiar
-form and treatment. At Athens the first of
-these was implied by the terms public <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκαι</span>,
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγῶνες</span>, or still more peculiarly by
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφαί</span>; causes of the other class were
-termed private <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκαι</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγῶνες</span>, or simply <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκαι</span>
-in its limited sense. In a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη</span>, only the person
-whose rights were alleged to be affected,
-or the legal protector (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύριος</span>) of such person,
-if a minor or otherwise incapable of appearing
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suo jure</i>, was permitted to institute
-an action as plaintiff; in public causes, with
-the exception of some few in which the person
-injured or his family were peculiarly
-bound and interested to act, any free citizen,
-and sometimes, when the state was directly
-attacked, almost any alien, was empowered
-to do so. The court fees, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytaneia</i>,
-were paid in private but not in public causes,
-and a public prosecutor that compromised
-the action with the defendant was in most
-cases punished by a fine of a thousand drachmae
-and a modified disfranchisement, while
-there was no legal impediment at any period
-of a private lawsuit to the reconciliation of
-the litigant parties.&mdash;The proceedings in
-the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη</span> were commenced by a summons
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόσκλησις</span>) to the defendant to appear on a
-certain day before the proper magistrate
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσαγωγεύς</span>), and there answer the charges
-preferred against him. This summons was
-often served by the plaintiff in person, accompanied
-by one or two witnesses (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλητῆρες</span>),
-whose names were endorsed upon the declaration
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λῆξις</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγκλημα</span>). Between the service
-of the summons and appearance of the parties
-before the magistrate, it is very probable that
-the law prescribed the intervention of a period
-of five days. If both parties appeared, the
-proceedings commenced by the plaintiff putting
-in his declaration, and at the same time
-depositing his share of the court fees (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρυτανεῖα</span>),
-which were trifling in amount, but
-the non-payment of which was a fatal objection
-to the further progress of a cause.
-When these were paid, it became the duty of
-the magistrate, if no manifest objection appeared
-on the face of the declaration, to cause
-it to be written out on a tablet, and exposed
-for the inspection of the public on the wall<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[132]</span>
-or other place that served as the cause list of
-his court. The magistrate then appointed a
-day for the further proceedings of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anacrisis</i>
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Anacrisis">Anacrisis</a></span>]. If the plaintiff failed to
-appear at the anacrisis, the suit, of course,
-fell to the ground; if the defendant made
-default, judgment passed against him. An
-affidavit might at this, as well as at other
-periods of the action, be made in behalf of a
-person unable to attend upon the given day,
-and this would, if allowed, have the effect of
-postponing further proceedings (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπωμοσία</span>);
-it might, however, be combated by a counter-affidavit,
-to the effect that the alleged reason
-was unfounded or otherwise insufficient (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνθυπωμοσία</span>);
-and a question would arise upon
-this point, the decision of which, when adverse
-to the defendant, would render him
-liable to the penalty of contumacy. The
-plaintiff was in this case said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐρήμην ἑλεῖν</span>;
-the defendant, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐρήμην ὀφλεῖν</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκην</span> being the
-word omitted in both phrases. The anacrisis
-began with the affidavit of the plaintiff (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προωμοσία</span>),
-then followed the answer of the defendant
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντωμοσία</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντιγραφή</span>), then the
-parties produced their respective witnesses,
-and reduced their evidence to writing, and
-put in originals, or authenticated copies, of
-all the records, deeds, and contracts that
-might be useful in establishing their case, as
-well as memoranda of offers and requisitions
-then made by either side (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προκλήσεις</span>). The
-whole of the documents were then, if the
-cause took a straightforward course (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐθυδικία</span>),
-enclosed on the last day of the anacrisis
-in a casket (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐχῖνος</span>), which was sealed,
-and entrusted to the custody of the presiding
-magistrate, till it was produced and opened at
-the trial. During the interval no alteration
-in its contents was permitted, and accordingly
-evidence that had been discovered after the
-anacrisis was not producible at the trial.&mdash;In
-some causes, the trial before the dicasts
-was by law appointed to come on within a
-given time; in such as were not provided for
-by such regulations, we may suppose that it
-would principally depend upon the leisure of
-the magistrate. Upon the court being assembled,
-the magistrate called on the cause, and
-the plaintiff opened his case. At the commencement
-of the speech, the proper officer
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ ἐφ’ ὕδωρ</span>) filled the clepsydra with water.
-As long as the water flowed from this vessel
-the orator was permitted to speak; if, however,
-evidence was to be read by the officer
-of the court, or a law recited, the water was
-stopped till the speaker recommenced. The
-quantity of water, or, in other words, the
-length of the speeches, was different in different
-causes. After the speeches of the advocates,
-which were in general two on each
-side, and the incidental reading of the documentary
-and other evidence, the dicasts proceeded
-to give their judgment by ballot.&mdash;When
-the principal point at issue was decided
-in favour of the plaintiff, there followed
-in many cases a further discussion as to the
-fine or punishment to be inflicted on the
-defendant (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παθεῖν ἢ ἀποτῖσαι</span>). All actions
-were divided into two classes,&mdash;<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγῶνες ἀτίμητοι</span>,
-<em>suits not to be assessed</em>, in which the fine,
-or other penalty, was determined by the
-laws; and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγῶνες τιμητοί</span>, <em>suits to be assessed</em>,
-in which the penalty had to be fixed
-by the judges. If the suit was an <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγῶν
-τιμητος</span>, the plaintiff generally mentioned
-in the pleadings the punishment which he
-considered the defendant deserved (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τίμημα</span>);
-and the defendant was allowed to make a
-counter-assessment (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντιτιμᾶσθαι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποτιμᾶσθαι</span>),
-and to argue before the judges why
-the assessment of the plaintiff ought to be
-changed or mitigated. In certain causes,
-which were determined by the laws, any of
-the judges was allowed to propose an additional
-assessment (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστίμημα</span>); the amount
-of which, however, appears to have been
-usually fixed by the laws. Thus, in certain
-cases of theft, the additional penalty was
-fixed at five days’ and nights’ imprisonment.
-Upon judgment being given in a
-private suit, the Athenian law left its execution
-very much in the hands of the successful
-party, who was empowered to seize the moveables
-of his antagonist as a pledge for the
-payment of the money, or institute an action
-of ejectment (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξούλης</span>) against the refractory
-debtor. The judgment of a court of dicasts
-was in general decisive (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη αὐτοτελής</span>); but
-upon certain occasions, as, for instance, when
-a gross case of perjury or conspiracy could
-be proved by the unsuccessful party to have
-operated to his disadvantage, the cause, upon
-the conviction of such conspirators or witnesses,
-might be commenced <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de novo</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dictator">DICTĀTOR, an extraordinary magistrate
-at Rome. The name is of Latin origin, and
-the office probably existed in many Latin
-towns before it was introduced into Rome.
-We find it in Lanuvium even in very late times.
-At Rome this magistrate was originally called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister populi</i> and not <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dictator</i>, and in the
-sacred books he was always designated by the
-former name down to the latest times. On
-the establishment of the Roman republic the
-government of the state was entrusted to two
-consuls, that the citizens might be the better
-protected against the tyrannical exercise of
-the supreme power. But it was soon felt
-that circumstances might arise in which it
-was of importance for the safety of the state
-that the government should be vested in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[133]</span>
-hands of a single person, who should possess
-for a season absolute power, and from whose
-decision there should be no appeal to any
-other body. Thus it came to pass that in
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 501, nine years after the expulsion of
-the Tarquins, the dictatorship (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dictatura</i>)
-was instituted. By the original law respecting
-the appointment of a dictator (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex de dictatore
-creando</i>) no one was eligible for this
-office unless he had previously been consul.
-We find, however, a few instances in which
-this law was not observed.&mdash;When a dictator
-was considered necessary, the senate passed a
-senatus consultum, that one of the consuls
-should nominate (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dicere</i>) a dictator; and
-without a previous decree of the senate the
-consuls had not the power of naming a dictator.
-The nomination or proclamation of the
-dictator was always made by the consul, probably
-without any witnesses, between midnight
-and morning, and with the observance
-of the auspices (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">surgens</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">oriens nocte silentio
-dictatorem dicebat</i>). The technical word
-for this nomination or proclamation was
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dicere</i> (seldom <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">creare</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">facere</i>). Originally
-the dictator was of course a patrician. The
-first plebeian dictator was C. Marcius Rutilus,
-nominated in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 356 by the plebeian consul
-M. Popillius Laenas. The reasons which
-led to the appointment of a dictator, required
-that there should be only one at a time. The
-dictators that were appointed for carrying on
-the business of the state were said to be nominated
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rei gerundae causa</i>, or sometimes
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">seditionis sedandae causa</i>; and upon them,
-as well as upon the other magistrates, the
-imperium was conferred by a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Curiata</i>.
-The dictatorship was limited to six months,
-and no instances occur in which a person
-held this office for a longer time, for the dictatorships
-of Sulla and Caesar are of course
-not to be taken into account. On the contrary,
-though a dictator was appointed for
-six months, he often resigned his office long
-previously, immediately after he had dispatched
-the business for which he had been
-appointed. As soon as the dictator was nominated,
-a kind of suspension took place with
-respect to the consuls and all the other
-magistrates, with the exception of the tribuni
-plebis. The regular magistrates continued,
-indeed, to discharge the duties of their
-various offices under the dictator, but they
-were no longer independent officers, but were
-subject to the higher imperium of the dictator,
-and obliged to obey his orders in every thing.
-The superiority of the dictator’s power to
-that of the consuls consisted chiefly in the
-three following points&mdash;greater independence
-of the senate, more extensive power of
-punishment without any appeal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocatio</i>)
-from their sentence to the people, and irresponsibility.
-To these three points, must of
-course be added that he was not fettered by a
-colleague. We may naturally suppose that
-the dictator would usually act in unison with
-the senate; but it is expressly stated that in
-many cases where the consuls required the
-co-operation of the senate, the dictator could
-act on his own responsibility. That there
-was originally no appeal from the sentence of
-the dictator is certain, and accordingly the
-lictors bore the axes in the fasces before
-them even in the city, as a symbol of their
-absolute power over the lives of the citizens,
-although by the Valerian law the axes had
-disappeared from the fasces of the consuls.
-Whether, however, the right of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocatio</i>
-was afterwards given cannot be determined.
-It was in consequence of the great and irresponsible
-power possessed by the dictatorship,
-that we find it frequently compared with the
-regal dignity, from which it only differed in
-being held for a limited time.&mdash;There were
-however a few limits to the power of the
-dictator. 1. The most important was that
-which we have mentioned above, that the
-period of his office was only six months. 2.
-He had not power over the treasury, but
-could only make use of the money which was
-granted him by the senate. 3. He was not
-allowed to leave Italy, since he might thus
-easily become dangerous to the republic;
-though the case of Atilius Calatinus in the
-first Punic war forms an exception to this
-rule. 4. He was not allowed to ride on
-horseback at Rome, without previously obtaining
-the permission of the people; a
-regulation apparently capricious, but perhaps
-adopted that he might not bear too great a
-resemblance to the kings, who were accustomed
-to ride.&mdash;The insignia of the dictator
-were nearly the same as those of the kings in
-earlier times; and of the consuls subsequently.
-Instead however of having only
-twelve lictors, as was the case with the consuls,
-he was preceded by twenty-four bearing
-the secures as well as the fasces. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella
-curulis</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga praetexta</i> also belonged to
-the dictator.&mdash;The preceding account of the
-dictatorship applies more particularly to the
-dictator rei gerundae causa; but dictators
-were also frequently appointed, especially
-when the consuls were absent from the city,
-to perform certain acts, which could not be
-done by any inferior magistrate. These dictators
-had little more than the name; and as
-they were only appointed to discharge a particular
-duty, they had to resign immediately
-that duty was performed. The occasions on
-which such dictators were appointed, were
-principally:&mdash;1. For the purpose of holding<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134"></a>[134]</span>
-the comitia for the elections (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitiorum habendorum
-causa</i>). 2. For fixing the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clavus
-annalis</i> in the temple of Jupiter (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clavi figendi
-causa</i>) in times of pestilence or civil discord,
-because the law said that this ceremony was
-to be performed by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetor maximus</i>, and
-after the institution of the dictatorship the
-latter was regarded as the highest magistracy
-in the state. 3. For appointing holidays
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feriarum constituendarum causa</i>) on the appearance
-of prodigies, and for officiating at
-the public games (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludorum faciendorum
-causa</i>), the presidency of which belonged to
-the consuls or praetors. 4. For holding
-trials (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quaestionibus exercendis</i>.) 5. And on
-one occasion, for filling up vacancies in the
-senate (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legendo senatui</i>).&mdash;Along with the
-dictator there was always a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister equitum</i>,
-the nomination of whom was left to the
-choice of the dictator, unless the senatus
-consultum specified, as was sometimes the
-case, the name of the person who was to be
-appointed. The magister equitum had, like
-the dictator, to receive the imperium by a
-lex curiata. The dictator could not be without
-a magister equitum, and, consequently,
-if the latter died during the six months of
-the dictatorship, another had to be nominated
-in his stead. The magister equitum was
-subject to the imperium of the dictator, but
-in the absence of his superior he became his
-representative, and exercised the same powers
-as the dictator. The magister equitum was
-originally, as his name imports, the commander
-of the cavalry, while the dictator was
-at the head of the legions, the infantry; and
-the relation between them was in this respect
-similar to that which subsisted between
-the king and the tribunus celerum. Dictators
-were only appointed so long as the Romans
-had to carry on wars in Italy. A solitary
-instance of the nomination of a dictator
-for the purpose of carrying on war out of
-Italy has been already mentioned. The last
-dictator rei gerundae causa was M. Junius
-Pera, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 216. From that time dictators
-were frequently appointed for holding
-the elections down to <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 202, but after that
-year the dictatorship disappears altogether.&mdash;After
-a lapse of 120 years, Sulla caused himself
-to be appointed dictator in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 82, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">reipublicae
-constituendae causa</i>, but neither his dictatorship
-nor that of Caesar is to be compared
-with the genuine office. Soon after Caesar’s
-death the dictatorship was abolished for ever
-by a lex proposed by the consul Antonius.
-During the time, however, that the dictatorship
-was in abeyance, a substitute was invented
-for it, whenever the circumstances of
-the republic required the adoption of extraordinary
-measures, by the senate investing
-the consuls with dictatorial power. This
-was done by the well-known formula, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Videant</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dent operam consules, ne quid respublica
-detrimenti capiat</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dictynnia">DICTYNNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δικτύννια</span>), a festival with
-sacrifices, celebrated at Cydonia in Crete, in
-honour of Artemis, surnamed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίκτυννα</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δικτύνναια</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκτυον</span>, a hunter’s net.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dies">DĬES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμέρα</span>), a day. The name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies</i> was
-applied, like our word day, to the time during
-which, according to the notions of the ancients,
-the sun performed his course around
-the earth, and this time they called the civil
-day (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies civilis</i>, in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νυχθήμερον</span>, because
-it included both night and day). The natural
-day (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies naturalis</i>), or the time from the
-rising to the setting of the sun, was likewise
-designated by the name dies. The civil day
-began with the Greeks at the setting of the
-sun, and with the Romans at midnight. At
-the time of the Homeric poems the natural
-day was divided into three parts. The first,
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἠώς</span>, began with sunrise, and comprehended
-the whole space of time during which
-light seemed to be increasing, <em>i.e.</em> till mid-day.
-The second part was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσον ἦμαρ</span>
-or mid-day, during which the sun was
-thought to stand still. The third part bore
-the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δείλη</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δείελον ἦμαρ</span>, which derived
-its name from the increased warmth of
-the atmosphere. Among the Athenians the
-first and last of the divisions made at the
-time of Homer were afterwards subdivided
-into two parts. The earlier part of the
-morning was termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρωΐ</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρῲ τῆς ἡμέρας</span>:
-the latter, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πληθούσης τῆς ἀγορᾶς</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περὶ
-πλήθουσαν ἀγοράν</span>. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσον ἦμαρ</span> of Homer
-was afterwards expressed by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεσημβρία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσον
-ἡμέρας</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέση ἡμέρα</span>, and comprehended, as
-before, the middle of the day, when the sun
-seemed neither to rise nor to decline. The
-two parts of the afternoon were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δείλη
-πρωΐη</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρωΐα</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δείλη ὀψίη</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀψία</span>. This
-division continued to be observed down to
-the latest period of Grecian history, though
-another more accurate division was introduced
-at an early period; for Anaximander,
-or, according to others, his disciple Anaximenes,
-is said to have made the Greeks
-acquainted with the use of the Babylonian
-chronometer or sun-dial (called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόλος</span>, or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὡρολόγιον</span>), by means of which the natural
-day was divided into twelve equal spaces of
-time. The division of the day most generally
-observed by the Romans, was that into
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tempus antemeridianum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pomeridianum</i>,
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">meridies</i> itself being only considered as a
-point at which the one ended and the other
-commenced. But as it was of importance
-that this moment should be known, an especial
-officer [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Accensus">Accensus</a></span>] was appointed, who<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135"></a>[135]</span>
-proclaimed the time of mid-day. The division
-of the day into twelve equal spaces,
-which were shorter in winter than in summer,
-was first adopted when artificial means of
-measuring time were introduced among the
-Romans from Greece. This was about the
-year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 291, when L. Papirius Cursor, after
-the war with Pyrrhus in southern Italy,
-brought to Rome an instrument called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solarium
-horologium</i>, or simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solarium</i>. But
-as the solarium had been made for a different
-latitude, it showed the time at Rome very
-incorrectly. Scipio Nasica, therefore, erected
-in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 159 a public clepsydra, which indicated
-the hours of the night as well as of the
-day. Even after the erection of this clepsydra
-it was customary for one of the subordinate
-officers of the praetor to proclaim the
-third, sixth, and ninth hours; which shows
-that the day was, like the night, divided into
-four parts, each consisting of three hours.&mdash;All
-the days of the year were, according to
-different points of view, divided by the Romans
-into different classes. <span id="Dies_f">For</span> the purpose
-of the administration of justice all days were
-divided into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies fasti</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies nefasti</i>. <span class="smcap">Dies
-fasti</span> were the days on which the praetor
-was allowed to administer justice in the public
-courts; they derived their name from
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fari</i> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fari tria verba</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">do</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dico</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">addico</i>). On
-some of the dies fasti comitia could be held,
-but not on all. The regular <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies fasti</i> were
-marked in the Roman calendar by the letter
-F, and their number in the course of the year
-was 38.&mdash;Besides these there were certain
-days called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies intercisi</i>, on which the praetor
-might hold his courts, but not at all
-hours, so that sometimes one half of such a
-day was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fastus</i>, while the other half was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nefastus</i>.
-Their number was 65 in the year.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Dies
-nefasti</span> were days on which neither
-courts of justice nor comitia were allowed to
-be held, and which were dedicated to other
-purposes. The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies nefasti</i>, which
-originally had nothing to do with religion,
-but simply indicated days on which no courts
-were to be held, was in subsequent times
-applied to religious days in general, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies
-nefasti</i> were mostly dedicated to the worship
-of the gods.&mdash;In a religious point of view all
-days of the year were either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies festi</i>, or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies profesti</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies intercisi</i>. According to
-the definition given by Macrobius, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies festi</i>
-were dedicated to the gods, and spent with
-sacrifices, repasts, games, and other solemnities;
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies profesti</i> belonged to men for the
-administration of their private and public
-affairs. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dies intercisi</i> were common between
-gods and men, that is, partly devoted to the
-worship of the gods, partly to the transaction
-of ordinary business. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dies profesti</i> were
-either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies fasti</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies comitiales</i>, that is,
-days on which comitia were held, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies
-comperendini</i>, that is, days to which any action
-was allowed to be transferred; or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies
-stati</i>, that is, days set apart for causes
-between Roman citizens and foreigners; or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies proeliales</i>, that is, all days on which religion
-did not forbid the commencement of a
-war.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Diffarreatio">DIFFARRĔĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Divortium">Divortium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Diipoleia">DĬĬPŎLEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διιπόλεια</span>), also called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διπόλεια</span>
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διπόλια</span>, a very ancient festival celebrated
-every year on the acropolis of Athens
-in honour of Zeus, surnamed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πολιεύς</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dimachae">DĬMĂCHAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διμάχαι</span>), Macedonian horse-soldiers,
-who also fought on foot when occasion
-required, like our dragoons.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Diminutio">DĪMĬNŪTĬO CĂPĬTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caput">Caput</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Diocleia">DĬŎCLEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διόκλεια</span>), a festival celebrated
-by the Megarians in honour of an ancient
-Athenian hero, Diocles, around whose grave
-young men assembled on the occasion, and
-amused themselves with gymnastic and other
-contests. We read that he who gave the
-sweetest kiss obtained the prize, consisting
-of a garland of flowers.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dionysia">DĬŎNȲSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διονύσια</span>), festivals celebrated
-in various parts of Greece in honour of Dionysus,
-and characterised by extravagant
-merriment and enthusiastic joy. Drunkenness,
-and the boisterous music of flutes, cymbals,
-and drums, were likewise common to
-all Dionysiac festivals. In the processions
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θίασοι</span> (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θείαζω</span>), with which they
-were celebrated, women also took part in the
-disguise of Bacchae, Lenae, Thyades, Naiades,
-Nymphs, &amp;c., adorned with garlands of ivy,
-and bearing the thyrsus in their hands, so
-that the whole train represented a population
-inspired, and actuated by the powerful presence
-of the god. The choruses sung on the
-occasion were called dithyrambs, and were
-hymns addressed to the god in the freest
-metres and with the boldest imagery, in
-which his exploits and achievements were
-extolled. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a>.</span>] The phallus, the symbol
-of the fertility of nature, was also carried
-in these processions. The indulgence in
-drinking was considered by the Greeks as a
-duty of gratitude which they owed to the
-giver of the vine; hence in some places it
-was thought a crime to remain sober at the
-Dionysia. The Attic festivals of Dionysus
-were four in number: the <em>Rural</em> or <em>Lesser
-Dionysia</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διονύσια κατ’ ἀγρούς</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μικρά</span>), the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lenaea</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λήναια</span>), the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anthesteria</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνθεστήρια</span>),
-and the <em>City</em> or <em>Great Dionysia</em>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διονύσια ἐν ἄστει</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀστικά</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεγάλα</span>). The
-season of the year sacred to Dionysus was
-during the months nearest to the shortest
-day; and the Attic festivals were accordingly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136"></a>[136]</span>
-celebrated in Poseideon, Gamelion, Anthesterion,
-and Elaphebolion.&mdash;The <em>Rural</em> or
-<em>Lesser Dionysia</em>, a vintage festival, were celebrated
-in the various demes of Attica in the
-month of Poseideon, and were under the superintendence
-of the several local magistrates,
-the demarchs. This was doubtless the most
-ancient of all, and was held with the highest
-degree of merriment and freedom; even
-slaves enjoyed full freedom during its celebration,
-and their boisterous shouts on the
-occasion were almost intolerable. It is here
-that we have to seek for the origin of comedy,
-in the jests and the scurrilous abuse with which
-the peasants assailed the bystanders from a
-waggon in which they rode about. The Dionysia
-in the Peiraeeus, as well as those of
-the other demes of Attica, belonged to the
-lesser Dionysia.&mdash;The second festival, the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lenaea</i> (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ληνός</span>, the wine-press, from
-which also the month of Gamelion was called
-by the Ionians Lenaeon), was celebrated in
-the month of Gamelion; the place of its celebration
-was the ancient temple of Dionysus
-Limnaeus (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λίμνη</span>, as the district was
-originally a swamp). This temple was called
-the Lenaeon. The Lenaea were celebrated
-with a procession and scenic contests in tragedy
-and comedy. The procession probably
-went to the Lenaeon, where a goat (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τράγος</span>,
-whence the chorus and tragedy which arose
-out of it were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τραγικὸς χορός</span>, and
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τραγῳδία</span>) was sacrificed, and a chorus standing
-around the altar sang the dithyrambic
-ode to the god. As the dithyramb was the
-element out of which, by the introduction of
-an actor, tragedy arose [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a></span>], it is natural
-that, in the scenic contests of this festival,
-tragedy should have preceded comedy. The
-poet who wished his play to be brought out
-at the Lenaea applied to the second archon,
-who had the superintendence of this festival,
-and who gave him a chorus if the piece was
-thought to deserve it.&mdash;The third festival,
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anthesteria</i>, was celebrated on the 11th,
-12th, and 13th days of the month of Anthesterion.
-The second archon likewise superintended
-the celebration of the Anthesteria,
-and distributed the prizes among the victors
-in the various games which were carried on
-during the season. The first day was called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πιθοιγία</span>: the second, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χόες</span>: and the third,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χύτροι</span>. The first day derived its name from
-the opening of the casks to taste the wine of
-the preceding year; the second from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χοῦς</span>,
-the cup, and seems to have been the day
-devoted to drinking. The third day had its
-name from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χύτρος</span>, a pot, as on this day persons
-offered pots with flowers, seeds, or cooked
-vegetables, as a sacrifice to Dionysus and
-Hermes Chthonius. It is uncertain whether
-dramas were performed at the Anthesteria;
-but it is supposed that comedies were represented,
-and that tragedies which were to be
-brought out at the great Dionysia were perhaps
-rehearsed at the Anthesteria. The mysteries
-connected with the celebration of the
-Anthesteria were held at night.&mdash;The fourth
-festival, the <em>City</em> or <em>Great Dionysia</em>, was
-celebrated about the 12th of the month of
-Elaphebolion; but we do not know whether
-they lasted more than one day or not. The
-order in which the solemnities took place was
-as follows:&mdash;the great public procession, the
-chorus of boys, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comus</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a></span>], comedy,
-and, lastly, tragedy. Of the dramas which
-were performed at the great Dionysia, the
-tragedies at least were generally new pieces;
-repetitions do not, however, seem to have
-been excluded from any Dionysiac festival.
-The first archon had the superintendence,
-and gave the chorus to the dramatic poet who
-wished to bring out his piece at this festival.
-The prize awarded to the dramatist for the
-best play consisted of a crown, and his name
-was proclaimed in the theatre of Dionysus.
-As the great Dionysia were celebrated at the
-beginning of spring, when the navigation was
-re-opened, Athens was not only visited by
-numbers of country people, but also by
-strangers from other parts of Greece, and the
-various amusements and exhibitions on this
-occasion were not unlike those of a modern
-fair.&mdash;The worship of Dionysus, whom the
-Romans called Bacchus, or rather the Bacchic
-mysteries and orgies (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bacchanalia</i>), are
-said to have been introduced from southern
-Italy into Etruria, and from thence to Rome,
-where for a time they were carried on in
-secret, and, during the latter period of their
-existence, at night. The initiated, according
-to Livy, not only indulged in feasting and
-drinking at their meetings, but when their
-minds were heated with wine they indulged in
-the coarsest excesses and the most unnatural
-vices. The time of initiation lasted ten days;
-on the tenth, the person who was to be initiated
-took a solemn meal, underwent a purification
-by water, and was led into the sanctuary
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bacchanal</i>). At first only women
-were initiated, and the orgies were celebrated
-every year during three days. But Pacula
-Annia, a Campanian matron, pretending to
-act under the direct influence of Bacchus,
-changed the whole method of celebration:
-she admitted men to the initiation, and transferred
-the solemnisation, which had hitherto
-taken place during the daytime, to the night.
-Instead of three days in the year, she ordered
-that the Bacchanalia should be held during
-five days in every month. It was from that
-time that these orgies were carried on with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137"></a>[137]</span>
-frightful licentiousness and excesses of every
-kind. The evil at length became so alarming,
-that, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 186, the consuls, by the command
-of the senate, instituted an investigation
-into the nature and object of these new
-rites. The result was that numerous persons
-were arrested, and some put to death; and
-that a decree of the senate was issued, commanding
-that no Bacchanalia should be held
-either in Rome or Italy; that if any one
-should think such ceremonies necessary, or if
-he could not neglect them without scruples
-or making atonements, he should apply to
-the praetor urbanus, who might then consult
-the senate. If the permission should be
-granted to him in an assembly of the senate,
-consisting of not less than one hundred members,
-he might solemnise the Bacchic sacra;
-but no more than five persons were to be
-present at the celebration; there should be
-no common fund, and no master of the sacra
-or priest. A brazen table containing this
-important document was discovered near
-Bari, in southern Italy, in the year 1640,
-and is at present in the imperial Museum of
-Vienna. While the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bacchanalia</i> were thus
-suppressed, another more simple and innocent
-festival of Bacchus, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Liberalia</i> (from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Liber</i>,
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Liber Pater</i>, a name of Bacchus), continued
-to be celebrated at Rome every year on the
-16th of March. Priests and aged priestesses,
-adorned with garlands of ivy, carried through
-the city wine, honey, cakes, and sweetmeats,
-together with an altar with a handle (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ansata
-ara</i>), in the middle of which there was a
-small fire-pan (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foculus</i>), in which from time
-to time sacrifices were burnt. On this day
-Roman youths who had attained their sixteenth
-year received the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga virilis</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dioscuria">DĬŎSCŪRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διοσκούρια</span>), festivals celebrated
-in various parts of Greece in honour
-of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux). Their
-worship was very generally adopted in Greece,
-especially in the Doric and Achaean states;
-but little is known of the manner in which
-their festivals were celebrated. At Athens
-the festival was called Anaceia.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Diota">DĬŌTA, a vessel having two ears (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὦτα</span>) or
-handles, used for holding wine. It appears
-to have been much the same as the amphora.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphora">Amphora</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Diphthera">DIPHTHĔRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διφθέρα</span>), a kind of cloak
-made of the skins of animals, and worn by
-herdsmen and country people. It had a
-covering for the head (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπικράνον</span>), in which
-respect it would correspond to the Roman
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cucullus</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Diploma">DIPLŌMA, a writ or public document,
-which conferred upon a person any right
-or privilege. During the republic, it was
-granted by the consuls and senate; and under
-the empire, by the emperor and the magistrates
-whom he authorised to do so. It consisted
-of two leaves, whence it derived its
-name.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Diptycha">DIPTỸCHA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίπτυχα</span>), two writing tablets,
-which could be folded together. They were
-commonly made of wood and covered over
-with wax.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Diribitores">DĬRĬBĬTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Discus">DISCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίσκος</span>), a circular plate of stone,
-or metal, made for throwing to a distance as
-an exercise of strength and dexterity. It
-was one of the principal gymnastic exercises
-of the ancients, being included in the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pentathlum</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp40" id="ill137" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill137.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Discobolus. (Osterley, Denk. der alt Kunst, vol. 1. No. 139)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Dispensator">DISPENSĀTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calculator">Calculator</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dithyrambus">DITHỸRAMBUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Diversorium">DĪVERSŌRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caupona">Caupona</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Divinatio">DĪVĪNĀTĬO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μαντική</span>), a power in man
-which foresees future things by means of those
-signs which the gods throw in his way.
-Among the Greeks the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manteis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μάντεις</span>), or
-seers, who announced the future, were supposed
-to be under the direct influence of the
-gods, chiefly that of Apollo. In many families
-of seers the inspired knowledge of the
-future was considered to be hereditary, and
-to be transmitted from father to son. To
-these families belonged the Iamids, who from
-Olympia spread over a considerable part of
-Greece; the Branchidae, near Miletus; the
-Eumolpids, at Athens and Eleusis; the Telliads,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138"></a>[138]</span>
-the Acarnanian seers, and others. Along
-with the seers we may also mention the Bacides
-and the Sibyllae. Both existed from a
-very remote time, and were distinct from the
-manteis so far as they pretended to derive
-their knowledge of the future from sacred
-books (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρησμοί</span>) which they consulted, and
-which were in some places, as at Athens and
-Rome, kept by the government or some especial
-officers, in the acropolis and in the
-most revered sanctuary. The Bacides are
-said to have been descended from one or
-more prophetic nymphs of the name of Bacis.
-The Sibyllae were prophetic women, probably
-of Asiatic origin, whose peculiar custom
-seems to have been to wander with their
-sacred books from place to place. The Sibylla,
-whose books gained so great an importance
-at Rome, is reported to have been
-the Erythraean: the books which she was
-said to have sold to one of the Tarquins were
-carefully concealed from the public, and only
-accessible to the duumvirs. Besides these
-more respectable prophets and prophetesses,
-there were numbers of diviners of an inferior
-order (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρησμολόγοι</span>), who made it their business
-to explain all sorts of signs, and to tell
-fortunes. They were, however, more particularly
-popular with the lower orders, who
-are everywhere most ready to believe what
-is most marvellous and least entitled to credit.
-No public undertaking of any consequence
-was ever entered upon by the Greeks and
-Romans without consulting the will of the
-gods, by observing the signs which they
-sent, especially those in the sacrifices offered
-for the purpose, and by which they were
-thought to indicate the success or the failure of
-the undertaking. For this kind of divination
-no divine inspiration was thought necessary,
-but merely experience and a certain knowledge
-acquired by routine; and although in
-some cases priests were appointed for the
-purpose of observing and explaining signs
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Haruspices">Haruspex</a></span>], yet on any sudden
-emergency, especially in private affairs, any
-one who met with something extraordinary,
-might act as his own interpreter. The principal
-signs by which the gods were thought
-to declare their will, were things connected
-with the offering of sacrifices, the flight and
-voice of birds, all kinds of natural phenomena,
-ordinary as well as extraordinary, and
-dreams.&mdash;The interpretation of signs of the
-first class (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερομαντεία</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροσκοπία</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">haruspicium</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ars haruspicina</i>) was, according to
-Aeschylus, the invention of Prometheus. It
-seems to have been most cultivated by the
-Etruscans, among whom it was raised into a
-complete science, and from whom it passed
-to the Romans. Sacrifices were either offered
-for the special purpose of consulting the gods,
-or in the ordinary way; but in both cases
-the signs were observed, and when they were
-propitious, the sacrifice was said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλλιερεῖν</span>.
-The principal points that were generally observed
-were, 1. The manner in which the
-victim approached the altar. 2. The nature
-of the intestines with respect to their colour
-and smoothness; the liver and bile were of
-particular importance. 3. The nature of the
-flame which consumed the sacrifice. Especial
-care was also taken during a sacrifice, that
-no inauspicious or frivolous words were uttered
-by any of the bystanders: hence the
-admonitions of the priests, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐφημεῖτε</span> and
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐφημία</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιγᾶτε, σιωπᾶτε</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">favete linguis</i>,
-and others; for improper expressions were
-not only thought to pollute and profane the
-sacred act, but to be unlucky omens.&mdash;The
-art of interpreting signs of the second class
-was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰωνιστική</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">augurium</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicium</i>.
-It was, like the former, common to Greeks
-and Romans, but never attained the same
-degree of importance in Greece as it did in
-Rome. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Auspicium">Auspicium</a>.</span>] The Greeks, when
-observing the flight of birds, turned their
-face toward the north, and then a bird appearing
-to the right (east), especially an
-eagle, a heron, or a falcon, was a favourable
-sign; while birds appearing to the left (west)
-were considered as unlucky signs. Of greater
-importance than the appearance of animals,
-at least to the Greeks, were the phenomena
-in the heavens, particularly during any public
-transaction. Among the unlucky phenomena
-in the heavens (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διοσημεῖα</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">signa</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">portenta</i>)
-were thunder and lightning, an eclipse of the
-sun or moon, earthquakes, rain of blood,
-stones, milk, &amp;c. Any one of these signs
-was sufficient at Athens to break up the assembly
-of the people.&mdash;In common life, things
-apparently of no importance, when occurring
-at a critical moment, were thought by the
-ancients to be signs sent by the gods, from
-which conclusions might be drawn respecting
-the future. Among these common occurrences
-we may mention sneezing, twinkling
-of the eyes, tinkling of the ears, &amp;c.&mdash;The
-art of interpreting dreams (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀνειροπολία</span>), which
-had probably been introduced into Europe
-from Asia, where it is still a universal practice,
-seems in the Homeric age to have been
-held in high esteem, for dreams were said to
-be sent by Zeus. In subsequent times, that
-class of diviners who occupied themselves
-with the interpretation of dreams, seems to
-have been very numerous and popular; but
-they never enjoyed any protection from the
-state, and were chiefly resorted to by private
-individuals.&mdash;The subject of oracles is treated
-in a separate article. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Oraculum">Oraculum</a>.</span>]&mdash;The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139"></a>[139]</span>
-word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">divinatio</i> was used in a particular manner
-by the Romans as a law term. If in any
-case two or more accusers came forward
-against one and the same individual, it was,
-as the phrase ran, <em>decided by divination</em>, who
-should be the chief or real accuser, whom the
-others then joined as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subscriptores;</i> <em>i.e.</em> by
-putting their names to the charge brought
-against the offender. This transaction, by
-which one of several accusers was selected to
-conduct the accusation, was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">divinatio</i>,
-as the question here was not about facts, but
-about something which was to be done, and
-which could not be found out by witnesses or
-written documents; so that the judices had,
-as it were, to divine the course which they
-had to take. Hence the oration of Cicero, in
-which he tries to show that he, and not
-Q. Caecilius Niger, ought to conduct the accusation
-against Verres, is called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Divinatio in
-Caecilium</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Divisor">DĪVĪSOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Divortium">DĪVORTĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπόλειψις</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπόπεμψις</span>), divorce.
-(1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> The laws of Athens permitted
-either the husband or the wife to call
-for and effect a divorce. If it originated with
-the wife, she was said to leave her husband’s
-house (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπολείπειν</span>); if otherwise, to be dismissed
-from it (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποπεμπέσθαι</span>). After divorce,
-the wife resorted to her male relations, with
-whom she would have remained if she had
-never quitted her maiden state; and it then
-became their duty to receive or recover from
-her late husband all the property that she
-had brought to him in acknowledged dowry
-upon their marriage. If, upon this, both
-parties were satisfied, the divorce was final
-and complete: if otherwise, an action <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπολείψεως</span>,
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποπέμψεως</span>, would be instituted, as
-the case might be, by the party opposed to
-the separation. A separation, however, whether
-it originated from the husband or the
-wife, was considered to reflect discredit on the
-latter.&mdash;(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span> Divorce always existed
-in the Roman polity. As one essential part
-of a marriage was the consent and conjugal
-affection of the parties, it was considered
-that this affection was necessary to its
-continuance, and accordingly either party
-might declare his or her intention to dissolve
-the connection. No judicial decree, and no
-interference of any public authority, was
-requisite to dissolve a marriage. The first
-instance of divorce at Rome is said to have
-occurred about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 234, when Sp. Carvilius
-Ruga put away his wife, on the ground of
-barrenness: it is added, that his conduct was
-generally condemned. Towards the latter
-part of the republic, and under the empire,
-divorces became very common. Pompey divorced
-his wife Mucia for alleged adultery;
-and Cicero divorced his wife Terentia, after
-living with her thirty years, and married a
-young woman. Cato the younger divorced
-his wife Marcia, that his friend Hortensius
-might marry her, and have children by her;
-for this is the true meaning of the story
-that he lent his wife to Hortensius. If a
-husband divorced his wife, the wife’s dowry,
-as a general rule, was restored; and the
-same was the case when the divorce took
-place by mutual consent. Corresponding to
-the forms of marriage by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">confarreatio</i> and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coemtio</i>, there were the forms of divorce by
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diffarreatio</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">remancipatio</i>. In course of
-time, less ceremony was used; but still some
-distinct notice or declaration of intention was
-necessary to constitute a divorce. The term
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repudium</i>, it is said, properly applies to a
-marriage only contracted, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">divortium</i> to an
-actual marriage; but sometimes divortium
-and repudium appear to be used indifferently.
-The phrases to express a divorce are, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nuntium
-remittere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">divortium facere</i>; and the
-form of words might be as follows&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tuas res
-tibi habeto, tuas res tibi agito</i>. The phrases
-used to express the renunciation of a marriage
-contract were, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">renuntiare repudium</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repudium
-remittere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dicere</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repudiare</i>; and
-the form of words might be, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Conditione tua
-non utor</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Docana">DŎCĂNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὰ δόκανα</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δοκός</span>, a beam)
-was an ancient symbolical representation of
-the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), at Sparta.
-It consisted of two upright beams with others
-laid across them transversely.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Docimasia">DŎCĬMĂSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δοκιμασία</span>). When any citizen
-of Athens was either appointed by lot,
-or chosen by suffrage, to hold a public office,
-he was obliged, before entering on its duties,
-to submit to a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">docimasia</i>, or scrutiny into his
-previous life and conduct, in which any person
-could object to him as unfit. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">docimasia</i>,
-however, was not confined to persons
-appointed to public offices; for we read of
-the denouncement of a scrutiny against orators
-who spoke in the assembly while leading
-profligate lives, or after having committed
-flagitious crimes.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dodrans">DODRANS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dolabra">DŎLĀBRA, <em>dim.</em> DŎLĀBELLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σμίλη</span>,
-<em>dim</em>. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σμιλίον</span>), a chisel, a celt, was used for a
-variety of purposes in ancient as in modern
-times. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Celtes</i> is an old Latin word for a
-chisel, probably derived from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coelo</i>, to engrave.
-Celts, or chisels, were frequently
-employed in making entrenchments and in
-destroying fortifications; and hence they are
-often found in ancient earth-works and encampments.
-They are for the most part of
-bronze, more rarely of hard stone. The sizes
-and forms which they present, are as various<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140"></a>[140]</span>
-as the uses to which they were applied. The
-annexed woodcut is designed to show a few
-of the most remarkable varieties.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill140" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill140.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Dolabrae, Celts. (From different Collections in Great Britain.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Dolium">DŌLĬUM, a cylindrical vessel, somewhat
-resembling our tubs or casks, into which new
-wine was put to let it ferment.</p>
-
-<p id="Dolo">DŎLO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόλων</span>). (1) A secret poniard or
-dagger contained in a case, used by the
-Italians. It was inserted in the handles of
-whips, and also in walking sticks, thus corresponding
-to our sword-stick.&mdash;(2) A small
-top-sail.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dominium">DŎMĬNĬUM signifies quiritarian ownership,
-or property in a thing; and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dominus</i>,
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dominus legitimus</i>, is the owner. The
-dominus has the power of dealing with a
-thing as he pleases, and differs from the bare
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">possessor</i>, who has only the right of possession,
-and has not the absolute ownership of
-the thing.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Domus">DŎMUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἶκος</span>), a house.&mdash;(1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> A
-Greek house was always divided into two
-distinct portions, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Andronitis</i>, or men’s
-apartments (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνδρωνῖτις</span>), and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gynaeconitis</i>,
-or women’s apartments (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυναικωνῖτις</span>). In
-the earliest times, as in the houses referred
-to by Homer, and in some houses at a later
-period, the women’s apartments were in the
-upper story (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπερῷον</span>), but usually at a later
-time the gynaeconitis was on the same story
-with the andronitis, and behind it. The front
-of the house towards the street was not large,
-as the apartments extended rather in the
-direction of its depth than of its width. In
-towns the houses were often built side by
-side, with party-walls between. The exterior
-wall was plain, being composed generally of
-stone, brick, and timber, and often covered
-with stucco. There was no open space between
-the street and the house-door, like the
-Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vestibulum</i>. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόθυρα</span>, which is
-sometimes mentioned, seems to be merely
-the space in front of the house, where there
-was generally an altar of Apollo Agyieus,
-or a rude obelisk emblematical of the
-god. Sometimes there was a laurel tree in
-the same position, and sometimes a head of
-the god Hermes. A few steps (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀναβαθμοί</span>)
-led up to the house-door, which generally
-bore some inscription, for the sake of a good
-omen, or as a charm. The door sometimes
-opened outwards; but this seems to have
-been an exception to the general rule, as is
-proved by the expressions used for opening,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνδοῦναι</span>, and shutting it, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπισπάσασθαι</span> and
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐφελκύσασθαι</span>. The handles were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπισπαστῆρες</span>.
-The house-door was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὔλειος</span>
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὔλεια θύρα</span>, because it led to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλή</span>.
-It gave admittance to a narrow passage
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρωρεῖον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυλών</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρών</span>), on one side of
-which, in a large house, were the stables, on
-the other the porter’s lodge. The duty of
-the porter (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρωρός</span>) was to admit visitors
-and to prevent anything improper from being
-carried into or out of the house. The porter
-was attended by a dog. Hence the phrase
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐλαβεῖσθαι τὴν κύνα</span>, corresponding to the
-Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cave canem</i>. From the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρωρεῖον</span> we
-pass into the peristyle or court (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περιστύλιον</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλή</span>) of the andronitis, which was a space
-open to the sky in the centre (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕπαιθρον</span>), and
-surrounded on all four sides by porticoes
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στοαί</span>), of which one, probably that nearest the
-entrance, was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστόον</span>. These porticoes
-were used for exercise, and sometimes
-for dining in. Here was commonly the altar
-on which sacrifices were offered to the household
-gods. In building the porticoes the
-object sought was to obtain as much sun in
-winter, and as much shade and air in summer
-as possible. Round the peristyle were
-arranged the chambers used by the men, such
-as banqueting rooms (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἶκοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνδρῶνες</span>), which
-were large enough to contain several sets of
-couches (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίκλινοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑπτάκλινοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριακοντάκλινοι</span>,
-and at the same time to allow abundant room
-for attendants, musicians, and performers of
-games; parlours or sitting rooms (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξέδραι</span>),
-and smaller chambers and sleeping rooms
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δωμάτια</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοιτῶνες</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰκήματα</span>); picture-galleries<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141"></a>[141]</span>
-and libraries, and sometimes store-rooms;
-and in the arrangement of these
-apartments attention was paid to their aspect.
-The peristyle of the andronitis was connected
-with that of the gynaeconitis by a door called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέταυλος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσαυλος</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεσαύλιος</span>, which was
-in the middle of the portico of the peristyle
-opposite to the entrance. By means of this
-door all communication between the andronitis
-and gynaeconitis could be shut off.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp35" id="ill141" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill141.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ground-plan of a Greek House.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="negin1 pad3 fs80"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">α</span>, House-door, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὔλειος θύρα</span>: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρ’</span>, passage, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρωρεῖον</span>
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρών</span>: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Α</span>, peristyle, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλή</span> of the andronitis;
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ο</span>, the halls and chambers of the andronitis; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μ</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέταυλος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσαυλος θύρα</span>: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γ</span>, peristyle of the
-gynaeconitis; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γ</span>, chambers of the gynaeconitis; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">π</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάς</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραστάς</span>: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θάλαμος</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφιθάλαμος</span>:
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ι</span>, rooms for working in wool (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστῶνες</span>); <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κ</span>,
-garden-door, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηταία θύρα</span>.</p>
-
-<p>Accordingly Xenophon calls it <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θύρα βαλανωτός</span>.
-Its name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσαυλος</span> is evidently derived from
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσος</span>, and means the door <em>between</em> the two
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλαί</span> or peristyles. This door gave admittance
-to the peristyle of the gynaeconitis,
-which differed from that of the andronitis in
-having porticoes round only three of its sides.
-On the fourth side were placed two antae
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Antae">Antae</a></span>], at a considerable distance from each
-other. A third of the distance between these
-antae was set off inwards, thus forming a
-chamber or vestibule, which was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάς</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραστάς</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόδρομος</span>. On the right
-and left of this <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάς</span> were two bed-chambers,
-the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θάλαμος</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφιθάλαμος</span>, of which
-the former was the principal bed-chamber of
-the house, and here also seem to have been
-kept the vases, and other valuable articles of
-ornament. Beyond these rooms were large
-apartments (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστῶνες</span>) used for working in
-wool. Round the peristyle were the eating-rooms,
-bed-chambers, store-rooms, and other
-apartments in common use. Besides the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὔλειος θύρα</span> and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσαυλος θύρα</span>, there was
-a third door (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηπαία θύρα</span>) leading to the
-garden. The preceding is a conjectural plan
-of the ground-floor of a Greek house of the
-larger size. There was usually, though not
-always, an upper story (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπερῷον διῆρες</span>),
-which seldom extended over the whole space
-occupied by the lower story. The principal
-use of the upper story was for the lodging
-of the slaves. The access to the upper
-floor seems to have been sometimes by stairs
-on the outside of the house, leading up from
-the street. Guests were also lodged in the
-upper story. But in some large houses
-there were rooms set apart for their reception
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξενῶνες</span>) on the ground-floor. The roofs
-were generally flat, and it was customary to
-walk about upon them. In the interior of
-the house the place of doors was sometimes
-supplied by curtains (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραπετάσματα</span>), which
-were either plain, or dyed, or embroidered.
-The principal openings for the admission of
-light and air were in the roofs of the peristyles;
-but it is incorrect to suppose that the
-houses had no windows (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρίδες</span>), or at least
-none overlooking the street. They were not
-at all uncommon. Artificial warmth was
-procured partly by means of fire-places. It
-is supposed that chimneys were altogether
-unknown, and that the smoke escaped through
-an opening in the roof (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καπνοδόκη</span>), but it is
-not easy to understand how this could be
-the case when there was an upper story.
-Little portable stoves (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐσχάραι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐσχαρίδες</span>) or
-chafing-dishes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνθράκια</span>) were frequently
-used. The houses of the wealthy in the
-country, at least in Attica, were much larger
-and more magnificent than those in the towns.
-The latter seem to have been generally small
-and plain, especially in earlier times, when
-the Greeks preferred expending the resources
-of art and wealth on their temples and public
-buildings; but the private houses became
-more magnificent as the public buildings began
-to be neglected. The decorations of the
-interior were very plain at the period to
-which our description refers. The floors
-were of stone. At a late period coloured
-stones were used. Mosaics are first mentioned
-under the kings of Pergamus. The
-walls, up to the 4th century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, seem to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142"></a>[142]</span>
-have been only whited. The first instance of
-painting them is that of Alcibiades. This
-innovation met with considerable opposition.
-We have also mention of painted ceilings at
-the same period. At a later period this mode
-of decoration became general.&mdash;(2) <span id="Domu_r" class="smcap">Roman.</span>
-The houses of the Romans were poor and mean
-for many centuries after the foundation of the
-city. Till the war with Pyrrhus the houses
-were covered only with thatch or shingles,
-and were usually built of wood or unbaked
-bricks. It was not till the latter times of the
-republic, when wealth had been acquired by
-conquests in the East, that houses of any
-splendour began to be built; but it then became
-the fashion not only to build houses of
-an immense size, but also to adorn them with
-columns, paintings, statues, and costly works
-of art. Some idea may be formed of the size
-and magnificence of the houses of the Roman
-nobles during the later times of the republic
-by the price which they fetched. The consul
-Messalla bought the house of Autronius for
-3700 sestertia (nearly 33,000<em>l.</em>), and Cicero
-the house of Crassus, on the Palatine, for
-3500 sestertia (nearly 31,000<em>l.</em>). The house
-of Publius Clodius, whom Milo killed, cost
-14,800 sestertia (about 131,000<em>l.</em>); and the
-Tusculan villa of Scaurus was fitted up with
-such magnificence, that when it was burnt by
-his slaves, he lost 100,000 sestertia, upwards
-of 885,000<em>l.</em>&mdash;Houses were originally only
-one story high; but as the value of ground
-increased in the city they were built several
-stories in height, and the highest floors were
-usually inhabited by the poor. Till the time
-of Nero, the streets in Rome were narrow
-and irregular, and bore traces of the haste
-and confusion with which the city was built
-after it had been burnt by the Gauls; but
-after the great fire in the time of that emperor,
-by which two-thirds of Rome was burnt
-to the ground, the city was built with great
-regularity. The streets were made straight
-and broad; the height of the houses was restricted,
-and a certain part of each was required
-to be built of Gabian or Alban stone,
-which was proof against fire. The principal
-parts of a Roman house were the, 1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vestibulum</i>,
-2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ostium</i>, 3. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Atrium</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cavum Aedium</i>,
-4. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alae</i>, 5. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tablinum</i>, 6. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fauces</i>, 7. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Peristylium</i>.
-The parts of a house which were considered
-of less importance, and of which the
-arrangement differed in different houses,
-were the, 1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cubicula</i>, 2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triclinia</i>, 3. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Oeci</i>,
-4. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Exedrae</i>, 5. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pinacotheca</i>, 6. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bibliotheca</i>,
-7. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Balineum</i>, 8. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Culina</i>, 9. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Coenacula</i>, 10. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diaeta</i>,
-11. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Solaria</i>. We shall speak of each in
-order.&mdash;1. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Vestibulum">Vestibulum</a></span> did not properly form
-part of the house, but was a vacant space before
-the door, forming a court, which was
-surrounded on three sides by the house, and
-was open on the fourth to the street.&mdash;2. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Ostium">Ostium</a></span>,
-which is also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">janua</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fores</i>,
-was the entrance to the house. The street-door
-admitted into a hall, to which the name
-of ostium was also given, and in which there
-was frequently a small room (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i>) for the
-porter (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">janitor</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ostiarius</i>), and also for a dog,
-which was usually kept in the hall to guard
-the house. Another door (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">janua interior</i>)
-opposite the street-door led into the atrium.&mdash;3.
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Atrium">Atrium</a></span> or <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cavaedium">Cavum Aedium</a></span>, also written
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cavaedium</i>, are probably only different names
-of the same room.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill143b" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill143b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Atrium of the House of Ceres at Pompeii.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Atrium or Cavum
-Aedium was a large apartment roofed over
-with the exception of an opening in the
-centre, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">compluvium</i>, towards which the
-roof sloped so as to throw the rain-water into
-a cistern in the floor, termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">impluvium</i>,
-which was frequently ornamented with statues,
-columns, and other works of art. The
-word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">impluvium</i>, however, is also employed
-to denote the aperture in the roof. The
-atrium was the most important room in the
-house, and among the wealthy was usually
-fitted up with much splendour and magnificence.
-Originally it was the only sitting-room
-in the house; but in the houses of the
-wealthy it was distinct from the private
-apartments, and was used as a reception-room,
-where the patron received his clients,
-and the great and noble the numerous visitors
-who were accustomed to call every morning
-to pay their respects or solicit favours.
-But though the atrium was not used by the
-wealthy as a sitting-room for the family, it
-still continued to be employed for many purposes
-which it had originally served. Thus
-the nuptial couch was placed in the atrium
-opposite the door, and also the instruments
-and materials for spinning and weaving,
-which were formerly carried on by the women
-of the family in this room. Here also
-the images of their ancestors were placed,
-and the focus or fire-place, which possessed
-a sacred character, being dedicated to the
-Lares of each family.&mdash;4. <span class="smcap">Alae</span>, wings, were
-small apartments or recesses on the left and
-right sides of the atrium.&mdash;5. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Tablinum">Tablinum</a></span> was
-in all probability a recess or room at the further
-end of the atrium opposite the door
-leading into the hall, and was regarded as
-part of the atrium. It contained the family
-records and archives. With the tablinum
-the Roman house appears to have originally
-ceased; and the sleeping-rooms were probably
-arranged on each side of the atrium. But
-when the atrium and its surrounding rooms
-were used for the reception of clients and
-other public visitors, it became necessary to
-increase the size of the house; and the following<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143"></a>[143]</span>
-rooms were accordingly added:&mdash;6.
-<span class="smcap">Fauces</span> appear to have been passages,
-which passed from the atrium to the peristylium
-or interior of the house.&mdash;7. <span class="smcap">Peristylium</span>
-was in its general form like the
-atrium, but it was one-third greater in
-breadth, measured transversely, than in
-length. It was a court open to the sky in the
-middle; the open part, which was surrounded
-by columns, was larger than the impluvium
-in the atrium, and was frequently decorated
-with flowers and shrubs.&mdash;The arrangement
-of the rooms, which are next to be noticed,
-varied according to the taste and circumstances
-of the owner. It is therefore impossible
-to assign to them any regular place
-in the house.&mdash;1. <span class="smcap">Cubicula</span>, bed-chambers,
-appear to have been usually small. There
-were separate cubicula for the day and night;
-the latter were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dormitoria</i>.&mdash;2. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Triclinium">Triclinia</a></span>
-are treated of in a separate article.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Triclinium">Triclinium</a>.</span>]&mdash;3. <span class="smcap">Oeci</span>, from the Greek
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἶκος</span>, were spacious halls or saloons borrowed
-from the Greeks, and were frequently used as
-triclinia. They were to have the same proportions
-as triclinia, but were to be more
-spacious on account of having columns, which
-triclinia had not.&mdash;4. <span class="smcap">Exedrae</span> were rooms
-for conversation and the other purposes of
-society.&mdash;5. <span class="smcap">Pinacotheca</span>, a picture-gallery.&mdash;6,
-7. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Bibliotheca">Bibliotheca</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balineum</a></span> are treated
-of in separate articles.&mdash;8. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Culina">Culina</a></span>, the kitchen.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill143a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill143a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Kitchen of the House of Pansa at Pompeii.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The food was originally cooked in the atrium:
-but the progress of refinement afterwards led
-to the use of another part of the house for
-this purpose. In the kitchen of Pansa’s
-house at Pompeii, a stove for stews and similar
-preparations was found, very much like
-the charcoal stoves used in the present day.
-Before it lie a knife, a strainer, and a kind
-of frying-pan with four spherical cavities, as
-if it were meant to cook eggs.&mdash;9. <span class="smcap">Coenacula</span>,
-properly signified rooms to dine in;
-but after it became the fashion to dine in the
-upper part of the house, the whole of the
-rooms above the ground-floor were called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coenacula</i>.&mdash;10. <span class="smcap">Diaeta</span>, an apartment used
-for dining in, and for the other purposes of
-life. It appears to have been smaller than
-the triclinium. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diaeta</i> is also the name given
-by Pliny to rooms containing three or four
-bed-chambers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cubicula</i>). Pleasure-houses
-or summer-houses are also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diaetae</i>.&mdash;11.
-<span class="smcap">Solaria</span>, properly places for basking in
-the sun, were terraces on the tops of houses.
-The preceding cut represents the atrium of a
-house at Pompeii. In the centre is the impluvium,
-and the passage at the further end
-is the ostium or entrance hall.&mdash;The preceding
-account of the different rooms, and
-especially of the arrangement of the atrium,
-tablinum, peristyle, &amp;c., is best illustrated
-by the houses which have been disinterred at
-Pompeii. The ground-plan of one is accordingly
-subjoined.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="ill144" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill144.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ground-plan of a House at Pompeii.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Like most of the other<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144"></a>[144]</span>
-houses at Pompeii, it had no vestibulum
-according to the meaning given above. 1.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ostium</i> or entrance-hall, which is six
-feet wide and nearly thirty long. Near the
-street-door there is a figure of a large fierce
-dog worked in mosaic on the pavement, and
-beneath it is written <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cave Canem</i>. The two
-large rooms on each side of the vestibule appear
-from the large openings in front of them
-to have been shops; they communicate with
-the entrance-hall, and were therefore probably
-occupied by the master of the house.
-2. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atrium</i>, which is about twenty-eight
-feet in length and twenty in breadth; its
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">impluvium</i> is near the centre of the room,
-and its floor is paved with white tesserae,
-spotted with black. 3. Chambers for the use
-of the family, or intended for the reception of
-guests, who were entitled to claim hospitality.
-4. A small room with a staircase leading
-up to the upper rooms. 5. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alae.</i> 6. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tablinum</i>. 7. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fauces</i>. 8. Peristyle,
-with Doric columns and garden in the centre.
-The large room on the right of the peristyle
-is the triclinium; beside it is the kitchen;
-and the smaller apartments are cubicula and
-other rooms for the use of the family.&mdash;Having
-given a general description of the rooms
-of a Roman house, it remains to speak of the
-(1) floors, (2) walls, (3) ceilings, (4) windows,
-and (5) the mode of warming the rooms.
-For the doors, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Janua">Janua</a></span>.&mdash;(1.) The floor
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solum</i>) of a room was seldom boarded: it
-was generally covered with stone or marble,
-or mosaics. The common floors were paved
-with pieces of bricks, tiles, stones, &amp;c., forming
-a kind of composition called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ruderatic</i>.
-Sometimes pieces of marble were imbedded
-in a composition ground, and these probably
-gave the idea of mosaics. As these floors
-were beaten down (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pavita</i>) with rammers
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fistucae</i>), the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pavimentum</i> became the
-general name for a floor. Mosaics, called by
-Pliny <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lithostrota</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λιθόστρωτα</span>), though this
-word has a more extensive meaning, first
-came into use in Sulla’s time, who made one
-in the temple of Fortune at Praeneste. Mosaic
-work was afterwards called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Musivum
-opus</i>, and was most extensively employed.&mdash;(2.)
-The inner walls (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">parietes</i>) of private
-rooms were frequently lined with slabs of
-marble, but were more usually covered by
-paintings, which in the time of Augustus
-were made upon the walls themselves. This
-practice was so common that we find even
-the small houses in Pompeii have paintings
-upon their walls.&mdash;(3.) The ceilings seem
-originally to have been left uncovered, the
-beams which supported the roof or the upper
-story being visible. Afterwards planks were
-placed across these beams at certain intervals,
-leaving hollow spaces, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lacunaria</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">laquearia</i>,
-which were frequently covered with
-gold and ivory, and sometimes with paintings.
-There was an arched ceiling in common
-use, called <span class="smcap"><a href="#Camara">Camara</a></span>.&mdash;(4.) The Roman
-houses had few windows (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fenestrae</i>). The
-principal apartments, the atrium, peristyle,
-&amp;c., were lighted from above, and the cubicula
-and other small rooms generally derived
-their light from them, and not from windows
-looking into the street. The rooms only
-on the upper story seem to have been usually
-lighted by windows. The windows appear
-originally to have been merely openings in
-the wall, closed by means of shutters, which
-frequently had two leaves (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bifores fenestrae</i>).
-Windows were also sometimes covered by a
-kind of lattice or trellis work (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clathri</i>), and
-sometimes by net-work, to prevent serpents
-and other noxious reptiles from getting in.
-Afterwards, however, windows were made of
-a transparent stone, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lapis specularis</i>
-(mica); such windows were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">specularia</i>.
-Windows made of glass (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitrum</i>) are
-first mentioned by Lactantius, who lived in
-the fourth century of the Christian era; but
-the discoveries at Pompeii prove that glass
-was used for windows under the early emperors.&mdash;(5.)
-The rooms were heated in winter
-in different ways; but the Romans had no<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145"></a>[145]</span>
-stoves like ours. The cubicula, triclinia, and
-other rooms, which were intended for winter
-use, were built in that part of the house upon
-which the sun shone most; and in the mild
-climate of Italy this frequently enabled them
-to dispense with any artificial mode of warming
-the rooms. Rooms exposed to the sun
-in this way were sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">heliocamini</i>.
-The rooms were sometimes heated by hot air,
-which was introduced by means of pipes from
-a furnace below, but more frequently by
-portable furnaces or braziers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foculi</i>), in
-which coal or charcoal was burnt. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caminus</i>
-was also a kind of stove, in which
-wood appears to have been usually burnt, and
-probably only differed from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foculus</i> in being
-larger and fixed to one place. The rooms
-usually had no chimneys for carrying off the
-smoke, which escaped through the windows,
-doors, and openings in the roof; still chimneys
-do not appear to have been entirely unknown
-to the ancients, as some are said to
-have been found in the ruins of ancient
-buildings.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Donaria">DŌNĀRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀναθήματα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνακείμενα</span>), presents
-made to the gods, either by individuals
-or communities. Sometimes they are also
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dona</i> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῶρα</span>. The belief that the gods
-were pleased with costly presents was as
-natural to the ancients as the belief that they
-could be influenced in their conduct towards
-men by the offering of sacrifices; and, indeed,
-both sprang from the same feeling.
-Presents were mostly given as tokens of gratitude
-for some favour which a god had bestowed
-on man; as, for instance, by persons
-who had recovered from illness or escaped
-from shipwreck; but some are also mentioned,
-which were intended to induce the
-deity to grant some especial favour. Almost
-all presents were dedicated in temples, to
-which in some places an especial building was
-added, in which these treasures were preserved.
-Such buildings were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θησαυροί</span>
-(treasuries); and in the most frequented
-temples of Greece many states had their
-separate treasuries. The act of dedication
-was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνατιθέναι</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">donare</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dedicare</i>, or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacrare</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Donativum">DŌNĀTĪVUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Congiarium">Congiarium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dormitoria">DORMĪTŌRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dos">DOS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φερνή</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προΐξ</span>), dowry. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span>
-In the Homeric times it was customary for
-the husband to purchase his wife from her
-relations, by gifts called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕδνα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔεδνα</span>. But
-at Athens, during the historical period, the
-contrary was the case; for every woman had
-to bring her husband some dowry, and so
-universal was the practice, that one of the
-chief distinctions between a wife and a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παλλακή</span>,
-or concubine, consisted in the former
-having a portion, whereas the latter had not;
-hence, persons who married wives without
-portions appear to have given them or their
-guardians an acknowledgment in writing
-by which the receipt of a portion was admitted.
-Moreover, poor heiresses were either
-married or portioned by their next of kin,
-according to a law, which fixed the amount
-of portion to be given at five minae by a Pentacosiomedimnus,
-three by a Horseman, and
-one and a half by a Zeugites. The husband
-had to give to the relatives or guardians of
-the wife security (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποτίμημα</span>) for the dowry,
-which was not considered the property of the
-husband himself, but rather of his wife and
-children. The portion was returned to the
-wife in case of a divorce.&mdash;(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span> The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dos</i> among the Romans was every thing
-which on the occasion of a woman’s marriage
-was transferred by her, or by another person,
-to the husband. All the property of the wife
-which was not made dos continued to be her
-own, and was comprised under the name of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">parapherna</i>. The dos upon its delivery became
-the husband’s property, and continued
-to be his so long as the marriage relation
-existed. In the case of divorce, the woman,
-or her relations, could bring an action for
-the restitution of the dos; and, accordingly,
-a woman whose dos was large (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dotata uxor</i>)
-had some influence over her husband, inasmuch
-as she had the power of divorcing herself,
-and thus of depriving him of the enjoyment
-of her property.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill145" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill145.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Attic Drachma. (British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Drachma">DRACHMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δραχμή</span>), the principal silver
-coin among the Greeks. The two chief
-standards in the currencies of the Greek
-states were the Attic and Aeginetan. The
-average value of the Attic drachma was 9¾<em>d.</em>
-of our money. It contained six obols (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀβολοί</span>);
-and the Athenians had separate silver coins,
-from four drachmae to a quarter of an obol.
-There were also silver pieces of two drachmae
-and four drachmae. (See tables.) The tetradrachm
-in later times was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stater</i>. The
-latter word also signifies a gold coin, equal
-in value to twenty drachmae [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Stater">Stater</a></span>]. The
-obolos, in later times, was of bronze: but in
-the best times of Athens we only read of
-silver obols. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκοῦς</span> was a copper coin,
-and the eighth part of an obol. The Attic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146"></a>[146]</span>
-standard prevailed most in the maritime and
-commercial states. It was the standard of
-Philip’s gold, and was introduced by Alexander
-for silver also.&mdash;The Aeginetan standard
-appears to have been the prevalent one in
-early times: we are told that money was
-first coined at Aegina by order of Pheidon at
-Argos. In later times the Aeginetan standard
-was used in almost all the states of the Peloponnesus,
-except Corinth. The average value
-of the Aeginetan drachma was 1<em>s.</em> 1¾<em>d.</em> in our
-money; and the values of the different coins
-of this standard are as follows:&mdash;</p>
-
-<table class="autotable" width="70%" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdc">Shill.</td>
-<td class="tdc">Pence.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Farth.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">½ Obol</td>
-<td class="tdc">-</td>
-<td class="tdc">1</td>
-<td class="tdl">0·583</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Obol</td>
-<td class="tdc">-</td>
-<td class="tdc">2</td>
-<td class="tdl">1·166</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Diobolus</td>
-<td class="tdc">-</td>
-<td class="tdc">4</td>
-<td class="tdl">2·33</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Triobolus</td>
-<td class="tdc">-</td>
-<td class="tdc">6</td>
-<td class="tdl">2·5</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Drachma</td>
-<td class="tdc">1</td>
-<td class="tdc">1</td>
-<td class="tdl">3</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Didrachm</td>
-<td class="tdc">2</td>
-<td class="tdc">3</td>
-<td class="tdl">2</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill146" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="p2 w100" src="images/ill146.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Aeginetan Drachma. (British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>As the Romans reckoned in sesterces, so the
-Greeks generally reckoned by drachmae; and
-when a sum is mentioned in the Attic writers,
-without any specification of the unit, drachmae
-are usually meant.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Draco">DRĂCO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Signa">Signa Militaria</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ducenarii">DŬCĒNĀRĬI.&mdash;(1) The name given to the
-Roman procuratores, who received a salary
-of 200 sestertia. The procuratores first received
-a salary in the time of Augustus.&mdash;(2)
-A class or decuria of judices, first established
-by Augustus. They were so called because
-their property, as valued in the census,
-amounted only to 200 sestertia. They appear
-to <ins class="corr" id="tn-146" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'have tried causes'">
-have tried cases</ins> of small importance.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ducentesima">DŬCENTĒSĬMA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Centesima">Centesima</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Duodecim">DŬŎDĔCIM SCRIPTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Latrunculi">Latrunculi</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Duodecim_l">DŬŎDĔCIM TĂBŬLĀRUM LEX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex">Lex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Duplarii">DUPLĀRĬI or DUPLĬCĀRĬI, were soldiers
-who received on account of their good conduct
-double allowance (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duplicia cibaria</i>), and
-perhaps in some cases double pay likewise.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dupondius">DŬPONDĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Dussis">DUSSIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Duumviri">DUUMVĬRI, or the two men, the name of
-various magistrates and functionaries at
-Rome, and in the coloniae and municipia.
-(1) <span class="smcap">Duumviri Juri Dicundo</span> were the highest
-magistrates in the municipal towns. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a>.</span>]&mdash;(2)
-<span class="smcap">Duumviri Navales</span>, extraordinary
-magistrates, who were created, whenever
-occasion required, for the purpose of
-equipping and repairing the fleet. They
-appear to have been originally appointed by
-the consuls and dictators, but were first
-elected by the people, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 311.&mdash;(3) <span class="smcap">Duumviri
-Perduellionis</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Perduellio">Perduellio</a>.</span>]&mdash;(4) <span class="smcap">Duumviri
-Quinquennales</span>, were the censors in
-the municipal towns, and must not be confounded
-with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duumviri juri dicundo</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a>.</span>]&mdash;(5)
-<span class="smcap">Duumviri Sacrorum</span> originally
-had the charge of the Sibylline books. Their
-duties were afterwards discharged by the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decemviri sacris faciundis</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Decemviri">Decemviri</a>.</span>]&mdash;(6)
-<span class="smcap">Duumviri</span> were also appointed for the purpose
-of building or dedicating a temple.</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="E_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">E</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Ecclesia" class="drop-capy">ECCLĒSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκκλησία</span>), the name of the
-general assembly of the citizens at Athens,
-in which they met to discuss and determine
-upon matters of public interest, and which
-was therefore the sovereign power in the
-state. These assemblies were either <em>ordinary</em>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νόμιμοι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυρίαι</span>), and held four times in
-each prytany, or <em>extraordinary</em>, that is, specially
-convened, upon any sudden emergency,
-and therefore called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύγκλητοι</span>. The place in
-which they were anciently held was the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agora</i>. Afterwards they were transferred to
-the Pnyx, and at last to the great theatre of
-Dionysus, and other places. The most usual
-place, however, was the Pnyx, which was
-situated to the west of the Areiopagus, on a
-slope connected with Mount Lycabettus, and
-partly at least within the walls of the city.
-It was semicircular in form, with a boundary
-wall part rock and part masonry, and an area
-of about 12,000 square yards. On the north
-the ground was filled up and paved with
-large stones, so as to get a level surface on
-the slope. Towards this side, and close to
-the wall, was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bema</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βῆμα</span>), a stone platform
-or hustings ten or eleven feet high,
-with an ascent of steps. The position of the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bema</i> was such as to command a view of the
-sea from behind, and of the Propylaea and
-Parthenon in front, and we may be sure that
-the Athenian orators would often rouse the
-national feelings of their hearers by pointing
-to the assemblage of magnificent edifices,
-“monuments of Athenian gratitude and
-glory,” which they had in view from the
-Pnyx.&mdash;The right of convening the people
-was generally vested in the prytanes or presidents
-of the council of Five Hundred [see
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boulé</a></span>], but in cases of sudden emergency,
-and especially during wars, the strategi also
-had the power of calling extraordinary
-meetings, for which, however, the consent of
-the senate appears to have been necessary.
-The prytanes not only gave a previous notice<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147"></a>[147]</span>
-of the day of assembly, and published a programme
-of the subjects to be discussed, but
-also, it appears, sent a crier round to collect
-the citizens. All persons who did not obey
-the call were subject to a fine, and six magistrates
-called lexiarchs were appointed,
-whose duty it was to take care that the
-people attended the meetings, and to levy
-fines on those who refused to do so. With a
-view to this, whenever an assembly was to
-be held, certain public slaves (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκύθαι</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοξόται</span>) were sent round to sweep the agora,
-and other places of public resort, with a rope
-coloured with vermilion. The different persons
-whom these ropemen met, were driven
-by them towards the ecclesia, and those who
-refused to go were marked by the rope and
-fined. An additional inducement to attend,
-with the poorer classes, was the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μισθὸς
-ἐκκλησιαστικός</span>, or pay which they received
-for it. The payment was originally an obolus,
-but was afterwards raised to three. The
-right of attending was enjoyed by all legitimate
-citizens who were of the proper age
-(generally supposed to be twenty, certainly
-not less than eighteen), and not labouring
-under any <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimia</i>, or loss of civil rights.&mdash;In
-the article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boulé</a></span> it is explained who the
-prytanes and the proedri were; and we may
-here remark, that it was the duty of the
-proedri of the same tribe, under the presidency
-of their chairman (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ ἐπιστάτης</span>), to lay
-before the people the subjects to be discussed;
-to read, or cause to be read, the previous bill
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ προβούλευμα</span>) of the senate, without which
-no measure could be brought before the
-ecclesia, and to give permission to the
-speakers to address the people. The officers
-who acted under them, were the crier
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ κήρυξ</span>), and the Scythian bowmen.&mdash;Previous,
-however, to the commencement of any
-business, the place was purified by the offering
-of sacrifices, and then the gods were
-implored in a prayer to bless the proceedings
-of the meeting. The privilege of addressing
-the assembly was not confined to any class or
-age among those who had the right to be
-present: all, without any distinction, were
-invited to do so by the proclamation, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τίς
-ἀγορεύειν βούλεται</span>, which was made by the
-crier after the proedri had gone through the
-necessary preliminaries, and laid the subject
-of discussion before the meeting; for though,
-according to the institutions of Solon, those
-persons who were above fifty years of age
-ought to have been called upon to speak first,
-this regulation had in later times become
-quite obsolete. The speakers are sometimes
-simply called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ παρίοντες</span>, and appear to have
-worn a crown of myrtle on their heads while
-addressing the assembly. The most influential
-and practised speakers of the assembly
-were generally distinguished by the name of
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥήτορες</span>. After the speakers had concluded,
-any one was at liberty to propose a decree,
-whether drawn up beforehand or framed in
-the meeting, which, however, it was necessary
-to present to the proedri, that they
-might see, in conjunction with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomophylaces</i>,
-whether there was contained in it
-anything injurious to the state, or contrary
-to the existing laws. If not, it was read by
-the crier; though, even after the reading,
-the chairman could prevent it being put to
-the vote, unless his opposition was overborne
-by threats and clamours. Private individuals
-also could do the same, by engaging upon
-oath (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπωμοσία</span>) to bring against the author
-of any measure they might object to, an accusation
-called a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφὴ παράνομων</span>. If, however,
-the chairman refused to submit any
-question to the decision of the people, he
-might be proceeded against by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">endeixis</i>; and
-if he allowed the people to vote upon a proposal
-which was contrary to existing constitutional
-laws, he was in some cases liable to
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimia</i>. If, on the contrary, no opposition
-of this sort was offered to a proposed decree,
-the votes of the people were taken, by the
-permission of the chairman and with the
-consent of the rest of the proedri. The
-decision of the people was given either by
-show of hands, or by ballot, <em>i.e.</em> by casting
-pebbles into urns (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καδίσκοι</span>); the former was
-expressed by the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονεῖν</span>, the latter
-by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψηφίζεσθαι</span>, although the two terms are
-frequently confounded. The more usual method
-of voting was by show of hands, as being
-more expeditious and convenient (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>).
-Vote by ballot, on the other hand, was only
-used in a few special cases determined by
-law; as, for instance, when a proposition
-was made for allowing those who had suffered
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimia</i> to appeal to the people for restitution
-of their former rights; or for inflicting
-extraordinary punishments on atrocious
-offenders, and generally, upon any matter
-which affected private persons. In cases of
-this sort it was settled by law, that a decree
-should not be valid unless six thousand
-citizens at least voted in favour of it. This
-was by far the majority of those citizens who
-were in the habit of attending; for, in time
-of war, the number never amounted to five
-thousand, and in time of peace seldom to ten
-thousand.&mdash;The determination or decree of
-the people was called a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψήφισμα</span>, which properly
-signifies a law proposed to an assembly,
-and approved of by the people. Respecting
-the form for drawing up a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψήφισμα</span>,
-see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boulé</a></span>.&mdash;When the business was over,
-the order for the dismissal of the assembly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a>[148]</span>
-was given by the prytanes, through the proclamation
-of the crier; and as it was not customary
-to continue meetings, which usually
-began early in the morning, till after sunset,
-if one day were not sufficient for the completion
-of any business, it was adjourned to
-the next. But an assembly was sometimes
-broken up, if any one, whether a magistrate
-or private individual, declared that he saw
-an unfavourable omen, or perceived thunder
-and lightning. The sudden appearance of
-rain also, or the shock of an earthquake, or
-any natural phenomenon of the kind called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διοσημίαι</span>, was a sufficient reason for the
-hasty adjournment of an assembly.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Eccleti">ECCLETI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Homoei">Homoei</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ecdicus">ECDĬCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔκδικος</span>), the name of an officer
-in many of the towns of Asia Minor during
-the Roman dominion, whose principal duty
-was the care of the public money, and the
-prosecution of all parties who owed money
-to the state.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ecmartyria">ECMARTȲRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκμαρτυρία</span>), signifies the
-deposition of a witness at Athens, who, by
-reason of absence abroad, or illness, was
-unable to attend in court. His statement
-was taken down in writing, in the presence
-of persons expressly appointed to receive it,
-and afterwards, upon their swearing to its
-identity, was read as evidence in the cause.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Edictum">ĒDICTUM. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus Edicendi</i>, or power of
-making edicts, belonged to the higher <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magistratus
-populi Romani</i>, but it was principally
-exercised by the two praetors, the praetor
-urbanus, and the praetor peregrinus, whose
-jurisdiction was exercised in the provinces
-by the praeses. The curule aediles likewise
-made many edicts; and tribunes, censors,
-and pontifices also promulgated edicts relating
-to the matters of their respective jurisdictions.
-The edicta were among the sources
-of Roman law. The edictum may be described
-generally as a rule promulgated by a
-magistratus on entering on his office, which
-was done by writing it on an album and
-exhibiting it in a conspicuous place. As the
-office of a magistratus was annual, the rules
-promulgated by a predecessor were not binding
-on a successor, but he might confirm or
-adopt the rules of his predecessor, and introduce
-them into his own edict, and hence
-such adopted rules were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edictum ralatitium</i>,
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vetus</i>, as opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edictum novum</i>.
-A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repentinum edictum</i> was that rule which
-was made (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prout res incidit</i>) for the occasion.
-A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perpetuum edictum</i> was that rule which
-was made by the magistratus on entering
-upon office, and which was intended to apply
-to all cases to which it was applicable during
-the year of his office: hence it was sometimes
-called also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">annua lex</i>. Until it became the
-practice for magistratus to adopt the edicta
-of their predecessors, the edicta could not
-form a body of permanent binding rules;
-but when this practice became common, the
-edicta (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edictum tralatitium</i>) soon constituted
-a large body of law, which was practically of as
-much importance as any other part of the law.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Eicoste">EICOSTĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰκοστή</span>), a tax or duty of one-twentieth
-(five per cent.) upon all commodities
-exported or imported by sea in the
-states of the allies subject to Athens. This
-tax was first imposed <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 413, in the place
-of the direct tribute which had up to this
-time been paid by the subject allies; and the
-change was made with the hope of raising a
-greater revenue. This tax, like all others,
-was farmed, and the farmers of it were
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰκοστολόγοι</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Eiren">EIRĒN or ĪRĒN (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἴρην</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἴρην</span>), the name
-given to the Spartan youth when he attained
-the age of twenty. At the age of eighteen
-he emerged from childhood, and was called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μελλείρην</span>. When he had attained his twentieth
-year, he began to exercise a direct influence
-over his juniors, and was entrusted
-with the command of troops in battle. The
-word appears to have originally signified a
-commander. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰρένες</span> mentioned in Herodotus,
-in connection with the battle of Plataeae,
-were certainly not youths, but commanders.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Eisangelia">EISANGĔLĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσαγγελία</span>), signifies, in its
-primary and most general sense, a denunciation
-of any kind, but, much more usually, an
-information laid before the council or the
-assembly of the people, and the consequent
-impeachment and trial of state criminals at
-Athens under novel or extraordinary circumstances.
-Among these were the occasions
-upon which manifest crimes were alleged to
-have been committed, and yet of such a
-nature as the existing laws had failed to
-anticipate, or at least describe specifically
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄγραφα ἀδικήματα</span>), the result of which omission
-would have been, but for the enactment
-by which the accusations in question might
-be preferred (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νόμος εἰσαγγελτικός</span>), that a prosecutor
-would not have known to what magistrate
-to apply; that a magistrate, if
-applied to, could not with safety have accepted
-the indictment or brought it into
-court; and that, in short, there would have
-been a total failure of justice.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Eisiteria">EISITĒRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσιτήρια</span>, <em>scil.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερά</span>), sacrifices
-offered at Athens by the senate before the
-session began, in honour of the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεοὶ Βουλαῖοι</span>,
-<em>i.e.</em> Zeus and Athena.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Eisphora">EISPHŎRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφορά</span>), an extraordinary
-tax on property, raised at Athens, whenever
-the means of the state were not sufficient to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149"></a>[149]</span>
-carry on a war. It is not quite certain when
-this property-tax was introduced; but it
-seems to have come first into general use
-about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 428. It could never be raised
-without a decree of the people, who also
-assigned the amount required; and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strategi</i>,
-or generals, superintended its collection,
-and presided in the courts where disputes
-connected with, or arising from, the levying
-of the tax were settled. The usual expressions
-for paying this property-tax are:
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφέρειν χρήματα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφέρειν εἰς τὸν πόλεμον</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰς τὴν σωτηρίαν τῆς πόλεως</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφορὰς εἰσφέρειν</span>,
-and those who paid it were called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ εἰσφέροντες</span>. The census of Solon was at
-first the standard according to which the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">eisphora</i> was raised, until in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 377 a new
-census was instituted, in which the people,
-for the purpose of fixing the rates of the property-tax,
-were divided into a number of
-symmoriae (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμμορίαι</span>) or classes, similar to
-those which were afterwards made for the
-trierarchy. Each of the ten tribes or phylae,
-appointed 120 of its wealthier citizens; and
-the whole number of persons included in the
-symmoriae was thus 1200, who were considered
-as the representatives of the whole
-republic. This body of 1200 was divided
-into four classes, each consisting of 300. The
-first class, or the richest, were the leaders of
-the symmoriae (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡγεμόνες συμμοριῶν</span>), and are
-often called the three hundred. They probably
-conducted the proceedings of the symmoriae,
-and they, or, which is more likely,
-the demarchs, had to value the taxable property.
-Other officers were appointed to make
-out the lists of the rates, and were called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιγραφεῖς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαγραφεῖς</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκλογεῖς</span>. When the
-wants of the state were pressing, the 300
-leaders advanced the money to the others,
-who paid it back to the 300 at the regular
-time. The first class probably consisted of
-persons who possessed property from 12
-talents upwards; the second class, of persons
-who possessed property from 6 talents and
-upwards, but under 12; the third class, of
-persons who possessed property from 2
-talents upwards, but under 6; the fourth class,
-of persons who possessed property from 25
-minae upwards, but under 2 talents. The
-rate of taxation was higher or lower according
-to the wants of the republic at the time;
-we have accounts of rates of a 12th, a 50th,
-a 100th, and a 500th part of the taxable property.
-If any one thought that his property
-was taxed higher than that of another man
-on whom juster claims could be made, he had
-the right to call upon this person to take the
-office in his stead, or to submit to a complete
-exchange of property. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Antidosis">Antidosis</a>.</span>] No
-Athenian, on the other hand, if belonging to
-the tax-paying classes, could be exempt from
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">eisphora</i>, not even the descendants of
-Harmodius and Aristogeiton.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Electrum">ĒLECTRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἤλεκτρος</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἤλεκτρον</span>), is
-used by the ancient writers in two different
-senses, either for <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amber</i> or for a mixture of
-metals composed of gold and silver. In Homer
-and Hesiod, it has, in all probability, the
-former meaning. The earliest passage of any
-Greek writer, in which the word is <em>certainly</em>
-used for the metal, is in the <cite>Antigone</cite> of
-Sophocles (1038). This alludes to <em>native
-electrum</em>; but the compound was also made
-artificially. Pliny states that when gold
-contains a fifth part of silver, it is called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">electrum</i>; that it is found in veins of gold;
-and that it is also made by art: if, he adds,
-it contains more than a fifth of silver, it becomes
-too brittle to be malleable. But Isidorus
-mentions electrum composed of <em>three</em>
-parts gold, and <em>one</em> of silver. Electrum was
-used for plate, and the other similar purposes
-for which gold and silver were employed.
-It was also used as a material for money.
-Lampridius tells us, that Alexander Severus
-struck coins of it; and coins are in existence,
-of this metal, struck by the kings of Bosporus,
-by Syracuse, and by other Greek states.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Eleusinia">ĔLEUSĪNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐλευσίνια</span>), a festival and
-mysteries, originally celebrated only at Eleusis
-in Attica, in honour of Demeter and Persephone.
-The Eleusinian mysteries, or <em>the</em>
-mysteries, as they were sometimes called,
-were the holiest and most venerable of all
-that were celebrated in Greece. Various
-traditions were current among the Greeks
-respecting the author of these mysteries:
-for, while some considered Eumolpus or
-Musaeus to be their founder, others stated
-that they had been introduced from Egypt
-by Erechtheus, who at a time of scarcity provided
-his country with corn from Egypt, and
-imported from the same quarter the sacred
-rites and mysteries of Eleusis. A third tradition
-attributed the institution to Demeter
-herself, who, when wandering about in search
-of her daughter, Persephone, was believed to
-have come to Attica, in the reign of Erechtheus,
-to have supplied its inhabitants with
-corn, and to have instituted the mysteries at
-Eleusis. This last opinion seems to have
-been the most common among the ancients,
-and in subsequent times a stone was shown
-near the well Callichoros at Eleusis, on which
-the goddess, overwhelmed with grief and
-fatigue, was believed to have rested on her
-arrival in Attica. All the accounts and allusions
-in ancient writers seem to warrant the
-conclusion, that the legends concerning the
-introduction of the Eleusinia are descriptions
-of a period when the inhabitants of Attica<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150"></a>[150]</span>
-were becoming acquainted with the benefits
-of agriculture, and of a regularly constituted
-form of society.&mdash;In the reign of Erechtheus
-a war is said to have broken out between the
-Athenians and Eleusinians; and when the
-latter were defeated, they acknowledged the
-supremacy of Athens in everything except
-the mysteries, which they wished to conduct
-and regulate for themselves. Thus the superintendence
-remained with the descendants
-of Eumolpus [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Eumolpidae">Eumolpidae</a></span>], the daughters of
-the Eleusinian king Celeus, and a third class
-of priests, the Ceryces, who seem likewise to
-have been connected with the family of Eumolpus,
-though they themselves traced their
-origin to Hermes and Aglauros.&mdash;At the
-time when the local governments of the
-several townships of Attica were concentrated
-at Athens, the capital became also the centre
-of religion, and several deities who had
-hitherto only enjoyed a local worship, were
-now raised to the rank of national gods. This
-seems also to have been the case with the
-Eleusinian goddess, for in the reign of Theseus
-we find mention of a temple at Athens,
-called Eleusinion, probably the new and national
-sanctuary of Demeter. Her priests
-and priestesses now became naturally attached
-to the national temple of the capital,
-though her original place of worship at Eleusis,
-with which so many sacred associations
-were connected, still retained its importance
-and its special share in the celebration of the
-national solemnities.&mdash;We must distinguish
-between the greater Eleusinia, which were
-celebrated at Athens and Eleusis, and the
-lesser, which were held at Agrae on the
-Ilissus. The lesser Eleusinia were only a
-preparation (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προκάθαρσις</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προάγνευσις</span>) for
-the real mysteries. They were held every
-year in the month of Anthesterion, and, according
-to some accounts, in honour of Persephone
-alone. Those who were initiated
-in them bore the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mystae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μύσται</span>),
-and had to wait at least another year before
-they could be admitted to the great mysteries.
-The principal rites of this first stage
-of initiation consisted in the sacrifice of a
-sow, which the mystae seem to have first
-washed in the Cantharus, and in the purification
-by a priest, who bore the name of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hydranos</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑδρανός</span>). The mystae had also
-to take an <ins class="corr" id="tn-150" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'oath of secresy'">
-oath of secrecy</ins>, which was administered
-to them by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mystagogus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μυσταγωγός</span>,
-also called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροφάντης</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προφήτης</span>), and
-they received some kind of preparatory instruction,
-which enabled them afterwards to
-understand the mysteries which were revealed
-to them in the great Eleusinia.&mdash;The great
-mysteries were celebrated every year in the
-month of Boedromion, during nine days,
-from the 15th to the 23rd, both at Athens
-and Eleusis. The initiated were called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπόπται</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφυροι</span>. On the first day, those
-who had been initiated in the lesser Eleusinia,
-assembled at Athens. On the second
-day the mystae went in solemn procession
-to the sea-coast, where they underwent a
-purification. Of the third day scarcely anything
-is known with certainty; we are only
-told that it was a day of fasting, and that in
-the evening a frugal meal was taken, which
-consisted of cakes made of sesame and honey.
-On the fourth day the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλάθος κάθοδος</span> seems
-to have taken place. This was a procession
-with a basket containing pomegranates and
-poppy-seeds; it was carried on a waggon
-drawn by oxen, and women followed with
-small mystic cases in their hands. On the
-fifth day, which appears to have been called
-the torch day (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡ τῶν λαμπάδων ἡμέρα</span>), the
-mystae, led by the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δᾳδοῦχος</span>, went in the evening
-with torches to the temple of Demeter at
-Eleusis, where they seem to have remained
-during the following night. This rite was
-probably a symbolical representation of Demeter
-wandering about in search of Persephone.
-The sixth day, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Iacchos</i>, was
-the most solemn of all. The statue of Iacchos,
-son of Demeter, adorned with a garland of
-myrtle and bearing a torch in his hand, was
-carried along the sacred road amidst joyous
-shouts and songs, from the Cerameicus to
-Eleusis. This solemn procession was accompanied
-by great numbers of followers and
-spectators. During the night from the sixth
-to the seventh day the mystae remained at
-Eleusis, and were initiated into the last mysteries
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐποπτεία</span>). Those who were neither
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπόπται</span> nor <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μύσται</span> were sent away by a
-herald. The mystae now repeated the oath
-of secrecy which had been administered to
-them at the lesser Eleusinia, underwent a
-new purification, and then they were led by
-the mystagogus in the darkness of night into
-the lighted interior of the sanctuary (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φωταγωγία</span>),
-and were allowed to see (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐτοψία</span>)
-what none except the epoptae ever beheld.
-The awful and horrible manner in which the
-initiation is described by later, especially
-Christian writers, seems partly to proceed
-from their ignorance of its real character,
-partly from their horror of and aversion to
-these pagan rites. The more ancient writers
-always abstained from entering upon any
-description of the subject. Each individual,
-after his initiation, is said to have been dismissed
-by the words <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόγξ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄμπαξ</span>, in order to
-make room for other mystae. On the seventh
-day the initiated returned to Athens
-amid various kinds of raillery and jests, especially
-at the bridge over the Cephisus,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151"></a>[151]</span>
-where they sat down to rest, and poured
-forth their ridicule on those who passed by.
-Hence the words <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γεφυρίζειν</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γεφυρισμός</span>.
-These <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκώμματα</span> seem, like the procession
-with torches to Eleusis, to have been dramatical
-and symbolical representations of the
-jests by which, according to the ancient
-legend, Iambe or Baubo had dispelled the
-grief of the goddess and made her smile. We
-may here observe, that probably the whole
-history of Demeter and Persephone was in
-some way or other symbolically represented
-at the Eleusinia. The eighth day, called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epidauria</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιδαύρια</span>), was a kind of additional
-day for those who by some accident
-had come too late, or had been prevented
-from being initiated on the sixth day. It
-was said to have been added to the original
-number of days, when Asclepius, coming over
-from Epidaurus to be initiated, arrived too
-late, and the Athenians, not to disappoint
-the god, added an eighth day. The ninth
-and last day bore the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλημοχοαί</span>,
-from a peculiar kind of vessel called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλημοχοή</span>,
-which is described as a small kind of
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κότυλος</span>. Two of these vessels were on this
-day filled with water or wine, and the contents
-of the one thrown to the east, and those
-of the other to the west, while those who
-performed this rite uttered some mystical
-words.&mdash;The Eleusinian mysteries long survived
-the independence of Greece. Attempts
-to suppress them were made by the emperor
-Valentinian, but he met with strong opposition,
-and they seem to have continued down
-to the time of the elder Theodosius. Respecting
-the secret doctrines which were revealed
-in them to the initiated, nothing certain is
-known. The general belief of the ancients
-was, that they opened to man a comforting
-prospect of a future state. But this feature
-does not seem to have been originally connected
-with these mysteries, and was probably
-added to them at the period which followed
-the opening of a regular intercourse
-between Greece and Egypt, when some of
-the speculative doctrines of the latter country,
-and of the East, may have been introduced
-into the mysteries, and hallowed by the
-names of the venerable bards of the mythical
-age. This supposition would also account, in
-some measure, for the legend of their introduction
-from Egypt. In modern times many
-attempts have been made to discover the
-nature of the mysteries revealed to the initiated,
-but the results have been as various
-and as fanciful as might be expected. The
-most sober and probable view is that, according
-to which, “they were the remains of a
-worship which preceded the rise of the Hellenic
-mythology and its attendant rites,
-grounded on a view of nature, less fanciful,
-more earnest, and better fitted to awaken
-both philosophical thought and religious
-feeling.”</p>
-
-
-<p id="Eleutheria">ĔLEUTHĔRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐλευθέρια</span>), the feast of
-liberty, a festival which the Greeks, after the
-battle of Plataeae (479 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>), instituted in
-honour of Zeus Eleutherios (the deliverer).
-It was intended not merely to be a token of
-their gratitude to the god to whom they believed
-themselves to be indebted for their
-victory over the barbarians, but also as a
-bond of union among themselves; for, in an
-assembly of all the Greeks, Aristeides carried
-a decree that delegates (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόβουλοι καὶ θεωροί</span>)
-from all the Greek states should assemble
-every year at Plataeae for the celebration of
-the Eleutheria. The town itself was at the
-same time declared sacred and inviolable, as
-long as its citizens offered the annual sacrifices
-which were then instituted on behalf of
-Greece. Every fifth year these solemnities
-were celebrated with contests, in which the
-victors were rewarded with chaplets.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ellotia">ELLŌTĬA or HELLŌTĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐλλώτια</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑλλώτια</span>), a festival with a torch race celebrated
-at Corinth in honour of Athena as a
-goddess of fire.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Emancipatio">ĒMANCĬPĀTĬO, was an act by which the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patria potestas</i> was dissolved in the lifetime
-of the parent, and it was so called because it
-was in the form of a sale (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipatio</i>). By
-the laws of the Twelve Tables it was necessary
-that a son should be sold three times in
-order to be released from the paternal power,
-or to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sui juris</i>. In the case of daughters
-and grandchildren, one sale was sufficient.
-The father transferred the son by the form
-of a sale to another person, who manumitted
-him, upon which he returned into the power
-of the father. This was repeated, and with
-the like result. After a third sale, the paternal
-power was extinguished, but the son
-was re-sold to the parent, who then manumitted
-him, and so acquired the rights of a
-patron over his emancipated son, which would
-otherwise have belonged to the purchaser
-who gave him his final manumission.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Embas">EMBAS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐμβάς</span>), a shoe worn by men, and
-which appears to have been the most common
-kind of shoe worn at Athens. Pollux says
-that it was invented by the Thracians, and
-that it was like the low cothurnus. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">embas</i>
-was also worn by the Boeotians, and probably
-in other parts of Greece.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Embateia">EMBĂTEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐμβατεία</span>). In Attic law this
-word (like the corresponding English one,
-<em>entry</em>), was used to denote a formal taking
-possession of real property. Thus, when a
-son entered upon the land left him by his
-father, he was said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐμβατεύειν</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βαδίζειν εἰς<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a>[152</span></span>
-τὰ πατρῳα, and thereupon he became <em>seised</em>,
-or possessed of his inheritance. If any one
-disturbed him in the enjoyment of this property,
-with an intention to dispute the title,
-he might maintain an action of ejectment,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξούλης δίκη</span>. Before entry he could not
-maintain such action.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Emblema">EMBLĒMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμβλημα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμπαισμα</span>), an inlaid
-ornament. The art of inlaying was employed
-in producing beautiful works of two
-descriptions, viz.;&mdash;1st, those which resembled
-our marquetry, buhl, and Florentine
-mosaics; and 2dly, those in which crusts
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crustae</i>), exquisitely wrought in bas-relief
-and of precious materials, were fastened upon
-the surface of vessels or other pieces of furniture.
-To the latter class of productions
-belonged the cups and plates which Verres
-obtained by violence from the Sicilians, and
-from which he removed the emblems for the
-purpose of having them set in gold instead
-of silver.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Emeriti">ĒMĔRĬTI, the name given to those Roman
-soldiers who had served out their time, and
-had exemption (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vacatio</i>) from military service.
-The usual time of service was twenty
-years for the legionary soldiers, and sixteen
-for the praetorians. At the end of their
-period of service they received a bounty or
-reward (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emeritum</i>), either in lands or money,
-or in both.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Emissarium">ĒMISSĀRĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπόνομος</span>), a channel,
-natural or artificial, by which an outlet is
-formed to carry off any stagnant body of
-water. Such channels may be either open or
-underground; but the most remarkable works
-of the kind are of the latter description, as
-they carry off the waters of lakes surrounded
-by hills. In Greece, the most striking
-example is presented by the subterraneous
-channels which carry off the waters of the
-lake Copais in Boeotia, which were partly
-natural and partly artificial. Some works of
-this kind are among the most remarkable
-efforts of Roman ingenuity. Remains still
-exist to show that the lakes Trasimene, Albano,
-Nemi, and Fucino, were all drained by
-means of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emissaria</i>, the last of which is still
-nearly perfect, and open to inspection, having
-been partially cleared by the present king of
-Naples. Julius Caesar is said to have first
-conceived the idea of this stupendous undertaking,
-which was carried into effect by the
-Emperor Claudius.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Emmeni">EMMĒNI DĬKAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμμηνοι δίκαι</span>), suits in
-the Athenian courts, which were not allowed
-to be pending above a month. This regulation
-was confined to those subjects which required
-a speedy decision; and of these the
-most important were disputes respecting
-commerce (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐμπορικαὶ δίκαι</span>). All causes relating
-to mines (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεταλλικαὶ δίκαι</span>) were also
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμμηνοι δίκαι</span>, as well as those relating to
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔρανοι</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Erani">Erani</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Emporium">EMPŎRĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ ἐμπόριον</span>), a place for
-wholesale trade in commodities carried by
-sea. The name is sometimes applied to a
-sea-port town, but it properly signifies only
-a particular place in such a town. The word
-is derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμπορος</span>, which signifies in
-Homer a person who sails as a passenger in
-a ship belonging to another person; but in
-later writers it signifies the merchant or
-wholesale dealer, and differs from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάπηλος</span>,
-the retail dealer. The emporium at Athens
-was under the inspection of certain officers,
-who were elected annually (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιμεληταὶ τοῦ
-ἐμπορίου</span>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Encaustica">ENCAUSTĬCA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pictura">Pictura</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Enctesis">ENCTĒSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγκτησις</span>), the right of possessing
-landed property and houses (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγκτησις γῆς
-καὶ οἰκίας</span>) in a foreign country, which was
-frequently granted by one Greek state to
-another, or to separate individuals of another
-state. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐγκτήματα</span> were such possessions in
-a foreign country, or in a different <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆμος</span> from
-that to which an Athenian belonged by birth.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Endeixis">ENDEIXIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔνδειξις</span>), properly denotes a
-prosecution instituted against such persons
-as were alleged to have exercised rights or
-held offices while labouring under a peculiar
-disqualification. The same form of action
-was available against the chairman of the
-proedri (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστάτης</span>), who wrongly refused to
-take the votes of the people in the assembly;
-against malefactors, especially murderers;
-traitors, ambassadors accused of malversation,
-and persons who furnished supplies to
-the enemy during war. The first step taken
-by the prosecutor was to lay his information
-in writing, also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">endeixis</i>, before the
-proper magistrate, who then arrested, or held
-to bail, the person criminated, and took the
-usual steps for bringing him to trial. There
-is great obscurity with respect to the punishment
-which followed condemnation. The
-accuser, if unsuccessful, was responsible for
-bringing a malicious charge (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψευδοῦς ἐνδείξεως
-ὑπεύθυνος</span>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Endromis">ENDRŎMIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνδρομίς</span>), a thick, coarse
-blanket, manufactured in Gaul, and called
-“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">endromis</span>” because those who had been
-exercising in the stadium (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐν δρόμῳ</span>) threw it
-over them to obviate the effects of sudden
-exposure when they were heated. Notwithstanding
-its coarse and shaggy appearance,
-it was worn on other occasions as a protection
-from the cold by rich and fashionable
-persons at Rome.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ensis">ENSIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladius">Gladius</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Entasis">ENTĂSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔντασις</span>). The most ancient
-columns now existing, diminish immediately<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153"></a>[153]</span>
-and regularly from the base to the neck, so
-that the edge forms a straight line&mdash;a mode
-of construction which is wanting in grace
-and apparent solidity. To correct this, a
-swelling outline, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">entasis</i>, was given to
-the shaft, which seems to have been the first
-step towards combining grace and grandeur
-in the Doric column.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Epangelia">EPANGĔLĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπαγγελία</span>). If a citizen of
-Athens had incurred <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimia</i>, the privilege of
-taking part or speaking in the public assembly
-was forfeited. But as it sometimes might
-happen that a person, though not formally
-declared <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimus</i>, had committed such crimes
-as would, on accusation, draw upon him this
-punishment, it was of course desirable that
-such individuals, like real <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimi</i>, should be
-excluded from the exercise of the rights of
-citizens. Whenever, therefore, such a person
-ventured to speak in the assembly, any
-Athenian citizen had the right to come forward
-in the assembly itself and demand of
-him to establish his right to speak by a trial
-or examination of his conduct (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δοκιμασία τοῦ
-βίου</span>), and this demand, denouncement, or
-threat, was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epangelia</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epangelia
-docimasias</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπαγγελία δοκιμασίας</span>). The impeached
-individual was then compelled to
-desist from speaking, and to submit to a
-scrutiny into his conduct, and, if he was
-convicted, a formal declaration of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimia</i> followed.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Epariti">EPARITI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπάριτοι</span>), the name of the
-standing army in Arcadia, which was formed
-to preserve the independence of the Arcadian
-towns, when they became united as one state
-after the defeat of the Spartans at Leuctra.
-They were 5000 in number, and were paid
-by the state.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ephebus">EPHĒBUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφηβος</span>), the name of Athenian
-youths after they had attained the age
-of 18. The state of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ephebeia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐφηβεία</span>) lasted
-for two years, till the youths had attained the
-age of 20, when they became men, and were
-admitted to share all the rights and duties of
-citizens, for which the law did not prescribe
-a more advanced age. Before a youth was
-enrolled among the ephebi, he had to undergo
-a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">docimasia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δοκιμασία</span>), the object of which
-was partly to ascertain whether he was the
-son of Athenian citizens, or adopted by a
-citizen, and partly whether his body was
-sufficiently developed and strong to undertake
-the duties which now devolved upon
-him. After the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">docimasia</i> the young men
-received in the assembly a shield and a lance;
-but those whose fathers had fallen in the
-defence of their country received a complete
-suit of armour in the theatre. It seems to
-have been on this occasion that the ephebi
-took an oath in the temple of Artemis Aglauros,
-by which they pledged themselves
-never to disgrace their arms or to desert
-their comrades; to fight to the last in the
-defence of their country, its altars and hearths;
-to leave their country not in a worse but in
-a better state than they found it; to obey
-the magistrates and the laws; to resist all
-attempts to subvert the institutions of Attica;
-and finally, to respect the religion of
-their forefathers. This solemnity took place
-towards the close of the year, and the festive
-season bore the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ephebia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐφήβια</span>).
-The external distinction of the ephebi consisted
-in the chlamys and the petasus. During
-the two years of the ephebeia, which
-may be considered as a kind of apprenticeship
-in arms, and in which the young men
-prepared themselves for the higher duties of
-full citizens, they were generally sent into
-the country, under the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peripoli</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίπολοι</span>), to keep watch in the towns and
-fortresses, on the coast and frontier, and to
-perform other duties which might be necessary
-for the protection of Attica.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ephegesis">ĔPHĒGĒSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐφήγησις</span>), denotes the method
-of proceeding against such criminals as
-were liable to be summarily arrested by a
-private citizen [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Apagoge">Apagoge</a></span>] when the prosecutor
-was unwilling to expose himself to
-personal risk in apprehending the offender.
-Under these circumstances he made an application
-to the proper magistrate, and conducted
-him and his officers to the spot where
-the capture was to be effected.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ephetae">ĔPHĔTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐφέται</span>), the name of certain
-judges at Athens, who tried cases of homicide.
-They were fifty-one in number, selected
-from noble families, and more than
-fifty years of age. They formed a tribunal
-of great antiquity, and were in existence
-before the legislation of Solon, but, as the
-state became more and more democratical,
-their duties became unimportant and almost
-antiquated. The Ephetae once sat in one or
-other of the five courts, according to the
-nature of the causes they had to try. In
-historical times, however, they sat in <em>four</em>
-only, called respectively the court by the
-Palladium (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ ἐπὶ Παλλαδίῳ</span>), by the Delphinium
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ ἐπὶ Δελφινίῳ</span>), by the Prytaneium
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ ἐπὶ Πρυτανείῳ</span>), and the court at Phreatto
-or Zea (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ ἐν Φρεαττοῖ</span>). At the first of these
-courts they tried cases of unintentional, at
-the second, of intentional but justifiable homicide.
-At the Prytaneium, by a strange
-custom, somewhat analogous to the imposition
-of a deodand, they passed sentence upon
-the instrument of murder when the perpetrator
-of the act was not known. In the
-court at Phreatto, on the sea shore at the
-Peiraeeus, they tried such persons as were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154"></a>[154]</span>
-charged with wilful murder during a temporary
-exile for unintentional homicide.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill154" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill154.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ephippium, Saddle. (Coin of Labienus.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Ephippium">ĔPHIPPĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀστράβη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐφίππιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐφίππειον</span>),
-a saddle. Although the Greeks occasionally
-rode without any saddle, yet they commonly
-used one, and from them the name, together
-with the thing, was borrowed by the Romans.
-The ancient saddles appear, indeed, to have
-been thus far different from ours, that the
-cover stretched upon the hard frame was
-probably of stuffed or padded cloth rather
-than leather, and that the saddle was, as it
-were, a cushion fitted to the horse’s back.
-Pendent cloths (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc"><ins class="corr" id="tn-154" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'στρῶματα'">
-στρώματα</ins></span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strata</i>) were always
-attached to it so as to cover the sides of the
-animal; but it was not provided with stirrups.
-The saddle with the pendent cloths is
-exhibited in the annexed coin. The term
-“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ephippium</span>” was in later times in part
-supplanted by the word “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella</span>,” and the
-more specific expression “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella equestris</span>.”</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ephori">ĔPHŎRI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφοροι</span>). Magistrates called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ephori</i> or overseers were common to many
-Dorian constitutions in times of remote antiquity;
-but the Ephori of Sparta are the most
-celebrated of them all. The origin of the
-Spartan ephori is quite uncertain, but their
-office in the historical times was a kind of
-counterpoise to the kings and council, and in
-that respect peculiar to Sparta alone of the
-Dorian states. Their number, five, appears
-to have been always the same, and was probably
-connected with the five divisions of the
-town of Sparta, namely, the four <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κῶμαι</span>, Limnae,
-Mesoa, Pitana, Cynosura, and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πόλις</span>
-or city properly so called, around which the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κῶμαι</span> lay. They were elected from and by
-the people, without any qualification of age
-or property, and without undergoing any
-scrutiny; so that the people enjoyed through
-them a participation in the highest magistracy
-of the state. They entered upon office
-at the autumnal solstice, and the first in rank
-of the five gave his name to the year, which
-was called after him in all civil transactions.
-They possessed judicial authority in civil
-suits, and also a general superintendence
-over the morals and domestic economy of the
-nation, which in the hands of able men would
-soon prove an instrument of unlimited power.
-Their jurisdiction and power were still further
-increased by the privilege of instituting
-scrutinies (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὔθυναι</span>) into the conduct of all the
-magistrates. Even the kings themselves
-could be brought before their tribunal (as
-Cleomenes was for bribery). In extreme
-cases, the ephors were also competent to lay
-an accusation against the kings as well as the
-other magistrates, and bring them to a capital
-trial before the great court of justice. In
-later times the power of the ephors was
-greatly increased; and this increase appears
-to have been principally owing to the fact,
-that they put themselves in connection with
-the assembly of the people, convened its
-meetings, laid measures before it, and were
-constituted its agents and representatives.
-When this connection arose is matter of conjecture.
-The power which such a connection
-gave would, more than anything else, enable
-them to encroach on the royal authority, and
-make themselves virtually supreme in the
-state. Accordingly, we find that they transacted
-business with foreign ambassadors;
-dismissed them from the state; decided upon
-the government of dependent cities; subscribed
-in the presence of other persons to
-treaties of peace; and in time of war sent
-out troops when they thought necessary. In
-all these capacities the ephors acted as the
-representatives of the nation, and the agents
-of the public assembly, being in fact the executive
-of the state. In course of time the
-kings became completely under their control.
-For example, they fined Agesilaus on the
-vague charge of trying to make himself popular,
-and interfered even with the domestic
-arrangements of other kings. In the field
-the kings were followed by two ephors, who
-belonged to the council of war; the three
-who remained at home received the booty in
-charge, and paid it into the treasury, which
-was under the superintendence of the whole
-College of Five. But the ephors had still
-another prerogative, based on a religious
-foundation, which enabled them to effect a
-temporary deposition of the kings. Once in
-eight years, as we are told, they chose a calm
-and cloudless night to observe the heavens,
-and if there was any appearance of a falling
-meteor, it was believed to be a sign that the
-gods were displeased with the kings, who
-were accordingly suspended from their functions
-until an oracle allowed of their restoration.
-The outward symbols of supreme
-authority also were assumed by the ephors;
-and they alone kept their seats while the
-kings passed; whereas it was not considered
-below the dignity of the kings to rise in
-honour of the ephors. When Agis and Cleomenes
-undertook to restore the old constitution,
-it was necessary for them to overthrow<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155"></a>[155]</span>
-the ephoralty, and accordingly Cleomenes
-murdered the ephors for the time being, and
-abolished the office (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 225); it was, however,
-restored under the Romans.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Epibatae">ĔPĬBĂTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιβάται</span>), were soldiers or
-marines appointed to defend the vessels in
-the Athenian navy, and were entirely distinct
-from the rowers, and also from the land soldiers,
-such as hoplitae, peltasts, and cavalry.
-It appears that the ordinary number of epibatae
-on board a trireme was ten. The epibatae
-were usually taken from the thetes, or
-fourth class of Athenian citizens. The term
-is sometimes also applied by the Roman
-writers to the marines, but they are more
-usually called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">classiarii milites</i>. The latter
-term, however, is also applied to the rowers
-or sailors as well as the marines.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Epibole">ĔPĬBŎLĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιβολή</span>), a fine imposed by a
-magistrate, or other official person or body,
-for a misdemeanour. The various magistrates
-at Athens had (each in his own department)
-a summary penal jurisdiction; <em>i.e.</em> for certain
-offences they might inflict a pecuniary mulct
-or fine, not exceeding a fixed amount; if the
-offender deserved further punishment, it was
-their duty to bring him before a judicial tribunal.
-These <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epibolae</i> are to be distinguished
-from the penalties awarded by a jury or
-court of law (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιμήματα</span>) upon a formal prosecution.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Epiclerus">ĔPĬCLĒRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίκληρος</span>, heiress), the name
-given to the daughter of an Athenian citizen,
-who had no son to inherit his estate. It was
-deemed an object of importance at Athens to
-preserve the family name and property of
-every citizen. This was effected, where a
-man had no child, by adoption (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσποίησις</span>);
-if he had a daughter, the inheritance was
-transmitted through her to a grandson, who
-would take the name of the maternal ancestor.
-If the father died intestate, the heiress
-had not the choice of a husband, but was
-bound to marry her nearest relation, not in
-the ascending line. When there was but one
-daughter, she was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίκληρος ἐπὶ παντὶ
-τῷ οἴκῳ</span>. If there were more, they inherited
-equally, like our co-parceners; and were severally
-married to relatives, the nearest having
-the first choice.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Epidoseis">ĔPĬDŎSEIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιδόσεις</span>), voluntary contributions,
-either in money, arms, or ships,
-which were made by the Athenian citizens in
-order to meet the extraordinary demands of
-the state. When the expenses of the state
-were greater than its revenue, it was usual
-for the prytaneis to summon an assembly of
-the people, and after explaining the necessities
-of the state, to call upon the citizens to
-contribute according to their means. Those
-who were willing to contribute then rose and
-mentioned what they would give; while
-those who were unwilling to give any thing
-remained silent, or retired privately from the
-assembly.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Epimeletae">ĔPĬMĔLĒTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιμεληταί</span>), the names of
-various magistrates and functionaries at
-Athens.&mdash;(1) <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιμελητὴς τῆς κοινῆς προσόδου</span>,
-more usually called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταμίας</span>, the treasurer or
-manager of the public revenue. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tamiae">Tamias</a>.</span>]&mdash;(2)
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν μοριῶν Ἐλαιῶν</span>, were persons
-chosen from among the Areopagites to
-take care of the sacred olive trees.&mdash;(3) <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιμεληταὶ
-τοῦ Ἐμπορίου</span>, were the overseers of
-the emporium. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Emporium">Emporium</a>.</span>] They were ten
-in number, and were elected yearly by lot.
-They had the entire management of the emporium,
-and had jurisdiction in all breaches
-of the commercial laws.&mdash;(4) <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν
-Μυστηρίων</span>, were, in connection with the king
-archon, the managers of the Eleusinian mysteries.
-They were elected by open vote, and
-were four in number.&mdash;(5) <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν
-νεωρίων</span>, the inspectors of the dockyards,
-were ten in number.&mdash;(6) <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν
-φυλῶν</span>, the inspectors of the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλαὶ</span> or tribes.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Episcopi">ĔPISCŎPI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίσκοποι</span>), inspectors, who
-were sometimes sent by the Athenians to
-subject states. They were also called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φύλακες</span>. It appears that these Episcopi received
-a salary at the cost of the cities over
-which they presided.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Epistates">ĔPISTĂTĒS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστάτης</span>).&mdash;(1) The chairman
-of the senate and assembly of the people,
-respecting whose duties see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boulé</a></span> and
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ecclesia">Ecclesia</a></span>.&mdash;(2) The name of the directors of
-the public works. (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπισταταὶ τῶν δημοσίων
-ἔργων</span>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Epistoleus">ĔPISTŎLEUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστολεύς</span>), the officer second
-in rank in the Spartan fleet, who succeeded
-to the command if any thing happened
-to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">navarchus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναυάρχος</span>) or admiral.
-When the Chians and the other allies of Sparta
-on the Asiatic coast sent to Sparta to request
-that Lysander might be again appointed to
-the command of the navy, he was sent with
-the title of epistoleus, because the laws of
-Sparta did not permit the same person to hold
-the office of navarchus twice.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Epistylium">ĔPISTȲLĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστύλιον</span>), properly, as the
-name implies, the architrave, or lower member
-of an entablature, which lies immediately
-over the columns. The word is sometimes
-also used for the whole of the entablature.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Epitropus">ĔPĬTRŎPUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίτροπος</span>), the name at
-Athens of a guardian of orphan children. Of
-such guardians there were at Athens three
-kinds: first, those appointed in the will of
-the deceased father; secondly, the next of
-kin, whom the law designated as tutores legitimi
-in default of such appointment, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156"></a>[156]</span>
-who required the authorization of the archon
-to enable them to act; and lastly, such persons
-as the archon selected if there were no
-next of kin living to undertake the office.
-The duties of the guardian comprehended the
-education, maintenance, and protection of
-the ward, the assertion of his rights, and
-the safe custody and profitable disposition
-of his inheritance during his minority, besides
-making a proper provision for the widow
-if she remained in the house of her late
-husband.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Epobelia">ĔPŌBĔLIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπωβελία</span>), as its etymology
-implies, at the rate of one obolus for a drachma,
-or one in six, was payable on the assessment
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τίμημα</span>) of several private causes, and
-sometimes in a case of phasis, by the litigant
-that failed to obtain the votes of one-fifth of
-the dicasts.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Eponymus">ĔPŌNỸMUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Archon">Archon</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Epoptae">ĔPOPTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπόπται</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Eleusinia">Eleusinia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Epulones">ĔPŬLŌNES, who were originally three in
-number (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triumviri epulones</i>), were first created
-in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 196, to attend to the Epulum
-Jovis, and the banquets given in honour of
-the other gods; which duty had originally
-belonged to the pontifices. Their number
-was afterwards increased to seven, and they
-were called septemviri epulones or septemviri
-epulonum. The epulones formed a collegium,
-and were one of the four great religious corporations
-at Rome; the other three were
-those of the Pontifices, Augures, and Quindecemviri.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Epulum">ĔPŬLUM JŎVIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Epulones">Epulones</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Equiria">ĔQUĪRĬA, horse-races, which are said
-to have been instituted by Romulus in honour
-of Mars, and were celebrated in the
-Campus Martius. There were two festivals
-of this name; of which one was celebrated
-<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> III. Cal. Mart., and the other prid. Id.
-Mart.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Equites">ĔQUĬTES, horsemen. Romulus is said to
-have formed three centuries of equites; and
-these were the same as the 300 Celeres, whom
-he kept about his person in peace and war.
-A century was taken from each of the three
-tribes, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ramnes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Titienses</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Luceres</i>.
-Tarquinius Priscus added three more, under
-the title of Ramnes, Titienses, and Luceres
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">posteriores</i>. These were the six patrician
-centuries of equites, often referred to under
-the name of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sex suffragia</i>. To these Servius
-Tullius added twelve more centuries, for
-admission into which, property and not birth
-was the qualification. These twelve centuries
-might therefore contain plebeians, but
-they do not appear to have been restricted to
-plebeians, since we have no reason for believing
-that the six old centuries contained
-the <em>whole</em> body of patricians. A property
-qualification was apparently also necessary
-by the Servian constitution for admission into
-the six centuries. We may therefore suppose
-that those patricians who were included
-in the six old centuries were allowed by the
-Servian constitution to continue in them, if
-they possessed the requisite property; and
-that all other persons in the state, whether
-patricians or plebeians, who possessed the
-requisite property, were admitted into the
-twelve new centuries. We are not told the
-amount of property necessary to entitle a
-person to a place among the equites, but it
-was probably the same as in the latter times
-of the republic, that is, four times that of
-the first class. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a></span>, <a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>.] Property,
-however, was not the only qualification; for
-in the ancient times of the republic no one
-was admitted among the equestrian centuries
-unless his character was unblemished, and
-his father and grandfather had been born
-freemen. Each of the equites received a
-horse from the state (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equus publicus</i>), or
-money to purchase one, as well as a sum of
-money for its annual support; the expense
-of its support was defrayed by the orphans
-and unmarried females; since, in a military
-state, it could not be esteemed unjust, that the
-women and the children were to contribute
-largely for those who fought in behalf of
-them and of the commonwealth. The purchase-money
-for a knight’s horse was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes equestre</i>, and its annual provision <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes
-hordearium</i>. The former amounted, according
-to Livy, to 10,000 asses, and the latter
-to 2000.&mdash;All the equites, of whom we have
-been speaking, received a horse from the
-state, and were included in the 18 equestrian
-centuries of the Servian constitution; but in
-course of time, we read of another class of
-equites in Roman history, who did not receive
-a horse from the state, and who were
-not included in the 18 centuries. This latter
-class is first mentioned by Livy, in his account
-of the siege of Veii, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 403. He says
-that during the siege, when the Romans had
-at one time suffered great disasters, all those
-citizens who had an equestrian fortune, and
-no horse allotted to them, volunteered to
-serve with their own horses; and he adds,
-that from this time equites first began to
-serve with their own horses. The state paid
-them, as a kind of compensation for serving
-with their own horses. The foot soldiers
-had received pay a few years before; and
-two years afterwards, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 401, the pay of
-the equites was made three-fold that of the
-infantry. From the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 403, there
-were therefore two classes of Roman knights:
-one who received horses from the state, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a>[157]</span>
-are therefore frequently called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equites equo
-publico</i>, and sometimes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Flexumines</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Trossuli</i>,
-and another class, who served, when
-they were required, with their own horses,
-but were not classed among the 18 centuries.
-As they served on horseback they were called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equites</i>; and when spoken of in opposition
-to cavalry, which did not consist of Roman
-citizens, they were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equites Romani</i>;
-but they had no legal claim to the
-name of equites, since in ancient times this
-title was strictly confined to those who received
-horses from the state.&mdash;The reason of
-this distinction of two classes arose from the
-fact, that the number of equites in the 18
-centuries was fixed from the time of Servius
-Tullius. As vacancies occurred in them, the
-descendants of those who were originally enrolled
-succeeded to their places, provided
-they had not dissipated their property. But
-in course of time, as population and wealth
-increased, the number of persons who possessed
-an equestrian fortune, also increased
-greatly; and as the ancestors of these persons
-had not been enrolled in the 18 centuries,
-they could not receive horses from the
-state, and were therefore allowed the privilege
-of serving with their own horses among
-the cavalry, instead of the infantry, as they
-would otherwise have been obliged to have
-done.&mdash;The inspection of the equites who
-received horses from the state belonged to
-the censors, who had the power of depriving
-an eques of his horse, and reducing him to
-the condition of an aerarian, and also of
-giving the vacant horse to the most distinguished
-of the equites who had previously
-served at their own expense. For these
-purposes they made during their censorship
-a public inspection, in the forum, of all the
-knights who possessed public horses (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equitatum
-recognoscere</i>). The tribes were taken in
-order, and each knight was summoned by
-name. Every one, as his name was called,
-walked past the censors, leading his horse.
-If the censors had no fault to find either with
-the character of the knight or the equipments
-of his horse, they ordered him to pass on
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la"><ins class="corr" id="tn-157" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'traduc equum'">traducere equum</ins></i>);
-but if on the contrary they
-considered him unworthy of his rank, they
-struck him out of the list of knights, and
-deprived him of his horse, or ordered him to
-sell it, with the intention no doubt that the
-person thus degraded should refund to the
-state the money which had been advanced to
-him for its purchase.&mdash;This review of the
-equites by the censors must not be confounded
-with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Equitum Transvectio</i>, which was a
-solemn procession of the body every year on
-the Ides of Quintilis (July). The procession
-started from the temple of Mars outside the
-city, and passed through the city over the
-forum, and by the temple of the Dioscuri.
-On this occasion the equites were always
-crowned with olive chaplets, and wore their
-state dress, the trabea, with all the honourable
-distinctions which they had gained in
-battle. According to Livy, this annual procession
-was first established by the censors
-Q. Fabius and P. Decius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 304; but according
-to Dionysius it was instituted after
-the defeat of the Latins near the lake Regillus,
-of which an account was brought to
-Rome by the Dioscuri.&mdash;It may be asked how
-long did the knight retain his public horse,
-and a vote in the equestrian century to which
-he belonged? On this subject we have no
-positive information; but as those equites,
-who served with their own horses, were only
-obliged to serve for ten years (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stipendia</i>)
-under the age of 46, we may presume that
-the same rule extended to those who served
-with the public horses, provided they <em>wished</em>
-to give up the service. For it is certain that
-in the ancient times of the republic a knight
-might retain his horse as long as he pleased,
-even after he had entered the senate, provided
-he continued able to discharge the duties of
-a knight. Thus the two censors, M. Livius
-Salinator and C. Claudius Nero, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 204,
-were also equites, and L. Scipio Asiaticus, who
-was deprived of his horse by the censors in
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 185, had himself been censor in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 191.
-But during the later times of the republic the
-knights were obliged to give up their horses
-on entering the senate, and consequently
-ceased to belong to the equestrian centuries.
-It thus naturally came to pass, that the
-greater number of the equites equo publico,
-after the exclusion of senators from the
-equestrian centuries, were young men.&mdash;The
-equestrian centuries, of which we have
-hitherto been treating, were only regarded
-as a division of the army: they did not form
-a distinct class or ordo in the constitution.
-The community, in a political point of view,
-was divided only into patricians and plebeians,
-and the equestrian centuries were composed
-of both. But in the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 123, a new
-class, called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ordo Equestris</i>, was formed
-in the state by the Lex Sempronia, which was
-introduced by C. Gracchus. By this law, or
-one passed a few years afterwards, every person
-who was to be chosen judex was required to be
-above 30 and under 60 years of age, to have
-either an equus publicus, or to be qualified
-by his fortune to possess one, and <em>not</em> to be
-a senator. The number of judices, who were
-required yearly, was chosen from this class
-by the praetor urbanus. As the name of
-equites had been originally extended from
-those who possessed the public horses to those
-who served with their own horses, it now<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158"></a>[158]</span>
-came to be applied to all those persons who
-were qualified by their fortune to act as
-judices, in which sense the word is usually
-used by Cicero. After the reform of Sulla,
-which entirely deprived the equestrian order
-of the right of being chosen as judices, and
-the passing of the Lex Aurelia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 70),
-which ordained that the judices should be
-chosen from the senators, equites, and tribuni
-aerarii, the influence of the order, says Pliny,
-was still maintained by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">publicani</i>, or
-farmers of the public taxes. We find that the
-publicani were almost always called equites,
-not because any particular rank was necessary
-in order to obtain from the state the farming
-of the taxes, but because the state was not
-accustomed to let them to any one who did
-not possess a considerable fortune. Thus the
-publicani are frequently spoken of by Cicero
-as identical with the equestrian order. The
-consulship of Cicero, and the active part which
-the knights then took in suppressing the conspiracy
-of Catiline, tended still further to
-increase the power and influence of the
-equestrian order; and “from that time,”
-says Pliny, “it became a third body (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corpus</i>)
-in the state, and, to the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Senatus Populusque
-Romanus</i>, there began to be added
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Et Equestris Ordo</i>.” In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63, a distinction
-was conferred upon them, which tended
-to separate them still further from the plebs.
-By the Lex Roscia Othonis, passed in that
-year, the first fourteen seats in the theatre
-behind the orchestra were given to the
-equites. They also possessed the right of
-wearing the Clavus Angustus [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Clavus">Clavus</a></span>], and
-subsequently obtained the privilege of wearing
-a gold ring, which was originally confined
-to the equites equo publico. The number
-of equites increased greatly under the
-early emperors, and all persons were admitted
-into the order, provided they possessed the
-requisite property, without any inquiry into
-their character, or into the free birth of their
-father and grandfather. The order in consequence
-gradually began to lose all the consideration
-which it had acquired during the
-later times of the republic.&mdash;Augustus formed
-a select class of equites, consisting of those
-equites who possessed the property of a
-senator, and the old requirement of free
-birth up to the grandfather. He permitted
-this class to wear the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">latus clavus</i>; and also
-allowed the tribunes of the plebs to be chosen
-from them, as well as the senators, and gave
-them the option, at the termination of their
-office, to remain in the senate or return to
-the equestrian order. This class of knights
-was distinguished by the special title <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">illustres</i>
-(sometimes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">insignes</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">splendidi</i>) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equites
-Romani</i>. The formation of this distinct class
-tended to lower the others still more in public
-estimation. In the ninth year of the reign
-of Tiberius, an attempt was made to improve
-the order by requiring the old qualifications
-of free birth up to the grandfather, and by
-strictly forbidding any one to wear the gold
-ring unless he possessed this qualification.
-This regulation, however, was of little avail,
-as the emperors frequently admitted freedmen
-into the equestrian order. When private
-persons were no longer appointed judices,
-the necessity for a distinct class in the community,
-like the equestrian order, ceased
-entirely; and the gold ring came at length
-to be worn by all free citizens. Even slaves,
-after their manumission, were allowed to
-wear it by special permission from the emperor,
-which appears to have been usually
-granted provided the patronus consented.&mdash;Having
-thus traced the history of the equestrian
-order to its final extinction as a distinct
-class in the community, we must now return
-to the equites equo publico, who formed the
-18 equestrian centuries. This class still
-existed during the latter years of the republic,
-but had entirely ceased to serve as horse-soldiers
-in the army. The cavalry of the
-Roman legions no longer consisted, as in the
-time of Polybius, of Roman equites, but their
-place was supplied by the cavalry of the
-allied states. It is evident that Caesar in his
-Gallic wars possessed no Roman cavalry.
-When he went to an interview with Ariovistus,
-and was obliged to take cavalry with
-him, we are told that he did not dare to trust
-his safety to the Gallic cavalry, and therefore
-mounted his legionary soldiers upon their
-horses. The Roman equites are, however,
-frequently mentioned in the Gallic and civil
-wars, but never as common soldiers; they
-were officers attached to the staff of the
-general, or commanded the cavalry of the
-allies, or sometimes the legions.&mdash;After the
-year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 50, there were no censors in the
-state, and it would therefore follow that for
-some years no review of the body took place,
-and that the vacancies were not filled up.
-When Augustus, however, took upon himself,
-in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 29, the praefectura morum, he
-frequently reviewed the troops of equites,
-and restored the long neglected custom of
-the solemn procession (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">transvectio</i>). From this
-time these equites formed an honourable corps,
-from which all the higher officers in the army
-and the chief magistrates in the state were
-chosen. Admission into this body was equivalent
-to an introduction into public life, and
-was therefore esteemed a great privilege. If
-a young man was not admitted into this
-body, he was excluded from all civil offices of
-any importance, except in municipal towns;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159"></a>[159]</span>
-and also from all rank in the army, with the
-exception of centurion. All those equites,
-who were not employed in actual service,
-were obliged to reside at Rome, where they
-were allowed to fill the lower magistracies,
-which entitled a person to admission into the
-senate. They were divided into six turmae,
-each of which was commanded by an officer,
-who is frequently mentioned in inscriptions
-as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sevir equitum Rom. turmae</i> <span class="allsmcap">I. II.</span>, &amp;c., or
-commonly <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sevir turmae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sevir turmarum
-equitum Romanorum</i>. From the time that
-the equites bestowed the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">principes
-juventutis</i> upon Caius and Lucius Caesar, the
-grandsons of Augustus, it became the custom
-to confer this title, as well as that of
-sevir, upon the probable successor to the
-throne, when he first entered into public
-life, and was presented with an equus publicus.
-The practice of filling all the higher
-offices in the state from these equites appears
-to have continued as long as Rome was the
-centre of the government and the residence
-of the emperor. After the time of Diocletian,
-the equites became only a city guard,
-under the command of the praefectus vigilum;
-but they still retained, in the time of
-Valentinianus and Valens, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 364, the second
-rank in the city, and were not subject
-to corporal punishment. Respecting the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Magister Equitum</i>, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Dictator">Dictator</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Equuleus">ĔQUŬLĔUS or ĔCŬLĔUS, an instrument
-of torture, which is supposed to have been
-so called because it was in the form of a
-horse.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Erani">ĔRĂNI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔρανοι</span>), were clubs or societies,
-established for charitable, convivial, commercial,
-or political purposes. Unions of
-this kind were called by the general name
-of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑταιρίαι</span>, and were often converted to mischievous
-ends, such as bribery, overawing
-the public assembly, or influencing courts of
-justice. In the days of the Roman empire
-friendly societies, under the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">erani</i>,
-were frequent among the Greek cities, but
-were looked on with suspicion by the emperors,
-as leading to political combinations.
-The <em>gilds</em>, or fraternities for mutual aid,
-among the ancient Saxons, resembled the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">erani</i> of the Greeks.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ergastulum">ERGASTŬLUM, a private prison attached
-to most Roman farms, where the slaves were
-made to work in chains. The slaves confined
-in an ergastulum were also employed to cultivate
-the fields in chains. Slaves who had
-displeased their masters were punished by
-imprisonment in the ergastulum; and in the
-same place all slaves, who could not be depended
-upon or were barbarous in their
-habits, were regularly kept.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ericius">ĒRĪCĬUS, a military engine full of sharp
-spikes, which was placed by the gate of the
-camp to prevent the approach of the enemy.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Erotia">ĔRŌTĬA or ĔRŌTĬDĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐρώτια</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐρωτίδια</span>),
-the most solemn of all the festivals
-celebrated in the Boeotian town of Thespiae.
-It took place every fifth year, and in honour
-of Eros, the principal divinity of the Thespians.
-Respecting the particulars nothing is
-known, except that it was solemnised with
-contests in music and gymnastics.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Essedarii">ESSĔDĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Esseda">Essedum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Esseda">ESSĔDA, or ESSĔDUM (from the Celtic
-<em>Ess</em>, a carriage), the name of a chariot used,
-especially in war, by the Britons, the Gauls,
-and the Germans. It was built very strongly,
-was open before instead of behind, like the
-Greek war-chariot, and had a wide pole, so
-that the owner was able, whenever he pleased,
-to run along the pole, and even to raise himself
-upon the yoke, and then to retreat with
-the greatest speed into the body of the car,
-which he drove with extraordinary swiftness
-and skill. It appears also that these cars
-were purposely made as noisy as possible,
-probably by the creaking and clanging of the
-wheels; and that this was done in order to
-strike dismay into the enemy. The warriors
-who drove these chariots were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">essedarii</i>.
-Having been captured, they were sometimes
-exhibited in the gladiatorial shows at Rome,
-and seem to have been great favourites with
-the people. The essedum was adopted for
-purposes of convenience and luxury among
-the Romans. As used by the Romans, the
-essedum may have differed from the cisium
-in this; that the cisium was drawn by one
-horse (see cut, <a href="#ill090a">p. 90</a>), the essedum always by
-a pair.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Eumolpidae">EUMOLPĬDAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐμολπίδαι</span>), the most distinguished
-and venerable among the priestly
-families in Attica. They were devoted to the
-service of Demeter at Athens and Eleusis,
-and were said to be the descendants of the
-Thracian bard Eumolpus, who, according to
-some legends, had introduced the Eleusinian
-mysteries into Attica. The high priest of the
-Eleusinian goddess (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροφάντης</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μυσταγωγός</span>),
-who conducted the celebration of her mysteries
-and the initiation of the mystae, was
-always a member of the family of the Eumolpidae,
-as Eumolpus himself was believed to
-have been the first hierophant. The hierophant
-was attended by four <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epimeletae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιμεληταί</span>),
-one of whom likewise belonged to the
-family of the Eumolpidae. The Eumolpidae
-had on certain occasions to offer up prayers
-for the welfare of the state. They had likewise
-judicial power in cases where religion
-was violated. The law according to which
-they pronounced their sentence, and of which
-they had the exclusive possession, was not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160"></a>[160]</span>
-written, but handed down by tradition; and
-the Eumolpidae alone had the right to interpret
-it, whence they are sometimes called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Exegetae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξηγηταί</span>). In cases for which the
-law had made no provisions, they acted according
-to their own discretion. In some
-cases, when a person was convicted of gross
-violation of the public institutions of his
-country, the people, besides sending the
-offender into exile, added a clause in their
-verdict that a curse should be pronounced
-upon him by the Eumolpidae. But the Eumolpidae
-could pronounce such a curse only
-at the command of the people, and might
-afterwards be compelled by the people to
-revoke it, and purify the person whom they
-had cursed before.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Eupatridae">EUPATRĬDAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐπατρίδαι</span>), descended
-from noble ancestors, is the name by which
-in early times the nobility of Attica was designated.
-In the division of the inhabitants
-of Attica into three classes, which is ascribed
-to Theseus, the Eupatridae were the first
-class, and thus formed a compact order of
-nobles, united by their interests, rights, and
-privileges. They were in the exclusive possession
-of all the civil and religious offices in
-the state, ordered the affairs of religion, and
-interpreted the laws human and divine. The
-king was thus only the first among his equals,
-and only distinguished from them by the duration
-of his office. By the legislation of
-Solon, the political power and influence of
-the Eupatridae as an order was broken, and
-property instead of birth was made the
-standard of political rights. But as Solon,
-like all ancient legislators, abstained from
-abolishing any of the religious institutions,
-those families of the Eupatridae, in which
-certain priestly offices and functions were
-hereditary, retained these distinctions down
-to a very late period of Grecian history.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Euripus">EURĪPUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Euthyne" >EUTHȲNĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐθύνη</span>). All public officers at
-Athens were accountable for their conduct
-and the manner in which they acquitted
-themselves of their official duties. The
-judges in the popular court seem to have
-been the only authorities who were not responsible,
-for they were themselves the
-representatives of the people, and would
-therefore, in theory, have been responsible
-to themselves. This account, which officers
-had to give after the time of their office was
-over, was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐθύνη</span>, and the officers subject
-to it, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπεύθυνοι</span>, and after they had gone
-through the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">euthyne</i>, they became <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνεύθυνοι</span>.
-Every public officer had to render his account
-within thirty days after the expiration of his
-office, and at the time when he submitted to
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">euthyne</i> any citizen had the right to come
-forward and impeach him. The officers
-before whom the accounts were given were
-at Athens ten in number, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὔθυνοι</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λογισταί</span>, in other places <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξετασταί</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνήγοροι</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Evocati">ĒVŎCĀTI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Exauctoritas">EXAUCTŌRĬTAS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Exauguratio">EXAUGŬRĀTĬO, the act of changing a
-sacred thing into a profane one, or of taking
-away from it the sacred character which it
-had received by inauguratio, consecratio, or
-dedicatio. Such an act was performed by
-the augurs, and never without consulting the
-pleasure of the gods, by augurium.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Excubiae">EXCŬBĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Excubitores">EXCŬBĬTŌRES, which properly means
-watchmen or sentinels of any kind, was the
-name more particularly given to the soldiers
-of the cohort who guarded the palace of the
-Roman emperor.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Exedra">EXEDRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξέδρα</span>), which properly signifies
-a seat out of doors, came to be used for a chamber
-furnished with seats, and opening into a
-portico, where people met to enjoy conversation;
-such as the rooms attached to a gymnasium,
-which were used for the lectures
-and disputations of the rhetoricians and philosophers.
-In old Greek the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λέσχη</span>
-appears to have had a similar meaning; but
-the ordinary use of the word is for a larger
-and more public place of resort than the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξέδρα</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lesche">Lesche</a>.</span>] Among the Romans the
-word had a wider meaning, answering to
-both the Greek terms, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξέδρα</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λέσχη</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Exegetae">EXĒGĒTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξηγηταί</span>, interpreters) is the
-name of the Eumolpidae, by which they were
-designated as the interpreters of the laws
-relating to religion and of the sacred rites.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Eumolpidae">Eumolpidae</a>.</span>] The name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξηγητής</span> was also
-applied to those persons who served as guides
-(ciceroni) to the visitors in the most remarkable
-towns and places of Greece.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Exercitoria">EXERCĬTŌRĬA ACTĬO, an action granted
-by the edict against the exercitor navis. By
-the term navis was understood any vessel,
-whether used for the navigation of rivers,
-lakes, or the sea. The exercitor navis is the
-person to whom all the ship’s gains and earnings
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obventiones et reditus</i>) belong, whether
-he is the owner, or has hired the ship (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per
-aversionem</i>) from the owner for a time definite
-or indefinite.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Exercitus">EXERCĬTUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρατός</span>), army. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek</span>.</p>
-
-<p>1. <em>Spartan Army.</em>&mdash;In all the states of
-Greece, in the earliest as in later times, the
-general type of their military organisation
-was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phalanx</i>, a body of troops in close
-array with a long spear as their principal
-weapon. It was among the Dorians, and
-especially among the Spartans, that this type
-was most rigidly adhered to. The strength<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161"></a>[161]</span>
-of their military array consisted in the heavy-armed
-infantry (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁπλίται</span>). They attached
-comparatively small importance to their
-cavalry, which was always inferior. Indeed,
-the Thessalians and Boeotians were the only
-Greek people who distinguished themselves
-much for their cavalry; scarcely any other
-states had territories adapted for the evolutions
-of cavalry. The whole life of a Spartan
-was little else than either the preparation for
-or the practice of war. The result was, that
-in the strictness of their discipline, the precision
-and facility with which they performed
-their military evolutions, and the skill and
-power with which they used their weapons,
-the Spartans were unrivalled among the
-Greeks. The heavy-armed infantry of the
-Spartan armies was composed partly of
-genuine Spartan citizens, partly of Perioeci.
-Every Spartan citizen was liable to military
-service (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμφρουρος</span>) from the age of twenty
-to the age of sixty years. They were divided
-into six divisions called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μόραι</span>, under the
-command or superintendence of a polemarch,
-each mora being subdivided into four <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόχοι</span>
-(commanded by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λοχαγοί</span>), each <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόχος</span> into two
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκοστύες</span> (headed by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκοστῆρες</span>), each
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκοστύς</span> into two <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνωμοτίαι</span> (headed by
-enomotarchs). The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνωμοτίαι</span> were so called
-from the men composing them being bound
-together by a common oath. These were not
-merely divisions of troops engaged in actual
-military expeditions. The whole body of
-citizens at all times formed an army, whether
-they were congregated at head-quarters in
-Sparta, or a portion of them were detached
-on foreign service. The strength of a mora
-on actual service, of course, varied, according
-to circumstances. To judge by the name
-pentecostys, the normal number of a mora
-would have been 400; but 500, 600, and
-900 are mentioned as the number of men in a
-mora on different occasions. When in the
-field, each mora of infantry was attended by
-a mora of cavalry, consisting at the most of
-100 men, and commanded by an hipparmost
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππαρμοστής</span>). Plutarch mentions squadrons
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐλαμοί</span>) of fifty, which may possibly be the
-same divisions. The cavalry seems merely
-to have been employed to protect the flanks,
-and but little regard was paid to it. The
-corps of 300 <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππεῖς</span> formed a sort of body-guard
-for the king, and consisted of the flower
-of the young soldiers. Though called horsemen,
-they fought on foot. A Spartan army,
-divided as above described, was drawn up in
-the dense array of the phalanx, the depth of
-which depended upon circumstances. An
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνωμοτία</span> sometimes made but a single file,
-sometimes was drawn up in three or six files
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζύγα</span>). The enomotarch stood at the head of
-his file (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρωτοστάτης</span>), or at the head of the
-right-hand file, if the enomotia was broken
-up into more than one. The last man was
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐραγός</span>. It was a matter of great
-importance that he, like the enomotarch,
-should be a man of strength and skill, as in
-certain evolutions he would have to lead the
-movements. The commander-in-chief, who
-was usually the king, had his station sometimes
-in the centre, more commonly on the
-right wing. The commands of the general
-were issued in the first place to the polemarchs,
-by these to the lochagi, by these
-again to the pentecosteres, by the latter to
-the enomotarchs, and by these last to their
-respective divisions. From the orderly manner
-in which this was done, commands were
-transmitted with great rapidity: every soldier,
-in fact, regulating the movements of the
-man behind him, every two being connected
-together as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρωτοστάτης</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστάτης</span>. In
-later times the king was usually accompanied
-by two ephors, as controllers and advisers.
-These, with the polemarchs, the four Pythii,
-three peers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅμοιοι</span>), who had to provide for
-the necessities of the king in war, the laphyropolae
-and some other officers, constituted
-what was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">damosia</i> of the king.
-The Spartan hoplites were accompanied in
-the field by helots, partly in the capacity of
-attendants, partly to serve as light-armed
-troops. The number attached to an army
-was probably not uniform. At Plataeae each
-Spartan was accompanied by seven helots;
-but that was probably an extraordinary case.
-One helot in particular of those attached to
-each Spartan was called his <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεράπων</span>, and
-performed the functions of an armourer or
-shieldbearer. Xenophon calls them <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπασπισταί</span>.
-In extraordinary cases, helots served
-as hoplites, and in that case it was usual to
-give them their liberty. A separate troop in
-the Lacedaemonian army was formed by the
-Sciritae (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκιρῖται</span>), originally, no doubt, inhabitants
-of the district Sciritis. The arms
-of the phalanx consisted of the long spear
-and a short sword (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξυήλη</span>). The chief part
-of the defensive armour was the large brazen
-shield, which covered the body from the
-shoulder to the knee, suspended, as in
-ancient times, by a thong round the neck,
-and managed by a simple handle or ring
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόρπαξ</span>). Besides this, they had the ordinary
-armour of the hoplite [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arma">Arma</a></span>]. The
-heavy-armed soldiers wore a scarlet uniform.
-The Spartan encampments were circular.
-Only the heavy-armed were stationed within
-them, the cavalry being placed to look out, and
-the helots being kept as much as possible outside.
-Preparatory to a battle the Spartan
-soldier dressed his hair and crowned himself<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162"></a>[162]</span>
-as others would do for a feast. The signal
-for attack was given not by the trumpet, but
-by the music of flutes, and sometimes also of
-the lyre and cithara, to which the men sang
-the battle song (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παιὰν ἐμβατήριος</span>). The object
-of the music was not so much to inspirit the
-men, as simply to regulate the march of the
-phalanx. This rhythmical regularity of movement
-was a point to which the Spartans
-attached great importance.</p>
-
-<p>2. <em>Athenian Army.</em>&mdash;In Athens, the military
-system was in its leading principles the
-same as among the Spartans, though differing
-in detail, and carried out with less exactness;
-inasmuch as when Athens became powerful,
-greater attention was paid to the navy. Of
-the four classes into which the citizens were
-arranged by the constitution of Solon, the
-citizens of the first and second served as cavalry,
-or as commanders of the infantry (still
-it need not be assumed that the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππεῖς</span> never
-served as heavy-armed infantry), those of
-the third class (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζευγῖται</span>) formed the heavy-armed
-infantry. The Thetes served either
-as light-armed troops on land, or on board
-the ships. The same general principles remained
-when the constitution was remodelled
-by Cleisthenes. The cavalry service continued
-to be compulsory on the wealthier
-class. Every citizen was liable to service
-from his eighteenth to his sixtieth year. On
-reaching their eighteenth year, the young
-citizens were formally enrolled <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰς τὴν ληξιαρχικὸν
-γραμματεῖον</span>, and received a shield and
-spear in a public assembly of the people,
-binding themselves by oath to perform rightly
-the duties of a citizen and a soldier. During
-the first two years, they were only liable to
-service in Attica itself, chiefly as garrison
-soldiers in the different fortresses in the
-country. During this period, they were
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίπολοι</span>. Members of the senate
-during the period of their office, farmers of
-the revenue, choreutae at the Dionysia during
-the festival, in later times, traders by sea
-also, were exempted from military service.
-Any one bound to serve who attempted to
-avoid doing so, was liable to a sentence of
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτιμία</span>. The resident aliens commonly served
-as heavy-armed soldiers, especially for the
-purpose of garrisoning the city. They were
-prohibited from serving as cavalry. Slaves
-were only employed as soldiers in cases of
-great necessity. Of the details of the Athenian
-military organisation, we have no distinct
-accounts as we have of those of Sparta.
-The heavy-armed troops, as was the universal
-practice in Greece, fought in phalanx order.
-They were arranged in bodies in a manner
-dependent on the political divisions of the
-citizens. The soldiers of each tribe (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλή</span>)
-formed a separate body in the army, also
-called a tribe, and these bodies stood in some
-preconcerted order. It seems that the name
-of one division was <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάξις</span>, and of another
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόχος</span>, but in what relations these stood to
-the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλή</span>, and to each other, we do not learn.
-Every hoplite was accompanied by an attendant
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">(ὑπηρέτης)</span> to take charge of his baggage,
-and carry his shield on a march.
-Each horseman also had a servant, called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱπποκόμος</span>, to attend to his horse. For the
-command of the army, there were chosen
-every year ten generals [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Strategus">Strategi</a></span>], and ten
-taxiarchs [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Taxiarchi">Taxiarchi</a></span>], and for the cavalry,
-two hipparchs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἵππαρχοι</span>) and ten phylarchs
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φύλαρχοι</span>). Respecting the military functions
-of the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων πολέμαρχος</span>, see the article
-Archon. The number of strategi sent with
-an army was not uniform. Three was a
-common number. Sometimes one was invested
-with the supreme command; at other
-times, they either took the command in turn
-(as at Marathon), or conducted their operations
-by common consent (as in the Sicilian
-expedition). The practice of paying the
-troops when upon service was first introduced
-by Pericles. The pay consisted partly
-of wages (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μισθός</span>), partly of provisions, or,
-more commonly, provision-money (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτηρέσιον</span>).
-The ordinary <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μισθός</span> of a hoplite was two
-obols a day. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτηρέσιον</span> amounted to two
-obols more. Hence, the life of a soldier was
-called, proverbially, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετρωβόλου βίος</span>. Officers
-received twice as much; horsemen, three
-times; generals, four times as much. The
-horsemen received pay even in time of peace,
-that they might always be in readiness, and
-also a sum of money for their outfit (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατάστασις</span>).
-As regards the military strength of
-the Athenians, we find 10,000 heavy-armed
-soldiers at Marathon, 8,000 heavy-armed, and
-as many light-armed at Plataeae; and at the
-beginning of the Peloponnesian war there were
-18,000 heavy-armed ready for foreign service,
-and 16,000 consisting of those beyond the
-limits of the ordinary military age and of
-the metoeci, for garrison service. It was the
-natural result of the national character of
-the Athenians and their democratical constitution,
-that military discipline was much less
-stringent among them than among the Spartans,
-and after defeat especially it was often
-found extremely difficult to maintain it. The
-generals had some power of punishing military
-offences on the spot, but for the greater
-number of such offences a species of court-martial
-was held, consisting of persons who
-had served in the army to which the offender
-belonged, and presided over by the strategi.
-Various rewards also were held out for those
-who especially distinguished themselves for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163"></a>[163]</span>
-their courage or conduct, in the shape of
-chaplets, statues, &amp;c. The Peltastae (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πελτασταί</span>),
-so called from the kind of shield
-which they wore [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pelta">Pelta</a></span>], were a class of
-troops of which we hear very little before the
-end of the Peloponnesian war. The Athenian
-general Iphicrates introduced some important
-improvements in the mode of arming
-them, combining as far as possible the peculiar
-advantages of heavy (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁπλῖται</span>) and light
-armed (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψιλοί</span>) troops. He substituted a linen
-corslet for the coat of mail worn by the hoplites,
-and lessened the shield, while he doubled
-the length of the spear and sword. He even
-took the pains to introduce for them an improved
-sort of shoe, called after him <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἰφικρατίδες</span>.
-This equipment proved very effective.
-The almost total destruction of a mora of
-Lacedaemonian heavy-armed troops by a body
-of peltastae under the command of Iphicrates
-was an exploit that became very famous.
-When the use of mercenary troops became
-general, Athenian citizens seldom served except
-as volunteers, and then in but small
-numbers. The employment of mercenaries
-led to considerable alterations in the military
-system of Greece. War came to be studied
-as an art, and Greek generals, rising above
-the old simple rules of warfare, became tacticians.
-Epaminondas was the first who
-adopted the method of charging in column,
-concentrating his attack upon one point of
-the hostile line, so as to throw the whole into
-confusion by breaking through it.</p>
-
-<p>3. <span class="smcap">Macedonian Army.</span>&mdash;Philip, king of
-Macedonia, made several improvements in
-the arms and arrangement of the phalanx.
-The spear (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάρισσα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάρισα</span>), with which
-the soldiers of the Macedonian phalanx were
-armed, was 24 feet long; but the ordinary
-length was 21 feet, and the lines were arranged
-at such distances that the spears of
-the fifth rank projected three feet beyond the
-first, so that every man in the front rank was
-protected by five spears. Besides the spear
-they carried a short sword. The shield was
-very large and covered nearly the whole body,
-so that on favourable ground an impenetrable
-front was presented to the enemy. The soldiers
-were also defended by helmets, coats of
-mail, and greaves; so that any thing like
-rapid movement was impossible. The ordinary
-depth of the phalanx was sixteen files,
-though depths of eight and of thirty-two are
-also mentioned. Each file of sixteen was
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόχος</span>. Two lochi made a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dilochia</i>;
-two dilochiae made a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετραρχία</span>, consisting of
-sixty-four men; two tetrarchies made a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάξις</span>;
-two <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάξεις</span> a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνταγμα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξεναγία</span>, to which
-were attached five supernumeraries, a herald,
-an ensign, a trumpeter, a servant, and an
-officer to bring up the rear (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐραγός</span>); two
-syntagmata formed a pentacosiarchia, two of
-which made a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χιλιαρχία</span>, containing 1024
-men; two chiliarchies made a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέλος</span>, and two
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέλη</span> made a phalangarchia or phalanx in the
-narrower sense of the word, the normal number
-of which would therefore be 4096. It
-was commanded by a polemarch or strategus;
-four such bodies formed the larger phalanx,
-the normal number of which would be 16,384.
-When drawn up, the two middle sections
-constituted what was termed the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀμφαλός</span>, the
-others being called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κέρατα</span> or wings. The
-phalanx soldiers in the army of Alexander
-amounted to 18,000, and were divided not
-into four, but into six divisions, each named
-after a Macedonian province, from which it
-was to derive its recruits. These bodies are
-oftener called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάξεις</span> than <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάλαγγες</span> by the
-historians, and their leaders taxiarchs or
-strategi. The phalanx of Antiochus consisted
-of 16,000 men, and was formed into ten divisions
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέρη</span>) of 1600 each, arranged 50 broad
-and 32 deep. The phalanx, of course, became
-all but useless, if its ranks were broken.
-It required, therefore, level and open ground,
-so that its operations were restricted to very
-narrow limits; and being incapable of rapid
-movement, it became almost helpless in the
-face of an active enemy, unless accompanied
-by a sufficient number of cavalry and light
-troops. The light-armed troops were arranged
-in files (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόχοι</span>) eight deep. Four lochi formed a
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύστασις</span>, and then larger divisions were successively
-formed, each being the double of
-the one below it; the largest (called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίταγμα</span>),
-consisting of 8192 men. The cavalry (according
-to Aelianus), were arranged in an
-analogous manner, the lowest division or
-squadron (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἴλη</span>), containing 64 men, and the
-successive larger divisions being each the
-double of that below it; the highest (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίταγμα</span>)
-containing 4096. Both Philip and Alexander
-attached great importance to the cavalry,
-which, in their armies, consisted partly of
-Macedonians, and partly of Thessalians. The
-Macedonian horsemen were the flower of the
-young nobles. They amounted to about 1200
-in number, forming eight squadrons, and,
-under the name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕταιροι</span>, formed a sort of
-body-guard for the king. The Thessalian
-cavalry consisted chiefly of the elite of the
-wealthier class of the Thessalians, but included
-also a number of Grecian youth from
-other states. There was also a guard of foot
-soldiers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπασπισταί</span>), whom we find greatly
-distinguishing themselves in the campaigns
-of Alexander. They seem to be identical with
-the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεζέταιροι</span>, of whom we find mention.
-They amounted to about 3000 men, arranged
-in six battalions (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάξεις</span>). There was also a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164"></a>[164]</span>
-troop called Argyraspids, from the silver with
-which their shields were ornamented. They
-seem to have been a species of peltastae.
-Alexander also organised a kind of troops
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διμάχαι</span>, who were something intermediate
-between cavalry and infantry, being
-designed to fight on horseback or on foot, as
-circumstances required. It is in the time of
-Alexander the Great, that we first meet with
-artillery in the train of a Grecian army. His
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balistae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">catapeltae</i> were frequently employed
-with great effect, as, for instance, at
-the passage of the Jaxartes.</p>
-
-<p>(2) <span id="Exer_r" class="smcap">Roman.</span> <em>General Remarks on the
-Legion.</em>&mdash;The name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Legio</i> is coeval with the
-foundation of Rome, and denoted a body of
-troops, which, although subdivided into several
-smaller bodies, was regarded as forming
-an organised whole. It was not equivalent to
-what we call a <em>regiment</em>, inasmuch as it contained
-troops of all arms, infantry, cavalry,
-and, when military engines were extensively
-employed, artillery also; it might thus, so
-far, be regarded as a complete <em>army</em>, but on
-the other hand the number of soldiers in a
-legion was fixed within certain limits, never
-much exceeding 6000, and hence when war
-was carried on upon a large scale, a single
-army, under the command of one general,
-frequently contained two, three, or more
-legions, besides a large number of auxiliaries
-of various denominations. The legion for
-many centuries was composed exclusively of
-Roman citizens. By the ordinances of Servius
-Tullius those alone who were enrolled in
-the five classes were eligible, and one of the
-greatest changes introduced by Marius (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-107) was the admission of all orders of citizens,
-including the lowest, into the ranks.
-Up to the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 107, no one was permitted
-to serve among the regular troops of the
-state, except those who were regarded as
-possessing a strong personal interest in the
-stability of the commonwealth; but the principle
-having been at this period abandoned,
-the privilege was extended after the close of
-the Social War (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 87) to nearly the whole
-of the free population of Italy, and by the
-famous edict of Caracalla (or perhaps of M.
-Aurelius), to the whole Roman world. Long
-before this, however, the legions were raised
-chiefly in the provinces; but it does not
-appear that the admission of foreigners not
-subjects was ever practised upon a large
-scale until the reign of the second Claudius
-(<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 268-270), who incorporated a large
-body of vanquished Goths, and of Probus
-(<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 276-282), who distributed 16,000
-Germans among legionary and frontier battalions.
-From this time forward what had
-originally been the leading characteristic of
-the legion was rapidly obliterated, so that
-under Diocletian, Constantine, and their successors,
-the best soldiers in the Roman armies
-were barbarians. The practice of
-granting pensions for long service in the
-shape of donations of land was first introduced
-upon a large scale after the Mithridatic
-wars. Hence, when Augustus, in
-compliance with the advice of Maecenas,
-determined to provide for the security of the
-distant provinces, and for tranquil submission
-at home by the establishment of a powerful
-standing army, he found the public
-mind in a great degree prepared for such a
-measure, and the distinction between soldier
-and civilian unknown, or at least not recognised
-before, became from this time forward
-as broadly marked as in the most pure military
-despotisms of ancient or modern times.
-The legions were originally numbered according
-to the order in which they were
-raised. As they became permanent, the
-same numbers remained attached to the same
-corps, which were moreover distinguished by
-various epithets of which we have early
-examples in the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Legio Martia</i>, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Legio
-Quinta Alauda</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Alauda">Alauda</a>.</span>] Several legions
-bore the same number: thus there were four
-<em>Firsts</em>, five <em>Seconds</em>, and five <em>Thirds</em>. The
-total number of legions under Augustus was
-twenty-five, under Alexander Severus thirty-two,
-but during the civil wars the number
-was far greater.&mdash;The number of soldiers
-who, at different periods, were contained in a
-legion, does not appear to have been absolutely
-fixed, but to have varied within moderate
-limits. Under Romulus the legion
-contained 3000 foot soldiers. It is highly
-probable that some change may have been
-introduced by Servius Tullius, but, in so far
-as numbers are concerned, we have no evidence.
-From the expulsion of the Kings
-until the second year of the second Punic
-War, the regular number may be fixed at
-4000 or 4200 infantry. From the latter
-period until the consulship of Marius the
-ordinary number may be fixed at from 5000
-to 5200. For some centuries after Marius
-the numbers varied from 5000 to 6200, generally
-approaching to the higher limit. Amid
-all the variations with regard to the infantry,
-300 horsemen formed the regular complement
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">justus equitatus</i>) of the legion. When
-troops were raised for a service which required
-special arrangements, the number of
-horsemen was sometimes increased beyond
-300. It must be observed, however, that
-these remarks with regard to the cavalry
-apply only to the period before Marius. We
-now proceed to consider the organisation of
-the legion at five different periods.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165"></a>[165]</span></p>
-
-<p><em>First Period. Servius Tullius.</em> The legion
-of Servius is so closely connected with the
-Comitia Centuriata that it has already been
-discussed in a former article [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a></span>], and it
-is only necessary to repeat here that it was a
-phalanx equipped in the Greek fashion, the
-front ranks being furnished with a complete
-suit of armour, their weapons being long
-spears, and their chief defence the round
-Argolic shield (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clipeus</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill165" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill165.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">
-<table class="autotable" width="90%" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="pad6">&nbsp;</span></td>
-<td class="tdl">15 Manipuli of Hastati.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl">15 Manipuli of Principes.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Triarii proper {</td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl">} 15 triple</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Rorarii &nbsp;<span class="pad2h">{</span></td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl">} &nbsp; Manipuli</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Accensi <span class="pad2h">{</span></td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl">} &nbsp; of Triarii.</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><em>Second Period. The Great Latin War</em>,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 340. Our authority for this period is
-Livy (viii. 8). The legion in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 340 had
-almost entirely discarded the tactics of the
-phalanx. It was now drawn up in three, or
-perhaps we ought to say, in five lines. The
-soldiers of the first line, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hastati</i>, consisted
-of youths in the first bloom of manhood
-distributed into 15 companies or maniples
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manipuli</i>), a moderate space being left
-between each. The maniple contained 60
-privates, 2 centurions (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centuriones</i>), and a
-standard bearer (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexillarius</i>); two-thirds
-were heavily armed and bore the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scutum</i> or
-large oblong shield, the remainder carried
-only a spear (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta</i>) and light javelins (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gaesa</i>),
-The second line, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principes</i>, was composed
-of men in the full vigour of life, divided in
-like manner into 15 maniples, all heavily
-armed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scutati omnes</i>). The two lines of
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hastati</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principes</i> taken together
-amounted to 30 maniples, and formed the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antepilani</i>. The third line, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triarii</i>, composed
-of tried veterans, was also in 15 divisions,
-but each of these was triple, containing
-3 manipuli, 180 privates, 6 centurions, and 3
-vexillarii. In these triple manipuli the veterans
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triarii</i> proper formed the front ranks;
-immediately behind them stood the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rorarii</i>,
-inferior in age and prowess, while the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Accensi</i>
-or supernumeraries, less trustworthy
-than either, were posted in the extreme rear.
-The battle array may be thus represented.
-The fight was commenced by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rorarii</i>, so
-called because the light missiles which they
-sprinkled among the foe were like the drops
-which are the forerunners of the thunder
-shower, who, running forwards between the
-ranks of the antepilani, acted as tirailleurs;
-when they were driven in they returned to
-their station behind the triarii, and the battle
-began in earnest by the onset of the hastati;
-if they were unable to make any impression
-they retired between the ranks of the principes,
-who now advanced and bore the brunt
-of the combat, supported by the hastati, who
-had rallied in their rear. If the principes
-also failed to make an impression, they retired
-through the openings between the
-maniples of the triarii, who up to this time
-had been crouched on the ground (hence
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subsidiarii</i>), but now arose to make
-the last effort (whence the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rem ad
-triarios redisse</i>). No longer retaining the
-open order of the two first lines, they closed
-up their ranks so as to present an unbroken
-line of heavy-armed veterans in front, while
-the rorarii and accensi, pressing up from
-behind, gave weight and consistency to the
-mass,&mdash;an arrangement bearing evidence to
-a lingering predilection for the principle of
-the phalanx, and exhibiting, just as we might
-expect at that period, the Roman tactics in
-their transition state. It must be observed
-that the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordo</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manipulus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexillum</i>,
-although generally kept distinct, are throughout
-the chapter used as synonymous. Livy
-concludes by saying, that four legions were
-commonly levied, each consisting of 5000 infantry
-and 300 horse. We must suppose that
-he speaks in round numbers in so far as the infantry
-are concerned, for according to his own
-calculations the numbers will stand thus:&mdash;</p>
-
-<table class="autotable" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Hastati</td>
-<td class="tdl">15 × 60</td>
-<td class="tdc">=</td>
-<td class="tdr">900</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Principes</td>
-<td class="tdl">15 × 60</td>
-<td class="tdc">=</td>
-<td class="tdr">900</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Triarii, &amp;c.</td>
-<td class="tdl">15 × 3 × 60</td>
-<td class="tdc">=</td>
-<td class="tdr">2700</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Centuriones</td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdc">=</td>
-<td class="tdr">150</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Vexillarii</td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdc">=</td>
-<td class="tdr">75</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdc"></td>
-<td class="tdr">&nbsp;&nbsp;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdc"></td>
-<td class="tdr">4725</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166"></a>[166]</span></p>
-
-<p><em>Third Period. During the wars of the
-younger Scipio.</em> Polybius describes minutely
-the method pursued in raising the four
-legions during this period. Under ordinary
-circumstances they were levied yearly, two
-being assigned to each consul. It must be
-observed that a regular consular army (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">justus
-consularis exercitus</i>) no longer consisted of
-Roman legions only, but as Italy became
-gradually subjugated, the various states under
-the dominion of Rome were bound to furnish
-a contingent, and the number of allies (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socii</i>)
-usually exceeded that of citizens. They were,
-however, kept perfectly distinct, both in the
-camp and in the battle field. After the election
-of consuls was concluded, the first step
-was to choose the 24 chief officers of the
-legions, named <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni militum</i>. The consuls
-then summoned to the Capitol all citizens
-eligible for military service. They first
-divided the 24 tribunes into 4 parties of 6,
-and the tribes were next summoned in succession
-by lot. The tribe whose lot came out
-first being called up, they picked out from it
-four youths, as nearly matched as possible in
-age and form; out of these four, the tribunes
-of the first legion chose one, the tribunes of
-the second legion one of the remaining three;
-the tribunes of the third legion, one of the
-remaining two, and the last fell to the fourth
-legion. Upon the next tribe being called up,
-the first choice was given to the tribunes of
-the second legion, the second choice to those
-of the third, and the last man fell to the first
-legion. On the next tribe being called up,
-the tribunes of the third legion had the first
-choice, and so on in succession, the object in
-view being that the four legions should be as
-nearly alike as possible, not in the number
-only, but in the quality of the soldiers. This
-process was continued until the ranks were
-complete. In ancient times, the cavalry
-were not chosen until after the infantry levy
-was concluded, but when Polybius wrote, the
-cavalry were picked in the first place from
-the list on which they were enrolled by the
-censor according to their fortune, and 300
-were apportioned to each legion. The levy
-being completed, the tribunes collected the
-men belonging to their respective legions,
-and making one individual stand out from
-the rest administered to him an oath
-“that he would obey orders and execute to
-the best of his ability the command of his
-officers.” (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sacramento milites adigere s. rogare,
-sacramentum s. sacramento dicere.</i>) The
-rest of the soldiers then came forward one by
-one, and swore to do what the first had
-bound himself to perform. At the same time
-the consuls gave notice to the magistrates of
-those towns in Italy in alliance with Rome,
-from whom they desired to receive a contingent,
-of the number which each would be
-required to furnish, and of the day and place
-of gathering. The allied cities levied their
-troops and administered the oath much in
-the same manner as the Romans, and then
-sent them forth after appointing a commander
-and a paymaster. The soldiers having again
-assembled, the men belonging to each legion
-were separated into four divisions. 1. 1000
-of the youngest and poorest were set apart
-to form the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Velites</i>, the light-armed troops,
-or skirmishers of the legion. 2. 1200 who
-came next in age (or who were of the same
-age with the preceding but more wealthy),
-formed the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hastati</i>. 3. 1200, consisting of
-those in the full vigour of manhood, formed
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principes</i>. 4. 600, consisting of the
-oldest and most experienced, formed the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triarii</i>. When the number of soldiers in
-the legion exceeded 4000, the first three
-divisions were increased proportionally, but
-the number of the Triarii remained always
-the same. The Hastati, Principes, and Triarii
-were each divided into ten companies, called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Manipuli</i>. The Velites were not divided
-into companies, but were distributed equally
-among the Hastati, Principes, and Triarii.
-Before the division of the three classes into
-maniples, officers were appointed inferior to
-the tribunes. 30 men were chosen by merit,
-10 from the Hastati, 10 from the Principes,
-and 10 from the Triarii; and this first choice
-being completed, 30 more in like manner.
-These 60 officers, of whom 20 were assigned
-to each of the three classes, and distributed
-equally among the maniples, were named
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centuriones</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordinum ductores</i>, and each of
-the 60 chose for himself a Lieutenant (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">optio</i>),
-who, being posted in the rear of the company
-while the centurion was at the head, was
-named <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐραγός</span> (i.e. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tergiductor</i>) by the
-Greeks, so that in each maniple there were
-two centurions and two optiones. Further,
-the centurions selected out of each maniple
-two of the bravest and most vigorous men as
-standard bearers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexillarii, signiferi</i>). The
-first elected centurion of the whole had a
-seat in the military council, and in each
-maniple the first chosen commanded the
-right division of the maniple, and the other
-the left. Each of these subdivisions of the
-maniple was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centuria</i>. The cavalry
-were divided into 10 troops (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">turmae</i>), and
-out of each of these 3 officers were chosen,
-named <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decuriones</i>, who named 3 lieutenants
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">optiones</i>). In each troop the decurio first
-chosen commanded the whole troop, and
-failing him, the second. The infantry furnished
-by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socii</i> was for the most part
-equal in number to the Roman legions, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167"></a>[167]</span>
-cavalry twice or thrice as numerous, and the
-whole were divided equally between the two
-consular armies. Each consul named twelve
-superior officers, who were termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praefecti
-Sociorum</i>, and corresponded to the legionary
-tribunes. A selection was then made of the
-best men, to the extent of one-fifth of the
-infantry and one-third of the cavalry; these
-were formed into a separate corps under the
-name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">extraordinarii</i>, and on the march
-and in the camp were always near the person
-of the consul. The remainder were divided
-into two equal portions, and were styled
-respectively the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dextera Ala</i> and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sinistra
-Ala</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ala_a">Ala</a></span>].&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agmen</i> or <em>Line of March</em>. The
-Extraordinarii Pedites led the van followed
-by the right wing of the infantry of the allies
-and the baggage of these two divisions; next
-came one of the Roman legions with its baggage
-following; next the other Roman legion
-with its own baggage, and that of the left
-wing of the allies, who brought up the rear.
-The different corps of cavalry sometimes followed
-immediately behind the infantry to
-which they were attached, sometimes rode on
-the flanks of the beasts of burden, at once
-protecting them and preventing them from
-straggling. Generally, when advancing
-through a country in which it was necessary
-to guard against a sudden onset, the troops,
-instead of proceeding in a loose straggling
-column, were kept together in close compact
-bodies ready to act in any direction at a
-moment’s warning, and hence an army under
-these circumstances was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agmine quadrato
-incedere</i>. Some doubt exists with regard
-to the force of the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agmen Pilatum</i>
-as distinguished from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agmen Quadratum</i>.
-Varro defines the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agmen pilatum</i> as a compact
-body marching without beasts of burthen.
-Where the phrase occurs in poetry, it
-probably denotes merely “columns bristling
-with spears.” To the preceding particulars
-from Polybius, the following may be added.</p>
-
-<p>1. <em>The levy (delectus.)</em> According to the
-principles of the constitution, none were
-enrolled in the legion, except freeborn citizens
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ingenui</i>) above the age of 17, and
-under the age of 60, possessing not less than
-4000 asses: but in times of peculiar difficulty,
-these conditions were not insisted
-upon. In such times all formalities were
-dispensed with, and every man capable of
-bearing arms was summoned to join in warding
-off the threatened danger, a force raised
-under such circumstances being termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subitarius</i>
-s. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tumultuarius exercitus</i>. If citizens
-between the ages of 17 and 46 did not appear
-and answer to their names, they might be
-punished in various ways,&mdash;by fine, by imprisonment,
-by stripes, by confiscation of
-their property, and even, in extreme cases,
-by being sold as slaves. At the same time,
-causes might be alleged which were recognised
-as forming a legitimate ground for exemption
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vacatio justa militiae</i>). Thus, all
-who had served for the full period of 20
-years were relieved from further service,
-although they might still be within the regular
-age; and so, in like manner, when they
-were afflicted by any grievous malady, or
-disabled by any personal defect, or engaged
-in any sacred or civil offices which required
-their constant attendance; but these and
-similar pleas, although sustained under ordinary
-circumstances, might be rendered void
-by a decree of the senate “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ne vacationes
-valerent</span>.” While those who had served for
-the stipulated period were entitled to immunity
-for the future, even although within the
-legal age, and were styled <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Emeriti</i>, so on the
-other hand, it appears from some passages in
-the classics, that persons who had not completed
-their regular term within the usual
-limits, might be forced, if required, to serve
-between the ages of 45 and 50. Towards
-the close of the republic, and under the empire,
-when the legions became permanent,
-the soldier who had served his full time received
-a regular discharge (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">missio</i>), together
-with a bounty (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praemium</i>) in money or an
-allotment of land. The jurists distinguish
-three kinds of discharge:&mdash;1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Missio honesta</i>,
-granted for length of service. 2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Missio
-causaria</i>, in consequence of bad health. 3.
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Missio ignominiosa</i>, when a man was drummed
-out for bad conduct. It frequently
-happened that <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emeriti</i> were induced to continue
-in the ranks, either from attachment to
-the person of the general, or from hopes of
-profit or promotion, and were then called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">veterani</i>, or when they joined an army, in
-consequence of a special invitation, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">evocati</i>.</p>
-
-<p>2. The division of the legion into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohortes</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Manipuli</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Centuriae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Signa</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ordines</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Contubernia</i>.&mdash;(i.)
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohortes.</i> Polybius takes no notice
-of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohort</i>, a division of the legion often
-mentioned in the Roman writers. When the
-soldiers of the legion were classified as Velites,
-Hastati, Principes and Triarii, the cohort
-contained one maniple of each of the
-three latter denominations, together with
-their complement of Velites, so that when
-the legion contained 4000, each cohort would
-consist of 60 Triarii, 120 Principes, 120
-Hastati, and 100 Velites, in all 400 men.
-The number of cohorts in a legion being
-always 10, and the cohorts, during the
-republic, being all equal to each other, the
-strength of the cohort varied from time to
-time with the strength of the legion, and
-thus at different periods ranged between the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168"></a>[168]</span>
-limits of 300 and 600. They were regularly
-numbered from 1 to 10, the centurion of the first
-century of the first maniple of the first cohort
-was the guardian of the eagle, and hence the
-first cohort seems always to have been regarded
-as superior in dignity to the rest. Late
-writers, instead of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cohortes</i>, prefer the somewhat
-vague term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">numeri</i>, which appears in
-Tacitus and Suetonius, and perhaps even in
-Cicero. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Numeri</i> seems to have signified
-strictly the muster roll, whence the phrases
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">referre in numeros</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">distribuere in numeros</i>,
-and thus served to denote any body of
-legionaries. Whenever <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohors</i> occurs in
-the Latin classics in connection with the
-legion, it always signifies a specific division
-of the legion; but it is very frequently found,
-in the general sense of <em>battalion</em>, to denote
-troops altogether distinct from the legion.&mdash;(ii.)
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Manipulus.</i> The original meaning of
-this word, which is derived from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manus</i>, was
-<em>a handful or wisp of hay</em>, <em>straw</em>, <em>fern</em>, <em>or the
-like</em>, and this, according to Roman tradition,
-affixed to the end of a pole, formed the primitive
-military standard in the days of Romulus.
-Hence it was applied to a body of
-soldiers serving under the same ensign. When
-the phalanx was resolved into small companies
-marshalled in open order, these were
-termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manipuli</i>, and down to a very late
-period the common soldiers of the legion
-were designated as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manipulares</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manipularii</i>,
-terms equivalent to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gregarii milites</i>.
-When the phalanx was first broken
-up, it appears that each of the three classes
-of Hastati, Principes, and Triarii, contained
-15 maniples; but before the second
-Punic war the number of maniples in
-each of these classes was reduced to 10.
-Hence it is easy to calculate the number
-of soldiers in each maniple, according
-to the varying numbers in the legion, it
-being always borne in mind that the Triarii
-never exceeded 600, and that the Velites
-were not divided into maniples, but distributed
-equally among the heavy-armed companies.&mdash;(iii.)
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Centuriae.</i> The distribution of
-soldiers into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centuriae</i> must be regarded as coeval
-with the origin of Rome. Plutarch speaks
-of the force led by Romulus against Amulius
-as formed of centuries; and from the close
-connections between the centuries of Servius
-Tullius, and the organization of the military
-force, we cannot hesitate to believe that the
-term was communicated to the ranks of the
-phalanx. For a long period after the establishment
-of the manipular constitution, the
-legion contained 60 centuries.&mdash;(iv.) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Signum.</i>
-This word is used to denote a division of the
-legion, but it is doubtful whether it signifies a
-maniple or a century.&mdash;(v.) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ordo</i> generally
-signifies a century, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordinum ductor</i> is synonymous
-with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centurio</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ducere honestum
-ordinem</i> means to be one of the principal
-centurions in a legion.&mdash;(vi.) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Contubernium.</i>
-This was the name given under the empire
-to the body of soldiers who were quartered
-together in the same tent.</p>
-
-<p>3. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hastati</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triarii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pilani</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antepilani</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antesignani</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principia</i>.&mdash;The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hastati</i> were so called, from having been
-armed with a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta</i>, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principes</i> from having
-occupied the front line, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triarii</i>,
-otherwise named <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pilani</i>, from having been
-ranged behind the first two lines as a body
-of reserve and armed with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pilum</i>, while
-the first two lines were termed collectively
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antepilani</i>, from standing in front of the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pilani</i>. In process of time, it came to pass,
-that these designations no longer expressed
-the actual condition of the troops to which
-they were attached. When Polybius wrote,
-and long before that period, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hastati</i> were
-not armed with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hastae</i>, but in common with
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principes</i> bore the heavy <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pilum</i>: on the
-other hand, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pilani</i> carried <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hastae</i> and not
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pila</i>, while the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principes</i> were not drawn up
-in the front, but formed the second line.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antesignani</i>.
-While the Hastati and Principes,
-taken together, were sometimes termed
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antepilani</i>, in contradistinction to the Triarii,
-so the Hastati alone were sometimes termed
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antesignani</i>, in contradistinction to the Principes
-and Triarii taken together. The term
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antesignani</i> having become established as
-denoting the front ranks in a line of battle,
-was retained in this general sense long after
-the Hastati, Principes, and Triarii had disappeared.&mdash;Another
-term employed to denote
-the front ranks of an army in battle array is
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principia</i>, and in this sense must be carefully
-distinguished from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principia</i> or
-chief street in the camp, and from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principia</i>,
-which in the later writers, such as
-Ammianus and Vegetius, is equivalent to
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">principales milites</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Postsignani</i> does not
-occur in any author earlier than Ammianus
-Marcellinus, and therefore need not be illustrated
-here; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Subsignanus miles</i> of Tacitus
-seems to be the same with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vexillarii</i>.</p>
-
-<p>4. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rorarii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Accensi</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ferentarii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Velites</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Procubitores</i>.&mdash;When the Hastati had, in a
-great measure, ceased to act as tirailleurs,
-their place was supplied by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rorarii</i>,
-whose method of fighting has been described
-above (<a href="#Page_165">p. 165</a>). The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Accensi</i>, as described by
-Livy, were inferior in equipment to the rorarii,
-although employed in a similar manner,
-and seem to have been camp-followers or
-servants, and hence the name is given to
-those also who attended upon magistrates or
-other officials. At a later period the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">accensi</i><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169"></a>[169]</span>
-were supernumeraries, who served to fill up
-any vacancies which occurred in the course
-of a campaign. Another ancient term for
-light-armed soldiers was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ferentarii</i>. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Velites</i>, called also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Procubitores</i>, because they
-were employed on outpost duty when the
-Romans were encamped before an enemy,
-were first formed into a corps at the siege of
-Capua, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 211.</p>
-
-<p>5. <em>Officers of the Legion.</em>&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tribuni Militum</i>
-were the chief officers of the legion. Their
-number (six) did not vary for many centuries.
-They were originally chosen by the commanders-in-chief,
-that is, by the kings in the
-first instance, and afterwards by the consuls,
-or a dictator, as the case might be. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-361 the people assumed to themselves the
-right of electing either the whole or a certain
-number; and in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 311 it was ordained
-that they should choose sixteen for the four
-legions. In subsequent times the choice of
-the tribunes was divided between the consuls
-and the people; but the proportion chosen
-by each differed at various periods. No one
-was eligible to the office of tribune who had
-not served for ten years in the infantry or
-five in the cavalry; but this rule admitted
-of exceptions. Augustus introduced certain
-regulations altogether new. He permitted
-the sons of senators to wear the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tunica laticlavia</i>
-as soon as they assumed the manly
-gown, and to commence their military career
-as tribunes, or as commanders (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefecti</i>) of
-cavalry. Such persons were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tribuni
-Laticlavii</i>.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Centuriones.</i> Next in rank to
-the Tribunus was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Centurio</i>, who, as the
-name implies, commanded a century; and
-the century, being termed also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordo</i>, the centurions
-were frequently designated <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordinum
-ductores</i> (hence, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adimere ordines</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">offerre ordines</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordines impetrare</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ducere honestum
-ordinem</i>, to be one of the principal centurions,
-&amp;c.). The chief ordinary duties of
-the centurions were to drill the soldiers, to
-inspect their arms, clothing, and food, to
-watch the execution of the toils imposed, to
-visit the centinels, and to regulate the conduct
-of their men, both in the camp and in the
-field. They also sat as judges in minor offences,
-and had the power of inflicting corporal
-punishment, whence their badge of office
-was a vine sapling, and thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitis</i> is frequently
-used to denote the office itself.
-Of the two centurions in each maniple the
-one first chosen took the command of the
-right division, the other of the left. The
-century to the right was considered as the
-first century of the maniple, and its commander
-took precedence probably with the title
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Prior</i>, his companion to the left being called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Posterior</i>, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">priores</i> in each of the three
-divisions of Triarii, Principes, and Hastati
-being the ten centurions first chosen. So
-long as these divisions were recognised, all
-the centurions of the Triarii appear to have
-ranked before those of the Principes, and all
-the centurions of the Principes before those
-of the Hastati. Moreover, since the maniples
-were numbered in each division from 1
-to 10, there was probably a regular progression
-from the first centurion of the first
-maniple down to the second centurion of the
-tenth maniple. The first centurion of the
-first maniple of the Triarii, originally named
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Centurio Primus</i>, and afterwards <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Centurio
-Primipili</i>, or simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Primipilus</i>, occupied a
-very conspicuous position. He stood next
-in rank to the Tribuni militum; he had a
-seat in the military council; to his charge
-was committed the eagle of the legion, whence
-he is sometimes styled <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aquilifer</i>, and, under
-the empire at least, his office was very lucrative.
-A series of terms connected with these
-arrangements are furnished by the narrative
-which Sp. Ligustinus gives of his own career
-(Liv. xlii. 34). He thus enumerates the
-various steps of his promotion:&mdash;“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mihi T.
-Quinctius Flamininus <em>decumum ordinem hastatum</em>
-adsignavit ... me imperator dignum
-judicavit cui <em>primum hastatum prioris centuriae</em>
-adsignaret ... a M’. Acilio mihi <em>primus
-princeps prioris centuriae</em> est adsignatus ... quater
-intra paucos annos <em>primum pilum
-duxi</em></span>.” The gradual ascent from the ranks
-being to the post of centurion:&mdash;1. In the
-tenth maniple of the Hastati. 2. In the first
-century of the first maniple of the Hastati.
-3. In the first century of the first maniple of
-the Principes. 4. In the first century of the
-first maniple of the Triarii.&mdash;But even after
-the distinction between Hastati, Principes,
-and Triarii was altogether abolished, and
-they were all blended together in the cohorts,
-the same nomenclature with regard to the
-centuries and their commanders was retained,
-although it is by no means easy to perceive
-how it was applied. That great differences
-of rank existed among the centurions is evident
-from the phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">primores centurionum</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">primi ordines</i> (<em>i.e.</em> chief centurions), as opposed
-to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inferiores ordines</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">infimi ordines</i>,
-and that promotion from a lower to a higher
-grade frequently took place, is evident from
-many passages in ancient authors. The
-election of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">optiones</i>, or lieutenants, by the
-centurions, has been already described.</p>
-
-<p><em>Fourth Period. From the times of the Gracchi
-until the downfall of the Republic.</em> After
-the times of the Gracchi the following changes
-in military affairs may be noticed:&mdash;In the
-first consulship of Marius the legions were
-thrown open to citizens of all grades, without<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170"></a>[170]</span>
-distinction of fortune. The whole of the
-legionaries were armed and equipped in the
-same manner, all being now furnished with
-the pilum; and hence we see in Tacitus the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pila</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gladii</i> of the legionaries, opposed to
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hastae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spathae</i> of the auxiliaries.
-The legionaries when in battle order were no
-longer arranged in three lines, each consisting
-of ten maniples, with an open space between
-each maniple, but in two lines, each
-consisting of five cohorts, with a space between
-each cohort. The younger soldiers
-were no longer placed in the front, but in
-reserve, the van being composed of veterans,
-as may be seen from various passages in
-Caesar. As a necessary result of the above
-arrangements, the distinction between Hastati,
-Principes, and Triarii ceased to exist.
-These names, as applied to particular classes
-of soldiers, are not found in Caesar, in Tacitus,
-nor in any writer upon military affairs
-after the time of Marius. The Velites disappeared.
-The skirmishers, included under
-the general term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">levis armatura</i>, consisted
-for the most part of foreign mercenaries possessing
-peculiar skill in the use of some national
-weapon, such as the Balearic slingers,
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funditores</i>), the Cretan archers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sagittarii</i>),
-and the Moorish dartmen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jaculatores</i>).
-Troops of this description had, it is true,
-been employed by the Romans even before
-the second Punic war, and were denominated
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">levium armatorum</i> (s. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">armorum</i>) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auxilia</i>; but
-now the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">levis armatura</i> consisted exclusively
-of foreigners, were formed into a regular
-corps under their own officers, and no longer
-entered into the constitution of the legion.
-When operations requiring great activity
-were undertaken, such as could not be performed
-by mere skirmishers, detachments of
-legionaries were lightly equipped, and marched
-without baggage, for these special services;
-and hence the frequent occurrence of such
-phrases as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">expediti</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">expediti milites</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">expeditae
-cohortes</i>, and even <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">expeditae legiones</i>. The
-cavalry of the legion underwent a change in
-every respect analogous to that which took
-place in regard of the light-armed troops. It
-is evident, from the history of Caesar’s campaigns
-in Gaul, that the number of Roman
-equites attached to his army was very small,
-and that they were chiefly employed as aides-de-camp,
-and on confidential missions. The
-bulk of Caesar’s cavalry consisted of foreigners,
-a fact which becomes strikingly apparent
-when we read that Ariovistus having stipulated
-that the Roman general should come
-to their conference attended by cavalry alone,
-Caesar, feeling no confidence in his Gaulish
-horse, dismounted them, and supplied their
-place by soldiers of the tenth legion. In
-like manner they ceased to form part of the
-legion, and from this time forward we find
-the legions and the cavalry spoken of as
-completely distinct from each other. After
-the termination of the Social War, when
-most of the inhabitants of Italy became
-Roman citizens, the ancient distinction between
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Legiones</i> and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Socii</i> disappeared,
-and all who had served as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Socii</i> became incorporated
-with the legiones. An army
-during the last years of the republic and
-under the earlier emperors consisted of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Romanae
-Legiones et Auxilia s. Auxiliares</i>, the
-latter term comprehending troops of all
-kinds, except the legions. Whenever the
-word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socii</i> is applied to troops after the date
-of the Social War, it is generally to be regarded
-as equivalent to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auxiliares</i>. But the
-most important change of all was the establishment
-of the military <em>profession</em>, and the
-distinction now first introduced between the
-civilian and the soldier.</p>
-
-<p><em>Fifth Period. From the establishment of
-the empire until the age of the Antonines</em>, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-31&ndash;<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 150. Under the empire a regular
-army consisted of a certain number of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Legiones</i>
-and of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Supplementa</i>, the Supplementa
-being again divided into the imperial guards,
-which appear under several different forms,
-distinguished by different names; and the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Auxilia</i>, which were subdivided into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sociae
-Cohortes</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nationes</i>, the latter being for
-the most part barbarians. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Legiones</i>, as
-already remarked, although still composed of
-persons who enjoyed the privileges of Roman
-citizens, were now raised almost exclusively
-in the provinces. The legion was divided
-into 10 cohorts, and each cohort into 6 centuries;
-the first cohort, which had the custody
-of the eagle, was double the size of the
-others, and contained 960 men, the remaining
-cohorts contained each 480 men; and
-consequently each ordinary century 80 men,
-the total strength of the legion being thus
-5280 men.&mdash;It is during this period that we
-first meet with the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vexillarii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vexilla</i>,
-which occurs repeatedly in Tacitus. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexillarii</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexilla legionum</i>, were those
-soldiers who, after having served in the
-legion for sixteen years, became <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exauctorati</i>,
-but continued to serve in company with that
-legion, under a vexillum of their own, until
-they received their full discharge. The
-number attached to each legion was usually
-about five or six hundred.&mdash;The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exauctorare</i>
-also meant <em>to discharge from military
-service</em>, but does not appear to have been in
-use before the Augustan period. It signified
-both a simple discharge, and a cashiering on
-account of some crime. During the later
-period of the empire the latter signification<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171"></a>[171]</span>
-began almost exclusively to prevail.&mdash;As
-to the Praetorian troops, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Praetoriani">Praetoriani</a></span>.&mdash;From
-the time when the cavalry were separated
-from the legion they were formed into
-bodies called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alae</i>, which varied in number
-according to circumstances. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alae</i> were
-raised in the Roman provinces and consisted,
-probably, for the most part, of citizens, or at
-least subjects. But in addition to these every
-army at this period was attended by squadrons
-of light horse composed entirely of barbarians;
-and the chief duty performed by
-those named above was guiding the pioneers
-as they performed their labours in advance
-of the army.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohortes peditatae</i>, were battalions
-raised chiefly in the provinces, composed
-of Roman citizens, of subjects and
-allies, or of citizens, allies, and subjects
-indiscriminately. To this class of troops
-belonged the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cohortes auxiliares</i>, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auxilia
-cohortium</i>, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sociorum cohortes</i>, of whom
-we read in Tacitus, together with a multitude
-of others recorded in inscriptions and named
-for the most part from the nations of which
-they were composed. These cohorts were
-numbered regularly like the legions.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohortes
-Equitatae</i> differed from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Peditatae</i>
-in this only, that they were made up of infantry
-combined with cavalry.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Classici</i>,
-which we may fairly render <em>Marines</em>, were
-employed, according to Hyginus, as pioneers.
-They corresponded to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Navales Socii</i>, under
-the republic, who were always regarded
-as inferior to regular soldiers. After the
-establishment by Augustus of regular permanent
-fleets at Misenum, Ravenna, and on the
-coast of Gaul, a large body of men must have
-been required to man them, who were sometimes
-called upon to serve as ordinary soldiers.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nationes</i>
-were battalions composed entirely
-of barbarians, or of the most uncivilised
-among the subjects of Rome, and were probably
-chiefly employed upon outpost duties.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Urbanae
-Cohortes.</i> Augustus, in addition
-to the praetorian cohorts, instituted a force
-of city guards, amounting to 6000 men divided
-into four battalions. They are usually
-distinguished as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohortes Urbanae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Urbana
-militia</i>, their quarters, which were within
-the city, being the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Urbana Castra</i>.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohortes
-Vigilum.</i> Augustus also organised a large
-body of night-watchers, whose chief duty was
-to act as firemen. They were divided into
-seven cohorts, in the proportion of one cohort
-to each two <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Regiones</i>, were stationed in
-fourteen guardhouses (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">excubitoria</i>), and called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohortes Vigilum</i>. They were commanded
-by a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praefectus</i>, who was of equestrian
-rank.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Exilium">EXĬLĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Exodia">EXŎDĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξόδια</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξ</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁδός</span>) were
-old-fashioned and laughable interludes in
-verse, inserted in other plays, but chiefly in
-the Atellanae. The exodium seems to have
-been introduced among the Romans from
-Italian Greece; but after its introduction it
-became very popular among the Romans, and
-continued to be played down to a very late
-period.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Exomis">EXŌMIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξωμίς</span>), a dress which had only
-a sleeve for the left arm, leaving the right
-with the shoulder and a part of the breast
-free, and was for this reason called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exomis</i>.
-The exomis was usually worn by slaves and
-working people.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp69" id="ill171" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill171.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Exomis (Bronze in British Museum).</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Exomosia">EXŌMŎSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξωμοσία</span>). Any Athenian
-citizen when called upon to appear as a witness
-in a court of justice (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλητεύειν</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκκλητεύειν</span>),
-was obliged by law to obey the summons,
-unless he could establish by oath that
-he was unacquainted with the case in question.
-This oath was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξωμοσία</span>, and the
-act of taking it was expressed by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξόμνυσθαι</span>.
-A person appointed to a public office was at
-liberty to decline it, if he could take an oath
-that the state of his health or other circumstances
-rendered it impossible for him to
-fulfil the duties connected with it (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξόμνυσθαι
-τὴν ἀρχὴν</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὴν χειροτονίαν</span>): and this oath
-was likewise called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξωμοσία</span>, or sometimes
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπωμοσία</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Exostra">EXOSTRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξώστρα</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξωθέω</span>), a theatrical
-machine, by means of which things
-which had been concealed behind the curtain
-on the stage were pushed or rolled forward
-from behind it, and thus became visible to the
-spectators.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Expeditus">EXPĔDĪTUS is opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">impeditus</i>, and
-signifies unincumbered with armour or with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172"></a>[172]</span>
-baggage (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">impedimenta</i>). Hence the epithet
-was often applied to any portion of the Roman
-army, when the necessity for haste, or
-the desire to conduct it with the greatest facility
-from place to place, made it desirable
-to leave behind every weight that could be
-spared.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Exploratores">EXPLŌRĀTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Speculatores">Speculatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Exsequiae">EXSĔQUĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Exsilium">EXSĬLĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυγή</span>), banishment. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span>
-Banishment among the Greek states seldom,
-if ever, appears as a punishment appointed
-by law for particular offences. We
-might, indeed, expect this, for the division of
-Greece into a number of independent states
-would neither admit of the establishment of
-penal colonies, as among us, nor of the various
-kinds of exile which we read of under
-the Roman emperors. The general term
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυγή</span> (flight) was for the most part applied
-in the case of those who, in order to avoid
-some punishment or danger, removed from
-their own country to another. At Athens it
-took place chiefly in cases of homicide, or
-murder. An action for wilful murder was
-brought before the Areiopagus, and for manslaughter
-before the court of the Ephetae.
-The accused might, in either case, withdraw
-himself (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φεύγειν</span>) before sentence was passed;
-but when a criminal evaded the punishment
-to which an act of murder would have exposed
-him had he remained in his own
-land, he was then banished for ever (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φεύγει
-ἀειφυγίαν</span>), and not allowed to return home
-even when other exiles were restored upon a
-general amnesty. Demosthenes says, that
-the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φεύγειν</span> was properly applied to the
-exile of those who committed murder with
-malice aforethought, whereas the term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεθίστασθαι</span>
-was used where the act was not intentional.
-The property also was confiscated
-in the former case, but not in the latter.
-When a verdict of manslaughter was returned,
-it was usual for the convicted party
-to leave his country by a certain road, and
-to remain in exile till he induced some one
-of the relatives of the slain man to take compassion
-on him. We are not informed what
-were the consequences if the relatives of the
-slain man refused to make a reconciliation;
-supposing that there was no compulsion, it
-is reasonable to conclude that the exile was
-allowed to return after a fixed time. Plato,
-who is believed to have copied many of his
-laws from the constitution of Athens, fixes
-the period of banishment for manslaughter at
-one year.&mdash;Under <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυγή</span>, or banishment, as a
-general term, is comprehended <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ostracism</i>, (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀστρακισμός</span>).
-Those that were ostracised did
-not lose their property, and the time, as well
-as place of their banishment, was fixed.
-This ostracism is supposed by some to have
-been instituted by Cleisthenes, after the expulsion
-of the Peisistratidae; its nature and
-object are thus explained by Aristotle:&mdash;“Democratical
-states (he observes) used to
-ostracise, and remove from the city for a definite
-time, those who appeared to be preeminent
-above their fellow-citizens, by reason
-of their wealth, the number of their
-friends, or any other means of influence.”
-Ostracism, therefore, was not a punishment
-for any crime, but rather a precautionary removal
-of those who possessed sufficient power
-in the state to excite either envy or fear.
-Thus Plutarch says, it was a good-natured
-way of allaying envy by the humiliation of
-superior dignity and power. The manner of
-effecting it at Athens was as follows:&mdash;A
-space in the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agora</i> was enclosed by barriers,
-with ten entrances for the ten tribes. By
-these the tribesmen entered, each with his
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ostracon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄστρακον</span>), or piece of tile (whence
-the name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ostracism</i>), on which was written
-the name of the individual whom he wished
-to be ostracised. The nine archons and the
-senate, <em>i.e.</em> the presidents of that body, superintended
-the proceedings, and the party
-who had the greatest number of votes against
-him, supposing that this number amounted
-to 6000, was obliged to withdraw (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεταστῆναι</span>)
-from the city within ten days; if the
-number of votes did not amount to 6000, nothing
-was done. Some of the most distinguished
-men at Athens were removed by
-ostracism, but recalled when the city found
-their services indispensable. Among these
-were Themistocles, Aristeides, and Cimon, son
-of Miltiades. The last person against whom it
-was used at Athens was Hyperbolus, a demagogue
-of low birth and character; but the
-Athenians thought their own dignity compromised,
-and ostracism degraded by such an
-application of it, and accordingly discontinued
-the practice.&mdash;From the ostracism of Athens
-was copied the <em>Petalism</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεταλισμός</span>) of the
-Syracusans, so called from the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέταλον</span>, or
-leaf of the olive, on which was written the
-name of the person whom they wished to remove
-from the city. The removal, however,
-was only for five years; a sufficient time, as
-they thought, to humble the pride and hopes
-of the exile. In connection with petalism it
-may be remarked, that if any one were
-falsely registered in a demus, or ward, at
-Athens, his expulsion was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκφυλλοφορία</span>,
-from the votes being given by leaves.
-Besides those exiled by law, or ostracised,
-there was frequently a great number of political
-exiles in Greece; men who, having
-distinguished themselves as the leaders of
-one party, were expelled, or obliged to remove<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173"></a>[173]</span>
-from their native city, when the opposite
-faction became predominant. They are
-spoken of as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ φεύγοντες</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ ἐκπεσόντες</span>, and
-as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ κατελθόντες</span> after their return (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡ κάθοδος</span>)
-the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατάγειν</span> being applied to those who
-were instrumental in effecting it.&mdash;(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span>
-Banishment as a punishment did not
-exist in the old Roman state. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquae et
-ignis interdictio</i>, which we so frequently read
-of in the republican period, was in reality
-not banishment, for it was only a ban, pronounced
-by the people (by a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex</i>), or by a
-magistrate in a criminal court, by which a
-person was deprived of water and of fire;
-that is, of the first necessaries of life; and
-its effect was to incapacitate a person from
-exercising the rights of a citizen; in other
-words, to deprive him of his citizenship.
-Such a person might, if he chose, remain at
-Rome, and submit to the penalty of being an
-outcast, incapacitated from doing any legal
-act, and liable to be killed by any one with
-impunity. To avoid these dangers, a person
-suffering under such an interdict would naturally
-withdraw from Rome, and in the
-earlier republican period, if he withdrew to
-a state between which and Rome isopolitical
-relations existed, he would become a citizen
-of that state. This right was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus
-exsulandi</i> with reference to the state to which
-the person came; with respect to his own
-state, which he left, he was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsul</i>, and his
-condition was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsilium</i>; and with respect to
-the state which he entered, he was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inquilinus</i>.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
-In the same way a citizen of such a
-state had a right of going into exsilium at
-Rome; and at Rome he might attach himself
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">applicare se</i>) to a quasi-patronus. Exsilium,
-instead of being a punishment, would thus
-rather be a mode of evading punishment;
-but towards the end of the republic the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquae et ignis interdictio</i> became a regular
-banishment, since the sentence usually specified
-certain limits, within which a person was
-interdicted from fire and water. Thus Cicero
-was interdicted from fire and water
-within 400 miles from the city. The punishment
-was inflicted for various crimes, as
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vis publica</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peculatus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">veneficium</i>, &amp;c. Under
-the empire there were two kinds of exsilium;
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsilium</i> properly so called, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">relegatio</i>;
-the great distinction between the two
-was, that the former deprived a person of his
-citizenship, while the latter did not. The
-distinction between <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsilium</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">relegatio</i>
-existed under the republic. Ovid also describes
-himself, not as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsul</i>, which he considers
-a term of reproach, but as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">relegatus</i>.
-The chief species of exsilium was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deportatio
-in insulam</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deportatio</i> simply, which
-was introduced under the emperors in place
-of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquae et ignis interdictio</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">relegatio</i>
-merely confined the person within, or
-excluded him from particular places. In the
-latter case it was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fuga lata</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fuga libera</i>,
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liberum exsilium</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">relegatus</i>
-went into banishment; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deportatus</i> was
-conducted to his place of banishment, sometimes
-in chains.</p>
-
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> This word appears, by its termination <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inus</i>, to denote a
-person who was one of a class, like the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libertinus</i>.
-The prefix <em>in</em> appears to be the correlative of <em>ex</em> in <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsul</i>,
-and the remaining part <em>quil</em> is probably related to <em>col</em> in
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">incola</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colonus</i>.</p>
-
-</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Extispex">EXTISPEX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Haruspices">Haruspex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Extraordinarii">EXTRĂORDĬNĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_167">p. 167</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="F_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">F</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Fabri" class="drop-capy">FABRI are workmen who make anything
-out of hard materials, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabri tignarii</i>,
-carpenters, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabri aerarii</i>, smiths, &amp;c. The different
-trades were divided by Numa into nine
-collegia, which correspond to our companies
-or guilds. In the constitution of Servius
-Tullius, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabri tignarii</i> and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabri
-aerarii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ferrarii</i> were formed into two centuries,
-which were called the centuriae <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabrum</i>
-(not <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabrorum</i>). They did not belong
-to any of the five classes into which Servius
-divided the people; but the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabri tign.</i> probably
-voted with the first class, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabri
-aer.</i> with the second. The fabri in the army
-were under the command of an officer called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefectus fabrûm</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fabula">FĂBŬLA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comoedia">Comoedia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Falarica">FĂLĀRĬCA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Falsum">FALSUM. The oldest legislative provision
-at Rome against Falsum was that of the
-Twelve Tables against false testimony. The
-next legislation on Falsum, so far as we
-know, was a Lex Cornelia, passed in the time
-of the Dictator Sulla against forging, concealing,
-destroying, or committing any other
-fraudulent act respecting a will or other
-instrument. The offence was a <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Crimen
-Publicum</span>, and, under the emperors, the punishment
-was <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">deportatio in insulam for the
-“honestiores</span>;” and the mines or crucifixion
-for the “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">humiliores</span>.”</p>
-
-
-<p id="Falx">FALX, <em>dim.</em> FALCŬLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἅρπη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δρέπανον</span>,
-<em>poet.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δρεπάνη</span>, <em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δρεπάνιον</span>), a sickle; a
-scythe; a pruning-knife; a falchion, &amp;c.
-As <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Culter</i> denoted a knife with one straight
-edge, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">falx</i> signified any similar instrument,
-the single edge of which was curved. Some
-of its forms are given in the annexed cut.
-One represents Perseus with the falchion in
-his right hand, and the head of Medusa in
-his left. The two smaller figures are heads<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174"></a>[174]</span>
-of Saturn with the falx in its original form;
-and the fourth represents the same divinity
-at full length.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp73" id="ill174" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill174.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Falx. (From ancient Cameos.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Familia">FĂMĬLĬA. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia</i> contains
-the same element as the word famulus, a
-slave, and the verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">famulari</i>. In its widest
-sense it signifies the totality of that which belongs
-to a Roman citizen who is sui juris,
-and therefore a paterfamilias. Thus, in certain
-cases of testamentary disposition, the
-word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia</i> is explained by the equivalent
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patrimonium</i>; and the person who received
-the familia from the testator was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familiae
-emptor</i>. But the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia</i> is
-sometimes limited to signify “persons,” that
-is, all those who are in the power of a paterfamilias,
-such as his sons (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">filii-familias</i>),
-daughters, grandchildren, and slaves. Sometimes
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia</i> is used to signify the slaves belonging
-to a person, or to a body of persons
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">societas</i>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fanum">FĀNUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fartor">FARTOR, a slave who fattened poultry.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fasces">FASCES, rods bound in the form of a
-bundle, and containing an axe (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">securis</i>) in
-the middle, the iron of which projected from
-them. They were usually made of birch,
-but sometimes also of the twigs of the elm.
-They are said to have been derived from Vetulonia,
-a city of Etruria. Twelve were carried
-before each of the kings by twelve lictors;
-and on the expulsion of the Tarquins,
-one of the consuls was preceded by twelve
-lictors with the fasces and secures, and the
-other by the same number of lictors with the
-fasces only, or, according to some accounts,
-with crowns around them. But P. Valerius
-Publicola, who gave to the people the right
-of provocatio, ordained that the secures
-should be removed from the fasces, and allowed
-only one of the consuls to be preceded
-by the lictors while they were at Rome.
-The other consul was attended only by a single
-accensus [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Accensus">Accensus</a></span>]. When they were
-out of Rome, and at the head of the army, each
-of the consuls retained the axe in the fasces,
-and was preceded by his own lictors, as before
-the time of Valerius. The fasces and
-secures were, however, carried before the
-dictator even in the city, and he was also
-preceded by twenty-four lictors, and the magister
-equitum by six. The praetors were
-preceded in the city by two lictors with the
-fasces; but out of Rome and at the head of
-an army by six, with the fasces and secures.
-The tribunes of the plebs, the aediles and
-quaestors, had no lictors in the city, but in
-the provinces the quaestors were permitted to
-have the fasces. The lictors carried the
-fasces on their shoulders; and when an inferior
-magistrate met one who was higher in
-rank, the lictors lowered their fasces to him.
-This was done by Valerius Publicola, when
-he addressed the people, and hence came
-the expression <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">submittere fasces</i> in the sense
-of to yield, to confess one’s self inferior to
-another. When a general had gained a victory,
-and had been saluted as Imperator by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175"></a>[175]</span>
-his soldiers, he usually crowned his fasces
-with laurel.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp41" id="ill175" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill175.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Fasces. (From the original in the Capitol at Rome.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Fascia">FASCĬA, a band or fillet of cloth, worn,
-(1) round the head as an ensign of royalty;&mdash;(2)
-by women over the breast;&mdash;(3) round
-the legs and feet, especially by women.
-When the toga had fallen into disuse, and
-the shorter pallium was worn in its stead, so
-that the legs were naked and exposed, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasciae
-crurales</i> became common even with the male
-sex.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fascinum">FASCĬNUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασκανία</span>), fascination, enchantment.
-The belief that some persons had
-the power of injuring others by their looks,
-was prevalent among the Greeks and Romans.
-The evil eye was supposed to injure
-children particularly, but sometimes cattle
-also; whence Virgil (<cite>Ecl.</cite> iii. 103) says,</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la">
-    <div class="verse indent0">“Nescio quis teneros oculos mihi fascinat agnum.”</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Various amulets were used to avert its influence.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fasti">FASTI. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fas</i> signifies <em>divine law</em>: the epithet
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fastus</i> is properly applied to anything
-in accordance with divine law; and hence
-those days upon which legal business might,
-without impiety (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sine piaculo</i>), be transacted
-before the praetor, were technically denominated
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasti dies</i>, i.e. <em>lawful days</em>. The sacred
-books in which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasti dies</i> of the year
-were marked were themselves denominated
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasti</i>; the term, however, was employed to
-denote registers of various descriptions. Of
-these the two principal are the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fasti Sacri</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fasti Kalendares</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fasti Annales</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fasti
-Historici</i>.&mdash;I. <span class="smcap">Fasti Sacri</span> or <span class="smcap">Kalendares</span>.
-For nearly four centuries and a half after the
-foundation of the city a knowledge of the
-calendar was possessed exclusively by the
-priests. One of the pontifices regularly proclaimed
-the appearance of the new moon,
-and at the same time announced the period
-which would intervene between the Kalends
-and the Nones. On the Nones the country
-people assembled for the purpose of learning
-from the rex sacrorum the various festivals
-to be celebrated during the month, and the
-days on which they would fall. In like
-manner all who wished to go to law were
-obliged to inquire of the privileged few on
-what day they might bring their suit, and
-received the reply as if from the lips of an
-astrologer. The whole of this lore, so long
-a source of power and profit, and therefore
-jealously enveloped in mystery, was at length
-made public by a certain Cn. Flavius, scribe
-to App. Claudius; who, having gained access
-to the pontifical books, copied out all the
-requisite information, and exhibited it in the
-forum for the use of the people at large.
-From this time forward such tables became
-common, and were known by the name of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fasti</i>. They usually contained an enumeration
-of the months and days of the year; the
-Nones, Ides, Nundinae, Dies Fasti, Nefasti,
-Comitiales, Atri, &amp;c., together with the different
-festivals, were marked in their proper
-places: astronomical observations on the
-risings and settings of the fixed stars, and the
-commencement of the seasons were frequently
-inserted. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium</a>; <a href="#Dies">Dies</a>.</span>]&mdash;II. <span class="smcap">Fasti
-Annales</span> or <span class="smcap">Historici</span>. Chronicles such as
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Annales Maximi</i>, containing the names of
-the chief magistrates for each year, and a
-short account of the most remarkable events
-noted down opposite to the days on which
-they occurred, were, from the resemblance
-which they bore in arrangement to the
-sacred calendars, denominated <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasti</i>; and
-hence this word is used, especially by the
-poets, in the general sense of <em>historical records</em>.
-In prose writers <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasti</i> is commonly
-employed as the technical term for the registers
-of consuls, dictators, censors, and other
-magistrates, which formed part of the public
-archives. Some most important <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasti</i> belonging
-to this class, executed probably at the
-beginning of the reign of Tiberius, have been
-partially preserved, and are deposited in the
-Capitol in Rome, where they are known by
-the name of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fasti Capitolini</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fastigium">FASTĬGĬUM. An ancient Greek or Roman<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176"></a>[176]</span>
-temple, of rectangular construction, is
-terminated at its upper extremity by a triangular
-figure, both in front and rear, which
-rests upon the cornice of the entablature as
-a base, and has its sides formed by the cornices
-which terminate the roof. The whole
-of this triangle above the trabeation is implied
-in the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fastigium</i>, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀέτωμα</span>
-by the Greeks, pediment by our architects.
-The dwelling-houses of the Romans had no
-gable ends; consequently when the word is
-applied to them, it is not in its strictly technical
-sense, but designates the roof simply,
-and is to be understood of one which rises
-to an apex, as distinguished from a flat one.
-The fastigium, properly so called, was appropriated
-to the temples of the gods; therefore,
-when the Romans began to bestow divine
-honours upon Julius Caesar, amongst
-other privileges which they decreed to him,
-was the liberty of erecting a fastigium to his
-house, that is, a portico and pediment towards
-the street, like that of a temple.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp71" id="ill176" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill176.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Fastigium. (From a Coin.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Fax">FAX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φανός</span>), a torch. As the principal
-use of torches was to give light to those who
-went abroad after sunset, the portion of the
-Roman day immediately succeeding sun-set
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fax</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prima fax</i>. The use of
-torches after sun-set, and the practice of celebrating
-marriages at that time, probably led
-to the consideration of the torch as one of
-the necessary accompaniments and symbols
-of marriage. Among the Romans the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fax
-nuptialis</i> having been lighted at the parental
-hearth, was carried before the bride by a boy
-whose parents were alive. The torch was also
-carried at funerals (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fax sepulchralis</i>), both because
-these were often nocturnal ceremonies,
-and because it was used to set fire to the pile.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Feciales">FĒCIĀLES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fetiales">Fetiales</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Feminalia">FĔMĬNĀLĬA, worn in winter by Augustus
-Caesar, who was very susceptible of cold. It
-seems probable that they were breeches resembling
-ours.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fenestra">FĔNESTRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fenus">FĒNUS or FOENUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόκος</span>), interest of
-money.&mdash;(1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> At Athens there was
-no restriction upon the rate of interest. A
-rate might be expressed or represented in
-two different ways: (1.) by the number of
-oboli or drachmae paid by the <em>month</em> for every
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mina</i>; (2) by the part of the principal (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ
-ἀρχαῖον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεφάλαιον</span>) paid as interest either
-annually or for the whole period of the loan.
-According to the former method, which was
-generally used when money was lent upon
-real security (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόκοι ἔγγυοι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγγειοι</span>), different
-rates were expressed as follows:&mdash;10
-per cent. by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπὶ πέντε ὀβολοῖς</span>, <em>i.e.</em> 5 oboli per
-month for every mina, or 60 oboli a year =
-10 drachmae = <sup>1</sup>/<sub>10</sub> of a mina. Similarly,</p>
-
-<table class="autotable" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">12 per cent.</td>
-<td class="tdl">by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπὶ δραχμῇ</span></td>
-<td class="tdc">per month.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">16 per cent.</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;” <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπ’ ὀκτὼ ὀβολοῖς</span></td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">18 per cent.</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;” <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπ’ ἐννέα ὀβολοῖς</span></td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">24 per cent.</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;” <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπὶ δυσὶ δραχμαῖς</span></td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">36 per cent.</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;” <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπὶ τρισὶ δρακμαῖς</span></td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"> 5 per cent.</td>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;” <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπὶ τρίτῳ ἡμιοβολίῳ</span>,</td>
-<td class="tdc">probably.</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-
-<p>Another method was generally adopted in
-cases of bottomry (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ ναυτικόν</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόκοι ναυτικοί</span>,
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔκδοσις</span>), where money was lent upon
-the ship’s cargo or freightage (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπὶ τῷ ναύλῳ</span>),
-or the ship itself, for a specified time, commonly
-that of the voyage. By this method
-the following rates were thus represented:&mdash;10
-per cent. by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόκοι ἐπιδέκατοι</span>, i.e. interest
-at the rate of a tenth; 12½, 16⅔, 20, 33⅓,
-by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόκοι ἐπόγδοοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφεκτοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίπεμπτοι</span>, and
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίτριτοι</span>, respectively. The usual rates of
-interest at Athens about the time of Demosthenes
-varied from 12 to 18 per cent.&mdash;(2)
-<span class="smcap">Roman.</span> Towards the close of the republic,
-and also under the emperors, 12 per cent.
-was the legal rate of interest. The interest
-became due on the first of every month:
-hence the phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tristes</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">celeres calendae</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calendarium</i>, the latter meaning a debt-book
-or book of accounts. The rate of interest
-was expressed in the time of Cicero, and
-afterwards, by means of the as and its divisions,
-according to the following table:&mdash;</p>
-
-
-<table class="autotable" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Asses usurae, or one as per<br />month for the use of one<br />hundred</td>
-<td class="tdr">= 12</td>
-<td class="tdc">per cent.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Deunces &nbsp; usurae</td>
-<td class="tdr">11</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Dextantes</td>
-<td class="tdl">” <span class="pad6">&nbsp;</span></td>
-<td class="tdr">10</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Dodrantes</td>
-<td class="tdl">”</td>
-<td class="tdr">9</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Besses</td>
-<td class="tdl">”</td>
-<td class="tdr">8</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Septunces</td>
-<td class="tdl">”</td>
-<td class="tdr">7</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Semisses</td>
-<td class="tdl">”</td>
-<td class="tdr">6</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Quincunces</td>
-<td class="tdl">”</td>
-<td class="tdr">5</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Trientes</td>
-<td class="tdl">”</td>
-<td class="tdr">4</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Quadrantes</td>
-<td class="tdl">”</td>
-<td class="tdr">3</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sextantes</td>
-<td class="tdl">”</td>
-<td class="tdr">2</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Unciae</td>
-<td class="tdl">”</td>
-<td class="tdr">1</td>
-<td class="tdc">”</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-
-<p>Instead of the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">asses usurae</i>, a synonyme
-was used, viz. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centesimae usurae</i>, inasmuch<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177"></a>[177]</span>
-as at this rate of interest there was
-paid in a hundred months a sum equal to the
-whole principal. Hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">binae centesimae</i> =
-24 per cent., and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quaternae centesimae</i> =
-48 per cent. The monthly rate of the centesimae
-was of foreign origin, and first
-adopted at Rome in the time of Sulla. The
-old <em>yearly</em> rate established by the Twelve
-Tables (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 450) was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unciarium fenus</i>.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uncia</i> was the twelfth part of the as,
-and since the full (12 oz.) copper coinage was
-still in use at Rome when the Twelve Tables
-became law, the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unciarium</i> fenus
-would be a natural expression for interest of
-one ounce in the pound; <em>i.e.</em> a twelfth part
-of the sum borrowed, or 8⅓ per cent., not per
-month, but per year. This rate, if calculated
-for the old Roman year of ten months, would
-give 10 per cent. for the civil year of twelve
-months, which was in common use in the
-time of the decemvirs. If a debtor could
-not pay the principal and interest at the end
-of the year, he used to borrow money from a
-fresh creditor, to pay off his old debt. This
-proceeding was very frequent, and called a
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">versura</i>. It amounted to little short of paying
-compound interest, or an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anatocismus
-anniversarius</i>, another phrase for which was
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">usurae renovatae</i>; <em>e.g.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centesimae renovatae</i>
-is 12 per cent. compound interest, to which
-Cicero opposes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centesimae perpetuo fenore</i> =
-12 per cent. simple interest. The following
-phrases are of common occurrence in connection
-with borrowing and lending money
-at interest:&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pecuniam apud aliquem collocare</i>,
-to lend money at interest; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">relegere</i>, to
-call it in again; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cavere</i>, to give security for
-it; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opponere</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opponere pignori</i>, to give as a
-pledge or mortgage. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomen</i> is
-also of extensive use in money transactions.
-Properly it denoted the name of a debtor,
-registered in a banker’s or any other account-book:
-hence it came to signify the articles of
-an account, a debtor, or a debt itself. Thus
-we have <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bonum nomen</i>, a good debt; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomina
-facere</i>, to lend monies, and also to borrow
-money.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Feralia">FĒRĀLIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_191">p. 191</a>, a.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ferculum">FERCŬLUM (from <em>fer-o</em>) is applied to any
-kind of tray or platform used for carrying
-anything. Thus it is used to signify the
-tray or frame on which several dishes were
-brought in at once at dinner; and hence
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fercula</i> came to mean the number of courses
-at dinner, and even the dishes themselves.
-The ferculum was also used for carrying the
-images of the gods in the procession of the
-circus, the ashes of the dead in a funeral,
-and the spoils in a triumph; in all which
-cases it appears to have been carried on the
-shoulders or in the hands of men.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Feretrum">FĔRĔTRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Feriae">FĒRĬAE, holidays, were, generally speaking,
-days or seasons during which free-born
-Romans suspended their political transactions
-and their law-suits, and during which slaves
-enjoyed a cessation from labour. All feriae
-were thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies nefasti</i>. The feriae included
-all days consecrated to any deity; consequently
-all days on which public festivals
-were celebrated were feriae or dies feriati.
-But some of them, such as the feria vindemialis,
-and the feriae aestivae, seem to have
-had no direct connection with the worship
-of the gods. The nundinae, however, during
-the time of the kings and the early period of
-the republic, were feriae only for the populus,
-and days of business for the plebeians,
-until, by the Hortensian law, they became
-fasti or days of business for both orders. All
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feriae publicae</i>, <em>i.e.</em> those which were observed
-by the whole nation, were divided
-into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feriae stativae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feriae conceptivae</i>, and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feriae imperativae</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Feriae stativae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">statae</i>
-were those which were held regularly, and
-on certain days marked in the calendar. To
-these belonged some of the great festivals,
-such as the Agonalia, Carmentalia, Lupercalia,
-&amp;c. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Feriae conceptivae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conceptae</i>
-were held every year, but not on certain or
-fixed days, the time being every year appointed
-by the magistrates or priests. Among
-these we may mention the feriae Latinae,
-feriae Sementivae, Paganalia, and Compitalia.
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Feriae imperativae</i> were those which
-were held on certain emergencies at the
-command of the consuls, praetors, or of a
-dictator. The manner in which all public
-feriae were kept bears great analogy to the
-observance of our Sunday. The people visited
-the temples of the gods, and offered up their
-prayers and sacrifices. The most serious and
-solemn seem to have been the feriae imperativae,
-but all the others were generally attended
-with rejoicings and feasting. All
-kinds of business, especially law-suits, were
-suspended during the public feriae, as they
-were considered to pollute the sacred season.
-The most important of the holidays designated
-by the name of feriae, are the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Feriae Latinae</i>,
-or simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Latinae</i> (the original name was
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Latiar</i>), which were said to have been instituted
-by the last Tarquin in commemoration
-of the alliance between the Romans and Latins.
-This festival, however, was of much
-higher antiquity; it was a panegyris, or a
-festival, of the whole Latin nation, celebrated
-on the Alban mount; and all that the last
-Tarquin did was to convert the original Latin
-festival into a Roman one, and to make
-it the means of hallowing and cementing the
-alliance between the two nations. Before<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178"></a>[178]</span>
-the union, the chief magistrate of the Latins
-had presided at the festival; but Tarquin
-now assumed this distinction, which subsequently,
-after the destruction of the Latin
-commonwealth, remained with the chief
-magistrates of Rome. The object of this
-panegyris on the Alban mount was the worship
-of Jupiter Latiaris, and, at least as long
-as the Latin republic existed, to deliberate
-and decide on matters of the confederacy,
-and to settle any disputes which might have
-arisen among its members. As the feriae
-Latinae belonged to the conceptivae, the
-time of their celebration greatly depended on
-the state of affairs at Rome, since the consuls
-were never allowed to take the field until
-they had held the Latinae. This festival
-was a great engine in the hands of the magistrates,
-who had to appoint the time of its
-celebration (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">concipere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edicere</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">indicere
-Latinas</i>); as it might often suit their purpose
-either to hold the festival at a particular
-time or to delay it, in order to prevent or
-delay such public proceedings as seemed
-injurious and pernicious, and to promote
-others to which they were favourably disposed.
-The festival lasted six days.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fescennina">FESCENNINA, scil. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carmina</i>, one of the
-earliest kinds of Italian poetry, which consisted
-of rude and jocose verses, or rather
-dialogues of extempore verses, in which the
-merry country folks assailed and ridiculed
-one another. This amusement seems originally
-to have been peculiar to country people,
-but it was also introduced into the towns
-of Italy and at Rome, where we find it mentioned
-as one of those in which young people
-indulged at weddings.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fetiales">FĒTĬĀLES or FĒCĬĀLES, a college of
-Roman priests, who acted as the guardians
-of the public faith. It was their province,
-when any dispute arose with a foreign state,
-to demand satisfaction, to determine the circumstances
-under which hostilities might be
-commenced, to perform the various religious
-rites attendant on the solemn declaration of
-war, and to preside at the formal ratification
-of peace. When an injury had been received
-from a foreign state, four fetiales were deputed
-to seek redress, who again elected one
-of their number to act as their representative.
-This individual was styled the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pater patratus
-populi Romani</i>. A fillet of white wool was
-bound round his head, together with a wreath
-of sacred herbs gathered within the inclosure
-of the Capitoline hill (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Verbenae</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sagmina</i>),
-whence he was sometimes named <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Verbenarius</i>.
-Thus equipped, he proceeded to the confines
-of the offending tribe, where he halted, and
-addressed a prayer to Jupiter, calling the
-god to witness, with heavy imprecations, that
-his complaints were well founded and his
-demands reasonable. He then crossed the
-border, and the same form was repeated in
-nearly the same words to the first native of
-the soil whom he might chance to meet;
-again a third time to the sentinel or any
-citizen whom he encountered at the gate of
-the chief town; and a fourth time to the
-magistrates in the forum in presence of the
-people. If a satisfactory answer was not
-returned within thirty days, after publicly
-delivering a solemn denunciation of what
-might be expected to follow, he returned to
-Rome, and, accompanied by the rest of the
-fetiales, made a report of his mission to the
-senate. If the people, as well as the senate,
-decided for war, the pater patratus again set
-forth to the border of the hostile territory,
-and launched a spear tipped with iron, or
-charred at the extremity and smeared with
-blood (emblematic doubtless of fire and
-slaughter), across the boundary, pronouncing
-at the same time a solemn declaration of war.
-The demand for redress, and the proclamation
-of hostilities, were alike termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clarigatio</i>.
-The whole system is said to have
-been borrowed from the Aequicolae or the
-Ardeates, and similar usages undoubtedly
-prevailed among the Latin states. The number
-of the fetiales cannot be ascertained with
-certainty, but they were probably twenty.
-They were originally selected from the most
-noble families, and their office lasted for life.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fibula">FĪBŬLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περόνη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόρπη</span>), a brooch or
-buckle, consisting of a pin (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acus</i>), and of a
-curved portion furnished with a hook (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλείς</span>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="ill178" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill178.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Fibulae, brooches or buckles. (British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Fictile">FICTĬLE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεράμος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεράμιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄστρακον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀστράκινον</span>),
-earthenware, a vessel or other article
-made of baked clay. The instruments
-used in pottery (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ars figulina</i>) were the following:&mdash;1.
-The wheel (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τροχός</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">orbis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rota</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rota figularis</i>). 2. Pieces of wood or bone,
-which the potter (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεραμεύς</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">figulus</i>) held in
-his right hand, and applied occasionally to
-the surface of the clay during its revolution.
-3. <span id="Forma">Moulds</span> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">formae</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τύποι</span>), used either to
-decorate with figures in relief vessels which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179"></a>[179]</span>
-had been thrown on the wheel, or to produce
-foliage, animals, or any other appearances,
-on Antefixa, on cornices of terra cotta, and
-imitative or ornamental pottery of all other
-kinds, in which the wheel was not adapted
-to give the first shape. 4. Gravers or scalpels,
-used by skilful modellers in giving to
-figures of all kinds a more perfect finish and
-a higher relief than could be produced by the
-use of moulds. The earth used for making
-pottery (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεράμικη γῆ</span>), was commonly red, and
-often of so lively a colour as to resemble
-coral. Other pottery is brown or cream-coloured,
-and sometimes white. Some of the
-ancient earthenware is throughout its substance
-black, an effect produced by mixing the
-earth with comminuted asphaltum (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gagates</i>),
-or with some other bituminous or oleaginous
-substance. It appears also that asphaltum,
-with pitch and tar, both mineral and vegetable,
-was used to cover the surface like a
-varnish. The best pottery was manufactured
-at Athens, in the island of Samos, and in
-Etruria. A quarter of Athens was called
-Cerameicus, because it was inhabited by
-potters. Vessels, before being sent for the
-last time to the furnace, were sometimes immersed
-in that finely prepared mud, now
-technically called “slip,” by which the surface
-is both smoothed and glazed, and at the
-same time receives a fresh colour. Ruddle,
-or red ochre (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίλτος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rubrica</i>), was principally
-employed for this purpose. To produce
-a further variety in the paintings upon vases
-the artists employed a few brightly coloured
-earths and metallic ores. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pictura">Pictura</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fideicommissum">FĬDEICOMMISSUM may be defined to be
-a testamentary disposition, by which a person
-who gives a thing to another imposes on him
-the obligation of transferring it to a third
-person. The obligation was not created by
-words of legal binding force (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">civilia verba</i>),
-but by words of request (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">precativè</i>), such as
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fideicommitto</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peto</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">volo dari</i>, and the like;
-which were the operative words (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">verba utilia</i>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fiducia">FĪDŪCĬA. If a man transferred his property
-to another, on condition that it should
-be restored to him, this contract was called
-Fiducia, and the person to whom the property
-was so transferred was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fiduciam
-accipere</i>. The trustee was bound to discharge
-his trust by restoring the thing: if he did
-not, he was liable to an actio fiduciae or fiduciaria,
-which was an actio bonae fidei. If
-the trustee was condemned in the action, the
-consequence was infamia.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fiscus">FISCUS, the imperial treasury. Under
-the republic the public treasury was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aerarium</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium</a>.</span>] On the establishment
-of the imperial power, there was a
-division of the provinces between the senate,
-as the representative of the old republic, and
-the Caesar or emperor; and there was consequently
-a division of the most important
-branches of public income and expenditure.
-The property of the senate retained the name
-of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aerarium</i>, and that of the Caesar, as such,
-received the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fiscus</i>. The private
-property of the Caesar (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">res privata principis,
-ratio Caesaris</i>) was quite distinct from that
-of the fiscus. The word fiscus signified a
-wicker-basket, or pannier, in which the Romans
-were accustomed to keep and carry
-about large sums of money; and hence fiscus
-came to signify any person’s treasure or
-money chest. The importance of the imperial
-fiscus soon led to the practice of appropriating
-the name to that property which the
-Caesar claimed as Caesar, and the word fiscus,
-without any adjunct, was used in this
-sense. Ultimately the word came to signify
-generally the property of the state, the Caesar
-having concentrated in himself all the sovereign
-power, and thus the word fiscus finally
-had the same signification as aerarium in the
-republican period. Various officers, as Procuratores,
-Advocati, Patroni, and Praefecti,
-were employed in the administration of the
-fiscus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Flabellum">FLĀBELLUM, <em>dim.</em> FLĀBELLŬLUM,
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥιπίς</span>), a fan. Fans were of elegant forms,
-of delicate colours, and sometimes of costly
-and splendid materials, such as peacock’s
-feathers; but they were stiff and of a fixed
-shape, and were held by female slaves (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">flabelliferae</i>),
-by beautiful boys, or by eunuchs,
-whose duty it was to wave them so as to
-produce a cooling breeze. Besides separate
-feathers the ancient fan was sometimes made
-of linen, extended upon a light frame.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill179" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill179.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Flagellum, Scourge. (From a Bas-relief at Rome, and
-from a Coin.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Flagrum">FLAGRUM, <em>dim.</em> FLĂGELLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μάστιξ</span>),
-a whip, a scourge, to the handle of which
-was fixed a lash made of cords (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funibus</i>), or
-thongs of leather (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">loris</i>), especially thongs
-made from the ox’s hide (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bubulis exuviis</i>).
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">flagellum</i> properly so called was a dreadful<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180"></a>[180]</span>
-instrument, and is thus put in opposition
-to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scutica</i>, which was a simple whip.
-(Hor. <cite>Sat.</cite> i. 3. 119.) Cicero in like manner
-contrasts the severe <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">flagella</i> with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">virgae</i>.
-The flagellum was chiefly used in the punishment
-of slaves. It was knotted with bones
-or heavy indented circles of bronze or terminated
-by hooks, in which case it was aptly
-denominated a <em>scorpion</em>. We likewise find
-that some gladiators fought with the flagella,
-as in the coin here introduced.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Flamen">FLĀMEN, the name for any Roman priest
-who was devoted to the service of one particular
-god, and who received a distinguishing
-epithet from the deity to whom he ministered.
-The most dignified were those attached to
-Dijovis, Mars, and Quirinus, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Flamen Dialis</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Flamen Martialis</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Flamen Quirinalis</i>.
-They are said to have been established
-by Numa. The number was eventually increased
-to fifteen: the three original flamens
-were always chosen from among the patricians,
-and styled <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Majores</i>; the rest from the
-plebeians, with the epithet <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Minores</i>. Among
-the minores, we read of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Flamen Floralis</i>,
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Flamen Carmentalis</i>, &amp;c. The flamens
-were elected originally at the Comitia Curiata,
-but it is conjectured that subsequently to the
-passing of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Domitia</i> (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 104) they
-were chosen in the Comitia Tributa. After
-being nominated by the people, they were
-received (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capti</i>) and installed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inaugurabantur</i>)
-by the pontifex maximus, to whose
-authority they were at all times subject.
-The office was understood to last for life;
-but a flamen might be compelled to resign
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">flaminio abire</i>) for a breach of duty, or even
-on account of the occurrence of an ill-omened
-accident while discharging his functions.
-Their characteristic dress was the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apex</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Apex">Apex</a></span>], the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">laena</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Laena">Laena</a></span>], and a laurel
-wreath. The most distinguished of all the
-flamens was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dialis</i>; the lowest in rank
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pomonalis</i>. The former enjoyed many
-peculiar honours. When a vacancy occurred,
-three persons of patrician descent, whose
-parents had been married according to the
-ceremonies of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">confarreatio</i>, were nominated
-by the Comitia, one of whom was selected
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">captus</i>), and consecrated (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inaugurabatur</i>) by
-the pontifex maximus. From that time
-forward he was emancipated from the control
-of his father, and became sui juris. He
-alone of all priests wore the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">albogalerus</i>; he
-had a right to a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lictor</i>, to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga praetexta</i>,
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella curulis</i>, and to a seat in the senate
-in virtue of his office. If one in bonds took
-refuge in his house, his chains were immediately
-struck off. To counterbalance these
-high honours, the dialis was subjected to a
-multitude of restrictions. It was unlawful
-for him to be out of the city for a single
-night; and he was forbidden to sleep out of
-his own bed for three nights consecutively.
-He might not mount upon horseback, nor
-even touch a horse, nor look upon an army
-marshalled without the pomoerium, and
-hence was seldom elected to the consulship.
-The object of the above rules was manifestly
-to make him literally <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jovi adsiduum sacerdotem</i>;
-to compel constant attention to the
-duties of the priesthood. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Flaminica</i> was
-the name given to the wife of the dialis. He
-was required to wed a virgin according to
-the ceremonies of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">confarreatio</i>, which regulation
-also applied to the two other flamines
-majores; and he could not marry a second
-time. Hence, since her assistance was essential
-in the performance of certain ordinances,
-a divorce was not permitted, and if she died,
-the dialis was obliged to resign. The municipal
-towns also had their flamens. Thus
-the celebrated affray between Milo and Clodius
-took place while the former was on his
-way to Lanuvium, of which he was then
-dictator, to declare the election of a flamen
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad flaminem prodendum</i>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Flammeum">FLAMMEUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Floralia">FLŌRĀLĬA, or Florales Ludi, a festival
-which was celebrated at Rome in honour of
-Flora or Chloris, during five days, beginning
-on the 28th of April and ending on the 2nd
-of May. It was said to have been instituted
-at Rome in 238 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, at the command of an
-oracle in the Sibylline books, for the purpose
-of obtaining from the goddess the protection
-of the blossoms. The celebration was, as
-usual, conducted by the aediles, and was carried
-on with excessive merriment, drinking,
-and lascivious games.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Focale">FŌCĀLĔ, a covering for the ears and
-neck, made of wool, and worn by infirm, and
-delicate persons.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Focus">FŎCUS, <em>dim.</em> FOCŬLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc"><ins class="corr" id="tn-180" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'εστια'">
-ἑστία</ins></span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐσχάρα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐσχαρίς</span>),
-a fire-place; a hearth; a brazier. The
-fire-place possessed a sacred character, and was
-dedicated among the Romans to the Lares of
-each family. Moveable hearths, or braziers,
-properly called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foculi</i>, were frequently used.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill180" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill180.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Foculus, Moveable Hearth. (British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181"></a>[181]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Foederatae">FOEDĔRĀTAE CĪVĬTĀTES, FOEDĔRĀTI,
-SŎCĬI. In the seventh century of
-Rome these names expressed those Italian
-states which were connected with Rome by
-a treaty (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foedus</i>). These names did not
-include Roman colonies or Latin colonies, or
-any place which had obtained the Roman
-civitas or citizenship. Among the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foederati</i>
-were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Latini</i>, who were the most nearly
-related to the Romans, and were designated
-by this distinctive name; the rest of the
-foederati were comprised under the collective
-name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Socii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Foederati</i>. They
-were independent states, yet under a general
-liability to furnish a contingent to the Roman
-army. Thus they contributed to increase
-the power of Rome, but they had not the
-privileges of Roman citizens. The discontent
-among the foederati, and their claims to
-be admitted to the privileges of Roman citizens,
-led to the Social War. The Julia Lex
-(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 90) gave the civitas to the Socii and
-Latini; and a lex of the following year contained,
-among other provisions, one for the
-admission to the Roman civitas of those
-peregrini who were entered on the lists of
-the citizens of federate states, and who complied
-with the provisions of the lex. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Foenus">FOENUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill181a" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill181a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Folles, Bellows. (From a Roman Lamp.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Follis">FOLLIS&mdash;(1) An inflated ball of leather,
-which boys and old men among the Romans
-threw from one to another as a gentle exercise
-of the body.&mdash;(2) A leather purse or
-bag.&mdash;(3) A pair of bellows, consisting of
-two inflated skins, and having valves adjusted
-to the natural apertures at one part
-for admitting the air, and a pipe inserted
-into another part for its emission.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill181b" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill181b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Fountain of Peirene at Corinth.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Fons">FONS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρήνη</span>), a spring of water, and also
-an artificial fountain, made either by covering
-and decorating a spring with buildings and
-sculpture, or by making a jet or stream of
-water, supplied by an elevated cistern, play
-into an artificial basin. Such fountains
-served the double purpose of use and ornament.
-They were covered to keep them pure
-and cool, and the covering was frequently in
-the form of a monopteral temple: there were
-also statues, the subjects of which were suggested
-by the circumstance that every fountain
-was sacred to some divinity, or they
-were taken from the whole range of mythological
-legends. A very large proportion of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182"></a>[182]</span>
-the immense supply of water brought to
-Rome by the aqueducts was devoted to the
-public fountains, which were divided into
-two classes; namely, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lacus</i>, ponds or reservoirs,
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">salientes</i>, jets of water, besides
-which many of the castella were so constructed
-as to be also fountains. There were
-also many small private fountains in the
-houses and villas of the wealthy.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp65" id="ill182a" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill182a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Fountain. (From a Painting at Pompeii.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Fores">FŎRES. [DOMUS.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fornacalia">FORNĀCĀLĬA, a festival in honour of
-Fornax, the goddess of furnaces, in order
-that the corn might be properly baked.
-This ancient festival is said to have been
-instituted by Numa. The time for its celebration
-was proclaimed every year by the
-curio maximus, who announced in tablets,
-which were placed in the forum, the different
-part which each curia had to take in the
-celebration of the festival. Those persons
-who did not know to what curia they belonged
-performed the sacred rites on the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quirinalia</i>, called from this circumstance the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Stultorum feriae</i>, which fell on the last day
-of the Fornacalia.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fornix">FORNIX, in its primary sense, is synonymous
-with <span class="smcap"><a href="#Arcus">Arcus</a></span>, but more commonly
-implies an arched vault, constituting both
-roof and ceiling to the apartment which it
-encloses.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Forum">FŎRUM. [See <span class="smcap">Classical Dict.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Framea">FRĂMĔA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fratres">FRĀTRES ARVĀLES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arvales">Arvales Fratres</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Frenum">FRĒNUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλινός</span>), a bridle. That Bellerophon
-might be enabled to perform the exploits
-required of him by the king of Lycia,
-he was presented by Athena with a bridle as
-the means of subduing the winged horse Pegasus,
-who submitted to receive it whilst he
-was slaking his thirst at the fountain Peirene.
-Such was the Grecian account of the
-invention of the bridle, and in reference to it
-Athena was worshipped at Corinth, under the
-titles <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἵππια</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλινῖτις</span>. The bit (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">orea</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆγμα</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στόμιον</span>), was commonly made of several
-pieces, and flexible, so as not to hurt the
-horse’s mouth; although there was likewise
-a bit which was armed with protuberances
-resembling wolves’ teeth, and therefore called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lupatum</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp78" id="ill182b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill182b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Pegasus receiving the Bridle.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Frigidarium">FRĪGĬDĀRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fritillus">FRĬTILLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φιμός</span>), a dice-box of a cylindrical
-form, and therefore called also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">turricula</i>,
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pyrgus</i>, and formed with parallel
-indentations (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gradus</i>) on the inside, so as to
-make a rattling noise when the dice were
-shaken in it.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Frumentariae">FRŪMENTĀRĬAE LEGES. The supply
-of corn at Rome was considered one of the
-duties of the government. The superintendence
-of the corn-market belonged in ordinary
-times to the aediles, but when great scarcity
-prevailed, an extraordinary officer was appointed
-for the purpose under the title of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praefectus Annonae</i>. Even in early times it
-had been usual for the state on certain occasions,
-and for wealthy individuals, to make
-occasional donations of corn to the people
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">donatio</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">largitio</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">divisio</i>; subsequently called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">frumentatio</i>). But such donations were only
-casual; and it was not till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 123, that the
-first legal provision was made for supplying the
-poor at Rome with corn at a price much below
-its market value. In that year C. Sempronius
-Gracchus brought forward the first <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Frumentaria</i>,
-by which each citizen was entitled
-to receive every month a certain quantity of
-wheat (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triticum</i>) at the price of 6⅓ asses for
-the modius, which was equal to 1 gallon and
-nearly 8 pints English. This was only a
-trifle more than half the market price. Each
-person probably received five modii monthly,
-as in later times. About <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 91, the tribune
-M. Octavius brought forward the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Octavia</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183"></a>[183]</span>
-which modified the law of Gracchus to some
-extent, so that the public treasury did not
-suffer so much. Sulla went still further, and
-by his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Cornelia</i>, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 82, did away altogether
-with these distributions of corn; but
-in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 73, the Lex Sempronia was renewed
-by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Terentia Cassia</i>, which enacted
-that each Roman citizen should receive 5
-modii a month at the price of 6⅓ asses for
-each modius. The Leges Frumentariae had
-<em>sold</em> corn to the people; but by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex
-Clodia</i> of the tribune Clodius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 58, the
-corn was distributed without any payment;
-the abolition of the payment cost the state a
-fifth part of its revenues. When Caesar became
-master of the Roman world, he resolved
-to remedy the evils attending the
-system, so far as he was able. He did not
-venture to abolish altogether these distributions
-of corn, but he did the next best thing
-in his power, which was reducing the number
-of the recipients. During the civil wars
-numbers of persons, who had no claim to the
-Roman franchise, had settled at Rome in
-order to obtain a share in the distributions.
-Caesar excluded from this privilege every
-person who could not prove that he was a
-Roman citizen; and thus the 320,000 persons,
-who had previously received the corn,
-were at once reduced to 150,000. The useful
-regulations of Caesar fell into neglect
-after his death; and in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 5, the number
-of recipients had amounted to 320,000. But
-in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 2, Augustus reduced the number of
-recipients to 200,000, and renewed many of
-Caesar’s regulations. The chief of them
-seem to have been: 1. That every citizen
-should receive monthly a certain quantity of
-corn (probably 5 modii) on the payment of a
-certain small sum. Occasionally, in seasons of
-scarcity, or in order to confer a particular
-favour, Augustus made these distributions
-quite gratuitous; they then became <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">congiaria</i>.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Congiarium">Congiarium</a>.</span>] 2. That those who
-were completely indigent should receive the
-corn gratuitously, and should be furnished
-for the purpose with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tesserae nummariae</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">frumentariae</i>, which entitled them to the corn
-without payment. The system which had
-been established by Augustus, was followed
-by his successors; but as it was always one
-of the first maxims of the state policy of the
-Roman emperors to prevent any disturbance
-in the capital, they frequently lowered the
-price of the public corn, and also distributed it
-gratuitously as a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">congiarium</i>. Hence, the cry
-of the populace <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">panem et circenses</i>. In course
-of time, the sale of the corn by the state
-seems to have ceased altogether, and the distribution
-became altogether gratuitous. Every
-corn-receiver was therefore now provided
-with a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tessera</i>, and this tessera, when once
-granted to him, became his property. Hence
-it came to pass, that he was not only allowed
-to keep the tessera for life, but even to dispose
-of it by sale, and bequeath it by will.
-Every citizen was competent to hold a tessera,
-with the exception of senators. Further,
-as the corn had been originally distributed
-to the people according to the thirty-five
-tribes into which they were divided, the
-corn-receivers in each tribe formed a kind of
-corporation, which came eventually to be
-looked upon as the tribe, when the tribes had
-lost all political significance. Hence, the
-purchase of a tessera became equivalent to
-the purchase of a place in a tribe; and, accordingly,
-we find in the Digest the expressions
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emere tribum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emere tesseram</i> used
-as synonymous. Another change was also introduced
-at a later period, which rendered the
-bounty still more acceptable to the people.
-Instead of distributing the corn every month,
-wheaten bread, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">annona civica</i>, was
-given to the people. It is uncertain at what
-time this change was introduced, but it seems
-to have been the custom before the reign of
-Aurelian (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 270-275).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Frumentarii">FRŪMENTĀRĬI, officers under the Roman
-empire, who acted as spies in the provinces,
-and reported to the emperors anything
-which they considered of importance.
-They appear to have been called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Frumentarii</i>
-because it was their duty to collect information
-in the same way as it was the duty of other
-officers, called by the same name, to collect corn.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fucus">FŪCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φῦκος</span>), the paint which the Greek
-and Roman ladies employed in painting their
-cheeks, eye-brows, and other parts of their
-faces. The practice of painting the face was
-very general among the Greek ladies, and
-probably came into fashion in consequence of
-their sedentary mode of life, which robbed
-their complexions of their natural freshness,
-and induced them to have recourse to artificial
-means for restoring the red and white
-of nature. The eye-brows and eye-lids were
-stained black with <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στίμμι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στίμμις</span>, a sulphuret
-of antimony, which is still employed
-by the Turkish ladies for the same purpose.
-The eye-brows were likewise stained with
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄσβολος</span>, a preparation of soot. Among the
-Romans the art of painting the complexion
-was carried to a still greater extent than
-among the Greeks, and even Ovid did not
-disdain to write a poem on the subject, which
-he calls (<cite>de Art. Am.</cite> iii. 206) “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">parvus, sed
-cura grande, libellus, opus</span>;” though the
-genuineness of the fragment of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Medicamina
-faciei</i>, ascribed to this poet, is doubtful.
-The Roman ladies even went so far as to
-paint with blue the veins on the temples.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184"></a>[184]</span>
-The ridiculous use of patches (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">splenia</i>), which
-were common among the English ladies in
-the reign of Queen Anne and the first
-Georges, was not unknown to the Roman
-ladies. The more effeminate of the male sex
-at Rome, and likewise in Greece, also employed
-paint.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp58" id="ill184a" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill184a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Girl painting herself. (From a Gem.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Fuga">FŬGA LĀTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fuga_l">FŬGA LĪBĔRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fugitivus">FŬGĬTĪVUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Servus">Servus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fullo">FULLO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κναφεύς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γναφεύς</span>), also called
-NACCA, a fuller, a washer or scourer of
-cloth and linen. The fullones not only received
-the cloth as it came from the loom in
-order to scour and smooth it, but also washed
-and cleansed garments which had been already
-worn. The clothes were first washed,
-which was done in tubs or vats, where they
-were trodden upon and stamped by the feet of
-the fullones, whence Seneca speaks of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saltus
-fullonicus</i>. The ancients were not acquainted
-with soap, but they used in its stead different
-kinds of alkali, by which the dirt was more
-easily separated from the clothes. Of these, by
-far the most common was the urine of men and
-animals, which was mixed with the water in
-which the clothes were washed. When the
-clothes were dry, the wool was brushed and
-carded to raise the nap, sometimes with the
-skin of a hedgehog, and sometimes with some
-plants of the thistle kind. The clothes were
-then hung on a vessel of basket-work (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viminea
-cavea</i>), under which sulphur was placed
-in order to whiten the cloth. A fine white
-earth, called Cimolian by Pliny, was often
-rubbed into the cloth to increase its whiteness.
-The establishment or workshop of the
-fullers was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fullonica</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fullonicum</i>, or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fullonimn</i>. The Greeks were also accustomed
-to send their garments to fullers to be
-washed and scoured. The word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλύνειν</span>
-denoted the washing of linen, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κναφεύειν</span>
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γναφεύειν</span> the washing of woollen clothes.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Funambulus">FŪNAMBŬLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλοβάτης σχοινοβάτης</span>),
-a rope-dancer. The art of dancing on the
-tight-rope was carried to as great perfection
-among the Romans as it is with us. The
-performers placed themselves in an endless
-variety of graceful and sportive attitudes,
-and represented the characters of bacchanals,
-satyrs, and other imaginary beings. One of
-the most difficult exploits was running down
-the rope at the conclusion of the performance.
-It was a strange attempt of Germanicus and
-of the emperor Galba to exhibit elephants
-walking on the rope.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Funda">FUNDA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφενδόνη</span>), a sling. Slingers are
-not mentioned in the Iliad; but the light
-troops of the Greek and Roman armies consisted
-in great part of slingers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funditores</i>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφενδονήται</span>). The most celebrated slingers
-were the inhabitants of the Balearic islands.
-Besides stones, plummets, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">glandes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μολυβδίδες</span>),
-of a form between acorns and almonds,
-were cast in moulds to be thrown with slings.
-The manner in which the sling was wielded
-may be seen in the annexed figure of a soldier
-with a provision of stones in the sinus
-of his pallium, and with his arm extended in
-order to whirl the sling about his head.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp74" id="ill184b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill184b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Funda, Sling. (Column of Trajan.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Funditores">FUNDĬTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funda">Funda</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill185" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill185.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Coffins. (Stackelberg, ‘Die Gräber der Hellenen,’ pl. 7, 8.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp54" id="ill186a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill186a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Tomb in Lycia.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Funus">FŪNUS, a funeral.&mdash;(1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> The
-Greeks attached great importance to the burial
-of the dead. They believed that souls
-could not enter the Elysian fields till their
-bodies had been buried; and so strong was this
-feeling among the Greeks, that it was considered
-a religious duty to throw earth upon a
-dead body, which a person might happen to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185"></a>[185]</span>
-find unburied; and among the Athenians,
-those children who were released from all
-other obligations to unworthy parents, were
-nevertheless bound to bury them by one of
-Solon’s laws. The neglect of burying one’s
-relatives is frequently mentioned by the
-orators as a grave charge against the moral
-character of a man; in fact, the burial of the
-body by the relations of the dead was considered
-one of the most sacred duties by the
-universal law of the Greeks. Sophocles represents
-Antigone as disregarding all consequences
-in order to bury the dead body of
-her brother Polyneices, which Creon, the
-king of Thebes, had commanded to be left
-unburied. The common expressions for the
-funeral rites, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὰ δίκαια</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νόμιμα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νομιζόμενα</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσήκοντα</span>, show that the dead had, as it
-were, a legal and moral claim to burial. After
-a person was dead, it was the custom first to
-place in his mouth an obolus, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">danace</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δανάκη</span>), with which he might pay the ferryman
-in Hades. The body was then washed
-and anointed with perfumed oil, the head
-was crowned with the flowers which happened
-to be in season, and the body dressed
-in as handsome a robe as the family could
-afford. These duties were not performed by
-hired persons, like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pollinctores</i> among the
-Romans, but by the women of the family,
-upon whom the care of the corpse always devolved.
-The corpse was then laid out (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόθεσις</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προτίθεσθαι</span>) on a bed, which appears to
-have been of the ordinary kind, with a pillow
-for supporting the head and back. By
-the side of the bed there were placed
-painted earthen vessels, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λήκυθοι</span>, which
-were also buried with the corpse. Great
-numbers of these painted vases have been
-found in modern times; and they have been
-of great use in explaining many matters connected
-with antiquity. A honey-cake, called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μελιττοῦτα</span>, which appears to have been intended
-for Cerberus, was also placed by the
-side of the corpse. Before the door a vessel
-of water was placed, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄστρακον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρδάλιον</span>
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρδάνιον</span>, in order that persons who had
-been in the house might purify themselves by
-sprinkling water on their persons. The relatives
-stood around the bed, the women
-uttering great lamentations, rending their
-garments, and tearing their hair. On the
-day after the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόθεσις</span>, or the third day after
-death, the corpse was carried out (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκφορά</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκκομιδή</span>) for burial, early in the morning and
-before sunrise. A burial soon after death
-was supposed to be pleasing to the dead. In
-some places it appears to have been usual to
-bury the dead on the day following death.
-The men walked before the corpse, and the
-women behind. The funeral procession was
-preceded or followed by hired mourners
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θρηνῳδοί</span>), who appear to have been usually
-Carian women, playing mournful tunes on
-the flute. The body was either buried or
-burnt. The word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θάπτειν</span> is used in connection
-with either mode; it is applied to the
-collection of the ashes after burning, and
-accordingly we find the words <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καίειν</span> and
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θάπτειν</span> used together. The proper expression
-for interment in the earth is <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατορύττειν</span>.
-In Homer the bodies of the dead are
-burnt; but interment was also used in very
-ancient times. Cicero says that the dead were
-buried at Athens in the time of Cecrops; and
-we also read of the bones of Orestes being
-found in a coffin at Tegea. The dead were
-commonly buried among the Spartans and
-the Sicyonians, and the prevalence of this
-practice is proved by the great number of
-skeletons found in coffins in modern times,
-which have evidently not been exposed to
-the action of fire. Both burning and burying
-appear to have been always used to a
-greater or less extent at different periods;
-till the spread of Christianity at length put
-an end to the former practice. The dead
-bodies were usually burnt on piles of wood,
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pyres</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυραί</span>). The body was placed
-on the top; and in the heroic times it was
-customary to burn with the corpse animals
-and even captives or slaves. Oils and perfumes
-were also thrown into the flames.
-When the pyre was burnt down, the remains
-of the fire were quenched with wine, and the
-relatives and friends collected the bones.
-The bones were then washed with wine and
-oil, and placed in urns, which were sometimes
-made of gold. The corpses which were
-not burnt were buried in coffins, which were
-called by various names, as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σοροί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύελοι</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ληνοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λάρνακες</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δροῖται</span>, though some of these
-names are also applied to the urns in which
-the bones were collected. They were made
-of various materials, but were usually of
-baked clay or earthenware. The following
-woodcut contains two of the most ancient
-kind; the figure in the middle is the section
-of one. The dead were usually buried outside
-the town, as it was thought that their
-presence in the city brought pollution to the
-living. At Athens none were allowed to be
-buried within the city; but Lycurgus, in
-order to remove all superstition respecting
-the presence of the dead, allowed of burial in
-Sparta. Persons who possessed lands in Attica
-were frequently buried in them, and we
-therefore read of tombs in the fields. Tombs,
-however, were most frequently built by the
-side of roads, and near the gates of the city.
-At Athens, the most common place of burial
-was outside of the Itonian gate, near the
-road leading to the Peiraeeus, which gate
-was for that reason called the burial gate.
-Those who had fallen in battle were buried
-at the public expense in the outer Cerameicus,
-on the road leading to the Academia.
-Tombs were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θῆκαι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάφοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μνήματα</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μνημεῖα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σήματα</span>. Many of these were only
-mounds of earth or stones (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χώματα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κολῶναι</span>
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τύμβοι</span>). Others were built of stone, and
-frequently ornamented with great taste.
-Some Greek tombs were built under ground,
-and called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hypogea</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπόγαια</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπόγεια</span>).
-They correspond to the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conditoria</i>.
-The monuments erected over the graves of
-persons were usually of four kinds: 1.
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στῆλαι</span>, pillars or upright stone tablets; 2.
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κίονες</span>, columns; 3. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναΐδια</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡρῷα</span>, small
-buildings in the form of temples; and 4. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τράπεζαι</span>,
-flat square stones, called by Cicero
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensae</i>. The term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στῆλαι</span> is sometimes applied
-to all kinds of funeral monuments, but
-properly designates upright stone tablets, which
-were usually terminated with an oval heading,
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίθημα</span>. The epithema was frequently
-ornamented with a kind of arabesque
-work, as in the preceding specimen. The
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κίονες</span>, or columns, were of various forms, as is
-shown by the two specimens in the annexed cut.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp38" id="ill186b" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill186b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Epithema or Heading of Tombstone. (Stackelberg, pl. 3.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp84" id="ill186c" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill186c.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Sepulchral Columns. (Paintings on Vases.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The inscriptions upon these funeral monuments
-usually contain the name of the deceased
-person, and that of the demus to which he
-belonged, as well as frequently some account
-of his life. The following example of an
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡρῷον</span> will give a general idea of monuments
-of this kind.&mdash;Orations in praise of the dead
-were sometimes pronounced; but Solon ordained
-that such orations should be confined
-to persons who were honoured with a public
-funeral. In the heroic ages games were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186"></a>[186]<br /><a id="Page_187"></a>[187]</span>
-celebrated at the funeral of a great man, as
-in the case of Patroclus; but this practice
-does not seem to have been usual in the historical
-times.&mdash;All persons who had been engaged
-in funerals were considered polluted,
-and could not enter the temples of the gods
-till they had been purified. After the funeral
-was over, the relatives partook of a
-feast, which was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίδειπνον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεκρόδειπνον</span>.
-This feast was always given at the
-house of the nearest relative of the deceased.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="ill187" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill187.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Sepulchral Heroon. (Painting on Vase.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Thus the relatives of those who had fallen
-at the battle of Chaeroneia partook of the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίδειπνον</span> at the house of Demosthenes, as
-if he were the nearest relative to them all.
-On the second day after the funeral a sacrifice
-to the dead was offered, called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίτα</span>; but the principal sacrifice to the dead
-was on the ninth day, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔννατα</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔνατα</span>. The mourning for the dead appears
-to have lasted till the thirtieth day after the
-funeral, on which day sacrifices were again
-offered. At Sparta the time of mourning was
-limited to eleven days. During the time of
-mourning it was considered indecorous for
-the relatives of the deceased to appear in
-public; they were accustomed to wear a
-black dress, and in ancient times they cut off
-their hair as a sign of grief.&mdash;The tombs were
-preserved by the family to which they belonged
-with the greatest care, and were
-regarded as among the strongest ties which
-attached a man to his native land. In the
-Docimasia of the Athenian archons it was
-always a subject of inquiry whether they had
-kept in proper repair the tombs of their
-ancestors. On certain days the tombs were
-crowned with flowers, and offerings were
-made to the dead, consisting of garlands of
-flowers and various other things. The act
-of offering these presents was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐναγίζειν</span>,
-and the offerings themselves <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐναγίσματα</span>, or
-more commonly <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χοαί</span>. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γενέσια</span> mentioned
-by Herodotus appear to have consisted in
-offerings of the same kind, which were presented
-on the anniversary of the birth-day of
-the deceased. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεκύσια</span> were probably
-offerings on the anniversary of the day of
-the death; though, according to some writers,
-the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεκύσια</span> were the same as the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γενέσια</span>.
-Certain criminals, who were put to death by
-the state, were also deprived of the rights of
-burial, which was considered as an additional
-punishment. There were certain places, both
-at Athens and Sparta, where the dead bodies
-of such criminals were cast. A person who had
-committed suicide was not deprived of burial,
-but the hand with which he had killed himself
-was cut off and buried by itself.&mdash;(2) <span id="Funus_r" class="smcap">Roman.</span>
-When a Roman was at the point of death, his
-nearest relation present endeavoured to catch
-the last breath with his mouth. The ring was
-taken off the finger of the dying person; and
-as soon as he was dead his eyes and mouth
-were closed by the nearest relation, who called
-upon the deceased by name, exclaiming <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">have</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vale</i>. The corpse was then washed, and
-anointed with oil and perfumes, by slaves,
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pollinctores</i>, who belonged to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libitinarii</i>,
-or undertakers. The libitinarii
-appear to have been so called because they
-dwelt near the temple of Venus Libitina,
-where all things requisite for funerals were
-sold. Hence we find the expressions <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitare
-Libitinam</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">evadere Libitinam</i> used in the
-sense of escaping death. At this temple an
-account (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ratio, ephemeris</i>) was kept of those
-who died, and a small sum was paid for the
-registration of their names. A small coin
-was then placed in the mouth of the corpse,
-in order to pay the ferryman in Hades, and
-the body was laid out on a couch in the
-vestibule of the house, with its feet towards
-the door, and dressed in the best robe which
-the deceased had worn when alive. Ordinary
-citizens were dressed in a white toga, and
-magistrates in their official robes. If the
-deceased had received a crown while alive as
-a reward for his bravery, it was now placed
-on his head; and the couch on which he was
-laid was sometimes covered with leaves and
-flowers. A branch of cypress was also usually
-placed at the door of the house, if he was a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188"></a>[188]</span>
-person of consequence. Funerals were usually
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funera justa</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsequiae</i>; the latter
-term was generally applied to the funeral
-procession (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pompa funebris</i>). There were
-two kinds of funerals, public and private;
-of which the former was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funus publicum</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">indictivum</i>, because the people were invited
-to it by a herald; the latter <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funus tacitum</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">translatitium</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plebeium</i>. A person
-appears to have usually left a certain sum of
-money in his will to pay the expenses of his
-funeral; but if he did not do so, nor appoint
-any one to bury him, this duty devolved upon
-the persons to whom the property was left,
-and if he died without a will, upon his relations,
-according to their order of succession
-to the property. The expenses of the funeral
-were in such cases decided by an arbiter,
-according to the property and rank of the
-deceased, whence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arbitria</i> is used to signify
-the funeral expenses.&mdash;The following description
-of the mode in which a funeral was conducted
-only applies strictly to the funerals of
-the great; the same pomp and ceremony
-could not of course be observed in the case of
-persons in ordinary circumstances. All
-funerals in ancient times were performed at
-night, but afterwards the poor only were
-buried at night, because they could not afford
-to have any funeral procession. The corpse
-was usually carried out of the house (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">efferebatur</i>)
-on the eighth day after the death.
-The order of the funeral procession was regulated
-by a person called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">designator</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dominus
-funeris</i>, who was attended by lictors dressed
-in black. It was headed by musicians of
-various kinds (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornicines, siticines</i>), who
-played mournful strains, and next came
-mourning women, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praeficae</i>, who were
-hired to lament and sing the funeral song
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">naenia</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lessus</i>) in praise of the deceased.
-These were sometimes followed by players
-and buffoons (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scurrae, histriones</i>), of whom
-one, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">archimimus</i>, represented the character
-of the deceased, and imitated his words
-and actions. Then came the slaves whom
-the deceased had liberated, wearing the cap
-of liberty (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pileati</i>); the number of whom was
-occasionally very great, since a master sometimes
-liberated all his slaves, in his will, in
-order to add to the pomp of his funeral. Before
-the corpse the images of the deceased
-and of his ancestors were carried, and also
-the crowns or military rewards which he had
-gained. The corpse was carried on a couch
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lectica</i>), to which the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feretrum</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capulum</i> was usually given; but the bodies
-of poor citizens and of slaves were carried on
-a common kind of bier or coffin, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sandapila</i>.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sandapila</i> was carried by bearers,
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vespae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vespillones</i>, because they
-carried out the corpses in the evening (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vespertino
-tempore</i>). The couches on which the
-corpses of the rich were carried were sometimes
-made of ivory, and covered with gold
-and purple. They were often carried on the
-shoulders of the nearest relations of the
-deceased, and sometimes on those of his
-freedmen. Julius Caesar was carried by the
-magistrates, and Augustus by the senators.
-The relations of the deceased walked behind
-the corpse in mourning; his sons with their
-heads veiled, and his daughters with their
-heads bare and their hair dishevelled, contrary
-to the ordinary practice of both. They
-often uttered loud lamentations, and the women
-beat their breasts and tore their cheeks,
-though this was forbidden by the Twelve
-Tables. If the deceased was of illustrious
-rank, the funeral procession went through
-the forum, and stopped before the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rostra</i>,
-where a funeral oration (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">laudatio</i>) in praise
-of the deceased was delivered. This practice
-was of great antiquity among the Romans,
-and is said by some writers to have been first
-introduced by Publicola, who pronounced a
-funeral oration in honour of his colleague
-Brutus. Women also were honoured by
-funeral orations. From the Forum the corpse
-was carried to the place of burning or burial,
-which, according to a law of the Twelve
-Tables, was obliged to be outside the city.
-The Romans in the most ancient times buried
-their dead, though they also early adopted,
-to some extent, the custom of burning, which
-is mentioned in the Twelve Tables. Burning,
-however, does not appear to have become
-general till the later times of the republic.
-Marius was buried, and Sulla was the first of
-the Cornelian gens whose body was burned.
-Under the empire burning was almost universally
-practised, but was gradually discontinued
-as Christianity spread, so that it had
-fallen into disuse in the fourth century. Persons
-struck by lightning were not burnt, but
-buried on the spot, which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bidental</i>,
-and was considered sacred. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Bidental">Bidental</a>.</span>]
-Children also, who had not cut their teeth,
-were not burnt, but buried in a place called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Suggrundarium</i>. Those who were buried were
-placed in a coffin (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arca</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">loculus</i>), which
-was frequently made of stone, and sometimes
-of the Assian stone, which came from Assos
-in Troas, and which consumed all the body,
-with the exception of the teeth, in 40 days,
-whence it was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sarcophagus</i>. This name
-was in course of time applied to any kind of
-coffin or tomb. The corpse was burnt on a
-pile of wood (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pyra</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogus</i>). This pile was
-built in the form of an altar, with four equal
-sides, whence we find it called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ara sepulcri</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funeris ara</i>. The sides of the pile were,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189"></a>[189]</span>
-according to the Twelve Tables, to be left
-rough and unpolished, but were frequently
-covered with dark leaves. Cypress trees
-were sometimes placed before the pile. On
-the top of the pile the corpse was placed,
-with the couch on which it had been carried,
-and the nearest relation then set fire to the
-pile with his face turned away. When the
-flames began to rise, various perfumes were
-thrown into the fire, though this practice
-was forbidden by the Twelve Tables; cups
-of oil, ornaments, clothes, dishes of food, and
-other things, which were supposed to be
-agreeable to the deceased, were also thrown
-upon the flames. The place where a person
-was burnt was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bustum</i>, if he was afterwards
-buried on the same spot, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ustrina</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ustrinum</i> if he was buried at a different
-place. Sometimes animals were slaughtered
-at the pile, and in ancient times captives and
-slaves, since the manes were supposed to be
-fond of blood; but afterwards gladiators,
-called bustuarii, were hired to fight round
-the burning pile. When the pile was burnt
-down, the embers were soaked with wine,
-and the bones and ashes of the deceased
-were gathered by the nearest relatives,
-who sprinkled them with perfumes, and
-placed them in a vessel called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">urna</i>, which
-was made of various materials, according
-to the circumstances of individuals.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp54" id="ill189" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill189.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Sepulchral Urn in British Museum</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The urnae were also of various shapes,
-but most commonly square or round;
-and upon them there was usually an
-inscription or epitaph (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">titulus</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epitaphium</i>),
-beginning with the letters
-D. M. S., or only D. M., that is, <span class="smcap">Dis
-Manibus Sacrum</span>, followed by the name
-of the deceased, with the length of his
-life, &amp;c. The woodcut opposite is a
-representation of a sepulchral urn in
-the British Museum. It is of an upright
-rectangular form, richly ornamented
-with foliage, and supported at
-the sides with pilasters. It is to the
-memory of Cossutia Prima. Its height
-is 21 inches, and its width at the base
-14 inches 6-8ths. Below the inscription
-an infant genius is represented
-driving a car drawn by four horses.&mdash;After
-the bones and ashes of the deceased
-had been placed in the urn, the
-persons present were thrice sprinkled
-by a priest with pure water from a
-branch of olive or laurel for the purpose
-of purification; after which they
-were dismissed by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefica</i>, or some
-other person, by the solemn word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ilicet</i>,
-that is, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ire licet</i>. At their departure they
-were accustomed to bid farewell to the
-deceased by pronouncing the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vale</i>.
-The urns were placed in sepulchres, which,
-as already stated, were outside the city,
-though in a few cases we read of the dead
-being buried within the city. Thus Valerius
-Publicola, Tubertus, and Fabricius, were
-buried in the city; which right their descendants
-also possessed, but did not use.
-The vestal virgins and the emperors were
-buried in the city.&mdash;The verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sepelire</i>, like
-the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θάπτειν</span>, was applied to every mode
-of disposing of the dead; and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sepulcrum</i> signified
-any kind of tomb in which the body or
-bones of a man were placed. The term
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">humare</i> was originally used for burial in the
-earth, but was afterwards applied like <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sepelire</i>
-to any mode of disposing of the dead:
-since it appears to have been the custom,
-after the body was burnt, to throw some
-earth upon the bones.&mdash;The places for burial
-were either public or private. The public
-places of burial were of two kinds; one for
-illustrious citizens, who were buried at the
-public expense, and the other for poor citizens,
-who could not afford to purchase ground for
-the purpose. The former was in the Campus
-Martius, which was ornamented with the
-tombs of the illustrious dead, and in the
-Campus Esquilinus; the latter was also in
-the Campus Esquilinus, and consisted of small
-pits or caverns, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">puticuli</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">puticulae</i>;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190"></a>[190]</span>
-but as this place rendered the neighbourhood
-unhealthy, it was given to Maecenas, who
-converted it into gardens, and built a magnificent
-house upon it. Private places for
-burial were usually by the sides of the roads
-leading to Rome; and on some of these
-roads, such as the Via Appia, the tombs
-formed an almost uninterrupted street for
-many miles from the gates of the city. They
-were frequently built by individuals during
-their lifetime; thus Augustus, in his sixth
-consulship, built the Mausoleum for his sepulchre
-between the Via Flaminia and the
-Tiber, and planted round it woods and walks
-for public use. The heirs were often ordered
-by the will of the deceased to build a tomb
-for him; and they sometimes did it at their
-own expense.&mdash;Sepulchres were originally
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">busta</i>, but this word was afterwards
-employed in the manner mentioned under
-Bustum. Sepulchres were also frequently
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">monumenta</i>, but this term was also
-applied to a monument erected to the memory
-of a person in a different place from that where
-he was buried. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Conditoria</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conditiva</i> were
-sepulchres under ground, in which dead
-bodies were placed entire, in contradistinction
-to those sepulchres which contained the
-bones and ashes only.&mdash;The tombs of the rich
-were commonly built of marble, and the
-ground enclosed with an iron railing or wall,
-and planted round with trees. The extent
-of the burying-ground was marked by cippi
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cippus">Cippus</a></span>]. The name of mausoleum, which
-was originally the name of the magnificent
-sepulchre erected by Artemisia to the memory
-of Mausolus, king of Caria, was sometimes
-given to any splendid tomb. The open
-space before a sepulchre was called forum,
-and neither this space nor the sepulchre
-itself could become the property of a
-person by usucapion. Private tombs were
-either built by an individual for himself and
-the members of his family (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sepulcra familiaria</i>),
-or for himself and his heirs (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sepulcra
-hereditaria</i>). A tomb, which was fitted up
-with niches to receive the funeral urns, was
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">columbarium</i>, on account of the resemblance
-of these niches to the holes of a
-pigeon-house. In these tombs the ashes of
-the freedmen and slaves of great families
-were frequently placed in vessels made of
-baked clay, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ollae</i>, which were let into
-the thickness of the wall within these niches,
-the lids only being seen, and the inscriptions
-placed in front. Tombs were of various sizes
-and forms, according to the wealth and taste
-of the owner. A sepulchre, or any place in
-which a person was buried, was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">religiosus</i>;
-all things which were left or belonged to the
-Dii Manes were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">religiosae</i>; those consecrated
-to the Dii Superi were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacrae</i>. Even
-the place in which a slave was buried was
-considered religiosus. Whoever violated a
-sepulchre was subject to an action termed
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sepulcri violati actio</i>. After the bones had
-been placed in the urn at the funeral, the
-friends returned home. They then underwent
-a further purification, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suffitio</i>, which
-consisted in being sprinkled with water and
-stepping over a fire. The house itself was
-also swept with a certain kind of broom;
-which sweeping or purification was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exverrae</i>, and the person who did it <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">everriator</i>.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Denicales Feriae</i> were also days set apart
-for the purification of the family. The mourning
-and solemnities connected with the dead
-lasted for nine days after the funeral, at the
-end of which time a sacrifice was performed,
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">novendiale</i>.&mdash;A feast was given in
-honour of the dead, but it is uncertain on
-what day; it sometimes appears to have been
-given at the time of the funeral, sometimes
-on the novendiale, and sometimes later. The
-name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silicernium</i> was given to this feast.
-Among the tombs at Pompeii there is a funeral
-triclinium for the celebration of these
-feasts, which is represented in the annexed
-woodcut. It is open to the sky, and the walls
-are ornamented by paintings of animals in the
-centre of compartments, which have borders of
-flowers. The triclinium is made of stone, with
-a pedestal in the centre to receive the table.
-After the funeral of great men, there was, in
-addition to the feast for the friends of the
-deceased, a distribution of raw meat to the
-people, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">visceratio</i>, and sometimes a
-public banquet. Combats of gladiators and
-other games were also frequently exhibited
-in honour of the deceased. Thus at the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191"></a>[191]</span>
-funeral of P. Licinius Crassus, who had been
-Pontifex Maximus, raw meat was distributed
-to the people, 120 gladiators fought, and
-funeral games were celebrated for three
-days, at the end of which a public banquet
-was given in the forum. Public feasts
-and funeral games were sometimes given on
-the anniversary of funerals. At all banquets
-in honour of the dead, the guests were
-dressed in white.&mdash;The Romans, like the
-Greeks, were accustomed to visit the tombs
-of their relatives at certain periods, and to
-offer to them sacrifices and various gifts,
-which were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inferiae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">parentalia</i>.
-The Romans appear to have regarded the
-manes or departed souls of their ancestors as
-gods; whence arose the practice of presenting
-to them oblations, which consisted of
-victims, wine, milk, garlands of flowers, and
-other things. The tombs were sometimes
-illuminated on these occasions with lamps.
-In the latter end of the month of February
-there was a festival, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feralia</i>, in which
-the Romans were accustomed to carry food
-to the sepulchres for the use of the dead.
-The Romans were accustomed to wear mourning
-for their deceased friends, which appears
-to have been black under the republic for
-both sexes. Under the empire the men continued
-to wear black in mourning, but the
-women wore white. They laid aside all kinds
-of ornaments, and did not cut either their
-hair or beard. Men appear to have usually
-worn their mourning for only a few days,
-but women for a year when they lost a husband
-or parent. In a public mourning on
-account of some signal calamity, as, for instance,
-the loss of a battle, or the death of an
-emperor, there was a total cessation from
-business, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">justitium</i>, which was usually
-ordained by public appointment. During
-this period the courts of justice did not sit,
-the shops were shut, and the soldiers freed
-from military duties. In a public mourning
-the senators did not wear the latus clavus
-and their rings, nor the magistrates their
-badges of office.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill190" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill190.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Funeral Triclinium at Pompeii. (Mazois, Pomp., 1, pl. xx.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Furca">FURCA, which properly means a fork,
-was also the name of an instrument of punishment.
-It was a piece of wood in the
-form of the letter Λ, which was placed upon
-the shoulders of the offender, whose hands
-were tied to it. Slaves were frequently
-punished in this way, and were obliged to
-carry about the furca wherever they went;
-whence the appellation of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">furcifer</i> was applied
-to a man as a term of reproach. The
-furca was used in the ancient mode of
-capital punishment among the Romans; the
-criminal was tied to it, and then scourged to
-death. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patibulum</i> was also an instrument
-of punishment, resembling the furca;
-it appears to have been in the form of the
-letter Π. Both the furca and patibulum
-were also employed as crosses, to which criminals
-appear to have been nailed.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Furiosus">FURĬŌSUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Curator">Curator</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fuscina">FUSCĬNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίαινα</span>), a trident, more commonly
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tridens</i>, meaning <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tridens stimulus</i>,
-because it was originally a three-pronged
-goad, used to incite horses to greater swiftness.
-Neptune was supposed to be armed
-with it when he drove his chariot, and it
-thus became his usual attribute, perhaps
-with an allusion also to the use of the same
-instrument in harpooning fish. It is represented
-in the cut on <a href="#ill084b">p. 84</a>. In the contests of
-gladiators, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">retiarius</i> was armed with a
-trident. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a></span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fustuarium">FUSTŬĀRĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξυλοκοπία</span>), was a capital
-punishment inflicted upon Roman soldiers
-for desertion, theft, and similar crimes. It
-was administered in the following manner:&mdash;When
-a soldier was condemned, the tribune
-touched him slightly with a stick, upon
-which all the soldiers of the legion fell upon
-him with sticks and stones, and generally
-killed him upon the spot. If, however, he
-escaped, for he was allowed to fly, he could
-not return to his native country, nor did any
-of his relatives dare to receive him into their
-houses.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fusus">FŪSUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄτρακτος</span>), the spindle, was always,
-when in use, accompanied by the distaff
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colus</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἠλακάτη</span>), as an indispensable part of
-the same apparatus. The wool, flax, or other
-material, having been prepared for spinning,
-was rolled into a ball (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τολύπη</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">glomus</i>),
-which was, however, sufficiently loose to
-allow the fibres to be easily drawn out by
-the hand of the spinner. The upper part of
-the distaff was then inserted into this mass
-of flax or wool, and the lower part was held
-under the left arm in such a position as was
-most convenient for conducting the operation.
-The fibres were drawn out, and at the
-same time spirally twisted, chiefly by the use
-of the fore-finger and thumb of the right
-hand; and the thread (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">filum, stamen</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νήμα</span>)
-so produced was wound upon the spindle
-until the quantity was as great as it would
-carry. The spindle was a stick, 10 or 12
-inches long, having at the top a slit or catch
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dens</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄγκιστρον</span>) in which the thread was
-fixed, so that the weight of the spindle
-might continually carry down the thread as
-it was formed. Its lower extremity was
-inserted into a small wheel, called the whorl
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vorticellum</i>), made of wood, stone, or metal
-(see woodcut), the use of which was to keep
-the spindle more steady, and to promote its
-rotation. The accompanying woodcut shows<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192"></a>[192]</span>
-the operation of spinning, at the moment
-when the woman has drawn out a sufficient
-length of yarn to twist it by whirling the
-spindle with her right thumb and fore-finger,
-and previously to the act of taking it out of
-the slit to wind it upon the bobbin (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πήνιον</span>)
-already formed. It was usual to have a
-basket to hold the distaff and spindle, with
-the balls of wool prepared for spinning, and
-the bobbins already spun. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calathus">Calathus</a>.</span>] The
-distaff and spindle, with the wool and thread
-upon them, were carried in bridal processions;
-and, without the wool and thread,
-they were often suspended by females as
-offerings of religious gratitude, especially in
-old age, or on relinquishing the constant use
-of them. They were most frequently dedicated
-to Pallas, the patroness of spinning,
-and of the arts connected with it. They
-were exhibited in the representations of the
-three Fates, who were conceived, by their
-spinning, to determine the life of every
-man.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp57" id="ill192a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill192a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Fusus, spindle.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="G_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">G</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Gabinus" class="drop-capy">GĂBINUS CINCTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Toga">Toga</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Gaesum">GAESUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γαισός</span>), a term probably of
-Celtic origin, denoting a kind of javelin
-which was used by the Gauls wherever their
-ramifications extended. It was a heavy
-weapon, the shaft being as thick as a man
-could grasp, and the iron head barbed, and
-of an extraordinary length compared with
-the shaft.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Galea">GĂLĔA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κράνος</span>, <em>poet</em>. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόρυς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πήληξ</span>), a
-helmet; a casque. The helmet was originally
-made of skin or leather, whence is supposed
-to have arisen its appellation, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυνέη</span>,
-meaning properly a helmet of dog-skin, but
-applied to caps or helmets made of the hide
-of other animals, and even to those which
-were entirely of bronze or iron. The leathern
-basis of the helmet was also very commonly
-strengthened and adorned by the addition of
-either bronze or gold. Helmets which had a
-metallic basis were in Latin properly called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cassides</i>, although the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">galea</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cassis</i>
-are often confounded. The additions by
-which the external appearance of the helmet
-was varied, and which served both for ornament
-and protection, were the following:&mdash;1.
-Bosses or plates (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάλος</span>), proceeding either
-from the top or the sides, and varying in
-number from one to four (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφίφαλος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετράφαλος</span>).
-The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάλος</span> was often an emblematical
-figure, referring to the character of the
-wearer. Thus in the colossal statue of Athena
-in the Parthenon at Athens, she bore
-a sphinx on the top of her helmet, and a
-griffin on each side. 2. The helmet thus
-adorned was very commonly surmounted by
-the crest (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crista</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόφος</span>), which was often of
-horse-hair. 3. The two cheek-pieces (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bucculae</i>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραγναθίδες</span>), which were attached to
-the helmet by hinges, so as to be lifted up
-and down. They had buttons or ties at
-their extremities, for fastening the helmet
-on the head. 4. The beaver, or visor, a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193"></a>[193]</span>
-peculiar form of which is supposed to have
-been the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλῶπις τρυφάλεια</span>, <em>i.e.</em> the perforated
-beaver. The gladiators wore helmets
-of this kind.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill192b" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill192b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Galeae, helmets. (From ancient Gems,&mdash;size of originals.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Galerus">GĂLĒRUS or GALĒRUM, originally a
-covering for the head worn by priests, especially
-by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">flamen dialis</i>. It appears to
-have been a round cap made of leather, with
-its top ending in an apex or point. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Apex">Apex</a>.</span>]
-In course of time the name was applied to
-any kind of cap fitting close to the head like
-a helmet. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Galerus</i> and its diminutive <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Galericulum</i>
-are also used to signify a covering
-for the head made of hair, and hence a wig.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Galli">GALLI, the priests of Cybelé, whose worship
-was introduced at Rome from Phrygia.
-The Galli were, according to an ancient custom,
-always castrated, and it would seem
-that, impelled by religious fanaticism, they
-performed this operation on themselves. In
-their wild, enthusiastic, and boisterous rites
-they resembled the Corybantes. They seem
-to have been always chosen from a poor and
-despised class of people, for, while no other
-priests were allowed to beg, the Galli were
-permitted to do so on certain days. The chief
-priest among them was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">archigallus</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Gamelia">GĂMĒLĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γαμηλία</span>). The demes and
-phratries of Attica possessed various means
-to prevent intruders from assuming the
-rights of citizens. Among other regulations,
-it was ordained that every bride, previous to
-her marriage, should be introduced by her
-parents or guardians to the phratria of her
-husband. This introduction of the young
-women was accompanied by presents to their
-new phratores, which were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gamelia</i>.
-The women were enrolled in the lists of the
-phratries, and this enrolment was also called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gamelia</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Gausapa">GAUSĂPA, GAUSĂPE, or GAUSĂPUM,
-a kind of thick cloth, which was on one side
-very woolly, and was used to cover tables and
-beds, and by persons to wrap themselves up
-after taking a bath, or in general to protect
-themselves against rain and cold. It was
-worn by men as well as women. The word
-gausapa is also sometimes used to designate
-a thick wig, such as was made of the hair of
-Germans, and worn by the fashionable people
-at Rome at the time of the emperors.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Genesia">GĔNĔSIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Genos">GĔNOS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένος</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a>, Greek.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Gens">GENS. According to the traditional accounts
-of the old Roman constitution, the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gentes</i> were subdivisions of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curiae</i>, just
-as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curiae</i> were subdivisions of the three
-ancient tribes, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ramnes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Titienses</i>, and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Luceres</i>. There were ten gentes in each
-curia, and consequently one hundred gentes
-in each tribe, and three hundred in the three
-tribes. Now if there is any truth in the
-tradition of this original distribution of the
-population into tribes, curiae, and gentes, it
-follows that there was no necessary kinship
-among those families which belonged to a
-gens, any more than among those families
-which belonged to one curia. The name of
-the gens was always characterised by the
-termination <em>ia</em>, as Julia, Cornelia, Valeria;
-and the gentiles, or members of a gens, all
-bore the name of the gens to which they
-belonged. As the gentes were subdivisions
-of the three ancient tribes, the populus (in
-the ancient sense) alone had gentes, so that to
-be a patrician and to have a gens were
-synonymous; and thus we find the expressions
-gens and patricii constantly united.
-Yet it appears that some gentes contained
-plebeian familiae, which it is conjectured had
-their origin in marriages between patricians
-and plebeians before there was connubium
-between them. A hundred new members
-were added to the senate by the first Tarquin.
-These were the representatives of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Luceres</i>,
-the third and inferior tribe; which is indicated
-by the gentes of this tribe being called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minores</i>, by way of being distinguished from
-the older gentes, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">majores</i>, of the Ramnes and
-Tities, a distinction which appears to have
-been more than nominal. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a>.</span>] There
-were certain sacred rites (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacra gentilitia</i>)
-which belonged to a gens, to which all the
-members of a gens, as such, were bound. It
-was the duty of the pontifices to look after
-the due observance of these gentile sacra, and
-to see that they were not lost. Each gens
-seems to have had its peculiar place (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacellum</i>)
-for the celebration of these sacra, which
-were performed at stated times. By the law
-of the Twelve Tables the property of a person
-who died intestate devolved upon the gens to
-which he belonged.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Geomori">GĔŌMŎRI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a>, Greek.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Gerousia">GĔROUSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γερούσια</span>), or <em>assembly of
-elders</em>, was the aristocratic element of the
-Spartan polity. It was not peculiar to Sparta
-only, but found in other Dorian states, just
-as a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Boulé</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βουλή</span>) or democratical council
-was an element of most Ionian constitutions.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gerousia</i> at Sparta, including the two
-kings, its presidents, consisted of thirty
-members (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γέροντες</span>): a number which seems
-connected with the divisions of the Spartan
-people. Every Dorian state, in fact, was
-divided into three tribes: the Hylleis, the
-Dymanes, and the Pamphyli. The tribes at
-Sparta were again subdivided into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὠβαί</span>),
-which were, like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gerontes</i>, thirty in
-number, so that each oba was represented by
-its councillor: any inference which leads to
-the conclusion that two obae at least of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194"></a>[194]</span>
-Hyllean tribe, must have belonged to the
-royal house of the Heracleids. No one was
-eligible to the council till he was sixty years
-of age, and the additional qualifications were
-strictly of an aristocratic nature. We are
-told, for instance, that the office of a councillor
-was the reward and prize of virtue, and
-that it was confined to men of distinguished
-character and station. The election was determined
-by vote, and the mode of conducting
-it was remarkable for its old-fashioned simplicity.
-The competitors presented themselves
-one after another to the assembly of
-electors; the latter testified their esteem by
-acclamations, which varied in intensity according
-to the popularity of the candidates
-for whom they were given. These manifestations
-of esteem were noted by persons in
-an adjoining building, who could judge of
-the shouting, but could not tell in whose
-favour it was given. The person whom
-these judges thought to have been most applauded
-was declared the successful candidate.
-The office lasted for life. The functions
-of the councillors were partly deliberative,
-partly judicial, and partly executive. In the
-discharge of the first, they prepared measures
-and passed preliminary decrees, which were
-to be laid before the popular assembly, so
-that the important privilege of initiating all
-changes in the government or laws was vested
-in them. As a criminal court, they could
-punish with death and civil degradation
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτιμία</span>). They also appear to have exercised,
-like the Areiopagus at Athens, a general superintendence
-and inspection over the lives
-and manners of the citizens, and probably
-were allowed a kind of patriarchal authority,
-to enforce the observance of ancient usage
-and discipline. It is not, however, easy to
-define with exactness the original extent of
-their functions, especially as respects the last-mentioned
-duty, since the ephors not only
-encroached upon the prerogatives of the king
-and council, but also possessed, in very early
-times, a censorial power, and were not likely
-to permit any diminution of its extent.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Gerrha">GERRHA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γέῤῥα</span>), in Latin, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gerrae</i>, properly
-signified any thing made of wicker-work,
-and was especially used as the name of
-the Persian shields, which were made of
-wicker-work, and were smaller and shorter
-than the Greek shields.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Gladiatores">GLĂDĬĀTŌRES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μονομάχοι</span>) were men who
-fought with swords in the amphitheatre and
-other places, for the amusement of the Roman
-people. They are said to have been first
-exhibited by the Etrurians, and to have had
-their origin from the custom of killing slaves
-and captives at the funeral pyres of the
-deceased. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Bustum">Bustum</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>.] A show of
-gladiators was called munus, and the person
-who exhibited (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edebat</i>) it, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">editor</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">munerator</i>,
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dominus</i>, who was honoured during the
-day of exhibition, if a private person, with
-the official signs of a magistrate. Gladiators
-were first exhibited at Rome in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 264, in
-the Forum Boarium, by Marcus and Decimus
-Brutus, at the funeral of their father. They
-were at first confined to public funerals, but
-afterwards fought at the funerals of most
-persons of consequence, and even at those of
-women. Combats of gladiators were also
-exhibited at entertainments, and especially at
-public festivals by the aediles and other magistrates,
-who sometimes exhibited immense
-numbers, with the view of pleasing the
-people. Under the empire the passion of the
-Romans for this amusement rose to its greatest
-height, and the number of gladiators who
-fought on some occasions appears almost incredible.
-After Trajan’s triumph over the
-Dacians, there were more than 10,000 exhibited.
-Gladiators consisted either of captives,
-slaves, and condemned malefactors, or of
-freeborn citizens who fought voluntarily.
-Freemen, who became gladiators for hire,
-were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctorati</i>, and their hire <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctoramentum</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gladiatorium</i>. Even under the
-republic, free-born citizens fought as gladiators,
-but they appear to have belonged only
-to the lower orders. Under the empire,
-however, both knights and senators fought in
-the arena, and even women.&mdash;Gladiators were
-kept in schools (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludi</i>), where they were trained
-by persons called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lanistae</i>. The whole body
-of gladiators under one lanista was frequently
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia</i>. They sometimes
-were the property of the lanistae, who let
-them out to persons who wished to exhibit a
-show of gladiators; but at other times they
-belonged to citizens, who kept them for the
-purpose of exhibition, and engaged lanistae
-to instruct them. Thus we read of the ludus
-Aemilius at Rome, and of Caesar’s ludus at
-Capua. The gladiators fought in these ludi
-with wooden swords, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rudes</i>. Great
-attention was paid to their diet, in order to
-increase the strength of their bodies.&mdash;Gladiators
-were sometimes exhibited at the funeral
-pyre, and sometimes in the forum, but more
-frequently in the amphitheatre. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]&mdash;The
-person who was to exhibit
-a show of gladiators, published some days
-before the exhibition bills (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libelli</i>), containing
-the number and frequently the names of
-those who were to fight. When the day
-came, they were led along the arena in procession,
-and matched by pairs; and their
-swords were examined by the editor to see if
-they were sufficiently sharp. At first there
-was a kind of sham battle, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praelusio</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195"></a>[195]</span>
-in which they fought with wooden swords, or
-the like, and afterwards at the sound of the
-trumpet the real battle began. When a gladiator
-was wounded, the people called out
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">habet</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hoc habet</i>; and the one who was
-vanquished lowered his arms in token of submission.
-His fate, however, depended upon
-the people, who pressed down their thumbs if
-they wished him to be saved, but turned them
-up if they wished him to be killed, and ordered
-him to receive the sword (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ferrum recipere</i>),
-which gladiators usually did with
-the greatest firmness. If the life of a vanquished
-gladiator was spared, he obtained his
-discharge for that day, which was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">missio</i>; and hence in an exhibition of gladiators
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sine missione</i>, the lives of the conquered
-were never spared. This kind of exhibition,
-however, was forbidden by Augustus. Palms
-were usually given to the victorious gladiators.
-Old gladiators, and sometimes those
-who had only fought for a short time, were
-discharged from the service by the editor, at
-the request of the people, who presented each
-of them with a rudis or wooden sword;
-whence those who were discharged were
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rudiarii</i>.&mdash;Gladiators were divided
-into different classes, according to their arms
-and different mode of fighting, or other circumstances.
-The names of the most important
-of these classes are given in alphabetical
-order:&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Andabatae</i> wore helmets without any
-aperture for the eyes, so that they were
-obliged to fight blindfold, and thus excited
-the mirth of the spectators.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Catervarii</i> was
-the name given to gladiators when they did
-not fight in pairs, but when several fought
-together.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Essedarii</i> fought from chariots,
-like the Gauls and Britons. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Esseda">Esseda</a>.</span>]&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hoplomachi</i>
-appear to have been those who fought
-in a complete suit of armour.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Laqueatores</i>
-were those who used a noose to catch their
-adversaries.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Meridiani</i> were those who
-fought in the middle of the day, after combats
-with wild beasts had taken place in the
-morning. These gladiators were very slightly
-armed.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mirmillones</i> are said to have been so
-called from their having the image of a fish
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mormyr</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μορμύρος</span>) on their helmets. Their
-arms were like those of the Gauls, whence we
-find that they were also called Galli. They
-were usually matched with the Retiarii or
-Thracians.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Provocatores</i> fought with the
-Samnites, but we do not know any thing
-respecting them except their name.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Retiarii</i>
-carried only a three-pointed lance, called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tridens</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fuscina</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fuscina">Fuscina</a></span>], and a net (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rete</i>),
-which they endeavoured to throw over their
-adversaries, and they then attacked them
-with the fuscina while they were entangled.
-The retiarius was dressed in a short tunic,
-and wore nothing on his head. If he missed
-his aim in throwing the net, he betook himself
-to flight, and endeavoured to prepare his
-net for a second cast, while his adversary
-followed him round the arena in order to kill
-him before he could make a second attempt.
-His adversary was usually a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">secutor</i> or a
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mirmillo</i>. In the following woodcut a combat
-is represented between a retiarius and a
-mirmillo; the former has thrown his net over
-the head of the latter, and is proceeding to
-attack him with the fuscina. The lanista
-stands behind the retiarius.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Samnites</i> were
-so called, because they were armed in the
-same way as that people, and were particularly
-distinguished by the oblong <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scutum</i>.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Secutores</i>
-are supposed by some writers to be
-so called because the secutor in his combat
-with the retiarius pursued the latter when
-he failed in securing him by his net.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill195" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill195.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">A Mirmillo and a Retiarius. (Winckelmann, ‘Monum. Ined.,’ pl. 197.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Other writers think that they were the same as the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">supposititii</i>, who were gladiators substituted
-in the place of those who were wearied or
-were killed.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thraces</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Threces</i> were armed,
-like the Thracians, with a round shield or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196"></a>[196]</span>
-buckler, and a short sword or dagger
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sica</i>). They were usually matched, as already
-stated, with the mirmillones. The
-following woodcut represents a combat between
-two Thracians. A lanista stands behind
-each.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill196a" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill196a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Thracians. (Winckelmann, l. c.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Gladius">GLĂDĬUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξίφος</span>, <em>poet.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄορ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάσγανον</span>), a
-sword or glaive, by the Latin poets called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ensis</i>. The ancient sword had generally a
-straight two-edged blade, rather broad, and
-nearly of equal width from hilt to point.
-The Greeks and Romans wore them on the
-left side, so as to draw them out of the sheath
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vagina</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κολεός</span>) by passing the right hand
-in front of the body to take hold of the
-hilt with the thumb next to the blade.
-The early Greeks used a very short sword.
-Iphicrates, who made various improvements
-in armour about 400 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, doubled its length.
-The Roman sword was larger, heavier, and
-more formidable than the Greek.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Glandes">GLANDES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funda">Funda</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Graecostasis">GRAECŎSTĂSIS, a place in the Roman
-forum, on the right of the Comitium, so
-called because the Greek ambassadors, and
-perhaps also deputies from other foreign or
-allied states, were allowed to stand there to
-hear the debates. When the sun was seen
-from the Curia coming out between the Rostra
-and the Graecostasis, it was mid-day;
-and an accensus of the consul announced the
-time with a clear loud voice.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Grammateus">GRAMMĂTEUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραμματεύς</span>), a clerk or
-scribe. Among the great number of scribes
-employed by the magistrates and government
-of Athens, there were three of a higher
-rank, who were real state-officers. One of
-them was appointed by lot, by the senate, to
-serve the time of the administration of each
-prytany, though he always belonged to a
-different prytany from that which was in
-power. He was, therefore, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραμματεὺς
-κατὰ πρυτανείαν</span>. His province was to keep
-the public records, and the decrees of the
-people which were made during the time of
-his office, and to deliver to the thesmothetae
-the decrees of the senate.&mdash;The second <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">grammateus</i>
-was elected by the senate, by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>,
-and was entrusted with the custody of
-the laws. His usual name was <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραμματεὺς
-τῆς βουλῆς</span>.&mdash;A third <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">grammateus</i> was called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραμματεὺς τῆς πόλεως</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραμματεὺς τῆς βουλῆς
-καὶ τοῦ δήμου</span>. He was appointed by the
-people, by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>, and the principal part
-of his office was to read any laws or documents
-which were required to be read in the assembly
-or in the senate.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Graphe">GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφή</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dice">Dice</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Graphiarium">GRĂPHĬĀRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Stilus">Stilus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Graphis">GRĂPHIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pictura">Pictura</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Graphium">GRĂPHĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Stilus">Stilus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Gubernaculum">GŬBERNĀCŬLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πηδάλιον</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Gustatio">GUSTĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill196b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill196b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Guttus on Coin of L. Plancus.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Guttus">GUTTUS, a vessel with a narrow mouth
-or neck, from which the liquid was poured in
-drops, whence its name. It was especially
-used in sacrifices, and hence we find it represented
-on the Roman coins struck by persons
-who held any of the priestly offices.
-The guttus was also used for keeping the
-oil, with which persons were anointed in the
-baths. [See <a href="#ill056b">p. 56</a>.]</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197"></a>[197]</span></p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="ill197" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill197.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Gymnasium, after the description of Vitruvius.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Gymnasium">GYMNĀSIUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνάσιον</span>). The whole
-education of a Greek youth was divided into
-three parts,&mdash;grammar, music, and gymnastics
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γράμματα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μουσική</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμναστική</span>), to which
-Aristotle adds a fourth, the art of drawing
-or painting. Gymnastics, however, were
-thought by the ancients a matter of such importance,
-that this part of education alone
-occupied as much time and attention as all
-the others put together; and while the latter
-necessarily ceased at a certain period of life,
-gymnastics continued to be cultivated by persons
-of all ages, though those of an advanced
-age naturally took lighter and less fatiguing
-exercises than boys and youths. The ancients,
-and more especially the Greeks, seem
-to have been thoroughly convinced that the
-mind could not possibly be in a healthy state,
-unless the body was likewise in perfect
-health, and no means were thought, either
-by philosophers or physicians, to be more
-conducive to preserve or restore bodily health
-than well-regulated exercise. The word
-gymnastics is derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνός</span> (naked),
-because the persons who performed their exercises
-in public or private gymnasia were
-either entirely naked, or merely covered by
-the short <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">chiton</i>. Gymnastic exercises among
-the Greeks seem to have been as old as
-the Greek nation itself; but they were, as
-might be supposed, of a rude and mostly of a
-warlike character. They were generally held
-in the open air, and in plains near a river,
-which afforded an opportunity for swimming
-and bathing. It was about the time of Solon
-that the Greek towns began to build their
-regular gymnasia as places of exercise for
-the young, with baths, and other conveniences
-for philosophers and all persons who
-sought intellectual amusements. There
-was probably no Greek town of any importance
-which did not possess its gymnasium.
-Athens possessed three great
-gymnasia, the Lyceum (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λύκειον</span>), Cynosarges
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κυνόσαργες</span>), and the Academia (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκαδημία</span>);
-to which, in later times, several
-smaller ones were added. Respecting the
-superintendence and administration of the
-gymnasia at Athens, we know that Solon in
-his legislation thought them worthy of great
-attention; and the transgression of some of
-his laws relating to the gymnasia was punished
-with death. His laws mention a magistrate,
-called the gymnasiarch (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνασίαρχος</span>
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνασιάρχης</span>), who was entrusted with
-the whole management of the gymnasia, and
-with everything connected therewith. His
-office was one of the regular liturgies like the
-choregia and trierarchy, and was attended
-with considerable expense. He had to maintain
-and pay the persons who were preparing
-themselves for the games and contests in the
-public festivals, to provide them with oil,
-and perhaps with the wrestlers’ dust. It also
-devolved upon him to adorn the gymnasium,
-or the place where the agones were held.
-The gymnasiarch was a real magistrate, and
-invested with a kind of jurisdiction over all
-those who frequented or were connected with
-the gymnasia. Another part of his duties
-was to conduct the solemn games at certain
-great festivals, especially the torch-race
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λαμπαδηφορία</span>), for which he selected the
-most distinguished among the ephebi of the
-gymnasia. The number of gymnasiarchs was
-ten, one from every tribe. An office of very
-great importance, in an educational point of
-view, was that of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sophronistae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σωφρονίσται</span>).
-Their province was to inspire the
-youths with a love of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σωφροσύνη</span>, and to protect
-this virtue against all injurious influences.
-In early times their number at Athens
-was ten, one from every tribe, with a salary
-of one drachma per day. Their duty not
-only required them to be present at all the
-games of the ephebi, but to watch and correct
-their conduct wherever they might meet
-them, both within and without the gymnasium.
-The instructions in the gymnasia
-were given by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gymnastae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνασταί</span>)
-and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Paedotribae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παιδοτριβαί</span>); at a later
-period <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hypopaedotribae</i> were added. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198"></a>[198]</span>
-Paedotribae were required to possess a knowledge
-of all the various exercises which were
-performed in the gymnasia; the Gymnastes
-was the practical teacher, and was expected
-to know the physiological effects and influences
-on the constitution of the youths, and
-therefore assigned to each of them those
-exercises which he thought most suitable.
-The anointing of the bodies of the youths
-and strewing them with dust, before they
-commenced their exercises, as well as the
-regulation of their diet, was the duty of the
-aliptae. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aliptae">Aliptae</a>.</span>]&mdash;Among all the different
-tribes of the Greeks the exercises which
-were carried on in a Greek gymnasium were
-either mere games, or the more important
-exercises which the gymnasia had in common
-with the public contests in the great
-festivals. Among the former we may mention,
-1. The game at ball (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαιριστική</span>), which
-was in universal favour with the Greeks.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pila">Pila</a>.</span>] Every gymnasium contained one
-large room for the purpose of playing at ball
-in it (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαιριστήριον</span>). 2. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παίζειν ἑλκυστίνδα</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διελκυστίνδα</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διὰ γραμμῆς</span>, was a game in
-which one boy, holding one end of a rope,
-tried to pull the boy who held its other end,
-across a line marked between them on the
-ground. 3. The top (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βεμβηξ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βέμβιξ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥόμβος</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρόβιλος</span>), which was as common an amusement
-with Greek boys as it is with ours.
-4. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντάλιθος</span>, which was a game with
-five stones, which were thrown up from the
-upper part of the hand and caught in the
-palm. 5. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκαπέρδα</span>, which was a game in
-which a rope was drawn through the upper
-part of a tree or a post. Two boys, one on
-each side of the post, turning their backs
-towards one another, took hold of the ends
-of the rope and tried to pull each other up.
-This sport was also one of the amusements at
-the Attic Dionysia. The more important
-games, such as running (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δρόμος</span>), throwing of
-the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίσκος</span> and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκων</span>, jumping and leaping
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἅλμα</span>, with and without <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁλτῆρες</span>), wrestling
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάλη</span>), boxing (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυγμή</span>), the pancratium
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παγκράτιον</span>), <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πένταθλος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λαμπαδηφορία</span>, dancing
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀρχήσις</span>), &amp;c., are described in separate
-articles. A gymnasium was not a Roman
-institution. The regular training of boys in
-the Greek gymnastics was foreign to Roman
-manners, and even held in contempt. Towards
-the end of the republic, many wealthy
-Romans who had acquired a taste for Greek
-manners, used to attach to their villas small
-places for bodily exercise, sometimes called
-gymnasia, sometimes palaestrae, and to adorn
-them with beautiful works of art. The emperor
-Nero was the first who built a public
-gymnasium at Rome.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Gymnesii">GYMNĒSII or GYMNĒTES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνήσιοι</span>, or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνῆτες</span>), a class of bond-slaves at Argos,
-who may be compared with the Helots at
-Sparta. Their name shows that they attended
-their masters on military service in the capacity
-of light-armed troops.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Gymnopaedia">GYMNŎPAEDĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνοπαιδία</span>), the festival
-of “naked youths,” was celebrated at
-Sparta every year in honour of Apollo Pythaeus,
-Artemis, and Leto. The statues of
-these deities stood in a part of the agora
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χορός</span>, and it was around these statues
-that, at the gymnopaedia, Spartan youths
-performed their choruses and dances in honour
-of Apollo. The festival lasted for several,
-perhaps for ten, days, and on the last day
-men also performed choruses and dances in
-the theatre; and during these gymnastic
-exhibitions they sang the songs of Thaletas
-and Alcman, and the paeans of Dionysodotus.
-The leader of the chorus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χοροποιός</span>)
-wore a kind of chaplet in commemoration
-of the victory of the Spartans at Thyrea.
-This event seems to have been closely connected
-with the gymnopaedia, for those Spartans
-who had fallen on that occasion were
-always praised in songs at this festival.
-The boys in their dances performed such
-rhythmical movements as resembled the exercises
-of the palaestra and the pancration, and
-also imitated the wild gestures of the worship
-of Dionysus. The whole season of the gymnopaedia,
-during which Sparta was visited
-by great numbers of strangers, was one of
-great merriment and rejoicings, and old
-bachelors alone seem to have been excluded
-from the festivities. The introduction of the
-gymnopaedia is generally assigned to the year
-665 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Gynaeconitis">GỸNAECONĪTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>, <span class="smcap">Greek</span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Gynaeconomi">GỸNAECŎNŎMI or GỸNAECŎCOSMI
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυναικονόμοι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυναικοκόσμοι</span>), magistrates
-at Athens, originally appointed to superintend
-the conduct of Athenian women. Their
-power was afterwards extended in such a
-manner that they became a kind of police for
-the purpose of preventing any excesses or
-indecencies, whether committed by men or
-by women. Hence they superintended the
-meetings of friends even in private houses,
-for instance, at weddings and on other festive
-occasions.</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="H_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">H</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Halteres" class="drop-capy">HALTĒRES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁλτῆρες</span>) were certain masses
-of stone or metal, which were used in
-the gymnastic exercises of the Greeks and
-Romans. Persons who practised leaping frequently
-performed their exercises with halteres
-in both hands; but they were also
-frequently used merely to exercise the body<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199"></a>[199]</span>
-in somewhat the same manner as our dumb-bells.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp59" id="ill199a" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill199a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Halteres. (Tassie, ‘Catalogue,’ pl. 46.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Harmamaxa">HARMĂMAXA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁρμάμαξα</span>), a carriage for
-persons, covered overhead and inclosed with
-curtains. It was in general large, often
-drawn by four horses, and attired with
-splendid ornaments. It occupied among the
-Persians the same place which the carpentum
-did among the Romans, being used, especially
-upon state occasions, for the conveyance
-of women and children, of eunuchs, and
-of the sons of the king with their tutors.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Harmostae">HARMOSTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁρμοσταί</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁρμόζω</span>, to
-fit or join together), the name of the governors
-whom the Lacedaemonians, after the Peloponnesian
-war, sent into their subject or
-conquered towns, partly to keep them in submission,
-and partly to abolish the democratical
-form of government, and establish in
-its stead one similar to their own. Although
-in many cases they were ostensibly sent for
-the purpose of abolishing the tyrannical
-government of a town, and to restore the
-people to freedom, yet they themselves acted
-like kings or tyrants.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill199b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill199b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Flesh-hook. (British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Harpago">HARPĂGO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁρπάγη</span>: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λύκος</span>: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρεάγρα</span>), a
-grappling-iron, a drag, a flesh-hook. In
-war the grappling-iron, thrown at an enemy’s
-ship, seized the rigging, and was then used
-to drag the ship within reach, so that it
-might be easily boarded or destroyed. These
-instruments appear to have been much the
-same as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manus ferreae</i>. The flesh-hook
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρεάγρα</span>) was an instrument used in cookery,
-resembling a hand with the fingers bent inwards,
-used to take boiled meat out of the
-caldron.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Harpastum">HARPASTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pila">Pila</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Haruspices">HĂRUSPĬCES, or ĂRUSPĬCES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροσκόποι</span>),
-soothsayers or diviners, who interpreted
-the will of the gods. They originally
-came to Rome from Etruria, whence haruspices
-were often sent for by the Romans on
-important occasions. The art of the haruspices
-resembled in many respects that of the
-augurs; but they never acquired that political
-importance which the latter possessed,
-and were regarded rather as means for
-ascertaining the will of the gods than as possessing
-any religious authority. They did
-not in fact form any part of the ecclesiastical
-polity of the Roman state during the republic;
-they are never called sacerdotes, they did
-not form a collegium, and had no magister
-at their head. The art of the haruspices,
-which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">haruspicina</i>, consisted in
-explaining and interpreting the will of the
-gods from the appearance of the entrails
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exta</i>) of animals offered in sacrifice, whence
-they are sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">extispices</i>, and their
-art <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">extispicium</i>; and also from lightning,
-earthquakes, and all extraordinary phenomena
-in nature, to which the general name
-of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">portenta</i> was given. Their art is said to
-have been invented by the Etruscan Tages,
-and was contained in certain books called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libri haruspicini</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fulgurales</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tonitruales</i>.
-This art was considered by the Romans so
-important at one time, that the senate decreed
-that a certain number of young Etruscans,
-belonging to the principal families in
-the state, should always be instructed in it.
-In later times, however, their art fell into
-disrepute among well-educated Romans; and
-Cicero relates a saying of Cato, that he wondered
-that one haruspex did not laugh when
-he saw another. The name of haruspex is
-sometimes applied to any kind of soothsayer
-or prophet.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp60" id="ill200a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill200a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Hastae, spears.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Hasta">HASTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγχος</span>), a spear. The spear is
-defined by Homer, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόρυ χαλκήρες</span>, “a pole
-fitted with bronze,” and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόρυ χαλκοβάρες</span>, “a
-pole heavy with bronze.” The bronze, for
-which iron was afterwards substituted, was
-indispensable to form the point (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰχμή</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκωκή</span>,
-Homer; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόγχη</span>, Xenophon; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acies</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cuspis</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spiculum</i>) of the spear. Each of these two
-essential parts is often put for the whole, so
-that a spear is called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόρυ</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δοράτιον</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰχμή</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόγχη</span>. Even the more especial
-term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μελία</span>, meaning an ash-tree, is used in
-the same manner, because the pole of the
-spear was often the stem of a young ash,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200"></a>[200]</span>
-stripped of its bark and polished. The bottom
-of the spear was often inclosed in a pointed
-cap of bronze, called by the Ionic writers
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαυρωτῆρ</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐρίαχος</span>, and in Attic or common
-Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στύραξ</span>. By forcing this into the
-ground the spear was fixed erect. Many
-of the lancers who accompanied the king of
-Persia, had, instead of this spike at the bottom
-of their spears, an apple or a pomegranate,
-either gilt or silvered. Fig. 1. in the annexed
-woodcut shows the top and bottom of
-a spear, which is held by one of the king’s
-guards in the sculptures at Persepolis. The
-spear was used as a weapon of attack in three
-different ways:&mdash;1. It was thrown from
-catapults and other engines [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tormentum">Tormentum</a></span>].
-2. It was thrust forward as a pike. 3. It
-was commonly thrown by the hand. The
-spear frequently had a leathern thong tied
-to the middle of the shaft, which was called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγκύλη</span> by the Greeks, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amentum</i> by the
-Romans, and which was of assistance in
-throwing the spear. The annexed figure
-represents the amentum attached to the spear
-at the centre of gravity, a little above the
-middle.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp48" id="ill200b" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill200b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Hasta with Amentum. (From a Painting on a Vase.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Under the general terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta</i> and
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγχος</span> were included various kinds of missiles, of
-which the principal were as follow:&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lancea</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόγχη</span>), the lance, a comparatively slender
-spear commonly used by the Greek horsemen.
-The appendage shown in woodcut, Fig. 2,
-enabled them to mount their horses with
-greater facility.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pilum</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑσσός</span>), the javelin,
-much thicker and stronger than the Grecian
-lance. Its shaft, often made of cornel, was
-4½ feet (three cubits) long, and the barbed
-iron head was of the same length, but this
-extended half way down the shaft, to which
-it was attached with extreme care, so that
-the whole length of the weapon was about
-6 feet 9 inches. It was used either to throw
-or to thrust with; it was peculiar to the
-Romans, and gave the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pilani</i> to the
-division of the army by which it was adopted.&mdash;Whilst
-the heavy-armed Roman soldiers bore
-the long lance and the thick and ponderous
-javelin, the light-armed used smaller missiles,
-which, though of different kinds, were included
-under the general term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hastae velitares</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γρόσφοι</span>). The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γρόσφος</span> was a dart, with a
-shaft about three feet long and an inch in
-thickness: the iron head was a span long,
-and so thin and acuminated as to be bent by
-striking against anything, and thus rendered
-unfit to be sent back against the enemy.
-Fig. 3, in the preceding woodcut, shows one
-which was found in a Roman entrenchment
-in Gloucestershire.&mdash;The light infantry of the
-Roman army used a similar weapon, called
-<em>a spit</em> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">veru</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">verutum</i>; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαύνιον</span>). It was
-adopted by them from the Samnites and the
-Volsci. Its shaft was 3½ feet long, its point
-5 inches. Fig. 4, in the preceding woodcut,
-represents the head of a dart in the Royal
-Collection at Naples; it may be taken as a
-specimen of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">verutum</i>, and may be contrasted
-with fig. 5, which is the head of a
-lance in the same collection.&mdash;The Romans
-adopted in like manner the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gaesum</i>, which
-was properly a Celtic weapon; it was given
-as a reward to any soldier who wounded an
-enemy. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gaesum">Gaesum</a>.</span>]&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sparus</i> is evidently the
-same word with the English <em>spar</em> and <em>spear</em>.
-It was the rudest missile of the whole class.&mdash;Besides
-the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jaculum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spiculum</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκων</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκόντιον</span>), which probably denoted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201"></a>[201]</span>
-darts, resembling in form the lance and
-javelin, but much smaller, adapted consequently
-to the light-armed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jaculatores</i>), and
-used in hunting as well as in battle, we find
-in classical authors the names of various
-other spears, which were characteristic of
-particular nations.&mdash;Thus, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sarissa</i> was
-the spear peculiar to the Macedonians. This
-was used both to throw and as a pike. It
-exceeded in length all other missiles.&mdash;The
-Thracian <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">romphea</i>, which had a very long
-point, like the blade of a sword, was probably
-not unlike the sarissa.&mdash;With these
-weapons we may also class the Illyrian <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sibina</i>,
-which resembled a hunting-pole.&mdash;The iron
-head of the German spear, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">framea</i>, was
-short and narrow, but very sharp. The
-Germans used it with great effect either as a
-lance or a pike: they gave to each youth a
-framea and a shield on coming of age.&mdash;The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Falarica</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Phalarica</i> was the spear of the
-Saguntines, and was impelled by the aid of
-twisted ropes; it was large and ponderous,
-having a head of iron a cubit in length, and
-a ball of lead at its other end; it sometimes
-carried flaming pitch and tow.&mdash;The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">matura</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tragula</i> were chiefly used in Gaul and
-Spain: the tragula was probably barbed, as
-it required to be cut out of the wound.&mdash;The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aclis</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cateia</i> were much smaller missiles.&mdash;<span id="Hasta_p">Among</span>
-the decorations which the Roman
-generals bestowed on their soldiers, more
-especially for saving the life of a fellow-citizen,
-was a spear without a head, called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta pura</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">celibaris hasta</i>, having
-been fixed into the body of a gladiator lying
-dead on the arena, was used at marriages to
-part the hair of the bride. A spear was
-erected at auctions [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Auctio">Auctio</a></span>], and when tenders
-were received for public offices (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">locationes</i>).
-It served both to announce, by a
-conventional sign conspicuous at a distance,
-that a sale was going on, and to show that it
-was conducted under the authority of the
-public functionaries. Hence an auction was
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta</i>, and an auction-room <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hastarium</i>.
-It was also the practice to set up a spear in
-the court of the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Centumviri">Centumviri</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hastati">HASTĀTI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_168">p. 168</a>, b.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hecatombe">HĔCĂTOMBĒ. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sacrificium">Sacrificium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hecte">HECTĒ or HECTEUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕκτη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑκτεύς</span>), and
-its half, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hemiecton</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hemiecteon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμίεκτον</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμιεκτέον</span>). In dry measures, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hecteus</i> was
-the sixth part of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">medimnus</i>, and the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hemiecteon</i>, of course, the twelfth part. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hecteus</i> was equal to the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">modius</i>, as
-each contained 16 <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξέσται</span> or sextarii. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hecte</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hecteus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hemiecton</i> were also
-the names of coins, but the accounts we have
-of their value are very various. The only
-consistent explanation is, that there were
-different <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hectae</i>, derived from different units;
-in fact, that these coins were not properly
-<em>denominations</em> of money, but <em>subdivisions</em> of
-the recognised denominations.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Helepolis">HĔLĔPŎLIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑλέπολις</span>), “the taker of
-cities,” a machine constructed by Demetrius
-Poliorcetes, when he besieged the city of
-Salamis in Cyprus. Its form was that of
-a square tower, each side being 90 cubits
-high and 45 wide. It rested on four
-wheels, each eight cubits high. It was
-divided into nine stories, the lower of which
-contained machines for throwing great
-stones, the middle large catapults for throwing
-spears, and the highest other machines
-for throwing smaller stones, together with
-smaller catapults. It was manned with 200
-soldiers, besides those who moved it by pushing
-the parallel beams at the bottom. At
-the siege of Rhodes, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 306, Demetrius
-employed an helepolis of still greater dimensions
-and more complicated construction.
-In subsequent ages we find the name of
-“helepolis” applied to moving towers which
-carried battering rams, as well as machines
-for throwing spears and stones.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hellanodicae">HELLĀNŎDĬCAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑλλανοδίκαι</span>), the judges
-in the Olympic games, of whom an account
-is given under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Olympia">Olympia</a></span>. The same name
-was also given to the judges or court-martial
-in the Lacedaemonian army, and they were
-probably first called by this name when Sparta
-was at the head of the Greek confederacy.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hellenotamiae">HELLĒNOTĂMĬAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑλληνοταμίαι</span>), or
-treasurers of the Greeks, were magistrates
-appointed by the Athenians to receive the
-contributions of the allied states. They
-were first appointed <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 477, when Athens,
-in consequence of the conduct of Pausanias,
-had obtained the command of the allied
-states. The money paid by the different
-states, which was originally fixed at 460
-talents, was deposited in Delos, which was
-the place of meeting for the discussion of all
-common interests; and there can be no doubt
-that the hellenotamiae not only received, but
-were also the guardians of, these monies.
-The office was retained after the treasury
-was transferred to Athens on the proposal of
-the Samians, but was of course abolished on
-the conquest of Athens by the Lacedaemonians.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Helotes">HĒLŌTES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἴλωτες</span>), a class of bondsmen
-peculiar to Sparta. They were Achaeans,
-who had resisted the Dorian invaders to the
-last, and had been reduced to slavery as the
-punishment of their obstinacy. The Helots
-were regarded as the property of the state,
-which, while it gave their services to individuals,
-reserved to itself the power of emancipating
-them. They were attached to the
-land, and could not be sold away from it.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202"></a>[202]</span>
-They cultivated the land, and paid to their
-masters as rent a certain measure of corn, the
-exact amount of which had been fixed at a
-very early period, the raising of that amount
-being forbidden under heavy imprecations.
-Besides being engaged in the cultivation of
-the land, the Helots attended on their masters
-at the public meal, and many of them
-were no doubt employed by the state in public
-works. In war the Helots served as
-light-armed troops (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψίλοι</span>), a certain number
-of them attending every heavy-armed Spartan
-to the field; at the battle of Plataeae there
-were seven Helots to each Spartan. These
-attendants were probably called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμπίτταρες</span>
-(i.e. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφίσταντες</span>), and one of them in particular,
-the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεράπων</span>, or <em>servant</em>. The Helots
-only served as hoplites in particular emergencies;
-and on such occasions they were
-generally emancipated. The first instance
-of this kind was in the expedition of Brasidas,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 424. The treatment to which
-the Helots were subjected was marked by the
-most wanton cruelty; and they were regarded
-by the Spartans with the greatest suspicion.
-Occasionally the ephors selected young Spartans
-for the secret service (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρυπτεία</span>) of wandering
-over the country, in order to kill the
-Helots. The Helots might be emancipated,
-but there were several steps between them
-and the free citizens, and it is doubtful
-whether they were ever admitted to all the
-privileges of citizenship. The following
-classes of emancipated Helots are enumerated:&mdash;<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀφεταί</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀδεσπότοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐρυκτῆρες</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεσποσιοναύται</span>,
-and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεοδαμώδεις</span>. Of these the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀφεταί</span> were probably released from all service;
-the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐρυκτῆρες</span> were those employed in
-war; the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεσποσιοναύται</span> served on board the
-fleet; and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεοδαμώδεις</span> were those who
-had been possessed of freedom for some time.
-Besides these, there were the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μόθωνες</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μόθακες</span>, who were domestic slaves, brought
-up with the young Spartans, and then emancipated.
-Upon being emancipated they
-received permission to dwell where they
-wished.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hemerodromi">HĒMĔRŎDRŎMI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμεροδρόμοι</span>), couriers
-in the Greek states, who could keep on running
-all day, and were often employed to
-carry news of important events. They were
-trained for the purpose, and could perform
-the longest journeys in an almost incredibly
-short space of time. Such couriers were in
-times of danger stationed on some eminence
-in order to observe anything of importance
-that might happen, and carry the intelligence
-with speed to the proper quarter. Hence we
-frequently find them called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hemeroscopi</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμεροσκόποι</span>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hemicyclium">HĒMĬCYCLĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμικύκλιον</span>), a semicircular
-seat, for the accommodation of persons
-engaged in conversation; also the semicircular
-seat round the tribunal in a basilica.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hemina">HĒMĬNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμίνα</span>), the name of a Greek
-and Roman measure, seems to be nothing
-more than the dialectic form used by the
-Sicilian and Italian Greeks for <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμίσυ</span>. It
-was therefore applied to the half of the
-standard fluid measure, the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξέστης</span>, which the
-other Greeks called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοτύλη</span>, and the word
-passed into the Roman metrical system,
-where it is used with exactly the same force,
-namely for a measure which is half of the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sextarius</i>, and equal to the Greek <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cotylé</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hendeca">HENDĔCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ ἕνδεκα</span>), the Eleven, were
-magistrates at Athens of considerable importance.
-They were annually chosen by lot,
-one from each of the ten tribes, and a secretary
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραμματεύς</span>), who must properly be regarded
-as their servant (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπηρέτης</span>), though he
-formed one of their number. The principal
-duty of the Eleven was the care and management
-of the public prison (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεσμωτήριον</span>),
-which was entirely under their jurisdiction.
-The prison, however, was seldom used by the
-Athenians as a mere place of confinement,
-serving generally for punishments and executions.
-When a person was condemned to
-death he was immediately given into the
-custody of the Eleven, who were then bound
-to carry the sentence into execution according
-to the laws. The most common mode of
-execution was by hemlock juice (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κώνειον</span>),
-which was drunk after sunset. The Eleven
-had under them gaolers, executioners, and
-torturers. When torture was inflicted in
-causes affecting the state, it was either done
-in the immediate presence of the Eleven, or
-by their servant (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ δήμιος</span>). The Eleven
-usually had only to carry into execution the
-sentence passed in the courts of law and the
-public assemblies; but in some cases they
-possessed jurisdiction. This was the case in
-those summary proceedings called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apagoge</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ephegesis</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">endeixis</i>, in which the penalty
-was fixed by law, and might be inflicted by
-the court on the confession or conviction of
-the accused, without appealing to any of the
-jury courts.</p>
-
-<p id="Hephaesteia">HĒPHAESTEIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lampadephoria">Lampadephoria</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Heraea">HĒRAEA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡραῖα</span>), the name of festivals
-celebrated in honour of Hera in all the towns
-of Greece where the worship of this divinity
-was introduced. The original seat of her
-worship was Argos; whence her festivals in
-other places were, more or less, imitations of
-those which were celebrated at Argos. Her
-service was performed by the most distinguished
-priestesses of the place; one of them
-was the high-priestess, and the Argives
-counted their years by the date of her office.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203"></a>[203]</span>
-The Heraea of Argos were celebrated every
-fifth year. One of the great solemnities
-which took place on the occasion, was a magnificent
-procession to the great temple of
-Hera, between Argos and Mycenae. A vast
-number of young men assembled at Argos,
-and marched in armour to the temple of the
-goddess. They were preceded by one hundred
-oxen (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑκατόμβη</span>, whence the festival is
-also called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑκατόμβαια</span>). The high-priestess
-accompanied this procession, riding in a chariot
-drawn by two white oxen. The 100
-oxen were sacrificed, and their flesh distributed
-among all the citizens; after which
-games and contests took place. Of the Heraea
-celebrated in other countries, those of
-Samos, which island derived the worship of
-Hera from Argos, were perhaps the most
-brilliant of all the festivals of this divinity.
-The Heraea of Elis, which were celebrated
-in the fourth year of every Olympiad, were
-also conducted with considerable splendour.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Heres">HĒRES.&mdash;(1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> To obtain the right
-of inheritance as well as citizenship at Athens
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγχιστεία</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πολιτεία</span>), legitimacy was a
-necessary qualification. When an Athenian
-died leaving legitimate sons, they shared the
-inheritance, like our heirs in gavelkind; the
-only advantage possessed by the eldest son
-being the first choice in the division. Every
-man of full age and sound mind, not under
-durance or improper influence, was competent
-to make a will; but if he had a son he
-could not disinherit him, although his will
-might take effect in case the son did not
-complete his seventeenth year. If there was
-but one son, he took the whole estate; but
-if he had sisters, it was incumbent on him to
-provide for them, and give them suitable
-marriage portions; they were then called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίπροικοι</span>. On failure of sons and their issue,
-daughters and daughters’ children succeeded,
-and there seems to have been no limit to the
-succession in the descending line. It will
-assist the student to be informed, that <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνεψιός</span>
-signifies a first cousin. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνεψιαδοῦς</span> is a first
-cousin’s son; formed in the same manner as
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀδελφιδοῦς</span> from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀδελφός</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυγατριδοῦς</span> from
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυγατήρ</span>. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλῆρος</span> is the subject-matter of
-inheritance, or (in one sense of the word)
-the inheritance; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κληρόνομος</span> the heir. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγχιστεία</span>,
-proximity of blood in reference to
-succession, and sometimes right of succession.
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συγγένεια</span>, natural consanguinity. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συγγενεῖς</span>,
-collateral relations, are opposed to
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔκγονοι</span>, lineal descendants.&mdash;(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span>
-A person might become an heres by being
-named as such (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">institutus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriptus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">factus</i>)
-in a will executed by a competent person,
-according to the forms required by law [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Testamentum">Testamentum</a></span>].
-The testator might either name
-one person as heres, or he might name
-several heredes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coheredes</i>), and he might
-divide the hereditas among them as he
-pleased. The shares of the heredes were
-generally expressed by reference to the divisions
-of the As: thus, “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">heres ex asse</span>” is
-heres to the whole property; “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">heres ex
-dodrante</span>,” heres to three-fourths; “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">heres
-ex semuncia</span>,” heir to one twenty-fourth.
-If there were several heredes named, without
-any definite shares being given to them, the
-property belonged to them in equal shares.
-As a general rule, only Roman citizens could
-be named as heredes in the will of a Roman
-citizen; but a slave could also be named
-heres, though he had no power to make a
-will, and a filius-familias could also be named
-heres, though he was under the same incapacity.
-Persons, not Roman citizens, who
-had received the commercium, could take
-hereditates, legata and fideicommissa by testament.&mdash;Heredes
-were either Necessarii, Sui
-et Necessarii, or Extranei. The heres necessarius
-was a slave of the testator, who was
-made an heres and liber at the same time;
-and he was called necessarius, because of the
-necessity that he was under of accepting the
-hereditas. The heredes sui et necessarii
-were sons and daughters, and the sons and
-daughters of a son, who were in the power
-of a testator. These heredes sui were called
-necessarii, because of the necessity that they
-were under, according to the civil law, of
-taking the hereditas with its incumbrances.
-But the praetor permitted such persons to
-refuse the hereditas (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">abstinere se ab hereditate</i>),
-and to allow the property to be sold
-to pay the testator’s debts; and he gave
-the same privilege to a mancipated son
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">qui in causa mancipii est</i>). All other
-heredes are called extranei, and comprehend
-all persons who are not in the power
-of a testator, such as emancipated children.
-A certain time was allowed to extranei
-for the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cretio hereditatis</i>, that is, for
-them to determine whether they would take
-the hereditas or not: hence the phrase,
-“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cernere hereditatem</span>.”&mdash;If a man died
-intestate, the hereditas came to the heredes
-sui, and was then called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legitima hereditas</i>.
-If an intestate had no sui heredes, the Twelve
-Tables gave the hereditas to the agnati [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cognati">Cognati</a></span>],
-and if there were no agnati, to the
-gentiles. If a man had a son in his power,
-he was bound either to make him heres, or
-to exheredate (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exheredare</i>) him expressly
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nominatim</i>). If he passed him over in
-silence (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silentio praetericrit</i>), the will was
-altogether void (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inutile</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">non jure factum</i>).
-Other liberi could be passed over, and the
-will would still be a valid will; but the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204"></a>[204]</span>
-liberi so passed over took a certain portion
-of the hereditas <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adcrescendo</i>, as it was
-termed, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jure adcrescendi</i>. It was necessary
-either to institute as heredes, or to exheredate
-posthumous children <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nominatim</i>, otherwise
-the will, which was originally valid,
-became invalid (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ruptum</i>); and the will became
-invalid by the birth either of a posthumous
-son or daughter, or, as the phrase was,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adgnascendo rumpitur testamentum</i>. The
-heres represented the testator and intestate,
-and had not only a claim to all his property
-and all that was due to him, but was bound
-by all his obligations. He succeeded to the
-sacra privata, and was bound to maintain
-them, but only in respect of the property, for
-the obligation of the sacra privata was
-attached to property and to the heres only
-as the owner of it. Hence the expression
-“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sine sacris hereditas</span>” meant an hereditas
-unencumbered with sacra.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hermae">HERMAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑρμαῖ</span>), and the diminutive
-Hermuli (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑρμίδια</span>), statues composed of a
-head, usually that of the god Hermes, placed
-on a quadrangular pillar, the height of which
-corresponds to the stature of the human
-body. Such statues were very numerous
-at Athens. So great was the demand
-for these works that the words <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑρμογλύφος</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑρμογλυφικὴ τέχνη</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑρμογλυφεῖον</span>,
-were used as the generic terms for a sculptor,
-his art, and his studio. Houses in
-Athens had one of these statues placed at
-the door, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑρμῆς στροφαῖος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στροφεύς</span>;
-and sometimes also in the peristyle. The
-great reverence attached to them is shown
-by the alarm and indignation which were
-felt at Athens in consequence of the mutilation
-of the whole number in a single night,
-just before the sailing of the Sicilian expedition.
-They were likewise placed in front
-of temples, near to tombs, in the gymnasia,
-palaestrae, libraries, porticoes, and public
-places, at the corners of streets, on high
-roads as sign-posts, with distances inscribed
-upon them, and on the boundaries of lands
-and states, and at the gates of cities. Small
-Hermae were also used as pilasters, and as
-supports for furniture and utensils. Many
-statues existed of other deities, of the same
-form as the Hermae; which no doubt originated
-in the same manner; and which
-were still called by the generic name of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermae</i>; even though the bust upon them
-was that of another deity. Some statues of
-this kind are described by a name compounded
-of that of Hermes and another divinity:
-thus we have <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermanubis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermares</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermathena</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermeracles</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermeros</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermopan</i>.
-There is another class of these works, in
-which the bust represented no deity at all,
-but was simply the portrait of a man. Even
-these statues, however, retained the names
-of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Termini</i>. The Hermae were
-used by the wealthy Romans for the decoration
-of their houses. The following engraving exhibits
-a Hermes decorated with garlands and
-surrounded with the implements of his worship.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="ill204" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill204.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Hermes. (From a Bas-relief.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Hermaea">HERMAEA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕρμαια</span>), festivals of Hermes,
-celebrated in various parts of Greece. As
-Hermes was the tutelary deity of the gymnasia
-and palaestrae, the boys at Athens celebrated
-the Hermaea in the gymnasia.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hestiasis">HESTIĀSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑστίασις</span>), was a species of
-liturgy, and consisted in giving a feast to
-one of the tribes at Athens (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὴν φυλὴν ἑστιᾶν</span>).
-It was provided for each tribe at the expense
-of a person belonging to that tribe, who was
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑστιάτωρ</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hieroduli">HĬĔRODŪLI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερόδουλοι</span>), persons of both
-sexes, who were devoted like slaves to the
-worship of the gods. They were of Eastern<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205"></a>[205]</span>
-origin, and are most frequently met with in
-connection with the worship of the deities of
-Syria, Phoenicia, and Asia Minor. They
-consisted of two classes; one composed of
-slaves, properly so called, who attended to
-all the lower duties connected with the worship
-of the gods, cultivated the sacred lands,
-&amp;c., and whose descendants continued in the
-same servile condition; and the other comprising
-persons who were personally free,
-but had dedicated themselves as slaves to the
-gods, and who were either attached to the
-temples, or were dispersed throughout the
-country and brought to the gods the money
-they had gained. To the latter class belonged
-the women, who prostituted their persons,
-and presented to the gods the money they
-had obtained by this means. This class was
-only found in Greece, in connection with the
-worship of those divinities who were of
-Eastern origin, or whose religious rites were
-borrowed from the East. This was the case
-with Aphrodite (Venus), who was originally
-an Oriental goddess.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hieromnemones">HĬĔRŎMNĒMŎNES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερομνήμονες</span>), the
-more honourable of the two classes of representatives
-who composed the Amphictyonic
-council. An account of them is given under
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphictyones">Amphictyones</a></span>.&mdash;We also read of hieromnemones
-in Grecian states, distinct from the
-Amphictyonic representatives of this name.
-Thus the priests of Poseidon, at Megara, were
-called hieromnemones, and at Byzantium,
-which was a colony of Megara, the chief
-magistrate in the state appears to have been
-called by this name.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hieronicae">HĬĔRŎNĪCAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Athletae">Athletae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hieropoii">HĬĔRŎPOII (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροποιοί</span>), sacrificers at
-Athens, of whom ten were appointed every
-year, and conducted all the usual sacrifices,
-as well as those belonging to the quinquennial
-festivals, with the exception of those
-of the Panathenaea.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hilaria">HĬLĂRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱλάρια</span>), a Roman festival, celebrated
-on the 25th of March, in honour of
-Cybelé, the mother of the gods.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hippobotae">HIPPŎBŎTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱπποβόται</span>), the feeders of
-horses, the name of the nobility of Chalcis in
-Euboea, corresponding to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππεῖς</span> in other
-Greek states.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hippodromus">HIPPŎDRŎMUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππόδρομος</span>), the name
-by which the Greeks designated the place appropriated
-to the horse-races, both of chariots
-and of single horses, which formed a part of
-their games. The word was also applied to
-the races themselves. In Homer’s vivid description
-(<cite>Il.</cite> xxiii., 262-650) the nature of
-the contest and the arrangements for it are
-very clearly indicated. There is no artificially
-constructed hippodrome; but an existing
-land-mark or monument (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σῆμα</span>) is chosen as
-the goal (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέρμα</span>), round which the chariots
-had to pass, leaving it on the left hand, and
-so returning to the Greek ships on the sea-shore,
-from which they had started. The
-chariots were five in number, each with two
-horses and a single driver, who stood upright
-in his chariot. The critical point of the race
-was to turn the goal as sharp as possible,
-with the nave of the near wheel almost
-grazing it, and to do this safely: very often
-the driver was here thrown out, and the
-chariot broken in pieces. The account in
-Homer will give us an equally good idea of a
-chariot-race at Olympia, or in any other of the
-Greek games of later times. The general form
-of the hippodrome was an oblong, with a
-semicircular end. For an account of the
-chariot races at Rome see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Histrio">HISTRĬO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποκριτής</span>), an actor.&mdash;(1)
-<span class="smcap">Greek</span>. It is shown in the articles <span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a></span>
-and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia</a></span> that the Greek drama originated
-in the chorus which at the festivals of
-Dionysus danced around his altar, and that
-at first one person detached himself from the
-chorus, and, with mimic gesticulation, related
-his story either to the chorus or in conversation
-with it. If the story thus acted
-required more than one person, they were all
-represented in succession by the same actor,
-and there was never more than one person on
-the stage at a time. This custom was retained
-by Thespis and Phrynichus. Aeschylus
-introduced a second and a third actor;
-and the number of three actors was but seldom
-exceeded in any Greek drama. The
-three regular actors were distinguished by
-the technical names of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρωταγωνιστής</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δευτεραγωνιστής</span>,
-and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριταγωνιστής</span>, which indicated
-the more or less prominent part which an
-actor had to perform in the drama. The female
-characters of a play were always performed
-by young men. A distinct class of persons,
-who made acting on the stage their profession,
-was unknown to the Greeks during the
-period of their great dramatists. The earliest
-and greatest dramatic poets, Thespis, Sophocles,
-and probably Aeschylus also, acted in
-their own plays, and in all probability as
-protagonistae. It was not thought degrading
-in Greece to perform on the stage. At
-a later period persons began to devote themselves
-exclusively to the profession of actors,
-and distinguished individuals received even
-as early as the time of Demosthenes exorbitant
-sums for their performances.&mdash;(2)
-<span class="smcap">Roman.</span> The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">histrio</i>, by which the
-Roman actor was called, is said to have been
-formed from the Etruscan <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hister</i>, which signified
-a ludio or dancer. In the year 364
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Rome was visited by a plague, and as no
-human means could stop it, the Romans are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206"></a>[206]</span>
-said to have tried to avert the anger of the
-gods by scenic plays (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludi scenici</i>), which,
-until then, had been unknown to them; and
-as there were no persons at Rome prepared
-for such performances, the Romans sent to
-Etruria for them. The first histriones, who
-were thus introduced from Etruria, were
-dancers, and performed their movements to
-the accompaniment of a flute. Roman youths
-afterwards not only imitated these dancers,
-but also recited rude and jocose verses,
-adapted to the movements of the dance and
-the melody of the flute. This kind of amusement,
-which was the basis of the Roman
-drama, remained unaltered until the time of
-Livius Andronicus, who introduced a slave
-upon the stage for the purpose of singing or
-reciting the recitative, while he himself performed
-the appropriate dance and gesticulation.
-A further step in the development of
-the drama, which is likewise ascribed to
-Livius, was, that the dancer and reciter
-carried on a dialogue, and acted a story with
-the accompaniment of the flute. The name
-histrio, which originally signified a dancer,
-was now applied to the actors in the drama.
-The atellanae were played by freeborn Romans,
-while the regular drama was left to
-the histriones, who formed a distinct class of
-persons. The histriones were not citizens;
-they were not contained in the tribes, nor
-allowed to be enlisted as soldiers in the
-Roman legions; and if any citizen entered
-the profession of an histrio, he, on this account,
-was excluded from his tribe. The
-histriones were therefore always either freedmen,
-strangers, or slaves, and many passages
-of Roman writers show that they were generally
-held in great contempt. Towards the
-close of the republic it was only such men as
-Cicero, who, by their Greek education, raised
-themselves above the prejudices of their
-countrymen, and valued the person no less
-than the talents of an Aesopus and a Roscius.
-But notwithstanding this low estimation
-in which actors were generally held,
-distinguished individuals among them attracted
-immense crowds to the theatres, and
-were exorbitantly paid. Roscius alone received
-every day that he performed one
-thousand denarii, and Aesopus left his son a
-fortune of 200,000 sesterces, which he had
-acquired solely by his profession. The pay
-of the actors was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lucar</i>, which word
-was perhaps confined originally to the payment
-made to those who took part in the
-religious services celebrated in groves.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Homoei">HŎMOEI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅμοιοι</span>), the Equals, were those
-Spartans who possessed the full rights of
-citizenship, and are opposed to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπομείονες</span>,
-or those who had undergone some kind of
-civil degradation. This distinction between
-the citizens was no part of the ancient Spartan
-constitution. In the institution ascribed
-to Lycurgus, every citizen had a certain portion
-of land; but as in course of time many
-citizens lost their lands through various
-causes, they were unable to contribute to the
-expenses of the syssitia, and therefore ceased
-to possess the full rights of Spartan citizens.
-Hence the distinction appears to have arisen
-between the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅμοιοι</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπομείονες</span>, the former
-being those who were in the possession of
-their land, and consequently able to contribute
-to the syssitia, the latter those who
-through having no land were unable to do so.
-The Homoei were the ruling class in the
-state. They filled all the public offices with
-the exception of the Ephoralty, and they probably
-met together to determine upon public
-affairs under the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔκκλητοι</span> in an assembly
-of their own, which is called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡ μικρὰ
-ἐκκλησία</span>, to distinguish it from the assembly
-of the whole body of Spartan citizens.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Honores">HŎNŌRES, the high offices of the state to
-which qualified individuals were called by the
-votes of the Roman citizens. The words
-“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">magistratus</span>” and “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">honores</span>” are sometimes
-coupled together. The capacity of enjoying
-the honores was one of the distinguishing
-marks of citizenship. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas</a>.</span>] <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Honor</i> was
-distinguished from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">munus</i>. The latter was
-an office connected with the administration of
-the state, and was attended with cost (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sumptus</i>)
-but not with rank (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dignitas</i>). Honor
-was properly said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deferri, dari</i>; munus was
-said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imponi</i>. A person who held a magistrates
-might be said to discharge <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">munera</i>,
-but only as incident to the office, for the
-office itself was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">honor</i>. Such munera as
-these were public games and other things of
-the kind.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hoplitae">HOPLĪTAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hora">HŌRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dies">Dies</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Horologium">HŌRŎLŎGĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὡρολόγιον</span>), the name of
-the various instruments by means of which
-the ancients measured the time of the day
-and night. The earliest and simplest horologia
-of which mention is made, were called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">polos</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόλος</span>) and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gnomon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γνώμων</span>). Both
-divided the day into twelve equal parts, and
-were a kind of sun-dial. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gnomon</i>, which
-was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stoicheion</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στοιχεῖον</span>), was the
-more simple of the two, and probably the
-more ancient. It consisted of a staff or pillar
-standing perpendicular, in a place exposed to
-the sun (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκιάθηρον</span>), so that the length of its
-shadow might be easily ascertained. The
-shadow of the gnomon was measured by feet,
-which were probably marked on the place
-where the shadow fell. In later times the
-name gnomon was applied to any kind of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207"></a>[207]</span>
-sun-dial, especially to its finger which threw
-the shadow, and thus pointed to the hour.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">polos</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">heliotropion</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡλιοτρόπιον</span>), on the
-other hand, seems to have been a more perfect
-kind of sun-dial; but it appears, nevertheless,
-not to have been much used. It
-consisted of a basin (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λεκανίς</span>), in the middle
-of which the perpendicular staff or finger
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γνώμων</span>) was erected, and in it the twelve
-parts of the day were marked by lines.&mdash;Another
-kind of horologium, was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clepsydra</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλεψύδρα</span>). It derived its name from
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλέπτειν</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕδωρ</span>, as in its original and
-simple form it consisted of a vessel with
-several little openings (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρυπήματα</span>) at the
-bottom, through which the water contained
-in it escaped, as it were by stealth. This instrument
-seems at first to have been used
-only for the purpose of measuring the time
-during which persons were allowed to speak
-in the courts of justice at Athens. It was a
-hollow globe, probably somewhat flat at the
-top-part, where it had a short neck (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλός</span>),
-like that of a bottle, through which the water
-was poured into it. This opening might be
-closed by a lid or stopper (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πῶμα</span>), to prevent
-the water running out at the bottom. As
-the time for speaking in the Athenian courts
-was thus measured by water, the orators frequently
-use the term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕδωρ</span> instead of the time
-allowed to them. An especial officer (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ ἐφ’
-ὕδωρ</span>) was appointed in the courts for the
-purpose of watching the clepsydra, and stopping
-it when any documents were read,
-whereby the speaker was interrupted. The
-time, and consequently the quantity of water
-allowed to a speaker, depended upon the importance
-of the case. The clepsydra used, in
-the courts of justice was, properly speaking,
-no horologium; but smaller ones, made of
-glass, and of the same simple structure, were
-undoubtedly used very early in families for
-the purposes of ordinary life, and for dividing
-the day into twelve equal parts. In these
-glass-clepsydrae the division into twelve
-parts must have been visible, either on the
-glass globe itself, or in the basin into which
-the water flowed.&mdash;The first horologium with
-which the Romans became acquainted was a
-sun-dial (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solarium</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">horologium sciothericum</i>),
-and was said to have been brought to
-Rome by Papirius Cursor twelve years before
-the war with Pyrrhus. But as sun-dials
-were useless when the sky was cloudy, P.
-Scipio Nasica, in his censorship, 159 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>,
-established a public clepsydra, which indicated
-the hours both of day and night. This
-clepsydra was in after times generally called
-solarium. After the time of Scipio Nasica
-several horologia, chiefly solaria, seem to
-have been erected in various public places at
-Rome. Clepsydrae were used by the Romans
-in their camps, chiefly for the purpose of
-measuring accurately the four vigiliae into
-which the night was divided. The custom
-of using clepsydrae as a check upon the
-speakers in the courts of justice at Rome,
-was introduced by a law of Cn. Pompeius, in
-his third consulship. Before that time the
-speakers had been under no restrictions, but
-spoke as long as they deemed proper. At
-Rome, as at Athens, the time allowed to the
-speakers depended upon the importance of
-the case.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Horreum">HORRĔUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὡρεῖον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτοφυλακεῖον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποθήκη</span>)
-was, according to its etymological signification,
-a place in which ripe fruits, and
-especially corn, were kept, and thus answered
-to our granary. During the empire
-the name horreum was given to any place
-destined for the safe preservation of things of
-any kind. Thus we find it applied to a place
-in which beautiful works of art were kept,
-to cellars (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">horrea subterranea</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">horrea vinaria</i>),
-to depôts for merchandise, and all sorts of
-provisions (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">horreum penarium</i>). Seneca even
-calls his library a horreum. But the more
-general application of the word horreum was
-to places for keeping fruit and corn; and as
-some kinds of fruit required to be kept more
-dry than others, the ancients had besides the
-horrea subterranea, or cellars, two other
-kinds, one of which was built like every other
-house upon the ground; but others (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">horrea
-pensilia</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sublimia</i>) were erected above the
-ground, and rested upon posts or stone
-pillars, that the fruits kept in them might
-remain dry.&mdash;From about the year 140 after
-Christ, Rome possessed two kinds of public
-horrea. The one class consisted of buildings
-in which the Romans might deposit their
-goods, and even their money, securities, and
-other valuables. The second and more important
-class of horrea, which may be termed
-public granaries, were buildings in which a
-plentiful supply of corn was constantly kept
-at the expense of the state, and from which,
-in seasons of scarcity, the corn was distributed
-among the poor, or sold at a moderate
-price.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hortus">HORTUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κῆπος</span>), garden. Our knowledge
-of the horticulture of the Greeks is very
-limited. In fact the Greeks seem to have
-had no great taste for landscape beauties, and
-the small number of flowers with which they
-were acquainted afforded but little inducement
-to ornamental horticulture. At Athens
-the flowers most cultivated were probably
-those used for making garlands, such as violets
-and roses. In the time of the Ptolemies
-the art of gardening seems to have advanced
-in the favourable climate of Egypt so far,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208"></a>[208]</span>
-that a succession of flowers was obtained all
-the year round. The Romans, like the
-Greeks, laboured under the disadvantage of a
-very limited flora. This disadvantage they
-endeavoured to overcome, by arranging the
-materials they did possess in such a way as
-to produce a striking effect. We have a very
-full description of a Roman garden in a
-letter of the younger Pliny, in which he describes
-his Tuscan villa. In front of the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porticus</i> there was generally a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">xystus</i>, or flat
-piece of ground, divided into flower-beds of
-different shapes by borders of box. There
-were also such flower-beds in other parts of
-the garden. Sometimes they were raised so
-as to form terraces, and their sloping sides
-planted with evergreens or creepers. The
-most striking features of a Roman garden
-were lines of large trees, among which the
-plane appears to have been a great favourite,
-planted in regular order; alleys or walks (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ambulationes</i>)
-formed by closely clipped hedges
-of box, yew, cypress, and other evergreens;
-beds of acanthus, rows of fruit-trees, especially
-of vines, with statues, pyramids, fountains,
-and summer-houses (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diaetae</i>). The
-trunks of the trees and the parts of the house
-or any other buildings which were visible
-from the garden, were often covered with
-ivy. In one respect the Roman taste differed
-most materially from that of the present day,
-namely, in their fondness for the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ars topiaria</i>,
-which consisted in tying, twisting, or
-cutting trees and shrubs (especially the box)
-into the figures of animals, ships, letters, &amp;c.
-Their principal garden-flowers seem to have
-been violets and roses, and they also had the
-crocus, narcissus, lily, gladiolus, iris, poppy,
-amaranth, and others. Conservatories and
-hot-houses are frequently mentioned by Martial.
-Flowers and plants were also kept in
-the central place of the peristyle [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>],
-on the roofs and in the windows of houses.
-An ornamental garden was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viridarium</i>,
-and the gardener <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">topiarius</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viridarius</i>.
-The common name for a gardener is villicus
-or cultor hortorum.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill208" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill208.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Hortus, Garden. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Hospitium">HOSPĬTĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξενία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προξενία</span>), hospitality,
-was in Greece, as well as at Rome, of a two-fold
-nature, either private or public, in so
-far as it was either established between individuals,
-or between two states. (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hospitium
-privatum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hospitium publicum</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξενία</span> and
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προξενία</span>.) In ancient Greece the stranger,
-as such (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξένος</span> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hostis</i>), was looked upon
-as an enemy; but whenever he appeared
-among another tribe or nation without any
-sign of hostile intentions, he was considered
-not only as one who required aid, but as a
-suppliant, and Zeus was the protecting deity
-of strangers and suppliants (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζεὺς ξένιος</span>). On
-his arrival, therefore, the stranger was kindly
-received, and provided with every thing necessary
-to make him comfortable. It seems
-to have been customary for the host, on the
-departure of the stranger, to break a die
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀστράγαλος</span>) in two, one half of which he
-himself retained, while the other half was
-given to the stranger; and when at any
-future time they or their descendants met,
-they had a means of recognising each other,
-and the hospitable connection was renewed.
-Hospitality thus not only existed between the
-persons who had originally formed it, but
-was transferred as an inheritance from father
-to son. What has been said hitherto, only
-refers to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hospitium privatum</i>; but of far
-greater importance was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hospitium publicum</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προξενία</span>, sometimes simply <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξενία</span>) or
-public hospitality, which existed between two
-states, or between an individual or a family
-on the one hand, and a whole state on the
-other. Of the latter kind of public hospitality
-many instances are recorded, such as that
-between the Peisistratids and Sparta, in
-which the people of Athens had no share.
-The hospitium publicum among the Greeks
-arose undoubtedly from the hospitium privatum,
-and it may have originated in two ways.
-When the Greek tribes were governed by
-chieftains or kings, the private hospitality
-existing between the ruling families of two
-tribes may have produced similar relations
-between their subjects, which, after the abolition
-of the kingly power, continued to exist
-between the new republics as a kind of political<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209"></a>[209]</span>
-inheritance of former times. Or a person
-belonging to one state might have either
-extensive connections with the citizens of
-another state, or entertain great partiality
-for the other state itself, and thus offer to
-receive all those who came from that state
-either on private or public business, and to
-act as their patron in his own city. This he
-at first did merely as a private individual,
-but the state to which he offered this kind
-service would naturally soon recognise and
-reward him for it. When two states established
-public hospitality, and no individuals
-came forward to act as the representatives of
-their state, it was necessary that in each
-state persons should be appointed to show
-hospitality to, and watch over the interests
-of, all persons who came from the state connected
-by hospitality. The persons who were
-appointed to this office as the recognised
-agents of the state for which they acted were
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proxeni</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόξενοι</span>), but those who undertook
-it voluntarily <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">etheloproxeni</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐθελοπρόξενοι</span>).
-The office of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proxenus</i>, which bears
-great resemblance to that of a modern consul
-or minister-resident, was in some cases hereditary
-in a particular family. When a state
-appointed a proxenus, it either sent out one
-of its own citizens to reside in the other
-state, or it selected one of the citizens of this
-state, and conferred upon him the honour of
-proxenus. The former was, in early times,
-the custom of Sparta, where the kings had
-the right of selecting from among the Spartan
-citizens those whom they wished to send
-out as proxeni to other states. But in subsequent
-times this custom seems to have been
-given up, for we find that at Athens the
-family of Callias were the proxeni of Sparta,
-and at Argos, the Argive Alciphron. The
-principal duties of a proxenus were to receive
-those persons, especially ambassadors, who
-came from the state which he represented; to
-procure for them admission to the assembly,
-and seats in the theatre; to act as the patron
-of the strangers, and to mediate between the
-two states if any disputes arose. If a stranger
-died in the state, the proxenus of his country
-had to take care of the property of the deceased.&mdash;The
-hospitality of the Romans was,
-as in Greece, either hospitium privatum or
-publicum. Private hospitality with the Romans,
-however, seems to have been more
-accurately and legally defined than in Greece.
-The character of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hospes</i>, <em>i.e.</em> a person connected
-with a Roman by ties of hospitality,
-was deemed even more sacred, and to have
-greater claims upon the host, than that of a
-person connected by blood or affinity. The
-relation of a hospes to his Roman friend was
-next in importance to that of a cliens. The
-obligations which the connection of hospitality
-with a foreigner imposed upon a Roman,
-were to receive in his house his hospes
-when travelling; and to protect, and, in case
-of need, to represent him as his patron in the
-courts of justice. Private hospitality thus
-gave to the hospes the claims upon his host
-which the client had on his patron, but without
-any degree of the dependence implied in
-the clientele. Private hospitality was established
-between individuals by mutual presents,
-or by the mediation of a third person,
-and hallowed by religion; for Jupiter hospitalis
-was thought to watch over the jus hospitii,
-as Zeus xenios did with the Greeks, and
-the violation of it was as great a crime and
-impiety at Rome as in Greece. When hospitality
-was formed, the two friends used to
-divide between themselves a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tessera hospitalis</i>,
-by which, afterwards, they themselves
-or their descendants&mdash;for the connection was
-hereditary as in Greece&mdash;might recognise one
-another. Hospitality, when thus once established,
-could not be dissolved except by a
-formal declaration (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">renuntiatio</i>), and in this
-case the tessera hospitalis was broken to
-pieces. Public hospitality seems likewise to
-have existed at a very early period among
-the nations of Italy; but the first direct mention
-of public hospitality being established
-between Rome and another city, is after the
-Gauls had departed from Rome, when it was
-decreed that Caere should be rewarded for
-its good services by the establishment of
-public hospitality between the two cities.
-The public hospitality after the war with the
-Gauls gave to the Caerites the right of
-isopolity with Rome, that is, the civitas
-without the suffragium and the honores.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a>.</span>] In the later times of the republic
-we no longer find public hospitality established
-between Rome and a foreign state;
-but a relation which amounted to the same
-thing was introduced in its stead, that is,
-towns were raised to the rank of municipia,
-and thus obtained the civitas without the
-suffragium and the honores; and when a
-town was desirous of forming a similar relation
-with Rome, it entered into clientela to
-some distinguished Roman, who then acted
-as patron of the client-town. But the custom
-of granting the honour of hospes publicus
-to a distinguished foreigner by a decree
-of the senate, seems to have existed down to
-the end of the republic. His privileges were
-the same as those of a municeps, that is, he
-had the civitas, but not the suffragium or the
-honores. Public hospitality was, like the hospitium
-privatum, hereditary in the family of
-the person to whom it had been granted.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hyacinthia">HỸĂCINTHĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑακίνθια</span>), a great national<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210"></a>[210]</span>
-festival, celebrated every year at Amyclae by
-the Amyclaeans and Spartans, probably in
-honour of the Amyclaean Apollo and Hyacinthus
-together. This Amyclaean Apollo, however,
-with whom Hyacinthus was assimilated
-in later times, must not be confounded with
-Apollo, the national divinity of the Dorians.
-The festival was called after the youthful
-hero Hyacinthus, who evidently derived his
-name from the flower hyacinth (the emblem
-of death among the ancient Greeks), and
-whom Apollo accidentally struck dead with a
-quoit. The Hyacinthia lasted for three days,
-and began on the longest day of the Spartan
-month Hecatombeus, at the time when the
-tender flowers, oppressed by the heat of
-the sun, drooped their languid heads. On
-the first and last day of the Hyacinthia
-sacrifices were offered to the dead, and
-the death of Hyacinthus was lamented.
-During these two days, nobody wore any
-garlands at the repasts, nor took bread, but
-only cakes and similar things, and when the
-solemn repasts were over, everybody went
-home in the greatest quiet and order. The
-second day, however, was wholly spent in
-public rejoicings and amusements, such as
-horse-races, dances, processions, &amp;c. The
-great importance attached to this festival by
-the Amyclaeans and Lacedaemonians is seen
-from the fact, that the Amyclaeans, even
-when they had taken the field against an
-enemy, always returned home on the approach
-of the season of the Hyacinthia, that
-they might not be obliged to neglect its celebration;
-and that in a treaty with Sparta,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 421, the Athenians, in order to show
-their good-will towards Sparta, promised
-every year to attend the celebration of this
-festival.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hybreos">HYBRĔŌS GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕβρεως γραφή</span>), an
-action prescribed by the Attic law for wanton
-and contumelious injury to the person,
-whether in the nature of indecent (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δι’ αἰσχρουργίας</span>)
-or other assaults (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διὰ πληγῶν</span>). The
-severity of the sentence extended to confiscation
-or death.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hydraulis">HYDRAULIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕδραυλις</span>), an hydraulic organ,
-invented by Ctesibius of Alexandria, who
-lived about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 200. Its pipes were partly
-of bronze, and partly of reed. The number
-of its stops, and consequently of its rows of
-pipes, varied from one to eight. It continued
-in use so late as the ninth century of our
-era. The organ was well adapted to gratify
-the Roman people in the splendid entertainments
-provided for them by the emperors
-and other opulent persons. Nero was very
-curious about organs, both in regard to their
-musical effect and their mechanism. A contorniate
-coin of this emperor, in the British
-Museum, shows an organ with a sprig of
-laurel on one side, and a man standing on
-the other.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp76" id="ill210" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill210.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Hydraulis, water-organ. (Coin of Nero in British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Hydriaphoria">HYDRĬAPHŎRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑδριαφορία</span>), was the
-carrying of a vessel with water (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑδρία</span>), which
-service the married alien (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέτοικοι</span>) women
-had to perform to the married part of the
-female citizens of Athens, when they walked
-to the temple of Athena in the great procession
-at the Panathenaea.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hyporchema">HỸPORCHĒMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπόρχημα</span>), a lively kind
-of mimic dance which accompanied the songs
-used in the worship of Apollo, especially
-among the Dorians. A chorus of singers at
-the festivals of Apollo usually danced around
-the altar, while several other persons were
-appointed to accompany the action of the
-song with an appropriate mimic performance
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπορχεῖσθαι</span>). The hyporchema was thus a
-lyric dance, and often passed into the playful
-and comic.</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="I_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">I</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Idus" class="drop-capy">IDUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ignominia">IGNŌMĬNĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Censor">Censor</a>; <a href="#Infamia">Infamia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ignobiles">IGNŌBĬLES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nobiles">Nobiles</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Imago">ĬMĀGO, a representation or likeness, an
-image or figure of a person. Among the
-Romans those persons, who had filled any of
-the higher or curule magistracies of the state,
-had the right of having images of themselves.
-Respecting this <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus imaginum</i> see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Nobiles">Nobiles</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Immunitas">IMMŪNĬTAS (from <em>in</em> and <em>munus</em>), signifies,
-(1) A freedom from taxes. (2) A
-freedom from services which other citizens
-had to discharge. With respect to the first
-kind of immunitas we find that the emperors
-frequently granted it to separate persons, or
-to certain classes of persons, or to whole
-states. The second kind of immunitas was
-granted to all persons who had a valid excuse<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211"></a>[211]</span>
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">excusatio</i>) to be released from such, services,
-and also to other persons as a special favour.
-The immunitas might be either general, from
-all services which a citizen owed to the state,
-or special, such as from military service, from
-taking the office of tutor or guardian, and
-the like.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Imperator">IMPĔRĀTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Imperium">Imperium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Imperium">IMPĔRĬUM, was under the republic a
-power, without which no military operation
-could be carried on as in the name and on
-the behalf of the state. It was not incident
-to any office, and was always specially conferred
-by a lex curiata, that is, a lex passed
-in the comitia curiata. Consequently, not
-even a consul could act as commander of an
-army, unless he were empowered by a lex
-curiata. It could not be held or exercised
-within the city in the republican period;
-but it was sometimes conferred specially upon
-an individual for the day of his triumph
-within the city, and at least, in some cases,
-by a plebiscitum. As opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">potestas,
-imperium</i> is the power which was conferred
-by the state upon an individual who was
-appointed to command an army. The phrases
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consularis potestas</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consulare imperium</i>
-might both be properly used; but the expression
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribunitia potestas</i> only could be
-used, as the tribuni never received the imperium.
-In respect of his imperium, he who
-received it was styled <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imperator</i>. After a
-victory it was usual for the soldiers to salute
-their commander as imperator, but this salutation
-neither gave nor confirmed the title,
-since the title as a matter of course was
-given with the imperium. Under the republic
-the title came properly after the name;
-thus Cicero, when he was proconsul in Cilicia,
-could properly style himself M. Tullius
-Cicero Imperator, for the term merely expressed
-that he had the imperium. The
-emperors Tiberius and Claudius refused to
-assume the praenomen of imperator, but the
-use of it as a praenomen became established
-among their successors. The term imperium
-was applied in the republican period to
-express the sovereignty of the Roman state.
-Thus Gaul is said by Cicero to have come
-under the imperium and ditio of the populus
-Romanus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Impluvium">IMPLŬVĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Impubes">IMPŪBES. An infans was incapable of
-doing any legal act. An impubes, who had
-passed the limits of infantia, could do any
-legal act with the auctoritas of his tutor.
-With the attainment of pubertas, a person
-obtained the full power over his property,
-and the tutela ceased: he could also dispose
-of his property by will; and he could contract
-marriage. Pubertas, in the case of a
-male, was attained with the completion of
-the fourteenth, and, in a female, with the
-completion of the twelfth year. Upon attaining
-the age of puberty a Roman youth
-assumed the toga virilis, but until that time
-he wore the toga praetexta, the broad purple
-hem of which (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetexta</i>) at <ins class="corr" id="tn-211" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'once distinguised'">
-once distinguished</ins> him from other persons. The toga virilis
-was assumed at the Liberalia in the month
-of March, and though no age appears to have
-been positively fixed for the ceremony, it
-probably took place as a general rule on the
-feast which next followed the completion of
-the fourteenth year; though it is certain
-that the completion of the fourteenth year
-was not always the time observed. Still, so
-long as a male wore the praetexta, he was
-impubes, and when he assumed the toga
-virilis, he was pubes.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Inauguratio">INAUGŬRĀTĬO, was in general the ceremony
-by which the augurs obtained, or endeavoured
-to obtain, the sanction of the gods
-to something which had been decreed by
-man; in particular, however, it was the
-ceremony by which things or persons were
-consecrated to the gods, whence the terms
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dedicatio</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consecratio</i> were sometimes
-used as synonymous with inauguratio. Not
-only were priests inaugurated, but also the
-higher magistrates, who for this purpose were
-summoned by the augurs to appear on the
-capitol, on the third day after their election.
-This inauguratio conferred no priestly dignity
-upon the magistrates, but was merely a method
-of obtaining the sanction of the gods to
-their election, and gave them the right to
-take auspicia; and on important emergencies
-it was their duty to make use of this privilege.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Inauris">INAURIS, an ear-ring; called in Greek
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνώτιον</span>, because it was worn in the ear (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὗς</span>),
-and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐλλόβιον</span>, because it was inserted into the
-lobe of the ear (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λοβός</span>), which was bored for
-the purpose. Ear-rings were worn by both
-sexes in oriental countries. Among the
-Greeks and Romans they were worn only by
-females. This ornament consisted of the
-ring (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρίκος</span>), and of the drops (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stalagmia</i>).
-The ring was generally of gold, although the
-common people also wore ear-rings of bronze.
-Instead of a ring a hook was often used. The
-drops were sometimes of gold, very finely
-wrought, and sometimes of pearls.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Incendium">INCENDĬUM, the crime of setting any
-object on fire, by which the property of a
-man is endangered. A law of the Twelve
-Tables inflicted a severe punishment on the
-person who set fire to property maliciously
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sciens</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prudens</i>); but if it was done by accident
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">casu</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">id est</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">negligentia</i>), the law
-obliged the offender to repair the injury he<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212"></a>[212]</span>
-had committed. Sulla, in his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Cornelia
-de Sicariis</i>, punished malicious (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dolo malo</i>)
-incendium, but only in the city, or within a
-thousand paces of it, with aquae et ignis interdictio.
-Cn. Pompeius, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 52, made
-incendium a crime of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vis</i> by his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Pompeia
-de Vi</i>, in consequence of the burning of the
-Curia and the Porcia Basilica on the burial
-of Clodius; and Julius Caesar also included
-it in his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Julia de Vi</i>. Besides the two
-criminal prosecutions given by the Lex Cornelia
-and Lex Julia, a person could also bring
-actions to recover compensation for the injury
-done to his property.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Incestum">INCESTUM or INCESTUS. Incestum is
-non castum, and signifies generally all immoral
-and irreligious acts. In a narrower
-sense it denotes the unchastity of a Vestal,
-and sexual intercourse of persons within
-certain degrees of consanguinity. Incest
-with a Vestal was punished with the death
-of both parties. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vestales">Vestales</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Incunabula">INCŪNĀBŬLA or CŪNABŬLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σπάργανον</span>),
-swaddling-clothes, in which a new-born
-child was wrapped. It was one of the peculiarities
-of the Lacedaemonian education to
-dispense with the use of incunabula, and
-to allow children to enjoy the free use of
-their limbs.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp68" id="ill212" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill212.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Incunabula, swaddling-clothes. (From a Bas-relief at
-Rome.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Indutus">INDUTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amictus">Amictus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Infamia">INFĀMĬA, was a consequence of condemnation
-for certain crimes, and also a direct
-consequence of certain acts, such as adultery,
-prostitution, appearing on the public stage as
-an actor, &amp;c. A person who became <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">infamis</i>
-lost the suffragium and honores, and
-was degraded to the condition of an aerarian.
-Infamia should <ins class="corr" id="tn-212" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'be distingushed'">
-be distinguished</ins> from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nota
-Censoria</i>, the consequence of which was only
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ignominia</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Censor">Censor</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Infans">INFANS, INFANTIA. In the Roman
-law there were several distinctions of age
-which were made with reference to the capacity
-for doing legal acts:&mdash;1. The first period
-was from birth to the end of the seventh
-year, during which time persons were called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Infantes</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Qui fari non possunt</i>. 2. The
-second period was from the end of seven years
-to the end of fourteen or twelve years, according
-as the person was a male or a female,
-during which persons were defined as those
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Qui fari possunt</i>. The persons included in
-these first two classes were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Impuberes</i>. 3.
-The third period was from the end of the
-twelfth or fourteenth to the end of the
-twenty-fifth year, during which period persons
-were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Adolescentes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Adulti</i>. The persons
-included in these three classes were minores
-xxv annis or annorum, and were often, for
-brevity’s sake, called minores only [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Curator">Curator</a></span>];
-and the persons included in the third and
-fourth class were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Puberes</i>. 4. The fourth
-period was from the age of twenty-five, during
-which persons were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Majores</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Inferiae">INFĔRĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Infula">INFŬLA, a flock of white and red wool,
-which was slightly twisted, drawn into the
-form of a wreath or fillet, and used by the
-Romans for ornament on festive and solemn
-occasions. In sacrificing it was tied with a
-white band [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vitta">Vitta</a></span>] to the head of the victim
-and also of the priest.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ingenui">INGĔNŬI, were those freemen who were
-born free. Consequently, freedmen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libertini</i>)
-were not ingenui, though the sons of
-libertini were ingenui; nor could a libertinus
-by adoption become ingenuus. The words
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ingenuus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libertinus</i> are often opposed to
-one another; and the title of freeman (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liber</i>),
-which would comprehend <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libertinus</i>, is sometimes
-limited by the addition of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ingenuus</i> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liber
-et ingenuus</i>.) Under the empire a person,
-not ingenuus by birth, could be made
-ingenuus by the emperor.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Injuria">INJŪRĬA. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Injuria</i>, in the general sense,
-is opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus</i>. In a special sense <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">injuria</i>
-was done by striking or beating a man either
-with the hand or with anything; by abusive
-words (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">convicium</i>); by the proscriptio bonorum,
-when the claimant knew that the alleged
-debtor was not really indebted to him;
-by libellous writings or verses; by soliciting
-a materfamilias, &amp;c. The Twelve Tables
-had various provisions on the subject of Injuria.
-Libellous songs or verses were followed
-by capital punishment. In the case of
-a limb being mutilated the punishment was
-Talio. In the case of a broken bone, the
-penalty was 300 asses if the injury was done
-to a freeman, and 150 if it was done to a
-slave. In other cases the Tables fixed the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213"></a>[213]</span>
-penalty at 25 asses. These penalties were
-afterwards considered to be insufficient; and
-the injured person was allowed by the praetor
-to claim such damages as he thought that
-he was entitled to, and the judex might give
-the full amount or less. Infamia was a consequence
-of condemnation in an actio Injuriarum.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Inoa">ĪNŌA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰνῶα</span>), festivals celebrated in several
-parts of Greece, in honour of Ino.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Inquilinus">INQUĬLĪNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Instita">INSTĬTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περιπόδιον</span>), a flounce; a fillet.
-The Roman matrons sometimes wore a broad
-fillet with ample folds, sewed to the bottom
-of the tunic and reaching to the instep. The
-use of it indicated a superior regard to decency
-and propriety of manners.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Insula">INSŬLA was, properly, a house not joined
-to the neighbouring houses by a common
-wall. An insula, however, generally contained
-several separate houses, or at least
-separate apartments or shops, which were let
-to different families; and hence the word
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">domus</i> under the emperors seems to be applied
-to the house where a family lived,
-whether it were an insula or not, and insula
-to any hired lodgings.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Intercessio">INTERCESSĬO was the interference of a
-magistrates to whom an appeal [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Appellatio">Appellatio</a></span>]
-was made. The object of the intercessio was
-to put a stop to proceedings, on the ground
-of informality or other sufficient cause. Any
-magistratus might <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intercedere</i>, who was of
-equal rank with or of rank superior to the
-magistratus from or against whom the appellatio
-was. Cases occur in which one of the
-praetors interposed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intercessit</i>) against the
-proceedings of his colleague. The intercessio
-is most frequently spoken of with reference
-to the tribunes, who originally had not jurisdictio,
-but used the intercessio for the purpose
-of preventing wrong which was offered
-to a person in their presence. The intercessio
-of the tribunes of the plebs was auxilium,
-and it might be exercised either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jure</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in judicio</i>. The tribune <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">qui intercessit</i> could
-prevent a judicium from being instituted.
-The tribunes could also use the intercessio to
-prevent execution of a judicial sentence. A
-single tribune could effect this, and against
-the opinion of his colleagues.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Intercisi">INTERCĪSI DĬES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dies">Dies</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Interdictum">INTERDICTUM. “In certain cases (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">certis
-ex causis</i>) the praetor or proconsul, in the
-first instance (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">principaliter</i>), exercises his
-authority for the termination of disputes.
-This he chiefly does when the dispute is
-about possession or quasi-possession; and the
-exercise of his authority consists in ordering
-something to be done, or forbidding something
-to be done. The formulae and the
-terms, which he uses on such occasions, are
-called either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">interdicta</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decreta</i>. They are
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decreta</i> when he orders something to
-be done, as when he orders something to be
-produced (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exhiberi</i>) or to be restored: they
-are called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">interdicta</i> when he forbids something
-to be done, as when he orders that
-force shall not be used against a person who
-is in possession rightfully (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sine vitio</i>), or that
-nothing shall be done on a piece of sacred
-ground. Accordingly all interdicta are
-either restitutoria, or exhibitoria, or prohibitoria.”
-This passage, which is taken from
-Gaius, the Roman jurist, contains the essential
-distinction between an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">actio</i> and an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">interdictum</i>.
-In the case of an actio, the praetor
-pronounces no order or decree, but he gives
-a judex, whose business it is to investigate
-the matter in dispute, and to pronounce
-a sentence consistently with the formula,
-which is his authority for acting. In the
-case of an actio, therefore, the praetor neither
-orders nor forbids a thing to be done, but he
-says, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Judicium dabo</i>. In the case of an interdict,
-the praetor makes an order that something
-shall be done or shall not be done, and
-his words are accordingly words of command;
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Restituas, Exhibeas, Vim fieri veto</i>. This <em>immediate</em>
-interposition of the praetor is appropriately
-expressed by the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">principaliter</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Interpres">INTERPRES, an interpreter. This class
-of persons became very numerous and necessary
-to the Romans as their empire extended.
-In large mercantile towns the interpreters,
-who formed a kind of agents through whom
-business was done, were sometimes very
-numerous. All Roman praetors, proconsuls,
-and quaestors, who were entrusted with the
-administration of a province, had to carry on
-all their official proceedings in the Latin language,
-and as they could not be expected to
-be acquainted with the language of the provincials,
-they had always among their servants
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Apparitor">Apparitores</a></span>] one or more interpreters,
-who were generally Romans, but in most
-cases undoubtedly freedmen. These interpreters
-had not only to officiate at the conventus
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Conventus">Conventus</a></span>], but also explained to the Roman
-governor everything which the provincials
-might wish to be laid before him.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Interregnum">INTERREGNUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Interrex">Interrex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Interrex">INTERREX. This office is said to have
-been instituted on the death of Romulus,
-when the senate wished to share the sovereign
-power among themselves, instead of electing
-a king. For this purpose, according to Livy,
-the senate, which then consisted of one hundred
-members, was divided into ten decuries;
-and from each of these decuries one senator
-was nominated. These together formed a
-board of ten, with the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Interreges</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214"></a>[214]</span>
-each of whom enjoyed in succession the regal
-power and its badges for five days; and if no
-king was appointed at the expiration of fifty
-days, the rotation began anew. The period
-during which they exercised their power was
-called an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Interregnum</i>. These ten interreges
-were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Decem Primi</i>, or ten leading senators,
-of whom the first was chief of the whole
-senate. The interreges agreed among themselves
-who should be proposed as king, and
-if the senate approved of their choice, they
-summoned the assembly of the curiae, and
-proposed the person whom they had previously
-agreed upon; the power of the curiae
-was confined to accepting or rejecting him.
-Interreges were appointed under the republic
-for holding the comitia for the election of the
-consuls, when the consuls, through civil commotions
-or other causes, had been unable to
-do so in their year of office. Each held the
-office for only five days, as under the kings.
-The comitia were hardly ever held by the
-first interrex; more usually by the second or
-third; but in one instance we read of an
-eleventh, and in another of a fourteenth interrex.
-The interreges under the republic,
-at least from <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 482, were elected by the
-senate from the whole body, and were not
-confined to the decem primi or ten chief senators,
-as under the kings. Plebeians, however,
-were not admissible to this office; and
-consequently, when plebeians were admitted
-into the senate, the patrician senators met
-without the plebeian members to elect an interrex.
-For this reason, as well as on account
-of the influence which the interrex
-exerted in the election of the magistrates, we
-find that the tribunes of the plebs were
-strongly opposed to the appointment of an
-interrex. The interrex had jurisdictio. Interreges
-continued to be appointed occasionally
-till the time of the second Punic war,
-but after that time we read of no interrex,
-till the senate, by command of Sulla, created
-an interrex to hold the comitia for his election
-as dictator, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 82. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 55 another
-interrex was appointed, to hold the
-comitia in which Pompey and Crassus were
-elected consuls; and we also read of interreges
-in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 53 and 52, in the latter of
-which years an interrex held the comitia in
-which Pompey was appointed sole consul.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Isthmia">ISTHMĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἴσθμια</span>), the Isthmian games,
-one of the four great national festivals of the
-Greeks. This festival derived its name from
-the Corinthian isthmus, where it was held.
-Subsequent to the age of Theseus the Isthmia
-were celebrated in honour of Poseidon; and
-this innovation is ascribed to Theseus himself.
-The celebration of the Isthmia was
-conducted by the Corinthians, but Theseus
-had reserved for his Athenians some honourable
-distinctions: those Athenians who attended
-the Isthmia sailed across the Saronic
-gulf in a sacred vessel (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωρίς</span>), and an honorary
-place (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προεδρία</span>), as large as the sail
-of their vessel, was assigned to them during
-the celebration of the games. In times of
-war between the two states a sacred truce
-was concluded, and the Athenians were invited
-to attend at the solemnities. These
-games were celebrated regularly every other
-year, in the first and third years of each
-Olympiad. After the fall of Corinth, in 146
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, the Sicyonians were honoured with the
-privilege of conducting the Isthmian games;
-but when the town of Corinth was rebuilt by
-Julius Caesar, the right of conducting the solemnities
-was restored to the Corinthians. The
-season of the Isthmian solemnities was, like
-that of all the great national festivals, distinguished
-by general rejoicings and feasting.
-The contests and games of the Isthmia were
-the same as those at Olympia, and embraced
-all the varieties of athletic performances,
-such as wrestling, the pancratium, together
-with horse and chariot racing. Musical and
-poetical contests were likewise carried on,
-and in the latter women were also allowed
-to take part. The prize of a victor in the
-Isthmian games consisted at first of a garland
-of pine-leaves, and afterwards of a wreath of
-ivy. Simple as such a reward was, a victor
-in these games gained the greatest distinction
-and honour among his countrymen; and
-a victory not only rendered the individual
-who obtained it a subject of admiration, but
-shed lustre over his family, and the whole
-town or community to which he belonged.
-Hence Solon established by a law, that every
-Athenian who gained the victory at the
-Isthmian games should receive from the
-public treasury a reward of one hundred
-drachmae. His victory was generally celebrated
-in lofty odes, called Epinikia, or triumphal
-odes, of which we still possess some
-beautiful specimens among the poems of
-Pindar.</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="J_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">J</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Jaculum" class="drop-capy">JĂCŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Janua">JĀNŬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θύρα</span>), a door. Besides being
-applicable to the doors of apartments in the
-interior of a house, which were properly
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ostia</i>, this term more especially denoted
-the first entrance into the house, <em>i.e.</em> the
-front or street door, which was also called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anticum</i>, and in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θύρα αὔλειος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλεία</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὔλιος</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλία</span>. The houses of the Romans
-commonly had a back door, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">posticum</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">postica</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">posticula</i>, and in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παράθυρα</span>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215"></a>[215]</span>
-<em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραθύριον</span>. The door-way, when complete,
-consisted of four indispensable parts;
-the threshold, or sill (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">limen</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βηλός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὖδας</span>);
-the lintel (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugumentum, limen superum</i>);
-and the two jambs (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">postes</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σταθμοί</span>). The
-door itself was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foris</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">valva</i>, and in
-Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σανίς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλισιάς</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θύρετρον</span>. These
-words are commonly found in the plural,
-because the door-way of every building of
-the least importance contained two doors
-folding together. When <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foris</i> is used in the
-singular, it denotes one of the folding doors
-only. The fastenings of the door (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">claustra</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obices</i>) commonly consisted of a bolt (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pessulus</i>;
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μάνδαλος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατοχεύς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλεῖθρον</span>) placed at
-the base of each <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foris</i>, so as to admit of being
-pushed into a socket made in the sill to
-receive it. By night, the front-door of the
-house was further secured by means of a
-wooden and sometimes an iron bar (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sera</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repagula</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μοχλός</span>) placed across it, and inserted
-into sockets on each side of the door-way.
-Hence it was necessary to remove the
-bar (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸν <ins class="corr" id="tn-215" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'μοχλόν'">
-μοχλὸν</ins> παράφερειν</span>) in order to open
-the door (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">reserare</i>). It was considered improper
-to enter a house without giving notice
-to its inmates. This notice the Spartans gave
-by shouting; the Athenians and all other
-nations by using the knocker, or more commonly
-by rapping with the knuckles or with
-a stick (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρούειν</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόπτειν</span>). In the houses of
-the rich a porter (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">janitor</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custos</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρωρός</span>)
-was always in attendance to open the door.
-He was commonly an eunuch or a slave, and
-was chained to his post. To assist him in
-guarding the entrance, a dog was universally
-kept near it, being also attached by a chain
-to the wall; and in reference to this practice,
-the warning <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cave canem</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐλαβοῦ τὴν
-κύνα</span>, was sometimes written near the door.
-The appropriate name for the portion of the
-house immediately behind the door (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρών</span>)
-denotes that it was a kind of apartment; it
-corresponded to the hall or lobby of our
-houses. Immediately adjoining it, and close
-to the front door, there was in many houses
-a small room for the porter.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Jentaculum">JENTĀCŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Judex">JŪDEX, JŪDĬCĬUM. A Roman magistratus
-generally did not investigate the facts
-in dispute in such matters as were brought
-before him: he appointed a judex for that
-purpose, and gave him instructions. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actio">Actio</a>.</span>]
-Accordingly, the whole of civil procedure was
-expressed by the two phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Judicium</i>,
-of which the former comprehended all
-that took place before the magistratus (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in
-jure</i>), and the latter all that took place before
-the judex (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in judicio</i>). In many cases a
-single judex was appointed: in others, several
-were appointed, and they seem to have been
-sometimes called recuperatores, as opposed to
-the single judex. Under certain circumstances
-the judex was called arbiter: thus
-judex and arbiter are named together in the
-Twelve Tables. A judex when appointed
-was bound to discharge the functions of the
-office, unless he had some valid excuse
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">excusatio</i>). There were certain seasons of
-the year when legal business was done at
-Rome, and at these times the services of the
-judices were required. These legal terms
-were regulated according to the seasons, so
-that there were periods of vacation. When
-the judex was appointed, the proceedings <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in
-jure</i> or before the praetor were terminated.
-The parties appeared before the judex on the
-third day (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comperendinatio</i>), unless the praetor
-had deferred the judicium for some sufficient
-reason. The judex was generally aided
-by advisers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jurisconsulti</i>) learned in the law,
-who were said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in consilio adesse</i>; but the
-judex alone was empowered to give judgment.
-The matter was first briefly stated
-to the judex (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">causae conjectio, collectio</i>), and
-the advocates of each party supported his
-cause in a speech. Witnesses were produced
-on both sides, and examined orally: the
-witnesses on one side were also cross-examined
-by the other. After all the evidence was
-given and the advocates had finished, the
-judex gave sentence: if there were several
-judices, a majority decided. If the matter
-was one of difficulty, the hearing might be
-adjourned as often as was necessary (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ampliatio</i>);
-and if the judex could not come to
-a satisfactory conclusion, he might declare
-this upon oath, and so release himself from
-the difficulty. This was done by the form
-of words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">non liquere</i> (N. L.). The sentence
-was pronounced orally, and was sometimes
-first written on a tablet. If the defendant
-did not make his appearance after being duly
-summoned, judgment might be given against
-him.&mdash;According to Cicero, all judicia had
-for their object, either the settlement of disputes
-between individuals (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">controversiae</i>), or
-the punishment of crimes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">maleficia</i>). This
-refers to a division of judicia, which appears
-in the jurists, into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicia publica</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicia
-privata</i>. The former, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicia publica</i>,
-succeeded to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicia populi</i> of the early
-republican period: the latter were so called
-because in them the populus acted as judices.
-Originally the kings presided in all criminal
-cases, and the consuls succeeded to their
-authority. But after the passing of the <a href="#Valeriae">Lex
-Valeria</a> (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 507), which gave an appeal to
-the populus (that is, the comitia curiata)
-from the magistratus, the consul could not
-sit in judgment on the caput of a Roman
-citizen, but such cases were tried in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216"></a>[216]</span>
-comitia, or persons were appointed to preside
-at such inquiries, who were accordingly
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaesitores</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaestores parricidii</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rerum capitalium</i>. In course of time, as such
-cases became of more frequent occurrence,
-such quaestiones were made perpetual, that
-is, particular magistrates were appointed for
-the purpose. It was eventually determined,
-that while the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetor urbanus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peregrinus</i>
-should continue to exercise their usual jurisdictions,
-the other praetors should preside at
-public trials. In such trials any person
-might be an accuser (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">accusator</i>). The praetor
-generally presided as quaesitor, assisted by a
-judex quaestionis, and a body of judices called
-his consilium. The judices were generally
-chosen by lot out of those who were qualified
-to act; but in some cases the accuser and
-the accused (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">reus</i>) had the privilege of choosing
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edere</i>) a certain number of judices out
-of a large number, who were thence called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Edititii</i>. Both the accusator and the reus
-had the privilege of rejecting or challenging
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rejicere</i>) such judices as they did not like.
-In many cases a lex was passed for the purpose
-of regulating the mode of procedure.&mdash;The
-judices voted by ballot, at least generally,
-and a majority determined the acquittal or
-condemnation of the accused. Each judex
-was provided with three tablets (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae</i>), on
-one of which was marked A, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Absolvo</i>; on a
-second C, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Condemno</i>; and on a third N. L.,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Non liquet</i>. The judices voted by placing
-one of these tablets in the urns, which were
-then examined for the purpose of ascertaining
-the votes. It was the duty of the magistratus
-to pronounce the sentence of the
-judices; in the case of condemnation, to
-adjudge the legal penalty; of acquittal, to
-declare the accused acquitted; and of doubt,
-to declare that the matter must be further investigated
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amplius cognoscendum</i>).&mdash;A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicium
-populi</i>, properly so called, was one in
-which the case was tried in the comitia curiata,
-but afterwards in the comitia centuriata
-and tributa. The accuser, who must be a
-magistratus, commenced by declaring in a
-contio that he would on a certain day accuse
-a certain person, whom he named, of some
-offence, which he also specified. This was
-expressed by the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diem dicere</i>. If the
-offender held any high office, it was necessary
-to wait till his time of service had
-expired, before proceedings could be thus
-commenced against him. The accused was
-required to give security for his appearance
-on the day of trial; the security was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vades</i> in a causa capitalis, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praedes</i> when
-the penalty for the alleged offence was pecuniary.
-If such security was not given,
-the accused was kept in confinement. If
-nothing prevented the inquiry from taking
-place at the time fixed for it, the trial proceeded,
-and the accuser had to prove his case
-by evidence. The investigation of the facts
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anquisitio</i> with reference to the
-proposed penalty: accordingly, the phrases
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecunia, capite</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capitis anquirere</i>, are used.
-When the investigation was concluded, the
-magistratus promulgated a rogatio, which
-comprehended the charge and the punishment
-or fine. It was a rule of law that a
-fine should not be imposed together with
-another punishment in the same rogatio.
-The rogatio was made public during three
-nundinae, like any other lex, and proposed
-at the comitia for adoption or rejection. The
-accused sometimes withdrew into exile before
-the votes were taken; or he might make his
-defence. The offences which were the chief
-subject of judicia populi and publica were
-majestas, adulteria and stupra, parricidium,
-falsum, vis publica and privata, peculatus,
-repetundae, ambitus.&mdash;With the passing of
-special enactments for the punishment of
-particular offences, was introduced the practice
-of forming a body of judices for the trial
-of such offences as the enactments were
-directed against. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Album Judicum</i> was
-the body out of which judices were to be
-chosen. It is not known what was the number
-of the body so constituted, but it has
-been conjectured that the number was 350,
-and that ten were chosen from each tribe,
-and thus the origin of the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Decuriae
-Judicum</i> is explained. It is easy to conceive
-that the judicia populi, properly so called,
-would be less frequent, as special leges were
-framed for particular offences, the circumstances
-of which could be better investigated
-by a smaller body of judices than by the
-assembled people. The <a href="#Servilia_j">Lex Servilia</a> (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-104) enacted that the judices should not be
-under thirty nor above sixty years of age,
-that the accuser and accused should severally
-propose one hundred judices, and that each
-might reject fifty from the list of the other,
-so that one hundred would remain for the
-trial. Up to <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 122 the judices were always
-senators, but in this year the <a href="#Semproniae">Sempronia Lex</a>
-of C. Gracchus took the judicia from the
-senators and gave them to the equites. This
-state of things lasted nearly fifty years, till
-Sulla (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 80) restored the judicia to the
-senate, and excluded the equites from the
-album judicum. A <a href="#Aurelia">Lex Aurelia</a> (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 70)
-enacted that the judices should be chosen
-from the three classes&mdash;of senators, equites,
-and tribuni aerarii; and accordingly the judicia
-were then said to be divided between
-the senate and the equites. The tribuni
-aerarii were taken from the rest of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217"></a>[217]</span>
-citizens, and were, or ought to have been,
-persons of some property. Thus the three
-decuriae of judices were formed; and it was
-either in consequence of the <a href="#Aurelia">Lex Aurelia</a> or
-the <a href="#Fufia">Lex Fufia</a> that, instead of one urn for
-all the tablets, the decuriae had severally
-their balloting urn, so that the votes of the
-three classes were known. It is not known
-if the <a href="#Aurelia">Lex Aurelia</a> determined the number of
-judices in any given case. The <a href="#Pompeiae">Lex Pompeia</a>
-de Vi and De Ambitu (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 52) determined
-that eighty judices were to be selected
-by lot, out of whom the accuser and the
-accused might reject thirty. In the case of
-Clodius, in the matter of the Bona Dea, there
-were fifty-six judices. It is conjectured that
-the number fixed for a given case, by the
-<a href="#Aurelia">Lex Aurelia</a>, was seventy judices. Augustus
-added to the existing three decuriae judicum
-a fourth decuria, called that of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ducenarii</i>,
-who had a lower pecuniary qualification, and
-only decided in smaller matters. Caligula
-added a fifth decuria, in order to diminish
-the labours of the judices.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Jugerum">JŪGĔRUM, a Roman measure of surface,
-240 feet in length and 120 in breadth, containing
-therefore 28,800 square feet. It was
-the double of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Actus Quadratus</i>, and from
-this circumstance, according to some writers,
-it derived its name. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actus">Actus</a>.</span>] The uncial
-division [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a></span>] was applied to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugerum</i>, its
-smallest part being the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scrupulum</i> of 10 feet
-square, = 100 square feet. Thus the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugerum</i>
-contained 288 scrupula. The jugerum was
-the common measure of land among the Romans.
-Two <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugera</i> formed an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">heredium</i>, a
-hundred <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">heredia</i> a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centuria</i>, and four <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centuriae</i>
-a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saltus</i>. These divisions were derived
-from the original assignment of landed property,
-in which two <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugera</i> were given to
-each citizen as heritable property.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Jugum">JŬGUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζυγός, ζυγόν</span>), signified in general
-that which joined two things together, such
-as the transverse beam which united the upright
-posts of a loom, the cross-bar of a lyre,
-a scale-beam, &amp;c., but it denoted more especially
-the yoke by which ploughs and carriages
-were drawn. The following woodcut
-shows two examples of the yoke: the upper
-one is provided with two collars, the lower
-one with excavations cut in the yoke, in
-order to give more ease and freedom to the
-animals. The latter figure shows the method
-of tying the yoke to the pole (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">temo</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥυμός</span>) by
-means of a leathern strap. The word jugum
-is often used to signify <em>slavery</em>, or the condition
-in which men are compelled, against
-their will, like oxen or horses, to labour for
-others. Hence, to express symbolically the
-subjugation of conquered nations, the Romans
-made their captives pass under a yoke
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub jugum mittere</i>), which, however, was
-not made like the yoke used in drawing carriages
-or ploughs, but consisted of a spear
-supported transversely by two others placed
-upright.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp69" id="ill217" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill217.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Jugum, yoke.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Jurisconsulti">JŪRISCONSULTI or JŪRĔCONSULTI
-arose among the Romans after the separation
-of the Jus Civile from the Jus Pontificium.
-Such a body certainly existed before the time
-of Cicero, and the persons who professed to
-expound the law were called by the various
-names of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jurisperiti</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jurisconsulti</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consulti</i>
-simply. They were also designated by other
-names, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jurisprudentes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prudentiores</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peritiores</i>,
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">juris auctores</i>. The business of
-the early jurisconsulti consisted both in advising
-and acting on behalf of their clients
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consultores</i>) gratuitously. They gave their
-advice or answers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">responsa</i>) either in public
-places which they attended at certain times,
-or at their own houses; and not only on
-matters of law, but on any thing else that
-might be referred to them. The words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scribere</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cavere</i> referred to their employment
-in drawing up formal instruments, such as
-contracts or wills, &amp;c. At a later period,
-many of these functions were performed by
-persons who were paid by a fee, and thus
-there arose a body of practitioners distinct
-from those who gave responsa and who were
-writers and teachers. Tiberius Coruncanius,
-a plebeian, who was consul <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 281, and
-also the first plebeian Pontifex Maximus, is
-mentioned as the first who publicly professed
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">publice professus est</i>), and he was distinguished
-both for his knowledge of the law
-and his eloquence.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218"></a>[218]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Jurisdictio">JŪRISDICTIO, signifies generally the authority
-of the magistrate “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">qui jus dicit</span>,” and
-is mostly applied to the authority of the
-praetor in civil cases, such as the giving of
-the formula in an actio and the appointment
-of a judex. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actio">Actio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Jus">JŪS. The law peculiar to the Roman
-state is sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus Civile Romanorum</i>,
-but more frequently <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus Civile</i> only.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus Quiritium</i> is equivalent to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus
-Civile Romanorum</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus civil</i>e of the Romans
-is divisible into two parts, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus civile</i> in
-the narrower sense, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus pontificium</i>, or
-the law of religion. This opposition is sometimes
-expressed by the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fas</i>.
-The law of religion, or the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus Pontificium</i>,
-was under the control of the pontifices, who
-in fact originally had the control of the
-whole mass of the law; and it was only after
-the separation of the jus civile in its wider
-sense into the two parts of the jus civile, in
-its narrower sense, and the jus pontificium,
-that each part had its proper and peculiar
-limits. Still, even after the separation, there
-was a mutual relation between these two
-branches of law; for instance, an adrogatio
-was not valid by the jus civile unless it was
-valid by the jus pontificium. Again, jus
-pontificium, in its wider sense, as the law of
-religion, had its subdivisions, as into jus augurum,
-pontificium, &amp;c.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Jus_c">JŪS CĪVĪLE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Jus">Jus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Jus_l">JŪS LĂTĪI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Latinitas">Latinitas</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Jus_p">JUS PONTĬFĬCĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Jus">Jus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Jus_q">JUS QUĬRĪTĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Jus">Jus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Jusjurandum">JUSJŪRANDUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅρκος</span>), an oath. (1)
-<span class="smcap">Greek.</span> An oath is an appeal to some superior
-being, calling on him to bear witness
-that the swearer speaks the truth, or intends
-to perform the promise which he makes. We
-find early mention in the Greek writers of oaths
-being taken on solemn and important occasions,
-as treaties, alliances, vows, compacts,
-and agreements, both between nations and individuals.
-The Greeks paid high regard to the
-sanctity of oaths. The poets frequently allude
-to the punishment of perjury after death,
-which they assign to the infernal gods or
-furies, and we find many proofs of a persuasion
-that perjurers would not prosper in this
-world. Anciently the person who took an
-oath stood up, and lifted his hands to heaven,
-as he would in prayer; for an oath was a
-species of prayer, and required the same sort
-of ceremony. Oaths were frequently accompanied
-with sacrifice or libation. The parties
-used also to lay their hands upon the victims,
-or on the altar or some other sacred thing,
-as if by so doing they brought before them
-the deity by whom the oath was sworn, and
-made him witness of the ceremony. Hence
-the expressions <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρὸς τὸν βωμὸν ἐξορκίζειν</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀμνύναι
-καθ’ ἱερῶν</span>. The hand especially was regarded
-as a pledge of fidelity, and the allusions
-to the junction of hands in making contracts
-and agreements abound in the ancient
-writers. The different nations of Greece
-swore by their own peculiar gods and heroes;
-as the Thebans by Hercules, Iolaus, &amp;c., the
-Lacedaemonians by Castor and Pollux, the
-Corinthians by Poseidon; the Athenians swore
-principally by Zeus, Athena, Apollo (their
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πατρῷος θεὸς</span>), Demeter, and Dionysus. The
-office or character of the party, or the place,
-or the occasion often suggested the oath to be
-taken. As swearing became a common practice
-with men upon trivial occasions, and in
-ordinary conversation, they used to take
-oaths by any god, person, or thing, as their
-peculiar habits or predilections, or the fancy
-of the moment, dictated. Women also had
-their favourite oaths. As the men preferred
-swearing by Hercules, Apollo, &amp;c., so the
-other sex used to swear by Aphrodite, Demeter,
-and Persephone, Hera, Hecate, Artemis;
-and Athenian women by Aglauros,
-Pandrosus, &amp;c.&mdash;(2) <span id="Jusj_r" class="smcap">Roman.</span> I. <em>Oaths taken
-by magistrates and other persons who entered
-the service of the republic.</em>&mdash;After the establishment
-of the republic the consuls, and
-subsequently all the other magistrates, were
-obliged, within five days after their appointment,
-to promise on oath that they would
-protect and observe the laws of the republic
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in leges jurare</i>). Vestal virgins and the
-flamen dialis were not allowed to swear on
-any occasion. During the later period of
-the republic we also find that magistrates,
-when the time of their office had expired,
-addressed the people and swore that during
-their office they had undertaken nothing
-against the republic, but had done their utmost
-to promote its welfare. All Roman
-soldiers after they were enlisted for a campaign,
-had to take the military oath (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacramentum</i>).
-It may here be remarked that any
-oath might be taken in two ways: the person
-who took it, either framed it himself, or it
-was put to him in a set form, and in this case
-he was said in <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">verba jurare</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jurare verbis
-conceptis</i>.&mdash;II. <em>Oaths taken in transactions
-with foreign nations in the name of the republic.</em>
-According to the most ancient form
-the pater patratus pronounced the oath in
-the name of his country, and struck the
-victim with a flint-stone, calling on Jupiter
-to destroy the Roman nation in like manner,
-as he (the pater patratus) destroyed the animal,
-if the people should violate the oath.
-The chiefs or priests of the other nation then
-swore in a similar manner by their own
-gods. In swearing to a treaty with a foreign<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219"></a>[219]</span>
-nation, a victim (a pig or a lamb) was in the
-early times always sacrificed by the fetialis
-(whence the expressions <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foedus icere</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅρκια
-τέμνειν</span>), and the priest while pronouncing
-the oath probably touched the victim or the
-altar. The jus fetiale, however, fell into disuse
-as the Romans extended their conquests;
-and as in most cases of treaties with foreign
-nations, the Romans were not the party that
-chose to promise anything on oath, we hear
-no more of oaths on their part. At first the
-Romans were very scrupulous in observing
-their oaths in contracts or treaties with foreigners,
-and even with enemies; but from
-the third Punic war to the end of the republic,
-perjury was common among the Romans
-in their dealings with foreigners as
-well as among themselves.&mdash;III. <em>Oaths or
-various modes of swearing in common life.</em>
-The practice of swearing in ordinary conversations,
-was as common among the Romans
-as among the Greeks. The forms used were
-sometimes simple invocations of one or more
-gods, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hercle</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mehercle</i>, that is, ita me
-Hercules juvet, amet, or servet; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pol</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Perpol</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aedepol</i>, that is, per Pollucem; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per Jovem
-Lapidem</i> or simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per Jovem</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per superos</i>;
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per deos immortales</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">medius fidius</i>, that is,
-ita me Dius (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίος</span>) filius juvet; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ita me deus
-amet</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dii ament</i>. Women as well as men
-swore by most of the gods; but some oaths
-were peculiar to one of the sexes. Thus women
-never swore by Hercules, and men never
-by Castor. Sometimes oaths were accompanied
-with an execration, in case the swearer
-was stating a falsehood: as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dii me perdant</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dii
-me interficiant</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dispeream</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ne vivam</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ne salvus
-sim</i>, &amp;c.&mdash;IV. <em>Oaths taken before the praetor
-or in courts of justice.</em> There might be a
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jusjurandum</i> either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jure</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in judicio</i>. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jusjurandum in jure</i> is the oath which one
-party proposed to his adversary (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">detulit</i>) that
-he should make about the matter in dispute;
-and the effect of the oath being taken or refused
-was equivalent to a judicium. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jusjurandum in judicio (jusjurandum judiciale)</i>
-was required by the judex, and not by
-either of the parties, though either of the
-parties might suggest it.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Justitium">JUSTĬTĬUM, a cessation of public business
-of every kind. Thus the courts of law and
-the treasury were shut up, no ambassadors
-were received in the senate, and no auctions
-took place. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Justitium</i> was proclaimed
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edicere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">indicere</i>) by the senate and the magistrates
-in times of public alarm and danger;
-and after confidence and tranquillity had
-been restored, the Justitium was removed
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">remittere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exuere</i>) by the same authorities.
-As such times of alarm are usually accompanied
-with general sorrow, a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Justitium</i> came
-in course of time to be ordained as a mark of
-public mourning, and under the empire was
-only employed for this reason.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Juvenalia">JŬVĔNĀLĬA, or JŬVĔNĀLES LŪDI,
-scenic games instituted by Nero, in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 59,
-in commemoration of his shaving his beard
-for the first time, thus intimating that he
-had passed from youth to manhood. He was
-then in the twenty-second year of his age.
-These games were not celebrated in the circus,
-but in a private theatre erected in a pleasure-ground
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nemus</i>), and consisted of every kind
-of theatrical performance, Greek and Roman
-plays, mimetic pieces, and the like. The Juvenalia
-continued to be celebrated by subsequent
-emperors, but not on the same occasion.
-The name was given to those games
-which were exhibited by the emperors on the
-1st of January in each year. They no longer
-consisted of scenic representations, but of
-chariot races and combats of wild beasts.</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="L_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">L</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Labarum" class="drop-capy">LĂBĂRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Signa">Signa Militaria</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Labrum">LĂBRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Labyrinthus">LĂBỸRINTHUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λαβύρινθος</span>), a labyrinth,
-a large and complicated subterraneous cavern
-with numerous and intricate passages, similar
-to those of a mine. The earliest and most
-renowned labyrinth was that of Egypt, which
-lay beyond lake Moeris. It had 3000 apartments,
-1500 under ground, and the same
-number above it, and the whole was surrounded
-by a wall. It was divided into courts,
-each of which was surrounded by colonnades
-of white marble. The second labyrinth mentioned
-by the ancients was that of Crete, in
-the neighbourhood of Cnossus, where the Minotaur
-is said to have dwelt. Although the
-Cretan labyrinth is very frequently mentioned
-by ancient authors, yet none of them
-speaks of it as an eyewitness. It was probably
-some natural cavern in the neighbourhood
-of Cnossus. A third labyrinth, the construction
-of which belongs to a more historical
-age, was that in the island of Lemnos. A
-fabulous edifice in Etruria is also mentioned,
-to which Pliny applies the name of labyrinth.
-It is described as being in the neighbourhood
-of Clusium, and as the tomb of Lar Porsena;
-but no writer says that he ever saw it, or remains
-of it.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lacerna">LĂCERNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μανδύας</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μανδύη</span>), a cloak worn
-by the Romans over the toga. It differed
-from the paenula in being an open garment
-like the Greek pallium, and fastened on
-the right shoulder by means of a buckle
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fibula</i>), whereas the paenula was what is
-called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vestimentum clausum</i> with an opening
-for the head. The Lacerna appears to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220"></a>[220]</span>
-have been commonly used in the army. In
-the time of Cicero it was not usually worn in
-the city, but it soon afterwards became quite
-common at Rome. The lacerna was sometimes
-thrown over the head for the purpose
-of concealment; but a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cucullus</i> or cowl was
-generally used for that purpose, which appears
-to have been frequently attached to the
-lacerna, and to have formed a part of the
-dress.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Laciniae">LĂCĬNĬAE, the angular extremities of the
-toga, one of which was brought round over
-the left shoulder. It was generally tucked
-into the girdle, but sometimes was allowed to
-hang down loose.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Laconicum">LĂCŌNĬCUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lacunar">LĂCŪNAR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lacus">LĂCUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fons">Fons</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Laena">LAENA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χλαῖνα</span>), a woollen cloak, the
-cloth of which was twice the ordinary thickness,
-shaggy upon both sides, and worn
-over the pallium or the toga for the sake of
-warmth. In later times the laena seems, to
-a certain extent, to have been worn as a substitute
-for the toga.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lampadephoria">LAMPĂDĒPHŎRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λαμπαδηφορία</span>), <em>torch-bearing</em>,
-<span class="smcap">Lampadedromia</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λαμπαδηδρομία</span>),
-<em>torch-race</em>, and often simply <span class="smcap">Lampas</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λαμπάς</span>),
-was a game common throughout Greece.
-At Athens we know of five celebrations of
-this game: one to Prometheus at the Prometheia,
-a second to Athena at the Panathenaca,
-a third to Hephaestos at the Hephaesteia, a
-fourth to Pan, and a fifth to the Thracian
-Artemis or Bendis. The first three are of
-unknown antiquity; the fourth was introduced
-soon after the battle of Marathon; the
-last in the time of Socrates. The race was
-usually run on foot, horses being first used in
-the time of Socrates; sometimes also at night.
-The preparation for it was a principal branch
-of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gymnasiarchia</i>, so much so indeed in
-later times, that the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lampadarchia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λαμπαδαρχία</span>)
-seems to have been pretty much equivalent
-to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gymnasiarchia</i>. The gymnasiarch
-had to provide the lampas, which was
-a candlestick with a kind of shield set at the
-bottom of the socket, so as to shelter the
-flame of the candle; as is seen in the following
-woodcut, taken from a coin. He had
-also to provide for the training of the runners,
-which was of no slight consequence, for
-the race was evidently a severe one, with
-other expenses, which on the whole were
-very heavy, so that Isaeus classes this office
-with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">choregia</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trierarchia</i>, and reckons
-that it had cost him 12 minae.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp78" id="ill220" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill220.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Lampae. (From a Coin.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Lampas">LAMPAS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lampadephoria">Lampadephoria</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lancea">LANCĔA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lanista">LĂNISTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lanx">LANX, a large dish, made of silver or some
-other metal, and sometimes embossed, used
-at splendid entertainments to hold meat or
-fruit; and consequently at sacrifices and funeral
-banquets.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Laphria">LAPHRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λάφρια</span>), an annual festival,
-celebrated at Patrae in Achaia, in honour of
-Artemis, surnamed Laphria.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lapicidinae">LĂPĬCĪDĪNAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lautumiae">Lautumiae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Laquear">LĂQUĔAR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_144">p. 144</a>, <em>b.</em>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Laqueatores">LĂQŬEĀTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Laqueus">LĂQUĔUS, a rope, was used to signify the
-punishment of death by strangling. This
-mode of execution was never performed in
-public, but only in prison and generally in
-the Tullianum. Hence we find the words
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carcer</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">laqueus</i> frequently joined together.
-Persons convicted of treason were most frequently
-put to death by strangling, as for instance
-the Catilinarian conspirators (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">laqueo
-gulam fregere</i>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lararium">LĂRĀRĬUM, a place in the inner part of
-a Roman house, which was dedicated to the
-Lares, and in which their images were kept
-and worshipped. It seems to have been customary
-for religious Romans in the morning,
-immediately after they rose, to perform their
-prayers in the lararium.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Larentalia">LĀRENTĀLĬA, sometimes written LĀRENTINĀLIA
-and LAURENTĀLIA, a Roman
-festival in honour of Acca Larentia, the
-wife of Faustulus and the nurse of Romulus
-and Remus. It was celebrated in December,
-on the 10th before the calends of January.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Largitio">LARGĪTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Later">LĂTER <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλίνθος</span>, a brick. The Romans
-distinguished between those bricks which
-were merely dried by the sun and air (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lateres
-crudi</i>), and those which were burnt in the
-kiln (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cocti</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coctiles</i>). They preferred for
-brick making clay which was either whitish
-or decidedly red. Pliny calls the brickfield
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lateraria</i>, and to make bricks <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lateres ducere</i>,
-corresponding to the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλίνθους ἕλκειν</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔρυειν</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Laticlavii">LĀTĬCLĀVĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Clavus">Clavus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Latinae">LĂTĪNAE FĔRĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Feriae">Feriae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Latinitas">LĂTĪNĬTAS, LĂTĬUM, JUS LĂTĬI. All
-these expressions are used to signify a certain
-status intermediate between that of cives and
-peregrini. Before the passing of the Lex<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221"></a>[221]</span>
-Julia de Civitate (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 90) the above expressions
-denoted a certain nationality, and as
-part of it a certain legal status with reference
-to Rome; but after the passing of that
-lex, these expressions denoted only a certain
-status, and had no reference to any national
-distinction. About the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 89, a Lex
-Pompeia gave the jus Latii to all the Transpadani,
-and consequently the privilege of obtaining
-the Roman civitas by having filled a
-magistratus in their own cities. To denote
-the status of these Transpadani, the word
-Latinitas was used, which since the passing
-of the Lex Julia had lost its proper signification;
-and this was the origin of that Latinitas
-which thenceforth existed to the time of Justinian.
-This new Latinitas or jus Latii was
-given to whole towns and countries; as,
-for instance, by Vespasian to the whole of
-Spain. It is not certain wherein this new
-Latinitas differed from that Latinitas which
-was the characteristic of the Latini before
-the passing of the Lex Julia. It is, however,
-clear that all the old Latini had not the
-same right with respect to Rome; and that
-they could acquire the civitas on easier terms
-than those by which the new Latinitas was
-acquired.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Latrunculi">LĂTRUNCŬLI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεσσοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψήφοι</span>), draughts.
-The invention of a game resembling draughts
-was attributed by the Greeks to Palamedes;
-and it is mentioned by Homer. There were
-two sets of men, one set being black, the
-other white or red. Being intended to represent
-a miniature combat between two
-armies, they were called soldiers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">milites</i>),
-foes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hostes</i>), and marauders (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">latrones</i>, dim.
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">latrunculi</i>); also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calculi</i>, because stones were
-often employed for the purpose. The Romans
-often had twelve lines on the draught-board,
-whence the game so played was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duodecim scripta</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Laudatio">LAUDĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Laurentalia">LAURENTĀLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Larentalia">Larentalia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lautumiae">LAUTŬMĬAE, LAUTŎMIAE, LĀTOMIAE,
-Or LĀTUMIAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λιθοτομίαι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λατομίαι,</span>
-Lat. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lapicidinae</i>), literally places where
-stones are cut, or quarries, and more particularly
-the public prison of Syracuse. It lay
-in the steep and almost inaccessible part of
-the town which was called Epipolae, and had
-been built by Dionysius the tyrant. It was
-cut to an immense depth into the solid rock,
-so that nothing could be imagined to be a
-safer or stronger prison, though it had no
-roof, and thus left the prisoners exposed to
-the heat of the sun, the rain, and the coldness
-of the nights. The Tullianum at Rome
-was also sometimes called lautumiae. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Carcer">Carcer</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lectica">LECTICA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλίνη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλινίδιον</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φορεῖον</span>), was
-a kind of couch or litter, in which persons, in
-a lying position, were carried from one place
-to another. Lecticae were used for carrying
-the dead [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>] as well as the living.
-The Greek lectica consisted of a bed or mattress,
-and a pillow to support the head, placed
-upon a kind of bedstead or couch. It had a
-roof, consisting of the skin of an ox, extending
-over the couch and resting on four posts.
-The sides of this lectica were covered with
-curtains. In the republican period it appears
-to have been chiefly used by women, and by
-men only when they were in ill health. When
-this kind of lectica was introduced among the
-Romans, it was chiefly used in travelling,
-and very seldom in Rome itself. But towards
-the end of the republic, and under the empire,
-it was commonly used in the city, and
-was fitted up in the most splendid manner.
-Instead of curtains, it was frequently closed
-on the sides with windows made of transparent
-stone (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lapis specularis</i>), and was provided
-with a pillow and bed. When standing, it
-rested on four feet, generally made of wood.
-Persons were carried in a lectica by slaves
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lecticarii</i>), by means of poles (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">asseres</i>) attached
-to it, but not fixed, so that they might
-easily be taken off when necessary. The
-number of lecticarii employed in carrying one
-lectica varied according to its size, and the
-display of wealth which a person might wish
-to make. The ordinary number was probably
-two; but it varied from two to eight, and the
-lectica is called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hexaphoron</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">octophoron</i>,
-accordingly as it was carried by six or eight
-persons.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lectisternium">LECTISTERNIUM. Sacrifices being of the
-nature of feasts, the Greeks and Romans, on
-occasion of extraordinary solemnities, placed
-images of the gods reclining on couches, with
-tables and viands before them, as if they
-were really partaking of the things offered in
-sacrifice. This ceremony was called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lectisternium</i>.
-The woodcut here introduced exhibits<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222"></a>[222]</span>
-one of these couches, which is represented
-with a cushion covered by a cloth
-hanging in ample folds down each side. This
-beautiful <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulvinar</i> is wrought altogether in
-white marble, and is somewhat more than
-two feet in height.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill221" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill221.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Pulvinar used at Lectisternium. (From the Glyptothek at
-Munich.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Lectus">LECTUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λέχος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλίνη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐνή</span>), a bed. The
-complete bed (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐνή</span>) of a wealthy Greek in
-later times generally consisted of the following
-parts:&mdash;<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλίνη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίτονοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τυλεῖον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κνέφαλον</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσκεφάλειον</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρώματα</span>. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλίνη</span>
-is, properly speaking, merely the bedstead,
-and seems to have consisted only of posts
-fitted into one another and resting upon four
-feet. At the head part alone there was a
-board (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc"><ins class="corr" id="tn-222" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'ἀνάκλίντρον'">
-ἀνάκλιντρον</ins></span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίκλιντρον</span>) to support
-the pillow and prevent its falling out.
-Sometimes, however, the bottom part of a
-bedstead was likewise protected by a board,
-so that in this case a Greek bedstead resembled
-what we call a French bedstead. The
-bedstead was provided with girths (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόνοι</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίτονοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κειρία</span>) on which the bed or mattress
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κνέφαλον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τυλεῖον</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τύλη</span>) rested. The
-cover or ticking of a mattress was made of
-linen or woollen cloth, or of leather, and
-the usual material with which it was filled
-was either wool or dried weeds. At the head
-part of the bed, and supported by the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίκλιντρον</span>,
-lay a round pillow (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσκεφάλειον</span>) to
-support the head. The bed-covers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρώματα</span>)
-were generally made of cloth, which was very
-thick and woolly, either on one or on both sides.
-The beds of the Romans (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lecti cubiculares</i>) in
-the earlier periods of the republic were probably
-of the same description as those used
-in Greece; but towards the end of the republic
-and during the empire, the richness and
-magnificence of the beds of the wealthy Romans
-far surpassed every thing we find described
-in Greece. The bedstead was generally
-rather high, so that persons entered the
-bed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scandere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ascendere</i>) by means of steps
-placed beside it (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scamnum</i>). It was sometimes
-made of metal, and sometimes of costly
-kinds of wood, or veneered with tortoise-shell
-or ivory; its feet (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fulcra</i>) were frequently
-of silver or gold. The bed or mattress
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">culcita</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">torus</i>) rested upon girths or
-strings (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">restes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasciae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">institae</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funes</i>),
-which connected the two horizontal side-posts
-of the bed. In beds destined for two persons
-the two sides are distinguished by different
-names; the side at which persons entered
-was open, and bore the name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sponda</i>; the
-other side, which was protected by a board,
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pluteus</i>. The two sides of such a
-bed are also distinguished by the names <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">torus
-exterior</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">torus interior</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sponda exterior</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sponda interior</i>; and from these
-expressions it is not improbable that such
-lecti had two beds or mattresses, one for each
-person. Mattresses were in the earlier times
-filled with dry herbs or straw, and such
-beds continued to be used by the poor. But
-in subsequent times wool, and, at a still later
-period, feathers, were used by the wealthy
-for the beds as well as the pillows. The
-cloth or ticking (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">operimentum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">involucrum</i>)
-with which the beds or mattresses were
-covered, was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toral</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">torale</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">linteum</i>, or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">segestre</i>. The blankets or counterpanes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vestes
-stragulae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stragula</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peristromata</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peripetasmata</i>)
-were in the houses of wealthy Romans
-of the most costly description, and generally
-of a purple colour, and embroidered with
-beautiful figures in gold. Covers of this sort
-were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peripetasmata Attalica</i>, because
-they were said to have been first used at the
-court of Attalus. The pillows were likewise
-covered with magnificent casings. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lectus
-genialis</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adversus</i> was the bridal bed,
-which stood in the atrium, opposite the
-janua, whence it derived the epithet <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adversus</i>.
-It was generally high, with steps
-by its side, and in later times beautifully
-adorned. Respecting the lectus funebris see
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>. An account of the disposition of the
-couches used at entertainments is given under
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Triclinium">Triclinium</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Legatio">LĒGĀTĬO LĪBĔRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Legatus">Legatus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Legatum">LĒGĀTUM, a part of the hereditas which
-a testator gives out of it, from the heres (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ab
-herede</i>); that is, it is a gift to a person out of
-that whole (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">universum</i>) which is diminished
-to the heres by such gift. There were several
-laws limiting the amount of property which
-a person might give in legacies; and it was
-at last fixed by the Lex Falcidia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 40),
-that he should not bequeath more than three-fourths
-of his property in legacies, and thus
-a fourth was left to the heres. By the Law
-of the Twelve Tables a man could dispose of
-his property as he pleased, and he might
-exhaust (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">erogare</i>) the whole hereditas by
-legacies and bequests of freedom to slaves, so
-as to leave the heres nothing. The consequence
-was that in such cases the scripti
-heredes refused to take the hereditas, and
-there was of course an intestacy. Legata
-were inutilia or void, if they were given
-before a heres was instituted by the will, for
-the will derived all its legal efficacy from
-such institution; there was the same rule as
-to a gift of freedom.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Legatus">LĒGĀTUS, from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lego</i>, a person commissioned
-or deputed to do certain things. They
-may be divided into three classes:&mdash;1. Legati
-or ambassadors sent to Rome by foreign
-nations; 2. Legati or ambassadors sent from
-Rome to foreign nations and into the provinces;
-3. Legati who accompanied the Roman<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223"></a>[223]</span>
-generals into the field, or the proconsuls
-and praetors into the provinces. 1. Foreign
-legati at Rome, from whatever country they
-came, had to go to the temple of Saturn, and
-deposit their names with the quaestors. Previous
-to their admission into the city, foreign
-ambassadors seem to have been obliged to
-give notice from what nation they came and
-for what purpose; for several instances are
-mentioned, in which ambassadors were prohibited
-from entering the city, especially in
-case of a war between Rome and the state
-from which they came. In such cases the
-ambassadors were either not heard at all,
-and obliged to quit Italy, or an audience was
-given to them by the senate (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatus legatis
-datur</i>) outside the city, in the temple of Bellona.
-This was evidently a sign of mistrust,
-but the ambassadors were nevertheless treated
-as public guests, and some public villa outside
-the city was sometimes assigned for their
-reception. In other cases, however, as soon
-as the report of the landing of foreign ambassadors
-on the coast of Italy was brought
-to Rome, especially if they were persons of
-great distinction, or if they came from an
-ally of the Roman people, some one of the
-inferior magistrates, or a legatus of a consul,
-was despatched by the senate to receive, and
-conduct them to the city at the expense of
-the republic. When they were introduced
-into the senate by the praetor or consul, they
-first explained what they had to communicate,
-and then the praetor invited the senators
-to put their questions to the ambassadors.
-The whole transaction was carried on by
-interpreters, and in the Latin language.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Interpres">Interpres</a>.</span>] After the ambassadors had
-thus been examined, they were requested to
-leave the assembly of the senate, who now
-began to discuss the subject brought before
-them. The result was communicated to the
-ambassadors by the praetor. In some cases
-ambassadors not only received rich presents
-on their departure, but were at the command
-of the senate conducted by a magistrate, and
-at the public expense, to the frontier of Italy,
-and even farther. By the Lex Gabinia it
-was decreed, that from the 1st of February
-to the 1st of March, the senate should every
-day give audience to foreign ambassadors.
-There was a place on the right-hand side of
-the senate-house, called Graecostasis, in
-which foreign ambassadors waited. All ambassadors,
-whencesoever they came, were
-considered by the Romans throughout the
-whole period of their existence as sacred and
-inviolable. 2. Legati to foreign nations in
-the name of the Roman republic were always
-sent by the senate; and to be appointed to
-such a mission was considered a great honour,
-which was conferred only on men of high
-rank or eminence: for a Roman ambassador
-had the powers of a magistrate and the venerable
-character of a priest. If a Roman
-during the performance of his mission as
-ambassador died or was killed, his memory
-was honoured by the republic with a public
-sepulchre and a statue in the Rostra. The
-expenses during the journey of an ambassador
-were, of course, paid by the republic; and
-when he travelled through a province, the
-provincials had to supply him with every
-thing he wanted. 3. The third class of
-legati, to whom the name of ambassadors
-cannot be applied, were persons who accompanied
-the Roman generals on their expeditions,
-and in later times the governors of
-provinces also. They are mentioned at a very
-early period as serving along with the tribunes,
-under the consuls. They were nominated
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legabantur</i>) by the consul or the dictator
-under whom they served, but the
-sanction of the senate was an essential point,
-without which no one could be legally considered
-a legatus. The persons appointed to
-this office were usually men of great military
-talents, and it was their duty to advise and
-assist their superior in all his undertakings,
-and to act in his stead both in civil and military
-affairs. The legati were thus always
-men in whom the consul placed great confidence,
-and were frequently his friends or
-relations: but they had no power independent
-of the command of their general. Their
-number varied according to the greatness or
-importance of the war, or the extent of the
-province: three is the smallest number that
-we know of, but Pompey, when in Asia, had
-fifteen legati. Whenever the consuls were
-absent from the army, or when a proconsul
-left his province, the legati or one of them
-took his place, and then had the insignia as
-well as the power of his superior. He was in
-this case called legatus pro praetore, and
-hence we sometimes read that a man governed
-a province as legatus without any mention
-being made of the proconsul whose vicegerent
-he was. During the latter period of the republic,
-it sometimes happened that a consul
-carried on a war, or a proconsul governed
-his province, through his legati, while he
-himself remained at Rome, or conducted some
-other more urgent affairs. When the provinces
-were divided at the time of the empire
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Provincia">Provincia</a></span>], those of the Roman people were
-governed by men who had been either consuls
-or praetors, and the former were always
-accompanied by three legati, the latter by
-one. The provinces of the emperor, who
-was himself the proconsul, were governed by
-persons whom the emperor himself appointed,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224"></a>[224]</span>
-and who had been consuls or praetors, or
-were at least senators. These vicegerents of
-the emperor were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legati augusti pro
-praetore</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legati praetorii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legati consulares</i>, or
-simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legati</i>, and they, like the governors of
-the provinces of the Roman people, had one
-or three legati as their assistants. During
-the latter period of the republic it had become
-customary for senators to obtain from the
-senate the permission to travel through or
-stay in any province at the expense of the
-provincials, merely for the purpose of managing
-and conducting their own personal
-affairs. There was no restraint as to the
-length of time the senators were allowed to
-avail themselves of this privilege, which was
-a heavy burden upon the provincials. This
-mode of sojourning in a province was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legatio libera</i>, because those who availed
-themselves of it enjoyed all the privileges of
-a public legatus or ambassador, without
-having any of his duties to perform. At the
-time of Cicero the privilege of legatio libera
-was abused to a very great extent. Cicero,
-therefore, in his consulship (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63) endeavoured
-to put an end to it, but, owing to the
-opposition of a tribune, he only succeeded in
-limiting the time of its duration to one year.
-Julius Caesar afterwards extended the time
-during which a senator might avail himself
-of the legatio libera to five years.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Legio">LĔGĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Leiturgia">LEITURGIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λειτουργία</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λεῖτον</span>, Ion.
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λήϊτον</span>, <em>i.e.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημόσιον</span>, or, according to others,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρυτανεῖον</span>), a liturgy, is the name of certain
-personal services which, at Athens, every
-citizen who possessed a certain amount of
-property had to perform towards the state.
-These personal services, which in all cases
-were connected with considerable expenses,
-were at first a natural consequence of the
-greater political privileges enjoyed by the
-wealthy, who, in return, had also to perform
-heavier duties towards the republic; but
-when the Athenian democracy was at its
-height the original character of these liturgies
-became changed, for, as every citizen
-now enjoyed the same rights and privileges
-as the wealthiest, they were simply a tax
-upon property connected with personal labour
-and exertion. All liturgies may be divided
-into two classes: 1, ordinary or encyclic
-liturgies (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐγκύκλιοι λειτουργίαι</span>); and 2, extraordinary
-liturgies. The former were called
-encyclic, because they recurred every year
-at certain festive seasons, and comprised the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Choregia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gymnasiarchia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lampadarchia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Architheoria</i>,
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hestiasis</i>. Every Athenian
-who possessed three talents and above was
-subject to them, and they were undertaken
-in turns by the members of every tribe who
-possessed the property qualification just mentioned,
-unless some one volunteered to undertake
-a liturgy for another person. But
-the law did not allow any one to be compelled
-to undertake more than one liturgy
-at a time, and he who had in one year performed
-a liturgy was free for the next, so
-that legally a person had to perform a liturgy
-only every other year. Those whose turn it
-was to undertake any of the ordinary liturgies
-were always appointed by their own tribe.
-The persons who were exempt from all kinds
-of liturgies were the nine archons, heiresses,
-and orphans until after the commencement
-of the second year of their coming of age.
-Sometimes the exemption from liturgies
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτελεία</span>) was granted to persons for especial
-merits towards the republic. The only kind
-of extraordinary liturgy to which the name
-is properly applied is the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trierarchia</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριηραρχία</span>); in the earlier times, however,
-the service in the armies was in reality no
-more than an extraordinary liturgy. [See
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Eisphora">Eisphora</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Trierarchia">Trierarchia</a></span>.] In later times,
-during and after the Peloponnesian war,
-when the expenses of a liturgy were found
-too heavy for one person, we find that in
-many instances two persons combined to
-defray its expenses. Such was the case with
-the choragia and the trierarchy.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lembus">LEMBUS, a skiff or small boat, used for
-carrying a person from a ship to the shore.
-The name was also given to the light boats
-which were sent ahead of a fleet to obtain
-information of the enemy’s movements.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lemniscus">LEMNISCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λημνίσκος</span>), a kind of coloured
-ribbon which hung down from crowns
-or diadems at the back part of the head.
-Coronae adorned with lemnisci were a greater
-distinction than those without them. This
-serves to explain an expression of Cicero
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">palma lemniscata, pro Rosc. Am.</i> 35), where
-palma means a victory, and the epithet lemniscata
-indicates the contrary of infamis, and
-at the same time implies an honourable as
-well as lucrative victory. Lemnisci were
-also worn alone and without being connected
-with crowns, especially by ladies, as an ornament
-for the head.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lemuria">LĔMŬRĬA, a festival for the souls of the
-departed, which was celebrated at Rome
-every year in the month of May. It was
-said to have been instituted by Romulus to
-appease the spirit of Remus, whom he had
-slain, and to have been called originally
-Remuria. It was celebrated at night and in
-silence, and during three alternate days, that
-is, on the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth of
-May. During this season the temples of the
-gods were closed, and it was thought unlucky
-for women to marry at this time and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225"></a>[225]</span>
-during the whole month of May, and those
-who ventured to marry were believed to die
-soon after, whence the proverb, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mense Maio
-malae nubent</i>. Those who celebrated the
-Lemuria walked barefooted, washed their
-hands three times, and threw black beans
-nine times behind their backs, believing by
-this ceremony to secure themselves against
-the Lemures. As regards the solemnities on
-each of the three days, we only know that on
-the second there were games in the circus in
-honour of Mars, and that on the third day
-the images of the thirty Argei, made of
-rushes, were thrown from the Pons Sublicius
-into the Tiber by the Vestal virgins [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Argei">Argei</a></span>].
-On the same day there was a festival of the
-merchants, probably because on this day the
-temple of Mercury had been dedicated in the
-year 495 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Lenaea">LĒNAEA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lesche">LESCHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λέσχη</span>), an Ionic word, signifying
-<em>council</em> or <em>conversation</em>, and <em>a place for
-council or conversation</em>. There is frequent
-mention of places of public resort, in the
-Greek cities, by the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leschae</i>, some
-set apart for the purpose, and others so called
-because they were so used by loungers; to
-the latter class belong the agora and its porticoes,
-the gymnasia, and the shops of various
-tradesmen. The former class were small
-buildings or porticoes, furnished with seats,
-and exposed to the sun, to which the idle
-resorted to enjoy conversation, and the poor
-to obtain warmth and shelter: at Athens
-alone there were 360 such. In the Dorian
-states the word retained the meaning of a
-place of meeting for deliberation and intercourse,
-a council-chamber or club-room.
-There were generally chambers for council
-and conversation, called by this name, attached
-to the temples of Apollo. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lesche</i>
-at Delphi was celebrated through Greece for
-the paintings with which it was adorned by
-Polygnotus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lex">LEX. Of Roman leges, viewed with reference
-to the mode of enactment, there were
-properly two kinds, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges Curiatae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges
-Centuriatae</i>. Plebiscita are improperly called
-leges, though they were laws, and in the
-course of time had the same effect as leges.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plebiscitum">Plebiscitum</a>.</span>] Originally the leges curiatae
-were the only leges, and they were passed by
-the populus in the comitia curiata. After
-the establishment of the comitia centuriata,
-the comitia curiata fell almost into disuse;
-but so long as the republic lasted, and even
-under Augustus, a shadow of the old constitution
-was preserved in the formal conferring
-of the imperium by a lex curiata only, and
-in the ceremony of adrogation being effected
-only in these comitia. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adoptio">Adoptio</a>.</span>] Those
-leges, properly so called, with which we are
-acquainted, were passed in the comitia centuriata,
-and were proposed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogabantur</i>) by
-a magistratus of senatorial rank, after the
-senate had approved of them by a decretum.
-Such a lex was also designated by the name
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Populi Scitum</i>.&mdash;The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogatio</i> (from the
-verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogo</i>) properly means any measure proposed
-to the legislative body, and therefore
-is equally applicable to a proposed lex and a
-proposed plebiscitum. It corresponds to our
-word <em>bill</em>, as opposed to <em>act</em>. When the
-measure was passed, it became a lex or plebiscitum;
-though rogationes, after they had
-become laws, were sometimes, but improperly,
-called rogationes. A rogatio began
-with the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">velitis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jubeatis</i>, &amp;c., and
-ended with the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ita vos Quirites rogo</i>.
-The corresponding expression of assent to
-the rogatio on the part of the sovereign assembly
-was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uti rogas</i>. The phrases for proposing
-a law are <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogare legem</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legem ferre</i>,
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogationem promulgare</i>; the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogationem
-accipere</i> applies to the enacting body.
-The terms relating to legislation are thus
-explained by Ulpian the jurist:&mdash;“A lex is
-said either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogari</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ferri</i>; it is said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">abrogari</i>,
-when it is repealed; it is said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">derogari</i>,
-when a part is repealed; it is said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subrogari</i>,
-when some addition is made to it; and it
-is said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obrogari</i>, when some part of it is
-changed.”&mdash;A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">privilegium</i> is an enactment
-that had for its object a single person, which
-is indicated by the form of the word (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">privilegium</i>),
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">privae res</i> being the same as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">singulae
-res</i>. The word privilegium did not convey
-any notion of the character of the legislative
-measures; it might be beneficial to the party
-to whom it referred, or it might not. Under
-the empire, the word is used in the sense of
-a special grant proceeding from the imperial
-favour.&mdash;The title of a lex was generally derived
-from the gentile name of the magistratus
-who proposed it, as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Hortensia</i>
-from the dictator Hortensius. Sometimes
-the lex took its name from the two consuls
-or other magistrates, as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acilia Calpurnia</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aelia</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aelia Sentia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Papia</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Papia Poppaea</i>,
-and others. It seems to have been the fashion
-to omit the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">et</i> between the two
-names, though instances occur in which it was
-used. A lex was also designated, with reference
-to its object, as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Cincia de Donis
-et Muneribus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Furia Testamentaria</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex
-Julia Municipalis</i>, and many others. Leges
-which related to a common object, were often
-designated by a collective name, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges
-Agrariae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Judiciariae</i>, and others. A lex
-sometimes took its name from the chief contents
-of its first chapter, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Julia de
-Maritandis Ordinibus</i>. Sometimes a lex<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226"></a>[226]</span>
-comprised very various provisions, relating
-to matters essentially different, and in that
-case it was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Satura</i>.&mdash;The number
-of leges was greatly increased in the later
-part of the republican period, and Julius
-Caesar is said to have contemplated a revision
-of the whole body. Under him and Augustus
-numerous enactments were passed, which
-are known under the general name of Juliae
-Leges. It is often stated that no leges, properly
-so called, or plebiscita, were passed
-after the time of Augustus; but this is a
-mistake. Though the voting might be a mere
-form, still the form was kept. Besides, various
-leges are mentioned as having been passed
-under the Empire, such as the Lex Junia
-under Tiberius, the Lex Visellia, the Lex
-Mamilia under Caligula, and a Lex Claudia
-on the tutela of women. It does not appear
-when the ancient forms of legislation were
-laid aside. A particular enactment is always
-referred to by its name. The following is a
-list of the principal leges, properly so called;
-but the list includes also various plebiscita
-and privilegia:&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p id="Acilia">ACĪLĬA, De Coloniis Deducendis. (Liv.
-xxxii. 29.)</p>
-
-
-<p id="Acilia_a">ACĪLIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Acilia_c">ACĪLIA CALPURNĬA or CALPURNIA.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aebutia">AEBUTĬA, of uncertain date, which with
-two Juliae Leges put an end to the Legis
-Actiones, except in certain cases. This or
-another lex of the same name prohibited the
-proposer of a lex, which created any office or
-power (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curatio ac potestas</i>), from having such
-office or power, and even excluded his collegae,
-cognati, and affines.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aelia">AELIA. This lex and a Fufia Lex, passed
-about the end of the sixth century of the
-city, gave to all the magistrates the obnunciatio,
-or power of preventing or dissolving
-the comitia, by observing the omens and declaring
-them to be unfavourable.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aelia_c">AELĬA, De Coloniis Deducendis. (Liv.
-xxxiv. 53.)</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aelia_s">AELĬA SENTĬA, passed in the time of
-Augustus (about <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 3). This lex contained
-various provisions as to the manumission of
-slaves.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aemilia">AEMĬLĬA. A lex passed in the dictatorship
-of Mamercus Aemilius (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 433), by
-which the censors were elected for a year
-and a half, instead of a whole lustrum.
-After this lex they had accordingly only a
-year and a half allowed them for holding
-the census and letting out the public works
-to farm.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aemilia_b">AEMĬLĬA BAEBĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cornelia_b">Cornelia Baebia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aemilia_l">AEMĬLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Leges Sumptuariae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Agrariae">AGRĀRÏAE, the name of laws which had
-relation to the ager publicus. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ager">Ager Publicus</a>.</span>]
-The most important of these are mentioned
-under the names of their proposers.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Appuleia">Appuleia</a>; <a href="#Cassia">Cassia</a>; <a href="#Cornelia">Cornelia</a>; <a href="#Flaminia">Flaminia</a>;
-<a href="#Flavia">Flavia</a>; <a href="#Juliae">Julia</a>; <a href="#Licinia">Licinia</a>; <a href="#Sempronia">Sempronia</a>; <a href="#Servilia">Servilia</a>;
-<a href="#Thoria">Thoria</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ambitus_a">AMBĬTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ampia">AMPĬA, to allow Cn. Pompeius to wear a
-crown of bay at the Ludi Circenses, &amp;c. Proposed
-by T. Ampius and T. Labienus, tr. pl.
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 64.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Annalis">ANNĀLIS or VILLĬA, proposed by L. Villius
-Tapulus in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 179, fixed the age at
-which a Roman citizen might become a candidate
-for the higher magistracies. It appears
-that until this law was passed, any
-office might be enjoyed by a citizen after
-completing his twenty-seventh year. The
-Lex Annalis fixed 31 as the age for the
-quaestorship, 37 for the aedileship, 40 for
-the praetorship, and 43 for the consulship.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Antia">ANTĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Sumptuariae Leges</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Antonia">ANTŌNĬA <span class="smcap">De Thermensibus</span>, about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-72, by which Thermessus in Pisidia was recognised
-as Libera.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Antoniae">ANTŌNĬAE, the name of various enactments
-proposed or passed by the influence of
-M. Antonius, after the death of the dictator
-J. Caesar.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Appuleia">APPŬLĒIA, respecting sureties.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Appuleia_a">APPŬLĒIA AGRĀRĬA, proposed by the
-tribune L. Appuleius Saturninus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 101.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Appuleia_f">APPŬLĒIA FRŪMENTĀRĬA, proposed
-about the same time by the same tribune.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Appuleia_c">APPŬLĒIA, <span class="smcap">De Coloniis Deducendis</span>.
-(Cic. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pro Balbo</i>, 21.)</p>
-
-
-<p id="Appuleia_m">APPŬLĒIA MAJESTĀTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Majestas">Majestas</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aternia">ATERNIA TARPĒIA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 455. This
-lex empowered all magistrates to fine persons
-who resisted their authority; but it fixed the
-highest fine at two sheep and thirty cows, or
-two cows and thirty sheep, for the authorities
-vary in this.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Atia">ĂTĬA DE SĂCERDŌTIIS (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63),
-proposed by the tribune T. Atius Labienus,
-repealed the Lex Cornelia de Sacerdotiis.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Atilia">ĂTĪLĬA MARCĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 312, empowered
-the populus to elect 16 tribuni militum for
-each of four legions.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Atilia_t">ĂTĪLĬA, respecting tutores.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Atinia">ĂTĪNĬA, respecting thefts.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Atinia_p">ĂTĪNĬA, of uncertain date, was a plebiscitum
-which gave the rank of senator to a
-tribune. This measure probably originated
-with C. Atinius, who was tribune <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 130.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aufidia">AUFĬDĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aurelia">AURĒLĬA (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 70), enacted that the judices
-should be chosen from the senators,
-equites, and tribuni aerarii. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Aurelia_t">AURĒLĬA TRĬBŪNĬCĬA, respecting the
-tribunes.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227"></a>[227]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Baebia">BAEBĬA (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 192 or 180), enacted that
-four praetors and six praetors should be
-chosen alternately; but the law was not observed.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Baebia_c">BAEBĬA CORNĒLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caecilia">CAECĬLĬA DE CENSŌRĬBUS or CENSŌRIA
-(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 54), proposed by Metellus Scipio,
-repealed a Clodia Lex (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 58), which
-had prescribed certain regular forms of proceeding
-for the censors in exercising their
-functions as inspectors of mores, and had required
-the concurrence of both censors to
-inflict the nota censoria. When a senator
-had been already convicted before an ordinary
-court, the lex permitted the censors to remove
-him from the senate in a summary way.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caecilia_v">CAECĬLĬA DE VECTĪGĀLĬBUS (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-62), released lands and harbours in Italy
-from the payment of taxes and dues (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">portoria</i>).
-The only vectigal remaining after
-the passing of this lex was the Vicesima.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caecilia_d">CAECĬLĬA DĪDĬA (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 98) forbade the
-proposing of a Lex Satura, on the ground
-that the people might be compelled either to
-vote for something which they did not approve,
-or to reject something which they did
-approve, if it was proposed to them in this
-manner. This lex was not always operative.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caelia">CAELIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabellariae">Leges Tabellariae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Caligulae">CĂLĬGŬLAE LEX AGUĀRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mamilia">Mamilia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Calpurnia">CALPURNĬA DE AMBĬTU. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Calpurnia_r">CALPURNĬA DE RĔPĔTUNDIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Canuleia">CĂNŬLĒIA. (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 445) established connubium
-between the patres and plebs, which
-had been taken away by the law of the
-Twelve Tables.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cassia">CASSĬA (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 104), proposed by the tribune
-L. Cassius Longinus, did not allow a
-person to remain a senator who had been
-convicted in a judicium populi, or whose
-imperium had been abrogated by the populus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cassia_c">CASSĬA empowered the dictator Caesar to
-add to the number of the patricii, to prevent
-their extinction.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cassia_a">CASSĬA AGRĀRĬA, proposed by the consul
-Sp. Cassius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 486. This is said to
-have been the first agrarian law. It enacted
-that of the land taken from the Hernicans,
-half should be given to the Latins, and half
-to the plebs, and likewise that part of the
-public land possessed by the patricians should
-be distributed among the plebeians. This
-law met with the most violent opposition,
-and appears not to have been carried. Cassius
-was accused of aiming at the sovereignty,
-and was put to death. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ager">Ager
-Publicus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cassia_t">CASSĬA TĂBELLĀRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabellariae">Leges Tabellariae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cassia_f">CASSĬA TĔRENTĬA FRŪMENTĀRĬA
-(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 73) for the distribution of corn among
-the poor citizens and the purchasing of it.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cincia">CINCĬA DE DŌNIS ET MŪNĔRĬBUS, a
-plebiscitum passed in the time of the tribune
-M. Cincius Alimentus (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 204). It forbade
-a person to take any thing for his pains in
-pleading a cause. In the time of Augustus,
-the Lex Cincia was confirmed by a senatus-consultum,
-and a penalty of four times the
-sum received was imposed on the advocate.
-The law was so far modified in the time of
-Claudius, that an advocate was allowed to
-receive ten sestertia; if he took any sum
-beyond that, he was liable to be prosecuted
-for repetundae. It appears that this permission
-was so far restricted in Trajan’s time,
-that the fee could not be paid till the work
-was done.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Claudia">CLAUDĬA, passed under the emperor Claudius,
-took away the agnatorum tutela in case
-of women.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Claudia_s">CLAUDĬA <span class="smcap">de Senatoribus</span>, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 218 (Liv.
-xxi. 63), the provisions of which are alluded to
-by Cicero as antiquated and dead in his time.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Clodiae">CLŌDIAE, the name of various plebiscita,
-proposed by Clodius, when tribune, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 58.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Clodia de Auspiciis</span> prevented the magistratus
-from dissolving the comitia tributa,
-by declaring that the auspices were unfavourable.
-This lex therefore repealed the Aelia
-and Fufia. It also enacted that a lex might
-be passed on the dies fasti. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aelia">Aelia Lex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Clodia de Censoribus.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caecilia">Caecilia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Clodia de Civibus Romanis Interemptis</span>,
-to the effect that “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">qui civem Romanum indemnatum
-interemisset, ei aqua et igni interdiceretur</span>.”
-It was in consequence of this
-lex that the interdict was pronounced against
-Cicero, who considers the whole proceeding as
-a privilegium.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Clodia Frumentaria</span>, by which the corn,
-which had formerly been sold to the poor
-citizens at a low rate, was given.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Clodia de Sodalitatibus</span> or <span class="smcap">de Collegiis</span>
-restored the Sodalitia, which had been abolished
-by a senatus-consultum of the year
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 80, and permitted the formation of new
-Sodalitia.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Clodia de Libertinorum Suffragiis.</span> (Cic.
-<cite>pro Mil.</cite> 12, 33.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Clodia de Rege Ptolemaeo et de Exsulibus
-Byzantinis.</span> (Vell. Pat. ii. 45.)</p>
-
-<p>There were other so-called Leges Clodiae,
-which were however privilegia.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Commissoria">COMMISSORĬA LEX, respecting sales.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Corneliae">CORNĒLĬAE. Various leges passed in the
-dictatorship of Sulla, and by his influence, are
-so called.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228"></a>[228]</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Agraria</span>, by which many of the inhabitants
-of Etruria and Latium were deprived of the
-complete civitas, and retained only the commercium,
-and a large part of their lands were
-made public, and given to military colonists.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Civitate.</span> (Liv., <cite>Epit.</cite> 86.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Falsis</span>, against those who forged testaments
-or other deeds, and against those who
-adulterated or counterfeited the public coin,
-whence Cicero calls it <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testamentaria</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummaria</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Injuriis.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Injuria">Injuria</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Judiciaria.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Magistratibus</span>, partly a renewal of old
-plebiscita. (Appian, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> i. 100, 101.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Majestatis.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Majestas">Majestas</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Parricidio.</span> [See below: <span class="smcap">De Sicariis</span>.]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Proscriptione et Proscriptis.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Proscriptio">Proscriptio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Provinciis Ordinandis.</span> (Cic. <cite>ad Fam.</cite>
-i. 9; iii. 6, 8, 10.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Repetundis.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Sacerdotiis.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sacerdos">Sacerdos</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Sicariis et Veneficis</span>, contained provisions
-as to death or fire caused by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dolus
-malus</i>, and against persons going about
-armed with the intention of killing or thieving.
-The law not only provided for cases of
-poisoning, but contained provisions against
-those who made, sold, bought, possessed, or
-gave poison for the purpose of poisoning;
-also against a magistratus or senator who
-conspired in order that a person might be
-condemned in a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicium publicum</i>, &amp;c.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sumptuariae.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Leges Sumptuariae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Tribunicia</span>, which diminished the power
-of the Tribuni Plebis.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Unciaria</span> appears to have been a lex which
-lowered the rate of interest, and to have been
-passed about the same time with the Leges
-Sumptuariae of Sulla.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Corneliae_t">CORNĒLĬAE, which were proposed by the
-tribune C. Cornelius about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 67. One
-limited the edictal power by compelling the
-praetors <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus dicere ex edictis suis perpetuis</i>.&mdash;Another
-lex of the same tribune enacted that
-no one <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legibus solveretur</i>, unless such a measure
-was agreed on in a meeting of the senate
-at which two hundred members were present,
-and afterwards approved by the people; and
-it enacted that no tribune should put his veto
-on such a senatus-consultum.&mdash;There was also
-a Lex Cornelia concerning the wills of those
-Roman citizens who died in captivity (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apud
-hostes</i>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cornelia">CORNĒLIA DE NOVIS TABELLIS, proposed
-by P. Corn. Dolabella, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 47.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cornelia_c">CORNĒLIA ET CAECĬLĪA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 57, gave
-Cn. Pompeius the superintendence of the Res
-Frumentaria for five years.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Cornelia_b">CORNĒLĬA BAEBĬA DE AMBĬTU, proposed
-by the consuls P. Cornelius Cethegus
-and M. Baebius Tamphilus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 181. This
-law is sometimes, but erroneously, attributed
-to the consuls of the preceding year, L.
-Aemilius and Cn. Baebius. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Curiata_i">CŪRIĀTA LEX DE IMPERIO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Imperium">Imperium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Curiata_a">CŪRIĀTA LEX DE ADOPTIONE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adoptio">Adoptio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Decemviralis">DĔCEMVĬRĀLIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Duodecim_t">Lex Duodecim Tabularum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Decia">DĔCĬA DE DUUMVIRIS NAVALIBUS.
-(Liv. ix. 30.)</p>
-
-
-<p id="Didia">DĪDĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Leges Sumptuariae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Domitia">DOMĬTĬA DE SĂCERDŌTIIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sacerdos">Sacerdos</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Duilia">DUĪLĬA (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449), a plebiscitum proposed
-by the tribune Duilius, which enacted that
-whoever left the people without tribunes, or
-created a magistrate from whom there was
-no appeal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocatio</i>), should be scourged
-and beheaded.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Duilia_m">DUĪLĬA MAENĬA, proposed by the tribunes
-Duilius and Maenius (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 357), restored
-the old uncial rate of interest (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unciarium
-fenus</i>), which had been fixed by the
-Twelve Tables. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus</a>.</span>] The same tribunes
-carried a measure which was intended, in
-future, to prevent such unconstitutional proceedings
-as the enactment of a lex by the soldiers
-out of Rome, on the proposal of the consul.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Duodecim_t">DŬŎDĔCIM TĂBŬLĀRUM. In the year
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 454 the Senate assented to a Plebiscitum,
-pursuant to which commissioners were to be
-sent to Athens and the Greek cities generally,
-in order to make themselves acquainted with
-their laws. Three commissioners were appointed
-for the purpose. On the return of
-the commissioners, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 452, it was agreed
-that persons should be appointed to draw up
-the code of laws (decemviri Legibus scribundis),
-but they were to be chosen only from
-the Patricians, with a provision that the
-rights of the Plebeians should be respected
-by the decemviri in drawing up the laws.
-In the following year (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 451) the Decemviri
-were appointed in the Comitia Centuriata,
-and during the time of their office no
-other magistratus were chosen. The body
-consisted of ten Patricians, including the
-three commissioners who had been sent
-abroad: Appius Claudius, Consul designatus,
-was at the head of the body. Ten Tables of
-Laws were prepared during the year, and
-after being approved by the Senate were confirmed
-by the Comitia Centuriata. As it was
-considered that some further Laws were
-wanted, Decemviri were again elected <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-450, consisting of Appius Claudius and his
-friends. Two more Tables were added by
-these Decemviri, which Cicero calls “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Duae
-tabulae iniquarum legum</span>.” The provision<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229"></a>[229]</span>
-which allowed no connubium between the
-Patres and the Plebs is referred to the
-Eleventh Table. The whole Twelve Tables
-were first published in the consulship of L.
-Valerius and M. Horatius after the downfall
-of the Decemviri, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449. This the first
-attempt to make a code remained also the
-only attempt for near one thousand years,
-until the legislation of Justinian. The
-Twelve Tables are mentioned by the Roman
-writers under a great variety of names:
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges Decemvirales</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Decemviralis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges
-XII.</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex XII. tabularum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Duodecim</i>, and
-sometimes they are referred to under the
-names of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex</i> simply, as being
-pre-eminently The Law. The Laws were
-cut on bronze tablets and put up in a public
-place. They contained matters relating both
-to the Jus Publicum and the Jus Privatum
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fons publici privatique juris</i>). The Jus
-Publicum underwent great changes in the
-course of years, but the Jus Privatum of the
-Twelve Tables continued to be the fundamental
-law of the Roman State. The Roman
-writers speak in high terms of the precision
-of the enactments contained in the Twelve
-Tables, and of the propriety of the language
-in which they were expressed.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fabia">FĂBĬA DE PLĂGIO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plagium">Plagium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fabia_n">FĂBĬA DE NUMERO SECTATORUM.
-(Cic. <cite>pro Murena</cite>, 34.)</p>
-
-
-<p id="Falcidia">FALCIDIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Voconia">Lex Voconia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fannia">FANNĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Leges Sumptuariae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fannia_j">FANNĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Junia">Junia de Peregrinis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Flaminia">FLĀMĬNĬA was an Agraria Lex for the
-distribution of lands in Picenum, proposed by
-the tribune C. Flaminius, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 228 according
-to Cicero, or in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 232 according to
-Polybius. The latter date is the more probable.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Flavia">FLĀVĬA AGRĀRĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 60, for the distribution
-of lands among Pompey’s soldiers,
-proposed by the tribune L. Flavius, who
-committed the consul Caecilius Metellus to
-prison for opposing it.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Frumentariae_l">FRŪMENTĀRĬAE. Various leges were so
-called which had for their object the distribution
-of grain among the people, either at
-a low price or gratuitously. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Frumentariae">Frumentariae
-Leges</a></span>, <a href="#Page_182">p. 182</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fufia">FŪFĬA DE RĒLĬGĬŌNE, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 61, was a
-privilegium which related to the trial of
-Clodius.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Fufia_j">FŪFĬA JŪDĬCĬĀRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a></span>, <a href="#Page_217">p. 217</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Furia">FŪRIA or FŪSĬA CĂNĪNĬA limited the
-number of slaves to be manumitted by testament.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Furia_t">FŪRIA or FŪSĬA TESTĂMENTĀRĬA,
-enacted that a testator should not give more
-than three-fourths of his property in legacies,
-thus securing one-fourth to the heres.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Gabinia">GĂBĪNĬA TĂBELLĀRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabellariae">Leges Tabellariae</a>.</span>]
-There were various Gabiniae Leges,
-some of which were privilegia, as that for
-conferring extraordinary power on Cn. Pompeius
-for conducting the war against the
-pirates. A Gabinia Lex, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 58, forbade all
-loans of money at Rome to legationes from
-foreign parts. The object of the lex was to
-prevent money being borrowed for the purpose
-of bribing the senators at Rome.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Galliae">GALLĬAE CISALPĪNAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Rubria">Rubria</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Gellia">GELLIA CORNĒLĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 72, which gave
-to Cn. Pompeius the extraordinary power of
-conferring the Roman civitas on Spaniards in
-Spain, with the advice of his consilium.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Genucia">GENUCĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 341, forbade altogether
-the taking of interest for the use of money.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hieronica">HĬĔRŎNĬCA was not a lex properly so
-called. Before the Roman conquest of Sicily,
-the payment of the tenths of wine, oil, and
-other produce had been fixed by Hiero; and
-the Roman quaestors, in letting these tenths
-to farm, followed the practice which they
-found established.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Horatiae">HŎRĀTĬAE ET VALĔRĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Valeriae">Leges Valeriae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Hortensia">HORTENSIA DE PLĒBISCĪTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Publilia">Leges
-Publiliae</a>; <a href="#Plebiscitum">Plebiscitum</a>.</span>] Another Lex
-Hortensia enacted that the nundinae, which
-had hitherto been feriae, should be dies fasti.
-This was done for the purpose of accommodating
-the inhabitants of the country.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Icilia">ICILĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 456, by which the Aventinus
-was assigned to the plebs. This was the first
-instance of the ager publicus being assigned
-to the plebs. Another Lex Icilia, proposed
-by the tribune Sp. Icilius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 470, had for
-its object to prevent all interruption to the
-tribunes while acting in the discharge of
-their duties. In some cases the penalty was
-death.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Juliae">JŪLĬAE. Most of the Juliae Leges were
-passed in the time of C. Julius Caesar and
-Augustus.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Adulteriis.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adulterium">Adulterium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Agraria</span>, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 59, in the consulship of
-Caesar, for distributing the ager publicus in
-Campania among 20,000 poor citizens, who had
-each three children or more.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Ambitu.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Bonis Cedendis.</span> This lex provided
-that a debtor might escape all personal molestation
-from his creditors by giving up his
-property to them for the purpose of sale and
-distribution. It is doubtful if this lex was
-passed in the time of Julius Caesar or of
-Augustus, though probably of the former.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Caede et Veneficio</span> (Suet. <cite>Ver.</cite> 33),
-perhaps the same as the Lex De Vi Publica.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Civitate</span> was passed in the consulship
-of L. Julius Caesar and P. Rutilius<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230"></a>[230]</span>
-Lupus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 90. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas</a>; <a href="#Foederatae">Foederatae
-Civitates</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Fenore</span>, or rather De Pecuniis Mutuis
-or Creditis (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 47), passed in the time
-of Julius Caesar. The object of it was to
-make an arrangement between debtors and
-creditors, for the satisfaction of the latter.
-The possessiones and res were to be estimated
-at the value which they had before the civil
-war, and to be surrendered to the creditors
-at that value; whatever had been paid for
-interest was to be deducted from the principal.
-The result was, that the creditor lost
-about one-fourth of his debt; but he escaped
-the loss usually consequent on civil disturbance,
-which would have been caused by
-novae tabulae.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Judiciariae.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Liberis Legationibus.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Legatus">Legatus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Majestate.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Majestas">Majestas</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Maritandis Ordinibus.</span> [See below:
-<span class="smcap">Julia et Papia Poppaea</span>.]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Municipalis</span>, commonly called the Table
-of Heraclea. In the year 1732 there were
-found near the Gulf of Tarentum and in the
-neighbourhood of the city of ancient Heraclea,
-large fragments of a bronze table,
-which contained on one side a Roman lex,
-and on the other a Greek inscription. The
-whole is now in the Museo Borbonico at
-Naples. The lex contains various provisions
-as to the police of the city of Rome, and as
-to the constitution of communities of Roman
-citizens (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">municipia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coloniae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefecturae</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fora</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conciliabula civium Romanorum</i>). It
-was accordingly a lex of that kind which is
-called Satura. It was probably passed in
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 45.</p>
-
-<p id="Lex_jpp"><span class="smcap">Julia et Papia Poppaea.</span> Augustus appears
-to have caused a lex to be enacted
-about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 18, which is cited as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Julia
-de Maritandis Ordinibus</i>, and is referred to
-in the Carmen Seculare of Horace, which was
-written in the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 17. The object of
-this lex was to regulate marriages, as to
-which it contained numerous provisions; but
-it appears not to have come into operation
-till the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 13. In the year <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 9,
-and in the consulship of M. Papius Mutilus
-and Q. Poppaeus Secundus (consules suffecti),
-another lex was passed as a kind of amendment
-and supplement to the former lex, and
-hence arose the title of Lex Julia et Papia
-Poppaea, by which this lex is often quoted.
-The lex is often variously quoted, according
-as reference is made to its various provisions;
-sometimes it is called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Julia</i>, sometimes
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Papia Poppaea</i>, sometimes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Julia et Papia</i>,
-sometimes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex de Maritandis Ordinibus</i>,
-from the chapter which treated of the marriages
-of the senators, sometimes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Caducaria,
-Decimaria</i>, &amp;c. from the various chapters.
-The Lex Julia forbade the marriage
-of a senator or senator’s children with a
-libertina, with a woman whose father or
-mother had followed an ars ludicra, and with
-a prostitute; and also the marriage of a
-libertinus with a senator’s daughter. In
-order to promote marriage, various penalties
-were imposed on those who lived in a state
-of celibacy (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caelibatus</i>) after a certain age,
-and various privileges were given to those
-who had three or more children. A candidate
-for the public offices who had several
-children was preferred to one who had fewer.
-After the passing of this lex, it became usual
-for the senate, and afterwards the emperor
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">princeps</i>), to give occasionally, as a privilege
-to certain persons who had not children, the
-same advantage that the lex secured to those
-who had children. This was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus
-Liberorum</i>, and sometimes the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus trium
-Liberorum</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Peculatus</span>, cited in the Digest, related to
-sacrilege as well as peculatus.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Julia et Plautia</span>, respecting stolen things.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Julia Papiria.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Papiria">Papiria</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Provinciis.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Provincia">Provinciae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Repetundarum.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sacrilegis.</span> [See above: <span class="smcap">Julia Peculatus</span>.]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sumptuariae.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Leges Sumptuariae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Theatralis</span>, which permitted Roman
-equites, in case they or their parents had
-ever had a census equestris, to sit in the
-fourteen rows (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quatuordecim ordines</i>) fixed
-by the Lex Roscia Theatralis, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 69.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Julia et Titia</span>, respecting Tutors.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Vi Publica and Privata.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vis">Vis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Vicesimaria.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vicesima">Vicesima</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Junia">JŪNĬA DE PĔRĔGRĪNIS, proposed <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-126, by M. Junius Pennus, a tribune, banished
-peregrini from the city. A lex of C.
-Fannius, consul <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 122, contained the same
-provisions respecting the Latini and Italici;
-and a lex of C. Papius, perhaps <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 65, contained
-the same respecting all persons who
-were not domiciled in Italy.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Junia_l">JŪNĬA LĬCĬNĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Licinia_j">Licinia Junia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Junia_n">JŪNIA NORBĀNA, of uncertain date, but
-probably about <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 17, enacted that when
-a Roman citizen had manumitted a slave
-without the requisite formalities, the manumission
-should not in all cases be ineffectual,
-but the manumitted person should have the
-status of a Latinus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Junia_r">JŪNIA RĒPĔTUNDĀRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Laetoria">LAETŌRIA, the false name of the Lex
-Plaetoria. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Curator">Curator</a>.</span>] Sometimes the lex
-proposed by Volero for electing plebeian magistrates
-at the comitia tributa is cited as a
-Lex Laetoria.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231"></a>[231]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Licinia">LĬCĬNĬA DE SŎDĀLĬTIIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Licinia_a">LĬCĬNIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aebutia">Aebutia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Licinia_l">LĬCĬNIA DE LŪDIS ĂPOLLĬNĀRĬBUS.
-(Liv. xxvii. 23.)</p>
-
-
-<p id="Licinia_j">LĬCĬNIA JŪNIA, or, as it is sometimes
-called, Junia et Licinia, passed in the consulship
-of L. Licinius Murena and Junius Silanus,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 62, enforced the Caecilia Didia,
-in connection with which it is sometimes mentioned.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Licinia_c">LĬCĬNIA MŪCĬA DE CĪVĬBUS RĔGUNDIS,
-passed in the consulship of L.
-Licinius Crassus and Q. Mucius Scaevola,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 95, enacted a strict examination as to
-the title to citizenship, and deprived of the
-exercise of civic rights all those who could
-not make out a good title to them. This
-measure partly led to the Marsic war.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Licinia_s">LĬCĬNIA SUMPTUĀRIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Leges Sumptuariae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Liciniae">LĬCĬNIAE, proposed by C. Licinius, who
-was tribune of the people from <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 376 to
-367, and who brought the contest between
-the patricians and plebeians to a happy termination.
-He was supported in his exertions
-by his colleague L. Sextius. The laws
-which he proposed were: 1. That in future
-no more consular tribunes should be appointed,
-but that consuls should be elected
-as in former times, one of whom should always
-be a plebeian. 2. That no one should possess
-more than 500 jugera of the public land, nor
-keep upon it more than 100 head of large,
-or 500 of small cattle. It is related that
-Licinius was accused and condemned for violating
-his own law. Livy states that Licinius,
-together with his son, held 1000 jugera of
-the public land, and by emancipating his son
-had acted in fraud of the law. The son thus
-possessed 500 jugera in his own name, while
-his father had the actual enjoyment. 3. A law
-regulating the affairs between debtor and creditor,
-which ordained that the interest already
-paid for borrowed money should be deducted
-from the capital, and that the remainder of
-the latter should be paid back in three yearly
-instalments. 4. That the Sibylline books
-should be entrusted to a college of ten men
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decemviri</i>), half of whom should be plebeians,
-in order that no falsifications might
-be introduced in favour of the patricians.
-These rogations were passed after a most
-vehement opposition on the part of the patricians,
-and L. Sextius was the first plebeian
-who, in accordance with the first of them,
-obtained the consulship for the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-366.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Licinia_m">LĬCĬNIA, also called MANLĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 196,
-created the triumviri epulones.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Liviae">LĪVĬAE, various enactments proposed by
-the tribune M. Livius Drusus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 91, for
-establishing colonies in Italy and Sicily, distributing
-corn among the poor citizens at a
-low rate, and admitting the foederatae civitates
-to the Roman civitas. He is also said
-to have been the mover of a law for adulterating
-silver by mixing with it an eighth
-part of brass. Drusus was assassinated, and
-the senate declared that all his laws were
-passed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contra auspicia</i>, and were therefore
-not leges.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lutatia">LUTĀTIA DE VI, proposed by the consul
-Q. Lutatius Catulus, with the assistance of
-Plautius the tribune: usually called Lex
-Plautia or Plotia. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vis">Vis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Maenia">MAENĬA LEX, is only mentioned by
-Cicero, who says that M. Curius compelled
-the patres <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ante auctores fieri</i> in the case of
-the election of a plebeian consul, “which,”
-adds Cicero, “was a great thing to accomplish,
-as the Lex Maenia was not yet passed.”
-The lex therefore required the patres to give
-their consent at least to the election of a
-magistratus, or, in other words, to confer or
-agree to confer the imperium on the person
-whom the comitia should elect. It was
-probably proposed by the tribune Maenius
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 287.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Majestatis">MAJESTĀTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Majestas">Majestas</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mamilia">MAMILĬA DE JŬGURTHAE FAUTŌRĬBUS.
-(Sall. <cite>Jug.</cite> 40.)</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mamilia_f">MAMILIA FINIUM RĔGUNDŌRUM, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-239 or 165, respecting boundaries.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Manilia">MĀNĪLĬA, proposed by the tribune C.
-Manilius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 66, was a privilegium by
-which was conferred on Pompey the command
-in the war against Mithridates. The
-lex was supported by Cicero when praetor.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Manlia">MANLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Licinia">Licinia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Manlia_v">MANLIA DE VĪCĒSĬMA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 357, imposed
-the tax of five per cent. (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vicesima</i>) on
-the value of manumitted slaves.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Marcia">MARCĬA, probably about the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-352, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adversus feneratores</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Marcia_a">MARCĬA, an agrarian law proposed by the
-tribune L. Marcius Philippus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 104.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Maria">MĂRĬA, proposed by Marius when tribune,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 119, for narrowing the pontes at
-elections.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Memmia">MEMMIA or REMMĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calumnia">Calumnia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mensia">MENSĬA, respecting the marriage of a Roman
-woman with a peregrinus, declared
-the offspring of such marriages peregrini.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Minucia">MĬNŬCĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 216, created the triumviri
-mensarii.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nervae">NERVAE AGRĀRIA, the latest known
-instance of a lex.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Octavia">OCTĀVĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 91, one of the numerous
-leges frumentariae which repealed a Sempronia
-Frumentaria. It is mentioned by
-Cicero as a more reasonable measure than the
-Sempronia, which was too profuse.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232"></a>[232]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Ogulnia">OGULNĬA, proposed by the tribunes, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-300, increased the number of pontifices to
-eight, and that of the augurs to nine; it
-also enacted that four of the pontifices and
-five of the augurs should be taken from the
-plebes.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Oppia">OPPĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Leges Sumptuariae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Orchia">ORCHĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Leges Sumptuariae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ovinia">ŎVĪNĬA, of uncertain date, was a plebiscitum
-which gave the censors certain powers
-in regulating the lists of the senators (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordo
-senatorius</i>): the main object seems to have
-been to exclude all improper persons from
-the senate, and to prevent their admission,
-if in other respects qualified.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Papia">PĀPĬA DE PĔRĔGRĪNIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Junia">Lex Junia
-de Peregrinis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Papia_p">PĀPIA POPPAEA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex_jpp">Lex Julia et Papia
-Poppaea</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Papiria">PĂPĪRĬA or JŪLIA PĂPĪRIA DE MULCTĀRUM
-AESTĬMĀTIŌNE (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 430), fixed
-a money value according to which fines were
-paid, which formerly were paid in sheep and
-cattle. Some writers make this valuation
-part of the Aternian law [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aternia">Aternia Tarpeia</a></span>],
-but in this they appear to have been mistaken.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Papiria_s">PĂPĪRIA, by which the as was made semuncialis,
-one of the various enactments
-which tampered with the coinage.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Papiria_a">PĂPĪRĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 332, proposed by the praetor
-Papirius, gave the Acerrani the civitas
-without the suffragium. It was properly a
-privilegium, but is useful as illustrating the
-history of the extension of the civitas Romana.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Papiria_c">PĂPĪRĬA, of uncertain date, enacted that
-no <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aedes</i> should be declared <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consecratae</i> without
-a plebiscitum.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Papiria_p">PĂPĪRIA PLAUTĬA, a plebiscitum of the
-year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 89, proposed by the tribunes C.
-Papirius Carbo and M. Plautius Silvanus, in
-the consulship of Cn. Pompeius Strabo and
-L. Porcius Cato, is called by Cicero a lex of
-Silvanus and Carbo. [See <span class="smcap"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas</a>; <a href="#Foederatae">Foederatae
-Civitates</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Papiria_l">PĂPĪRIA POETELĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Poetelia">Lex Poetelia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Papiria_t">PĂPĪRIA TĂBELLĀRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabellariae">Leges Tabellariae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pedia">PĔDĬA, relating to the murderers of Caesar.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Peducaea">PĒDŪCAEA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 113, a plebiscitum, seems
-to have been merely a privilegium, and not a
-general law against incestum.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pesulania">PESULĀNĬA, provided that if an animal
-did any damage, the owner should make it
-good, or give up the animal.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Petillia">PĔTILLĬA, <span class="smcap">De Pecunia Regis Antiochi</span>.
-(Liv. xxxviii. 54.)</p>
-
-
-<p id="Petreia">PETRĒIA, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de decimatione militum</i>, in case
-of mutiny.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Petronia">PETRŌNĬA, probably passed in the time
-of Augustus, and subsequently amended by
-various senatusconsulta, forbade a master
-to deliver up his slave to fight with wild
-beasts.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pinari">PĪNĀRĬ, related to the giving of a judex
-within a limited time.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Plaetoria">PLAETŌRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Curator">Curator</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Plautia">PLAUTĬA or PLŎTIA DE VI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vis">Vis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Plautia_j">PLAUTIA or PLŌTIA JŪDĬCĬĀRIA,
-enacted that fifteen persons should be annually
-taken from each tribe to be placed in the
-Album Judicum.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Plautia_r">PLAUTIA ET PLŌTIA DE RĔDĬTU
-LĔPĬDĀNORUM. (Suet. Caes. 5.)</p>
-
-
-<p id="Poetelia">POETELĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 358, a plebiscitum, was
-the first lex against ambitus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Poetelia_p">POETELIA PĂPĪRIA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 326, made
-an important change in the liabilities of the
-Nexi.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pompeiae">POMPĒIAE. There were various leges so
-called.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Civitate</span>, proposed by Cn. Pompeius
-Strabo, the father of Cn. Pompeius Magnus,
-probably in his consulship <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 89, gave the
-jus Latii or Latinitas to all the towns of the
-Transpadani, and probably the civitas to the
-Cispadani.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Ambitu.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Imperio Caesari Prorogando.</span> (Vell.
-Pat. ii. 46; Appian, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> ii. 18.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Judiciaria.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a></span>, <a href="#Page_217">p. 217</a>, <em>a</em>.]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Jure Magistratuum</span>, forbade a person
-to be a candidate for public offices (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">petitio
-honorum</i>) who was not at Rome; but J.
-Caesar was excepted. This was doubtless
-the old law, but it had apparently become
-obsolete.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Parricidiis.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Parricida">Parricidium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Tribunitia</span> (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 70), restored the old tribunitia
-potestas, which Sulla had nearly
-destroyed. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribunus">Tribuni</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Vi</span>, was a privilegium, and only referred
-to the case of Milo.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Porciae">PORCĬAE DE CĂPĬTE CĪVĬUM, or DE
-PRŌVŎCĀTIŌNE, enacted that no Roman
-citizen should be scourged or put to death.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Porcia">PORCIA DE PRŌVINCIIS, about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-198, the enactments of which are doubtful.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Publicia">PUBLĬCĬA, permitted betting at certain
-games which required strength.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Publilia">PUBLĪLĬA. In the consulship of L. Pinarius
-and P. Furius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 471, the tribune
-Publilius Volero proposed, in the assembly of
-the tribes, that the tribunes should in future
-be appointed in the comitia of the tribes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ut
-plebeii magistratus tributis comitiis fierent</i>),
-instead of by the centuries, as had formerly
-been the case; since the clients of the patricians
-were so numerous in the centuries, that
-the plebeians could not elect whom they<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233"></a>[233]</span>
-wished. This measure was violently opposed
-by the patricians, who prevented the tribes
-from coming to any resolution respecting it
-throughout this year; but in the following
-year, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 471, Publilius was re-elected tribune,
-and together with him C. Laetorius, a
-man of still greater resolution than Publilius.
-Fresh measures were added to the former
-proposition: the aediles were to be chosen
-by the tribes, as well as the tribunes, and the
-tribes were to be competent to deliberate and
-determine on all matters affecting the whole
-nation, and not such only as might concern
-the plebes. This proposition, though still
-more violently resisted by the patricians than
-the one of the previous year, was carried.
-Some said that the number of the tribunes
-was now for the first time raised to five, having
-been only two previously.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Publiliae">PUBLĪLĬAE, proposed by the dictator Q.
-Publilius Philo, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 339. According to
-Livy, there were three Publiliae Leges. 1.
-The first is said to have enacted, that plebiscita
-should bind all Quirites, which is to the
-same purport as the Lex Hortensia of <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-286. It is probable, however, that the object
-of this law was to render the approval of the
-senate a sufficient confirmation of a plebiscitum,
-and to make the confirmation of the
-curiae unnecessary. 2. The second law
-enacted, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ut legum quae comitiis centuriatis
-ferrerentur ante initum suffragium patres
-auctores fierent</i>. By patres Livy here means
-the curiae; and accordingly this law made
-the confirmation of the curiae a mere formality
-in reference to all laws submitted to
-the comitia centuriata, since every law proposed
-by the senate to the centuries was to
-be considered to have the sanction of the
-curiae also. 3. The third law enacted that
-one of the two censors should necessarily be
-a plebeian. It is probable that there was
-also a fourth law, which applied the Licinian
-law to the praetorship as well as to the censorship,
-and which provided that in each
-alternate year the praetor should be a
-plebeian.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pupia">PŪPĬA, mentioned by Cicero, seems to
-have enacted that the senate could not meet
-on comitiales dies.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quintia">QUINTĬA, was a lex proposed by T. Quintius
-Crispinus, consul <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 9, for the preservation
-of the aquaeductus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Regia">RĒGĬA. A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Regia</i> during the kingly
-period of Roman history might have a two-fold
-meaning. In the first place it was a
-law which had been passed by the comitia
-under the presidency of the king, and was
-thus distinguished from a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Tribunicia</i>,
-which was passed by the comitia under the
-presidency of the tribunus celerum. In later
-times all laws, the origin of which was attributed
-to the time of the kings, were called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges Regiae</i>, though it by no means follows
-that they were all passed under the presidency
-of the kings, and much less, that they
-were enacted by the kings without the sanction
-of the curies. Some of these laws were
-preserved and followed at a very late period
-of Roman history. A collection of them was
-made, though at what time is uncertain, by
-Papisius or Papirius, and this compilation
-was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus Civile Papirianum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Papisianum</i>.
-The second meaning of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Regia</i>
-during the kingly period was undoubtedly
-the same as that of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Curiata de Imperio</i>.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Imperium">Imperium</a>.</span>] This indeed is not
-mentioned by any ancient writer, but must
-be inferred from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Regia</i> which we
-meet with under the empire, for the name
-could scarcely have been invented then; it
-must have come down from early times, when
-its meaning was similar, though not nearly
-so extensive. During the empire the curies
-continued to hold their meetings, though they
-were only a shadow of those of former times;
-and after the election of a new emperor,
-they conferred upon him the imperium in
-the ancient form by a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Curiata de Imperio</i>,
-which was now usually called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex
-Regia</i>. The imperium, however, which this
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Regia Lex</i> conferred upon an emperor, was
-of a very different nature from that which in
-former times it had conferred upon the kings.
-It now embraced all the rights and powers
-which the populus Romanus had formerly
-possessed, so that the emperor became what
-formerly the populus had been, that is, the
-sovereign power in the state. A fragment of
-such a lex regia, conferring the imperium
-upon Vespasian, engraved upon a brazen
-table, is still extant in the Lateran at Rome.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Remnia">REMNĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calumnia">Calumnia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Repetundarum">RĔPĔTUNDĀRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Rhodia">RHŎDĬA. The Rhodians had a maritime
-code which was highly esteemed. Some of
-its provisions were adopted by the Romans,
-and have thus been incorporated into the
-maritime law of European states. It was
-not, however, a lex in the proper sense of
-the term.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Roscia">ROSCĬA THEĀTRĀLIS, proposed by the
-tribune L. Roscius Otho, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 67, which gave
-the equites a special place at the public
-spectacles in fourteen rows or seats (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in quatuordecim
-gradibus sive ordinibus</i>) next to
-the place of the senators, which was in the
-orchestra. This lex also assigned a certain
-place to spendthrifts. The phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sedere in
-quatuordecim ordinibus</i> is equivalent to having
-the proper census equestris which was
-required by the lex. There are numerous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234"></a>[234]</span>
-allusions to this lex, which is sometimes
-simply called the Lex of Otho, or referred to
-by his name. It is erroneously supposed by
-some writers to have been enacted in the consulship
-of Cicero, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Rubria">RUBRĬA. The province of Gallia Cisalpina
-ceased to be a provincia, and became
-a part of Italia, about the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 43.
-When this change took place, it was necessary
-to provide for the administration of
-justice, as the usual modes of provincial
-administration would cease with the determination
-of the provincial form of government.
-This was effected by a lex, a large
-part of which, on a bronze tablet, is preserved
-in the Museum at Parma. The name
-of this lex is not known, but it is supposed
-by some to be the Lex Rubria.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Rupiliae">RŬPĬLĬAE LĒGES (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 131), were the
-regulations established by P. Rupilius, and
-ten legati, for the administration of the province
-of Sicily, after the close of the first
-servile war. They were made in pursuance
-of a consultum of the senate. Cicero speaks
-of these regulations as a decretum of Rupilius,
-which he says they call Lex Rupilia;
-but it was not a lex proper. The powers
-given to the commissioners by the Lex Julia
-Municipalis were of a similar kind.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sacratae">SĂCRĀTAE. Leges were properly so called
-which had for their object to make a thing or
-person <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacer</i>. A lex sacrata militaris is also
-mentioned by Livy.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Saenia">SAENĬA DE PATRICIORUM NUMERO
-AUGENDO, enacted in the 5th consulship of
-Augustus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Satura">SĂTŬRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex">Lex</a></span>, <a href="#Page_226">p. 226</a>, <em>a</em>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Scantinia">SCANTĪNĬA, proposed by a tribune; the
-date and contents are not known, but its
-object was to suppress unnatural crimes. It
-existed in the time of Cicero.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Scribonia">SCRĪBŌNĬA. The date and whole import
-of this lex are not known; but it enacted
-that a right to servitutes should not be acquired
-by usucapion.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Scribonia_v">SCRĪBŌNIA VĬĀRIA or DE VIIS MUNIENDIS,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 51.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Semproniae">SEMPRŌNĬAE, the name of various laws
-proposed by Tiberius and Caius Sempronius
-Gracchus.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Agraria.</span> In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 133 the tribune Tib.
-Gracchus revived the Agrarian law of Licinius
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Liciniae">Leges Liciniae</a></span>]: he proposed that no
-one should possess more than 500 jugera of
-the public land, and that the surplus land
-should be divided among the poor citizens,
-who were not to have the power of alienating
-it: he also proposed, as a compensation to
-the possessors deprived of the land on which
-they had frequently made improvements, that
-the former possessors should have the full
-ownership of 500 jugera, and each of their
-sons, if they had any, half that quantity:
-finally, that three commissioners (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triumviri</i>)
-should be appointed every year to carry the
-law into effect. This law naturally met with
-the greatest opposition, but it was eventually
-passed in the year in which it was proposed,
-and Tib. Gracchus, C. Gracchus, and Appius
-Claudius were the three commissioners appointed
-under it. It was, however, never
-carried fully into effect, in consequence of
-the murder of Tib. Gracchus. Owing to the
-difficulties which were experienced in carrying
-his brother’s agrarian law into effect, it was
-again brought forward by C. Gracchus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 123.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Capite Civium Romanorum</span>, proposed
-by C. Gracchus <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 123, enacted that the
-people only should decide respecting the
-caput or civil condition of a citizen. This
-law continued in force till the latest times of
-the republic.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Frumentaria</span>, proposed by C. Gracchus
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 123, enacted that corn should be sold by
-the state to the people once a month at the
-price of 6⅓ asses for each modius, which was
-equal to 1 gallon and nearly 8 pints English.
-This was only a trifle more than half the
-market price.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Judiciaria.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a></span>, <a href="#Page_216">p. 216</a>.]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Militaris</span>, proposed by C. Gracchus <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-123, enacted that the soldiers should receive
-their clothing gratis, and that no one should
-be enrolled as a soldier under the age of
-seventeen. Previously a fixed sum was deducted
-from the pay for all clothes and arms
-issued to the soldiers.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ne quis Judicio circumveniretur</span>, proposed
-by C. Gracchus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 123, punished all
-who conspired to obtain the condemnation of
-a person in a judicium publicum. One of
-the provisions of the Lex Cornelia de Sicariis
-was to the same effect.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">De Provinciis Consularibus</span>, proposed by
-C. Gracchus <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 123, enacted that the senate
-should fix each year, before the comitia for
-electing the consuls were held, the two provinces
-which were to be allotted to the two
-new consuls. There was also a Sempronian
-law concerning the province of Asia, which
-probably did not form part of the Lex de
-Provinciis Consularibus: it enacted that the
-taxes of this province should be let out to
-farm by the censors at Rome. This law was
-afterwards repealed by J. Caesar.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sempronia">SEMPRŌNIA DE FĒNŎRE, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 193, was
-a plebiscitum proposed by a tribune, M. Sempronius,
-which enacted that the law (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus</i>)
-about money lent (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecunia credita</i>) should
-be the same for the Socii and Latini (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Socii ac
-nomen Latinum</i>) as for Roman citizens. The
-object of the lex was to prevent Romans from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235"></a>[235]</span>
-lending money in the name of the Socii, who
-were not bound by the fenebres leges. The
-lex could obviously only apply within the
-jurisdiction of Rome.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Servilia">SERVĪLĬA AGRĀRIA, proposed by the
-tribune P. S. Rullus in the consulship of
-Cicero, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63, was a very extensive agrarian
-rogatio. It was successfully opposed by
-Cicero; but it was in substance carried by
-J. Caesar, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 59 [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Juliae">Lex Julia Agraria</a></span>], and
-is the lex called by Cicero <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Campana</i>,
-from the public land called ager campanus
-being assigned under this lex.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Servilia_c">SERVĪLĬA GLAUCIA DE CĪVĬTĀTE.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Servilia_r">SERVĪLIA GLAUCIA DE RĔPĔTUNDIS.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Servilia_j">SERVĪLIA JŪDĬCĬĀRIA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 106. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a></span>,
-<a href="#Page_216">p. 216</a>.] It is assumed by some writers
-that a lex of the tribune Servius Glaucia
-repealed the Servilia Judiciaria two years
-after its enactment.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Silia">SĪLĬA, relating to Publica Pondera.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Silvani">SILVĀNI ET CARBŌNIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Papiria_p">Lex Papiria
-Plautia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sulpiciae">SULPĬCĬAE, proposed by the tribune
-P. Sulpicius Rufus, a supporter of Marius,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 88, enacted the recall of the exiles, the
-distribution of the new citizens and the
-libertini among the thirty-five tribes, that
-the command in the Mithridatic war should
-be taken from Sulla and given to Marius,
-and that a senator should not contract debt
-to the amount of more than 2000 denarii.
-The last enactment may have been intended
-to expel persons from the senate who should
-get in debt. All these leges were repealed
-by Sulla.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sulpicia">SULPĬCĬA SEMPRŌNĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 304. No
-name is given to this lex by Livy, but it was
-probably proposed by the consuls. It prevented
-the dedicatio of a templum or altar
-without the consent of the senate or a majority
-of the tribunes.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sumptuariae">SUMPTUĀRĬAE, the name of various laws
-passed to prevent inordinate expense (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sumptus</i>)
-in banquets, dress, &amp;c. In the states
-of antiquity it was considered the duty of
-government to put a check upon extravagance
-in the private expenses of persons,
-and among the Romans in particular we find
-traces of this in the laws attributed to the
-kings, and in the Twelve Tables. The censors,
-to whom was entrusted the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">disciplina</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cura morum</i>, punished by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nota censoria</i>
-all persons guilty of what was then
-regarded as a luxurious mode of living; a
-great many instances of this kind are recorded.
-But as the love of luxury greatly increased
-with the foreign conquests of the republic
-and the growing wealth of the nation, various
-leges sumptuariae were passed at different
-times with the object of restraining it. These,
-however, as may be supposed, rarely accomplished
-their object, and in the latter times
-of the republic they were virtually repealed.
-The following list of them is arranged in
-chronological order:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Oppia</span>, proposed by the tribune C. Oppius
-in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 215, enacted that no woman should
-have above half an ounce of gold, nor wear a
-dress of different colours, nor ride in a carriage
-in the city or in any town, or within a
-mile of it, unless on account of public sacrifices.
-This law was repealed twenty years
-afterwards, whence we frequently find the
-Lex Orchia mentioned as the first lex sumptuaria.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Orchia</span>, proposed by the tribune C. Orchius
-in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 181, limited the number of guests to
-be present at entertainments.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Fannia</span>, proposed by the consul C. Fannius,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 61, limited the sums which were to be
-spent on entertainments, and enacted that
-not more than 100 asses should be spent on
-certain festivals named in the lex, whence it
-is called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centussis</i> by Lucilius; that on ten
-other days in each month not more than 30
-asses, and that on all other days not more
-than 10 asses, should be expended; also
-that no other fowl but one hen should be
-served up, and that not fattened for the
-purpose.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Didia</span>, passed <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 143, extended the Lex
-Fannia to the whole of Italy, and enacted
-that not only those who gave entertainments
-which exceeded in expense what the law
-had prescribed, but also all who were present
-at such entertainments, should be liable to
-the penalties of the law. We are not, however,
-told in what these consisted.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Licinia</span>, agreed in its chief provisions with
-the Lex Fannia, and was brought forward,
-we are told, that there might be the authority
-of a new law upon the subject, inasmuch
-as the Lex Fannia was beginning to be neglected.
-It allowed 200 asses to be spent on
-entertainments upon marriage days, and on
-other days the same as the Lex Fannia; also,
-that on ordinary days there should not be
-served up more than three pounds of fresh,
-and one pound of salt meat. It was probably
-passed in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 103.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Cornelia</span>, a law of the dictator Sulla, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-81, was enacted on account of the neglect of
-the Fannian and Licinian Laws. Like these,
-it regulated the expenses of entertainments.
-Extravagance in funerals, which had been
-forbidden even in the Twelve Tables, was
-also restrained by a law of Sulla.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Aemilia</span>, proposed by the consul Aemilius
-Lepidus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 78, did not limit the expenses<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236"></a>[236]</span>
-of entertainments, but the kind and quantity
-of food that was to be used.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Antia</span>, of uncertain date, proposed by Antius
-Resto, besides limiting the expenses of
-entertainments, enacted that no actual magistrate,
-or magistrate elect, should dine
-abroad anywhere except at the houses of
-certain persons. This law however was little
-observed; and we are told that Antius never
-dined out afterwards, that he might not see
-his own law violated.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Julia</span>, proposed by the dictator C. Julius
-Caesar, enforced the former sumptuary laws
-respecting entertainments which had fallen
-into disuse. He stationed officers in the
-provision market to seize upon all eatables
-forbidden by the law, and sometimes sent
-lictors and soldiers to banquets to take everything
-which was not allowed by the law.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Julia</span>, a lex of Augustus, allowed 200 sesterces
-to be expended upon festivals on dies
-profesti, 300 on those of the calends, ides,
-nones, and some other festive days, and 1000
-upon marriage feasts. There was also an
-edict of Augustus or Tiberius, by which as
-much as from 300 to 2000 sesterces were
-allowed to be expended upon entertainments,
-the increase being made with the hope of securing
-thereby the observance of the law.
-Tiberius attempted to check extravagance in
-banquets; and a senatusconsultum was passed
-in his reign for the purpose of restraining
-luxury, which forbade gold vases to be employed,
-except for sacred purposes, and also
-prohibited the use of silk garments to men.
-This sumptuary law, however, was but little
-observed. Some regulations on the subject
-were also made by Nero and by succeeding
-emperors, but they appear to have been of
-little or no avail in checking the increasing
-love of luxury in dress and food.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tabellariae">TĂBELLĀRĬAE, the laws by which the
-ballot was introduced in voting in the comitia.
-As to the ancient mode of voting at
-Rome, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a></span>, <a href="#Page_107">p. 107</a>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Gabinia</span>, proposed by the tribune Gabinius
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 139, introduced the ballot in the
-election of magistrates; whence Cicero calls
-the tabella <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vindex tacitae libertatis</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Cassia</span>, proposed by the tribune L. Cassius
-Longinus <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 137, introduced the ballot in
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicium populi</i>, or cases tried in the
-comitia by the whole body of the people, with
-the exception of cases of perduellio.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Papiria</span>, proposed by the tribune C. Papirius
-Carbo, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 131, introduced the ballot
-in the enactment and repeal of laws.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Caelia</span>, proposed by C. Caelius Caldus,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 107, introduced the ballot in cases of
-perduellio, which had been excepted in the
-Cassian law. There was also a law brought
-forward by Marius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 119, which, was intended
-to secure freedom and order in voting.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tarpeia">TARPĒIA ATERNĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aternia">Aternia Tarpeia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Terentilia">TĔRENTĪLĬA, proposed by the tribune C.
-Terentilius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 462, but not carried, was a
-rogatio which had for its object an amendment
-of the constitution, though in form it
-only attempted a limitation of the imperium
-consulare. This rogatio probably led to the
-subsequent legislation of the decemviri.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Testamentariae">TESTĀMENTĀRĬAE. Various leges, such
-as the Cornelia, Falcidia, Furia, and Voconia,
-regulated testamentary dispositions.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Thoria">THŎRĬA, passed <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 121, concerned the
-public land in Italy as far as the rivers Rubico
-and Macra, or all Italy except Cisalpine
-Gaul, the public land in the province of
-Africa, the public land in the territory of
-Corinth, and probably other public land besides.
-It relieved a great part of the public
-land of the land-tax (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vectigal</i>). Some considerable
-fragments of this lex have come down
-to us, engraved on the back part of the same
-bronze tablet which contained the Servilia
-Lex Judiciaria, and on Repetundae.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Titia">TĬTĬA, similar in its provisions to the Lex
-Publicia.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Titia_t">TĬTĬA, <span class="smcap">De Tutoribus</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Juliae">Julia et Titia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Trebonia">TRĒBONĬA, a plebiscitum proposed by L.
-Trebonius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 448, which enacted that if
-the ten tribunes were not chosen before the
-comitia were dissolved, those who were elected
-should not fill up the number (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">co-optare</i>), but
-that the comitia should be continued till the
-ten were elected.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Trebonia_p">TRĒBŌNĬA DE PRŌVINCIIS CONSULĀRĬBUS.
-(Plut. <cite>Cat. Min.</cite> 43; Liv. <cite>Epit.</cite>
-105.)</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tribunitia">TRĬBŪNĬTĬA. (1) A law passed in the
-times of the kings under the presidency of
-the tribunus celerum, and was so called to
-distinguish it from one passed under the presidency
-of the king. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Regia">Lex Regia</a>.</span>]&mdash;(2)
-Any law proposed by a tribune of the plebs.&mdash;(3)
-The law proposed by Pompey in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-70, restoring to the tribunes of the plebs the
-power of which they had been deprived by
-Sulla.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tullia">TULLĬA DE AMBĬTU. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tullia_l">TULLIA DE LĒGĀTIŌNE LĪBĔRA.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Legatus">Legatus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_224">p. 224</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Valeriae">VĂLĔRĬAE, proposed by the consul P.
-Valerius Publicola, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 508, enacted, 1.
-That whoever attempted to obtain possession
-of royal power should be devoted to the gods,
-together with his substance. 2. That
-whoever was condemned by the sentence of
-a magistrate to be put to death, to be
-scourged, or to be fined, should possess the
-right of appeal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocatio</i>) to the people.
-The patricians possessed previously the right<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237"></a>[237]</span>
-of appeal from the sentence of a magistrate
-to their own council the curiae, and therefore
-this law of Valerius probably related only to
-the plebeians, to whom it gave the right of
-appeal to the plebeian tribes, and not to the
-centuries. Hence the laws proposed by the
-Valerian family respecting the right of appeal
-are always spoken of as one of the chief
-safeguards of the liberty of the plebs. The
-right of appeal did not extend beyond a mile
-from the city, where unlimited imperium
-began, to which the patricians were just as
-much subject as the plebeians.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Valeriae_h">VĂLĔRĬAE ET HŎRĀTĬAE, three laws
-proposed by the consuls L. Valerius and M.
-Horatius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449, in the year after the
-decemvirate, enacted, 1. That a plebiscitum
-should be binding on the whole people, respecting
-the meaning of which expression, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plebiscitum">Plebiscitum</a></span>.
-2. That whoever should procure the
-election of a magistrate without appeal should
-be outlawed, and might be killed by any
-one with impunity. 3. Renewed the penalty
-threatened against any one who should harm
-the tribunes and the aediles, to whom were
-now added the judices and decemviri. There
-is considerable doubt as to who are meant
-by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judices</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decemviri</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Valeria">VĂLĔRĬA, proposed by the consul M.
-Valerius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 300, re-enacted for the third
-time the celebrated law of his family respecting
-appeal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocatio</i>) from the decision of
-a magistrate. The law specified no fixed
-penalty for its violation, leaving the judges
-to determine what the punishment should be.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Varia">VĂRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Majestas">Majestas</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vatinia">VĂTĪNĬA DE PRŌVINCIIS, was the
-enactment by which Julius Caesar obtained
-the province of Gallia Cisalpina with Illyricum
-for five years, to which the senate
-added Gallia Transalpina. This plebiscitum
-was proposed by the tribune Vatinius. A
-Trebonia Lex subsequently prolonged Caesar’s
-imperium for five years.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vatinia_c">VĂTĪNĬA DE CŎLŌNIS, under which the
-Latina Colonia [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Latinitas">Latinitas</a></span>] of Novum-Comum
-in Gallia Cisalpina was planted, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 59.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vatinia_r">VĂTĪNIA DE REJECTIŌNE JŪDĬCUM.
-(Cic. <cite>in Vatin.</cite> 11.)</p>
-
-
-<p id="De">DE VI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vis">Vis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Viaria">VĬĀRĬA. A viaria lex which Cicero says
-the tribune C. Curio talked of; but nothing
-more seems to be known of it. Some modern
-writers speak of leges viariae, but there do
-not appear to be any leges properly so called.
-The provisions as to roads in many of the
-Agrarian laws were parts of such leges, and
-had no special reference to roads.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Visellia">VISELLĬA, made a Latinus who assumed
-the rights of an ingenuus liable to prosecution.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Villia">VILLĬA ANNĀLIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Annalis">Lex Annalis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Voconia">VŎCŌNIA, enacted on the proposal of
-Q. Voconius Saxa, a tribunus plebis, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 169.
-One provision of the lex was, that no person
-who should be rated in the census at
-100,000 sesterces (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centum millia aeris</i>) after
-the census of that year, should make any
-female (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">virginem neve mulierem</i>) his heres.
-The lex allowed no exceptions, even in favour
-of an only daughter. It applied simply
-to testaments, and therefore a daughter or
-other female could inherit ab intestato to
-any amount. The vestal virgins could make
-women their heredes in all cases, which
-was the only exception to the provisions
-of the lex. Another provision of the lex
-forbade a person who was included in the
-census to give more in amount, in the form
-of a legacy to any person, than the heres or
-heredes should take. This provision secured
-something to the heres or heredes, but still
-the provision was ineffectual, and the object
-of the lex was only accomplished by the Lex
-Falcidia, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 44, which enacted that a
-testator should not give more than three-fourths
-in legacies, thus securing a fourth to
-the heres.</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-
-<p id="Libella">LĪBELLA, a small Roman silver coin,
-which existed in the early age of the city.
-The name was retained later as a proverbial
-expression for a very small value. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libella</i> was equal in value to the old full-weight
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">as</i>; and it seems most probable that
-the coin ceased being struck at the time of
-the reduction of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">as</i>, on account of the
-inconveniently small size which it would
-have assumed. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libella</i> was subdivided
-into the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sembella</i>, its half, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">teruncius</i>,
-its quarter. Cicero uses these words to express
-fractions of an estate, with reference
-to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">denarius</i> as the unit, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libella</i> signifying
-1-10th, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">teruncius</i> 1-40th of the
-whole.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Libellus">LĬBELLUS, the diminutive form of liber,
-signifies properly a little book. It was
-distinguished from other kinds of writings,
-by being written like our books by pages,
-whereas other writings were written <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">transversa
-charta</i>. It was used by the Romans
-as a technical term in the following cases:&mdash;1.
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libelli accusatorum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">accusatorii</i>, the
-written accusations which in some cases a
-plaintiff, after having received the permission
-to bring an action against a person, drew up,
-signed, and sent to the judicial authorities.
-2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libelli famosi</i>, libels or pasquinades, intended
-to injure the character of persons.
-A law of the Twelve Tables inflicted very
-severe punishments on those who composed
-defamatory writings. 3. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libellus memorialis</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238"></a>[238]</span>
-a pocket or memorandum book. 4. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libellus</i>
-is used by the Roman jurists as equivalent
-to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Oratio Principis</i>. 5. The word libellus was
-also applied to a variety of writings, which in
-most cases probably consisted of one page only;
-such as short letters, advertisements, &amp;c.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill238a" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill238a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ancient Writing Materials. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Liber">LĬBER (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βιβλίον</span>), a book. The most common
-material on which books were written
-by the Greeks and Romans, was the thin
-coats or rind (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liber</i>, whence the Latin name
-for a book) of the Egyptian papyrus. This
-plant was called by the Egyptians Byblos
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βύβλος</span>), whence the Greeks derived their
-name for a book (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βιβλίον</span>). The papyrus-tree
-grows in swamps to the height of ten
-feet and more, and paper (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">charta</i>) was prepared
-from the thin coats or pellicles which
-surround the plant. Next to the papyrus,
-parchment (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">membrana</i>) was the most common
-material for writing upon. It is said
-to have been invented by Eumenes II. king
-of Pergamus, in consequence of the prohibition
-of the export of papyrus from Egypt
-by Ptolemy Epiphanes. It is probable, however,
-that Eumenes introduced only some
-improvement in the manufacture of parchment,
-as Herodotus mentions writing on
-skins as common in his time, and says that
-the Ionians had been accustomed to give the
-name of skins (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διφθέραι</span>) to books. The ancients
-wrote usually on only one side of the
-paper or parchment. The back of the paper,
-instead of being written upon, was usually
-stained with saffron colour or the cedrus,
-which produced a yellow colour. As paper
-and parchment were dear, it was frequently
-the custom to erase or wash out writing of
-little importance, and to write upon the
-paper or parchment again, which was then
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Palimpsestus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παλιμψήστος</span>). The paper
-or parchment was joined together so as to
-form one sheet, and when the work was
-finished, it was rolled on a staff, whence it
-was called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">volumen</i>; and hence we have
-the expression <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">evolvere librum</i>. When an
-author divided a work into several books, it
-was usual to include only one book in a
-volume or roll, so that there was generally
-the same number of volumes as of books. In
-the papyri rolls found at Herculaneum, the
-stick on which the papyrus is rolled does not
-project from the papyrus, but is concealed
-by it. Usually, however, there were balls
-or bosses, ornamented or painted, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">umbilici</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornua</i>, which were fastened at each
-end of the stick and projected from the
-papyrus. The ends of the roll were carefully
-cut, polished with pumice-stone and coloured
-black; they were called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">geminae frontes</i>.
-The way in which a book was held while
-reading is shown in the following cut, taken
-from a painting at Herculaneum. To protect
-the roll from injury it was frequently
-put into a parchment case, which was stained
-with a purple colour or with the yellow of
-the Lutum. The title of the book (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">titulus</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">index</i>) was written on a small strip of papyrus
-or parchment with a light red colour
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coccum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minium</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="ill238b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill238b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Book held by a crowned Poet. (From a Painting at
-Herculaneum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Liberalia">LĪBĔRĀLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Liberi">LĪBĔRI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ingenui">Ingenui</a>; <a href="#Libertus">Libertus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Libertus">LĪBERTUS, LĪBERTĪNUS. Freemen
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liberi</i>) were either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ingenui</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ingenui">Ingenui</a></span>] or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239"></a>[239]</span>
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libertini</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libertini</i> were those persons who
-had been released from legal servitude. A
-manumitted slave was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libertus</i> (that is, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liberatus</i>)
-with reference to his master; with
-reference to the class to which he belonged
-after manumission, he was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libertinus</i>. Respecting
-the mode in which a slave was
-manumitted, and his status after manumission,
-see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Manumissio">Manumissio</a></span>.&mdash;At Athens, a liberated
-slave was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπελεύθερος</span>. When manumitted
-he did not obtain the citizenship, but
-was regarded as a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metoicus</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Metoici">Metoicus</a></span>], and,
-as such, he had to pay not only the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metoicion</i>
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετοίκιον</span> but a triobolon in addition to it.
-His former master became his patron <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης</span>
-to whom he owed certain duties.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Libitinarii">LĬBĬTĪNĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Libra">LĪBRA, <em>dim.</em> LĪBELLA <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σταθμός</span>, a balance,
-a pair of scales. The principal parts
-of this instrument were, 1. The beam (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugum</i>).
-2. The two scales, called in Greek
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάλαντα</span>, and in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lances</i>. The beam was
-made without a tongue, being held by a ring
-or other appendage (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ligula</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥῦμα</span>) fixed in
-the centre.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Libra_a">LĪBRA or AS, a pound, the unit of weight
-among the Romans and Italians. The uncial
-division, which has been noticed in speaking
-of the coin As, was also applied to the weight.&mdash;(See
-<a href="#TABLES">Tables</a> at the end.) The divisions of
-the ounce are given under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Uncia">Uncia</a></span>. Where
-the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pondo</i>, or its abbreviations <span class="allsmcap">P.</span> or
-<span class="allsmcap">POND.</span>, occur with a simple number, the
-weight understood is the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libra</i>. The name
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libra</i> was also given to a measure of horn,
-divided into twelve equal parts (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unciae</i>) by
-lines marked on it, and used for measuring
-oil.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Librarii">LIBRĀRĬI, the name of slaves, who were
-employed by their masters in writing or copying,
-sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">antiquarii</i>. They
-must be distinguished from the Scribae publici,
-who were freemen [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Scribae">Scribae</a></span>], and also
-from the booksellers [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Bibliopola">Bibliopola</a></span>], to both of
-whom this name was also applied.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Librator">LĪBRĀTOR, in general a person who examines
-things by a <span class="allsmcap">LIBRA</span>; but specially applied
-to two kinds of persons.&mdash;(1) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libratores
-aquae</i>, persons whose knowledge of
-hydrostatics was indispensable in the construction
-of aquaeducts, sewers, and other
-structures for the purpose of conveying a
-fluid from one place to another.&mdash;(2) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libratores</i>
-in the armies were probably soldiers
-who attacked the enemy by hurling with
-their own hands (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">librando</i>) lances or spears
-against them.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Libripens">LIBRĬPENS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mancipium">Mancipium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Liburna">LĬBURNA, LĬBURNĬCA, a light vessel,
-which derived its name from the Liburni.
-The ships of this people were of great assistance
-to Augustus at the battle of Actium;
-and experience having shown their efficiency,
-vessels of a similar kind were built and
-called by the name of the people.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lictor">LICTOR, a public officer, who attended on
-the chief Roman magistrates. The number
-which waited on the different magistrates is
-stated in the article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Fasces">Fasces</a></span>. The office of
-lictor is said to have been derived by Romulus
-from the Etruscans. The lictors went
-before the magistrates one by one in a line;
-he who went last or next to the magistrate
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proximus lictor</i>, to whom the magistrate
-gave his commands; and as this
-lictor was always the principal one, we also
-find him called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">primus lictor</i>. The lictors
-had to inflict punishment on those who were
-condemned, especially in the case of Roman
-citizens; for foreigners and slaves were punished
-by the Carnifex; and they also probably
-had to assist in some cases in the execution
-of a decree or judgment in a civil suit.
-The lictors likewise commanded persons to
-pay proper respect to a magistrate passing
-by, which consisted in dismounting from
-horseback, uncovering the head, standing out
-of the way, &amp;c. The lictors were originally
-chosen from the plebs, but afterwards appear
-to have been generally freedmen, probably of
-the magistrate on whom they attended. Lictors
-were properly only granted to those
-magistrates who had the Imperium. Consequently,
-the tribunes of the plebs never had
-lictors, nor several of the other magistrates.
-Sometimes, however, lictors were granted to
-persons as a mark of respect or for the sake
-of protection. Thus by a law of the Triumvirs
-every vestal virgin was accompanied by
-a lictor, whenever she went out, and the honour
-of one or two lictors was usually granted
-to the wives and other female members of
-the Imperial family. There were also thirty
-lictors called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lictores Curiati</i>, whose duty it
-was to summon the curiae to the comitia
-curiata; and when these meetings became
-little more than a form, their suffrages were
-represented by the thirty lictors.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ligula">LĬGŬLA, a Roman measure of fluid capacity,
-containing one-fourth of the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cyathus">Cyathus</a></span>.
-It signifies <em>a spoonful</em>, like <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cochlear</i>; only the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ligula</i> was larger than the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cochlear</i>. The
-spoon which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ligula</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lingula</i>
-(dim. of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lingua</i>) from its shape, was used for
-various purposes, especially to clean out
-small and narrow vessels, and to eat jellies
-and such things. The word is also used for
-the leather tongue of a shoe.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Limen">LĪMEN. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Janua">Janua</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Linter">LINTER, a light boat, frequently formed
-of the trunk of a tree, and drawing little
-water.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240"></a>[240]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Lithostrota">LĬTHOSTRŌTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_144">p. 144</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Litra">LITRA <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λίτρα</span>, a Sicilian silver coin, equal
-in value to the Aeginetan obol.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp94" id="ill240a" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill240a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Lituus, Augur’s Staff. (Centre figure from an Etruscan sculpture; the two others are Roman coins.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Lituus">LĬTUUS, probably an Etruscan word signifying
-<em>crooked</em>.&mdash;(1) The crooked staff borne
-by the augurs, with which they divided the
-expanse of heaven, when viewed with reference
-to divination (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum</i>), into regions
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">regiones</i>).&mdash;(2) A sort of trumpet slightly
-curved at the extremity. It differed both
-from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tuba</i> and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornu</i>, the former
-being straight, while the latter was bent
-round into a spiral shape. Its tones are
-usually characterised as harsh and shrill.
-The Liticines, or blowers on the Lituus,
-formed a Collegium along with the Cornicines.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cornu">Cornu</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill240b" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill240b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Lituus, Trumpet. (From Fabretti.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Lixae">LIXAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calones">Calones</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Locupletes">LŎCŬPLĒTES or ASSĬDŬI, the name of
-the Roman citizens included in the five
-classes of the Servian constitution, and opposed
-to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Proletarii</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lodix">LŌDIX, a small shaggy blanket. It was
-also used as a carpet.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Logistae">LOGISTAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Euthyne">Euthyne</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill240c" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill240c.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><p>Lorica, as worn by a Greek Warrior.<br />(From a Vase.)</p>
-<p class="right">Lorica, as worn by a Roman Emperor.<br />
-(Statue of Caligula in Louvre.)</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Lorica">LŌRĪCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θώραξ</span>), a cuirass. The cuirass
-was worn by the heavy-armed infantry both<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241"></a>[241]</span>
-among the Greeks and Romans. The soldiers
-commonly wore cuirasses made of flexible
-bands of steel, or cuirasses of chain
-mail; but those of generals and officers
-usually consisted of two <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γύαλα</span>, the breast-piece
-and back-piece, made of bronze, iron,
-&amp;c., which were joined by means of buckles
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περόναι</span>). The epithets <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λεπιδωτός</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φολιδωτός</span>
-are applied to a cuirass; the former
-on account of its resemblance to the scales
-of fish (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λεπίσιν</span>), the latter to the scales of
-serpents (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φολίσιν</span>). Among the Asiatic nations
-the cuirass was frequently made of
-cotton, and among the Sarmatians and other
-northern nations of horn.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp78" id="ill241a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill241a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><p>Lorica. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λεπιδωτός</span>.</p>
-<p class="right">Lorica. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φολιδωτός</span>.</p>
-(Bartoli, ‘Arcus Triumph.’)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Lucar">LŪCAR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Histrio">Histrio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Luceres">LŪCĔRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill241b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill241b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Lucerna, lamp. (Museo Borbonico, vol. iv. pl. 10.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Lucerna">LŬCERNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λύχνος</span>), an oil lamp. The
-Greeks and Romans originally used candles;
-but in later times candles were chiefly confined
-to the houses of the lower classes.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Candela">Candela</a>.</span>] A great number of ancient lamps
-has come down to us; the greater part of
-which are made of terra cotta, but also a
-considerable number of bronze. Most of the
-lamps are of an oval form, and flat upon the
-top, on which there are frequently figures in
-relief. In the lamps there are one or more
-round holes, according to the number of
-wicks (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ellychnia</i>) burnt in them; and as these
-holes were called from an obvious analogy,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μυκτῆρες</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μύξαι</span>, literally nostrils or nozzles,
-the lamp was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Monomyxos</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dimyxos</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Trimyxos</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Polymyxos</i>, according as
-it contained one, two, three, or a greater
-number of nozzles or holes for the wicks.
-The following is an example of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dimyxos
-lucerna</i>, upon which there is a winged boy
-with a goose. The next woodcut represents
-one of the most beautiful bronze lamps which
-has yet been found. Upon it is the figure of
-a standing Silenus. The lamps sometimes
-hung in chains from the ceiling of the room,
-but they generally stood upon a stand. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Candelabrum">Candelabrum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp85" id="ill241c" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill241c.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Lucerna lamp. (Museo Borbonico, vol. i. pl 10.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Lucta">LUCTA, LUCTĀTĬO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάλη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάλαισμα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παλαισμοσύνη</span>,
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταβλητική</span>), wrestling. The
-Greeks ascribed the invention of wrestling to
-mythical personages, and Hermes, the god of
-all gymnastic exercises, also presided over
-wrestling. In the Homeric age wrestling
-was much practised: during this period
-wrestlers contended naked, and only the loins
-were covered with the perizoma (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίζωμα</span>),
-and this custom probably remained throughout
-Greece until Ol. 15, from which time the
-perizoma was no longer used, and wrestlers
-contended entirely naked. In the Homeric
-age the custom of anointing the body for the
-purpose of wrestling does not appear to have
-been known, but in the time of Solon it was
-quite general, and was said to have been
-adopted by the Cretans and Lacedaemonians
-at a very early period. After the body was
-anointed, it was strewed over with sand or dust,
-in order to enable the wrestlers to take a firm
-hold of each other. If one combatant threw
-the other down three times, the victory was
-decided. Wrestling was practised in all the
-great games of the Greeks. The most renowned
-wrestler was Milon, of Croton. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pancratium">Pancratium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ludi">LŪDI, the common name for the whole
-variety of games and contests which were
-held at Rome on various occasions, but chiefly
-at the festivals of the gods; and as the ludi
-at certain festivals formed the principal part
-of the solemnities, these festivals themselves
-are called ludi. Sometimes ludi were also
-held in honour of a magistrate or a deceased
-person, in which case they may be considered
-as ludi privati. All ludi were divided by the
-Romans into two classes, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludi circenses</i> and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludi scenici</i>, accordingly as they were held in
-the circus or in the theatre; in the latter
-case they were mostly theatrical representations
-with their various modifications; in the
-former they consisted of all or of a part of the
-games enumerated in the articles <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a></span> and
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a></span>. Another division of the ludi
-into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stati</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imperativi</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">votivi</i>, is analogous
-to the division of the feriae. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Feriae">Feriae</a>.</span>] The
-superintendence of the games, and the solemnities
-connected with them, was in most
-cases intrusted to the aediles. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aediles">Aediles</a>.</span>]
-If the lawful rites were not observed in the
-celebration of the ludi, it depended upon the
-decision of the pontiffs whether they were to
-be held again (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">instaurari</i>) or not. An alphabetical
-list of the principal ludi is subjoined.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Apollinares</span> were instituted at Rome
-during the second Punic war, after the battle
-of Cannae (212 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>), at the command of an
-oracle contained in the books of the ancient
-seer Marcius, in order to obtain the aid of
-Apollo. They were held every year under
-the superintendence of the praetor urbanus,
-and ten men sacrificed to Apollo, according to
-Greek rites, a bull with gilt horns and two
-white goats also with gilt horns, and to Latona
-a heifer with gilt horns. The games
-themselves were held in the Circus Maximus,
-the spectators were adorned with chaplets,
-and each citizen gave a contribution towards
-defraying the expenses. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 208, it was
-ordained that they should always be celebrated
-on the 6th of July.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Augustales.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augustales">Augustales</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Capitolini</span> were instituted <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 387,
-after the departure of the Gauls from Rome,
-as a token of gratitude towards Jupiter Capitolinus,
-who had saved the Capitol in the
-hour of danger. The superintendence of the
-games was entrusted to a college of priests
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Capitolini</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Circenses</span>, <span class="smcap">Romani</span> or <span class="smcap">Magni</span>, were
-celebrated every year during several days,
-from the fourth to the twelfth of September,
-in honour of the three great divinities, Jupiter,
-Juno, and Minerva, or, according to
-others, in honour of Jupiter, Consus, and
-Neptunus Equestris. They were superintended
-by the curule aediles. For further
-particulars see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a></span>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Compitalicii.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Compitalia">Compitalia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Florales.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Floralia">Floralia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Funebres</span> were games celebrated at
-the funeral pyre of illustrious persons. Such
-games are mentioned in the very early legends
-of the history of Greece and Rome, and they
-continued with various modifications until
-the introduction of Christianity. It was at
-such a ludus funebris, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 264, that gladiatorial
-fights were exhibited at Rome for
-the first time, which henceforwards were the
-most essential part in all funeral games.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Liberales.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Megalenses.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Megalesia">Megalesia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Plebeii</span> were instituted probably in
-commemoration of the reconciliation between
-the patricians and plebeians after the first
-secession to the Mons Sacer, or, according to
-others, to the Aventine. They were held on
-the 16th, 17th, and 18th of November, and
-were conducted by the plebeian aediles.</p>
-
-<p id="Saeculares"><span class="smcap">Ludi Saeculares.</span> During the time of the
-republic these games were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludi Tarentini</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Terentini</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Taurii</i>, and it was not till
-the time of Augustus that they bore the name
-of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludi saeculares</i>. The names <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tarenti</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Taurii</i> are perhaps nothing but different
-forms of the same word, and of the same root
-as Tarquinius. There were various accounts<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242"></a>[242]<br /><a id="Page_243"></a>[243]</span>
-respecting the origin of the games, yet all
-agree in stating that they were celebrated for
-the purpose of averting from the state some
-great calamity by which it had been afflicted,
-and that they were held in honour of Dis and
-Proserpina. From the time of the consul
-Valerius Publicola down to that of Augustus,
-the Tarentine games were held only three
-times, and again only on certain emergencies,
-and not at any fixed period, so that we must
-conclude that their celebration was in no way
-connected with certain cycles of time (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saecula</i>).
-Not long after Augustus had assumed
-the supreme power in the republic, the quindecimviri
-announced that according to their
-books <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludi saeculares</i> ought to be held, and
-at the same time tried to prove from history
-that in former times they had not only been
-celebrated repeatedly, but almost regularly
-once in every century. The festival, however,
-which was now held, was in reality
-very different from the ancient Tarentine
-games; for Dis and Proserpina, to whom
-formerly the festival belonged exclusively,
-were now the last in the list of the divinities
-in honour of whom the ludi saeculares were
-celebrated. The festival took place in summer,
-and lasted for three days and three
-nights. On the first day the games commenced
-in that part of the Campus Martius,
-Which had belonged to the last Tarquin, from
-whom it derived its name Tarentum, and
-sacrifices were offered to Jupiter, Juno, Neptune,
-Minerva, Venus, Apollo, Mercury, Ceres,
-Vulcan, Mars, Diana, Vesta, Hercules,
-Latona, the Parcae, and to Dis and Proserpina.
-The solemnities began at the second
-hour of the night, and the emperor opened
-them by the river side with the sacrifice of
-three lambs to the Parcae upon three altars
-erected for the purpose, and which were
-sprinkled with the blood of the victims. The
-lambs themselves were burnt. A temporary
-scene like that of a theatre was erected in
-the Tarentum, and illuminated with lights
-and fires. In this scene festive hymns were
-sung by a chorus, and various other ceremonies,
-together with theatrical performances,
-took place. During the morning of the first
-day the people went to the Capitol to offer
-solemn sacrifices to Jupiter; thence they
-returned to the Tarentum, to sing choruses
-in honour of Apollo and Diana. On the
-second day the noblest matrons, at an hour
-fixed by an oracle, assembled in the Capitol,
-offered supplications, sang hymns to the gods,
-and also visited the altar of Juno. The emperor
-and the quindecimviri offered sacrifices
-which had been vowed before, to all the great
-divinities. On the third day Greek and
-Latin choruses were sung in the sanctuary of
-Apollo by three times nine boys and maidens
-of great beauty, whose parents were still
-alive. The object of these hymns was to
-implore the protection of the gods for all
-cities, towns, and officers of the empire. One
-of these hymns was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carmen saeculare</i> by
-Horace, which was especially composed for
-the occasion and adapted to the circumstances
-of the time. During the whole of the three
-days and nights, games of every description
-were carried on in all the circuses and theatres,
-and sacrifices were offered in all the
-temples. The first celebration of the ludi
-saeculares in the reign of Augustus took
-place in the summer of <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 17.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Tarentini</span> or <span class="smcap">Taurii</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Saeculares">Ludi Saeculares</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ludus">LŪDUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ludus_t">LŪDUS TRŌJAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lupercalia">LŬPERCĀLĬA, one of the most ancient
-Roman festivals, which was celebrated every
-year in honour of Lupercus, the god of fertility.
-It was originally a shepherd-festival,
-and hence its introduction at Rome was connected
-with the names of Romulus and Remus,
-the kings of shepherds. It was held
-every year, on the 15th of February, in the
-Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus were
-said to have been nurtured by the she-wolf; the
-place contained an altar and a grove sacred
-to the god Lupercus. Here the Luperci assembled
-on the day of the Lupercalia, and
-sacrificed to the god goats and young dogs.
-Two youths of noble birth were then led to
-the Luperci, and one of the latter touched
-their foreheads with a sword dipped in the
-blood of the victims; other Luperci immediately
-after wiped off the bloody spots with
-wool dipped in milk. Hereupon the two
-youths were obliged to break out into a shout
-of laughter. This ceremony was probably
-a symbolical purification of the shepherds.
-After the sacrifice was over, the Luperci partook
-of a meal, at which they were plentifully
-supplied with wine. They then cut the
-skins of the goats which they had sacrificed,
-into pieces: with some of which they covered
-parts of their body in imitation of the god
-Lupercus, who was represented half naked
-and half covered with goatskin. The other
-pieces of the skins they cut in the shape of
-thongs, and holding them in their hands they
-ran with them through the streets of the city,
-touching or striking with them all persons
-whom they met in their way, and especially
-women, who even used to come forward voluntarily
-for the purpose, since they believed
-that this ceremony rendered them fruitful,
-and procured them an easy delivery in child-bearing.
-This act of running about with
-thongs of goatskin was a symbolic purification<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244"></a>[244]</span>
-of the land, and that of touching persons a
-purification of men, for the words by which
-this act is designated are <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">februare</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lustrare</i>.
-The goatskin itself was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">februum</i>,
-the festive day <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies februata</i>, the
-month in which it occurred <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Februarius</i>, and
-the god himself <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Februus</i>. The festival of the
-Lupercalia, though it necessarily lost its original
-import at the time when the Romans were
-no longer a nation of shepherds, was yet
-always observed in commemoration of the
-founders of the city. M. Antonius, in his
-consulship, was one of the Luperci, and not
-only ran with them half naked and covered
-with pieces of goatskin through the city, but
-even addressed the people in the forum in
-this rude attire.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Luperci">LŬPERCI, the priests of the god Lupercus.
-They formed a college, the members of which
-were originally youths of patrician families,
-and which was said to have been instituted
-by Romulus and Remus. The college was divided
-into two classes, the one called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fabii</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fabiani</i>, and the other <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quinctilii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quinctiliani</i>.
-The office was not for life, but how
-long it lasted is not known. Julius Caesar
-added to the two classes of the college a
-third with the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Julii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Juliani</i>, and
-made Antonius their high-priest. He also
-assigned to them certain revenues (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vectigalia</i>)
-which were afterwards withdrawn from
-them.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lupus">LŬPUS FERREUS, the iron wolf used by
-the besieged in repelling the attacks of the
-besiegers, and especially in seizing the battering-ram
-and diverting its blows.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lustratio">LUSTRĀTĬO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάθαρσις</span>) was originally a
-purification by ablution in water. But the
-lustrations of which we possess direct knowledge
-are always connected with sacrifices
-and other religious rites, and consisted in
-the sprinkling of water by means of a branch
-of laurel or olive, and at Rome sometimes by
-means of the aspergillum, and in the burning
-of certain materials, the smoke of which was
-thought to have a purifying effect. Whenever
-sacrifices were offered, it seems to have
-been customary to carry them around the
-person or thing to be purified. Lustrations
-were made in ancient Greece, and probably
-at Rome also, by private individuals when
-they had polluted themselves by any criminal
-action. Whole cities and states also sometimes
-underwent purifications to expiate the
-crime or crimes committed by a member of
-the community. The most celebrated purification
-of this kind was that of Athens, performed
-by Epimenides of Crete, after the
-Cylonian massacre. Purification also took
-place when a sacred spot had been unhallowed
-by profane use, as by burying dead
-bodies in it, as was the case with the island
-of Delos. The Romans performed lustrations
-on many occasions, on which the Greeks did
-not think of them; and the object of most
-Roman lustrations was not to atone for the
-commission of crime, but to obtain the blessing
-of the gods upon the persons or things
-which were lustrated. Thus fields were purified
-after the business of sowing was over,
-and before the sickle was put to the corn.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arvales">Arvales Fratres</a>.</span>] Sheep were purified
-every year at the festival of the Palilia. All
-Roman armies before they took the field were
-lustrated; and as the solemnity was probably
-always connected with a review of the troops,
-the word lustratio is also used in the sense
-of the modern review. The establishment
-of a new colony was always preceded by a
-lustratio with solemn sacrifices. The city of
-Rome itself, as well as other towns within its
-dominion, always underwent a lustratio after
-they had been visited by some great calamity,
-such as civil bloodshed, awful prodigies, and
-the like. A regular and general lustratio of
-the whole Roman people took place after the
-completion of every lustrum, when the censor
-had finished his census and before he laid
-down his office. This lustratio (also called
-lustrum) was conducted by one of the censors,
-and held with sacrifices called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Suovetaurilia</i>,
-because the sacrifices consisted of a pig (or
-ram), a sheep, and an ox. It took place in
-the Campus Martius, where the people assembled
-for the purpose. The sacrifices were
-carried three times around the assembled
-multitude.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lustrum">LUSTRUM (from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">luo</i>, Gr. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λούω</span>) is properly
-speaking a lustration or purification,
-and in particular the purification of the whole
-Roman people performed by one of the censors
-in the Campus Martius, after the business
-of the census was over. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Census">Census</a>; <a href="#Lustratio">Lustratio</a>.</span>]
-As this purification took place only
-once in five years, the word lustrum was also
-used to designate the time between two lustra.
-The first lustrum was performed in
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 566, by king Servius, after he had completed
-his census, and it is said to have taken
-place subsequently every five years, after the
-census was over. The census might be held
-without the lustrum, and indeed two cases
-of this kind are recorded which happened in
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 459 and 214. In these cases the lustrum
-was not performed on account of some
-great calamities which had befallen the republic.
-The time when the lustrum took
-place has been very ingeniously defined by
-Niebuhr. Six ancient Romulian years of 304
-days each were, with the difference of one
-day, equal to five solar years of 365 days
-each, or the six ancient years made 1824<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245"></a>[245]</span>
-days, while the five solar years contained
-1825 days. The lustrum, or the great year
-of the ancient Romans, was thus a cycle, at
-the end of which the beginning of the ancient
-year nearly coincided with that of the
-solar year. As the coincidence, however,
-was not perfect, a month of 24 days was intercalated
-in every eleventh lustrum. Now
-it is highly probable that the recurrence of
-such a cycle or great year was, from the
-earliest times, solemnised with sacrifices and
-purifications, and that Servius Tullius did not
-introduce them, but merely connected them
-with his census, and thus set the example
-for subsequent ages. Many writers of the
-latter period of the republic and during the
-empire, use the word lustrum for any space
-of five years, and without any regard to the
-census, while others even apply it in the
-sense of the Greek pentaeteris or an Olympiad,
-which contained only four years.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Lycaea">LỸCAEA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λύκαια</span>), a festival with contests,
-celebrated by the Arcadians in honour of
-Zeus surnamed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λυκαῖος</span>. It was said to have
-been instituted by the ancient hero Lycaon,
-the son of Pelasgus, who is also said, instead
-of the cakes which had formerly been offered
-to the god, to have sacrificed a child to Zeus,
-and to have sprinkled the altar with its
-blood.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp73" id="ill245a" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill245a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Lyre with four strings, from a Lycian coin. (Cabinet of
-Sir Charles Fellows.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="ill245b" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill245b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Lyre with seven strings, from a coin of Chalcis. (British
-Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Lyra">LỸRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λύρα</span>, Lat. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fides</i>), a lyre, one of the
-most ancient musical instruments of the
-stringed kind. The Greeks attributed the
-invention of the lyre to Hermes, who is said
-to have formed the instrument of a tortoise-shell,
-over which he placed gut-strings. The
-name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λύρα</span>, however, does not occur in the
-Homeric poems, and the ancient lyre, called
-in Homer <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phorminx</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φόρμιγξ</span>) and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">citharis</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κίθαρις</span>), seems rather to have resembled the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cithara</i> of later times, which was in some
-respects like a modern guitar. In the cithara
-the strings were drawn across the bottom,
-whereas in the lyra of ancient times they
-were free on both sides. The lyre is also
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χέλυς</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χελώνη</span>, and in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testudo</i>,
-because it was made of a tortoise-shell. The
-lyre had originally three or four strings, but
-after the time of Terpander of Antissa (about
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 650), who is said to have added three
-more, it was generally made with seven.
-The ancients, however, made use of a variety
-of lyres; and about the time of Sappho and
-Anacreon several stringed instruments, such
-as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magadis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">barbiton</i>, and others, were used
-in Greece, and especially in Lesbos. They
-had been introduced from Asia Minor, and
-their number of strings far exceeded that of
-the lyre, for we know that some had even
-twenty strings, so that they must have more
-resembled a modern harp than a lyre. But
-the lyra and cithara had in most cases no
-more than seven strings. The lyre had a
-great and full-sounding bottom, which continued
-as before to be made generally of tortoise-shell,
-from which the horns rose as from
-the head of a stag. A transverse piece of
-wood connecting the two horns at or near
-their top-ends served to fasten the strings,
-and was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζύγον</span>, and in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">transtillum</i>.
-The horns were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πήχεις</span> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornua</i>. These instruments were often
-adorned in the most costly manner with gold
-and ivory. The lyre was considered as a
-more manly instrument than the cithara,
-which, on account of its smaller-sounding
-bottom, excluded full-sounding and deep
-tones, and was more calculated for the
-middle tones. The lyre when played stood
-in an upright position between the knees,
-while the cithara stood upon the knees of
-the player. Both instruments were held
-with the left hand, and played with the
-right. It has generally been supposed that
-the strings of these instruments were always<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246"></a>[246]</span>
-touched with a little staff called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plectrum</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλῆκτρον</span>), but among the paintings discovered
-at Herculaneum we find several instances
-where the persons play the lyre with
-their fingers. The lyre was at all times only
-played as an accompaniment to songs. The
-Latin name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fides</i>, which was used for a lyre
-as well as a cithara, is probably the same as
-the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφίδες</span>, which signifies gut-string.
-The lyre (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cithara</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phorminx</i>) was at first
-used in the recitations of epic poetry, though
-it was probably not played during the recitation
-itself, but only as a prelude before the
-minstrel commenced his story, and in the
-intervals or pauses between the several parts.
-The lyre has given its name to a species of
-poetry called lyric; this kind of poetry was
-originally never recited or sung without the
-accompaniment of the lyre, and sometimes
-also of an appropriate dance.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp43" id="ill246" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill246.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Anacreon playing the lyre. (Vase-painting in the British
-Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="M_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">M</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Maenianum" class="drop-capy">MAENIĀNUM, signified, originally, a projecting
-balcony, which was erected
-round the Roman forum, by the censor, C.
-Maenius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 318, in order to give more
-accommodation to the spectators of the gladiatorial
-combats. Hence balconies in general
-came to be called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">maeniana</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Magadis">MĂGĂDIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lyra">Lyra</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Magister">MĂGISTER., which contains the same root
-as <em>mag-is</em> and <em>mag-nus</em>, was applied at Rome
-to persons possessing various kinds of offices,
-and especially to the leading person in a collegium
-or corporation [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Collegium">Collegium</a></span>]; thus
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister societatis</i> was the president of
-the corporation of equites, who farmed the
-taxes at Rome.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Magister_e">MĂGISTER ĔQUITUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dictator">Dictator</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Magistratus">MĂGISTRĀTUS was a person <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">qui juri dicundo
-praeerat</i>. The King was originally the
-sole Magistratus; he had all the Potestas.
-On the expulsion of the Kings, two Consuls
-were annually appointed, and they were Magistratus.
-In course of time other Magistratus
-were appointed; namely, dictators, censors,
-praetors, aediles, tribunes of the plebs,
-and the decemviri litibus judicandis. The
-governors of provinces with the title of propraetor
-or proconsul were also Magistratus.
-The word Magistratus contains the same
-element as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mag(ister)</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mag(nus)</i>; and it
-signifies both the person and the office, as
-we see in the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">se magistratu abdicare</i>.
-The auspicia maxima belonged to the consuls,
-praetors, and censors, and the minora
-auspicia to the other magistrates; accordingly
-the consuls, praetors, and censors were
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Majores</i>, and they were elected at the
-comitia centuriata; the other magistratus
-were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Minores</i>. The former had the
-imperium, the latter had not. The magistratus
-were also divided into curules and those
-who were not curules: the magistratus curules
-were the dictator, consuls, praetors,
-censors, and the curule aediles, who were so
-called, because they had the jus sellae curulis.
-The magistrates were chosen only
-from the patricians in the early republic, but
-in course of time the plebeians shared these
-honours, with the exception of that of the
-Interrex: the plebeian magistratus, properly
-so called, were the plebeian aediles and the
-tribuni plebis.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Majestas">MAJESTAS pretty nearly corresponds to
-treason in English law; but all the offences
-included under majestas comprehend more
-than the English treason. One of the offences
-included in majestas was the effecting, aiding
-in, or planning the death of a magistratus
-populi Romani, or of one who had imperium
-or potestas. Though the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crimen majestatis</i>
-was used, the complete expression
-was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crimen laesae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imminutae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diminutae</i>,
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minutae majestatis</i>. The word majestas,
-consistently with its relation to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mag(nus)</i>,
-signifies the magnitude or greatness of a
-thing. Accordingly, the phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">majestas
-populi Romani</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imperii majestas</i>, signify the
-whole of that which constituted the Roman
-state; in other words, the sovereign power
-of the Roman state. The expression <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minuere
-majestatem</i> consequently signifies any act by
-which this majestas is impaired. In the republican
-period the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">majestas laesa</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minuta</i> was most commonly applied to cases
-of a general betraying or surrendering his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247"></a>[247]</span>
-army to the enemy, exciting sedition, and
-generally by his bad conduct in administration
-impairing the majestas of the state. The
-old punishment of majestas was perpetual
-interdiction from fire and water. In the
-later imperial period, persons of low condition
-were thrown to wild beasts, or burnt
-alive; persons of better condition were simply
-put to death. In the early times of the
-republic, every act of a citizen which was
-injurious to the state or its peace was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perduellio</i>, and the offender (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perduellis</i>) was
-tried before the populus (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">populi judicio</i>), and,
-if convicted, put to death. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Perduellis</i> originally
-signified <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hostis</i>; and thus the old offence
-of perduellio was equivalent to making war
-on the Roman state. The trial for perduellio
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perduellionis judicium</i>) existed to the later
-times of the republic; but the name seems to
-have almost fallen into disuse, and various
-leges were passed for the purpose of determining
-more accurately what should be majestas.
-These were a lex Apuleia, probably
-passed in the fifth consulship of Marius, the
-exact contents of which are unknown, a lex
-Varia <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 91, a lex Cornelia passed by L.
-Cornelius Sulla, and the lex Julia, which
-continued under the empire to be the fundamental
-enactment on this subject. This lex
-Julia is by some attributed to C. Julius Caesar,
-and assigned to the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 48. Under
-the empire the term majestas was applied to
-the person of the reigning Caesar, and we
-find the phrases majestas Augusta, imperatoria,
-and regia. It was, however, nothing
-new to apply the term to the emperor, considered
-in some of his various capacities, for it
-was applied to the magistratus under the
-republic, as to the consul and praetor. Horace
-even addresses Augustus in the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">majestas
-tua</i>, but this can hardly be viewed otherwise
-than as a personal compliment, and not
-as said with reference to any of the offices
-which he held.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Malleolus">MALLĔŎLUS, a hammer, the transverse
-head of which was formed for holding pitch
-and tow, which, having been set on fire, was
-projected slowly, so that it might not be extinguished
-during its flight, upon houses and
-other buildings in order to set them on fire:
-it was therefore commonly used in sieges
-together with torches and falaricae.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Malus">MĀLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Manceps">MANCEPS has the same relation to Mancipium
-that Auspex has to Auspicium. It is
-properly <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">qui manu capit</i>. But the word has
-several special significations. Mancipes were
-they who bid at the public lettings of the
-censors for the purpose of farming any part
-of the public property. Sometimes the chief
-of the publicani generally are meant by this
-term, as they were no doubt the bidders and
-gave the security, and then they shared the
-undertaking with others or underlet it. The
-mancipes would accordingly have distinctive
-names according to the kind of revenue which
-they took on lease, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Decumani</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Portitores</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pecuarii</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mancipatio">MANCĬPĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mancipium">Mancipium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mancipium">MANCĬPĬUM, MANCĬPĀTIO. These
-words are used to indicate the formal transfer
-of the ownership of a thing, and are derived
-from the fact that the person who received
-the thing took hold of it (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipatio dicitur
-quia manu res capitur</i>). It was not a simple
-corporeal apprehension, but one which was
-accompanied with certain forms described by
-Gaius the jurist:&mdash;“Mancipatio is effected
-in the presence of not less than five witnesses,
-who must be Roman citizens and of
-the age of puberty (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">puberes</i>), and also in the
-presence of another person of the same status,
-who holds a pair of brazen scales, and hence
-is called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libripens</i>. The purchaser (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">qui mancipio
-accipit</i>), taking hold of the thing, says:
-I affirm that this slave (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">homo</i>) is mine Ex
-Jure Quiritium, and he is purchased by me
-with this piece of money (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes</i>) and brazen
-scales. He then strikes the scales with the
-piece of money, and gives it to the seller as a
-symbol of the price (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quasi pretii loco</i>).” This
-mode of transfer applied to all free persons
-or slaves, animals or lands, all of which persons
-and things were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Res Mancipi</i>;
-other things were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nec Mancipi</i>. Lands
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praedia</i>) might be thus transferred, though
-the parties to the mancipatio were not on the
-lands; but all other things, which were objects
-of mancipatio, were only transferable in
-the presence of the parties, because corporeal
-apprehension was a necessary part of the
-ceremony. The party who transferred the
-ownership of a thing pursuant to these forms
-was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipio dare</i>; he who thus acquired
-the ownership was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipio accipere</i>.
-The verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipare</i> is sometimes
-used as equivalent to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipio dare</i>. Mancipium
-may be used as equivalent to complete
-ownership, and may thus be opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">usus</i>
-and to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fructus</i>. Sometimes the word mancipium
-signifies a slave, as being one of the
-res mancipi.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mandatum">MANDĀTUM, often signifies a command
-from a superior to an inferior. Under the
-empire the mandata principum were the
-commands and instructions given to governors
-of provinces and others.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Manipulus">MĂNĬPŬLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mansio">MANSĬO <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σταθμός</span>, a post-station at the
-end of a day’s journey. The word is derived
-from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manere</i>, signifying to pass the night at a
-place in travelling. On the great Roman roads<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248"></a>[248]</span>
-the mansiones were at the same distance from
-one another as on those of the Persian empire,
-where such resting-places (khans or caravanseras)
-were first provided, viz. at intervals of
-about 20 English miles. They were originally
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castra</i>, being probably mere places of encampment
-formed by making earthen entrenchments.
-In process of time they included, not
-only barracks and magazines of provisions (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">horrea</i>)
-for the troops, but commodious buildings
-adapted for the reception of travellers of all
-ranks, and even of the emperor himself, if he
-should have occasion to visit them. At those
-stations the cisiarii kept gigs for hire and for
-conveying government despatches. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cisium">Cisium</a>;
-<a href="#Esseda">Essedum</a>.</span>] The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mansio</i> was under the superintendence
-of an officer called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mansionarius</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Manubiae">MĂNŬBĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Spolia">Spolia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Manumissio">MĂNŪMISSĬO was the form by which
-slaves were released from slavery. There
-were three modes by which this was effected,
-namely, Vindicta, Census, and Testamentum.
-Of these the manumissio by vindicta is probably
-the oldest, and perhaps was once the
-only mode of manumission. It is mentioned
-by Livy as in use at an early period; and,
-indeed, he states that some persons refer the
-origin of the vindicta to the event which he
-relates, and derive its name from Vindicius;
-the latter part, at least, of the supposition is
-of no value. The ceremony of the manumissio
-by the vindicta was as follows:&mdash;The
-master brought his slave before the magistratus,
-and stated the grounds (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">causa</i>) of the
-intended manumission. The lictor of the
-magistratus laid a rod (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">festuca</i>) on the head
-of the slave, accompanied with certain formal
-words, in which he declared that he was a
-freeman ex jure quiritium, that is, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vindicavit
-in libertatem</i>. The master in the meantime
-held the slave, and after he had pronounced
-the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hunc hominem liberum volo</i>, he
-turned him round and let him go (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emisit e
-manu</i>), whence the general name of the act
-of manumission. The word vindicta itself,
-which is properly the res <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vindicata</i>, is used
-for festuca by Horace. In the case of the
-census the slave was registered by the censors
-as a citizen with his master’s consent. The
-third mode of manumission was, when a
-master gave liberty to a slave by his will
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testamentum</i>). The act of manumission
-established the relation of patronus and
-libertus between the manumissor and the
-manumitted. When manumitted by a citizen,
-the libertus took the praenomen and the gentile
-name of the manumissor, and became in
-a sense a member of the gens of his patron.
-To these two names he added some other
-name as a cognomen, either some name by
-which he was previously known, or some
-name assumed on the occasion: thus we find
-the names M. Tullius Tiro, P. Terentius Afer,
-and other like names. The relation between
-a patronus and libertus is stated under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Patronus">Patronus</a></span>.
-Before the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 311, the libertini
-had not the suffragium, but in that year
-the censor Appius Claudius gave the libertini a
-place in the tribes, and from this time the
-libertini had the suffragium after they were
-duly admitted on the censors’ roll. In the
-year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 304, they were placed in the tribus
-urbanae, and not allowed to perform military
-service. In the censorship of Tiberius Gracchus,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 169, they were placed in one of
-the tribus urbanae, determined by lot. Subsequently,
-by a law of Aemilius Scaurus,
-about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 116, they were restored to the
-four city tribes, and this remained their condition
-to the end of the republic, though
-various attempts were made to give them a
-better suffrage. A tax was levied on manumission
-by a lex Manlia, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 357: it consisted
-of the twentieth part of the value of
-the slave, hence called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vicesima</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Manus">MĂNUS FERREA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Harpago">Harpago</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Marsupium">MARSŪPĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μαρσύπιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βαλάντιον</span>), a
-purse. The purse used by the ancients was
-commonly a small leathern bag, and was
-often closed by being drawn together at the
-mouth (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύσπαστα βαλάντια</span>). Mercury is
-commonly represented holding one in his
-hand. (See cut, <a href="#ill063">p. 63</a>.)</p>
-
-
-<p id="Martyria">MARTỸRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μαρτύρια</span>), signifies strictly
-the deposition of a witness in a court of justice,
-though the word is applied metaphorically
-to all kinds of testimony. At Athens
-none but freemen could be witnesses. The
-incapacity of women may be inferred from
-the general policy of the Athenian law, and
-the absence of any example in the orators
-where a woman’s evidence is produced. The
-same observation applies to minors. Slaves
-were not allowed to give evidence, unless
-upon examination by torture (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βάσανος</span>). Citizens
-who had been disfranchised (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἠτιμωμένοι</span>)
-could not appear as witnesses (any more than
-as jurors or plaintiffs) in a court of justice;
-for they had lost all honourable rights and
-privileges. But there was no objection to
-alien freemen. The party who desired the evidence
-of a witness, summoned him to attend
-for that purpose. The summons was called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόσκλησις</span>. If the witness promised to
-attend and failed to do so, he was liable to an
-action called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη λειπομαρτυρίου</span>. Whether
-he promised or not, he was bound to attend,
-and if his absence caused injury to the party,
-he was liable to an action (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη βλάβης</span>). The
-attendance of the witness was first required
-at the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάκρισις</span>, where he was to make his
-deposition before the superintending magistrate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249"></a>[249]</span>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc"><ins class="corr" id="tn-249" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'ἠγεμὼν'">
-ἡγεμὼν</ins> δικαστηρίου</span>). The party in
-whose favour he appeared, generally wrote
-the deposition at home upon a whitened board
-or tablet (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λελευκωμένον γραμματεῖον</span>), which
-he brought with him to the magistrate’s
-office, and, when the witness had deposed
-thereto, put into the box (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐχῖνος</span>) in which
-all the documents in the cause were deposited.
-An oath was usually taken by the
-witness at the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάκρισις</span>, where he was sworn
-by the opposite party at an altar. The witness,
-whether he had attended before the
-magistrate or not, was obliged to be present
-at the trial, in order to confirm his testimony.
-The only exception was, when he
-was ill or out of the country, in which case
-a commission might be sent to examine him.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ecmartyria">Ecmartyria</a>.</span>] All evidence was produced
-by the party during his own speech, the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλεψύδρα</span> being stopped for that purpose.
-The witness was called by an officer of the
-court, and mounted on the raised platform
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βῆμα</span>.) of the speaker, while his deposition
-was read over to him by the clerk; he then
-signified his assent, either by express words,
-or bowing his head in silence.&mdash;We conclude
-by noticing a few expressions. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαρτυρεῖν
-τινι</span> is to testify in favour of a man, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταμαρτυρεῖν
-τινος</span> to testify against. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαρτύρεσθαι</span>
-to call to witness (a word used poetically),
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαμαρτύρεσθαι</span> and sometimes <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιμαρτύρεσθαι
-τοὺς παρόντας</span>, to call upon those who
-are present to take notice of what passes, with
-a view to give evidence. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψευδομαρτυρεῖν</span> and
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιορκεῖν</span> are never used indifferently, which
-affords some proof that testimony was not
-necessarily on oath. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μάρτυς</span> (witness in
-the cause) is to be distinguished from the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλητὴρ</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλήτωρ</span>, who merely gave evidence
-of the summons to appear.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mastigophori">MASTĪGŎPHŎRI or MASTĪGŎNOMI
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μαστιγοφόροι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μαστιγονόμοι</span>), the name of
-the lower police officers in the Greek states,
-who carried into execution the corporal
-punishments inflicted by the higher magistrates.
-In the theatre the mastigophori preserved
-order, and were stationed for this
-purpose in the orchestra, near the thymele.
-In the Olympic games the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥαβδοῦχοι</span> performed
-the same duties. At Athens they
-were discharged by the public slaves, called
-bowmen (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοξόται</span>), or Scythians (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκύθαι</span>).
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Demosii">Demosii</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Materfamilias">MĀTERFĂMĬLĬAS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Matralia">MATRĀLĬA, a festival celebrated at Rome
-every year on the 11th of June, in honour of
-the goddess Mater Matuta, whose temple
-stood in the Forum Boarium. It was celebrated
-only by Roman matrons, and the
-sacrifices offered to the goddess consisted of
-cakes baked in pots of earthenware. Slaves
-were not allowed to take part in the solemnities,
-or to enter the temple of the goddess.
-One slave, however, was admitted by the
-matrons, but only to be exposed to a humiliating
-treatment, for one of the matrons gave
-her a blow on the cheek, and then sent her
-away from the temple. The matrons on this
-occasion took with them the children of their
-sisters, but not their own, held them in their
-arms, and prayed for their welfare.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Matronalia">MĀTRŌNĀLĬA, a festival celebrated on
-the Kalends of March in honour of Juno
-Lucina. Hence Horace says, “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Martiis <em>caelebs</em>
-quid agam Kalendis</span>.”</p>
-
-
-<p id="Matrimonium">MĀTRĬMŌNĬUM NUPTĬAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γάμος</span>),
-marriage. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> The ancient Greek
-legislators considered the relation of marriage
-as a matter not merely of private, but also of
-public or general interest. This was particularly
-the case at Sparta, where proceedings
-might be taken against those who married
-too late or unsuitably, as well as against
-those who did not marry at all. But independent
-of public considerations, there were
-also private or personal reasons, peculiar to
-the ancients, which made marriage an obligation.
-One of these was the duty incumbent
-upon every individual to provide for a
-continuance of representatives to succeed
-himself as ministers of the Divinity; and
-another was the desire felt by almost every
-one, not merely to perpetuate his own name,
-but to leave some one who might make the
-customary offerings at his grave. We are
-told that with this view childless persons
-sometimes adopted children. The choice of
-a wife among the ancients was but rarely
-grounded upon affection, and scarcely ever
-could have been the result of previous acquaintance
-or familiarity. In many cases a
-father chose for his son a bride whom the
-latter had never seen, or compelled him to
-marry for the sake of checking his extravagances.
-By the Athenian laws a citizen was
-not allowed to marry with a foreign woman,
-nor conversely, under very severe penalties,
-but proximity by blood (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγχιστεία</span>), or consanguinity
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συγγένεια</span>), was not, with some
-few exceptions, a bar to marriage in any
-part of Greece; direct lineal descent was.
-At Athens the most important preliminary
-to marriage was the betrothal (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐγγύησις</span>),
-which was in fact indispensable to the complete
-validity of a marriage contract. It was
-made by the natural or legal guardian
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ κύριος</span>) of the bride elect, and attended by
-the relatives of both parties as witnesses.
-The wife’s dowry was settled at the betrothal.
-On the day before the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gamos</i>, or marriage,
-or sometimes on the day itself, certain sacrifices
-or offerings (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προτέλεια γάμων</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προγάμεια</span>)<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250"></a>[250]</span>
-were made to the gods who presided
-over marriage. Another ceremony of almost
-general observance on the wedding day, was
-the bathing of both the bride and bridegroom
-in water fetched from some particular fountain,
-whence, as some think, the custom of
-placing the figure of a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λουτροφόρος</span> or “water
-carrier” over the tombs of those who died
-unmarried. After these preliminaries, the
-bride was generally conducted from her father’s
-to the house of the bridegroom at nightfall,
-in a chariot (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐφ’ ἁμάξης</span>) drawn by a pair
-of males or oxen, and furnished with a kind
-of couch (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλινίς</span>) as a seat. On either side of
-her sat the bridegroom and one of his most
-intimate friends or relations, who from his
-office was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paranymph</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παράνυμφος</span>
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νυμφευτής</span>); but as he rode in the carriage
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄχημα</span>) with the bride and bridegroom,
-he was sometimes called the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάροχος</span>. The
-nuptial procession was probably accompanied,
-according to circumstances, by a
-number of persons, some of whom carried
-the nuptial torches. Both bride and bridegroom
-(the former veiled) were decked out
-in their best attire, with chaplets on their
-heads, and the doors of their houses were
-hung with festoons of ivy and bay. As
-the bridal procession moved along, the
-hymenaean song was sung to the accompaniment
-of Lydian flutes, even in olden times,
-as beautifully described by Homer, and the
-married pair received the greetings and
-congratulations of those who met them.
-After entering the bridegroom’s house, into
-which the bride was probably conducted by
-his mother, bearing a lighted torch, it was
-customary to shower sweetmeats upon them
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταχύσματα</span>), as emblems of plenty and
-prosperity. After this came the nuptial
-feast, to which the name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gamos</i> was particularly
-applied; it was generally given in the
-house of the bridegroom or his parents; and
-besides being a festive meeting, served other
-and more important purposes. There was
-no public rite, whether civil or religious,
-connected with the celebration of marriage
-amongst the ancient Greeks, and therefore
-no public record of its solemnisation. This
-deficiency then was supplied by the marriage
-feast, for the guests were of course
-competent to prove the fact of a marriage
-having taken place. To this feast, contrary
-to the usual practice amongst the Greeks,
-women were invited as well as men; but
-they seem to have sat at a separate table,
-with the bride still veiled amongst them.
-At the conclusion of this feast she was conducted
-by her husband into the bridal
-chamber; and a law of Solon required that
-on entering it they should eat a quince together,
-as if to indicate that their conversation
-ought to be sweet and agreeable.
-The song called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epithalamium</i> was then
-sung before the doors of the bridal chamber.
-The day after the marriage, the first of the
-bride’s residence in her new abode, was
-called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epaulia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπαύλια</span>); on which their
-friends sent the customary presents to the
-newly married couple. On another day,
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apaulia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπαύλια</span>), perhaps the second
-after marriage, the bridegroom left his house,
-to lodge apart from his wife at his father’s-in-law.
-Some of the presents made to the
-bride by her husband and friends were called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anacalypteria</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνακαλυπτήρια</span>), as being given
-on the occasion of the bride first appearing
-unveiled: they were probably given on the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epaulia</i>, or day after the marriage. Another
-ceremony observed after marriage was the
-sacrifice which the husband offered up on
-the occasion of his bride being registered
-amongst his own phratores. The above account
-refers to Athenian customs.&mdash;At Sparta
-the betrothal of the bride by her father or
-guardian (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύριος</span>) was requisite as a preliminary
-of marriage, as well as at Athens.
-Another custom peculiar to the Spartans,
-and a relic of ancient times, was the seizure
-of the bride by her intended husband, but of
-course with the sanction of her parents or
-guardians. She was not, however, immediately
-domiciled in her husband’s house,
-but cohabited with him for some time clandestinely,
-till he brought her, and frequently
-her mother also, to his home.&mdash;The Greeks,
-generally speaking, entertained little regard
-for the female character. They considered
-women, in fact, as decidedly inferior to men,
-qualified to discharge only the subordinate
-functions in life, and rather necessary as
-helpmates than agreeable as companions.
-To these notions female education for the
-most part corresponded, and in fact confirmed
-them; it did not supply the elegant
-accomplishments and refinement of manners
-which permanently engage the affections,
-when other attractions have passed away.
-Aristotle states, that the relation of man to
-woman is that of the governor to the subject;
-and Plato, that a woman’s virtue may
-be summed up in a few words, for she has
-only to manage the house well, keeping what
-there is in it, and obeying her husband.
-Among the Dorians, however, and especially
-at Sparta, women enjoyed much more estimation
-than in the rest of Greece.&mdash;(2) <span id="Matr_r" class="smcap">Roman.</span>
-A legal Roman marriage was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">justae nuptiae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">justum matrimonium</i>, as being
-conformable to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus</i> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">civile</i>) or to law. A legal
-marriage was either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cum conventione uxoris
-in manum viri</i> or it was without <ins class="corr" id="tn-250" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'this conventio.'">
-this convention.</ins> But both forms of marriage agreed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251"></a>[251]</span>
-in this: there must be connubium between
-the parties, and consent. The legal consequences
-as to the power of the father over
-his children were the same in both. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Connubium</i>
-is merely a term which comprehends
-all the conditions of a legal marriage. Generally
-it may be stated, that there was only
-connubium between Roman citizens; the
-cases in which it at any time existed between
-parties, not both Roman citizens, were exceptions
-to the general rule. Originally, or
-at least at one period of the republic, there
-was no connubium between the patricians
-and the plebeians; but this was altered by
-the Lex Canuleia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 445.), which allowed
-connubium between persons of those two
-classes. There were various degrees of consanguinity
-and affinity, within which there
-was no connubium. An illegal union of a
-male and female, though affecting to be, was
-not a marriage: the man had no legal wife,
-and the children had no legal father: consequently
-they were not in the power of their
-reputed father. The marriage <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cum conventione</i>
-differed from that <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sine conventione</i>, in
-the relationship which it effected between the
-husband and the wife; the marriage <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cum
-conventione</i> was a necessary condition to
-make a woman a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">materfamilias</i>. By the
-marriage cum conventione, the wife passed
-into the familia of her husband, and was to
-him in the relation of a daughter, or, as it
-was expressed, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in manum convenit</i>. In the
-marriage sine conventione, the wife’s relation
-to her own familia remained as before,
-and she was merely <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uxor</i>. “<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Uxor</i>,” says
-Cicero, “is a genus of which there are two
-species; one is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">materfamilias, quae in manum
-convenit</i>; the other is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uxor</i> only.” Accordingly,
-a materfamilias is a wife who is in
-manu, and in the familia of her husband. A
-wife not in manu was not a member of her
-husband’s familia, and therefore the term
-could not apply to her. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Matrona</i> was properly
-a wife not in manu, and equivalent to
-uxor; and she was called matrona before she
-had any children. But these words are not
-always used in these their original and
-proper meanings. It does not appear that
-any forms were requisite in the marriage
-sine conventione; and apparently the evidence
-of such marriage was cohabitation matrimonii
-causa. The matrimonii causa might
-be proved by various kinds of evidence. In
-the case of a marriage cum conventione,
-there were three forms, 1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Usus</i>, 2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Farreum</i>,
-and 3. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Coemptio</i>.&mdash;1. Marriage was
-effected by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">usus</i>, if a woman lived with a
-man for a whole year as his wife; and this
-was by analogy to usucaption of movables
-generally, in which usus for one year gave
-ownership. The Law of the Twelve Tables provided,
-that if a woman did not wish to come
-into the manus of her husband in this manner,
-she should absent herself from him
-annually for three nights (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trinoctium</i>) and so
-break the usus of the year. 2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Farreum</i> was
-a form of marriage, in which certain words
-were used in the presence of ten witnesses,
-and were accompanied by a certain religious
-ceremony, in which panis farreus was employed;
-and hence this form of marriage was
-also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">confarreatio</i>. It appears that
-certain priestly offices, such as that of Flamen
-Dialis, could only be held by those who
-were born of parents who had been married
-by this ceremony (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">confarreati parentes</i>). 3.
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Coemptio</i> was effected by mancipatio, and
-consequently the wife was in mancipio.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mancipium">Mancipium</a>.</span>] A woman who was cohabiting
-with a man as uxor, might come into his
-manus by this ceremony, in which case the
-coemptio was said to be matrimonii causa,
-and she who was formerly uxor became
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apud maritum filiae loco</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sponsalia</i> were
-not an unusual preliminary of marriage, but
-they were not necessary.&mdash;The sponsalia were
-an agreement to marry, made in such form
-as to give each party a right of action
-in case of non-performance, and the offending
-party was condemned in such damages
-as to the judex seemed just. The woman
-who was promised in marriage was accordingly
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sponsa</i>, which is equivalent to
-promissa; the man who was engaged to
-marry was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sponsus</i>.&mdash;The sponsalia
-were of course not binding, if the parties
-consented to waive the contract. Sometimes
-a present was made by the future husband to
-the future wife by way of earnest (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arrha</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arrha sponsalitia</i>), or, as it was called, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">propter
-nuptias donatio</i>.&mdash;The consequences of
-marriage were&mdash;1. The power of the father
-over the children of the marriage, which was
-a completely new relation, an effect indeed
-of marriage, but one which had no influence
-over the relation of the husband and wife.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patria">Patria Potestas</a>.</span>] 2. The liabilities of
-either of the parties to the punishments
-affixed to the violation of the marriage union.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adulterium">Adulterium</a>; <a href="#Divortium">Divortium</a>.</span>] 3. The relation
-of husband and wife with respect to property.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dos">Dos</a>.</span>] When marriage was dissolved, the
-parties to it might marry again; but opinion
-considered it more decent for a woman not
-to marry again. A woman was required by
-usage (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mos</i>) to wait a year before she contracted
-a second marriage, on the pain of
-infamia.&mdash;It remains to describe the customs
-and rites which were observed by the Romans
-at marriages. After the parties had<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252"></a>[252]</span>
-agreed to marry and the persons in whose
-potestas they were had consented, a meeting
-of friends was sometimes held at the house
-of the maiden for the purpose of settling the
-marriage-contract, which was written on
-tablets, and signed by both parties. The
-woman after she had promised to become
-the wife of a man was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sponsa</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pacta</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dicta</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sperata</i>. It appears that, at least
-during the imperial period, the man put a
-ring on the finger of his betrothed, as a
-pledge of his fidelity. This ring was probably,
-like all rings at this time, worn on
-the left hand, and on the finger nearest to
-the smallest. The last point to be fixed was
-the day on which the marriage was to take
-place. The Romans believed that certain
-days were unfortunate for the performance
-of the marriage rites, either on account of
-the religious character of those days themselves,
-or on account of the days by which
-they were followed, as the woman had to
-perform certain religious rites on the day
-after her wedding, which could not take
-place on a dies ater. Days not suitable for
-entering upon matrimony were the calends,
-nones, and ides of every month, all dies atri,
-the whole months of May and February, and
-a great number of festivals. On the wedding-day,
-which in the early times was never
-fixed upon without consulting the auspices,
-the bride was dressed in a long white robe
-with a purple fringe, or adorned with ribands.
-This dress was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tunica recta</i>, and was
-bound round the waist with a girdle (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corona</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cingulum</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">zona</i>), which the husband had
-to untie in the evening. The bridal veil,
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">flammeum</i>, was of a bright yellow
-colour, and her shoes likewise. Her hair
-was divided on this occasion with the point
-of a spear. The bride was conducted to the
-house of her husband in the evening. She
-was taken with apparent violence from the
-arms of her mother, or of the person who
-had to give her away. On her way she was
-accompanied by three boys dressed in the
-praetexta, and whose fathers and mothers
-were still alive (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patrimi et matrimi</i>). One
-of them carried before her a torch of white
-thorn (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spina</i>), or, according to others, of
-pine wood; the two others walked by her
-side, supporting her by the arm. The bride
-herself carried a distaff and a spindle, with
-wool. A boy called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">camillus</i> carried in a
-covered vase (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cumera</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cumerum</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">camillum</i>),
-the so-called utensils of the bride and
-playthings for children (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crepundia</i>). Besides
-these persons who officiated on the occasion,
-the procession was attended by a numerous
-train of friends, both of the bride and the
-bridegroom. When the procession arrived
-at the house of the bridegroom, the door of
-which was adorned with garlands and flowers,
-the bride was carried across the threshold by
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pronubi</i>, <em>i.e.</em> men who had been married
-to only one woman, that she might not
-knock against it with her foot, which would
-have been an evil omen. Before she entered
-the house, she wound wool around the door-posts
-of her new residence, and anointed
-them with lard (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adeps suillus</i>) or wolf’s fat
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adeps lupinus</i>). The husband received her
-with fire and water, which the woman had
-to touch. This was either a symbolic purification,
-or a symbolic expression of welcome,
-as the interdicere aqua et igni was the formula
-for banishment. The bride saluted her
-husband with the words: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ubi tu Caius, ego
-Caia</i>. After she had entered the house with
-distaff and spindle, she was placed upon a
-sheep-skin, and here the keys of the house
-were delivered into her hands. A repast
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coena nuptialis</i>) given by the husband to
-the whole train of relatives and friends who
-accompanied the bride, generally concluded
-the solemnity of the day. Many ancient
-writers mention a very popular song, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Talasius</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Talassio</i>, which was sung at weddings;
-but whether it was sung during the
-repast or during the procession is not quite
-clear, though we may infer from the story
-respecting the origin of the song, that it was
-sung while the procession was advancing
-towards the house of the husband. It may
-easily be imagined that a solemnity like that
-of marriage did not take place among the
-merry and humorous Italians without a
-variety of jests and railleries, and the ancient
-writers mention songs which were sung before
-the door of the bridal apartment by girls,
-after the company had left. These songs
-were probably the old Fescennina [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fescennina">Fescennina</a></span>],
-and are frequently called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epithalamia</i>.
-At the end of the repast the bride was conducted
-by matrons who had not had more
-than one husband (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pronubae</i>), to the lectus
-genialis in the atrium, which was on this
-occasion magnificently adorned and strewed
-with flowers. On the following day the
-husband sometimes gave another entertainment
-to his friends, which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repotia</i>,
-and the woman, who on this day undertook
-the management of the house of her husband,
-had to perform certain religious rites;
-on which account, as was observed above, it
-was necessary to select a day for the marriage
-which was not followed by a dies ater.
-These rites probably consisted of sacrifices to
-the Dii Penates. The position of a Roman
-woman after marriage was very different
-from that of a Greek woman. The Roman
-presided over the whole household; she educated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253"></a>[253]</span>
-her children, watched over and preserved
-the honour of the house, and as the
-materfamilias she shared the honours and
-respect shown to her husband. Far from
-being confined like the Greek women to a
-distinct apartment, the Roman matron, at
-least during the better centuries of the republic,
-occupied the most important part of
-the house, the atrium.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mausoleum">MAUSŌLĒUM <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαυσωλεῖον</span>, signified originally
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">the sepulchre of Mausolus</i>, which was
-a magnificent monument erected at Halicarnassus
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 353, by Artemisia, the widow of
-Mausolus. (See <cite>Classical Dict., art. Artemisia</cite>.)
-It was adorned with beautiful works
-of art, and was regarded as one of the seven
-wonders of the world. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mausoleum</i>
-was used by the Romans as a generic name
-for any magnificent sepulchral edifice. Mausolus,
-the dynast of Caria, having died in
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 353, his queen Artemisia evinced her
-sorrow by observing his funeral rites with
-the most expensive splendour, and by commencing
-the erection of a sepulchral monument
-to him at Halicarnassus, which should
-surpass any thing the world had yet seen.
-The building extended 63 feet from north to
-south, being shorter on the fronts, and its
-whole circuit was 411 feet (or, according to
-the Bamberg MS., 440); it rose to the height
-of 25 cubits (37½ feet); and was surrounded
-by 36 columns. This part of the building was
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pteron</i>. It was adorned with sculptures
-in relief, on its eastern face by Scopas, on the
-northern by Bryaxis, on the southern by
-Timotheus, on the western by Leochares.
-Above this <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pteron</i> was a pyramid equal to it
-in height, diminishing by 24 steps to its
-summit, which was surmounted by the marble
-quadriga made by Pythis. The total
-height, including this ornament, was 140
-feet. In the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mausolea</i> the form
-chiefly employed was that of a succession of
-terraces in imitation of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogus</i>. Of these
-the most celebrated were those of Augustus
-and of Hadrian; the latter of which, stripped
-of its ornaments, still forms the fortress of
-modern Rome (the castle of S. Angelo); but
-of the other, which was on a still larger
-scale, and which was considered as one
-of the most magnificent buildings of Augustus,
-there are only some insignificant
-ruins.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mediastini">MĔDĬASTĪNI, the name given to slaves,
-used for any common purpose. The name is
-chiefly given to certain slaves belonging to
-the familia rustica, but it is also applied sometimes
-to slaves in the city.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Medimnus">MĔDIMNUS <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέδιμνος</span>, the principal dry
-measure of the Greeks. It was used especially
-for measuring corn. The Attic medimnus
-was equal to six Roman modii. For its
-subdivisions see <a href="#TABLES">Tables</a> at the end. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Metretes">Metretes</a></span>;
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Choenix">Choenix</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Xestes">Xestes</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cotyla">Cotyla</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Medix">MĒDIX TUTICUS, the name of the supreme
-magistrate among the Oscan people.
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Medix</i> appears to have signified a magistrate
-of any kind, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tuticus</i> to have been equivalent
-to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magnus</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">summus</i>. Livy, therefore,
-in calling the medix tuticus the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">summus magistratus</i>,
-gives a literal translation of the word.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Megalesia">MĔGĂLĒSĬA, MĔGĂLENSĬA, or MĔGĂLENSES
-LŪDI, a festival with games, celebrated
-at Rome in the month of April and in
-honour of the great mother of the gods
-(Cybelé, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεγάλη θεός</span>, whence the festival
-derived its name). The statue of the goddess
-was brought to Rome from Pessinus in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-203, and the day of its arrival was solemnised
-with a magnificent procession, lectisternia,
-and games, and great numbers of people carried
-presents to the goddess on the Capitol.
-The regular celebration of the Megalesia,
-however, did not begin till twelve years later
-(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 191), when the temple, which had been
-vowed and ordered to be built in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 203,
-was completed and dedicated by M. Junius
-Brutus. The festival lasted for six days,
-beginning on the 4th of April. The season of
-this festival, like that of the whole month in
-which it took place, was full of general rejoicings
-and feasting. It was customary for
-the wealthy Romans on this occasion to invite
-one another mutually to their repasts.
-The games which were held at the Megalesia
-were purely scenic, and not circenses. They
-were at first held on the Palatine, in front of
-the temple of the goddess, but afterwards
-also in the theatres. The day which was
-especially set apart for the performance of
-scenic plays was the third of the festival.
-Slaves were not permitted to be present at
-the games, and the magistrates appeared
-dressed in a purple toga and praetexta,
-whence the proverb, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">purpura Megalensis</i>.
-The games were under the superintendence
-of the curule aediles, and we know that four
-of the extant plays of Terence were performed
-at the Megalesia.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Membrana">MEMBRĀNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Liber">Liber</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mensa">MENSA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τράπεζα</span>), a table. The simplest
-kind of table was a round one with three
-legs, called in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίπους</span>. Tables, however,
-must usually have had four legs, as the
-etymology of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τράπεζα</span>, the common word for
-table, indicates. For the houses of the opulent,
-tables were made of the most valuable
-and beautiful kinds of wood, especially of
-maple, or of the citrus of Africa, which was
-a species of cypress or juniper. As the table
-was not large, it was usual to place the dishes
-and the various kinds of meat upon it, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254"></a>[254]</span>
-then to bring it thus furnished to the place
-where the guests were reclining. On many
-occasions, indeed, each guest either had a
-small table to himself, or the company was
-divided into parties of two or three, with a
-separate table for each party, as is distinctly
-represented in the cut under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Symposium">Symposium</a></span>.
-Hence we have such phrases as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensam apponere</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opponere</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensam auferre</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">removere</i>. The two principal courses of a
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deipnon</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coena</i>, or a Greek and Roman
-dinner, were called respectively <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρώτη τράπεζα</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεύτερα τράπεζα</span>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensa prima</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensa secunda</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a>; <a href="#Deipnon">Deipnon</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mensarii">MENSĀRĬI, MENSŬLĀRĬI, or NŪMŬLĀRĬI,
-a kind of public bankers at Rome
-who were appointed by the state; they were
-distinct from the argentarii, who were common
-bankers, and did business on their own
-account. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Argentarii">Argentarii</a>.</span>] The mensarii had
-their tables or banks (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensae</i>) like ordinary
-bankers, in the forum, and in the name of
-the aerarium they offered ready money to
-debtors who could give security to the state
-for it. Such an expediency was devised by
-the state only in times of great distress. The
-first time that mensarii (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quinqueviri mensarii</i>)
-were appointed was in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 352, at the time
-when the plebeians were so deeply involved
-in debt, that they were obliged to borrow
-money from new creditors in order to pay
-the old ones, and thus ruined themselves
-completely. On this occasion they were also
-authorised to ordain that cattle or land should
-be received as payment at a fair valuation.
-With the exception of this first time, they
-appear during the time of the republic to
-have always been <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triumviri mensarii</i>. One
-class of mensarii, however (perhaps an inferior
-order), the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensularii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">numularii</i>,
-seem to have been permanently employed by
-the state, and these must be meant when we
-read, that not only the aerarium, but also
-private individuals, deposited in their hands
-sums of money which they had to dispose of.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mensis">MENSIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Merenda">MĔRENDA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Metae">MĔTAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Metallum">MĔTALLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέταλλον</span>), a <em>mine</em> and <em>metal</em>.
-The metals which have been known from the
-earliest period of which we have any information
-are those which were long distinguished
-as the seven principal metals, namely, gold,
-silver, copper, tin, iron, lead, and mercury.
-If to this list we add the compound of gold
-and silver called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">electrum</i>, the compound of
-copper and tin called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκός</span> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes</i> (bronze),
-and steel, we have, in all probability, a complete
-list of the metals known to the Greeks
-and Romans, with the exception of zinc,
-which they do not seem to have known as a
-metal, but only in its ores, and of brass,
-which, they regarded as a sort of bronze. The
-early Greeks were no doubt chiefly indebted
-for a supply of the various metals to the
-commerce of the Phoenicians, who procured
-them principally from Arabia and Spain, and
-tin from our own island and the East. They
-were perfectly acquainted with the processes
-of smelting the metal from the ore, and of
-forging heated masses into the required
-shapes, by the aid of the hammer and tongs.
-The smith’s instruments were the anvil
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκμων</span>) with the block on which it rested
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκμόθετον</span>), the tongs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυράγρη</span>) and the
-hammer (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥαιστήρ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφῦρα</span>). The advances
-made in the art of metallurgy in subsequent
-times are chiefly connected with the
-improvements in the art of statuary. The
-method of working, as described in Homer,
-seems to have long prevailed, namely by
-beating out lumps of the material into the
-form proposed, and afterwards fitting the
-pieces together by means of pins or keys.
-It was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφυρήλατον</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφῦρα</span>, a
-hammer. The next mode, among the Greeks,
-of executing metal works seems to have
-been by plating upon a nucleus, or general
-form, of wood&mdash;a practice which was employed
-also by the Egyptians. It is extremely
-difficult to determine at what date
-the casting of metal was introduced. According
-to the statements of Pausanias and
-Pliny, the art of casting in bronze and in
-iron was invented by Rhoecus and Theodorus
-of Samos, who probably lived in the sixth
-and fifth centuries before our era.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Metoici">MĔTOICI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέτοικοι</span>), the name by which,
-at Athens and in other Greek states, the
-<em>resident aliens</em> were designated. They must
-be distinguished from such strangers as made
-only a transitory stay in a place, for it was a
-characteristic of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metoicus</i>, that he resided
-permanently in the city. No city of Greece
-perhaps had such a number of resident aliens
-as Athens, since none afforded to strangers so
-many facilities for carrying on mercantile
-business, or a more agreeable mode of living.
-In the census instituted by Demetrius Phalereus
-(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 309), the number of resident aliens
-at Athens was 10,000, in which number
-women and children were probably not included.
-The jealousy with which the citizens
-of the ancient Greek republics kept their
-body clear of intruders, is also manifest in
-their regulations concerning aliens. However
-long they might have resided in Athens,
-they were always regarded as strangers,
-whence they are sometimes called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξένοι</span>, and
-to remind them of their position, they had on
-some occasions to perform certain degrading
-services for the Athenian citizens [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hydriaphoria">Hydriaphoria</a></span>].<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255"></a>[255]</span>
-These services were, however, in
-all probability not intended to hurt the feelings
-of the aliens, but were simply acts symbolical
-of their relation to the citizens. Aliens
-were not allowed to acquire landed property
-in the state they had chosen for their residence,
-and were consequently obliged to live
-in hired houses or apartments. As they did
-not constitute a part of the state, and were
-yet in constant intercourse and commerce with
-its members, every alien was obliged to select
-a citizen for his patron (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης</span>), who was
-not only the mediator between them and the
-state, through whom alone they could transact
-any legal business, whether private or
-public, but was at the same time answerable
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐγγυητής</span>) to the state for the conduct of his
-client. On the other hand, however, the
-state allowed the aliens to carry on all kinds
-of industry and commerce under the protection
-of the law; in fact, at Athens nearly all
-business was in the hands of aliens, who on
-this account lived for the most part in the
-Peiraeeus. Each family of aliens, whether
-they availed themselves of the privilege of
-carrying on any mercantile business or not,
-had to pay an annual tax (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετοίκιον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξενικά</span>)
-of twelve drachmae, or if the head of the
-family was a widow, of only six drachmae.
-If aliens did not pay this tax, or if they
-assumed the right of citizens, and probably
-also in case they refused to select a patron,
-they not only forfeited the protection of the
-state, but were sold as slaves. Extraordinary
-taxes and liturgies (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφοραί</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λειτουργίαι</span>)
-devolved upon aliens no less than upon citizens.
-The aliens were also obliged, like
-citizens, to serve in the regular armies and
-in the fleet, both abroad and at home, for the
-defence of the city. Those aliens who were
-exempt from the burthens peculiar to their
-class were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">isoteles</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰσοτελεῖς</span>). They
-had not to pay the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετοίκιον</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτέλια μετοικίου</span>),
-were not obliged to choose a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης</span>,
-and in fact enjoyed all the rights of citizens,
-except those of a political nature. Their condition
-was termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰσοτέλεια</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰσοπολιτεία</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Metopa">MĔTOPA or MĔTŎPE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετόπη</span>), the name
-applied to each of the spaces between the
-triglyphs in the frieze of the Doric order, and
-by metonymy to the sculptured ornament
-with which those spaces were filled up. In
-the original significance of the parts the triglyphs
-represent the ends of the cross-beams
-or joists which rested on the architrave; the
-beds of these beams were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀπαί</span>, and
-hence the spaces between them <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετόπαι</span>.
-Originally they were left open; next they
-were filled up with plain slabs, as in the
-propylaea at Eleusis, and many other buildings,
-and lastly, but still at an early period,
-they were adorned with sculptures either in
-low or high relief. The metopes from the
-Parthenon in the British Museum are
-adorned with sculptures in high relief.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Metretes">MĔTRĒTES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετρητής</span>), the principal Greek
-liquid measure. The Attic metretes was equal
-in capacity to the amphora, containing 8
-galls. 7·365 pints, English. See the <a href="#TABLES">Tables</a>.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chous">Chous</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Choenix">Choenix</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Xestes">Xestes</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cotyla">Cotyla</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Metropolis">MĒTRŎPŎLIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Miliare">MĬLIĀRE, MILLĬĀRĬUM, or MILLE
-PASSUUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίλιον</span>), the Roman mile, consisted
-of 1000 paces (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">passus</i>) of 5 feet each,
-and was therefore = 5000 feet. Taking the
-Roman foot at 11·6496 English inches [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes</a></span>],
-the Roman mile would be 1618 English
-yards, or 142 yards less than the English
-statute mile. The most common term for
-the mile is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mille passuum</i>, or only the initials
-M. P.; sometimes the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">passuum</i> is omitted.
-The Roman mile contained 8 Greek
-stadia. The mile-stones along the Roman
-roads were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">milliaria</i>. They were also
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lapides</i>; thus we have <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad tertium lapidem</i>
-(or without the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lapidem</i>) for 3
-miles from Rome. Augustus erected a gilt
-pillar in the Forum, where the principal
-roads terminated, which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">milliarium
-aureum</i>; but the miles were not
-reckoned from it, but from the gates of the
-city. Such central marks appear to have
-been common in the principal cities of the
-Roman empire. The “London-stone” in
-Cannon-street is supposed to have marked
-the centre of the Roman roads in Britain.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mimus">MĪMUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μῖμος</span>), the name by which, in
-Greece and at Rome, a species of the drama
-was designated, though the Roman mimus
-differed essentially from the Greek. The
-Greek mimus seems to have originated among
-the Greeks of Sicily and southern Italy, and
-to have consisted originally of extemporary
-representations or imitations of ridiculous
-occurrences of common life at certain festivals.
-At a later period these rude representations
-acquired a more artistic form,
-which was brought to a high degree of perfection
-by Sophron of Syracuse (about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-420). He wrote his pieces in the popular
-dialect of the Dorians and a kind of rhythmical
-prose. Among the Romans the word
-mimus was applied to a species of dramatic
-plays as well as to the persons who acted in
-them. It is certain that the Romans did not
-derive their mimus from the Greeks in
-southern Italy, but that it was of native
-growth. The Greek mimes were written in
-prose, and the name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μῖμος</span> was never applied
-to an actor, but if used of a person it signified
-one who made grimaces. The Roman mimes
-were imitations of foolish and mostly indecent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256"></a>[256]</span>
-occurrences, and scarcely differed from
-comedy except in consisting more of gestures
-and mimicry than of spoken dialogue. At
-Rome such mimes seem originally to have been
-exhibited at funerals, where one or more persons
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mimi</i>) represented in a burlesque manner
-the life of the deceased. If there were several
-mimi, one of them, or their leader, was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">archimimus</i>. These coarse and indecent performances
-had greater charms for the Romans
-than the regular drama. They were performed
-on the stage as farces after tragedies, and
-during the empire they gradually supplanted
-the place of the Atellanae. It was peculiar to
-the actors in these mimes, to wear neither
-masks, the cothurnus, nor the soccus, whence
-they are sometimes called planipedes.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mina">MĬNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Talentum">Talentum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mirmillones">MIRMILLŌNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Missio">MISSĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Missio_g">MISSĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mitra">MITRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτρα</span>), in general a band of any
-kind, and specifically, (1) A belt or girdle
-worn by warriors round the waist. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Zona">Zona</a>.</span>]&mdash;(2)
-A broad band of cloth worn round the
-head, to which the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anadema</i> was
-sometimes given. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coma">Coma</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Modius">MODĬUS, the principal dry measure of
-the Romans, was equal to one-third of the
-amphora, and therefore contained nearly two
-gallons English. (See the <a href="#TABLES">Tables</a>.) The
-modius was one-sixth of the medimnus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mola">MŎLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μύλος</span>), a mill. All mills were anciently
-made of stone, the kind used being a
-volcanic trachyte or porous lava (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pyrites</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silices</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pumiceas</i>). Every mill consisted of
-two essential parts, the upper mill-stone,
-which was moveable (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">catillus</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄνος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ ἐπιμύλιον</span>),
-and the lower, which was fixed and
-by much the larger of the two. Hence a
-mill is sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">molae</i> in the plural.
-The principal mills mentioned by ancient
-authors are the following:&mdash;I. The hand-mill,
-or quern, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mola manuaria, versatilis</i>,
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trusatilis</i>. The hand-mills were
-worked among the Greeks and Romans by
-slaves. Their pistrinum was consequently
-proverbial as a place of painful and degrading
-labour; and this toil was imposed principally
-on women. II. The cattle-mill, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mola asinaria</i>,
-in which human labour was supplied by
-the use of an ass or some other animal. III.
-The water-mill (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mola aquaria</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑδραλέτης</span>).
-A cogged wheel, attached to the axis of the
-water wheel, turned another which was attached
-to the axis of the upper mill-stone:
-the corn to be ground fell between the stones
-out of a hopper (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">infundibulum</i>), which was
-fixed above them. IV. The floating-mill.
-V. The saw-mill. VI. The pepper-mill.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Monarchia">MŎNARCHĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μοναρχία</span>), a general name
-for any form of government in which the supreme
-functions of political administration
-are in the hands of a single person. The
-term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μοναρχία</span> is applied to such governments,
-whether they are hereditary or elective, legal
-or usurped. In its commonest application,
-it is equivalent to <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλεία</span>, whether absolute
-or limited. But the rule of an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aesymnetes</i>
-or a <em>tyrant</em> would equally be called a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μοναρχία</span>.
-Hence Plutarch uses it to express the Latin
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dictatura</i>. It is by a somewhat rhetorical
-use of the word that it is applied now and
-then to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆμος</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Moneta">MŎNĒTA, the mint, or the place where
-money was coined. The mint of Rome was
-a building on the Capitoline, and attached to
-the temple of Juno Moneta, as the aerarium
-was to the temple of Saturn. The officers
-who had the superintendence of the mint
-were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triumviri Monetales</i>, who were
-perhaps first appointed about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 269.
-Under the republic, the coining of money
-was not a privilege which belonged exclusively
-to the state. The coins struck in the
-time of the republic mostly bear the names
-of private individuals; and it would seem
-that every Roman citizen had the right of
-having his own gold and silver coined in the
-public mint, and under the superintendence
-of its officers. Still no one till the time of
-the empire had the right of putting his own
-image upon a coin; Julius Caesar was the
-first to whom this privilege was granted.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Monile">MŎNĪLE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅρμος</span>), a necklace. Necklaces
-were worn by both sexes among the most polished
-of those nations which the Greeks called
-barbarous, especially the Indians, the Egyptians,
-and the Persians. Greek and Roman
-females adopted them more particularly as a
-bridal ornament. They were of various forms,
-as may be seen by the following specimens:&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill256" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill256.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Monilia, necklaces. (British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257"></a>[257]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Monumentum">MŎNŬMENTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mora">MŎRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mortarium">MORTĀRIUM, also called PĪLA and PILUM
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄλμος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἴγδη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἴγδις</span>), a mortar. Before
-the invention of mills [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mola">Mola</a></span>] corn was
-pounded and rubbed in mortars (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pistum</i>),
-and hence the place for making bread, or the
-bake-house, was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pistrinum</i>. Also long
-after the introduction of mills this was an
-indispensable article of domestic furniture.
-Those used in pharmacy were sometimes
-made of Egyptian alabaster. The mortar
-was also employed in pounding charcoal, rubbing
-it with glue, in order to make black
-paint (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atramentum</i>), in making plaster for
-the walls of apartments, in mixing spices and
-fragrant herbs and flowers for the use of the
-kitchen, and in metallurgy, as in triturating
-cinnabar to obtain mercury from it by sublimation.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mulsum">MULSUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vinum">Vinum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Munerator">MŪNĔRĀTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Municeps">MŪNĬCEPS, MŪNĬCĬPĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a></span>;
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Foederatae">Foederatae Civitates</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Munus">MŪNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Honores">Honores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Munus_g">MŪNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Muralis">MŪRĀLIS CŎRŌNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Corona">Corona</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Murrhina">MURRHĬNA VĀSA, or MURRĔA VĀSA,
-were first introduced into Rome by Pompey,
-who dedicated cups of this kind to Jupiter
-Capitolinus. Their value was very great.
-Nero gave 300 talents for a capis or drinking
-cup. These murrhine vessels came from the
-East, principally from places within the Parthian
-empire, and chiefly from Caramania.
-They were made of a substance formed by a
-moisture thickened in the earth by heat, and
-were chiefly valued on account of the variety
-of their colours. Modern writers differ much
-respecting the material of which they were
-composed, and some think they may have
-been true Chinese porcelain.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Murus">MŪRUS, MOENĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τεῖχος</span>), the wall of a
-city, in contradistinction to <span class="smcap"><a href="#Paries">Paries</a></span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοῖχος</span>),
-the wall of a house, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Maceria</i>, a boundary
-wall. We find cities surrounded by massive
-walls at the earliest periods of Greek and
-Roman history. Homer speaks of the chief
-cities of the Argive kingdom as “the walled
-Tiryns,” and “Mycenae the well-built city,”
-attesting the great antiquity of those identical
-gigantic walls which still stand at Tiryns and
-Mycenae, and which have been frequently attributed
-to the Cyclopes and Pelasgians. Three
-principal species can be clearly distinguished:&mdash;1.
-That in which the masses of
-stone are of irregular shape and are put together
-without any attempt to fit them into
-one another, the interstices being loosely
-filled in with smaller stones. An example is
-given in the annexed engraving.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp98" id="ill257a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill257a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ancient Wall at Tiryns.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>2. In other cases we find the blocks still of irregular
-polygonal shapes, but their sides are sufficiently
-smoothed to make each fit accurately
-into the angles between the others, and their
-faces are cut so as to give the whole wall a
-tolerably smooth surface. An example is given
-in the annexed engraving.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill257b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill257b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ancient Wall of Larissa, the Acropolis of Argos.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>3. In the third species,
-the blocks are laid in horizontal courses,
-more or less regular (sometimes indeed so
-irregular, that none of the horizontal joints
-are continuous), and with vertical joints
-either perpendicular or oblique, and with all
-the joints more or less accurately fitted. The
-walls of Mycenae present one of the ruder
-examples of this sort of structure; and the
-following engraving of the “Lion Gate” of
-that fortress (so called from the rudely sculptured
-figures of lions) shows also the manner
-in which the gates of these three species of
-walls were built, by supporting an immense
-block of stone, for the lintel, upon two others,
-for jambs, the latter inclining inwards, so as
-to give more space than if they were upright.&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp92" id="ill258" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill258.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ancient Wall at Mycenae.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The materials employed in walls
-about the time of Pericles were various sorts
-of stone, and, in some of the most magnificent
-temples, marble. The practice of putting
-a facing of marble over a wall of a commoner
-material was introduced in the next<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258"></a>[258]</span>
-period of architectural history. For buildings
-of a common sort, the materials employed
-were smaller stones, rough or squared,
-or flints, as well as bricks. These were
-bound together with various kinds of mortar
-or cement, composed of lime mixed with different
-sands and volcanic earths. The history
-of Roman masonry is not very different from
-that of the Greek.&mdash;The most ancient works
-at Rome, such as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Carcer Mamertinus</i>,
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cloaca Maxima</i>, and the Servian Walls,
-were constructed of massive quadrangular
-hewn stones, placed together without cement.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cloaca">Cloaca</a>.</span>] Five species of Roman masonry
-may be distinguished; namely, 1. when
-the blocks of stone are laid in alternate
-courses, lengthwise in one course, and crosswise
-in the next; this is the most common;
-2. when the stones in each course are laid
-alternately along and across; this construction
-was usual when the walls were to
-be faced with slabs of marble; 3. when they
-are laid entirely lengthwise; 4. entirely
-crosswise; and 5. when the courses are alternately
-higher and lower than each other.
-As by the Greeks, so by the Romans, walls
-of a commoner sort were built of smaller
-quarried stones (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caementa</i>) or of bricks. The
-excellence of the cement which the Romans
-used enabled them to construct walls of very
-small rough stones, not laid in courses, but
-held together by the mortar; this structure
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opus incertum</i>. Another structure
-of which the Romans made great use, and
-which was one of the most durable of all,
-was that composed of courses of flat tiles.
-Such courses were also introduced in the
-other kinds of stone and brick walls, in which
-they both served as bond-courses, and, in the
-lower part of the wall, kept the damp from
-rising from the ground. Brick walls covered
-with stucco were exceedingly common with
-the Romans: even columns were made of
-brick covered with stucco.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Musculus">MUSCŬLUS was a kind of vinea, one of
-the smaller military machines, by which the
-besiegers of a town were protected.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Museum">MŪSĒUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μουσεῖον</span>), the name of an institution
-founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus,
-about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 280, for the promotion of learning
-and the support of learned men. The
-museum formed part of the palace, and contained
-cloisters or porticoes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίπατος</span>), a
-public theatre or lecture-room (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξέδρα</span>), and
-a large hall (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἶκος μέγας</span>), where the learned
-men dined together. The museum was supported
-by a common fund, supplied apparently
-from the public treasury; and the
-whole institution was under the superintendence
-of a priest, who was appointed by the
-king, and after Egypt became a province of
-the Roman empire, by the Caesar. Botanical
-and zoological gardens appear to have been
-attached to the museum.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Myrii">MȲRĬI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μυρίοι</span>), the name given to the
-popular assembly of the Arcadians, which
-was established after the overthrow of the
-Spartan supremacy by the battle of Leuctra,
-and which used to meet at Megalopolis in
-order to determine upon matters affecting
-the whole people.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mysia">MYSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μύσια</span>), a festival celebrated by
-the inhabitants of Pellene in Achaia in honour
-of Demeter Mysia, which lasted for 7 days.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Mysteria">MYSTĒRĬA. The names by which mysteries
-or mystic festivals were designated in
-Greece, are <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μυστήρια</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελεταί</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄργια</span>. The
-name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄργια</span> (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔοργα</span>) originally signified
-only sacrifices accompanied by certain ceremonies,
-but it was afterwards applied especially
-to the ceremonies observed in the worship
-of Dionysus, and at a still later period
-to mysteries in general. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τελετή</span> signifies, in
-general, a religious festival, but more particularly
-a lustration or ceremony performed
-in order to avert some calamity, either public
-or private. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μυστήριον</span> signifies, properly
-speaking, the secret part of the worship, but
-was also used in the same sense as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελετή</span>,
-and for mystic worship in general. Mysteries
-in general may be defined as sacrifices
-and ceremonies which took place at night or
-in secret within some sanctuary, which the
-uninitiated were not allowed to enter. What
-was essential to them, were objects of worship,
-sacred utensils, and traditions with
-their interpretation, which were withheld
-from all persons not initiated. The most
-celebrated mysteries in Greece were those of
-Samothrace and Eleusis, which are described
-in separate articles. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cabeiria">Cabeiria</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Eleusinia">Eleusinia</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259"></a>[259]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="N_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">N</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Naenia" class="drop-capy">NAENĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Natatio">NĂTĀTĬO, NĂTĀTŌRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Navalia">NĀVĀLIA, docks at Rome where ships
-were built, laid up, and refitted. They were
-attached to the emporium outside of the Porta
-Trigemina, and were connected with the
-Tiber. The emporium and navalia were first
-included within the walls of the city by
-Aurelian.&mdash;The docks (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεώσοικοι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεώρια</span>)
-in the Peiraeeus at Athens cost 1000 talents,
-and having been destroyed in the anarchy
-were again restored and finally completed by
-Lycurgus, the contemporary of Demosthenes.
-They were under the superintendence of
-regular officers, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν νεωρίων</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Navalis">NĀVĀLIS CŎRŌNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Corona">Corona</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Navarchus">NĀVARCHUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναύαρχος</span>), the name by
-which the Greeks designated both the captain
-of a single ship, and the admiral of a fleet.
-The office itself was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναυαρχία</span>. The
-admiral of the Athenian fleet was always one
-of the ten generals (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρατηγοί</span>) elected every
-year, and he had either the whole or the
-chief command of the fleet. The chief officers
-who served under him were the trierarchs
-and the pentecontarchs, each of whom
-commanded one vessel; the inferior officers
-in the vessels were the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυβερνῆται</span> or helmsmen,
-the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κελευσταί</span> or commanders of the
-rowers, and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρωρᾶται</span>, who must have
-been employed at the prow of the vessels.
-Other Greek states who kept a navy had
-likewise their navarchs. The chief admiral
-of the Spartan fleet was called navarchus,
-and the second in command <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epistoleus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστολεύς</span>).
-The same person was not allowed
-to hold the office of navarchus two successive
-years at Sparta. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Epistoleus">Epistoleus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Naucraria">NAUCRĀRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναυκραρία</span>), the name of a
-division of the inhabitants of Attica. The
-four ancient phylae were each divided into
-three phratries, and each of these twelve
-phratries into four naucraries, of which there
-were thus forty-eight. What the naucraries
-were previous to the legislation of Solon is
-not stated anywhere, but it is not improbable
-that they were political divisions similar
-to the demes in the constitution of Cleisthenes,
-and were made perhaps at the time
-of the institution of the nine archons, for the
-purpose of regulating the liturgies, taxes, or
-financial and military affairs in general. At
-any rate, however, the naucraries before the
-time of Solon can have had no connection
-with the navy, for the Athenians then had
-no navy; the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναύκραρος</span> therefore cannot
-be derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναῦς</span>, ship, but must
-come from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναιω</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναύκραρος</span> is thus only
-another form for <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναύκληρος</span> in the sense of a
-householder, as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναῦλον</span> was used for the rent
-of a house. Solon in his legislation retained
-the old institution of the naucraries, and
-charged each of them with the equipment of
-one trireme and with the mounting of two
-horsemen. All military affairs, as far as
-regards the defraying of expenses, probably
-continued as before to be regulated according
-to naucraries. Cleisthenes, in his change
-of the Solonian constitution, retained the
-division into naucraries for military and
-financial purposes; but he increased their
-number to fifty, making five for each of his
-ten tribes; so that now the number of their
-ships was increased from forty-eight to fifty,
-and that of horsemen from ninety-six to one
-hundred. The statement of Herodotus, that
-the Athenians in their war against Aegina
-had only fifty ships of their own, is thus
-perfectly in accordance with the fifty naucraries
-of Cleisthenes. The functions of the
-former <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναύκραροι</span>, or the heads of their respective
-naucraries, were now transferred to
-the demarchs. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Demarchi">Demarchi</a>.</span>] The obligation
-of each naucrary to equip a ship of war for
-the service of the republic may be regarded
-as the first form of trierarchy. As the system
-of trierarchy became developed and
-established, this obligation of the naucraries
-appears to have gradually ceased, and to have
-fallen into disuse. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Trierarchia">Trierarchia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Naucrarus">NAUCRĀRUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Naucraria">Naucraria</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Navis">NĀVIS, NĀVĬGIUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναῦς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλοῖον</span>), a
-ship. The numerous fleet, with which the
-Greeks are said to have sailed to the coast
-of Asia Minor, must on the whole be regarded
-as sufficient evidence of the extent
-to which navigation was carried on in those
-times, however much of the detail in the
-Homeric description may have arisen from
-the poet’s own imagination. In the Homeric
-catalogue it is stated that each of the
-fifty Boeotian ships carried 120 warriors,
-and a ship which carried so many cannot
-have been of very small dimensions. What
-Homer states of the Boeotian vessels applies
-more or less to the ships of other Greeks.
-These boats were provided with a mast
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστός</span>) which was fastened by two ropes
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρότονοι</span>) to the two ends of the ship, so that
-when the rope connecting it with the prow
-broke, the mast would fall towards the stern,
-where it might kill the helmsman. The mast
-could be erected or taken down as necessity
-required. They also had sails (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστία</span>), but
-no deck; each vessel however appears to
-have had only one sail, which was used in
-favourable winds; and the principal means of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260"></a>[260]</span>
-propelling the vessel lay in the rowers, who
-sat upon benches (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κληΐδες</span>). The oars were
-fastened to the side of the ship with leathern
-thongs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τροποὶ δερμάτινοι</span>), in which they
-were turned as a key in its hole. The ships
-in Homer are mostly called black (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέλαιναι</span>),
-probably because they were painted or covered
-with a black substance, such as pitch,
-to protect the wood against the influence of
-the water and the air; sometimes other
-colours, such as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίλτος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minium</i> (a red colour),
-were used to adorn the sides of the
-ships near the prow, whence Homer occasionally
-calls ships <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μιλτοπάρῃοι</span>, i.e. red-cheeked;
-they were also painted occasionally
-with a purple colour (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φοινικοπάρῃοι</span>). When
-the Greeks had landed on the coast of Troy,
-the ships were drawn on land, and fastened
-at the poop to large stones with a rope which
-served as anchors. The Greeks then surrounded
-the fleet with a fortification to secure
-it against the attacks of the enemy. This
-custom of drawing the ships upon the shore,
-when they were not used, was followed in
-later times also, as every one will remember
-from the accounts in Caesar’s Commentaries.
-In the Odyssey (v. 243, &amp;c.) the building of a
-boat (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχεδία</span>) is described, though not with the
-minuteness which an actual ship-builder might
-wish for. Ulysses first cuts down with his axe
-twenty trees, and prepares the wood for his
-purpose by cutting it smooth and giving it the
-proper shape. He then bores the holes for
-nails and hooks, and fits the planks together
-and fastens them with nails. He rounds
-the bottom of the ship like that of a broad
-transport vessel, and raises the bulwark
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἴκρια</span>), fitting it upon the numerous ribs of
-the ship. He afterwards covers the whole
-of the outside with planks, which are laid
-across the ribs from the keel upwards to the
-bulwark: next the mast is made, and the
-sail-yard attached to it, and lastly the rudder.
-When the ship is thus far completed, he
-raises the bulwark still higher by a wicker-work
-which goes all around the vessel, as a
-protection against the waves. This raised
-bulwark of wicker-work and the like was
-used in later times also. For ballast Ulysses
-throws into the ship <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕλη</span>, which according to
-the Scholiast consisted of wood, stones, and
-sand. Calypso then brings him materials to
-make a sail of, and he fastens the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπέραι</span> or
-ropes which run from the top of the mast to
-the two ends of the yard, and also the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάλοι</span>
-with which the sail is drawn up or let down.
-The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόδες</span> mentioned in this passage were
-undoubtedly, as in the later times, the ropes
-attached to the two lower corners of the
-square sail. The ship of which the building
-is thus described was a small boat, a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχεδία</span>,
-as Homer calls it; but it had like all the Homeric
-ships a round or flat bottom. Greater
-ships must have been of a more complicated
-structure, as ship-builders are praised as
-artists. Below (<a href="#ill266b">p. 266</a>), a representation of
-two boats is given which appear to bear
-great resemblance to the one of which the
-building is described in the Odyssey.&mdash;The
-Corinthians were the first who brought the
-art of ship-building nearest to the point at
-which we find it in the time of Thucydides,
-and they were the first who introduced ships
-with three ranks of rowers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριήρεις</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triremes</i>).
-About <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 700, Ameinocles the
-Corinthian, to whom this invention is ascribed,
-made the Samians acquainted with it; but it
-must have been preceded by that of the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Biremes</i>, that is, ships with two ranks of
-rowers, which Pliny attributes to the Erythraeans.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
-These innovations however do not
-seem to have been generally adopted for a
-long time; for we read that about the time of
-Cyrus the Phocaeans introduced long sharp-keeled
-ships called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκόντοροι</span>. These belonged
-to the class of long war-ships (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νῆες
-μακραί</span>), and had fifty rowers, twenty-five on
-each side of the ship, who sat in one row.
-It is further stated that before this time<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261"></a>[261]</span>
-vessels called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρογγύλαι</span>, with large round or
-rather flat bottoms, had been used exclusively
-by all the Ionians in Asia. At this
-period most Greeks seem to have adopted the
-long ships with only one rank of rowers on
-each side (Moneris).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill260" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill260.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Moneris. (Montfaucon, vol. <span class="allsmcap">IV</span>. pt. <span class="allsmcap">II</span>. pl. 142.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Their name varied accordingly
-as they had fifty (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκόντοροι</span>),
-or thirty (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριακόντοροι</span>), or even a smaller
-number of rowers. A ship of war of this
-class is represented in the preceding woodcut.
-The following cut contains a beautiful fragment
-of a Biremis with a complete deck. Another
-specimen of a small Biremis is given
-further on.&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill261a" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill261a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Biremis. (Winckelmann, pl. 207.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp74" id="ill261b" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill261b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Navis Aperta. (Coin of Corcyra.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The first Greek people whom
-we know to have acquired a navy of importance
-were the Corinthians, Samians, and
-Phocaeans. About the time of Cyrus and
-Cambyses the Corinthian Triremes were generally
-adopted by the Sicilian tyrants and
-by the Corcyraeans, who soon acquired the
-most powerful navies among the Greeks. In
-other parts of Greece and even at Athens
-and in Aegina the most common vessels
-about this time were long ships with only
-one rank of rowers on each side. Athens,
-although the foundation of its maritime
-power had been laid by Solon [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Naucraria">Naucraria</a></span>],
-did not obtain a fleet of any importance until
-the time of Themistocles, who persuaded the
-Athenians to build 200 Triremes for the purpose
-of carrying on the war against Aegina. But
-even then ships were not provided with complete
-decks (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταστρώματα</span>) covering the
-whole of the vessel. Ships with only a
-partial deck or with no deck at all, were
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄφρακτοι νῆες</span>, and in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">naves apertae</i>.
-Even at the time of the Persian war,
-the Athenian ships were without a complete
-deck. Ships which had a complete deck were
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατάφρακτοι</span>, and the deck itself <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατάστρωμα</span>.
-At the time when Themistocles induced
-the Athenians to build a fleet of 200
-sail he also carried a decree, that every year
-twenty new Triremes should be built from the
-produce of the mines of Laurium. After the
-time of Themistocles as many as twenty Triremes
-must have been built every year both in
-times of war and of peace, as the average
-number of Triremes which was always ready
-amounted to between three and four hundred.
-Such an annual addition was the
-more necessary, as the vessels were of a light
-structure and did not last long. The whole
-superintendence of the building of new Triremes
-was in the hands of the senate of the
-Five Hundred, but the actual business was entrusted
-to a committee called the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριηροποιοί</span>,
-one of whom acted as their treasurer, and
-had in his keeping the money set apart for
-the purpose. Under the Macedonian supremacy
-the Rhodians became the greatest maritime
-power in Greece. The navy of Sparta
-was never of great importance. Navigation
-remained for the most part what it had been
-before; the Greeks seldom ventured out into
-the open sea, and it was generally considered
-necessary to remain in sight of the coast or
-of some island, which also served as guides
-in daytime: in the night the position, rising
-and setting of the different stars answered
-the same purpose. In winter navigation
-generally ceased altogether. In cases where
-it would have been necessary to coast around
-a considerable extent of country, which was
-connected with the main land by a narrow
-neck, the ships were sometimes drawn across
-the neck of land from one sea to the other,
-by machines called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁλκοί</span>. This was done
-most frequently across the isthmus of Corinth.&mdash;The
-various kinds of ships used by
-the Greeks might be divided, according to
-the number of ranks of rowers employed in
-them, into Moneres, Biremes, Triremes, Quadriremes,
-Quinqueremes, &amp;c., up to the enormous
-ship with forty ranks of rowers, built
-by Ptolemaeus Philopator. But all these appear<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262"></a>[262]</span>
-to have been constructed on the same
-principle, and it is more convenient to divide
-them into <em>ships of war</em> and <em>ships of burden</em>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φορτικὰ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φορτηγοὶ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁλκάδες</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλοῖα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρογγύλαι</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">naves onerariae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">naves actuariae</i>).
-Ships of the latter kind were not calculated
-for quick movement or rapid sailing, but to
-carry the greatest possible quantity of goods.
-Hence their structure was bulky, their bottom
-round, and although they were not without
-rowers, yet the chief means by which they
-were propelled were their sails. The most
-common ships of war in the earlier times
-were the pentecontori (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκόντοροι</span>), but
-afterwards they were chiefly Triremes, and
-the latter are frequently designated only by
-the name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νῆες</span>, while all the others are called
-by the name indicating their peculiar character.
-Triremes however were again divided
-into two classes: the one consisting of
-real men-of-war, which were quick-sailing
-vessels (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταχεῖαι</span>), and the other of transports
-either for soldiers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρατιώτιδες</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁπλιταγωγοί</span>)
-or for horses (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππηγοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππαγωγοί</span>).
-Ships of this class were more heavy and awkward,
-and were therefore not used in battle
-except in cases of necessity. The ordinary
-size of a war galley may be inferred from
-the fact that the average number of men engaged
-in it, including the crew and marines,
-was two hundred, to whom on some occasions
-as many as thirty epibatae were added.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Epibatae">Epibatae</a>.</span>]&mdash;Vessels with more than three
-ranks of rowers on each side were not constructed
-in Greece till about the year 400
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, when Dionysius I., tyrant of Syracuse,
-who bestowed great care upon his navy, built
-the first Quadriremes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετρήρεις</span>), and Quinqueremes
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντήρεις</span>). In the reign of Dionysius
-II., Hexeres (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑξήρεις</span>) are also mentioned.
-After the time of Alexander the
-Great the use of vessels with four, five, and
-more ranks of rowers became very general,
-and it is well known that the first Punic war
-was chiefly carried on with Quinqueremes.
-Ships with twelve, thirty, or even forty ranks
-of rowers, such as they were built by Alexander
-and the Ptolemies, appear to have
-been mere curiosities, and did not come into
-common use. The Athenians at first did not
-adopt vessels larger than Triremes, probably
-because they thought that with rapidity and
-skill they could do more than with large and
-unwieldy ships. In the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 356 they
-continued to use nothing but Triremes; but
-in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 330 the republic had already a number
-of Quadriremes, which was afterwards
-increased. The first Quinqueremes at Athens
-are mentioned in a document belonging to
-the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 325.&mdash;Among the smaller
-vessels we may mention the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκατος</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκάτιον</span>, which seems to have been sometimes
-used as a ship of burden. The name Scapha
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκάφη</span>) denotes a small skiff or life-boat,
-which was commonly attached to merchantmen
-for the purpose of saving the crew in
-danger.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Liburna</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Liburnica</i>, in Greek
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λιβυρνίς</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λιβυρνόν</span>, is a name given apparently
-to every war-ship, from a bireme up
-to those with six lines of rowers on each
-side, but in the time of Augustus, liburnae
-even with six lines of rowers were considered
-small and swift in comparison with the unwieldy
-ships of Antony at Actium. They
-were usually provided with a beak, whence a
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">navis rostrata</i> is generally the same as a
-Liburna. They were first constructed by the
-Liburnians (whence they derived their name),
-and formed the main part of the fleet of Augustus
-in the battle of Actium.&mdash;Every vessel
-at Athens, as in modern times, had a name
-given to it, which was generally of the feminine
-gender. The Romans sometimes gave
-to their ships masculine names. The Greek
-names were either taken from ancient heroines
-such as Nausicaa, or they were abstract
-words such as <em>Forethought</em>, <em>Safety</em>, <em>Guidance</em>,
-&amp;c. In many cases the name of the
-builder also was added.&mdash;The Romans appear
-to have first become aware of the importance
-of a fleet during the second Samnite war, in
-the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 311: when <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duumviri navales</i>
-were for the first time appointed by the
-people. The ships which the Romans now
-built were undoubtedly Triremes. This fleet,
-however insignificant it may have been, continued
-to be kept up until the time when
-Rome became a real maritime power. In the
-year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 260, when the Romans saw that
-without a navy they could not carry on the
-war against Carthage with any advantage,
-the senate ordained that a fleet should be
-built. Triremes would now have been of no
-avail against the high-bulwarked vessels
-(Quinqueremes) of the Carthaginians. But
-the Romans would have been unable to build
-others had not fortunately a Carthaginian
-Quinquereme been wrecked on the coast of
-Bruttium, and fallen into their hands. This
-wreck the Romans took as their model, and
-after it built 120, or according to others 130
-ships. From this time forward the Romans
-continued to keep up a powerful navy. Towards
-the end of the Republic they also increased
-the size of their ships, and built war
-vessels of from six to ten ranks of rowers.
-The construction of their ships, however,
-scarcely differed from that of Greek vessels;
-the only great difference was that the Roman
-galleys were provided with a greater variety
-of destructive engines of war than those of
-the Greeks. They even erected turres and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263"></a>[263]</span>
-tabulata upon the decks of their great men-of-war
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">naves turritae</i>), and fought upon
-them as if they were standing upon the walls
-of a fortress (see cut, <a href="#ill260">p. 260</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp79" id="ill263" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill263.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">BIREMIS.<br />
-<p class="noindent">
-A. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Prora</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρώρα</span>.<br />
-B. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Oculus</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀφθαλμός</span>.<br />
-C. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rostrum</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμβολος</span>.<br />
-D. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cheniscus</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χηνίσκος</span>.<br />
-E. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Puppis</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρύμνη</span>.<br />
-F. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aplustre</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄφλαστον</span>, with the pole containing<br />the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fascia</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taenia</i>.</p>
-<p class="noindent pad4">
-G. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τράφηξ</span>.<br />
-H. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Remi</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κώπαι</span>.<br />
-I. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gubernaculum</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πηδάλιον</span>.<br />
-K. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Malus</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστός</span>.<br />
-L. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Velum</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστός</span>.<br />
-M. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antenna</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεραία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κέρας</span>.<br />
-N. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cornua</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκροκέραιαι</span>.</p>
-<p class="noindent pad8">
-O. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ceruchi</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεροῦχοι</span>.<br />
-P. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Carchesium</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρχήσιον</span>.<br />
-Q. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάλοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλῴδια</span>.<br />
-R. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρότονος</span>.<br />
-S. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pedes</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόδες</span>.<br />
-T. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Opifera</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπέραι</span>.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>We now proceed to describe the parts
-of ancient vessels.&mdash;1. The prow (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρώρα</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέτωπον</span>, prora) was generally ornamented on
-both sides with figures, which were either
-painted upon the sides or laid in. It seems
-to have been very common to represent an
-eye on each side of the prow. Upon the
-prow or fore-deck there was always some
-emblem (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παράσημον</span>, insigne, figura) by which
-the ship was distinguished from others. At the
-head of the prow there projected the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στόλος</span>,
-and its extremity was termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκροστόλιον</span>,
-which was frequently made in the shape of
-an animal or a helmet. It appears to have
-been sometimes covered with brass and to
-have served as an embole (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐμβολή</span>) against
-the enemy’s vessels. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκροστόλιον</span> is sometimes
-designated by the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χηνίσκος</span>
-(from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χήν</span>, a goose), because it was formed in
-the shape of the head or neck of a goose or
-swan, as in the accompanying woodcut.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp78" id="ill264a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill264a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Cheniscus. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The cheniscus was often gilt and made of bronze.
-Just below the prow and projecting a little
-above the keel was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rostrum</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμβολος</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμβολον</span>) or beak, which consisted of a beam,
-to which were attached sharp and pointed
-irons, or the head of a ram and the like.
-This <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμβολος</span> was used for the purpose of attacking
-another vessel and of breaking its
-sides. These beaks were at first always
-above the water and visible; afterwards they
-were attached lower, so that they were invisible,
-and thus became still more dangerous
-to other ships. The annexed woodcuts
-represent three different beaks of ships.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill264b" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill264b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Rostra, Beaks of Ships. (Montfaucon, pl. 133.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The command in the prow of a vessel was
-exercised by an officer called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρωρεύς</span>, who
-seems to have been next in rank to the
-steersman, and to have had the care of the
-gear, and the command over the rowers.&mdash;2.
-<em>The stern</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρύμνη</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">puppis</i>) was generally
-above the other parts of the deck, and in it
-the helmsman had his elevated seat. It is
-seen in the representations of ancient vessels
-to be rounder than the prow, though its extremity
-is likewise sharp. The stern was,
-like the prow, adorned in various ways, but
-especially with the image of the tutelary
-deity of the vessel (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tutela</i>). In some representations
-a kind of roof is formed over the
-head of the steersman, and the upper part
-of the stern frequently has an elegant ornament
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aplustre</i>, and in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄφλαστον</span>,
-which constituted the highest part of the
-poop. It formed a corresponding ornament
-to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκροστόλιον</span> at the prow. At the
-junction of the aplustre with the stern on
-which it was based, we commonly observe
-an ornament resembling a circular shield:
-this was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσπιδεῖον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσπιδίσκη</span>. It is
-seen on the two aplustria here represented.
-The aplustre rose immediately behind the
-gubernator, and served in some degree to
-protect him from wind and rain. Sometimes
-there appears, beside the aplustre, a pole, to
-which a fillet or pennon (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταινία</span>) was attached,
-which served both to distinguish and adorn
-the vessel, and also to show the direction of
-the wind.&mdash;3. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τράφηξ</span> is the bulwark of
-the vessel, or rather the uppermost edge of it.
-In small boats the pegs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκαλμοί</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scalmi</i>)<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264"></a>[264]<br /><a id="Page_265"></a>[265]</span>
-between which the oars move, and to which
-they are fastened by a thong (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τροπωτήρ</span>),
-were upon the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τράφηξ</span>. In all other vessels
-the oars passed through holes in the side of
-the vessel (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀφθαλμοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρήματα</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρυπήματα</span>).&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="ill265a" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill265a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Aphlaston, Aplustre.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>4. The middle part of the deck in most
-ships of war appears to have been raised
-above the bulwark, or at least to a level with
-its upper edge, and thus enabled the soldiers
-to occupy a position from which they could
-see far around and hurl their darts against
-the enemy. Such an elevated deck appears
-in the annexed woodcut representing a
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Moneris</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="ill265b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill265b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Moneris. (From a Painting at Pompeii.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In this instance the flag is standing
-upon the hind-deck.&mdash;5. One of the most
-interesting, as well as important parts in the
-arrangements of the Biremes, Triremes, &amp;c.,
-is the position of the ranks of rowers, from
-which the ships themselves derive their
-names. Various opinions have been entertained
-by those who have written upon this
-subject. Thus much is certain, that the
-different ranks of rowers, who sat along the
-sides of a vessel, were placed one above the
-other. In ordinary vessels, from the Moneris
-up to the Quinqueremis, each oar was
-managed by one man. The rowers sat upon
-little benches attached to the ribs of the
-vessel, and called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑδώλια</span>, and in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fori</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">transtra</i>. The lowest row of rowers
-was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θαλάμος</span>, the rowers themselves,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θαλαμῖται</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θαλάμιοι</span>. The uppermost ordo
-of rowers was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θράνος</span>, and the rowers
-themselves <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θρανῖται</span>. The middle ordo or
-ordines of rowers were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζυγὰ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζύγιοι</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζυγῖται</span>. Each of this last class of rowers
-had likewise his own seat, and did not, as
-some have supposed, sit upon benches running
-across the vessel. The gear of a vessel
-was divided into <em>wooden</em> and <em>hanging gear</em>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκεύη ξύλινα</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκεύη κρεμαστά</span>).</p>
-
-<p>I. <span class="smcap">Wooden Gear.</span>&mdash;1. <em>Oars</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κώπαι</span>, remi).
-The collective term for oars is <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταῤῥός</span>, which
-properly signified only the blade or flat part
-of the oar, but was afterwards used as
-a collective expression for all the oars, with
-the exception of the rudder. The oars varied
-in size accordingly as they were used by a
-lower or higher ordo of rowers, and from the
-name of the ordo by which they were used,
-they also received their special names, viz.,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κώπαι θαλάμιαι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζύγιαι</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θρανίτιδες</span>. Each
-Trireme had on an average 170 rowers. In
-a Roman Quinquereme during the first Punic
-war, the average number of rowers was 300;
-in later times we even find as many as 400.
-The lower part of the holes through which
-the oars passed appears to have been covered
-with leather (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄσκωμα</span>), which also extended
-a little way outside the hole.&mdash;2. <em>The rudder</em>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πηδάλιον</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gubernaculum</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp85" id="ill266a" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill266a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Gubernacula, rudders. (From an ancient Lamp and Gems.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Before the invention
-of the rudder, vessels must have been
-propelled and guided by the oars alone.
-This circumstance may account for the form
-of the ancient rudder, as well as for the
-mode of using it. It was like an oar with a
-very broad blade, and was commonly placed
-on each side of the stern, not at its extremity.
-The annexed woodcut presents examples
-of its appearance as it is frequently
-exhibited on gems, coins, and other works of
-art. The figure in the centre shows a Triton
-blowing the buccina, and holding a rudder
-over his shoulder. The left-hand figure
-represents a rudder with its helm or tiller
-crossed by the cornucopia. In the third
-figure Venus leans with her left arm upon a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266"></a>[266]</span>
-rudder to indicate her origin from the sea.
-The rudder was managed by the gubernator
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυβερνήτης</span>), who is also called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rector
-navis</i> as distinguished from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister</i>.
-A ship had sometimes one, but more commonly
-two rudders; but they were managed
-by the steersman to prevent confusion.
-In larger ships the two rudders were joined
-by a pole, which was moved by the gubernator,
-and kept the rudders parallel. The
-contrivances for attaching the two rudders
-to one another and to the sides of the ship,
-are called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζεῦγλαι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζευκτηρίαι</span>.&mdash;3. <span id="Scalae_n"><em>Ladders</em></span>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλιμακίδες</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scalae</i>). Each Trireme had two
-wooden ladders, and the same seems to have
-been the case in <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριακόντοροι</span>.&mdash;<span id="Contus">4.</span> <em>Poles</em> or
-punt poles (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοντοί</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conti</i>). Three of these,
-of different lengths, belonged to every Trireme.&mdash;5.
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραστάται</span> or supports for the
-masts. They seem to have been a kind of
-props placed at the foot of the masts.&mdash;6.
-The <em>mast</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστός</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">malus</i>). The ancients had
-vessels with one, two, or three masts. The
-fore-mast was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκάτειος</span>, the mainmast,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc"><ins class="corr" id="tn-266" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'ἱστός'">
-ἱστὸς</ins> μέγας</span>. A triaconter, or a vessel with
-30 rowers, had likewise two masts, and the
-smaller mast here, as well as in a trireme,
-was near the prow. In three-masted vessels
-the largest mast was nearest the stern. The
-masts as well as the yards were usually of
-fir. The part of the mast immediately above
-the yard (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">antenna</i>), formed a structure similar
-to a drinking-cup, and bore the name of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carchesium</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρχήσιον</span>). Into it the mariners
-ascended in order to manage the sail, to
-obtain a distant view, or to discharge missiles.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267"></a>[267]</span>
-Breastworks (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θωράκια</span>) were fixed to
-these structures, so as to supply the place of
-defensive armour; and pulleys (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τροχηλίαι</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trochleae</i>) for hoisting up stones and weapons
-from below. The continuation of the mast
-above the carchesium was called the “distaff”
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἠλακάτη</span>), corresponding to our top-mast
-or top-gallant mast.&mdash;7. The <em>yards</em>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κέρα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεραίαι</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">antennae</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp82" id="ill266b" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill266b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ceruchi. (From an ancient Lamp.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The mainyard was fastened to the top of the mast by ropes
-termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ceruchi</i>, as seen in the preceding woodcut.
-To the mainyard was attached the
-mainsail, which was hoisted or let down as
-the occasion might require. In the two extremities
-of the yard (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornua</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκροκέραιαι</span>),
-ropes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ceruchi</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηροῦχοι</span>) were attached, which
-passed to the top of the mast; and by means
-of these ropes and the pulleys connected
-with them, the yard and sail, guided by the
-hoop, were hoisted to the height required.
-There are numerous representations of ancient
-ships in which the antenna is seen, as
-in the two woodcuts here appended. In the
-second of them there are ropes hanging
-down from the antenna, the object of which
-was to enable the sailors to turn the antenna
-and the sail according to the wind.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill267" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill267.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Antennae. (From ancient Gems.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>II. <span class="smcap">Hanging Gear.</span>&mdash;1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hypozomata</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑποζώματα</span>),
-thick and broad ropes running in
-a horizontal direction around the ship from
-the stern to the prow, and intended to keep
-the whole fabric together. They ran round the
-vessel in several circles, and at certain distances
-from one another. The Latin name for
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπόζωμα</span> is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tormentum</i>. Sometimes they were
-taken on board when a vessel sailed, and not
-put on till it was thought necessary. The
-act of putting them on was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποζωννύναι</span>,
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαζωννύναι</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζῶσαι</span>. A Trireme
-required four <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποζώματα</span>.&mdash;2. <em>The sail</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱστίον</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">velum</i>). Most ancient ships had only one
-sail, which was attached with the yard to
-the great mast. In a Trireme also one sail
-might be sufficient, but the trierarch might
-nevertheless add a second. As each of the
-two masts of a Trireme had two sail-yards,
-it further follows that each mast might have
-two sails, one of which was placed lower
-than the other. The two belonging to the
-mainmast were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστία μεγάλα</span>, and
-those of the fore-mast <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστία ἀκάτεια</span>. The
-former were used on ordinary occasions, but
-the latter probably only in cases when it was
-necessary to sail with extraordinary speed.
-The sails of the Attic war-galleys, and of
-most ancient ships in general, were of a
-square form. Whether triangular sails were
-ever used by the Greeks, as has been frequently
-supposed, is very doubtful. The
-Romans, however, used triangular sails,
-which they called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Suppara</i>, and which had
-the shape of an inverted Greek Δ (⛛), the
-upper side of which was attached to the
-yard.&mdash;3. <em>Cordage</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοπεῖα</span>) differed from the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχοινία</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάλοι</span>. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχοινία</span> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funes</i>) are
-the strong ropes to which the anchors were
-attached, and by which a ship was fastened
-to the land; while the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοπεῖα</span> were a lighter
-kind of ropes and made with greater care,
-which were attached to the masts, yards,
-and sails. Each rope of this kind was made
-for a distinct purpose and place (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόπος</span>, whence
-the name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοπεῖα</span>). The following kinds are
-most worthy of notice:&mdash;<em>a</em>. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλῴδια</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάλοι</span>,
-were probably the ropes by which the mast
-was fastened to both sides of the ship, so
-that the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρότονοι</span> in the Homeric ships were
-only an especial kind of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλῴδια</span>, or the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλῴδια</span> themselves differently placed. In
-later times the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρότονος</span> was the rope which
-went from the top of the mainmast (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρχήσιον</span>)
-to the prow of the ship, and thus was
-what is now called the main-stay. <em>b</em>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ceruchi</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεροῦχοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμάντες</span>), ropes which ran from the
-two ends of the sail-yard to the top of the
-mast. In more ancient vessels the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμὰς</span> consisted
-of only one rope; in later times it
-consisted of two, and sometimes four, which
-uniting at the top of the mast, and there
-passing through a ring, descended on the
-other side, where it formed the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίτονος</span>,
-by means of which the sail was drawn up or
-let down. <em>c</em>. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄγκοινα</span>, Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anquina</i>, was
-the rope which went from the middle of a
-yard to the top of the mast, and was intended
-to facilitate the drawing up and letting down
-of the sail. <em>d</em>. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πόδες</span> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pedes</i>) were in later
-times, as in the poems of Homer, the ropes
-attached to the two lower corners of a square
-sail. These <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόδες</span> ran from the ends of the
-sail to the sides of the vessel towards the
-stern, where they were fastened with rings
-attached to the outer side of the bulwark.
-<em>e</em>. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπέραι</span> were the two ropes attached to
-the two ends of the sail-yard, and thence
-came down to a part of the ship near the
-stern. Their object was to move the yard
-according to the wind. In Latin they are
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opifera</i>, which is, perhaps, only a corruption
-of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hypera</i>.&mdash;4. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραῤῥύματα</span>. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268"></a>[268]</span>
-ancients as early as the time of Homer had
-various preparations raised above the edge
-of a vessel, which were made of skins and
-wicker-work, and which were intended as a
-protection against high waves, and also to
-serve as a kind of breast-work behind which
-the men might be safe against the darts of
-the enemy. These elevations of the bulwark
-are called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραῤῥύματα</span>. They were probably
-fixed upon the edge on both sides of the
-vessel, and were taken off when not wanted.
-Each galley appears to have had several
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραῤῥύματα</span>, two made of hair and two
-white ones, these four being regularly mentioned
-as belonging to one ship.&mdash;5. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σχοινία</span>
-are the stronger and heavier kinds of ropes.
-There were two kinds of these, viz. the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχοινία ἀγκύρεια</span>, to which the anchor was
-attached, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχοινία ἐπίγυα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίγεια</span> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">retinacula</i>),
-by which the ship was fastened to
-the shore or drawn upon the shore.&mdash;6. The
-<em>anchor</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγκύρα</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ancora</i>). We have already
-remarked that in the Homeric age anchors
-were not known, and large stones (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐναὶ</span>,
-<em>sleepers</em>) used in their stead. When anchors
-came to be used, they were generally made
-of iron, and their form resembled that of a
-modern anchor. Such an anchor was often
-termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bidens</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διπλῆ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφίβολος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφίστομος</span>,
-because it had two teeth or flukes;
-but sometimes it had only one, and was then
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑτεροστόμος</span>. The technical expressions
-in the use of the anchor are: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ancoram
-solvere</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγκύραν χαλᾷν</span>, to loose the anchor;
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ancoram jacere</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγκύραν βάλλειν</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥίπτειν</span>,
-to cast anchor; and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ancoram tollere</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγκύραν
-αἴρειν</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀναίρεσθαι</span>, to weigh anchor, whence
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἴρειν</span> by itself means “to set sail,” <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγκύραν</span>
-being understood. The following figure
-shows the cable (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funis</i>), passing through a
-hole in the prow (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">oculus</i>). Each ship of
-course had several anchors. The last or
-most powerful anchor, “the last hope,” was
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερά</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacra</i>, and persons trying their
-last hope were said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacram solvere</i>.&mdash;The
-preceding account of the different parts of
-the ship will be rendered still clearer by the
-drawing on <a href="#ill263">p. 263</a>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp99" id="ill268" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill268.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Biremis. (From a Marble at Rome.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Biremes are sometimes called by the Greeks <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκροτα</span>.
-The name biremis is also applied to a little boat managed
-by only two oars.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Naumachia">NAUMĂCHIA, the name given to the
-representation of a sea-fight among the Romans,
-and also to the place where such engagements
-were exhibited. These fights
-sometimes took place in the circus or amphitheatre,
-sufficient water being introduced to
-float ships, but more generally in buildings
-especially devoted to this purpose. The
-combatants in these sea-fights, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Naumachiarii</i>,
-were usually captives, or criminals
-condemned to death, who fought as in
-gladiatorial combats, until one party was
-killed, unless preserved by the clemency of
-the emperor. The ships engaged in the sea
-fights were divided into two parties, called
-respectively by the names of different maritime
-nations, as Tyrians and Egyptians, Rhodians
-and Sicilians, Persians and Athenians,
-Corcyraeans and Corinthians, Athenians and
-Syracusans, &amp;c. These sea-fights were exhibited
-with the same magnificence and lavish
-expenditure of human life as characterised
-the gladiatorial combats and other public
-games of the Romans. In Nero’s naumachia
-there were sea-monsters swimming about in
-the artificial lake. In the sea-fight exhibited
-by Titus there were 3000 men engaged, and
-in that exhibited by Domitian the ships were
-almost equal in number to two real fleets.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nautodicae">NAUTŎDĬCAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναυτόδικαι</span>), magistrates at
-Athens, who had jurisdiction in matters belonging
-to navigation and commerce, and in
-matters concerning such persons as had entered
-their names as members of a phratria<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269"></a>[269]</span>
-without both their parents being citizens of
-Athens, or in other words, in the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκαι ἐμπόρων</span>
-and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκαι ξενίας</span>. The time when nautodicae
-were first instituted is not mentioned, but it
-must have been previous to Pericles, and
-perhaps as early as the time of Cleisthenes.
-The nautodicae were appointed every year
-by lot in the month of Gamelion, and probably
-attended to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκαι ἐμπόρων</span> only during
-the winter, when navigation ceased,
-whereas the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκαι ξενίας</span> might be brought
-before them all the year round.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nefasti">NĔFASTI DIES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dies">Dies</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Negotiatores">NĔGŌTĬĀTŌRES, signified specially during
-the later times of the republic Roman
-citizens settled in the provinces, who lent
-money upon interest or bought up corn on
-speculation, which they sent to Rome as well
-as to other places. Their chief business however
-was lending money upon interest, and
-hence we find the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">negotia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">negotiatio</i>,
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">negotiari</i> used in this sense. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">negotiatores</i>
-are distinguished from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">publicani</i>,
-and from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mercatores</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">negotiatores</i>
-in the provinces corresponded to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">argentarii</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feneratores</i> at Rome.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nemea">NĔMEA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νέμεα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεμεῖα</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεμαῖα</span>), the Nemean
-games, one of the four great national
-festivals of the Greeks. It was held at Nemea,
-a place near Cleonae in Argolis, and is
-said to have been originally instituted by the
-Seven against Thebes in commemoration of
-the death of Opheltes, afterwards called Archemorus.
-The games were revived by Hercules,
-after he had slain the Nemean lion; and
-were from this time celebrated in honour of
-Zeus. They were at first of a warlike character,
-and only warriors and their sons were
-allowed to take part in them; subsequently,
-however, they were thrown open to all the
-Greeks. The various games were horse-racing,
-running in armour in the stadium,
-wrestling, chariot-racing and the discus, boxing,
-throwing the spear and shooting with
-the bow, to which we may add musical contests.
-The prize given to the victors was at
-first a chaplet of olive-branches, but afterwards
-a chaplet of green parsley. The presidency
-of these games, and the management
-of them, belonged at different times to Cleonae,
-Corinth, and Argos. They were celebrated
-twice in every Olympiad, viz. at the
-commencement of every second Olympic year,
-in the winter, and soon after the commencement
-of every fourth Olympic year, in the
-summer.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nenia">NĒNIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_188">p. 188</a>, <em>a.</em>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Neocori">NĔŌCŎRI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεωκόροι</span>), signified originally
-temple-sweepers, but was applied even in
-early times to priestly officers of high rank,
-who had the supreme superintendence of
-temples and their treasures. Under the Roman
-emperors the word was especially applied
-to those cities in Asia, which erected
-temples to the Roman emperors, since the
-whole city in every such case was regarded
-as the guardian of the worship of the emperor.
-Accordingly we frequently find on
-the coins of Ephesus, Smyrna, and other
-cities, the epithet <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεωκόρος</span>, which also occurs
-on the inscriptions of these cities.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Neptunalia">NEPTŪNĀLĬA, a festival of Neptune,
-celebrated at Rome, of which very little is
-known. The day on which it was held was
-probably the 23rd of July. In the ancient
-calendaria this day is marked as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nept. ludi
-et feriae</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nept. ludi</i>, from which we see
-that the festival was celebrated with games.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nexum">NEXUM, was either the transfer of the
-ownership of a thing, or the transfer of a
-thing to a creditor as a security; accordingly
-in one sense Nexum included Mancipium
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mancipium">Mancipium</a></span>]; in another sense, Mancipium
-and Nexum are opposed in the same way in
-which Sale and Mortgage or Pledge are opposed.
-The formal part of both transactions
-consisted in a transfer <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per aes et libram</i>.
-The person who became <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nexus</i> by the effect
-of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nexum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nexus</i> (for this form of the
-word also is used) was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nexum inire</i>.
-The phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nexi datio</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nexi liberatio</i>, respectively
-express the contracting and the
-release from the obligation. The Roman law
-as to the payment of borrowed money was
-very strict. By a law of the Twelve Tables,
-if the debtor admitted the debt, or had been
-condemned in the amount of the debt by a
-judex, he had thirty days allowed him for
-payment. At the expiration of this time, he
-was liable to be assigned over to the creditor
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">addictus</i>) by the sentence of the praetor.
-The creditor was required to keep him for
-sixty days in chains, during which time he
-publicly exposed the debtor on three nundinae,
-and proclaimed the amount of his debt.
-If no person released the prisoner by paying
-the debt, the creditor might sell him as a
-slave or put him to death. If there were
-several creditors, the letter of the law allowed
-them to cut the debtor in pieces, and to take
-their share of his body in proportion to their
-debt. There is no instance of a creditor ever
-having adopted this extreme mode of satisfying
-his debt. But the creditor might treat
-the debtor, who was addictus, as a slave, and
-compel him to work out his debt; and the
-treatment was often very severe. The Lex
-Poetilia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 326) alleviated the condition
-of the nexi. So far as we can understand
-its provisions, it set all the nexi free, or
-made them <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">soluti</i>, and it enacted that for the
-future there should be no nexum, and that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270"></a>[270]</span>
-no debtor should for the future be put in
-chains.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nobiles">NŌBILES, NŌBĬLĬTAS. In the early
-periods of the Roman state the Patricians
-were the Nobles as opposed to the Plebs.
-In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 366, the plebeians obtained the right
-of being eligible to the consulship, and finally
-they obtained access to all the curule magistracies.
-Thus the two classes were put on
-the same footing as to political capacity; but
-now a new order of nobility arose. The descendants
-of plebeians who had filled curule
-magistracies, formed a class called <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nobiles</span> or
-men “known,” who were so called by way
-of distinction from “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ignobiles</span>” or people
-who were not known. The Nobiles had no
-legal privileges as such; but they were bound
-together by a common distinction derived
-from a legal title and by a common interest;
-and their common interest was to endeavour
-to confine the election to all the high magistracies
-to the members of their body, to the
-Nobilitas. Thus the descendants of those
-Plebeians who had won their way to distinction
-combined to exclude other Plebeians
-from the distinction which their own ancestors
-had transmitted to them. The external
-distinction of the Nobiles was the Jus Imaginum,
-a right or privilege which was apparently
-established on usage only, and not on
-any positive enactments. These Imagines
-were figures with painted masks of wax,
-made to resemble the person whom they
-represented; and they were placed in the
-Atrium of the house, apparently in small
-wooden receptacles or cases somewhat in the
-form of temples. The Imagines were accompanied
-with the tituli or names of distinction
-which the deceased had acquired; and the
-tituli were connected in some way by lines
-or branches so as to exhibit the pedigree
-(stemma) of the family. These Imagines
-were generally enclosed in their cases, but
-they were opened on festival days and other
-great ceremonials, and crowned with bay
-(laureatae): they also formed part of a solemn
-funeral procession. It seems probable
-that the Roman Nobilitas, in the strict sense
-of that term, and the Jus Imaginum, originated
-with the admission of the Plebeians to
-the consulship <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 366. A plebeian who
-first attained a Curule office was the founder
-of his family’s Nobilitas (princeps nobilitatis;
-auctor generis). Such a person could have
-no imagines of his ancestors; and he could
-have none of his own, for such imagines of
-a man were not made till after he was dead.
-Such a person then was not nobilis in the
-full sense of the term, nor yet was he ignobilis.
-He was called by the Romans a “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">novus
-homo</span>” or a new man; and his status or
-condition was called Novitas. The term
-novus homo was never applied to a Patrician.
-The two most distinguished “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">novi homines</span>”
-were C. Marius and M. Tullius Cicero, both
-natives of an Italian municipium. The Patricians
-would of course be jealous of the new
-nobility; but this new nobility once formed
-would easily unite with the old aristocracy
-of Rome to keep the political power in their
-hands, and to prevent more novi homines
-from polluting this exclusive class. As early
-as the second Punic war this new class, compounded
-of Patricians or original aristocrats,
-and Nobiles or newly-engrafted aristocrats,
-was able to exclude novi homines from the
-consulship. They maintained this power to
-the end of the republican period, and the
-consulship continued almost in the exclusive
-possession of the Nobilitas. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Optimates</i>
-were the Nobilitas and the chief part of the
-Equites, a rich middle class, and also all
-others whose support the Nobilitas and Equites
-could command, in fact all who were opposed
-to change that might affect the power
-of the Nobilitas and the interests of those
-whom the Nobilitas allied with themselves.
-Optimates in this sense are opposed to Plebs,
-to the mass of the people; and Optimates is
-a wider term than Nobilitas, inasmuch as it
-would comprehend the Nobilitas and all who
-adhered to them.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nomen">NŌMEN (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄνομα</span>), a name. The Greeks
-bore only one name, and it was one of the
-especial rights of a father to choose the
-names for his children, and to alter them if
-he pleased. It was customary to give to the
-eldest son the name of the grandfather on
-his father’s side; and children usually received
-their names on the tenth day after
-their birth.&mdash;Originally every Roman citizen
-belonged to a gens, and derived his name
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomen</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomen gentilicium</i>) from his gens,
-which <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomen gentilicium</i> generally terminated
-in <em>ius</em>. Besides this, every Roman had a
-name, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praenomen</i>, which preceded the
-nomen gentilicium, and which was peculiar
-to him as an individual, <em>e.g.</em> Caius, Lucius,
-Marcus, Cneius, Sextus, &amp;c. This praenomen
-was at a later time given to boys on the
-ninth day after their birth, and to girls on
-the eighth day. This day was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies
-lustricus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies nominum</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nominalia</i>. The
-praenomen given to a boy was in most cases
-that of the father, but sometimes that of the
-grandfather or great-grandfather. These
-two names, a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praenomen</i> and a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomen gentilicium</i>,
-or simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomen</i>, were indispensable
-to a Roman, and they were at the same time
-sufficient to designate him; hence the numerous
-instances of Romans being designated
-only by these two names, even in cases where<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271"></a>[271]</span>
-a third or fourth name was possessed by the
-person. Every Roman citizen, besides belonging
-to a gens, was also frequently a
-member of a familia, contained in a gens,
-and accordingly might have a third name or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognomen</i>. Such cognomina were derived by
-the Romans from a variety of mental or
-bodily peculiarities, or from some remarkable
-event in the life of the person who was the
-founder of the familia. Such cognomina are,
-Asper, Imperiosus, Magnus, Maximus, Publicola,
-Brutus, Capito, Cato, Naso, Labeo,
-Caecus, Cicero, Scipio, Sulla, Torquatus, &amp;c.
-These names were in most cases hereditary,
-and descended to the latest members of a
-familia; in some cases they ceased with the
-death of the person to whom they were given
-for special reasons. Many Romans had a
-second cognomen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognomen secundum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agnomen</i>),
-which was given to them as an honorary
-distinction, and in commemoration of
-some memorable deed or event of their life,
-<em>e.g.</em> Africanus, Asiaticus, Hispallus, Cretensis,
-Macedonicus, Allobrogicus, &amp;c. Such
-agnomina were sometimes given by one general
-to another, sometimes by the army and
-confirmed by the chief-general, sometimes by
-the people in the comitia, and sometimes they
-were assumed by the person himself, as in
-the case of L. Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus.
-The regular order in which these names followed
-one another was:&mdash;1. praenomen;
-2. nomen gentilicium; 3. cognomen primum;
-4. cognomen secundum or agnomen.
-Sometimes the name of the tribe to which a
-person belonged, was added to his name, in
-the ablative case, as Q. Verres Romilia, C.
-Claudius Palatina. If a person by adoption
-passed from one gens into another, he assumed
-the praenomen, nomen, and cognomen
-of his adoptive father, and added to these the
-name of his former gens, with the termination
-<em>anus</em>. Thus C. Octavius, after being
-adopted by his uncle C. Julius Caesar, was
-called C. Julius Caesar Octavianus, and the
-son of L. Aemilius Paullus, when adopted by
-P. Cornelius Scipio, was called P. Cornelius
-Scipio Aemilianus. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adoptio">Adoptio</a>.</span>] Slaves had
-only one name, and usually retained that
-which they had borne before they came into
-slavery. If a slave was restored to freedom,
-he received the praenomen and nomen gentilicium
-of his former master, and to these
-was added the name which he had had as a
-slave. Instances of such freedmen are, T.
-Ampius Menander, a freedman of T. Ampius
-Balbus, L. Cornelius Chrysogonus, a freedman
-of L. Cornelius Sulla, and M. Tullius Tiro,
-freedman of M. Tullius Cicero.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nomophylaces">NŎMŎPHỸLĂCES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νομοφύλακες</span>), certain
-magistrates or official persons of high authority,
-who exercised a control over other magistrates,
-and indeed over the whole body of
-the people, it being their duty to see that the
-laws were duly administered and obeyed.
-Mention is made of such officers at Sparta
-and elsewhere, but no such body existed at
-Athens, for they must have had a power too
-great for the existence of a democracy. The
-Senate of 500, or the Areopagitic council,
-performed in some measure the office of law-guardians;
-but the only persons designated
-by this name appear to have been inferior
-functionaries (a sort of police), whose business
-it was to prevent irregularities and disturbances
-in the public assemblies.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nomos">NŎMOS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νόμος</span>). This word comprehends
-the notion not only of established or statute
-law, but likewise of all customs and opinions
-to which long prescription or natural feeling
-gives the force of law. Before any written
-codes appeared, law was promulgated by the
-poets or wise men, who sang the great deeds
-of their ancestors, and delivered their moral
-and political lessons in verse. As civilisation
-advanced, laws were reduced to writing, in
-the shape either of regular codes or distinct
-ordinances, and afterwards publicly exhibited,
-engraved on tablets, or hewn on columns.
-The first written laws we hear of are those
-of Zaleucus. The first at Athens were those
-of Draco, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεσμοὶ</span>, and by that name
-distinguished from the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νόμοι</span> of Solon. The
-laws of Lycurgus were not written. He enjoined
-that they should never be inscribed on
-any other tablet than the hearts of his countrymen.
-Those of Solon were inscribed on
-wooden tablets, arranged in pyramidal blocks,
-turning on an axis, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄξονες</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύρβεις</span>.
-They were first hung in the Acropolis, but
-afterwards brought down to the Prytaneum.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nomothetae">NŎMŎTHĔTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νομόθεται</span>), movers or
-proposers of laws, the name of a legislative
-committee at Athens, which, by an institution
-of Solon, was appointed to amend and revise
-the laws. At the first <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυρία ἐκκλησία</span> in every
-year, any person was at liberty to point out
-defects in the existing code or propose alterations.
-If his motion was deemed worthy of
-attention, the third assembly might refer the
-matter to the Nomothetae. They were selected
-by lot from the Heliastic body; it
-being the intention of Solon to limit the
-power of the popular assembly by means of a
-superior board emanating from itself, composed
-of citizens of mature age, bound by a
-stricter oath, and accustomed to weigh legal
-principles by the exercise of their judicial
-functions. The number of the committee so
-appointed varied according to the exigency
-of the occasion. The people appointed five
-advocates (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνδικοι</span>) to attend before the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272"></a>[272]</span>
-board and maintain the policy of the existing
-institution. If the proposed measure met
-the approval of the committee, it passed into
-law forthwith. Besides this, the Thesmothetae
-were officially authorised to review
-the whole code, and to refer to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nomothetae</i>
-all statutes which they considered
-unworthy of being retained. Hence appears
-the difference between <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Psephisma</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψήφισμα</span>)
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nomos</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νόμος</span>). The mere resolution of
-the people in assembly was a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">psephisma</i>, and
-only remained in force a year, like a decree
-of the senate. Nothing was a <em>law</em> that did
-not pass the ordeal of the Nomothetae.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nonae">NŌNAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nota">NŎTA, which signified a mark or sign of
-any kind, was also employed for an abbreviation.
-Hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">notae</i> signified the marks or
-signs used in taking down the words of a
-speaker, and was equivalent to our short-hand
-writing, or stenography; and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">notarii</i>
-signified short-hand writers. It must be
-borne in mind, however, that <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">notae</i> also signified
-writing in cipher; and many passages
-in the ancient reciters which are supposed to
-refer to short-hand, refer in reality to writing
-in cipher. Among the Greeks it is said to
-have been invented by Xenophon, and their
-short-hand writers were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταχυγράφοι</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀξυγράφοι</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σημειογράφοι</span>. The first introduction
-of the art among the Romans is ascribed
-to Cicero. He is said to have caused
-the debate in the senate on the punishment
-of the Catilinarian conspirators to be taken
-down in short-hand. Eusebius ascribes it to
-Tiro, the freedman of Cicero, and hence the
-system of abbreviated writing, in which
-some manuscripts are written, has received
-the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Notae Tironianae</i>; but there is
-no evidence to show whether this species of
-short-hand was really the invention of Tiro.
-The system of short-hand employed in the
-time of the Roman empire must have been of
-a much simpler and more expeditious kind
-than the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Notae Tironianae</i>, which were
-merely abbreviations of the words. Many of
-the wealthy Romans kept slaves, who were
-trained in the art. It was also learnt even
-by the Roman nobles, and the emperor Titus
-was a great proficient in it. At a later time,
-it seems to have been generally taught in the
-schools. There were, moreover, short-hand
-writers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">notarii</i>) by profession, who were
-chiefly employed in taking down (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">notare</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">excipere</i>)
-the proceedings in the courts of justice.
-At a later period, they were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exceptores</i>.
-These short-hand writers were also employed
-on some occasions to take down a person’s
-will.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Notarii">NOTĀRĬI, short-hand writers, spoken of
-under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Nota">Nota</a></span>. They were likewise called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Actuarii</i>.
-They were also employed by the
-emperors, and in course of time the title of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Notarii</i> was exclusively applied to the private
-secretaries of the emperors, who, of course,
-were no longer slaves, but persons of high
-rank. The short-hand writers were now
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exceptores</i>, as is remarked under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Nota">Nota</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nota_c">NŎTA CENSŌRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Censor">Censor</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Novendiale">NŎVENDĬĀLE (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacrum</i>).&mdash;(1) A festival
-lasting nine days, which was celebrated
-as often as stones rained from heaven. It
-was originally instituted by Tullus Hostilius,
-when there was a shower of stones upon the
-Mons Albanus, and was frequently celebrated
-in later times.&mdash;(2) This name was also given
-to the sacrifice performed nine days after a
-funeral. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Novi">NŎVI HŎMĬNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nobiles">Nobiles</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nudus">NŪDUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνός</span>). These words, besides
-denoting absolute nakedness, were applied to
-any one who, being without an <span class="smcap"><a href="#Amictus">Amictus</a></span>,
-wore only his tunic or indutus. In this state
-of nudity the ancients performed the operations
-of ploughing, sowing, and reaping.
-This term applied to the warrior expressed
-the absence of some part of his armour.
-Hence the light-armed were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνῆτες</span>.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arma">Arma</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nummularii">NUMMŬLĀRĬI or NŪMŬLĀRII. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mensarii">Mensarii</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nummus">NUMMUS or NŪMUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sestertius">Sestertius</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nundinae">NUNDĬNAE is derived by all the ancient
-writers from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">novem</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies</i>, so that it
-literally signifies the ninth day. Every eighth
-day, according to our mode of speaking, was
-a nundinae, and there were thus always seven
-ordinary days between two nundinae. The
-Romans in their peculiar mode of reckoning
-added these two nundinae to the seven ordinary
-days, and consequently said that the
-nundinae recurred every ninth day, and
-called them <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nundinae</i>, as it were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">novemdinae</i>.
-The number of nundinae in the ancient year
-of ten months was 38. They were originally
-market-days for the country folk, on which
-they came to Rome to sell the produce of
-their labour, and on which the king settled
-the legal disputes among them. When,
-therefore, we read that the nundinae were
-feriae, or dies nefasti, and that no comitia
-were allowed to be held, we have to understand
-this of the populus or patricians, and
-not of the plebes; and while for the populus
-the nundinae were feriae, they were real
-days of business (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies fasti</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitiales</i>) for
-the plebeians, who on these occasions pleaded
-their causes with members of their own order,
-and held their public meetings (the ancient
-comitia of the plebeians). Afterwards the
-nundinae became fasti for both orders, and
-this innovation facilitated the attendance of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273"></a>[273]</span>
-the plebeians at the comitia centuriata. The
-subjects to be laid before the comitia, whether
-they were proposals for new laws, or the
-appointment of officers, were announced to
-the people three nundinae beforehand (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trinundino
-die proponere</i>). Instead of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nundinae</i>
-the form <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nundinum</i> is sometimes used, but
-only when it is preceded by a numeral, as in
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trinundinum</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trinum nundinum</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Nuptiae">NUPTĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="O_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">O</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Obolus" class="drop-capy">ŎBOLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Drachma">Drachma</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ocrea">OCRĔA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κνημίς</span>), a greave, a leggin. A
-pair of greaves (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κνημῖδες</span>) was one of the six
-articles of armour which formed the complete
-equipment of a Greek warrior [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arma">Arma</a></span>], and
-likewise of a Roman soldier as fixed by Servius
-Tullius. They were made of various
-metals, with a lining probably of leather,
-felt, or cloth. Their form is shown in the
-accompanying cut. The figure is that of a
-fallen warrior, and in consequence of the
-bending of the knees, the greaves are seen to
-project a little above them. This statue also
-shows the ankle-rings (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπισφύρια</span>), which
-were used to fasten the greaves immediately
-above the feet.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill273" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill273.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ocreae, Greaves. (From the Aeginetan Marbles.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Odeum">ŌDĒUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ᾠδεῖον</span>), a species of public building
-for contests in vocal and instrumental
-music. In its general form and arrangements
-it was very similar to the theatre; and it is
-sometimes called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θέατρον</span>. There were,
-however, some characteristic differences: the
-Odeum was much smaller than the theatre;
-and it was roofed over, in order to retain the
-sound. The earliest building of this kind
-was that erected by Pericles at Athens, for
-the purpose of celebrating the musical contests
-at the Panathenaea. Its proximity to
-the theatre suggested some of the uses made
-of it, namely, as a refuge for the audience
-when driven out of the theatre by rain, and
-also as a place in which the chorus could be
-prepared. Another Odeum was built at Athens
-by Herodes Atticus, and was the most magnificent
-edifice of the sort in the whole empire.
-The length of its largest diameter was 248
-feet, and it is calculated to have furnished
-accommodation for about 8000 persons.
-There were also Odea in other Greek towns.
-The first Odeum, properly so called, at Rome,
-was built by Domitian, and the second by
-Trajan. There are ruins of such buildings in
-the villa of Hadrian at Tivoli, at Pompeii,
-and at Catana.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Olea">ŎLĔA, ŎLĪVA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐλαία</span>); ŎLĔUM, OLĪVUM
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔλαιον</span>). The importance of the olive
-was recognised from the most remote period
-of antiquity in all civilised countries where
-the temperature admitted of its cultivation:
-and it was widely adopted as an emblem
-of industry and peace. Hence the honour
-paid to it at Athens, and hence the title
-of “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">prima omnium arborum</span>,” bestowed upon
-it by Columella. The fruit (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bacca</i>) of the
-olive was for the most part employed for
-one of two purposes. 1. It was eaten as a
-fruit, either fresh, pickled, or preserved in
-various ways. 2. It was pressed so as to
-yield the oil and other juices which it contained.
-And again, the oil was employed for
-a variety of purposes, but chiefly 1. As an
-article of food. 2. For anointing the body, and
-in this case was frequently made a vehicle
-for perfumes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unguenta</i>). 3. For burning in
-lamps.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Oligarchia">OLĬGARCHĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀλιγαρχια</span>), the government
-of a few: a term applied to that perversion
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρέκβασις</span>) of an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aristocratia</i> into
-which the latter passed, when, owing to the rise
-of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demus</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Democratia">Democratia</a></span>], and the vanishing
-of those substantial grounds of pre-eminence
-which rendered an Aristocratia not unjust,
-the rule of the dominant portion of the community
-became the ascendancy of a faction,
-whose efforts were directed chiefly towards
-their own aggrandisement. The preservation
-of power under such circumstances of course
-depended chiefly upon the possession of superior
-wealth and the other appliances of
-wealth which were its concomitants. Thus
-it came to be regarded as essentially characteristic
-of an oligarchy, that the main distinction
-between the dominant faction and
-the subject portion of the community was
-the possession of greater wealth on the part
-of the former. Hence the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Oligarchia</i>
-would not have been applied, if a small section
-of the community, consisting of <em>poor</em>
-persons, by any means got the reins of government
-into their hands.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Olla">OLLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λέβης</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χύτρος</span>), a vessel of any material,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274"></a>[274]</span>
-round and plain, and having a wide
-mouth; a pot; a jar.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Olympia">ŎLYMPĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀλύμπια</span>), the Olympic games,
-the greatest of the national festivals of the
-Greeks. It was celebrated at Olympia in
-Elis, the name given to a small plain to the
-west of Pisa, which was bounded on the
-north and north-east by the mountains Cronius
-and Olympus, on the south by the river
-Alpheus, and on the west by the Cladeus,
-which flows into the Alpheus. Olympia does
-not appear to have been a town, but rather a
-collection of temples and public buildings.
-The origin of the Olympic games is buried in
-obscurity, but the festival was of very great
-antiquity. The first historical fact connected
-with this festival is its revival by Iphitus,
-king of Elis, who is said to have accomplished
-it with the assistance of Lycurgus, the
-Spartan lawgiver, and Cleosthenes of Pisa.
-The date of this event is given by some
-writers as <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 884, and by others as <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 828.
-The interval of four years between each celebration
-of the festival was called an Olympiad;
-but the Olympiads were not employed
-as a chronological aera till the victory of
-Coroebus in the foot-race, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 776. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Olympias">Olympias</a>.</span>]
-The most important point in the
-renewal of the festival by Iphitus was the
-establishment of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ececheiria</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκεχειρία</span>),
-or sacred armistice. The proclamation was
-made by peace-heralds (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σπονδοφόροι</span>), first in
-Elis and afterwards in the other parts of
-Greece; it put a stop to all warfare for the
-month in which the games were celebrated,
-and which was called the <em>sacred month</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερομηνία</span>).
-The territory of Elis itself was considered
-especially sacred during the games,
-and no armed force could enter it without
-incurring the guilt of sacrilege. The
-Olympic festival was probably confined at
-first to the Peloponnesians; but as its celebrity
-extended, the other Greeks took part
-in it, till at length it became a festival for
-the whole nation. No one was allowed to
-contend in the games but persons of pure
-Hellenic blood: barbarians might be spectators,
-but slaves were entirely excluded.
-After the conquest of Greece by the Romans,
-the latter were permitted to take part in the
-games. No women were allowed to be present
-or even to cross the Alpheus during
-the celebration of the games, under penalty
-of being hurled down from the Typaean
-rock, but women could send chariots to
-the races. The number of spectators at the
-festival was very great; and these were
-drawn together not merely by the desire of
-seeing the games, but partly through the
-opportunity it afforded them of carrying on
-commercial transactions with persons from
-distant places, as is the case with the Mohammedan
-festivals at Mecca and Medina.
-Many of the persons present were also deputies
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωροί</span>) sent to represent the various
-states of Greece; and we find that these
-embassies vied with one another in the number
-of their offerings, and the splendour of
-their general appearance, in order to support
-the honour of their native cities. The
-Olympic festival was a Pentaëteris (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πενταετηρίς</span>),
-that is, according to the ancient mode
-of reckoning, a space of four years elapsed
-between each festival, in the same way as
-there was only a space of two years between
-a Trieteris. It was celebrated on the first
-full moon after the summer solstice. It
-lasted, after all the contests had been introduced,
-five days, from the 11th to the 15th
-days of the month inclusive. The fourth day
-of the festival was the 14th of the month,
-which was the day of the full moon, and
-which divided the month into two equal
-parts. The festival was under the immediate
-superintendence of the Olympian Zeus, whose
-temple at Olympia, adorned with the statue
-of the god made by Phidias, was one of the
-most splendid works of art in Greece. There
-were also temples and altars to most of the
-other gods. The festival itself may be divided
-into two parts, the games or contests
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγὼν Ολυμπιακός</span>), and the festive rites
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑορτή</span>) connected with the sacrifices, with the
-processions, and with the public banquets in
-honour of the conquerors.&mdash;The contests consisted
-of various trials of strength and skill,
-which were increased in number from time
-to time. There were in all twenty-four contests,
-eighteen in which men took part, and
-six in which boys engaged, though they were
-never all exhibited at one festival, since some
-were abolished almost immediately after their
-institution, and others after they had been in
-use only a short time. We subjoin a list of
-these from Pausanias, with the date of the
-introduction of each, commencing from the
-Olympiad of Coroebus:&mdash;1. The foot-race
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δρόμος</span>), which was the only contest during
-the first 13 Olympiads. 2. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίαυλος</span>, or
-foot-race, in which the stadium was traversed
-twice, first introduced in Ol. 14. 3. The
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόλιχος</span>, a still longer foot-race than the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίαυλος</span>, introduced in Ol. 15. For a more
-particular account of the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίαυλος</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόλιχος</span>,
-see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Stadium">Stadium</a></span>. 4. Wrestling (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάλη</span>), and, 5.
-The Pentathlum (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πένταθλον</span>), which consisted
-of five exercises [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pentathlon">Pentathlum</a></span>], both introduced
-in Ol. 18. 6. Boxing (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυγμή</span>) introduced
-in Ol. 23. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pugilatus">Pugilatus</a>.</span>] 7. The chariot-race,
-with four full-grown horses (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἵππων τελείων
-δρόμος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἅρμα</span>), introduced in Ol. 25. 8. The
-Pancratium (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παγκράτιον</span>) [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pancratium">Pancratium</a></span>], and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275"></a>[275]</span>
-9. The horse-race (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἵππος κέλης</span>), both introduced
-in Ol. 33. 10 and 11. The foot-race
-and wrestling for boys, both introduced in
-Ol. 37. 12. The Pentathlum for boys, introduced
-in Ol. 38., but immediately afterwards
-abolished. 13. Boxing for boys, introduced
-in Ol. 41. 14. The foot-race, in
-which men ran with the equipments of heavy-armed
-soldiers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῶν ὁπλιτῶν δρόμος</span>), introduced
-in Ol. 65., on account of its training men for
-actual service in war. 15. The chariot-race
-with mules (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπήνη</span>), introduced in Ol. 70.;
-and 16. The horse-race with mares (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάλπη</span>),
-introduced in Ol. 71., both of which were
-abolished in Ol. 84. 17. The chariot-race
-with two full-grown horses (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἵππων τελείων
-συνωρίς</span>), introduced in Ol. 93. 18, 19. The
-contest of heralds (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κήρυκες</span>) and trumpeters
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαλπιγκταί</span>), introduced in Ol. 96. 20. The
-chariot-race with four foals (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πώλων ἅρμασιν</span>),
-introduced in Ol. 99. 21. The chariot-race
-with two foals (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πώλων συνωρίς</span>), introduced in
-Ol. 128. 22. The horse-race with foals
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πῶλος κέλης</span>), introduced in Ol. 131. 23.
-The Pancratium for boys, introduced in Ol.
-145. 24. There was also a horse-race (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἵππος
-κέλης</span>) in which boys rode, but we do not
-know the time of its introduction.&mdash;The judges
-in the Olympic Games, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hellanodicae</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑλλανοδίκαι</span>), were appointed by the Eleans,
-who had the regulation of the whole festival.
-It appears to have been originally under the
-superintendence of Pisa, in the neighbourhood
-of which Olympia was situated, but after the
-conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians on
-the return of the Heraclidae, the Aetolians,
-who had been of great assistance to the Heraclidae,
-settled in Elis, and from this time
-the Aetolian Eleans obtained the regulation of
-the festival, and appointed the presiding
-officers. The Hellanodicae were chosen by
-lot from the whole body of the Eleans. Their
-number varied at different periods, but at a
-later time there were eight Hellanodicae.
-Their office probably lasted for only one festival.
-They had to see that all the laws
-relating to the games were observed by the
-competitors and others, to determine the
-prizes, and to give them to the conquerors.
-An appeal lay from their decision to the
-Elean senate. Under the direction of the
-Hellanodicae was a certain number of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alytae</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλύται</span>) with an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alytarches</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλυτάρχης</span>) at
-their head, who formed a kind of police, and
-carried into execution the commands of the
-Hellanodicae. There were also various other
-minor officers under the control of the Hellanodicae.&mdash;All
-free Greeks were allowed to
-contend in the games, who had complied with
-the rules prescribed to candidates. The equestrian
-contests were necessarily confined to
-the wealthy; but the poorest citizens could
-contend in the athletic games. This, however,
-was far from degrading the games in
-public opinion; and some of the noblest as
-well as meanest citizens of the state took
-part in these contests. The owners of the
-chariots and horses were not obliged to contend
-in person; and the wealthy vied with
-one another in the number and magnificence
-of the chariots and horses which they sent to
-the games. All persons, who were about to
-contend, had to prove to the Hellanodicae
-that they were freemen, and of pure Hellenic
-blood, that they had not been branded with
-atimia, nor guilty of any sacrilegious act.
-They further had to prove that they had
-undergone the preparatory training (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προγυμνάσματα</span>)
-for ten months previous. All competitors
-were obliged, thirty days before the
-festival, to undergo certain exercises in the
-Gymnasium at Elis, under the superintendence
-of the Hellanodicae. The competitors
-took their places by lot. The herald then
-proclaimed the name and country of each
-competitor. When they were all ready to
-begin the contest, the judges exhorted them
-to acquit themselves nobly, and then gave the
-signal to commence.&mdash;The only prize given
-to the conqueror was a garland of wild olive
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κότινος</span>), cut from a sacred olive tree, which
-grew in the sacred grove of Altis in Olympia.
-The victor was originally crowned upon a
-tripod covered over with bronze, but afterwards
-upon a table made of ivory and gold.
-Palm branches, the common tokens of victory
-on other occasions, were placed in his hands.
-The name of the victor, and that of his father
-and of his country, were then proclaimed by
-a herald before the representatives of assembled
-Greece. The festival ended with processions
-and sacrifices, and with a public
-banquet given by the Eleans to the conquerors
-in the Prytaneium. The most powerful states
-considered an Olympic victory, gained by one
-of their citizens, to confer honour upon the
-state to which he belonged; and a conqueror
-usually had immunities and privileges conferred
-upon him by the gratitude of his
-fellow-citizens. On his return home the
-victor entered the city in a triumphal procession,
-in which his praises were celebrated,
-frequently in the loftiest strains of poetry.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Athletae">Athletae</a>.</span>] As persons from all parts of
-the Hellenic world were assembled together
-at the Olympic Games, it was the best opportunity
-which the artist and the writer possessed
-of making their works known. It
-answered, to some extent, the same purpose
-as the press does in modern times. Before
-the invention of printing, the reading of
-an author’s works to as large an assembly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276"></a>[276]</span>
-as could be obtained, was one of the easiest
-and surest modes of publishing them; and
-this was a favourite practice of the Greeks
-and Romans. Accordingly we find many
-instances of literary works thus published at
-the Olympic festival. Herodotus is said to
-have read his history at this festival; but
-though there are some reasons for doubting
-the correctness of this statement, there are
-numerous other writers who thus published
-their works, as the sophist Hippias, Prodicus
-of Ceos, Anaximenes, the orator Lysias, Dion
-Chrysostom, &amp;c. It must be borne in mind
-that these recitations were not contests, and
-that they formed properly no part of the
-festival. In the same way painters and other
-artists exhibited their works at Olympia.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Olympias">OLYMPĬAS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀλυμπιάς</span>), an Olympiad, the
-most celebrated chronological aera among
-the Greeks, was the period of four years
-which elapsed between each celebration of
-the Olympic Games. The Olympiads began
-to be reckoned from the victory of Coroebus
-in the foot-race, which happened in the year
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 776. Timaeus of Sicily, however, who
-flourished <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 264, was the first writer who
-regularly arranged events according to the
-conquerors in each Olympiad. His practice
-of recording events by Olympiads was followed
-by Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, Dionysius
-of Halicarnassus, &amp;c. The writers who
-make use of the aera of the Olympiads,
-usually give the number of the Olympiad
-(the first corresponding to <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 776), and then
-the name of the conqueror in the foot-race.
-Some writers also speak of events as happening
-in the first, second, third, or fourth year,
-as the case may be, of a certain Olympiad;
-but others do not give the separate years of
-each Olympiad. The rules for converting
-Olympiads into the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vice versa</i>,
-are given under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Chronologia">Chronologia</a></span>; but as this
-is troublesome, the student will find at the
-end of the book a list of the Olympiads, with
-the years of the Christian aera corresponding
-to them from the beginning of the Olympiads
-to <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 301. To save space, the separate
-years of each Olympiad, with the corresponding
-years <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, are only given from the 47th
-to the 126th Olympiad, as this is the most
-important period of Grecian history; in the
-other Olympiads the first year only is
-given. In consulting the table it must be
-borne in mind that the Olympic Games were
-celebrated about midsummer, and that the
-Attic year commenced at about the same
-time. If, therefore, an event happened in
-the second half of the Attic year, the year
-B.C. must be reduced by 1. Thus Socrates
-was put to death in the 1st year of the
-95th Olympiad, which corresponds in the
-table to <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 400; but as his death happened
-in Thargelion, the 11th month of the Attic
-year, the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> must be reduced by 1,
-which gives us <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 399, the true date of his
-death.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Opalia">ŎPĀLĬA, a Roman festival in honour of
-Opis, celebrated on the 19th of December,
-being the third day of the Saturnalia. It was
-believed that Opis was the wife of Saturnus,
-and for this reason the festivals were celebrated
-at the same time.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Opsonium">OPSŌNĬUM, or OBSŌNĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄψον</span>, <em>dim.</em>
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀψάριον</span>; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀψήμα</span>), denoted everything which
-was eaten with bread, the principal substance
-of every meal. Those numerous articles of
-diet called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opsonia</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulmentaria</i> were designed
-to give nutriment, but still more to
-add a relish to food. Some of these articles
-were taken from the vegetable kingdom, but
-were much more pungent and savoury than
-bread, such as olives, either fresh or pickled,
-radishes, and sesamum. Of animal food by
-much the most common kind was fish, whence
-the terms under explanation were in the
-course of time used in a confined and special
-sense to denote fish only, but fish variously
-prepared, and more especially salt fish, which
-was most extensively employed to give a
-relish to the vegetable diet. The Athenians
-were in the habit of going to markets (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰς
-τοῦψον</span>) themselves in order to purchase their
-opsonia (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀψωνεῖν</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opsonare</i>). But the opulent,
-Romans had a slave, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opsonator</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀψώνης</span>),
-whose office it was to purchase for his master.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Optio">OPTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Centurio">Centurio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Optimates">OPTĬMĀTES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nobiles">Nobiles</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Oraculum">ŌRĀCŬLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μαντεῖον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρηστήριον</span>) was
-used by the ancients to designate both the
-revelations made by the deity to man, as well
-as the place in which such revelations were
-made. The deity was in none of these places
-believed to appear in person to man, and to
-communicate to him his will or knowledge
-of the future, but all oracular revelations
-were made through some kind of medium,
-which was different in the different places
-where oracles existed. It may, at first sight,
-seem strange that there were, comparatively
-speaking, so few oracles of Zeus, the father
-and ruler of gods and men. But although,
-according to the belief of the ancients, Zeus
-himself was the first source of all oracular
-revelations, yet he was too far above men to
-enter with them into any close relation;
-other gods therefore, especially Apollo, and
-even heroes, acted as mediators between Zeus
-and men, and were, as it were, the organs
-through which he communicated his will.
-The ancients consulted the will of the gods
-on all important occasions of public and private
-life, since they were unwilling to undertake<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277"></a>[277]</span>
-anything of importance without their
-sanction.&mdash;The most celebrated oracle was
-that of Apollo at Delphi. Its ancient name
-was Pytho. In the centre of the temple
-there was a small opening (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χάσμα</span>) in the
-ground, from which, from time to time, an
-intoxicating smoke arose, which was believed
-to come from the well of Cassotis, which
-vanished into the ground close by the sanctuary.
-Over this chasm there stood a high
-tripod, on which the Pythia, led into the
-temple by the prophetes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προφήτης</span>), took her
-seat whenever the oracle was to be consulted.
-The smoke rising from under the tripod
-affected her brain in such a manner that she
-fell into a state of delirious intoxication, and
-the sounds which she uttered in this state
-were believed to contain the revelations of
-Apollo. These sounds were carefully written
-down by the prophetes, and afterwards communicated
-to the persons who had come to
-consult the oracle. The Pythia (the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προφῆτις</span>)
-was always a native of Delphi, and when she
-had once entered the service of the god she
-never left it, and was never allowed to marry.
-In early times she was always a young girl,
-but subsequently no one was elected as prophetess
-who had not attained the age of fifty
-years. The Delphians, or, more properly
-speaking, the noble families of Delphi, had
-the superintendence of the oracle. Among
-the Delphian aristocracy, however, there
-were five families which traced their origin
-to Deucalion, and from each of these one of
-the five priests, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hosioi</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅσιοι</span>), was
-taken. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hosioi</i>, together with the high-priest
-or prophetes, held their offices for life,
-and had the control of all the affairs of the
-sanctuary and of the sacrifices. That these
-noble families had an immense influence upon
-the oracle is manifest from numerous instances,
-and it is not improbable that they
-were its very soul, and that it was they who
-dictated the pretended revelations of the god.
-Most of the oracular answers which are
-extant are in hexameters, and in the Ionic
-dialect. Sometimes, however, Doric forms
-also were used.&mdash;No religious institution in
-all antiquity obtained such a paramount influence
-in Greece as the oracle of Delphi.
-When consulted on a subject of a religious
-nature, the answer was invariably of a kind
-calculated not only to protect and preserve
-religious institutions, but to command new
-ones to be established, so that it was the preserver
-and promoter of religion throughout
-the ancient world. Colonies were seldom or
-never founded without having obtained the
-advice and the directions of the Delphic god.
-The Delphic oracle had at all times a leaning
-in favour of the Greeks of the Doric race,
-but the time when it began to lose its influence
-must be dated from the period when
-Athens and Sparta entered upon their struggle
-for the supremacy in Greece; for at this time
-the partiality for Sparta became so manifest
-that the Athenians and their party began to
-lose all reverence and esteem for it, and the
-oracle became a mere instrument in the hands
-of a political party. Of the other oracles, the
-most celebrated were that of Apollo at Didyma,
-usually called the oracle of the Branchidae,
-in the territory of Miletus; that of Zeus, at
-Dodona, where the oracle was given from
-sounds produced by the wind; that of Zeus
-Ammon, in an oasis in Libya, not far from
-the boundaries of Egypt; that of Amphiaraus,
-between Potniae and Thebes, where the hero
-was said to have been swallowed up by the
-earth; and that of Trophonius, at Lebadeia
-in Boeotia.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Orarium">ŌRĀRĬUM was a small handkerchief used
-for wiping the face, and appears to have been
-employed for much the same purposes as our
-pocket-handkerchief. It was made of silk or
-linen. Aurelian introduced the practice of
-giving <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Oraria</i> to the Roman people to use
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad favorem</i>, which appears to mean for the
-purpose of waving in the public games in
-token of applause.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Orator">ŌRĀTOR. The profession of the Roman
-orator, who with reference to his undertaking
-a client’s case is also called patronus, was
-quite distinct from that of the Jurisconsultus
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Jurisconsulti">Jurisconsulti</a></span>], and also from that of the
-Advocatus, at least in the time of Cicero, and
-even later. An orator who possessed a competent
-knowledge of the Jus Civile would,
-however, have an advantage. Some requisites
-of oratory, such as voice and gesture,
-could only be acquired by discipline, whereas
-a competent knowledge of the law of a case
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">juris utilitas</i>) could be got at any time from
-the jurisconsulti (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">periti</i>) or from books.
-Oratory was a serious study among the Romans.
-Cicero tells us by what painful labour
-he attained to excellence. Roman oratory
-reached its perfection in the century which
-preceded the Christian aera. Its decline dates
-from the establishment of the Imperial power.
-The old orators learned their art by constant
-attendance on some eminent orator and by
-actual experience of business: the orators of
-Messala’s time were formed in the schools of
-Rhetoric, and their powers were developed
-in exercises on fictitious matters. But the
-immediate causes of the former nourishing
-condition of eloquence were the political power
-which oratory conferred on the orator under
-the Republic, and the party struggles and
-even the violence that are incident to such a
-state of society.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278"></a>[278]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Orchestra">ORCHESTRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Orcinus">ORCĪNUS SĔNĀTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ordo">ORDO is applied to any body of men who
-form a distinct class in the community, either
-by possessing distinct privileges, pursuing certain
-trades or professions, or in any other
-way. Thus the whole body of sacerdotes at
-Rome is spoken of as an ordo, and separate
-ecclesiastical corporations are called by the
-same title. The libertini and scribae also
-formed separate ordines. The senate and
-the equites are also spoken of respectively as
-the ordo senatorius and ordo equestris, but
-this name is never applied to the plebes. Accordingly
-we find the expression, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uterque
-ordo</i>, used without any further explanation
-to designate the senatorial and equestrian
-ordines. The senatorial ordo, as the highest,
-is sometimes distinguished as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amplissimus
-ordo</i>.&mdash;The senate in colonies and municipia
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordo decurionum</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a></span>], and
-sometimes simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordo</i>.&mdash;The term ordo is
-also applied to a company or troop of soldiers,
-and is used as equivalent to centuria: thus
-centurions are sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">qui ordines
-duxerunt</i>, and the first centuries in a legion
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">primi ordines</i>. Even the centurions of the first
-centuries are occasionally called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">primi ordines</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Orgia">ORGIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mysteria">Mysteria</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Orgyia">ORGYIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀργυιά</span>), a Greek measure of
-length, derived from the human body, was
-the distance from extremity to extremity of
-the outstretched arms, whence the name,
-from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀρέγω</span>. It was equal to 6 feet or to 4
-cubits, and was 1-100th of the stadium.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Orichalcum">ŎRĬCHALCUM, a metallic compound, akin
-to copper and bronze, which was highly
-prized by the ancients. It probably denotes
-<em>brass</em>, with which the ancients became acquainted
-by fusing zinc ore (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cadmium</i>, calamine)
-with copper, although they appear to
-have had scarcely any knowledge of zinc
-as a metal. The word is derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄρος</span>
-and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκός</span>, that is, <em>mountain-bronze</em>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Oschophoria">OSCHOPHŎRIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὠσχοφόρια</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀσχοφόρια</span>),
-an Attic festival, which, according to some
-writers, was celebrated in honour of Athena
-and Dionysus, and according to others in
-honour of Dionysus and Ariadne. It is said
-to have been instituted by Theseus. It was
-a vintage festival, and its name is derived
-from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὦσχος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄσχος</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄσχη</span>, a branch of vines
-with grapes.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp65" id="ill278a" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill278a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Oscillum. (From a Marble in the British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Oscillum">OSCILLUM, a diminutive through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">osculum</i>
-from <em>os</em>, meaning “a little face,” was the
-term applied to faces or heads of Bacchus,
-which were suspended in the vineyards to
-be turned in every direction by the wind.
-Whichsoever way they looked, they were
-supposed to make the vines in that quarter
-fruitful. The first cut represents the countenance
-of Bacchus with a beautiful, mild, and
-propitious expression. The other cut represents
-a tree with four oscilla hung upon its
-branches. A syrinx and a pedum are placed
-at the root of the tree.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="ill278b" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill278b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Oscillum. (From an ancient Gem.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Ostiarium">OSTĬĀRĬUM, a tax upon the doors of
-houses, which appears to have been sometimes
-levied in the provinces. There was a
-similar tax, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">columnarium</i>, imposed
-upon every pillar that supported a house.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ostium">OSTĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Janua">Janua</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ovatio">ŎVĀTĬO, a lesser triumph. The circumstances
-by which it was distinguished from
-the more imposing solemnity [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Triumphus">Triumphus</a></span>]
-were the following:&mdash;The general did not
-enter the city in a chariot drawn by four
-horses, but on foot: he was not arrayed in
-the gorgeous gold-embroidered robe, but in
-the simple toga praetexta of a magistrate;
-his brows were encircled with a wreath, not
-of laurel but of myrtle; he bore no sceptre
-in his hand; the procession was not heralded
-by trumpets, headed by the senate, and
-thronged with victorious troops, but was
-enlivened by a crowd of flute players, attended
-chiefly by knights and plebeians, frequently
-without soldiers: the ceremonies
-were concluded by the sacrifice, not of a bull
-but of a sheep. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ovatio</i> seems
-clearly to be derived from the kind of victim
-offered. An ovation was granted when the
-advantage gained, although considerable, was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279"></a>[279]</span>
-not sufficient to constitute a legitimate claim
-to the higher distinction of a triumph, or
-when the victory had been achieved with
-little bloodshed; or when hostilities had not
-been regularly proclaimed; or when the war
-had not been completely terminated; or when
-the contest had been carried on against base
-and unworthy foes; and hence when the
-servile bands of Athenion and Spartacus were
-destroyed by Perperna and Crassus, these
-leaders celebrated ovations only.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ovile">ŎVĪLE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="P_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">P</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Paean" class="drop-capy">PAEAN (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παιήων</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παιάν</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παιών</span>), a hymn or
-song, which was originally sung in
-honour of Apollo. It was always of a joyous
-nature, and its tune and sounds expressed
-hope and confidence. It was a song of
-thanksgiving, when danger was passed, and
-also a hymn to propitiate the god. It was
-sung at the solemn festivals of Apollo, and
-especially at the Hyacinthia. The paean
-was also sung as a battle-song, both before
-an attack on the enemy and after the battle
-was finished. It is certain that the paean
-was in later times sung to the honour of
-other gods besides Apollo. Thus Xenophon
-relates that the Greek army in Asia sung a
-paean to Zeus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Paedagogus">PAEDĂGŌGUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παιδαγωγός</span>), a tutor. The
-office of tutor in a Grecian family of rank
-and opulence was assigned to one of the most
-trustworthy of the slaves. The sons of his
-master were committed to his care on attaining
-their sixth or seventh year, their previous
-education having been conducted by females.
-They remained with the tutor until they attained
-the age of puberty. His duty was
-rather to guard them from evil, both physical
-and moral, than to communicate instruction.
-He went with them to and from the school
-or the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Gymnasium">Gymnasium</a></span>; he accompanied them
-out of doors on all occasions; he was responsible
-for their personal safety, and for their
-avoidance of bad company. In the Roman
-empire the name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paedagogi</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paedagogia</i> was
-given to beautiful young slaves, who discharged
-in the imperial palace the duties of
-the modern <em>page</em>, which is in fact a corruption
-of the ancient name.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Paedonomus">PAEDŎNŎMUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παιδονόμος</span>), a magistrate
-at Sparta, who had the general superintendence
-of the education of the boys.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Paenula">PAENŬLA, a thick cloak, chiefly used by
-the Romans in travelling, instead of the toga,
-as a protection against the cold and rain. It
-appears to have had no sleeves, and only an
-opening for the head, as shown in the following
-figure.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp43" id="ill279" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill279.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Paenula, travelling cloak. (From Bartholini.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Paganalia">PĀGĀNĀLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pagi">Pagi</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pagani">PĀGĀNI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pagi">Pagi</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pagi">PĀGI were fortified places in the neighbourhood
-of Rome, to which the country-people
-might retreat in case of a hostile
-inroad. Each of the country tribes is said to
-have been divided by Numa into a certain
-number of pagi; which name was given to
-the country adjoining the fortified village, as
-well as to the village itself. There was a
-magistrate at the head of each pagus, who
-kept a register of the names and of the property
-of all persons in the pagus, raised the
-taxes, and summoned the people, when necessary,
-to war. Each pagus had its own
-sacred rites, and an annual festival called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Paganalia</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pagani</i>, or inhabitants of
-the pagi, had their regular meetings, at
-which they passed resolutions. The division
-of the country-people into pagi continued to
-the latest times of the Roman empire. The
-term Pagani is often used in opposition to
-milites, and is applied to all who were not
-soldiers, even though they did not live in the
-country. The Christian writers gave the
-name of pagani to those persons who adhered
-to the old Roman religion, because the
-latter continued to be generally believed by
-the country-people, after Christianity became
-the prevailing religion of the inhabitants of
-the towns.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Palaestra">PĂLAESTRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παλαίστρα</span>), properly means<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280"></a>[280]</span>
-a place for wrestling (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παλαίειν</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάλη</span>), and
-appears to have originally formed a part of
-the gymnasium. At Athens, however, there
-was a considerable number of palaestrae,
-quite distinct from the gymnasia. It appears
-most probable that the palaestrae were
-chiefly appropriated to the exercises of wrestling
-and of the pancratium, and were principally
-intended for the athletae, who, it
-must be recollected, were persons that contended
-in the public games, and therefore
-needed special training. The Romans had
-originally no places corresponding to the
-Greek gymnasia and palaestrae; and when
-towards the close of the republic wealthy
-Romans, in imitation of the Greeks, began to
-build places for exercise in their villas, they
-called them indifferently gymnasia and palaestrae.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Palilia">PĂLĪLIA, a festival celebrated at Rome
-every year on the 21st of April, in honour of
-Pales, the tutelary divinity of shepherds.
-The 21st of April was the day on which,
-according to the early traditions of Rome,
-Romulus had commenced the building of the
-city, so that the festival was at the same
-time solemnised as the dies natalitius of
-Rome. It was originally a shepherd-festival,
-and continued to be so among country people
-till the latest times, but in the city it lost its
-original character, and was only regarded as
-the dies natalitius of Rome. The first part of
-the solemnities was a public purification by
-fire and smoke. The things burnt in order
-to produce this purifying smoke were the
-blood of the <em>October-horse</em>, the ashes of the
-calves sacrificed at the festival of Ceres, and
-the shells of beans. The people were also
-sprinkled with water, they washed their
-hands in spring-water, and drank milk mixed
-with must. As regards the <em>October-horse</em>
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equus October</i>) it must be observed that in
-early times no bloody sacrifice was allowed
-to be offered at the palilia, and the blood of
-the October-horse mentioned above, was the
-blood which had dropped from the tail of the
-horse sacrificed in the month of October to
-Mars in the Campus Martius. This blood
-was preserved by the vestal virgins in the
-temple of Vesta for the purpose of being used
-at the palilia. The sacrifices consisted of
-cakes, millet, milk, and other kinds of eatables.
-The shepherds then offered a prayer
-to Pales. After these solemn rites were over,
-the cheerful part of the festival began: bonfires
-were made of heaps of hay and straw,
-and the festival was concluded by a feast in
-the open air, at which the people sat or lay
-upon benches of turf, and drank plentifully.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pallium">PALLĬUM, <em>dim.</em> PALLIŎLUM, <em>poet.</em>
-PALLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμάτιον</span>, <em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱματίδιον</span>; <em>Ion.</em> and
-<em>poet.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φᾶρος</span>), an outer garment. The English
-<em>cloak</em>, though commonly adopted as the translation
-of these terms, conveys no accurate
-conception of the form, material, or use of
-that which they denoted. The article designated
-by them was always a rectangular
-piece of cloth, exactly, or at least nearly
-square. It was indeed used in the very form
-in which it was taken from the loom, being
-made entirely by the weaver, without any
-aid from the tailor, except to repair the injuries
-which it sustained by time. Whatever
-additional richness and beauty it received
-from the art of the dyer, was bestowed upon
-it before its materials were woven into cloth
-or even spun into thread. Most commonly it
-was used without having undergone any process
-of this kind. The raw material, such as
-wool, flax, or cotton, was manufactured in
-its natural state, and hence pallia were commonly
-white, although from the same cause
-brown, drab, and grey were also prevailing
-colours. As the pallium was the most common
-outer garment, we find it continually
-mentioned in conjunction with the tunica,
-which constituted the indutus. Such phrases
-as “coat and waistcoat,” or “shoes and stockings,”
-are not more common with us than the
-following expressions, which constantly occur
-in ancient authors: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tunica palliumque</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμάτιον
-καὶ χιτών</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ ἱμάτιον καὶ ὁ χιτωνίσκος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φᾶρος
-ἠδὲ χιτών</span>, &amp;c. To wear the pallium without<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281"></a>[281]</span>
-the underclothing indicated poverty or severity
-of manners, as in the case of Socrates.
-One of the most common modes of wearing
-the pallium was to fasten it with a brooch
-over the right shoulder, leaving the right
-arm at liberty, and to pass the middle of it
-either under the left arm so as to leave that
-arm at liberty also, or over the left shoulder
-so as to cover the left arm. The figure in
-the preceding cut is attired in the last-mentioned
-fashion.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp38" id="ill280" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill280.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Pallium. (Museo Pio-Clement., vol. i. tav. 48.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Palma">PALMA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Palmipes">PALMĬPES, a Roman measure of length,
-equal to a foot and a palm.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Palmus">PALMUS, properly the width of the open
-hand, or, more exactly, of the four fingers,
-was used by the Romans for two different
-measures of length, namely, as the translation
-of the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παλαιστή</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῶρον</span> in old
-Greek, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σπιθαμή</span> respectively. In the
-former sense it is equal to 4 digits, or 3
-inches, or 1-4th of a foot, or 1-6th of the
-cubit. The larger palm of 9 inches only
-occurs in later Roman writers. From this large
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">palmus</i> the modern Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">palmo</i> is derived.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp43" id="ill281a" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill281a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Paludamentum, Military Cloak. (Statue of a Roman
-Emperor.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Paludamentum">PĂLŪDĀMENTUM, the cloak worn by a
-Roman general commanding an army, his
-principal officers and personal attendants, in
-contradistinction to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sagum</i> of the common
-soldiers, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga</i> or garb of peace. It
-was the practice for a Roman magistrate,
-after he had received the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imperium</i> from the
-comitia curiata and offered up his vows in the
-Capitol, to march out of the city arrayed in
-the paludamentum (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exire paludatus</i>), attended
-by his lictors in similar attire (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paludatis lictoribus</i>),
-nor could he again enter the gates
-until he had formally divested himself of this
-emblem of military power. The paludamentum
-was open in front, reached down to the
-knees or a little lower, and hung loosely
-over the shoulders, being fastened across the
-chest by a clasp. The colour of the paludamentum
-was commonly white or purple, and
-hence it was marked and remembered that
-Crassus on the morning of the fatal battle of
-Carrhae went forth in a dark-coloured mantle.
-In the cut below, representing the head
-of a warrior, we see the paludamentum flying
-back in the charge, and the clasp nearly in
-front.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill281b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill281b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Paludamentum, Military Cloak. (From a Mosaic at
-Pompeii.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Pamboeotia">PAMBOEŌTĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παμβοιώτια</span>), a festive panegyris
-of all the Boeotians, like the Panathenaea
-of the Atticans, and the Panionia of
-the Ionians. The principal object of the
-meeting was the common worship of Athena
-Itonia, who had a temple in the neighbourhood
-of Coronea, near which the panegyris
-was held.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Panathenaea">PĂNĂTHĒNAEA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παναθήναια</span>), the greatest
-and most splendid of the festivals celebrated
-in Attica in honour of Athena, in the
-character of Athena Polias, or the protectress
-of the city. It was said to have been instituted
-by Erichthonius, and its original name,
-down to the time of Theseus, was believed to
-have been Athenaea; but when Theseus united
-all the Atticans into one body, this festival,
-which then became the common festival of
-all the Attic tribes, was called Panathenaea.
-There were two kinds of Panathenaea, the
-greater and the lesser; the former were held
-every fourth year (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πενταετηρίς</span>), the latter
-every year. The lesser Panathenaea were
-probably celebrated on the 17th of the month<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282"></a>[282]</span>
-Hecatombaeon; the great Panathenaea in the
-third year of every Olympiad, and probably
-commenced on the same day as the lesser Panathenaea.
-The principal difference between
-the two festivals was, that the greater one was
-more solemn, and that on this occasion the
-peplus of Athena was carried to her temple in
-a most magnificent procession, which was not
-held at the lesser Panathenaea. The solemnities,
-games, and amusements of the Panathenaea
-were, rich sacrifices of bulls, foot,
-horse, and chariot races, gymnastic and musical
-contests, and the lampadephoria; rhapsodists
-recited the poems of Homer and other
-epic poets, philosophers disputed, cock-fights
-were exhibited, and the people indulged in a
-variety of other amusements and entertainments.
-The prize in these contests was a
-vase filled with oil from the ancient and
-sacred olive tree of Athena on the Acropolis.
-A great many of such vases, called Panathenaic
-vases, have in late years been found in
-Etruria, southern Italy, Sicily, and Greece.
-They represent on one side the figure of
-Athena, and on the other the various contests
-and games in which these vases were
-given as prizes to the victors. Of the discussions
-of philosophers and orators at the
-Panathenaea we still possess two specimens,
-the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόγος Παναθηναικός</span> of Isocrates, and that
-of Aristeides. Herodotus is said to have recited
-his history to the Athenians at the
-Panathenaea. The management of the games
-and contests was entrusted to persons called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Athlothetae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀθλοθέται</span>), whose number was
-ten, one being taken from every tribe. Their
-office lasted from one great Panathenaic festival
-to the other. The chief solemnity of
-the great Panathenaea was the magnificent
-procession to the temple of Athena Polias,
-which probably took place on the last day of
-the festive season. The whole of the procession
-is represented in the frieze of the Parthenon,
-the work of Phidias and his disciples,
-now deposited in the British Museum. The
-chief object of the procession was to carry the
-peplus of the goddess to her temple. This peplus
-was a crocus-coloured garment for the goddess,
-and made by maidens, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐργαστῖναι</span>. In it
-were woven Enceladus and the giants, as they
-were conquered by the goddess. The peplus
-was not carried to the temple by men, but
-suspended from the mast of a ship. The procession
-proceeded from the Ceramicus, near a
-monument called Leocorium, to the temple of
-Demeter at Eleusis, and thence along the
-Pelasgic wall and the temple of Apollo
-Pythius to the Pnyx, and thence to the
-Acropolis, where the statue of Minerva Polias
-was adorned with the peplus. In this procession
-nearly the whole population of Attica
-appears to have taken part, either on foot, on
-horseback, or in chariots, as may be seen in
-the frieze of the Parthenon. Aged men carried
-olive branches, and were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thallophori</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θαλλοφόροι</span>); young men attended,
-at least in earlier times, in armour, and
-maidens who belonged to the noblest families
-of Athens carried baskets, containing offerings
-for the goddess, whence they were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Canephori</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κανηφόροι</span>). Respecting the part
-which aliens took in this procession, and the
-duties they had to perform, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Hydriaphoria">Hydriaphoria</a></span>.
-Men who had deserved well of the
-republic were rewarded with a gold crown at
-the great Panathenaea, and the herald had to
-announce the event during the gymnastic
-contests.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp97" id="ill282" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill282.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Pancratiastae. (Krause, Gymnastik und Agonistik der
-Hellen, tav. 21.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Pancratium">PANCRĂTĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παγκράτιον</span>), is derived
-from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάν</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κράτος</span>, and accordingly signifies
-an athletic game, in which all the powers of
-the fighter were called into action. The
-pancratium was one of the games or gymnastic
-contests which were exhibited at all the
-great festivals of Greece; it consisted of boxing
-and wrestling (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυγμή</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάλη</span>), and
-was reckoned to be one of the heavy or hard
-exercises (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγωνίσματα βαρέα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βαρύτερα</span>), on
-account of the violent exertions it required,
-and for this reason it was not much practised
-in the gymnasia. In Homer we find neither
-the game nor the name of the pancratium
-mentioned, and as it was not introduced at
-the Olympic games until Ol. 33, we may
-presume that the game, though it may have
-existed long before in a rude state, was not
-brought to any degree of perfection until a
-short time before that event. The name of the
-combatants was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pancratiastae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παγκρατιασταί</span>)
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pammachi</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάμμαχοι</span>). They fought
-naked, and had their bodies anointed and
-covered with sand, by which they were
-enabled to take hold of one another. When
-the contest began, each of the fighters might<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283"></a>[283]</span>
-commence by boxing or by wrestling, accordingly
-as he thought he should be more
-successful in the one than in the other. The
-victory was not decided until one of the parties
-was killed, or lifted up a finger, thereby
-declaring that he was unable to continue the
-contest either from pain or fatigue.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Panegyris">PĂNĒGỸRIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πανήγυρις</span>), signifies a meeting
-or assembly of a whole people for the
-purpose of worshipping at a common sanctuary.
-The word is used in three significations:&mdash;1.
-For a meeting of the inhabitants
-of one particular town and its vicinity; 2.
-For a meeting of the inhabitants of a whole
-district, a province, or of the whole body of
-people belonging to a particular tribe [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Delia">Delia</a></span>;
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Panionia">Panionia</a></span>]; and 3. For great national meetings,
-as the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and
-Nemean games. Although in all panegyreis
-which we know, the religious character forms
-the most prominent feature, other subjects,
-political discussions and resolutions, as well
-as a variety of amusements, were not excluded,
-though they were perhaps more a
-consequence of the presence of many persons
-than objects of the meeting. Every
-panegyris, moreover, was made by tradespeople
-a source of gain, and it may be presumed
-that such a meeting was never held
-without a fair, at which all sorts of things
-were exhibited for sale.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Panionia">PĂNIŌNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πανιώνια</span>), the great national
-panegyris of the Ionians on mount Mycalé,
-where the national god Poseidon Heliconius
-had his sanctuary called the Panionium. One
-of the principal objects of this national meeting
-was the common worship of Poseidon, to
-whom splendid sacrifices were offered on the
-occasion. But religious worship was not the
-only object for which they assembled at the
-Panionium; on certain emergencies, especially
-in case of any danger threatening their
-country, the Ionians discussed at their meetings
-political questions, and passed resolutions
-which were binding upon all.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Panoplia">PĂNOPLĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πανοπλία</span>), a panoply or suit
-of armour. The articles of which it consisted
-both in the Greek and in the Roman army,
-are enumerated under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Arma">Arma</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pantomimus">PANTŎMĪMUS, the name of a kind of
-actors peculiar to the Romans, who very
-nearly resembled in their mode of acting the
-modern dancers in the ballet. They did not
-speak on the stage, but merely acted by
-gestures, movements, and attitudes. All
-movements, however, were rhythmical like
-those in the ballet, whence the general term
-for them is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saltatio</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saltare</i>; the whole art
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">musica muta</i>; and to represent
-Niobe or Leda was expressed by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saltare
-Nioben</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saltare Ledam</i>. During the time
-of the republic the name pantomimus does
-not occur, though the art itself was known to
-the Romans at an early period; for the first
-histriones said to have been introduced from
-Etruria were in fact nothing but pantomimic
-dancers [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Histrio">Histrio</a></span>], whence we find that
-under the empire the names histrio and pantomimus
-were used as synonymous. The pantomimic
-art, however, was not carried to any
-degree of perfection until the time of Augustus.
-The greatest pantomimes of this time were
-Bathyllus, a freedman and favourite of Maecenas,
-and Pylades and Hylas. Mythological
-love-stories were from the first the favourite
-subjects of the pantomimes, which were disgraced
-by the most licentious scenes. In
-Sicily pantomimic dances were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ballismi</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βαλλισμοί</span>), whence perhaps the modern
-words ball and ballet.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Papyrus">PĂPȲRUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Liber">Liber</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Paradisus">PĂRĂDĪSUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παράδεισος</span>), the name given
-by the Greeks to the parks or pleasure-grounds,
-which surrounded the country residences
-of the Persian kings and satraps.
-They were generally stocked with animals
-for the chase, were full of all kinds of trees,
-watered by numerous streams, and enclosed
-with walls.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Paragraphe">PĂRĂGRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραγραφή</span>). This word
-does not exactly correspond with any term
-in our language, but may without much impropriety
-be called <em>a plea</em>. It is an objection
-raised by the defendant to the admissibility
-of the plaintiff’s action. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paragraphé</i>,
-like every other answer (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντιγραφή</span>) made by
-the defendant to the plaintiff’s charge, was
-given in writing; as the word itself implies.
-If the defendant merely denied the plaintiff’s
-allegations, a court was at once held for the
-trial of the cause. If, however, he put in a
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paragraphé</i>, a court was to be held to try the
-preliminary question, whether the cause
-could be brought into court or not. Upon
-this previous trial the defendant was considered
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">actor</i>. If he succeeded, the whole
-cause was at an end; unless the objection
-was only to the form of action, or some other
-such technicality, in which case it might be
-recommenced in the proper manner. If,
-however, the plaintiff succeeded, the original
-action, which in the mean time had been
-suspended, was proceeded with.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Paralus">PĂRĂLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάραλος</span>), and SĂLAMĪNĬA
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαλαμινία</span>). The Athenians from very early
-times kept for public purposes two sacred or
-state vessels, the one of which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Paralus</i>
-and the other <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Salaminia</i>: the crew of the
-one bore the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραλῖται</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάραλοι</span>, and
-that of the other <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαλαμίνιοι</span>. The Salaminia
-was also called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δηλία</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεωρίς</span>, because it
-was used to convey the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωροὶ</span> to Delos, on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284"></a>[284]</span>
-which occasion the ship was adorned with
-garlands by the priest of Apollo. Both
-these vessels were quick-sailing triremes, and
-were used for a variety of state purposes:
-they conveyed theories, despatches, &amp;c. from
-Athens, carried treasures from subject countries
-to Athens, fetched state criminals from
-foreign parts to Athens, and the like. In
-battles they were frequently used as the ships
-in which the admirals sailed. These vessels and
-their crews were always kept in readiness to act,
-in case of any necessity arising; and the crew,
-although they could not for the greater part of
-the year be in actual service, received their regular
-pay of four oboli per day all the year
-round. The names of the two ships seem to
-point to a very early period of the history of
-Attica, when there was no navigation except
-between Attica and Salamis, for which the Salaminia
-was used, and around the coast of Attica,
-for which purpose the Paralus was destined.
-In later times the names were retained, although
-the destination of the ships was principally
-to serve the purposes of religion, whence
-they are frequently called the sacred ships.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Paranoias">PĂRĂNOIĀS GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρανοίας γραφή</span>).
-This proceeding may be compared to our
-commission of lunacy, or writ <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de lunatico
-inquirendo</i>. It was a suit at Athens that
-might be instituted by a son or other relation
-against one who, by reason of madness or
-mental imbecility, had become incapable of
-managing his own affairs. If the complaint
-was well grounded, the court decreed that
-the next heir should take possession of the
-lunatic’s property, and probably also made
-some provision for his being put in confinement,
-or under proper care and guardianship.
-The celebrated tale of Iophon, the son of
-Sophocles, accusing his father of lunacy, is
-related in the life of Sophocles in the <cite>Classical
-Dictionary</cite>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Paranomon">PĂRĂNŎMŌN GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρανόμων γραφή</span>),
-an indictment at Athens for propounding
-an illegal, or rather unconstitutional measure
-or law. In order to check rash and hasty
-legislation, the mover of any law or decree,
-though he succeeded in causing it to be
-passed, was still amenable to criminal justice,
-if his enactment was found to be inconsistent
-with other laws that remained in force, or
-with the public interest. Any person might
-institute against him the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφὴ παρανόμων</span>
-within a year from the passing of the law.
-If he was convicted, not only did the law
-become void, but any punishment might be
-inflicted on him, at the discretion of the
-judges before whom he was tried. A person
-thrice so convicted lost the right of proposing
-laws in future. The cognizance of the cause
-belonged to the Thesmothetae.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Parapresbeia">PĂRAPRESBEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραπρεσβεία</span>), signifies
-any corrupt conduct, misfeasance, or neglect
-of duty on the part of an ambassador; for
-which he was liable to be called to account
-and prosecuted on his return home. Demosthenes
-accused Aeschines of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Parapresbeia</i> on
-account of his conduct in the embassy to
-Philip.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Parapherna">PĂRĂPHERNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dos">Dos</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Parasanga">PĂRĂSANGA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ παρασάγγης</span>), a Persian
-measure of length, frequently mentioned by
-the Greek writers. It is still used by the
-Persians, who call it <em>ferseng</em>. According to
-Herodotus the parasang was equal to 30
-Greek stadia. Xenophon must also have
-calculated it at the same, as he says that
-16,050 stadia are equal to 535 parasangs.
-(16,050 ÷ 535 = 30.) Other ancient writers
-give a different length for the parasang.
-Modern English travellers estimate it variously
-at from 3½ to 4 English miles,
-which nearly agrees with the calculation of
-Herodotus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Parasiti">PĂRĂSĪTI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παράσιτοι</span>) properly denotes
-persons who dine with others. In the early
-history of Greece the name had a very different
-meaning, being given to distinguished
-persons, who were appointed as assistants to
-certain priests and to the highest magistrates.
-Their services appear to have been rewarded
-with a third of the victims sacrificed to their
-respective gods. Such officers existed down
-to a late period of Greek history. Solon in
-his legislation called the act of giving public
-meals to certain magistrates and foreign ambassadors
-in the prytaneum <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρασιτεῖν</span>, and it
-may be that the parasites were connected
-with this institution. The class of persons
-whom we call parasites was very numerous
-in ancient Greece, and appears to have existed
-from early times. The characteristic
-features common to all parasites are importunity,
-love of sensual pleasures, and above
-all the desire of getting a good dinner without
-paying for it. During the time of the
-Roman emperors a parasite seems to have
-been a constant guest at the tables of the
-wealthy.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Paredri">PĂRĔDRI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάρεδροι</span>). Each of the three
-superior archons was at liberty to have two
-assessors (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάρεδροι</span>) chosen by himself, to
-assist him by advice and otherwise in the
-performance of his various duties. The
-assessor, like the magistrate himself, had to
-undergo a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">docimasia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δοκιμασία</span>) in the Senate
-of Five Hundred and before a judicial tribunal,
-before he could be permitted to enter
-upon his labours. He was also to render an
-account (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐθύνη</span>) at the end of the year. The
-duties of the archons, magisterial and judicial,
-were so numerous, that one of the principal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285"></a>[285]</span>
-objects of having assessors must have been to
-enable them to get through their business.
-From the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paredri</i> of the archons we must
-distinguish those who assisted the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">euthyni</i> in
-examining and auditing magistrates’ accounts.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Parentalia">PĂRENTĀLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Paries">PĂRĬES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Parma">PARMA, <em>dim.</em> PARMŬLA, a round shield,
-three feet in diameter, carried by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">velites</i>
-in the Roman army. Though small, compared
-with the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Clipeus">Clipeus</a></span>, it was so strongly
-made as to be a very effectual protection.
-This was probably owing to the use of iron
-in its frame-work. The parma was also
-worn by the cavalry. We find the term
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">parma</i> often applied to the target [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cetra">Cetra</a></span>],
-which was also a small round shield,
-and therefore very similar to the
-parma.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp44" id="ill285a" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill285a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Parma. (From the Columna Trajana.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Parochi">PĂROCHI, certain people paid by
-the state to supply the Roman magistrates,
-ambassadors, and other official
-persons, when travelling, with those
-necessaries which they could not conveniently
-carry with them. They existed
-on all the principal stations on
-the Roman roads in Italy and the
-provinces, where persons were accustomed
-to pass the night. Of the things
-which the parochi were bound to supply,
-hay, fire-wood, salt, and a certain
-number of beds appear to have been
-the most important.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Paropsis">PĂROPSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παροψίς</span>), any food
-eaten with the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅψον</span> as the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μάζα</span>, a
-kind of frumenty or soft cake, broth,
-or any kind of condiment or sauce.
-It was, likewise, the name of the
-dish or plate, on which such food was served
-up, and it is in this latter signification that the
-Roman writers use the word.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Parricida">PARRĬCĪDA, PARRĬCĪDĬUM. A parricida
-signified originally a murderer generally,
-and is hence defined to be a person
-who kills another <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dolo malo</i>. It afterwards
-signified the murderer of a parent, and by an
-ancient law such a parricide was sewed up
-in a sack (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">culleus</i>), and thrown into a river.
-A law of the dictator Sulla contained some
-provisions against parricide, and probably
-fixed the same punishment for the parricide,
-as the Lex Pompeia de Parricidiis, passed in
-the time of Cn. Pompeius. This law extended
-the crime of parricide to the killing
-of a brother, sister, uncle, aunt, and many
-other relations, and enacted that he who
-killed a father or mother, grandfather or
-grandmother, should be punished (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">more majorum</i>)
-by being whipped till he bled, sewed
-up in a sack with a dog, cock, viper, and
-ape, and thrown into the sea. Other parricides
-were simply put to death.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Passus">PASSUS, a measure of length, which consisted
-of five Roman feet. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes</a>.</span>] The
-passus was not the step, or distance from
-heel to heel, when the feet were at their
-utmost ordinary extension, but the distance
-from the point which the heel leaves to that
-in which it is set down. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mille passuum</i>,
-or thousand paces, was the common name of
-the Roman mile. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Miliare">Milliare</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pater">PĂTER FĂMĬLIAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Familia">Familia</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pater_p">PĂTER PĂTRĀTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fetiales">Fetiales</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Patera">PĂTĔRA, <em>dim.</em> PĂTELLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φιάλη</span>), a
-round plate or dish. The paterae of the
-most common kind were small plates of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286"></a>[286]</span>
-common red earthenware, on which an ornamental
-pattern was drawn, and which were
-sometimes entirely black. The more valuable
-paterae were metallic, being chiefly of
-bronze; but every family, raised above poverty,
-possessed one of silver, together with
-a silver salt-cellar. The accompanying cut
-exhibits a highly ornamented patera, made
-of bronze. The view of the upper surface is
-accompanied by a side-view, showing the
-form and depth of the vessel.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp82" id="ill285b" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill285b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Patera. (From Pompeii.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Patibulum">PĂTĬBŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Furca">Furca</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Patina">PĂTĬNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λεκάνη</span>), a basin or bowl of
-earthenware, rarely of bronze or silver. The
-patina was of a form intermediate between
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patera</i> and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">olla</i>, not so flat as the
-former, nor so deep as the latter. The most
-frequent use of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patina</i> was in cookery.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Patres">PATRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patricii">Patricii</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Patria">PĂTRĬA POTESTAS. Potestas signifies
-generally a power or faculty of any kind by
-which we do anything. “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Potestas</span>,” says
-Paulus, a Roman jurist, “has several significations:
-when applied to magistrates, it is
-Imperium; in the case of children, it is the
-patria potestas; in the case of slaves, it is
-Dominium.” According to Paulus then, potestas,
-as applied to magistrates, is equivalent
-to imperium. Thus we find potestas
-associated with the adjectives praetoria, consularis.
-But potestas is applied to magistrates
-who had not the imperium, as for
-instance to quaestors and tribuni plebis; and
-potestas and imperium are often opposed in
-Cicero. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Imperium">Imperium</a>.</span>] Thus it seems that
-this word potestas, like many other Roman
-terms, had both a wider signification and a
-narrower one. In its wider signification it
-might mean all the power that was delegated
-to any person by the state, whatever might
-be the extent of that power. In its narrower
-significations, it was on the one hand equivalent
-to imperium; and on the other, it
-expressed the power of those functionaries
-who had not the imperium. Sometimes it
-was used to express a magistratus, as a
-person; and hence in the Italian language
-the word podestà signifies a magistrate. Potestas
-is also one of the words by which is
-expressed the power that one private person
-has over another, the other two being manus
-and mancipium. The potestas is either dominica,
-that is, ownership as exhibited in
-the relation of master and slave [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Servus">Servus</a></span>];
-or patria as exhibited in the relation of
-father and child. The mancipium was framed
-after the analogy of the potestas dominica.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mancipium">Mancipium</a>.</span>] Patria potestas then signifies
-the power which a Roman father had over
-the persons of his children, grandchildren,
-and other descendants (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">filii-familias</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">filiae-familias</i>),
-and generally all the rights which
-he had by virtue of his paternity. The
-foundation of the patria potestas was a legal
-marriage, and the birth of a child gave it
-full effect. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>] It does not
-seem that the patria potestas was ever
-viewed among the Romans as absolutely
-equivalent to the dominica potestas, or as
-involving ownership of the child; and yet
-the original notion of the patria came very
-near to that of the dominica potestas. Originally
-the father had the power of life and
-death over his son as a member of his familia;
-and he could sell him, and so bring him
-into the mancipii causa. He could also give
-his daughter in marriage, or give a wife to
-his son, divorce his child, give him in adoption,
-and emancipate him at his pleasure.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Patricii">PATRĬCĬI. This word is evidently a derivative
-from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pater</i>, which frequently occurs
-in the Roman writers as equivalent to senator.
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Patricii</i> therefore signifies those who
-belonged to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres</i>, but it is a mistake to
-suppose that the patricii were only the offspring
-of the patres in the sense of senators.
-On the contrary, the patricians were, in the
-early history of Rome, the whole body of
-Roman citizens, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">populus Romanus</i>, and
-there were no real citizens besides them.
-The other parts of the Roman population,
-namely clients and slaves, did not belong to
-the populus Romanus, and were not burghers
-or patricians. The senators or patres (in
-the narrower sense of the word) were a
-select body of the populus or patricians,
-which acted as their representatives. The
-burghers or patricians consisted originally of
-three distinct tribes, which afterwards became
-united into the sovereign populus.
-These tribes had founded settlements upon
-several of the hills which were subsequently
-included within the precincts of the city of
-Rome. Their names were Ramnes, Tities,
-and Luceres, or Ramnenses, Titienses, and
-Lucerenses. Each of these tribes consisted
-of ten curiae, and each curia of ten gentes,
-and of the same number of decuries, which
-were established for representative and military
-purposes. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a>.</span>] The first tribe,
-or the Ramnes, were a Latin colony on the
-Palatine hill, said to have been founded by
-Romulus. As long as it stood alone, it contained
-only one hundred gentes, and had a
-senate of one hundred members. When the
-Tities, or Sabine settlers on the Quirinal
-and Viminal hills, under king Tatius, became
-united with the Ramnes, the number of
-gentes, as well as that of senators, was increased
-to 200. These two tribes after their
-union continued probably for a considerable
-time to be the patricians of Rome, until the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_287"></a>[287]</span>
-third tribe, the Luceres, which chiefly consisted
-of Etruscans, who had settled on the
-Caelian hill, also became united with the
-other two as a third tribe. The amalgamation
-of these three tribes did not take place
-at once: the union between Latins and Sabines
-is ascribed to the reign of Romulus,
-though it does not appear to have been quite
-perfect, since the Latins on some occasions
-claimed a superiority over the Sabines. The
-Luceres existed for a long time as a separate
-tribe without enjoying the same rights as the
-two other tribes, until Tarquinius Priscus,
-himself an Etruscan, caused them to be
-placed on a footing of equality with the
-others. For this reason he is said to have
-increased the number of senators to 300.
-The Luceres, however, are, notwithstanding
-this equalisation, sometimes distinguished
-from the other tribes by the name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patricii minorum gentium</i>. During the time
-of the republic, distinguished strangers and
-wealthy plebeians were occasionally made
-Roman patricians; for instance, Appius Claudius
-and his gens, and Domitius Ahenobarbus.
-When the plebeians became a distinct
-class of citizens [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plebes">Plebes</a></span>], the patricians, of
-course, ceased to be the only class of citizens,
-but they still retained the exclusive possession
-of all the power in the state. All
-civil and religious offices were in their possession,
-and they continued as before to be the
-populus, the nation now consisting of the
-populus and the plebes. In their relation to
-the plebeians or the commonalty, the patricians
-were a real aristocracy of birth. A
-person born of a patrician family was and
-remained a patrician, whether he was rich
-or poor, whether he was a member of the
-senate, or an eques, or held any of the great
-offices of the state, or not: there was no
-power that could make a patrician a plebeian.
-As regards the census, he might
-indeed not belong to the wealthy classes, but
-his rank remained the same. The only way
-in which a patrician might become a plebeian
-was when of his own accord he left his gens
-and curia, gave up the sacra, &amp;c. A plebeian,
-on the other hand, or even a stranger,
-might be made a patrician by a lex curiata.
-But this appears to have been done very
-seldom; and the consequence was, that in
-the course of a few centuries the number of
-patrician families became so rapidly diminished,
-that towards the close of the republic
-there were not more than fifty such families.
-Although the patricians throughout this
-whole period had the character of an aristocracy
-of birth, yet their political rights
-were not the same at all times. During the
-first centuries of the republic there was an
-almost uninterrupted struggle between patricians
-and plebeians, in which the former
-exerted every means to retain their exclusive
-rights, but which ended in the establishment
-of the political equality of the two orders.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plebes">Plebes</a>.</span>] Only a few insignificant priestly
-offices, and the performance of certain ancient
-religious rites and ceremonies, remained
-the exclusive privilege of the patricians; of
-which they were the prouder, as in former
-days their religious power and significance
-were the basis of their political superiority.
-At the time when the struggle between patricians
-and plebeians ceased, a new kind of
-aristocracy began to arise at Rome, which
-was partly based upon wealth, and partly
-upon the great offices of the republic, and
-the term nobiles was given to all persons
-whose ancestors had held any of the
-curule offices. (Compare <span class="smcap"><a href="#Nobiles">Nobiles</a></span>.) This
-aristocracy of nobiles threw the old patricians
-as a body still more into the shade,
-though both classes of aristocrats united as
-far as was possible to monopolise all the
-great offices of the state. In their dress and
-appearance the patricians were scarcely distinguished
-from the rest of the citizens, unless
-they were senators, curule magistrates,
-or equites, in which case they wore like
-others the ensigns peculiar to these classes.
-The only thing by which they seem to have
-been distinguished in their appearance from
-other citizens was a peculiar kind of shoe,
-which covered the whole foot and part of the
-leg, though it was not as high as the shoes
-of senators and curule magistrates. These
-shoes were fastened with four strings (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corrigiae</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lora patricia</i>) and adorned with a
-lunula on the top.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Patrimi">PĂTRĪMI ET MĀTRĪMI were children
-born of parents, who had been married by
-the religious ceremony called confarreatio:
-they are almost always mentioned in connection
-with religious rites and ceremonies.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Patronomi">PĂTRŎNŎMI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πατρονόμοι</span>), magistrates at
-Sparta, who exercised, as it were, a paternal
-power over the whole state. They did not
-exist till a late period, and they succeeded to
-the powers which the ephori formerly possessed.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Patronus">PĂTRŌNUS. The act of manumission
-created a new relation between the manumissor
-and the slave, which was analogous to
-that between father and son. The manumissor
-became with respect to the manumitted
-person his patronus, and the manumitted
-person became the libertus of the manumissor.
-The word patronus (from pater)
-indicates the nature of the relation. If the
-manumissor was a woman, she became patrona.
-The libertus adopted the gentile name<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_288"></a>[288]</span>
-of the manumissor. Cicero’s freedman Tiro
-was called M. Tullius Tiro. The libertus
-owed respect and gratitude to his patron, and
-in ancient times the patron might punish
-him in a summary way for neglecting those
-duties. This obligation extended to the
-children of the libertus, and the duty was
-due to the children of the patron. It was
-the duty of the patron to support his freedman
-in case of necessity, and if he did not,
-he lost his patronal rights; the consequence
-was the same if he brought a capital charge
-against him. The most important of the
-patronal rights related to the property of
-liberti, as in certain cases the patronus had
-a right to the whole or a part of the property
-of a libertus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pauperies">PAUPĔRĬES, the legal term for mischief
-done by an animal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrupes</i>) contrary to
-the nature of the animal, as if a man’s ox
-gored another man. In such cases the law
-of the Twelve Tables gave the injured person
-an action against the owner of the animal
-for the amount of the damage sustained.
-The owner was bound either to pay the full
-amount of damages or to give up the animal
-to the injured person (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">noxae dare</i>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pavimentum">PĂVĪMENTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_144">p. 144</a>, <em>b</em>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pecten">PECTEN (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κτείς</span>), a comb. The Greeks and
-Romans used combs made of box-wood. The
-Egyptians had ivory combs, which also came
-into use by degrees among the Romans. The
-wooden combs, found in Egyptian tombs, are
-toothed on one side only; but the Greeks
-used them with teeth on both sides. The
-principal use of the comb was for dressing
-the hair, in doing which the Greeks of both
-sexes were remarkably careful and diligent.
-To go with uncombed hair was a sign of
-affliction.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Peculatus">PĔCŬLĀTUS, is properly the misappropriation
-or theft of public property. The
-person guilty of this offence was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peculator</i>.
-The origin of the word appears to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecus</i>,
-a term which originally denoted that kind of
-moveable property which was the chief sign of
-wealth. Originally trials for <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peculatus</i> were
-before the populus or the senate. In the
-time of Cicero matters of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peculatus</i> had become
-one of the quaestiones perpetuae.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Peculium">PĔCŪLĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Servus">Servus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pecunia">PĔCŪNĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes">Aes</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Argentum">Argentum</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aurum">Aurum</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pedarii">PĔDĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pedisequi">PĔDĬSĔQUI, a class of slaves, whose duty
-was to follow their master when he went out
-of his house. There was a similar class of
-female slaves, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pedisequae</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pedum">PĔDUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κορώνη</span>), a shepherd’s crook. On
-account of its connection with pastoral life,
-the crook is often seen in works of ancient
-art, in the hands of Pan, Satyrs, Fauns, and
-shepherds. It was also the usual attribute
-of Thalia, as the muse of pastoral poetry.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp69" id="ill288" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill288.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Pedum, Shepherd’s Crook. (From a Painting found at
-Civita Vecchia.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Pegma">PEGMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πῆγμα</span>), a pageant, <em>i.e.</em> an edifice
-of wood, consisting of two or more stages
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulata</i>), which were raised or depressed at
-pleasure by means of balance weights. These
-great machines were used in the Roman
-amphitheatres, the gladiators who fought
-upon them being called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pegmares</i>. They were
-supported upon wheels so as to be drawn
-into the circus, glittering with silver and a
-profusion of wealth. When Vespasian and
-Titus celebrated their triumph over the Jews,
-the procession included pageants of extraordinary
-magnitude and splendour, consisting
-of three or four stages above one another,
-hung with rich tapestry, and inlaid with
-ivory and gold. By the aid of various contrivances
-they represented battles and their
-numerous incidents, and the attack and defence
-of the cities of Judaea. The pegma
-was also used in sacrifices. A bull having
-been slain in one of the stages, the high
-priest placed himself below in a cavern, so
-as to receive the blood upon his person and
-his garments, and in this state he was produced
-by the flamines before the worshippers.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pelatae">PĔLĂTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πελάται</span>), were free labourers
-working for hire, like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">thetes</i>, in contra-distinction
-to the helots and penestae, who
-were bondsmen or serfs. In the later Greek
-writers, such as Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
-and Plutarch, the word is used for the Latin
-cliens, though the relations expressed by the
-two terms are by no means similar.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pelta">PELTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέλτη</span>), a small shield. Iphicrates,
-observing that the ancient <span class="smcap"><a href="#Clipeus">Clipeus</a></span> was cumbrous
-and inconvenient, introduced among
-the Greeks a much smaller and lighter<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289"></a>[289]</span>
-shield, from which those who bore it took
-the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peltastae</i>. It consisted principally
-of a frame of wood or wicker-work,
-covered with skin or leather.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Penestae">PĔNESTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πενέσται</span>), a class of serfs in
-Thessaly, who stood in nearly the same relation
-to their Thessalian lords as the helots of
-Laconia did to the Dorian Spartans, although
-their condition seems to have been on the
-whole superior. They were the descendants
-of the old Pelasgic or Aeolian inhabitants of
-Thessaly Proper. They occupied an intermediate
-position between freemen and purchased
-slaves, and they cultivated the land
-for their masters, paying by way of rent a
-portion of the produce of it. The Penestae
-sometimes accompanied their masters to battle,
-and fought on horseback as their vassals:
-a circumstance which need not excite surprise,
-as Thessaly was so famous for cavalry. There
-were Penestae among the Macedonians also.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Penetrale">PĔNĔTRĀLE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Penicillus">PĒNĬCILLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pictura">Pictura</a></span>, <a href="#Page_295">p. 295</a> <em>a</em>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pentacosiomedimni">PENTĂCOSĬŎMĔDIMNI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Census">Census</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pentathlon">PENTATHLON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πένταθλον</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quinquertium</i>),
-was next to the pancratium the most beautiful
-of all athletic performances. The persons
-engaged in it were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pentathli</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πένταθλοι</span>).
-The pentathlon consisted of five
-distinct kinds of games, viz. leaping (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἅλμα</span>),
-the foot-race (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δρόμος</span>), the throwing of the
-discus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίσκος</span>), the throwing of the spear
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σίγυννος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκόντιον</span>), and wrestling (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάλη</span>),
-which were all performed in one day and in a
-certain order, one after the other, by the
-same athletae. The pentathlon was introduced
-in the Olympic games in Ol. 18.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pentecoste">PENTĒCOSTĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκοστή</span>), a duty of two
-per cent, levied upon all exports and imports
-at Athens. The money was collected by persons
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκοστολόγοι</span>. The merchant
-who paid the duty was said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκοντεύεσθαι</span>.
-All the customs appear to have been let to
-farm, and probably from year to year. They
-were let to the highest bidders by the ten
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Poletae</i>, acting under the authority of the
-senate. The farmers were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελῶναι</span>,
-and were said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὠνεῖσθαι τὴν πεντηκοστήν</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Peplum">PEPLUM or PEPLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέπλος</span>), an outer
-garment or shawl, strictly worn by females,
-and thus corresponding to the himation or
-pallium, the outer garment worn by men.
-Like all other pieces of cloth used for the
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amictus">Amictus</a></span>, it was often fastened by means of a
-brooch. It was, however, frequently worn
-without a brooch. The shawl was also often
-worn so as to cover the head while it enveloped
-the body, and more especially on occasion
-of a funeral or of a marriage, when a
-very splendid shawl (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παστός</span>) was worn by
-the bride. The following woodcut may be
-supposed to represent the moment when the
-bride, so veiled, is delivered to her husband
-at the door of the nuptial chamber. He
-wears the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pallium">Pallium</a></span> only; she has a long
-shift beneath her shawl, and is supported by
-the pronuba. Of all the productions of the
-loom, pepli were those on which the greatest
-skill and labour were bestowed. So various
-and tasteful were the subjects which they represented,
-that poets delighted to describe
-them. The art of weaving them was entirely
-oriental; and those of the most splendid
-dyes and curious workmanship were imported
-from Tyre and Sidon. They often constituted
-a very important part of the treasures of a
-temple, having been presented to the divinity
-by suppliants and devotees.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp89" id="ill289" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill289.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Peplum. (Bartoli, ‘Admir. Rom. Ant.,’ pl. 57.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290"></a>[290]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Pera">PĒRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πήρα</span>), a wallet, made of leather,
-worn suspended at the side by rustics and by
-travellers to carry their provisions, and
-adopted in imitation of them by the Cynic
-philosophers.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Perduellio">PERDŬELLĬO was in the ancient times of
-the republic nearly the same as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Majestas</i>
-of the later times. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Majestas">Majestas</a>.</span>] <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Perduellis</i>
-originally signified <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hostis</i>, and thus the
-offence was equivalent to making war on the
-Roman state. Offenders were tried by two
-judges called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Perduellionis Duumviri</i>. In the
-time of the kings the duumviri perduellionis
-and the quaestores parricidii appear to have
-been the same persons; but after the establishment
-of the republic, the offices were
-distinct, for the quaestores were appointed
-regularly every year, whereas the duumviri
-were appointed very rarely, as had been the
-case during the kingly period. Livy represents
-the duumviri perduellionis as being
-appointed by the kings, but they were really
-proposed by the king and appointed by the
-populus. During the early part of the republic
-they were appointed by the comitia curiata,
-and afterwards by the comitia centuriata,
-on the proposal of the consuls. In the
-case of Rabirius (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63), however, this
-custom was violated, as the duumviri were
-appointed by the praetor instead of by the
-comitia centuriata. The punishment for
-those who were found guilty of perduellio
-was death; they were either hanged on the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arbor infelix</i>, or thrown from the Tarpeian
-rock. But when the duumviri found a person
-guilty, he might appeal to the people (in
-early times the populus, afterwards the comitia
-centuriata), as was done in the first
-case which is on record, that of Horatius,
-and in the last, which is that of Rabirius,
-whom Cicero defended before the people in
-the oration still extant.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Peregrinus">PĔRĔGRĪNUS, a stranger or foreigner.
-In ancient times the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peregrinus</i> was
-used as synonymous with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hostis</i>; but in the
-times of which we have historical records, a
-peregrinus was any person who was not a
-Roman citizen. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 247, a second praetor
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetor peregrinus</i>) was appointed for
-the purpose of administering justice in matters
-between Romans and peregrini, and in
-matters between such peregrini as had taken
-up their abode at Rome. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Praetor">Praetor</a>.</span>] The
-number of peregrini who lived in the city of
-Rome appears to have had an injurious influence
-upon the poorer classes of Roman citizens,
-whence on some occasions they were
-driven out of the city. The first example of
-this kind was set in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 127, by the tribune
-M. Junius Pennus. They were expelled a
-second time by the tribune C. Papius, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-66. During the last period of the republic
-and the first centuries of the empire, all the
-free inhabitants of the Roman world were, in
-regard to their political rights, either Roman
-citizens, or Latins, or peregrini, and the
-latter had, as before, neither commercium
-nor connubium with the Romans. They
-were either free provincials, or citizens who
-had forfeited their civitas, and were degraded
-to the rank of peregrini, or a certain class of
-freedmen, called peregrini dediticii.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Perioeci">PĔRĬOECI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίοικοι</span>). This word properly
-denotes the inhabitants of a district
-lying around some particular locality, but is
-generally used to describe a dependent population,
-living without the walls or in the
-country provinces of a dominant city, and
-although personally free, deprived of the enjoyment
-of citizenship, and the political
-rights conferred by it. A political condition
-such as that of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perioeci</i> of Greece, and
-like the vassalage of the Germanic nations,
-could hardly have originated in anything
-else than foreign conquest, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perioeci</i>
-of Laconia furnish a striking illustration of
-this. Their origin dates from the Dorian
-conquest of the Peloponnesus, when the old
-inhabitants of the country, the Achaeans,
-submitted to their conquerors on certain
-conditions, by which they were left in possession
-of their private rights of citizenship.
-They suffered indeed a partial deprivation of
-their lands, and were obliged to submit to a
-king of foreign race, but still they remained
-equal in law to their conquerors, and were
-eligible to all offices of state except the sovereignty.
-But this state of things did not last
-long: in the next generation after the conquest
-the relation between the two parties
-was changed. The Achaeans were reduced
-from citizens to vassals; they were made
-tributary to Sparta; their lands were subjected
-to a tax; and they lost their rights of
-citizenship, the right of voting in the general
-assembly, and their eligibility to important
-offices in the state, such as that of a senator,
-&amp;c. It does not, however, appear that the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perioeci</i> were generally an oppressed people,
-though kept in a state of political inferiority
-to their conquerors. On the contrary, the
-most distinguished among them were admitted
-to offices of trust, and they sometimes
-served as heavy-armed soldiers; as, for instance,
-at the battle of Plataea. The Norman
-conquest of England presents a striking parallel
-to the Dorian conquest of Laconia,
-both in its achievement and consequences.
-The Saxons, like the old Achaeans, were deprived
-of their lands, excluded from all offices
-of trust and dignity, and reduced, though
-personally free, to a state of political slavery.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291"></a>[291]</span>
-The Normans, on the contrary, of whatever
-rank in their own country, were all nobles
-and warriors, compared with the conquered
-Saxons, and for a long time enjoyed exclusively
-the civil and ecclesiastical administration
-of the land.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Periscelis">PĔRISCĔLIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περισκελίς</span>), an anklet or
-bangle, worn by the Orientals, the Greeks,
-and the Roman ladies also. It decorated the
-leg in the same manner as the bracelet adorns
-the wrist and the necklace the throat. The
-word, however, is sometimes used in the
-same sense as the Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feminalia</i>, that is,
-drawers reaching from the navel to the knees.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill291a" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill291a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Periscelis, Anklet, worn by a Nereid. (Museo Borbonico, vol. <span class="allsmcap">VI</span>. tav. 34.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Peristroma">PĔRISTRŌMA, a coverlet large enough to
-hang round the sides of the bed or couch.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Peristylium">PĔRISTȲLĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pero">PĒRO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρβύλη</span>), a low boot of untanned
-hide worn by ploughmen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peronatus arator</i>),
-shepherds, and others employed in rural
-occupations. The term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρβύλη</span> is applied to
-an appendage to the Greek chariot. It seems
-to have been a shoe fastened to the bottom
-of the chariot, into which the driver inserted
-his foot, to assist him in driving, and to
-prevent him from being thrown out.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp44" id="ill291b" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill291b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Masks. (From a Tomb at Sidyma in Lycia.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Persona">PERSŌNA (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">larva</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόσωπον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσωπεῖον</span>),
-a mask. Masks were worn by Greek and
-Roman actors in nearly all dramatic representations.
-This custom arose undoubtedly
-from the practice of smearing the face with
-certain juices and colours, and of appearing
-in disguise, at the festivals of Dionysus.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia</a>.</span>] Now, as the Greek drama arose
-out of these festivals, it is highly probable
-that some mode of disguising the face was as
-old as the drama itself. Choerilus of Samos,
-however, (about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 500) is said to have
-been the first who introduced regular masks.
-Other writers attribute the invention of
-masks to Thespis or Aeschylus, though the
-latter had probably only the merit of perfecting
-and completing the whole theatrical apparatus
-and costume. Some masks covered,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292"></a>[292]</span>
-like the masks of modern times, only the
-face, but they appear more generally to have
-covered the whole head down to the shoulders,
-for we always find the hair belonging to a
-mask described as being a part of it; and
-this must have been the case in tragedy more
-especially, as it was necessary to make the
-head correspond to the stature of an actor,
-which was heightened by the cothurnus.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill291c" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill291c.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Comic Mask. (Statue of Davus in British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Pes">PES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ποῦς</span>), a foot, the standard measure
-of length among the Greeks and Romans, as
-well as among nearly all other nations, both
-ancient and modern. The Romans applied
-the uncial division [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a></span>] to the foot, which
-thus contained 12 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unciae</i>, whence our <em>inches</em>;
-and many of the words used to express certain
-numbers of unciae are applied to the
-parts of the foot. It was also divided into 16
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">digiti</i> (finger-breadths): this mode of division
-was used especially by architects and land-surveyors,
-and is found on all the foot-measures
-that have come down to us. From
-the analogy of the as, we have also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dupondium</i>
-for 2 feet, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pes sestertius</i> for 2½ feet. The
-probable value of the Roman foot is 11.6496
-inches English. (See <a href="#TABLES">Tables</a> at the end.)</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pessi">PESSI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Latrunculi">Latrunculi</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pessulus">PESSŬLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Janua">Janua</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Petalismus">PĔTĂLISMUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Petasus">PĔTĂSUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pileus">Pileus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Petitor">PĔTĪTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actor">Actor</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Petauristae">PĔTAURISTAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Petaurum">Petaurum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Petaurum">PĔTAURUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέταυρον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέτευρον</span>), used in
-the Roman games, seems to have been a
-board moving up and down, with a person at
-each end, and supported in the middle, something
-like our see-saw; only it appears to
-have been much longer, and consequently
-went to a greater height than is common
-amongst us. The persons who took part in
-this game, were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Petauristae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Petauristarii</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Petorritum">PĔTORRĬTUM, a four-wheeled carriage,
-which, like the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Esseda">Essedum</a></span>, was adopted by the
-Romans in imitation of the Gauls. It differed
-from the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Harmamaxa">Harmamaxa</a></span> in being uncovered.
-Its name is compounded of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">petor</i>, four, and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rit</i>, a wheel.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Phalanx">PHĂLANX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Phalarica">PHĂLĂRĬCA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Phalerae">PHĂLĔRAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάλαρον</span>), a boss, disc, or
-crescent of metal, in many cases of gold, and
-beautifully wrought so as to be highly prized.
-They were usually worn in pairs; and we
-most commonly read of them as ornaments
-attached to the harness of horses, especially
-about the head, and often worn as pendants
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pensilia</i>), so as to produce a terrific effect
-when shaken by the rapid motions of the
-horse. These ornaments were often bestowed
-upon horsemen by the Roman generals, in
-the same manner as the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Armilla">Armilla</a></span>, the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Torques">Torques</a></span>,
-the hasta pura [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a></span>], and the crown
-of gold [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Corona">Corona</a></span>], in order to make a public
-and permanent acknowledgment of bravery
-and merit.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pharetra">PHĂRETRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φαρέτρα</span>), a quiver, was principally
-made of hide or leather, and was
-adorned with gold, painting, and braiding.
-It had a lid (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πῶμα</span>), and was suspended from
-the right shoulder by a belt passing over the
-breast and behind the back. Its most common
-position was on the left hip, and is so
-seen in the annexed figures, the right-hand
-one representing an Amazon, and the left-hand
-an Asiatic archer.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp59" id="ill292" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill292.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Pharetrae, Quivers. (Left-hand figure from the Aeginetan
-Marbles;<br />right-hand figure from a Greek Vase.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Pharmacon">PHARMĂCŌN GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φαρμάκων</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φαρμακείας γραφή</span>), an indictment at Athens
-against one who caused the death of another
-by poison, whether given with intent to kill
-or to obtain undue influence. It was tried
-by the court of Areiopagus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pharos">PHĂROS or PHĂRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάρος</span>), a light-house.
-The most celebrated light-house of
-antiquity was that situated at the entrance
-to the port of Alexandria, on an island which
-bore the name of Pharos. It contained many
-stories, and the upper stories had windows
-looking seawards, and torches or fires were
-kept burning in them by night in order to
-guide vessels into the harbour. The name
-of Pharos was given to other light-houses, in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293"></a>[293]</span>
-allusion to that at Alexandria, which was the
-model for their construction.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Phaselus">PHĂSĒLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάσηλος</span>), a vessel rather long
-and narrow, apparently so called from its
-resemblance to the shape of a phaselus or
-kidney-bean. It was chiefly used by the
-Egyptians, and was of various sizes, from a
-mere boat to a vessel adapted for long voyages.
-The phaselus was built for speed, to
-which more attention seems to have been
-paid than to its strength: whence the epithet
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fragilis</i> is given to it by Horace. These vessels
-were sometimes made of clay, to which
-the epithet of Horace may perhaps also refer.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Phasis">PHASIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάσις</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φαίνω</span>), one of the
-various methods by which public offenders at
-Athens might be prosecuted; but the word
-is often used to denote any kind of information;
-and we do not know in what respects
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Phasis</i> was distinguished from other
-methods of prosecution. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sycophantes</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συκοφάντης</span>) is derived from the
-practice of laying information against those
-who exported figs. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sycophantes">Sycophantes</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Phorminx">PHORMINX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lyra">Lyra</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Phratria">PHRATRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Phylarchi">PHỸLARCHI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φύλαρχοι</span>) were at Athens
-after the age of Cleisthenes ten officers, one
-for each of the tribes, and were specially
-charged with the command and superintendence
-of the cavalry. There can be but little
-doubt that each of the phylarchs commanded
-the cavalry of his own tribe, and they were
-themselves collectively and individually under
-the control of the two hipparchs, just as the
-taxiarchs were subject to the two strategi.
-Herodotus informs us that when Cleisthenes
-increased the number of the tribes from four
-to ten, he also made ten phylarchs instead of
-four. It has been thought, however, that
-the historian should have said ten phylarchs
-in the place of the old phylobasileis, who
-were four in number, one for each of the old
-tribes.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Phylobasileis">PHỸLŎBĂSĬLEIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλοβασιλεῖς</span>) were
-four in number, representing each one of the
-four ancient Athenian tribes, and probably
-elected (but not for life) from and by them.
-They were nominated from the Eupatridae,
-and during the continuance of royalty at
-Athens these “kings of the tribes” were the
-constant assessors of the sovereign, and rather
-as his colleagues than counsellors. Though
-they were originally connected with the four
-ancient tribes, still they were not abolished
-by Cleisthenes when he increased the number
-of tribes, probably because their duties were
-mainly of a religious character. They appear
-to have existed even after his time, and acted
-as judges, but in unimportant or merely
-formal matters.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pictura">PICTŪRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφή</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφική</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζωγραφία</span>),
-painting. I. <em>History of the Art.</em> It is singular
-that the poems of Homer do not contain
-any mention of painting as an imitative
-art. This is the more remarkable, since
-Homer speaks of rich and elaborate embroidery
-as a thing not uncommon. This
-embroidery is actual painting in principle,
-and is a species of painting in practice, and
-it was considered such by the Romans, who
-termed it “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">pictura textilis</span>.” The various
-allusions also to other arts, similar in nature
-to painting, are sufficient to prove that painting
-must have existed in some degree in
-Homer’s time, although the only kind of
-painting he notices is the “red-cheeked”
-and “purple-cheeked ships,” and an ivory
-ornament for the faces of horses, which a
-Maeonian or Carian woman colours with
-purple. Painting seems to have made considerable
-progress in Asia Minor while it
-was still in its infancy in Greece, for Candaules,
-king of Lydia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 716), is said to
-have purchased at a high price a painting of
-Bularchus, which represented a battle of the
-Magnetes. The old Ionic painting probably
-flourished at the same time with the Ionian
-architecture, and continued as an independent
-school until the sixth century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, when the
-Ionians lost their liberty, and with their
-liberty their art. Herodotus (i. 164) mentions
-that when Harpagus besieged the town
-of Phocaea (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 544), the inhabitants collected
-all their valuables, their statues and
-votive offerings from the temples, leaving
-only their <em>paintings</em>, and such works in metal
-or of stone as could not easily be removed,
-and fled with them to the island of Chios;
-from which we may conclude that paintings
-were not only valued by the Phocaeans, but
-also common among them. Herodotus (iv.
-88) also informs us that Mandrocles of Samos,
-who constructed for Darius Hystaspis the
-bridge of boats across the Bosporus (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-508), had a picture painted, representing the
-passage of Darius’s army, and the king
-seated on a throne reviewing the troops as
-they passed, which he dedicated in the temple
-of Hera at Samos. After the conquest of
-Ionia, Samos became the seat of the arts.
-The Heraeum at Samos, in which the picture
-of Mandrocles was placed, was a general depository
-for works of art, and in the time of
-Strabo appears to have been particularly rich
-in paintings, for he terms it a “picture-gallery”
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πινακοθήκη</span>). The first painter in
-Greece itself, whose name is recorded, is
-Cimon of Cleonae. His exact period is uncertain,
-but he was probably a contemporary
-of Solon, and lived at least a century before
-Polygnotus. It was with Polygnotus of Thasos<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294"></a>[294]</span>
-that painting reached its full development
-(about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 463). Previous to this time the
-only cities that had paid any considerable
-attention to painting were Aegina, Sicyon,
-Corinth, and Athens. Sicyon and Corinth
-had long been famous for their paintings
-upon vases and upon articles of furniture;
-the school of Athens had attained no celebrity
-whatever until the arrival of Polygnotus from
-Thasos raised it to that pre-eminence which
-it continued to maintain for more than two
-centuries, although very few of the great
-painters of Greece were natives of Athens.
-The principal contemporaries of Polygnotus
-were Dionysius of Colophon, Plistaenetus
-and Panaenus of Athens, brothers (or the
-latter perhaps a nephew) of Phidias, and
-Micon, also of Athens. The works of Polygnotus
-and his contemporaries were conspicuous
-for expression, character, and design;
-the more minute discriminations of tone and
-local colour, united with dramatic composition
-and effect, were accomplished in the succeeding
-generation, about 420 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, through the
-efforts of Apollodorus of Athens and Zeuxis
-of Heraclea. The contemporaries of Apollodorus
-and Zeuxis, and those who carried out
-their principles, were Parrhasius of Ephesus,
-Eupompus of Sicyon, and Timanthes of Cythnus,
-all painters of the greatest fame. Athens
-and Sicyon were the principal seats of the art
-at this period. Eupompus of Sicyon was the
-founder of the celebrated Sicyonian school of
-painting which was afterwards established
-by Pamphilus. The Alexandrian period was
-the last of progression or acquisition; but it
-only added variety of effect to the tones it
-could not improve, and was principally characterised
-by the diversity of the styles of so
-many contemporary artists. The most eminent
-painters of this period were Protogenes,
-Pamphilus, Melanthius, Antiphilus, Theon of
-Samos, Apelles, Euphranor, Pausias, Nicias,
-Nicomachus, and his brother Aristides. Of
-all these Apelles was the greatest. The quality
-in which he surpassed all other painters
-will scarcely bear a definition; it has been
-termed grace, elegance, beauty, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χάρις</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">venustas</i>.
-His greatest work was perhaps his
-Venus Anadyomene, Venus rising out of the
-waters. He excelled in portrait, and indeed
-all his works appear to have been portraits
-in an extended sense; for his pictures, both
-historical and allegorical, consisted nearly all
-of single figures. He enjoyed the exclusive
-privilege of painting the portraits of Alexander.&mdash;The
-works of Greek art brought
-from Sicily by Marcellus were the first to
-inspire the Romans with the desire of adorning
-their public edifices with statues and
-paintings, which taste was converted into a
-passion when they became acquainted with
-the great treasures and almost inexhaustible
-resources of Greece, and their rapacity knew
-no bounds. Mummius, after the destruction
-of Corinth, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 146, carried off or destroyed
-more works of art than all his predecessors
-put together. Scaurus, in his aedileship,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 58, had all the public pictures still remaining
-in Sicyon transported to Rome, on
-account of the debts of the former city, and
-he adorned the great temporary theatre which
-he erected upon that occasion with 3000
-bronze statues. Verres ransacked Asia and
-Achaia, and plundered almost every temple
-and public edifice in Sicily of whatever was
-valuable in it. Amongst the numerous robberies
-of Verres, Cicero mentions particularly
-twenty-seven beautiful pictures taken from
-the temple of Minerva at Syracuse, consisting
-of portraits of the kings and tyrants of Sicily.
-Yet Rome was, about the end of the republic,
-full of painters, who appear, however, to have
-been chiefly occupied in portrait, or decorative
-and arabesque painting. Among the
-Romans the earliest painter mentioned is a
-member of the noble house of the Fabii, who
-received the surname of Pictor through some
-paintings which he executed in the temple of
-Salus at Rome, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 304, which lasted till the
-time of the emperor Claudius, when they
-were destroyed by the fire that consumed
-that temple. Pacuvius also, the tragic poet,
-and nephew of Ennius, distinguished himself
-by some paintings in the temple of Hercules
-in the Forum Boarium, about 180 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> But
-generally speaking the artists at Rome were
-Greeks. Julius Caesar, Agrippa, and Augustus
-were among the earliest great patrons
-of artists. Caesar expended great sums in
-the purchase of pictures by the old masters.
-He gave as much as 80 talents for two pictures
-by his contemporary Timomachus of
-Byzantium, one an Ajax, and the other a
-Medea meditating the murder of her children.
-These pictures, which were painted in encaustic,
-were very celebrated works; they are
-alluded to by Ovid (<cite>Trist.</cite> ii. 525), and are
-mentioned by many other ancient writers.&mdash;There
-are three distinct periods observable in
-the history of painting in Rome. The first
-or great period of Graeco-Roman art may be
-dated from the conquest of Greece until the
-time of Augustus, when the artists were
-chiefly Greeks. The second, from the time
-of Augustus to the so-called Thirty Tyrants
-and Diocletian, or from the beginning of the
-Christian era until about the latter end of the
-third century, during which time the great
-majority of Roman works of art were produced.
-The third comprehends the state of
-the arts during the exarchate, when Rome,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295"></a>[295]</span>
-in consequence of the foundation of Constantinople,
-and the changes it involved, suffered
-similar spoliations to those which it had previously
-inflicted upon Greece. This was the
-period of the total decay of the imitative arts
-amongst the ancients. About the beginning
-of the second period is the earliest age in
-which we have any notice of portrait painters
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imaginum pictores</i>) as a distinct class. Portraits
-must have been exceedingly numerous
-amongst the Romans; Varro made a collection
-of the portraits of 700 eminent men. The
-portraits or statues of men who had performed
-any public service were placed in the
-temples and other public places; and several
-edicts were passed by the emperors of Rome
-respecting the placing of them. The portraits
-of authors also were placed in the public
-libraries; they were apparently fixed above
-the cases which contained their writings,
-below which chairs were placed for the convenience
-of readers. They were painted also
-at the beginning of manuscripts. Several of
-the most celebrated ancient artists were both
-sculptors and painters; Phidias and Euphranor
-were both; Zeuxis and Protogenes
-were both modellers; Polygnotus devoted
-some attention to statuary; and Lysippus
-consulted Eupompus upon style in sculpture.
-Moreover scene-painting shows that the
-Greeks were acquainted with perspective at
-a very early period; for when Aeschylus was
-exhibiting tragedies at Athens, Agatharchus
-made a scene, and left a treatise upon it.&mdash;II.
-<em>Methods of Painting.</em> There were two distinct
-classes of painting practised by the ancients&mdash;in
-water colours, and in wax, both of
-which were practised in various ways. Of
-the former the principal were fresco, al fresco;
-and the various kinds of distemper (a tempera),
-with glue, with the white of egg, or
-with gums (a guazzo); and with wax or
-resins when these were rendered by any
-means vehicles that could be worked with
-water. Of the latter the principal was
-through fire (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διὰ πυρὸς</span>), termed encaustic
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐγκαυστική</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">encaustica</i>). The painting in
-wax (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηρογραφία</span>), or ship painting (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inceramenta
-navium</i>), was distinct from encaustic.
-It does not appear that the Greeks or Romans
-ever painted in oil; the only mention of oil
-in ancient writers in connection with painting
-is the small quantity which entered into
-the composition of encaustic varnish to temper
-it. They painted upon wood, clay, plaster,
-stone, parchment, and canvas. The use of
-canvas must have been of late introduction,
-as there is no mention of it having been employed
-by the Greek painters of the best
-periods. They generally painted upon panels
-or tablets (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πίνακες</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πινόκια</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabellae</i>),
-which when finished were fixed into frames
-of various descriptions and materials, and
-encased in walls. The style or cestrum used
-in drawing, and for spreading the wax colours,
-pointed at one end and broad and flat
-at the other, was termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφίς</span> by the Greeks
-and cestrum by the Romans; it was generally
-made of metal. The hair pencil (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">penicillus</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">penicillum</i>) was termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπογραφίς</span>, and apparently
-also <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥαβδίον</span>. The ancients used also a
-palette very similar to that used by the moderns.
-Encaustic was a method very frequently
-practised by the Roman and later
-Greek painters; but it was in very little use
-by the earlier painters, and was not generally
-adopted until after the time of Alexander.
-Pliny defines the term thus: “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ceris pingere
-ac picturam inurere</span>,” to paint with wax or
-wax colours, and to <em>burn in</em> the picture afterwards
-with the cauterium; it appears therefore
-to have been the simple addition of the
-process of <em>burning in</em> to the ordinary method
-of painting with wax colours. Cerae (waxes)
-was the ordinary term for painters’ colours
-amongst the Romans, but more especially
-encaustic colours, and they kept them in
-partitioned boxes, as painters do at present.&mdash;III.
-<em>Polychromy.</em> Ancient statues were often
-painted, and what is now termed polychrome
-sculpture was very common in Greece. The
-practice of colouring statues is undoubtedly
-as ancient as the art of statuary itself;
-although they were perhaps originally coloured
-more from a love of colour than from
-any design of improving the resemblance of
-the representation. The Jupiter of the Capitol,
-placed by Tarquinius Priscus, was coloured
-with minium. In later times the custom
-seems to have been reduced to a system, and
-was practised with more reserve. The practice
-also of colouring architecture seems to
-have been universal amongst the Greeks, and
-very general amongst the Romans.&mdash;IV. <em>Vase
-Painting.</em> The fictile-vase painting of the
-Greeks was an art of itself, and was practised
-by a distinct class of artists. The designs
-upon these vases (which the Greeks
-termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λήκυθοι</span>) have been variously interpreted,
-but they have been generally considered
-to be in some way connected with the
-initiation into the Eleusinian and other mysteries.
-They were given as prizes to the
-victors at the Panathenaea and other games,
-and seem to have been always buried with
-their owners at their death, for they have
-been discovered only in tombs. Even in the
-time of the Roman empire painted vases
-were termed “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">operis antiqui</span>,” and were then
-sought for in the ancient tombs of Campania
-and other parts of Magna Graecia. We may
-form some idea of their immense value from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296"></a>[296]</span>
-the statement of Pliny, that they were more
-valuable than the Murrhine vases. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Murrhina">Murrhina
-Vasa</a>.</span>] The paintings on the vases,
-considered as works of art, vary exceedingly
-in the detail of the execution, although in
-style of design they may be arranged in two
-principal classes, the black and the yellow;
-for those which do not come strictly under
-either of these heads are either too few or
-vary too slightly to require a distinct classification.
-The black are the most ancient, the
-yellow the most common.&mdash;V. <em>Mosaic</em>, or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pictura de musivo</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opus musivum</i>, was very
-general in Rome in the time of the early
-emperors. It was also common in Greece
-and Asia Minor at an earlier period, but at
-the time of the Roman empire it began to a
-great extent even to supersede painting. It
-was used chiefly for floors, but walls and also
-ceilings were sometimes ornamented in the
-same way. There are still many great mosaics
-of the ancients extant. The most valuable is
-the one discovered in Pompeii a few years
-ago, which is supposed to represent the battle
-of Issus. The composition is simple, forcible,
-and beautiful, and the design exhibits in
-many respects merits of the highest order.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pila">PĪLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαῖρα</span>), a ball. The game at ball
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαιριστική</span>) was one of the most favourite
-gymnastic exercises of the Greeks and Romans,
-from the earliest times to the fall of
-the Roman empire. It is mentioned in the
-Odyssey, where it is played by the Phaeacian
-damsels to the sound of music, and also by
-two celebrated performers at the court of
-Alcinous in a most artistic manner accompanied
-with dancing. The various movements
-of the body required in the game of
-ball gave elasticity and grace to the figure;
-whence it was highly esteemed by the Greeks.
-The Athenians set so high a value on it, that
-they conferred upon Aristonicus of Carystus
-the right of citizenship on account of his
-skill in this game. It was equally esteemed
-by the other states of Greece; the young
-Spartans, when they were leaving the condition
-of ephebi, were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαιρεῖς</span>, probably
-because their chief exercise was the
-game at ball. Every complete gymnasium
-had a room (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαιριστήριον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαίριστρα</span>) devoted
-to this exercise [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gymnasium">Gymnasium</a></span>], where a
-special teacher (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαιριστικός</span>) gave instruction
-in the art. Among the Romans the
-game at ball was generally played at by
-persons before taking the bath, in a room
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sphaeristerium</i>) attached to the baths for
-the purpose. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pila</i> was used in a general
-sense for any kind of ball: but the balls
-among the Romans seem to have been of
-three kinds; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pila</i> in its narrower sense,
-a small ball; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">follis</i>, a great ball filled
-with air; and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paganica</i>, of which we
-know scarcely anything, but which appears
-to have been smaller than the follis and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297"></a>[297]</span>
-larger than the pila. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Harpastum</i> (from
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁρπάζω</span>) seems to have been the name of a
-ball, which was thrown among the players,
-each of whom endeavoured to catch it.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp80" id="ill296" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill296.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Pila, Game at Ball. (From the Baths of Titus.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Pilani">PĪLĀNI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_168">p. 168</a> <em>b</em>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pilentum">PĪLENTUM, a splendid four-wheeled carriage,
-furnished with soft cushions, which
-conveyed the Roman matrons in sacred processions
-and in going to the Circensian and
-other games. The pilentum was probably
-very like the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Harmamaxa">Harmamaxa</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Carpentum">Carpentum</a></span>,
-but open at the sides, so that those who sat
-in it might both see and be seen.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pileus">PĪLĔUS or PĪLĔUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πϊλος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πίλημα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πιλωτόν</span>),
-any piece of felt; more especially a
-skull-cap of felt, a hat. There seems no
-reason to doubt that felting is a more ancient
-invention than weaving [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tela">Tela</a></span>], nor that
-both of these arts came into Europe from
-Asia. From the Greeks, who were acquainted
-with this article as early as the age
-of Homer, the use of felt passed together
-with its name to the Romans. Its principal
-use was to make coverings of the head for
-the male sex, and the most common one was
-a simple skull-cap.&mdash;Among the Romans the
-cap of felt was the emblem of liberty. When
-a slave obtained his freedom he had his head
-shaven, and wore instead of his hair an undyed
-pileus. This change of attire took
-place in the temple of Feronia, who was
-the goddess of freedmen. Hence the phrase
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">servos ad pileum vocare</i> is a summons to
-liberty, by which slaves were frequently
-called upon to take up arms with a promise
-of liberty. The figure of Liberty on some
-of the coins of Antoninus Pius, struck <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>
-145, holds this cap in the right hand. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Petasus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέτασος</span>) differed from the pileus or
-simple skull-cap in having a wide brim: the
-etymology of the word, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πετάννυμι</span>, expresses
-the distinctive shape of these hats.
-It was preferred to the skull-cap as a protection
-from the sun.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp42" id="ill297" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill297.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Petasus, Cap, worn by a Greek Soldier. (From a Greek
-Vase.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Pilum">PĪLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Piscina">PISCĪNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pistor">PISTOR (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρτοποιός</span>), a baker, from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pinsere</i>,
-to pound, since corn was pounded in mortars
-before the invention of mills. At Rome
-bread was originally made at home by the
-women of the house; and there were no
-persons at Rome who made baking a trade,
-or any slaves specially kept for this purpose
-in private houses, till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 173. The name
-was also given to pastry-cooks and confectioners,
-in which case they were usually
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pistores dulciarii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">candidarii</i>. Bread
-was often baked in moulds called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">artoptae</i>,
-and the loaves thus baked were termed <span class="smcap">artopticii</span>.
-Bread was not generally made at
-home at Athens, but was sold in the market-place,
-chiefly by women, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρτοπώλιδες</span>.
-These women seem to have been what the
-fish-women of London are at present; they
-excelled in abuse.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Plagiarius">PLĂGĬĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plagium">Plagium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Plagium">PLĂGĬUM, the offence of kidnapping,
-concealing, and selling freemen and other
-persons’ slaves was the subject of a Fabia
-Lex (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 183). The penalty of the lex was
-pecuniary; but this fell into disuse, and
-persons who offended against the lex were
-punished according to the nature of their
-offence; under the empire they were generally
-condemned to the mines. The word
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Plagium</i> is said to come from the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλάγιος</span>,
-oblique, indirect, dolosus. He who committed
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plagium</i> was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plagiarius</i>, a word which
-Martial applies to a person who falsely gave
-himself out as the author of a book; and in
-this sense the word has come into common
-use in our language.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Plaustrum">PLAUSTRUM or PLOSTRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἅμαξα</span>), a
-cart or waggon. It had commonly two
-wheels, but sometimes four, and it was then
-called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plaustrum majus</i>. Besides the
-wheels and axle the plaustrum consisted of a
-strong pole (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">temo</i>), to the hinder part of
-which was fastened a table of wooden planks.
-The blocks of stone, or other things to be carried,
-were either laid upon this table without
-any other support, or an additional security<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298"></a>[298]</span>
-was obtained by the use either of boards at
-the sides, or of a large wicker basket tied
-upon the cart. The annexed cut exhibits a
-cart, the body of which is supplied by a
-basket. The commonest kind of cart-wheel
-was that called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tympanum</i>, “the drum,” from
-its resemblance to the musical instrument of
-the same name. It was nearly a foot in
-thickness, and was made either by sawing
-the trunk of a tree across in a horizontal
-direction, or by nailing together boards of
-the requisite shape and size. (See the cut.)
-These wheels advanced slowly, and made a loud
-creaking, which was heard to a great distance.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill298" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill298.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Plaustrum, Waggon. (From a Bas-Relief at Rome.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Plebes">PLĒBES or PLEBS. PLĒBĒII. This
-word contains the same root as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">im-pleo</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">com-pleo</i>,
-&amp;c., and is therefore etymologically
-connected with <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλῆθος</span>, a term which was
-applied to the plebeians by the more correct
-Greek writers on Roman history, while
-others wrongly called them <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆμος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ δημοτικοί</span>.
-The plebeians were the body of commons
-or the commonalty of Rome, and thus
-constituted one of the two great elements of
-which the Roman nation consisted, and
-which has given to the earlier periods of
-Roman history its peculiar character and
-interest. The time when the plebeians first
-appear as a distinct class of Roman citizens
-in contradistinction to the patricians, is in
-the reign of Tullus Hostilius. Alba, the
-head of the Latin confederacy, was in his
-reign taken by the Romans and razed to the
-ground. The most distinguished of its inhabitants
-were transplanted to Rome and
-received among the patricians; but the great
-bulk of Alban citizens, who were likewise
-transferred to Rome, received settlements on
-the Caelian hill, and were kept in a state of
-submission to the populus Romanus or the
-patricians. This new population of Rome,
-which in number is said to have been equal
-to the old inhabitants of the city or the
-patricians, were the plebeians. They were
-Latins, and consequently of the same blood
-as the Ramnes, the noblest of the three
-patrician tribes. After the conquest of Alba,
-Rome, in the reign of Ancus Martius, acquired
-possession of a considerable extent of
-country, containing a number of dependent
-Latin towns, as Medullia, Fidenae, Politorium,
-Tellenae, and Ficana. Great numbers of the
-inhabitants of these towns were again transplanted
-to Rome, and incorporated with the
-plebeians already settled there, and the Aventine
-was assigned to them as their habitation.
-Some portions of the land which these new
-citizens had possessed were given back to
-them by the Romans, so that they remained
-free land-owners as much as the conquerors
-themselves, and thus were distinct from the
-clients.&mdash;The plebeians were citizens, but not
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">optimo jure</i>; they were perfectly distinct
-from the patricians, and were neither contained
-in the three tribes, nor in the curiae,
-nor in the patrician gentes. The only point
-of contact between the two estates was the
-army. The plebeians were obliged to fight
-and shed their blood in the defence of their
-new fellow-citizens, without being allowed
-to share any of their rights or privileges, and
-without even the right of intermarriage (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">connubium</i>).
-In all judicial matters they were
-entirely at the mercy of the patricians, and
-had no right of appeal against any unjust
-sentence, though they were not, like the
-clients, bound to have a patronus. They
-continued to have their own sacra, which they
-had had before the conquest, but these were
-regulated by the patrician pontiffs. Lastly,
-they were free land-owners, and had their
-own gentes.&mdash;The population of the Roman
-state thus consisted of two opposite elements;
-a ruling class or an aristocracy, and the
-commonalty, which, though of the same
-stock as the noblest among the rulers, and
-exceeding them in numbers, yet enjoyed none
-of the rights which might enable them to
-take a part in the management of public
-affairs, religious or civil. Their citizenship
-resembled the relation of aliens to a state, in
-which they are merely tolerated on condition<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299"></a>[299]</span>
-of performing certain services, and they are,
-in fact, sometimes called peregrini. That
-such a state of things could not last, is a
-truth which must have been felt by every
-one who was not blinded by his own selfishness
-and love of dominion. Tarquinius
-Priscus was the first who conceived the idea
-of placing the plebeians on a footing of equality
-with the old burghers, by dividing them
-into three tribes, which he intended to call
-after his own name and those of his friends.
-But this noble plan was frustrated by the
-opposition of the augur Attus Navius, who
-probably acted the part of a representative of
-the patricians. All that Tarquinius could do
-was to effect the admission of the noblest
-plebeian families into the three old tribes,
-who were distinguished from the old patrician
-families by the names of Ramnes, Tities, and
-Luceres secundi, and their gentes are sometimes
-distinguished by the epithet minores,
-as they entered into the same relation in
-which the Luceres had been to the first two
-tribes, before the time of Tarquinius. It was
-reserved to his successor, Servius Tullius, to
-give to the commonalty a regular internal
-organisation, and to determine their relations
-to the patricians. He first divided the city
-into four, and then the subject country
-around, which was inhabited by plebeians,
-into twenty-six regions or local tribes, and
-in these regions he assigned lots of land to
-those plebeians who were yet without landed
-property. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a>.</span>] Each tribe had its
-praefect, called tribunus. The tribes had
-also their own sacra, festivals, and meetings
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia tributa</i>), which were convoked by
-their tribunes. This division into tribes with
-tribunes at their heads was no more than an
-internal organisation of the plebeians, analogous
-to the division of the patricians into
-thirty curiae, without conferring upon them
-the right to interfere in any way in the
-management of public affairs, or in the elections,
-which were left entirely to the senate
-and the curiae. These rights, however, they
-obtained by another regulation of Servius
-Tullius, which was made wholly independent
-of the thirty tribes. For this purpose he
-instituted a census, and divided the whole
-body of Roman citizens, plebeians as well as
-patricians, into five classes, according to the
-amount of their property. Taxation and the
-military duties were arranged according to
-these classes in such a manner, that the
-heavier burdens fell upon the wealthier
-classes. The whole body of citizens thus
-divided was formed into a great national
-assembly called comitiatus maximus, or comitia
-centuriata. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a>.</span>] In this assembly
-the plebeians now met the patricians apparently
-on a footing of equality, but the votes
-were distributed in such a way that it was
-always in the power of the wealthiest classes,
-to which the patricians naturally belonged,
-to decide a question before it was put to the
-vote of the poorer classes. A great number
-of such noble plebeian families, as after the
-subjugation of the Latin towns had not been
-admitted into the curies by Tarquinius Priscus,
-were now constituted by Servius into a
-number of equites, with twelve suffragia in
-the comitia centuriata. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a>.</span>] In this
-constitution, the plebeians, as such, did not
-obtain admission to the senate, nor to the
-highest magistracy, nor to any of the priestly
-offices. To all these offices the patricians
-alone thought themselves entitled by divine
-right. The plebeians also continued to be
-excluded from occupying any portion of the
-public land, which as yet was possessed only
-by the patricians, and they were only allowed
-to keep their cattle upon the common pasture.&mdash;In
-the early times of the republic there was a
-constant struggle between the two orders, the
-history of which belongs to a history of Rome,
-and cannot be given here. Eventually the
-plebeians gained access to all the civil and
-religious offices, until at last the two hostile
-elements became united into one great body
-of Roman citizens with equal rights, and a
-state of things arose, totally different from
-what had existed before. After the first
-secession, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 494, the plebeians gained
-several great advantages. First, a law was
-passed to prevent the patricians from taking
-usurious interest of money, which they frequently
-lent to impoverished plebeians;
-secondly, tribunes were appointed for the
-protection of the plebeians [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribunus">Tribuni</a></span>]; and
-lastly, plebeian aediles were appointed.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aediles">Aediles</a>.</span>] Shortly after, they gained the
-right to summon before their own comitia
-tributa any one who had violated the rights
-of their order, and to make decrees (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plebiscita</i>),
-which, however, did not become binding
-upon the whole nation, free from the control
-of the curies, until the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 286. <ins class="corr" id="tn-299" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'In (B.C. 445), the'">
-In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 445, the</ins> tribune Canuleius established,
-by his rogations, the connubium between
-patricians and plebeians. He also attempted to
-divide the consulship between the two orders,
-but the patricians frustrated the realisation of
-this plan by the appointment of six military
-tribunes, who were to be elected from both
-orders. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribunus">Tribuni</a>.</span>] But that the plebeians
-might have no share in the censorial power,
-with which the consuls had been invested,
-the military tribunes did not obtain that
-power, and a new curule dignity, the censorship,
-was established, with which patricians
-alone were to be invested. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Censor">Censor</a>.</span>] In<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_300"></a>[300]</span>
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 421 the plebeians were admitted to the
-quaestorship, which opened to them the way
-into the senate, where henceforth their number
-continued to increase. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Quaestor">Quaestor</a></span>;
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a></span>.] In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 367 the tribunes L.
-Licinius Stolo and L. Sextius placed themselves
-at the head of the commonalty, and
-resumed the contest against the patricians.
-After a fierce struggle, which lasted for several
-years, they at length carried a rogation,
-according to which decemvirs were to be
-appointed for keeping the Sibylline books
-instead of duumvirs, of whom half were to
-be plebeians. The next great step was the
-restoration of the consulship, on condition
-that one consul should always be a plebeian.
-A third rogation of Licinius, which was only
-intended to afford momentary relief to the
-poor plebeians, regulated the rate of interest.
-From this time forward the plebeians also
-appear in the possession of the right to
-occupy parts of the ager publicus. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-366, L. Sextius Lateranus was the first plebeian
-consul. The patricians, however, who
-always contrived to yield no more than what
-it was absolutely impossible for them to
-retain, stripped the consulship of a considerable
-part of its power, and transferred it to
-two new curule offices, viz. that of praetor and
-of curule aedile. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aediles">Aediles</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Praetor">Praetor</a></span>.] But
-after such great advantages had been once
-gained by the plebeians, it was impossible to
-stop them in their progress towards a perfect
-equality of political rights with the patricians.
-In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 356, C. Marcius Rutilus was the first
-plebeian dictator; in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 351 the censorship
-was thrown open to the plebeians, and in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-336 the praetorship. The Ogulnian law, in
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 300, also opened to them the offices of
-pontifex and augur. These advantages were,
-as might be supposed, not gained without the
-fiercest opposition of the patricians, and even
-after they were gained and sanctioned by
-law, the patricians exerted every means to
-obstruct the operation of the law. Such
-fraudulent attempts led, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 286, to the
-last secession of the plebeians, after which,
-however, the dictator Q. Hortensius successfully
-and permanently reconciled the two
-orders, secured to the plebeians all the rights
-they had acquired until then, and procured
-for their plebiscita the full power of leges
-binding upon the whole nation. After the
-passing of the Hortensian law, the political
-distinction between patricians and plebeians
-ceased, and, with a few unimportant exceptions,
-both orders were placed on a footing of
-perfect equality. Henceforth the name populus
-is sometimes applied to the plebeians
-alone, and sometimes to the whole body of
-Roman citizens, as assembled in the comitia
-centuriata or tributa. The term plebs or
-plebecula, on the other hand, was applied, in
-a loose manner of speaking, to the multitude
-or populace, in opposition to the nobiles or
-the senatorial party.&mdash;A person who was
-born a plebeian could only be raised to the
-rank of a patrician by a lex curiata, as was
-sometimes done during the kingly period,
-and in the early times of the republic. It
-frequently occurs in the history of Rome that
-one and the same gens contains plebeian as
-well as patrician families. In the gens
-Cornelia, for instance, we find the plebeian
-families of the Balbi, Mammulae, Merulae,
-&amp;c., along with the patrician Scipiones, Sullae,
-Lentuli, &amp;c. The occurrence of this
-phenomenon may be accounted for in different
-ways. It may have been, that one branch of
-a plebeian family was made patrician while
-the others remained plebeians. It may also
-have happened that two families had the
-same nomen gentilicium without being actual
-members of the same gens. Again, a patrician
-family might go over to the plebeians,
-and as such a family continued to bear the
-name of its patrician gens, this gens apparently
-contained a plebeian family. When a
-peregrinus obtained the civitas through the
-influence of a patrician, or when a slave was
-emancipated by his patrician master, they
-generally adopted the nomen gentilicium of
-their benefactor, and thus appear to belong
-to the same gens with him.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Plebiscitum">PLĒBISCĪTUM, a name properly applied
-to a law passed at the comitia tributa on the
-rogation of a tribune. Originally, a plebiscitum
-required confirmation by the comitia
-curiata and the senate; but a Lex Hortensia
-was passed <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 286, to the effect
-that plebiscita should bind all the populus
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">universus populus</i>), and this lex rendered
-confirmation unnecessary. The Lex Hortensia
-is always referred to as the lex which
-put plebiscita as to their binding force exactly
-on the same footing as leges. The
-principal plebiscita are mentioned under the
-article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex">Lex</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Plectrum">PLECTRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lyra">Lyra</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Plethron">PLETHRON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλέθρον</span>), the fundamental
-land measure in the Greek system, being the
-square of 100 feet, that is, 10,000 square
-feet. The later Greek writers use it as the
-translation of the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugerum</i>, probably
-because the latter was the standard land
-measure in the Roman system; but, in size,
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plethron</i> answered more nearly to the
-Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">actus</i>, or half-jugerum, which was
-the older unit of land measures. As frequently
-happened with the ancient land
-measures, the side of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plethron</i> was taken
-as a measure of length, with the same name.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301"></a>[301]</span>
-This <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plethron</i> was equal to 100 feet (or about
-101 English feet) = 66⅔ <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πήχεις</span> = 10 <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκαιναι</span>
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάλαμοι</span>. It was also introduced into the
-system of itinerary measures, being 1-6th of
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stadium</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pluteus">PLŬTĔUS, was applied in military affairs
-to two different objects. (1) A kind of shed
-made of hurdles, and covered with raw hides,
-which could be moved forward by small
-wheels attached to it, and under which the
-besiegers of a town made their approaches.
-(2) Boards or planks placed on the vallum of
-a camp, on moveable towers or other military
-engines, as a kind of roof or covering for the
-protection of the soldiers.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Plynteria">PLYNTĒRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλυντήρια</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλύνειν</span>, to
-wash), a festival celebrated at Athens every
-year, on the 25th of Thargelion, in honour of
-Athena, surnamed Aglauros, whose temple
-stood on the Acropolis. The day of this festival
-was at Athens among the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποφράδες</span> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies nefasti</i>; for the temple of the goddess
-was surrounded by a rope to preclude all
-communication with it; her statue was
-stripped of its garments and ornaments for
-the purpose of cleaning them, and was in
-the meanwhile covered over, to conceal it
-from the sight of man. The city was therefore,
-so to speak, on this day without its
-protecting divinity, and any undertaking
-commenced on it was believed to be necessarily
-unsuccessful.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pnyx">PNYX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ecclesia">Ecclesia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Poculum">PŌCŬLUM, any kind of drinking-cup, to
-be distinguished from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Crater</i> or vessel in
-which the wine was mixed [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Crater">Crater</a></span>], and
-from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cyathus</i>, a kind of ladle or small
-cup, used to convey the wine from the Crater
-to the Poculum or drinking-cup.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Podium">PŎDĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Poena">POENA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ποινή</span>), a general name for any
-punishment of any offence. Multa is the
-penalty of a particular offence. A Poena was
-only inflicted when it was imposed by some
-lex or some other legal authority (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quo alio
-jure</i>). When no poena was imposed, then a
-multa or penalty might be inflicted.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Polemarchus">PŎLĔMARCHUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πολέμαρχος</span>). Respecting
-the polemarchus at Athens, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Archon">Archon</a></span>.
-We read also of polemarchs at Sparta, and in
-various cities of Boeotia. As their name
-denotes, they were originally and properly
-connected with military affairs, being entrusted
-either with the command of armies
-abroad, or the superintendence of the war
-department at home; sometimes with both.
-The polemarchs of Sparta appear to have
-ranked next to the king, when on actual service
-abroad, and were generally of the royal
-kindred or house (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένος</span>). They commanded
-single morae, so that they would appear to
-have been six in number, and sometimes
-whole armies. They also formed part of the
-king’s council in war, and of the royal escort
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">damosia</i>. At Thebes there appear to
-have been two polemarchs, perhaps elected,
-annually; and in times of peace they seem to
-have been invested with the chief executive
-power of the state, and the command of the
-city, having its military force under their
-orders. They are not, however, to be confounded
-with the Boeotarchs.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Poletae">PŌLĒTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πωλῆται</span>), a board of ten officers,
-or magistrates, whose duty it was to
-grant leases of the public lands and mines,
-and also to let the revenues arising from the
-customs, taxes, confiscations, and forfeitures.
-Of such letting the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πωλεῖν</span> (not <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μισθοῦν</span>)
-was generally used, and also the correlative
-words <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὠνεῖσθαι</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρίασθαι</span>. One was chosen
-from each tribe. In the letting of the revenue
-they were assisted by the managers of the
-theoric fund (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ θεωρικόν</span>), and they acted
-under the authority of the senate of Five
-Hundred, who exercised a general control
-over the financial department of the administration.
-Resident aliens, who did not pay
-their residence tax (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετοίκιον</span>), were summoned
-before them, and, if found to have
-committed default, were sold.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pollinctores">POLLINCTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pomoerium">PŌMOĒRĬUM. This word is compounded
-of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">post</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">moerium</i> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">murus</i>), in the same
-manner as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pomeridiem</i> of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">post</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">meridiem</i>,
-and thus signifies a line running by the walls
-of a town (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pone</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">post muros</i>). But the
-walls of a town here spoken of are not its
-actual walls or fortifications, but symbolical
-walls, and the course of the pomoerium itself
-was marked by stone pillars, erected at certain
-intervals. The sacred line of the Roman
-pomoerium did not prevent the inhabitants
-from building upon or taking into use any
-place beyond it, but it was necessary to leave
-a certain space on each side of it unoccupied,
-so as not to unhallow it by profane use.
-Thus we find that the Aventine, although inhabited
-from early times, was for many centuries
-not included within the pomoerium.
-The pomoerium was not the same at all times;
-as the city increased the pomoerium also was
-extended; but this extension could, according
-to ancient usage, only be made by such
-men as had by their victories over foreign
-nations increased the boundaries of the empire,
-and neither could a pomoerium be
-formed nor altered without the augurs previously
-consulting the will of the gods by
-augury: hence the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus pomoerii</i> of the augurs.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pompa">POMPA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πομπή</span>), a solemn procession, as
-on the occasion of a funeral, triumph, &amp;c.
-It is, however, more particularly applied to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302"></a>[302]</span>
-the grand procession with which the games
-of the circus commenced (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pompa Circensis</i>).
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pons">PONS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γέφυρα</span>), a bridge. As the rivers of
-Greece were small, and the use of the arch
-known to them only to a limited extent, it is
-probable that the Greek bridges were built
-entirely of wood, or, at best, were nothing
-more than a wooden platform supported upon
-stone piers at each extremity. Pliny mentions
-a bridge over the Acheron 1000 feet in
-length; we also know that the island Euboea
-was joined to Boeotia by a bridge; but the
-only existing specimen of a Greek bridge is
-the one over a tributary of the Eurotas.
-The Romans regularly applied the arch to the
-construction of bridges, by which they were
-enabled to erect structures of great beauty
-and solidity, as well as utility. The width of
-the passage-way in a Roman bridge was commonly
-narrow, as compared with modern
-structures of the same kind, and corresponded
-with the road (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">via</i>) leading to and from it.
-It was divided into three parts. The centre
-one, for horses and carriages, was denominated
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agger</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">iter</i>; and the raised footpaths
-on each side <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decursoria</i>, which were enclosed
-by parapet walls similar in use and appearance
-to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pluteus</i> in the basilica. There
-were eight bridges across the Tiber. I. Of
-these the most celebrated, as well as the most
-ancient, was the <span class="smcap">Pons Sublicius</span>, so called
-because it was built of wood; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sublices</i>, in the
-language of the Formiani, meaning wooden
-beams. It was built by Ancus Martius, when
-he united the Janiculum to the city, and was
-situated at the foot of the Aventine.&mdash;II.
-<span class="smcap">Pons Palatinus</span> formed the communication
-between the Palatine and its vicinities and
-the Janiculum.&mdash;III. IV. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pons Fabricius</i> and
-<span class="smcap">Pons Cestius</span> were the two which connected
-the Insula Tiberina with the opposite sides of
-the river; the first with the city, and the
-latter with the Janiculum.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill302a" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill302a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Pons Cestius, and Pons Fabricius, at Rome, with the buildings between restored.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Both are still remaining.
-They are represented in the preceding
-woodcut: that on the right hand is
-the pons Fabricius, and that on the left the
-pons Cestius.&mdash;V. <span class="smcap">Pons Janiculensis</span>, which
-led direct to the Janiculum.&mdash;VI. <span class="smcap">Pons Vaticanus</span>,
-so called because it formed the communication
-between the Campus Martius and
-Campus Vaticanus.&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill302b" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill302b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Pons Aelius at Rome.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Vii">VII. <span class="smcap">Pons Aelius</span>, built
-by Hadrian, which led from the city to the
-mausoleum of that emperor, now the bridge
-and castle of St. Angelo.&mdash;VIII. <span class="smcap">Pons Milvius</span>,
-on the Via Flaminia, now Ponte Molle,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_303"></a>[303]</span>
-was built by Aemilius Scaurus the censor.&mdash;The
-Roman bridges without the city were
-too many to be enumerated here.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill303" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill303.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Bridge at Arimmum.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>They formed one of the chief embellishments in all
-the public roads; and their frequent and
-stupendous remains, still existing in Italy,
-Portugal, and Spain, attest, even to the present
-day, the scale of grandeur with which
-the Roman works of national utility were
-always carried on.&mdash;When the comitia were
-held, the voters, in order to reach the enclosure
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">septum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ovile</i>, passed over a
-wooden platform, elevated above the ground,
-which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pons suffragiorum</i>, in order
-that they might be able to give their votes
-without confusion or collusion. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a>.</span>]
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pons</i> is also used to signify the platform
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιβάθρα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποβάθρα</span>), used for embarking in,
-or disembarking from, a ship.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pontifex">PONTĬFEX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροδιδάσκαλος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερονόμος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροφύλαξ</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροφάντης</span>). The origin of this word
-is explained in various ways; but it is probably
-formed from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pons</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">facere</i> (in the
-signification of the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥέζειν</span>, to perform
-a sacrifice), and consequently signifies the
-priests who offered sacrifices upon the bridge.
-The ancient sacrifice to which the name thus
-alludes, is that of the Argei on the sacred or
-sublician bridge. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Argei">Argei</a>.</span>] The Roman pontiffs
-formed the most illustrious among the
-great colleges of priests. Their institution,
-like that of all important matters of religion,
-was ascribed to Numa. The number of pontiffs
-appointed by this king was four, and at
-their head was the pontifex maximus, who is
-generally not included when the number of
-pontiffs is mentioned. It is probable that
-the original number of four pontiffs (not including
-the pontifex maximus) had reference
-to the two earliest tribes of the Romans, the
-Ramnes and Tities, so that each tribe was
-represented by two pontiffs. In the year
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 300 the Ogulnian law raised the number
-of pontiffs to eight, or, including the
-pontifex maximus, to nine, and four of them
-were to be plebeians. The pontifex maximus,
-however, continued to be a patrician down
-to the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 254, when Tib. Coruncanius
-was the first plebeian who was invested with
-this dignity. This number of pontiffs remained
-for a long time unaltered, until in
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 81 the dictator Sulla increased it to
-fifteen, and J. Caesar to sixteen. In both
-these changes the pontifex maximus is included
-in the number. During the empire
-the number varied, though on the whole
-fifteen appears to have been the regular
-number. The mode of appointing the pontiffs
-was also different at different times. It appears
-that after their institution by Numa, the
-college had the right of co-optation, that is,
-if a member of the college died (for all the
-pontiffs held their office for life), the members
-met and elected a successor, who, after
-his election, was inaugurated by the augurs.
-This election was sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">captio</i>.
-In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 104 a Lex Domitia was passed, which
-transferred the right of electing the members
-of the great colleges of priests to the
-people (probably in the comitia tributa);
-that is, the people elected a candidate, who
-was then made a member of the college by
-the co-optatio of the priests themselves, so
-that the co-optatio, although still necessary,
-became a mere matter of form. The Lex
-Domitia was repealed by Sulla in a Lex
-Cornelia de Sacerdotiis (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 81), which restored
-to the great priestly colleges their
-full right of co-optatio. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63 the law
-of Sulla was abolished, and the Domitian
-law was restored, but not in its full extent;
-for it was now determined, that in case of
-a vacancy the college itself should nominate
-two candidates, and the people elect one of
-them. M. Antonius again restored the right
-of co-optatio to the college. The college of
-pontiffs had the supreme superintendence of
-all matters of religion, and of things and
-persons connected with public as well as
-private worship. They had the judicial decision
-in all matters of religion, whether
-private persons, magistrates, or priests were
-concerned, and in cases where the existing
-laws or customs were found defective or
-insufficient, they made new laws and regulations
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decreta pontificum</i>), in which they
-always followed their own judgment as to
-what was consistent with the existing customs<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_304"></a>[304]</span>
-and usages. The details of these duties
-and functions were contained in books called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libri pontificii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pontificales</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">commentarii
-sacrorum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacrorum pontificalium</i>, which
-they were said to have received from Numa,
-and which were sanctioned by Ancus Martius.
-As to the rights and duties of the
-pontiffs, it must first of all be borne in mind,
-that the pontiffs were not priests of any particular
-divinity, but a college which stood
-above all other priests, and superintended
-the whole external worship of the gods.
-One of their principal duties was the regulation
-of the sacra, both publica and privata,
-and to watch that they were observed at the
-proper times (for which purpose the pontiffs
-had the whole regulation of the calendar,
-see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium</a></span>), and in their proper form.
-In the management of the sacra publica they
-were in later times assisted in certain duties
-by the Triumviri Epulones. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Epulones">Epulones</a>.</span>]
-The pontiffs convoked the assembly of the
-curies (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia calata</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curiata</i>) in cases
-where priests were to be appointed, and
-flamines or a rex sacrorum were to be inaugurated;
-also when wills were to be received,
-and when a detestatio sacrorum and adoption
-by adrogatio took place. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adoptio">Adoptio</a>.</span>]
-In most cases the sentence of the pontiffs
-only inflicted a fine upon the offenders; but
-the person fined had the right of appealing
-to the people, who might release him from
-the fine. In regard to the vestal virgins,
-and the persons who committed incest with
-them, the pontiffs had criminal jurisdiction,
-and might pronounce sentence of death. A
-man who had violated a vestal virgin was,
-according to an ancient law, scourged to
-death by the pontifex maximus in the comitium,
-and it appears that originally neither
-the vestal virgins nor the male offenders in
-such a case had any right of appeal. In
-later times we find that, even when the
-pontiffs had passed sentence upon vestal
-virgins, a tribune interfered, and induced
-the people to appoint a quaestor for the purpose
-of making a fresh inquiry into the case;
-and it sometimes happened that after this
-new trial the sentence of the pontiffs was
-modified or annulled. Such cases, however,
-seem to have been mere irregularities,
-founded upon an abuse of the tribunitian
-power. In the early times the pontiffs were
-in the exclusive possession of the civil as
-well as religious law, until the former was
-made public by Cn. Flavius. The regulations
-which served as a guide to the pontiffs
-in their judicial proceedings, formed a large
-collection of laws, which was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus
-pontificium</i>, and formed part of the Libri
-Pontificii. The meetings of the college of
-pontiffs, to which in some instances the famines
-and the rex sacrorum were summoned,
-were held in the curia regia on the Via
-Sacra, to which was attached the residence
-of the pontifex maximus and of the rex sacrorum.
-As the chief pontiff was obliged to
-live in a domus publica, Augustus, when he
-assumed this dignity, changed part of his
-own house into a domus publica. All the
-pontiffs were in their appearance distinguished
-by the conic cap, called tutulus or
-galerus, with an apex upon it, and the toga
-praetexta. The pontifex maximus was the
-president of the college, and acted in its
-name, whence he alone is frequently mentioned
-in cases in which he must be considered
-only as the organ of the college. He was generally
-chosen from among the most distinguished
-persons, and such as had held a
-curule magistracy, or were already members
-of the college. Two of his especial duties
-were to appoint (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capere</i>) the vestal virgins
-and the flamines [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vestales">Vestales</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Flamen">Flamen</a></span>], and
-to be present at every marriage by confarreatio.
-When festive games were vowed,
-or a dedication made, the chief pontiff had
-to repeat over, before the persons who made
-the vow or the dedication, the formula in
-which it was to be performed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praeire
-verba</i>). During the period of the republic,
-when the people exercised sovereign power
-in every respect, we find that if the pontiff,
-on constitutional or religious grounds, refused
-to perform this solemnity, he might
-be compelled by the people. The pontifex
-maximus wrote down what occurred in his
-year on tablets, which were hung up in his
-dwelling for the information of the people,
-and called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Annales Maximi</i>. A pontifex
-might, like all the members of the great
-priestly colleges, hold any other military,
-civil, or priestly office, provided the different
-offices did not interfere with one another.
-Thus we find one and the same person being
-pontiff, augur, and decemvir sacrorum; instances
-of a pontifex maximus being at the
-same time consul are very numerous. But
-whatever might be the civil or military office
-which a pontifex maximus held beside his
-pontificate, he was not allowed originally to
-leave Italy. The college of pontiffs continued
-to exist until the overthrow of paganism.
-The emperors themselves were always
-chief pontiffs, and as such the presidents of
-the college; hence the title of pontifex maximus
-(P. M. or PON. M.) appears on several
-coins of the emperors. If there were several
-emperors at a time, only one bore the title
-of pontifex maximus; but in the year <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>
-238 we find that each of the two emperors
-Maximus and Balbinus assumed this dignity.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_305"></a>[305]</span>
-From the time of Theodosius the emperors
-no longer appear with the dignity of pontiff;
-but at last the title was assumed by the
-Christian bishop of Rome.&mdash;There were other
-pontiffs at Rome, who were distinguished by
-the epithet <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Minores</i>. They appear to have
-been originally only the secretaries of the
-pontiffs; and when the real pontiffs began to
-neglect their duties, and to leave the principal
-business to be done by their secretaries,
-it became customary to designate these
-scribes by the name of Pontifices Minores.
-The number of these secretaries is uncertain.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Popa">PŎPA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sacrificium">Sacrificium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Popina">PŎPĪNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caupona">Caupona</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Popularia">POPŬLĀRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Populus">PŎPŬLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patricii">Patricii</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Populifugia">PŎPŬLĬFŬGĬA or POPLĬFŬGĬA, the
-day of the people’s flight, was celebrated on
-the nones of July, according to an ancient
-tradition, in commemoration of the flight of
-the people, when the inhabitants of Ficulae,
-Fidenae, and other places round about, appeared
-in arms against Rome shortly after
-the departure of the Gauls, and produced
-such a panic that the Romans suddenly fled
-before them. Other writers say that the
-Populifugia was celebrated in commemoration
-of the flight of the people before the
-Tuscans; while others again refer its origin
-to the flight of the people on the death of
-Romulus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Poristae">PŎRISTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πορισταί</span>), magistrates at
-Athens, who probably levied the extraordinary
-supplies.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Porta">PORTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύλη</span>, <em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυλίς</span>), the gate of a
-city, citadel, or other open space inclosed by
-a wall, in contradistinction to <span class="smcap"><a href="#Janua">Janua</a></span>, which
-was the door of a house or any covered edifice.
-The terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porta</i> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύλη</span> are often
-found in the plural, even when applied to a
-single gate, because it consisted of two leaves.
-The gates of a city were of course various in
-their number and position. Thus Megara
-had 5 gates; Thebes, in Boeotia, had 7;
-Athens had 8; and Rome 20, or perhaps
-even more. The jambs of the gate were
-surmounted, 1. by a lintel, which was large
-and strong in proportion to the width of the
-gate. 2. By an arch, as we see exemplified
-at Pompeii, Paestum, Sepianum, Volterra,
-Suza, Autun, Besançon, and Treves. 3. At
-Arpinum, one of the gates now remaining is
-arched, whilst another is constructed with
-the stones projecting one beyond another.
-Gates sometimes had two passages close together,
-the one designed for carriages entering,
-and the other for carriages leaving the
-city. In other instances we find only one
-gate for carriages, but a smaller one on each
-side of it (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραπυλίς</span>) for foot-passengers.
-When there were no sideways, one of the
-valves of the large gate sometimes contained
-a wicket (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">portula</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυλίς: ῥινοπύλη</span>), large
-enough to admit a single person. The gateway
-had commonly a chamber (called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυλών</span>)
-either on one side or on both, which served
-as the residence of the porter or guard. Statues
-of the gods were often placed near the
-gate, or even within it in the barbican, so as
-to be ready to receive the adoration of those
-who entered the city.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Porticus">PORTĬCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στοά</span>), a walk covered with a
-roof, and supported by columns, at least on
-one side. Such shaded walks and places of
-resort are almost indispensable in the southern
-countries of Europe, where people live
-much in the open air, as a protection from
-the heat of the sun and from rain. The
-porticoes attached to the temples were either
-constructed only in front of them, or went
-round the whole building, as is the case in
-the so-called Temple of Theseus at Athens.
-They were originally intended as places for
-those persons to assemble and converse in
-who visited the temple for various purposes.
-As such temple-porticoes, however, were
-found too small, or not suited for the various
-purposes of private and public life, most
-Grecian towns had independent porticoes,
-some of which were very extensive; and in
-most of these <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stoae</i>, seats (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exedrae</i>) were
-placed, that those who were tired might sit
-down. They were frequented not only by
-idle loungers, but also by philosophers, rhetoricians,
-and other persons fond of intellectual
-conversation. The Stoic school of philosophy
-derived its name from the circumstance,
-that the founder of it used to
-converse with his disciples in a stoa. The
-Romans derived their great fondness for
-such covered walks from the Greeks; and as
-luxuries among them were carried in everything
-to a greater extent than in Greece,
-wealthy Romans had their private porticoes,
-sometimes in the city itself, and sometimes
-in their country-seats. In the public porticoes
-of Rome, which were exceedingly numerous
-and very extensive (as those around
-the Forum and the Campus Martius), a
-variety of business was occasionally transacted:
-we find that law-suits were conducted
-here, meetings of the senate held, goods exhibited
-for sale, &amp;c.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Portisculus">PORTISCŬLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κελευστής</span>), an officer in
-a ship, who gave the signal to the rowers,
-that they might keep time in rowing. This
-officer is sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hortator</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pausarius</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Portitores">PORTĬTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Publicani">Publicani</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Portorium">PORTŌRĬUM, a branch of the regular
-revenues of the Roman state, consisting of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_306"></a>[306]</span>
-the duties paid on imported and exported
-goods. A portorium, or duty upon imported
-goods, appears to have been paid at a very
-early period, for it is said that Valerius Publicola
-exempted the plebes from the portoria
-at the time when the republic was threatened
-with an invasion by Porsena. The time of
-its introduction is uncertain; but the abolition
-of it, ascribed to Publicola, can only
-have been a temporary measure; and as the
-expenditure of the republic increased, new
-portoria must have been introduced. In
-conquered places, and in the provinces, the
-import and export duties, which had been
-paid there before, were generally not only
-retained, but increased, and appropriated to
-the aerarium. Sicily, and above all, Asia,
-furnished to the Roman treasury large sums,
-which were raised as portoria. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 60
-all the portoria in the ports of Italy were
-done away with by a Lex Caecilia, but were
-restored by Julius Caesar and the subsequent
-emperors. Respecting the amount of the
-import or export duties we have but little
-information. In the time of Cicero the portorium
-in the ports of Sicily was one-twentieth
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vicesima</i>) of the value of taxable articles;
-and it is probable that this was the
-average sum raised in all the other provinces.
-In the times of the emperors the
-ordinary rate of the portorium appears to
-have been the fortieth part (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadragesima</i>)
-of the value of imported goods; and at a
-later period the exorbitant sum of one-eighth
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">octava</i>) is mentioned. The portorium was,
-like all other vectigalia, farmed out by the
-censors to the publicani, who collected it
-through the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">portitores</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vectigalia">Vectigalia</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Publicani">Publicani</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Possessio">POSSESSĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ager">Ager Publicus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Posticum">POSTĪCUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Janua">Janua</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Postliminium">POSTLĪMĬNĬUM, POSTLĪMĬNII JUS.
-If a Roman citizen during war came into
-the possession of an enemy, he sustained a
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diminutio capitis maxima</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caput">Caput</a></span>], and all
-his civil rights were in abeyance. Being
-captured by the enemy, he became a slave;
-but his rights over his children, if he had
-any, were not destroyed, but were said to be
-in abeyance (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pendere</i>) by virtue of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus
-Postliminii</i>: when he returned, his children
-were again in his power; and if he died in
-captivity, they became sui juris. Sometimes
-by an act of the state a man was given up
-bound to an enemy, and if the enemy would
-not receive him, it was a question whether
-he had the Jus Postliminii. This was the
-case with Sp. Postumius, who was given up
-to the Samnites, and with C. Hostilius Mancinus,
-who was given up to the Numantines;
-but the better opinion was, that they had no
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus Postliminii</i>, and Mancinus was restored
-to his civic rights by a lex. It appears that
-the Jus Postliminii was founded on the fiction
-of the captive having never been absent from
-home; a fiction which was of easy application,
-for, as the captive during his absence
-could not do any legal act, the interval of
-captivity was a period of legal non-activity,
-which was terminated by his showing himself
-again.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Potestas">PŎTESTAS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patria">Patria Potestas</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Practores">PRACTŎRES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πράκτορες</span>), subordinate officers
-at Athens, who collected the fines and
-penalties (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιβολάς</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιμήματα</span>) imposed by
-magistrates and courts of justice, and payable
-to the state.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praecinctio">PRAECINCTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praecones">PRAECŌNES, criers, were employed for
-various purposes: 1. In sales by auction, they
-frequently advertised the time, place, and
-conditions of sale: they seem also to have
-acted the part of the modern auctioneer, so
-far as calling out the biddings and amusing
-the company, though the property was
-knocked down by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister auctionis</i>.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Auctio">Auctio</a>.</span>] 2. In all public assemblies they
-ordered silence. 3. In the comitia they
-called the centuries one by one to give their
-votes, pronounced the vote of each century,
-and called out the names of those who were
-elected. They also recited the laws that
-were to be passed. 4. In trials, they summoned
-the accuser and the accused, the
-plaintiff and defendant. 5. In the public
-games, they invited the people to attend,
-and proclaimed the victors. 6. In solemn
-funerals they also invited people to attend
-by a certain form; hence these funerals were
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funera indictiva</i>. 7. When things
-were lost, they cried them and searched for
-them. 8. In the infliction of capital punishment,
-they sometimes conveyed the commands
-of the magistrates to the lictors.
-Their office, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praeconium</i>, appears to
-have been regarded as rather disreputable:
-in the time of Cicero a law was passed preventing
-all persons who had been praecones
-from becoming decuriones in the municipia.
-Under the early emperors, however, it became
-very profitable, which was no doubt
-partly owing to fees, to which they were
-entitled in the courts of justice, and partly
-to the bribes which they received from the
-suitors, &amp;c.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praeda">PRAEDA signifies moveable things taken
-by an enemy in war. Such things were
-either distributed by the Imperator among
-the soldiers or sold by the quaestors, and
-the produce was brought into the Aerarium.
-The difference between Praeda and
-Manubiae is this:&mdash;Praeda is the things<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_307"></a>[307]</span>
-themselves that are taken in war, and Manubiae
-is the money realized by their sale.
-It was the practice to set up a spear at such
-sales, which was afterwards used at all sales
-of things by a magistrates in the name of
-the people. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sectio">Sectio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praefectura">PRAEFECTŪRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praefectus">PRAEFECTUS AERĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praefectus_a">PRAEFECTUS ANNŌNAE, the praefect
-of the provisions, especially of the corn-market,
-was not a regular magistrate under
-the republic, but was only appointed in cases
-of extraordinary scarcity, when he seems to
-have regulated the prices at which corn was
-to be sold. Augustus created an officer under
-the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praefectus Annonae</i>, who had
-jurisdiction over all matters appertaining
-to the corn-market, and, like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praefectus
-Vigilum</i>, was chosen from the equites, and
-was not reckoned among the ordinary magistrates.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praefectus_q">PRAEFECTUS ĂQUĀRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aquae">Aquae
-Ductus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praefectus_c">PRAEFECTUS CASTRŌRUM, praefect of
-the camp, is first mentioned in the reign of
-Augustus. There was one to each legion.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praefectus_s">PRAEFECTUS CLASSIS, the commander
-of a fleet. This title was frequently given
-in the times of the republic to the commander
-of a fleet; but Augustus appointed
-two permanent officers with this title, one
-of whom was stationed at Ravenna on the
-Adriatic, and the other at Misenum on the
-Tuscan sea, each having the command of a
-fleet.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praefectus_f">PRAEFECTUS FABRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fabri">Fabri</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praefectus_j">PRAEFECTUS JŪRI DĪCUNDO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praefectus_l">PRAEFECTUS LĔGĬŌNIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praefectus_p">PRAEFECTUS PRAETŌRĬO, was the
-commander of the troops who guarded the
-emperor’s person. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Praetoriani">Praetoriani</a>.</span>] This
-office was instituted by Augustus, and was
-at first only military, and had comparatively
-small power attached to it; but under Tiberius,
-who made Sejanus commander of the
-praetorian troops, it became of much greater
-importance, till at length the power of these
-praefects became only second to that of the
-emperors. From the reign of Severus to that
-of Diocletian, the praefects, like the vizirs
-of the east, had the superintendence of all
-departments of the state, the palace, the
-army, the finances, and the law: they also
-had a court in which they decided cases.
-The office of praefect of the praetorium was
-not confined to military officers; it was filled
-by Ulpian and Papinian, and other distinguished
-jurists. Originally there were two
-praefects; afterwards sometimes one and
-sometimes two; from the time of Commodus
-sometimes three, and even four. They were,
-as a regular rule, chosen only from the equites;
-but from the time of Alexander Severus the
-dignity of senator was always joined with
-their office.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praefectus_v">PRAEFECTUS VĬGĬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>,
-<a href="#Page_171">p. 171</a>, <em>a</em>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praefectus_u">PRAEFECTUS URBI, praefect or warden
-of the city, was originally called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Custos
-Urbis</i>. The name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefectus urbi</i> does not
-seem to have been used till after the time of
-the decemvirs. The dignity of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custos urbis</i>,
-being combined with that of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">princeps senatus</i>,
-was conferred by the king, as he had to
-appoint one of the decem primi as princeps
-senatus. The functions of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custos urbis</i>,
-however, were not exercised except in the
-absence of the king from Rome; and then he
-acted as the representative of the king: he
-convoked the senate, held the comitia, if
-necessary, and on any emergency, might
-take such measures as he thought proper;
-in short, he had the imperium in the city.
-During the kingly period, the office of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custos
-urbis</i> was probably for life. Under the republic,
-the office, and its name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custos urbis</i>,
-remained unaltered; but in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 487 it was
-elevated into a magistracy, to be bestowed
-by election. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custos urbis</i> was, in all
-probability, elected by the curiae. Persons
-of consular rank were alone eligible. In the
-early period of the republic the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custos urbis</i>
-exercised within the city all the powers of
-the consuls, if they were absent: he convoked
-the senate, held the comitia, and, in
-times of war, even levied civic legions,
-which were commanded by him. When the
-office of praetor urbanus was instituted, the
-wardenship of the city was swallowed up in
-it; but as the Romans were at all times
-averse to dropping altogether any of their
-old institutions, a praefectus urbi, though a
-mere shadow of the former office, was henceforth
-appointed every year, only for the time
-that the consuls were absent from Rome for
-the purpose of celebrating the Feriae Latinae.
-This praefectus had neither the power
-of convoking the senate nor the right of
-speaking in it; in most cases he was a person
-below the senatorial age, and was not
-appointed by the people, but by the consuls.
-An office very different from this, though
-bearing the same name, was instituted by
-Augustus on the suggestion of Maecenas.
-This new praefectus urbi was a regular and
-permanent magistrate, whom Augustus invested
-with all the powers necessary to
-maintain peace and order in the city. He
-had the superintendence of butchers, bankers,
-guardians, theatres, &amp;c.; and to enable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_308"></a>[308]</span>
-him to exercise his power, he had distributed
-throughout the city a number of
-milites stationarii, whom we may compare
-to a modern police. His jurisdiction, however,
-became gradually extended; and as
-the powers of the ancient republican praefectus
-urbi had been swallowed up by the
-office of the praetor urbanus, so now the
-power of the praetor urbanus was gradually
-absorbed by that of the praefectus urbi; and
-at last there was no appeal from his sentence,
-except to the person of the princeps himself,
-while any body might appeal from the sentence
-of any other city magistrate, and, at a
-later period, even from that of a governor of a
-province, to the tribunal of the praefectus urbi.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praeficae">PRAEFĬCAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praejudicium">PRAEJŪDĬCĬUM is used both in the sense
-of a precedent, in which case it is rather
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exemplum</i> than <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praejudicium</i> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">res ex paribus
-causis judicatae</i>); and also in the sense of a
-preliminary inquiry and determination about
-something which belongs to the matter in
-dispute (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judiciis ad ipsam causam pertinentibus</i>),
-from whence also comes the name
-Praejudicium.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praelusio">PRAELŪSĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praenomen">PRAENŌMEN. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nomen">Nomen</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praerogativa">PRAERŎGĀTĪVA TRIBUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a></span>,
-<a href="#Page_109">p. 109</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praes">PRAES, is a surety for one who buys of
-the state. The goods of a Praes were called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praedia</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praediator</i> was a person who
-bought a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praedium</i>, that is, a thing given to
-the state as a security by a praes.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praescriptio">PRAESCRIPTĬO, or rather TEMPŎRIS
-PRAESCRIPTĬO, signifies the Exceptio or
-answer which a defendant has to the demand
-of a plaintiff, founded on the circumstance of
-the lapse of time. The word has properly no
-reference to the plaintiff’s loss of right, but to
-the defendant’s acquisition of a right by
-which he excludes the plaintiff from prosecuting
-his suit. This right of a defendant did
-not exist in the old Roman law.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praeses">PRAESES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Provincia">Provincia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praesul">PRAESUL. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Salii">Salii</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praetexta">PRAETEXTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Toga">Toga</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praetor">PRAETOR (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρατηγός</span>), was originally a
-title which designated the consuls as the
-leaders of the armies of the state. The
-period and office of the command of the consuls
-might appropriately be called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praetorium</i>.
-Praetor was also a title of office among
-the Latins. The first praetor specially so
-called was appointed in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 366, and he was
-chosen only from the patricians, who had
-this new office created as a kind of indemnification
-to themselves for being compelled to
-share the consulship with the plebeians. No
-plebeian praetor was appointed till the year
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 337. The praetor was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">collega
-consulibus</i>, and was elected with the same
-auspices at the comitia centuriata. The praetorship
-was originally a kind of third consulship,
-and the chief functions of the praetor
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus in urbe dicere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jura reddere</i>) were a portion
-of the functions of the consuls. The
-praetor sometimes commanded the armies of
-the state; and while the consuls were absent
-with the armies, he exercised their functions
-within the city. He was a magistratus curulis,
-and he had the imperium, and consequently
-was one of the magistratus majores:
-but he owed respect and obedience to the
-consuls. His insignia of office were six lictors;
-but at a later period he had only two
-lictors in Rome. The praetorship was at first
-given to a consul of the preceding year.&mdash;In
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 246 another praetor was appointed,
-whose business was to administer justice in
-matters in dispute between peregrini, or
-peregrini and Roman citizens; and accordingly
-he was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetor peregrinus</i>. The
-other praetor was then called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetor urbanus,
-qui jus inter cives dicit</i>, and sometimes
-simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetor urbanus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetor urbis</i>.
-The two praetors determined by lot which
-functions they should respectively exercise.
-If either of them was at the head of the army,
-the other performed all the duties of both
-within the city. Sometimes the military imperium
-of a praetor was prolonged for a
-second year. When the territories of the
-state were extended beyond the limits of
-Italy, new praetors were made. Thus, two
-praetors were created <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 227, for the
-administration of Sicily and Sardinia, and
-two more were added when the two Spanish
-provinces were formed, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 197. When
-there were six praetors, two stayed in the
-city, and the other four went abroad. The
-senate determined their provinces, which
-were distributed among them by lot. After
-the discharge of his judicial functions in the
-city, a praetor often had the administration
-of a province, with the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">propraetor</i>.
-Sulla increased the number of praetors to
-eight, which Julius Caesar raised successively
-to ten, twelve, fourteen, and sixteen. Augustus,
-after several changes, fixed the number
-at twelve. Under Tiberius there were
-sixteen. Two praetors were appointed by
-Claudius for matters relating to fideicommissa,
-when the business in this department of the
-law had become considerable, but Titus reduced
-the number to one; and Nerva added
-a praetor for the decision of matters between
-the fiscus and individuals. Thus there were
-eventually eighteen praetors, who administered
-justice in the state.&mdash;The praetor urbanus
-was specially named praetor, and he<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309"></a>[309]</span>
-was the first in rank. His duties confined
-him to Rome, as is implied by the name, and
-he could only leave the city for ten days at a
-time. It was part of his duty to superintend
-the Ludi Apollinares. He was also the chief
-magistrate for the administration of justice;
-and to the edicta of the successive praetors
-the Roman law owes in a great degree its
-development and improvement. Both the
-praetor urbanus and the praetor peregrinus
-had the jus edicendi, and their functions in
-this respect do not appear to have been limited
-on the establishment of the imperial
-power, though it must have been gradually
-restricted, as the practice of imperial constitutions
-and rescripts became common.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Edictum">Edictum</a>.</span>] The chief judicial functions of
-the praetor in civil matters consisted in giving
-a judex. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>] It was only in the case
-of interdicts that he decided in a summary
-way. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Interdictum">Interdictum</a>.</span>] Proceedings before
-the praetor were technically said to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in
-jure</i>. The praetors also presided at trials of
-criminal matters. These were the quaestiones
-perpetuae, or the trials for repetundae,
-ambitus, majestas, and peculatus, which,
-when there were six praetors, were assigned
-to four out of the number. Sulla added to
-these quaestiones those of falsum, de sicariis
-et veneficis, and de parricidis, and for this
-purpose he added two, or, according to some
-accounts, four praetors. On these occasions
-the praetor presided, but a body of judices
-determined by a majority of votes the condemnation
-or acquittal of the accused. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>]
-The praetor, when he administered
-justice, sat on a sella curulis in a tribunal,
-which was that part of the court which was
-appropriated to the praetor and his assessors
-and friends, and is opposed to the subsellia,
-or part occupied by the judices, and others
-who were present.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praetoria">PRAETŌRĬA CŎHORS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Praetoriani">Praetoriani</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praetoriani">PRAETŌRĬĀNI, sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">milites</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetoriae
-cohortes</i>, a body of troops instituted by Augustus
-to protect his person and his power,
-and called by that name in imitation of the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetoria cohors</i>, or select troops which attended
-the person of the praetor or general of
-the Roman army. They originally consisted
-of nine or ten cohorts, each comprising a
-thousand men, horse and foot. Augustus, in
-accordance with his general policy of avoiding
-the appearance of despotism, stationed
-only three of these cohorts in the capital, and
-dispersed the remainder in the adjacent
-towns of Italy. Tiberius, however, under
-pretence of introducing a stricter discipline
-among them, assembled them all at Rome in
-a permanent camp, which was strongly fortified.
-Their number was increased by Vitellius
-to sixteen cohorts, or 16,000 men. The
-praetorians were distinguished by double pay
-and especial privileges. Their term of service
-was originally fixed by Augustus at
-twelve years, but was afterwards increased
-to sixteen years; and when they had served
-their time, each soldier received 20,000
-sesterces. They soon became the most
-powerful body in the state, and, like the
-janissaries at Constantinople, frequently deposed
-and elevated emperors according to
-their pleasure. Even the most powerful of
-the emperors were obliged to court their
-favour; and they always obtained a liberal
-donation upon the accession of each sovereign.
-After the death of Pertinax (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>
-193) they even offered the empire for sale,
-which was purchased by Didius Julianus;
-but upon the accession of Severus in the
-same year they were disbanded, on account
-of the part they had taken in the death of
-Pertinax, and banished from the city. The
-emperors, however, could not dispense with
-guards, and accordingly the praetorians were
-restored on a new model by Severus, and
-increased to four times their ancient number.
-Diocletian reduced their numbers and abolished
-their privileges; they were still allowed
-to remain at Rome, but had no longer the
-guard of the emperor’s person, as he never
-resided in the capital. Their numbers were
-again increased by Maxentius; but after his
-defeat by Constantine, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 312, they were
-entirely suppressed by the latter, their fortified
-camp destroyed, and those who had not
-perished in the battle between Constantine
-and Maxentius were dispersed among the
-legions. The commander of the praetorians
-was called <span class="smcap"><a href="#Praefectus_p">Praefectus Praetorio</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Praetorium">PRAETŌRĬUM, the name of the general’s
-tent in the camp, and so called because the
-name of the chief Roman magistrate was
-originally praetor, and not consul. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>]
-The officers who attended on the general in the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetorium</i>, and formed his council of war,
-were called by the same name. The word was
-also used in several other significations, which
-were derived from the original one. Thus
-the residence of a governor of a province was
-called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetorium</i>; and the same name
-was also given to any large house or palace.
-The camp of the praetorian troops at Rome, and
-frequently the praetorian troops themselves,
-were called by this name. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Praetoriani">Praetoriani</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Prandium">PRANDĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a></span>, <a href="#Page_96">p. 96</a>, <em>b</em>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Prelum">PRĒLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vinum">Vinum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Primipilus">PRĪMĬPĪLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Centurio">Centurio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Princeps">PRINCEPS JŬVENTŪTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Princeps_s">PRINCEPS SĔNĀTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Principes">PRINCĬPES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_168">p. 168</a>, <em>b</em>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Principia">PRINCĬPĬA, PRINCĬPĀLIS VIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_310"></a>[310]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Privilegium">PRĪVĬLĒGĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex">Lex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Probole">PRŎBŎLĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προβολή</span>), an accusation of a
-criminal nature, preferred before the people
-of Athens in assembly, with a view to obtain
-their sanction for bringing the charge before
-a judicial tribunal. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">probolé</i> was reserved
-for those cases where the public had sustained
-an injury, or where, from the station, power,
-or influence of the delinquent, the prosecutor
-might deem it hazardous to proceed in the
-ordinary way without being authorised by a
-vote of the sovereign assembly. In this point
-it differed from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">eisangelia</i>, that in the
-latter the people were called upon either to
-pronounce final judgment, or to direct some
-peculiar method of trial; whereas, in the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">probolé</i> after the judgment of the assembly,
-the parties proceeded to trial in the usual
-manner. The cases to which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">probolé</i> was
-applied were, complaints against magistrates
-for official misconduct of oppression; against
-those public informers and mischief-makers
-who were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sycophantae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συκοφάνται</span>);
-against those who outraged public decency at
-the religious festivals; and against all such
-as by evil practices exhibited disaffection to
-the state.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Probouleuma">PRŎBOULEUMA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boule</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Probouli">PRŎBOULI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόβουλοι</span>), a name applicable
-to any persons who are appointed to consult
-or take measures for the benefit of the people.
-Ten <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">probouli</i> were appointed at Athens, after
-the end of the Sicilian war, to act as a
-committee of public safety. Their authority
-did not last much longer than a year; for a
-year and a half afterwards Pisander and his
-colleagues established the council of Four
-Hundred, by which the democracy was overthrown.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Proconsul">PRŌCONSUL (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνθύπατος</span>), an officer who
-acted in the place of a consul, without holding
-the office of consul itself. The proconsul,
-however, was generally one who had held
-the office of consul, so that the proconsulship
-was a continuation, though a modified one,
-of the consulship. The first time when the
-imperium of a consul was prolonged, was in
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 327, in the case of Q. Publilius Philo,
-whose return to Rome would have been
-followed by the loss of most of the advantages
-that had been gained in his campaign. The
-power of proconsul was conferred by a senatusconsultum
-and plebiscitum, and was nearly
-equal to that of a regular consul, for he had
-the imperium and jurisdictio, but it differed
-inasmuch as it did not extend over the city
-and its immediate vicinity, and was conferred,
-without the auspicia, by a mere decree of the
-senate and people, and not in the comitia for
-elections. When the number of Roman
-provinces had become great, it was customary
-for the consuls, who during the latter period
-of the republic spent the year of their consulship
-at Rome, to undertake at its close the
-conduct of a war in a province, or its peaceful
-administration, with the title of proconsuls.
-There are some extraordinary cases on record
-in which a man obtained a province with the
-title of proconsul without having held the
-consulship before. The first case of this kind
-occurred in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 211, when young P. Cornelius
-Scipio was created proconsul of Spain in
-the comitia centuriata.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Procurator">PRŌCŪRĀTOR, a person who has the
-management of any business committed to
-him by another. Thus it is applied to a
-person who maintains or defends an action
-on behalf of another, or, as we should say,
-an attorney [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actio">Actio</a></span>]: to a steward in a family
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calculator">Calculator</a></span>]: to an officer in the provinces
-belonging to the Caesar, who attended to the
-duties discharged by the quaestor in the
-other provinces [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Provincia">Provincia</a></span>]: to an officer
-engaged in the administration of the fiscus
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fiscus">Fiscus</a></span>]: and to various other officers under
-the empire.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Prodigium">PRŌDĬGĬUM, in its widest acceptation,
-denotes any sign by which the gods indicated
-to men a future event, whether good or evil,
-and thus includes omens and auguries of
-every description. It is, however, generally
-employed in a more restricted sense, to signify
-some strange incident or wonderful
-appearance which was supposed to herald the
-approach of misfortune, and happened under
-such circumstances as to announce that the
-calamity was impending over a whole community
-or nation rather than over private
-individuals. The word may be considered
-synonymous with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ostentum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">monstrum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">portentum</i>.
-Since prodigies were viewed as
-direct manifestations of the wrath of heaven,
-it was believed that this wrath might be appeased
-by prayers and sacrifices duly offered
-to the offended powers. This being a matter
-which deeply concerned the public welfare,
-the necessary rites were in ancient times
-regularly performed, under the direction of
-the pontifices, by the consuls before they left
-the city, the solemnities being called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">procuratio
-prodigiorum</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Prodosia">PRODŎSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προδοσία</span>) included not only
-every species of treason, but also every such
-crime as (in the opinion of the Greeks) would
-amount to a betraying or desertion of the
-interest of a man’s country. The highest
-sort of treason was the attempt to establish a
-despotism (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τυραννίς</span>), or to subvert the constitution
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταλύειν τὴν πολιτείαν</span>), and in democracies
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταλύειν τὸν δῆμον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ πλῆθος</span>. Other
-kinds of treason were a secret correspondence
-with a foreign enemy; a betraying of an<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_311"></a>[311]</span>
-important trust, such, as a fleet, army, or
-fortress, a desertion of post, a disobedience of
-orders, or any other act of treachery, or breach
-of duty in the public service. But not only
-would <em>overt acts</em> of disobedience or treachery
-amount to the crime of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προδοσία</span>, but also the
-neglect to perform those active duties which
-the Greeks in general expected of every good
-citizen. Cowardice in battle (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δειλία</span>) would
-be an instance of this kind; so would any
-breach of the oath taken by the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφηβοι</span> at
-Athens; or any line of conduct for which a
-charge of disaffection to the people (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μισοδημία</span>)
-might be successfully maintained.
-The regular punishment appointed by the
-law for most kinds of treason appears to have
-been death, which, no doubt, might be mitigated
-by decree of the people, as in the case
-of Miltiades and many others. The goods of
-traitors, who suffered death, were confiscated,
-and their houses razed to the ground; nor
-were they permitted to be buried in the
-country, but had their bodies cast out in some
-place on the confines of Attica and Megara.
-Therefore it was that the bones of Themistocles,
-who had been condemned for treason,
-were brought over and buried secretly by his
-friends. The posterity of a traitor became
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄτιμοι</span>, and those of a tyrant were liable to
-share the fate of their ancestor.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Proedri">PRŎĔDRI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boule</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Profesti">PRŌFESTI DĬES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dies">Dies</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Proletarii">PRŌLĒTĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caput">Caput</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Prometheia">PRŎMĒTHEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προμήθεια</span>), a festival
-celebrated at Athens in honour of Prometheus.
-It was one of the five Attic festivals,
-which were held with a torch-race in the
-Ceramicus [comp. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Lampadephoria">Lampadephoria</a></span>], for
-which the gymnasiarchs had to supply the
-youths from the gymnasia. Prometheus
-himself was believed to have instituted this
-torch-race, whence he was called the torch-bearer.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Promulsis">PRŌMULSIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a></span>, <a href="#Page_96">p. 96</a>, <em>b</em>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pronubae">PRŌNŬBAE, PRŌNŬBI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Propraetor">PROPRAETOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Praetor">Praetor</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Propylaea">PRŎPỸLAEA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προπύλαια</span>), the entrance to
-a temple, or sacred enclosure, consisted of a
-gateway flanked by buildings, whence the
-plural form of the word. The Egyptian
-temples generally had magnificent <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">propylaea</i>,
-consisting of a pair of oblong truncated pyramids
-of solid masonry, the faces of which
-were sculptured with hieroglyphics. In
-Greek, except when the Egyptian temples
-are spoken of, the word is generally used to
-signify the entrance to the Acropolis of
-Athens, which was executed under the administration
-of Pericles.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Proquaestor">PRŌQUAESTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Quaestor">Quaestor</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Prora">PRŌRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a></span>, <a href="#Page_263">p. 263</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Proscenium">PRŌSCĒNĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Proscriptio">PRŌSCRIPTĬO. The verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proscribere</i>
-properly signifies to exhibit a thing for sale
-by means of a bill or advertisement. But
-in the time of Sulla it assumed a very different
-meaning, for he applied it to a measure
-of his own invention (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 82), namely, the
-sale of the property of those who were put to
-death at his command, and who were themselves
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proscripti</i>. After this example
-of a proscription had once been set, it was
-readily adopted by those in power during the
-civil commotions of subsequent years. In
-the proscription of Antonius, Caesar, and Lepidus
-(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 43), Cicero and some of the most
-distinguished Romans were put to death.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Prostates">PRŎSTĂTĒS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Libertus">Libertus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Prostates_t">PRŎSTĂTĒS TOU DĒMOU (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης τοῦ
-δήμου</span>), a leader of the people, denoted at
-Athens and in other democratical states, a
-person who by his character and eloquence
-placed himself at the head of the people, and
-whose opinion had the greatest sway amongst
-them: such was Pericles. It appears, however,
-that <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης τοῦ δήμου</span> was also the
-title of a public officer in those Dorian states
-in which the government was democratical.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Prothesmia">PRŎTHESMĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προθεσμία</span>), the term limited
-for bringing actions and prosecutions
-at Athens. The Athenian expression <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προθεσμίας
-νόμος</span> corresponds to our <em>statute of limitations</em>.
-The time for commencing actions to
-recover debts, or compensation for injuries,
-appears to have been limited to five years at
-Athens.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Provincia">PRŌVINCĬA. This word is merely a
-shortened form of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">providentia</i>, and was frequently
-used in the sense of “a duty” or
-“matter entrusted to a person.” But it is
-ordinarily employed to denote a part of the
-Roman dominion beyond Italy, which had a
-regular organisation, and was under Roman
-administration. Livy likewise uses the word
-to denote a district or enemy’s country,
-which was assigned to a general as the field
-of his operations, before the establishment of
-any provincial governments.&mdash;The Roman
-state in its complete development consisted
-of two parts with a distinct organisation,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Italia</i> and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Provinciae</i>. There were no
-Provinciae in this sense of the word till the
-Romans had extended their conquests beyond
-Italy; and Sicily was the first country that
-was made a Roman province: Sardinia was
-made a province <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 235. The Roman province
-of Gallia Ulterior in the time of Caesar
-was sometimes designated simply by the term
-Provincia, a name which has been perpetuated
-in the modern Provence. A conquered country
-received its provincial organisation either<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_312"></a>[312]</span>
-from the Roman commander, whose acts required
-the approval of the senate; or the
-government was organised by the commander
-and a body of commissioners appointed by
-the senate out of their own number. The
-mode of dealing with a conquered country
-was not uniform. When constituted a provincia,
-it did not become to all purposes an
-integral part of the Roman state; it retained
-its national existence, though it lost its sovereignty.
-The organisation of Sicily was
-completed by P. Rupilius with the aid of ten
-legates. The island was formed into two
-districts, with Syracuse for the chief town of
-the eastern and Lilybaeum of the western
-district: the whole island was administered
-by a governor annually sent from Rome.
-He was assisted by two quaestors, and was
-accompanied by a train of praecones, scribae,
-haruspices, and other persons, who formed
-his cohors. The quaestors received from the
-Roman aerarium the necessary sums for the
-administration of the island, and they also
-collected the taxes, except those which were
-farmed by the censors at Rome. One quaestor
-resided at Lilybaeum, and the other with the
-governor or praetor at Syracuse. For the
-administration of justice the island was divided
-into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fora</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Conventus</i>, which were
-territorial divisions. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Conventus">Conventus</a>.</span>] The island
-was bound to furnish and maintain soldiers
-and sailors for the service of Rome, and to
-pay tributum for the carrying on of wars.
-The governor could take provisions for the
-use of himself and his cohors on condition of
-paying for them. The Roman state had also
-the portoria which were let to farm to Romans
-at Rome. The governor had complete
-jurisdictio in the island, with the imperium
-and potestas. He could delegate these powers
-to his quaestors, but there was always an
-appeal to him, and for this and other purposes
-he made circuits through the different
-conventus.&mdash;Such was the organisation of
-Sicilia as a province, which may be taken as
-a sample of the general character of Roman
-provincial government. The governor, upon
-entering on his duties, published an edict,
-which was often framed upon the Edictum
-Urbanum. Cicero, when proconsul of Cilicia,
-says that on some matters he framed an
-edict of his own, and that as to others he
-referred to the Edicta Urbana. There was
-one great distinction between Italy and the
-provinces as to the nature of property in
-land. Provincial land could not be an object
-of Quiritarian ownership, and it was accordingly
-appropriately called Possessio. Provincial
-land could be transferred without the
-forms required in the case of Italian land,
-but it was subject to the payment of a land-tax
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vectigal</i>).&mdash;The Roman provinces up to
-the battle of Actium are: Sicilia, Sardinia
-et Corsica; Hispania Citerior et Ulterior;
-Gallia Citerior; Gallia Narbonensis et Comata;
-Illyricum; Macedonia; Achaia;
-Asia; Cilicia; Syria; Bithynia et Pontus;
-Cyprus; Africa; Cyrenaica et Creta; Numidia;
-Mauritania. Those of a subsequent
-date, which were either new or arose from
-division, are: Rhaetia; Noricum; Pannonia;
-Moesia; Dacia; Britannia; Mauritania
-Caesariensis and Tingitana; Aegyptus; Cappadocia;
-Galatia; Rhodus; Lycia; Commagene;
-Judaea; Arabia; Mesopotamia;
-Armenia; Assyria.&mdash;At first praetors were
-appointed as governors of provinces, but
-afterwards they were appointed to the government
-of provinces, upon the expiration
-of their year of office at Rome, and with the
-title of propraetores. In the later times of
-the republic, the consuls also, after the expiration
-of their year of office, received the
-government of a province, with the title of
-proconsules: such provinces were called consulares.
-The provinces were generally distributed
-by lot, but the distribution was sometimes
-arranged by agreement among the persons
-entitled to them. By a Sempronian Lex
-the proconsular provinces were annually determined
-before the election of the consuls,
-the object of which was to prevent all disputes.
-A senatus consultum of the year 55 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-provided that no consul or praetor should
-have a province till after the expiration of
-five years from the time of his consulship or
-praetorship. A province was generally held
-for a year, but the time was often prolonged.
-When a new governor arrived in his province,
-his predecessor was required to leave
-it within thirty days. The governor of a
-province had originally to account at Rome
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad urbem</i>) for his administration, from his
-own books and those of his quaestors; but
-after the passing of a Lex Julia, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 61, he
-was bound to deposit two copies of his accounts
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rationes</i>) in the two chief cities of his
-province, and to forward one (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">totidem verbis</i>)
-to the aerarium. If the governor misconducted
-himself in the administration of the
-province, the provincials applied to the Roman
-senate, and to the powerful Romans
-who were their patroni. The offences of
-repetundae and peculatus were the usual
-grounds of complaint by the provincials;
-and if a governor had betrayed the interests
-of the state, he was also liable to the penalties
-attached to majestas. Quaestiones were established
-for inquiries into these offences;
-yet it was not always an easy matter to bring
-a guilty governor to the punishment that he
-deserved.&mdash;With the establishment of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_313"></a>[313]</span>
-imperial power under Augustus, a considerable
-change was made in the administration
-of the provinces. Augustus took the charge
-of those provinces where a large military
-force was required; the rest were left to the
-care of the senate and the Roman people.
-Accordingly we find in the older jurists the
-division of provinciae into those which were
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">propriae populi Romani</i>, and those which
-were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">propriae Caesaris</i>; and this division,
-with some modifications, continued to the
-third century. The senatorian provinces
-were distributed among consulares and those
-who had filled the office of praetor, two provinces
-being given to the consulares and the
-rest to the praetorii: these governors were
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proconsules</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praesides</i>, which latter
-is the usual term employed by the old jurists
-for a provincial governor. The praesides had
-the jurisdictio of the praetor urbanus and
-the praetor peregrinus: and their quaestors
-had the same jurisdiction that the curule
-aediles had at Rome. The imperial provinces
-were governed by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legati Caesaris</i>, with praetorian
-power, the proconsular power being
-in the Caesar himself, and the legati being
-his deputies and representatives. The legati
-were selected from those who had been consuls
-or praetors, or from the senators. They
-held their office and their power at the pleasure
-of the emperor; and he delegated to
-them both military command and jurisdictio,
-just as a proconsul in the republican period
-delegated these powers to his legati. These
-legati had also legati under them. No quaestors
-were sent to the provinces of the Caesar.
-In place of the quaestors, there were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">procuratores
-Caesaris</i>, who were either equites
-or freedmen of the Caesar. Egypt was governed
-by an eques with the title of praefectus.
-The procuratores looked after the
-taxes, paid the troops, and generally were
-intrusted with the interests of the fiscus.
-Judaea, which was a part of the province
-of Syria, was governed by a procurator, who
-had the powers of a legatus. It appears that
-there were also procuratores Caesaris in the
-senatorian provinces, who collected certain
-dues of the fiscus, which were independent
-of what was due to the aerarium. The regular
-taxes, as in the republican period, were
-the poll-tax and land-tax. The taxation was
-founded on a census of persons and property,
-which was established by Augustus. The
-portoria and other dues were farmed by the
-publicani, as in the republican period.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Provocatio">PRŌVŎCĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Appellatio">Appellatio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Provocatores">PRŌVŎCĀTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Proxenus">PROXĔNUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόξενος</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hospitium">Hospitium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Prytaneium">PRỸTĂNEIUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρυτανεῖον</span>), the public
-hall or town-hall in a Greek state. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytaneia</i> of the ancient Greek states and
-cities were to the communities living around
-them, what private houses were to the families
-which occupied them. Just as the house
-of each family was its home, so was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytaneium</i>
-of every state or city the common
-home of its members or inhabitants. This
-correspondence between the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytaneium</i> or
-home of the city, and the private home of
-a man’s family, was at Athens very remarkable.
-A perpetual fire was kept burning on
-the public altar of the city in the prytaneium,
-just as in private houses a fire was
-kept up on the domestic altar in the inner
-court of the house. Moreover, the city of
-Athens exercised in its prytaneium the duties
-of hospitality, both to its own citizens and to
-strangers. Thus foreign ambassadors were
-entertained here, as well as Athenian envoys,
-on their return home from a successful or
-well-conducted mission. Here, too, were entertained
-from day to day the successive prytanes
-or presidents of the senate, together
-with those citizens who, whether from personal
-or ancestral services to the state, were
-honoured with what was called the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σίτησις ἐν
-πρυτανείῳ</span>, or the privilege of taking their
-meals there at the public cost. This was
-granted sometimes for a limited period, sometimes
-for life, in which latter case the parties
-enjoying it were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀείσιτοι</span>. Moreover,
-from the ever-burning fire of the prytaneium,
-or home of a mother state, was carried the
-sacred fire which was to be kept burning in
-the prytaneia of her colonies; and if it happened
-that this was ever extinguished, the
-flame was rekindled from the prytaneium of
-the parent city. Lastly, a prytaneium was
-also a distinguishing mark of an independent
-state. The prytaneium of Athens lay under
-the Acropolis on its northern side (near the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγορά</span>), and was, as its name denotes, originally
-the place of assembly of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytanes</i>;
-in the earliest times it probably stood on the
-Acropolis. Officers called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytanes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρυτανεῖς</span>)
-were entrusted with the chief magistracy
-in several states of Greece, as Corcyra,
-Corinth, Miletus. At Athens they were in
-early times probably a magistracy of the
-second rank in the state (next to the archon),
-acting as judges in various cases (perhaps in
-conjunction with him), and sitting in the
-prytaneium. That this was the case is rendered
-probable by the fact, that even in after-times
-the fees paid into court by plaintiff and
-defendant, before they could proceed to trial,
-and received by the dicasts, were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytaneia</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Prytanes">PRỸTĂNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Prytaneium">Prytaneium</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boule</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Psephisma">PSĒPHISMA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boule</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Nomothetae">Nomothetes</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Psephus">PSĒPHUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψῆφος</span>), a ball of stone, used by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_314"></a>[314]</span>
-the Athenian dicasts in giving their verdict.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cadus">Cadiscus</a>.</span>] Hence <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψηφίζεσθαι</span> and its various
-derivatives are used so often to signify <em>voting</em>,
-<em>determining</em>, &amp;c.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pseudengraphes">PSEUDENGRĂPHĒS GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψευδεγγραφῆς
-γραφή</span>). The name of every state
-debtor at Athens was entered in a register by
-the praetores, whose duty it was to collect
-the debts, and erase the name of the party
-when he had paid it. If they made a false
-entry, either wilfully, or upon the suggestion
-of another person, the aggrieved party might
-institute a prosecution against them, or
-against the person upon whose suggestion it
-was made. Such prosecution was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφὴ
-ψευδεγγραφῆς</span>. It would lie also, where a man
-was registered as debtor for more than was
-really due from him.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pseudocleteias">PSEUDŎCLĒTEIAS GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψευδοκλητείας
-γραφή</span>), a prosecution against one, who
-had appeared as a witness (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλητήρ</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλήτωρ</span>)
-to prove that a defendant had been duly summoned,
-and thereby enabled the plaintiff to
-get a judgment by default. The false witness
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλητήρ</span>) was liable to be criminally prosecuted,
-and punished at the discretion of the
-court. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφὴ ψευδοκλητείας</span> came before
-the Thesmothetae, and the question at the
-trial simply was, whether the defendant in
-the former cause had been summoned or not.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Psili">PSĪLI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψιλοί</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arma">Arma</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Psycter">PSYCTĒR (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψυκτήρ</span>, <em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψυκτηρίδιον</span>), a
-wine-cooler, was sometimes made of bronze
-or silver. One of earthenware is preserved
-in the Museum of Antiquities at Copenhagen.
-It consists of one deep vessel for holding ice,
-which is fixed within another for holding
-wine. The wine was poured in at the top.
-It thus surrounded the vessel of ice and was
-cooled by the contact. It was drawn off so
-as to fill the drinking-cups by means of a
-cock at the bottom.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pubes">PŪBES, PŪBERTAS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Impubes">Impubes</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Infans">Infans</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Publicani">PUBLĬCĀNI, farmers of the public revenues
-of the Roman state (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vectigalia</i>). Their
-name is formed from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">publicum</i>, which signifies
-all that belongs to the state, and is sometimes
-used by Roman writers as synonymous
-with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vectigal</i>. The revenues which Rome
-derived from conquered countries, consisting
-chiefly of tolls, tithes, harbour duties, the
-scriptura, or the tax which was paid for the
-use of the public pasture lands, and the duties
-paid for the use of mines and salt-works (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">salinae</i>),
-were let out, or, as the Romans expressed
-it, were sold by the censors in Rome itself to
-the highest bidder. This sale generally took
-place in the month of Quinctilis, and was
-made for a lustrum. The terms on which
-the revenues were let, were fixed by the censors
-in the so-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">leges censoriae</i>. The
-people or the senate, however, sometimes
-modified the terms fixed by the censors, in
-order to raise the credit of the publicani;
-and in some cases even the tribunes of the
-people interfered in this branch of the administration.
-The tithes raised in the province
-of Sicily alone, with the exception of those of
-wine, oil, and garden produce, were not sold
-at Rome, but in the districts of Sicily itself,
-according to a practice established by Hiero.
-The persons who undertook the farming of
-the public revenue of course belonged to the
-wealthiest Romans, and during the latter
-period of the republic they belonged almost
-exclusively to the equestrian order. Their
-wealth and consequent influence may be seen
-from the fact, that as early as the second
-Punic war, after the battle of Cannae, when
-the aerarium was entirely exhausted, the
-publicani advanced large sums of money to
-the state, on condition of repayment after
-the end of the war. The words equites and
-publicani are sometimes used as synonymous.
-The publicani had to give security to the
-state for the sum at which they bought one or
-more branches of the revenue in a province;
-but as for this reason the property of even
-the wealthiest individual must have been inadequate,
-a number of equites generally
-united together, and formed a company (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socii</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">societas</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corpus</i>), which was recognised by
-the state, and by which they were enabled to
-carry on their undertakings upon a large
-scale. Such companies appear as early as the
-second Punic war. The shares which each
-partner of such a company took in the business
-were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">partes</i>, and if they were
-small, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">particulae</i>. The responsible person in
-each company, and the one who contracted
-with the state, was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manceps</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Manceps">Manceps</a></span>];
-but there was also a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister</i> to
-manage the business of each society, who
-resided at Rome, and kept an extensive correspondence
-with the agents in the provinces.
-He seems to have held his office only for one
-year; his representative in the provinces was
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub magistro</i>, who had to travel about,
-and superintend the actual business of collecting
-the revenues. Nobody but a Roman citizen
-was allowed to become a member of a company
-of publicani; freedmen and slaves were
-excluded. No Roman magistrate, however,
-or governor of a province, was allowed to
-take any share whatever in a company of
-publicani, a regulation which was chiefly
-intended as a protection against the oppression
-of the provincials. The collection of
-the taxes in the provinces was performed by
-an inferior class of men, who were said
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">operas publicanis dare</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">esse in operis societatis</i>.
-They were engaged by the publicani,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_315"></a>[315]</span>
-and consisted of freemen as well as slaves,
-Romans as well as provincials. The separate
-branches of the public revenue in the provinces
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decumae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">portoria</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriptura</i>, and the
-revenues from the mines and salt-works)
-were mostly leased to separate companies of
-publicani; whence they were distinguished
-by names derived from that particular branch
-which they had taken in farm; <em>e.g.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decumani</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecuarii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scripturarii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">salinarii</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipes salinarum</i>, &amp;c. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Decumae">Decumae</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Portorium">Portorium</a></span>;
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Salinae">Salinas</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Scriptura">Scriptura</a></span>.] The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">portitores</i>
-were not publicani properly so called,
-but only their servants engaged in examining
-the goods imported or exported, and levying
-the custom-duties upon them. They belonged
-to the same class as the publicans of the New
-Testament.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Publicum">PUBLĬCUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Publicani">Publicani</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pugilatus">PŬGĬLĀTUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύξ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυγμή</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυγμαχία</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυγμοσύνη</span>), boxing, was one of the earliest
-athletic games among the Greeks, and is
-frequently mentioned in Homer. In the
-earliest times boxers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pugiles</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύκται</span>) fought
-naked, with the exception of a girdle (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζῶμα</span>)
-round their loins; but this was not used
-when boxing was introduced at Olympia, as
-the contests in wrestling and racing had been
-carried on there by persons entirely naked
-ever since Ol. 15. Respecting the leathern
-thongs with which pugilists surrounded their
-fists, see Cestus, where its various forms are
-illustrated by woodcuts. The Ionians, especially
-those of Samos, were at all times more
-distinguished pugilists than the Dorians, and
-at Sparta boxing is said to have been forbidden
-by the laws of Lycurgus. But the
-ancients generally considered boxing as a
-useful training for military purposes, and a
-part of education no less important than any
-other gymnastic exercise.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pugillares">PŬGILLĀRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabulae">Tabulae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pugio">PŬGĬO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μάχαιρα</span>), a dagger; a two-edged
-knife, commonly of bronze, with the hand in
-many cases variously ornamented or enriched.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pullarius">PULLĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Auspicium">Auspicium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pulpitum">PULPĬTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pulvinar">PULVĪNAR, a couch provided with cushions
-or pillows (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulvini</i>), on which the Romans
-placed the statues of the gods at the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lectisternia</i>.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Epulones">Epulones</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Lectisternium">Lectisternium</a></span>.] There
-was also a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulvinar</i>, on which the images of
-the gods were laid, in the Circus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pupilla">PŪPILLA, PŪPILLUS, the name given
-to every <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">impubes</i> not in the power of their
-father, but subject to a guardian. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Impubes">Impubes</a></span>;
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tutor">Tutela</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Puppis">PUPPIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Puteal">PŬTĔAL, properly means the enclosure
-surrounding the opening of a well, to protect
-persons from falling into it. It was either
-round or square, and seems usually to have
-been of the height of three or four feet from
-the ground. It was the practice in some
-cases to surround a sacred place with an enclosure
-open at the top, and such enclosures,
-from the great similarity they bore to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">putealia</i>,
-were called by this name. There were
-two such places in the Roman forum; one of
-these was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Puteal Libonis</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Scribonianum</i>,
-because a chapel (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacellum</i>) in that
-place had been struck by lightning, and
-Scribonius Libo expiated it by proper ceremonies,
-and erected a puteal around it, open
-at the top, to preserve the memory of the
-place. The form of this puteal is preserved
-on several coins of the Scribonian gens.
-This puteal seems to have been near the
-atrium of Vesta, and was a common place of
-meeting for usurers. The other puteal was
-in the comitium, on the left side of the senate-house,
-and in it were deposited the whetstone
-and razor of <span class="smcap">Attus Navius</span>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp67" id="ill315" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill315.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Puteal on a Coin of the Scribonia Gens. (British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Puticuli">PUTĬCŬLI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pyanepsia">PỸANEPSIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυανέψια</span>), a festival celebrated
-at Athens every year on the seventh
-of Pyanepsion, in honour of Apollo, said to
-have been instituted by Theseus after his
-return from Crete. The festival, as well as
-the month in which it took place, are said
-to have derived their names from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύαμος</span>,
-another form for <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύαμος</span>, <em>i.e.</em> pulse or beans,
-which were cooked at this season and carried
-about.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pylagorae">PỸLĂGŎRAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphictyones">Amphictyones</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pyra">PỸRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pyrrhica">PYRRHĬCA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Saltatio">Saltatio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pythia">PȲTHĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύθια</span>), one of the four great
-national festivals of the Greeks. It was
-celebrated in the neighbourhood of Delphi,
-anciently called Pytho, in honour of Apollo,
-Artemis, and Leto. The place of this solemnity
-was the Crissaean plain, which for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_316"></a>[316]</span>
-this purpose contained a hippodromus or
-race-course, a stadium of 1000 feet in length,
-and a theatre, in which the musical contests
-took place. The Pythian games were, according
-to most legends, instituted by Apollo
-himself. They were originally perhaps nothing
-more than a religious panegyris, occasioned
-by the oracle of Delphi, and the
-sacred games are said to have been at first
-only a musical contest, which consisted in
-singing a hymn to the honour of the Pythian
-god, with the accompaniment of the cithara.
-They must, on account of the celebrity of the
-Delphic oracle, have become a national festival
-for all the Greeks at a very early period,
-and gradually all the various contests were
-introduced which occur in the Olympic games.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Olympia">Olympia</a>.</span>] Down to Ol. 48. the Delphians
-had been the agonothetae at the Pythian
-games; but in the third year of this Olympiad,
-after the Crissaean war, the Amphictyons
-took the management under their care,
-and appointed certain persons, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epimeletae</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιμεληταί</span>), to conduct them. Some of
-the ancients date the institution of the
-Pythian games from this time. Previous to
-Ol. 48. the Pythian games had been an <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνναετηρίς</span>,
-that is, they had been celebrated at the
-end of every eighth year; but in Ol. 48. 3.
-they became, like the Olympia, a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πενταετηρίς</span>,
-<em>i.e.</em> they were held at the end of every fourth
-year; and a Pythiad, therefore, from the
-time that it was used as an aera, comprehended
-a space of four years, commencing
-with the third year of every Olympiad.
-They were in all probability held in the
-spring, and took place in the month of Bucatius,
-which corresponded to the Attic Munychion.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pythii">PȲTHĬI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύθιοι</span>), four persons appointed
-by the Spartan kings, two by each, as messengers
-to the temple of Delphi. Their office
-was highly honourable and important; they
-were always the messmates of the Spartan
-kings.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Pyxis">PYXIS, <em>dim.</em> PYXĬDŬLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύξις</span>, dim. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυξίδιον</span>),
-a casket; a jewel-box. The caskets in
-which the ladies of ancient times kept their
-jewels and other ornaments, were made of
-gold, silver, ivory, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell,
-&amp;c. They were also much enriched
-with sculpture. The annexed woodcut represents
-a very plain jewel-box, out of which a
-dove is extracting a riband or fillet.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill316" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill316.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Pyxis, jewel-box. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="Q_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">Q</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Quadragesima" class="drop-capy">QUADRĀGĒSĬMA, the fortieth part of the
-imported goods, was the ordinary rate
-of the Portorium under the empire.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Portorium">Portorium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quadrans">QUADRANS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quadrantal">QUADRANTAL, or AMPHŎRA QUADRANTAL,
-or AMPHŎRA only, was the principal
-Roman measure of capacity for fluids.
-A standard model of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Amphora</i> was kept
-with great care in the temple of Jupiter in
-the Capitol, and was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amphora Capitolina</i>.
-It contained 5·77 imperial gallons, or
-a little more than 5¾ gallons, or than 5 gallons
-and 6 pints.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quadriga">QUADRĪGA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Currus">Currus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quadrigatus">QUADRĪGĀTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quadruplatores">QUADRŬPLĀTŌRES: public informers or
-accusers were so called, either because they
-received a fourth part of the criminal’s property,
-or because those who were convicted
-were condemned to pay fourfold (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrupli
-damnari</i>), as in cases of violation of the laws
-respecting gambling, usury, &amp;c.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quaestiones">QUAESTIŌNES, QUAESTIŌNES PERPĔTUAE.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a></span>: <span class="smcap"><a href="#Praetor">Praetor</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quaestor">QUAESTOR (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταμίας</span>), a name given to two
-distinct classes of Roman officers. It is
-derived from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quaero</i>, and Varro gives a
-definition which embraces the principal functions
-of both classes of officers: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaestores a
-quaerendo, qui conquirerent publicas pecunias
-et maleficia</i>. The one class, therefore, had
-to do with the collecting and keeping of the
-public revenues, and the others were a kind
-of public accusers. The former bore the
-name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaestores Classici</i>, the latter of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaestores Parricidii</i>.&mdash;The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaestores Parricidii</i>
-were public accusers, two in number,
-who conducted the accusation of persons
-guilty of murder or any other capital offence,
-and carried the sentence into execution. In
-the early period of the republic the quaestores
-parricidii appear to have become a
-standing office, which, like others, was held
-only for one year. They were appointed by
-the populus or the curies on the presentation
-of the consuls. When these quaestores
-discovered that a capital offence had been
-committed, they had to bring the charge
-before the comitia for trial. When the
-sentence had been pronounced by the people,
-the quaestores parricidii executed it; thus
-they threw Spurius Cassius from the Tarpeian
-rock. They were mentioned in the laws of
-the Twelve Tables, and after the time of the
-decemvirate they still continued to be appointed,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_317"></a>[317]</span>
-though probably no longer by the
-curies, but either in the comitia centuriata or
-tribute, which they therefore must have had
-the right of assembling in cases of emergency.
-From the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 366 they are no longer
-mentioned in Roman history, as their functions
-were gradually transferred to the
-triumviri capitales. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Triumviri">Triumviri Capitales</a>.</span>]&mdash;The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaestores Classici</i>, usually called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaestores</i>
-simply, were officers entrusted with the
-care of the public money. They were elected
-by the centuries, and the office is said to
-have been first instituted by Valerius Publicola.
-They were at first only two in number,
-and of course taken only from the patricians.
-As the senate had the supreme administration
-of the finances, the quaestors were in some
-measure only its agents or paymasters, for
-they could not dispose of any part of the
-public money without being directed by the
-senate. Their duties consequently consisted
-in making the necessary payments from the
-aerarium, and receiving the public revenues.
-Of both they had to keep correct accounts in
-their <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae publicae</i>. Demands which any
-one might have on the aerarium, and outstanding
-debts, were likewise registered by
-them. Fines to be paid to the public treasury
-were registered and exacted by them. Another
-branch of their duties, which, however, was
-likewise connected with the treasury, was to
-provide the proper accommodation for foreign
-ambassadors, and such persons as were connected
-with the republic by ties of public hospitality.&mdash;In
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 421 the number of quaestors was
-doubled, and the tribunes tried to effect, by
-an amendment of the law, that a part (probably
-two) of the quaestores should be plebeians.
-This attempt was indeed frustrated, but the
-interrex L. Papirius effected a compromise,
-that the election should not be restricted to
-either order. After this law was carried,
-eleven years passed without any plebeian
-being elected to the office: at last, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-409, three of the four quaestors were plebeians.
-A person who had held the office of
-quaestor had undoubtedly, as in later times,
-the right to take his seat in the senate, unless
-he was excluded as unworthy by the next
-censors. And this was probably the reason
-why the patricians so resolutely opposed the
-admission of plebeians to this office. Henceforth
-the consuls, whenever they took the
-field against an enemy, were accompanied
-by one quaestor each, who at first had only
-to superintend the sale of the booty, the
-produce of which was either divided among
-the legion, or was transferred to the aerarium.
-Subsequently, however, we find that these
-quaestors also kept the funds of the army,
-which they had received from the treasury at
-Rome, and gave the soldiers their pay; they
-were in fact the paymasters of the army.
-The two other quaestors, who remained at
-Rome, continued to discharge the same duties
-as before, and were distinguished from those
-who accompanied the consuls by the epithet
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">urbani</i>. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 265, after the Romans had
-made themselves masters of Italy, and when,
-in consequence, the administration of the
-treasury and the raising of the revenues
-became more laborious and important, the
-number of quaestors was again doubled to
-eight; and it is probable that henceforth
-their number continued to be increased in
-proportion as the empire became extended.
-One of the eight quaestors was appointed by
-lot to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaestura Ostiensis</i>, a most laborious
-and important post, as he had to provide
-Rome with corn. Besides the quaestor
-Ostiensis, who resided at Ostia, three other
-quaestors were distributed in Italy, to raise
-those parts of the revenue which were not
-farmed by the publicani, and to control the
-latter. One of them resided at Cales, and
-the two others probably in towns on the
-Upper Sea. The two remaining quaestors
-were sent to Sicily.&mdash;Sulla, in his dictatorship,
-raised the number of quaestors to
-twenty, that he might have a large number
-of candidates for the senate, and J. Caesar
-even to forty. In the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 49 no quaestors
-were elected, and Caesar transferred the
-keeping of the aerarium to the aediles. From
-this time forward the treasury was sometimes
-entrusted to the praetors, sometimes to the
-praetorii, and sometimes again to quaestors.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium</a>.</span>] Quaestors, however, both in
-the city and in the provinces, occur down to
-the latest period of the empire. The proconsul
-or praetor, who had the administration
-of a province, was attended by a quaestor.
-This quaestor had undoubtedly to perform
-the same functions as those who accompanied
-the armies into the field; they were in fact
-the same officers, with the exception that the
-former were stationary in their province
-during the time of their office, and had consequently
-rights and duties which those who
-accompanied the armies could not have. In
-the provinces the quaestors had the same
-jurisdiction as the curule aediles at Rome.
-The relation existing between a praetor or
-proconsul of a province and his quaestor was,
-according to ancient custom, regarded as
-resembling that between a father and his
-son. When a quaestor died in his province,
-the praetors had the right of appointing a
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proquaestor</i> in his stead; and when the
-praetor was absent, the quaestor supplied his
-place, and was then attended by lictors. In
-what manner the provinces were assigned to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_318"></a>[318]</span>
-the quaestors after their election at Rome,
-is not mentioned, though it was probably
-by lot, as in the case of the quaestor Ostiensis.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quaestorium">QUAESTŌRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Qualus">QUĀLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calathus">Calathus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quartarius">QUARTĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sextarius">Sextarius</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quasillariae">QUĂSILLĀRĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calathus">Calathus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quasillum">QUĂSILLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calathus">Calathus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quatuorviri">QUĂTŬORVĬRI JŪRI DĪCUNDO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quatuorviri_v">QUĂTŬORVĬRI VĬĀRUM CŪRANDĀRUM,
-four officers who had the superintendence
-of the roads (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viae</i>), were first appointed
-after the war with Pyrrhus, when so many
-public roads were made by the Romans.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quinarius">QUĪNĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quincunx">QUINCUNX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quindecimviri">QUINDĔCIMVĬRI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Decemviri">Decimviri</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quinquatrus">QUINQUATRUS or QUINQUATRĬA, a
-festival sacred to Minerva, which was celebrated
-on the 19th of March. Ovid says
-that it was celebrated for five days, that on
-the first day no blood was shed, but that on
-the last four there were contests of gladiators.
-It would appear, however, that only the first
-day was the festival properly so called, and
-that the last four were merely an addition
-made perhaps in the time of Caesar, to gratify
-the people, who became so passionately fond
-of gladiatorial combats. On the fifth day of
-the festival, according to Ovid, the trumpets
-used in sacred rites were purified; but this
-seems to have been originally a separate
-festival called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tubilustrium</i>, which was celebrated,
-as we know from the ancient calendars,
-on the 23rd of March, and would of
-course, when the Quinquatrus was extended
-to five days, fall on the last day of that festival.
-There was also another festival of this
-name, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quinquatrus Minusculae</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quinquatrus Minores</i>, celebrated on the Ides
-of June, on which the tibicines went through
-the city in procession to the temple of
-Minerva.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quinquennalia">QUINQUENNĀLĬA, were games instituted
-by Nero, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 60, in imitation of the Greek
-festivals, and celebrated like the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πενταετηρίδες</span>,
-at the end of every four years:
-they consisted of musical, gymnastic, and
-equestrian contests.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quinquennalis">QUINQUENNĀLIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a></span>, <a href="#Page_101">p. 101</a>, <em>a</em>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quinqueremis">QUINQUĔRĒMIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quinquertium">QUINQUERTĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pentathlon">Pentathlon</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quinqueviri">QUINQUĔVĬRI, or five commissioners,
-were frequently appointed under the republic
-as extraordinary magistrates to carry any
-measure into effect.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quintana">QUINTĀNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quirinalia">QUĬRĪNĀLĬA, a festival sacred to Quirinus,
-which was celebrated on the 17th of
-February, on which day Romulus (Quirinus)
-was said to have been carried up to heaven.
-This festival was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Stultorum feriae</i>,
-respecting the meaning of which see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Fornacalia">Fornacalia</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Quiritium">QUĬRĪTĬUM JUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Jus">Jus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="R_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">R</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Ramnes" class="drop-capy">RAMNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patricii">Patricii</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Rapina">RĂPĪNA. [<span class="smcap">Furtum.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Recuperatores">RĔCŬPĔRĀTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Redemptor">RĔDEMPTOR, the general name for a
-contractor, who undertook the building and
-repairing of public works, private houses, &amp;c.,
-and in fact of any kind of work. The farmers
-of the public taxes were also called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Redemptores</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Redimiculum">RĔDĬMĪCULUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καθετήρ</span>), a fillet attached
-to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calautica</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diadema</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mitra</i>, or
-other head-dress at the occiput, and passed
-over the shoulders, so as to hang on each
-side over the breast. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Redimicula</i> were properly
-female ornaments.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Regifugium">RĒGĬFŬGĬUM or FŬGĀLIA, the king’s
-flight, a festival which was held by the Romans
-every year on the 24th of February,
-and, according to some ancient writers, in
-commemoration of the flight of king Tarquinius
-Superbus from Rome. The day is
-marked in the Fasti as nefastus. In some
-ancient calendars the 24th of May is likewise
-called Regifugium. It is doubtful whether
-either of these days had anything to do with
-the flight of king Tarquinius: they may have
-derived their name from the symbolical flight
-of the Rex Sacrorum from the comitium; for
-this king-priest was generally not allowed to
-appear in the comitium, which was destined
-for the transaction of political matters in
-which he could not take part. But on certain
-days in the year, and certainly on the two
-days mentioned above, he had to go to the
-comitium for the purpose of offering certain
-sacrifices, and immediately after he had performed
-his functions there, he hastily fled
-from it; and this symbolical flight was called
-Regifugium.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Relegatio">RĔLĒGĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Remancipatio">RĔMANCĬPĀTIO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Emancipatio">Emancipatio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Remulcum">RĔMULCUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥυμουλκηῖν τὰς ναῦς</span>), a rope
-for towing a ship, and likewise a tow-barge.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Remuria">RĔMŪRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lemuria">Lemuria</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Remus">RĒMUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Repetundae">RĔPĔTUNDAE, or PĔCŪNĬAE RĔPĔTUNDAE,
-was the term used to designate
-such sums of money as the socii of the Roman
-state or individuals claimed to recover
-from magistratus, judices, or publici curatores,
-which they had improperly taken or
-received in the Provinciae, or in the Urbs<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_319"></a>[319]</span>
-Roma, either in the discharge of their jurisdictio,
-or in their capacity of judices, or in
-respect of any other public function. Sometimes
-the word Repetundae was used to express
-the illegal act for which compensation
-was sought, as in the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repetundarum
-insimulari, damnari</i>; and Pecuniae meant
-not only money, but anything that had value.
-The first lex on the subject was the Calpurnia,
-which was proposed and carried by
-the tribunus plebis L. Calpurnius Piso (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-149). By this lex a praetor was appointed
-for trying persons charged with this crime.
-It seems that the penalties of the Lex Calpurnia
-were merely pecuniary, and at least
-did not comprise exsilium. Various leges de
-repetundis were passed after the Lex Calpurnia,
-and the penalties were continually made
-heavier. The Lex Junia was passed probably
-about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 126, on the proposal of M. Junius
-Pennus, tribunus plebis. The Lex Servilia
-Glaucia was proposed and carried by C. Servilius
-Glaucia, praetor, in the sixth consulship
-of Marius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 100. This lex applied
-to any magistratus who had improperly taken
-or received money from any private person;
-but a magistratus could not be accused during
-the term of office. The lex enacted that the
-praetor peregrinus should annually appoint
-450 judices for the trial of this offence:
-the judices were not to be senators. The
-penalties of the lex were pecuniary and exsilium;
-the law allowed a comperendinatio.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>] Before the Lex Servilia, the pecuniary
-penalty was simply restitution of what
-had been wrongfully taken; this lex seems
-to have raised the penalty to double the
-amount of what had been wrongfully taken;
-and subsequently it was made quadruple.
-Exsilium was only the punishment in case a
-man did not abide his trial, but withdrew
-from Rome. The lex gave the civitas to any
-person on whose complaint a person was convicted
-of repetundae. The Lex Acilia, which
-seems to be of uncertain date, was proposed
-and carried by M’. Acilius Glabrio, a tribune
-of the plebs, and enacted that there should be
-neither ampliatio nor comperendinatio. The
-Lex Cornelia was passed in the dictatorship
-of Sulla, and continued in force to the time of
-C. Julius Caesar. It extended the penalties
-of repetundae to other illegal acts committed
-in the provinces, and to judices who received
-bribes, to those to whose hands the money
-came, and to those who did not give into the
-aerarium their proconsular accounts (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proconsulares
-rationes</i>). The praetor who presided
-over this quaestio chose the judges by lot
-from the senators, whence it appears that the
-Servilia Lex was repealed by this lex, at
-least so far as related to the constitution of
-the court. This lex also allowed ampliatio
-and comperendinatio. The penalties were
-pecuniary (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">litis aestimatio</i>) and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquae et
-ignis interdictio</i>. Under this lex were tried
-L. Dolabella, Cn. Piso, C. Verres, C. Macer,
-M. Fonteius, and L. Flaccus, the two last of
-whom were defended by Cicero. In the Verrine
-Orations Cicero complains of the comperendinatio
-or double hearing of the cause,
-which the Lex Cornelia allowed, and refers to
-the practice under the Lex Acilia, according
-to which the case for the prosecution, the
-defence, and the evidence were only heard
-once, and so the matter was decided. The
-last lex de repetundis was the Lex Julia,
-passed in the first consulship of C. Julius
-Caesar, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 59. This lex repealed the penalty
-of exsilium, but in addition to the litis aestimatio,
-it enacted that persons convicted under
-this lex should lose their rank, and be disqualified
-from being witnesses, judices, or
-senators. The lex had been passed when
-Cicero made his oration against Piso, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 55.
-A. Gabinius was convicted under this lex.
-Under the empire the offence was punishable
-with exile.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Repotia">RĔPŌTĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Repudium">RĔPŬDĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Divortium">Divortium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p id="Retiarii">RĒTĬĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Reticulum">RĒTĬCŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coma">Coma</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill320a" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill320a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Retia, Nets (From a Bas-Relief at Ince-Blundell.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Retis">RĒTIS and RĒTE; <em>dim.</em> RĒTĬCŬLUM
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκτυον</span>), a net. Nets were made most commonly
-of flax or hemp, whence they are sometimes
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lina</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λίνα</span>). The meshes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">maculae</i>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βρόχοι</span>, <em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βροχίδες</span>) were great or
-small according to the purposes intended.
-By far the most important application of net-work
-was to the three kindred arts of fowling,
-hunting, and fishing. In fowling the use of
-nets was comparatively limited. In hunting
-it was usual to extend nets in a curved line
-of considerable length, so as in part to surround
-a space into which the beasts of chace,
-such as the hare, the boar, the deer, the
-lion, and the bear, were driven through the
-opening left on one side. This range of nets
-was flanked by cords, to which feathers dyed
-scarlet and of other bright colours were tied,
-so as to flare and flutter in the wind. The
-hunters then sallied forth with their dogs,
-dislodged the animals from their coverts, and
-by shouts and barking drove them first
-within the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">formido</i>, as the apparatus of string
-and feathers was called, and then, as they
-were scared with this appearance, within the
-circuit of the nets. In the drawing below
-three servants with staves carry on their
-shoulders a large net, which is intended to be
-set up as already described. In the lower
-figure the net is set up. At each end of it
-stands a watchman holding a staff. Being<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_320"></a>[320]</span>
-intended to take such large quadrupeds as
-boars and deer (which are seen within it),
-the meshes are very wide (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">retia rara</i>). The
-net is supported by three stakes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στάλικες</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ancones</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vari</i>). To dispose the nets in this
-manner was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">retia ponere</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">retia tendere</i>.
-Comparing it with the stature of the
-attendants, we perceive the net to be between
-five and six feet high. The upper border of
-the net consists of a strong rope, which was
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαρδών</span>. Fishing-nets (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁλιευτικὰ δίκτυα</span>)
-were of different kinds. Of these the
-most common were the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφίβληστρον</span>, or
-casting-net (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funda</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jaculum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">retinaculum</i>)
-and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαγήνη</span>, <em>i.e.</em> the drag-net, or sean
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tragum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tragula</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">verriculum</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill320b" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill320b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Retia, Nets. (From the same.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Reus">RĔUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actor">Actor</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Rex">REX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλεύς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄναξ</span>), king.&mdash;(1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span>
-In the heroic age, as depicted in the poems of
-Homer, the kingly form of government was
-universal. The authority of these kings and
-its limitations were derived not from any definite
-scheme, or written code, but from the
-force of traditionary usage, and the natural
-influence of the circumstances in which the
-kings were placed, surrounded as they were
-by a body of chiefs or nobles, whose power
-was but little inferior to that of the kings
-themselves. Even the title <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλῆες</span> is applied
-to them as well as to the king. The
-maintenance of regal authority doubtless depended
-greatly on the possession of personal
-superiority in bravery, military prowess,
-wisdom in council and eloquence in debate.
-When old age had blunted his powers and
-activity, a king ran a great chance of losing
-his influence. There was, however, an undefined
-notion of a sort of divine right connected
-with the kingly office, whence the
-epithet <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διοτρεφής</span>, so commonly applied to
-kings in Homer. The characteristic emblem
-of the kingly office was the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκῆπτρον</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sceptrum">Sceptrum</a>.</span>]
-Our information respecting the
-Grecian kings in the more historical age is
-not ample or minute enough to enable us to
-draw out a detailed scheme of their functions.
-Respecting the kings of Sparta the reader is
-referred to the article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Ephori">Ephori</a></span>. As an illustration
-of the gradual limitation of the prerogatives
-of the king or chief magistrate, the
-reader may consult the article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Archon">Archon</a></span>. The
-title <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Basileus</i> was sometimes applied to an
-officer who discharged the priestly functions
-of the more ancient kings, as in Athens.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Archon">Archon</a>.</span>]&mdash;(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span> Rome was originally
-governed by kings. All the ancient
-writers agree in representing the king as
-elected by the people for life, and as voluntarily
-entrusted by them with the supreme
-power in the state. No reference is made to
-the hereditary principle in the election of the
-first four kings; and it is not until the fifth
-king Tarquinius Priscus obtained the sovereignty,
-that anything is said about the
-children of the deceased king. Since the
-people had conferred the regal power, it
-returned to them upon the death of the king.
-But as a new king could not be immediately
-appointed, an Interrex forthwith stepped into
-his place. The necessity for an immediate
-successor to the king arose from the circumstance
-that he alone had had the power of
-taking the auspicia on behalf of the state;
-and as the auspicia devolved upon the people
-at his death, it was imperative upon them to
-create a magistrate, to whom they could
-delegate the auspicia, and who would thus
-possess the power of mediating between the
-gods and the state. Originally the people
-consisted only of the patres or patricii; and
-accordingly on the death of the king, we read
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">res ad patres redit</i>, or, what is nearly the
-same thing, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia ad patres redeunt</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a>.</span>]
-The interrex was elected by the whole
-body of the patricians, and he appointed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prodebat</i>)
-his successor, as it was a rule that the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_321"></a>[321]</span>
-first interrex could not hold the comitia for
-the election; but it frequently happened that
-the second interrex appointed a third, the
-third a fourth, and so on, till the election took
-place. The Interrex presided over the comitia
-curiata, which were assembled for the election
-of the king. The person whom the senate had
-selected was proposed by the interrex to the
-people in a regular <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogatio</i>, which the people
-could only accept or reject, for they had not
-the initiative and could not themselves propose
-any name. If the people voted in favour
-of the rogation, they were said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">creare regem</i>,
-and their acceptance of him was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jussus
-populi</i>. But the king did not immediately
-enter upon his office. Two other acts had
-still to take place before he was invested with
-the full regal authority and power. First,
-his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inauguratio</i> had to be performed, as it
-was necessary to obtain the divine will respecting
-his appointment by means of the
-auspices, since he was the high priest of the
-people. This ceremony was performed by an
-augur, who conducted the newly-elected king
-to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arx</i>, or citadel, and there placed him
-on a stone seat with his face turned to the
-south, while the people waited below in
-anxious suspense until the augur announced
-that the gods had sent the favourable tokens
-confirming the king in his priestly character.
-The inauguratio did not confer upon him the
-auspicia; for these he obtained by his election
-to the royalty, as the comitia were held
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicato</i>. The second act which had to be
-performed was the conferring of the imperium
-upon the king. The curiae had only determined
-by their previous vote who was to be
-king, and had not by that act bestowed the
-necessary power upon him; they had, therefore,
-to grant him the imperium by a distinct
-vote. Accordingly the king himself proposed
-to the curiae a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex curiata de imperio</i>, and
-the curiae by voting in favour of it gave him
-the imperium. Livy in his first book makes
-no mention of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex curiata de imperio</i>, but
-he uses the expressions <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores fierent</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores facti</i>; but these expressions
-are equivalent to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex curiata de imperio</i>
-in the kingly period.&mdash;The king possessed
-the supreme power in the earliest times, and
-the senate and the comitia of the curiae were
-very slight checks upon its exercise. In the
-first place, the king alone possessed the right
-of taking the auspices on behalf of the state;
-and as no public business of any kind could
-be performed without the approbation of the
-gods expressed by the auspices, the king
-stood as mediator between the gods and the
-people, and in an early stage of society must
-necessarily have been regarded with religious
-awe. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a>.</span>] Secondly, the people surrendered
-to the king the supreme military
-and judicial authority by conferring the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imperium</i>
-upon him. The king was not only
-the commander in war, but the supreme
-judge in peace. Seated on his throne in the
-comitium, he administered justice to all
-comers, and decided in all cases which were
-brought before him, civil as well as criminal.
-Again, all the magistrates in the kingly
-period appear to have been appointed by the
-king and not elected by the curiae. Further,
-the king was not dependent upon the people
-for his support; but a large portion of the
-ager publicus belonged to him, which was
-cultivated at the expense of the state on his
-behalf. He had also the absolute disposal of
-the booty taken in war and of the conquered
-lands. It must not, however, be supposed
-that the authority of the king was absolute.
-The senate and the assembly of the people
-must have formed some check upon his power.
-But these were not independent bodies possessing
-the right of meeting at certain times
-and discussing questions of state. They could
-only be called together when the king chose,
-and further could only determine upon matters
-which the king submitted to them. The
-only public matter in which the king could
-not dispense with the co-operation of the
-senate and the curiae was in declarations of
-war. There is no trace of the people having
-had anything to do with the conclusion of
-treaties of peace.&mdash;The insignia of the king
-were the fasces with the axes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">secures</i>), which
-twelve lictors carried before him as often as he
-appeared in public, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trabea</i>, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella curulis</i>,
-and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga praetexta</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">picta</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trabea</i>
-appears to have been the most ancient official
-dress, and is assigned especially to Romulus:
-it was of Latin origin, and is therefore
-represented by Virgil as worn by the
-Latin kings. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga praetexta</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">picta</i>
-were borrowed, together with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella curulis</i>,
-from the Etruscans, and their introduction
-is variously ascribed to Tullus Hostilius or
-Tarquinius Priscus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Rex_s">REX SACRĬFĬCŬLUS, REX SACRĬFĬCUS,
-or REX SACRORUM. When the civil
-and military powers of the king were transferred
-to two praetors or consuls, upon the
-establishment of the republican government
-at Rome, these magistrates were not invested
-with that part of the royal dignity by virtue
-of which the king had been the high priest
-of his nation and had conducted several
-of the sacra publica, but this priestly part
-of his office was transferred to a priest
-called Rex Sacrificulus or Rex Sacrorum.
-The first rex sacrorum was designated, at the
-command of the consuls, by the college of
-pontiffs, and inaugurated by the augurs. He<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_322"></a>[322]</span>
-was always elected and inaugurated in the
-comitia curiata under the presidency of the
-pontiffs, and as long as a rex sacrificulus was
-appointed at Rome, he was always a patrician,
-for as he had no influence upon the
-management of political affairs, the plebeians
-never coveted this dignity. Considering that
-this priest was the religious representative of
-the kings, he ranked indeed higher than all
-other priests, and even higher than the
-pontifex maximus, but in power and influence
-he was far inferior to him. He held his
-office for life, was not allowed to hold any
-civil or military dignity, and was at the same
-time exempted from all military and civil
-duties. His principal functions were: 1. To
-perform those sacra publica which had before
-been performed by the kings; and his wife,
-who bore the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">regina sacrorum</i>, had
-also, like the queens of former days, to perform
-certain priestly functions. These sacra
-publica he or his wife had to perform on all
-the Calends, Ides, and the Nundines; he to
-Jupiter, and she to Juno in the regia. 2. On
-the days called regifugium he had to offer a
-sacrifice in the comitium. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Regifugium">Regifugium</a>.</span>]
-3. When extraordinary portenta seemed to
-announce some general calamity, it was his
-duty to try to propitiate the anger of the gods.
-4. On the nundines, when the people assembled
-in the city, the rex sacrorum announced
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edicebat</i>) to them the succession of the festivals
-for the month. This part of his functions,
-however, must have ceased after the time of
-Cn. Flavius. He lived in a domus publica on
-the via sacra, near the regia and the house of
-the vestal virgins.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Rheda">RHĒDA or RĒDA, a travelling carriage
-with four wheels. Like the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Covinus">Covinus</a></span> and the
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Esseda">Essedum</a></span> it was of Gallic origin, and may
-perhaps contain the same root as the German
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">reiten</i> and our <em>ride</em>. It was the common
-carriage used by the Romans for travelling,
-and was frequently made large enough not
-only to contain many persons, but also baggage
-and utensils of various kinds. The
-word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epirhedium</i>, which was formed by the
-Romans from the Greek preposition <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπι</span> and
-the Gallic <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rheda</i>, is explained by the Scholiast
-on Juvenal as “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ornamentum rhedarum aut
-plaustrum</span>.”</p>
-
-
-<p id="Rhetrae">RHĒTRAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥῆτραι</span>), specially the name of
-the ordinances of Lycurgus. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rhetra</i>
-means a solemn compact, either originally
-emanating from, or subsequently sanctioned
-by the gods, who are always parties to such
-agreements. The Rhetra of Lycurgus emanated
-from the Delphian god: but the kings,
-senators, and people all bound themselves,
-both to each other and to the gods, to
-obey it.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Rhyton">RHYTON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥυτόν</span>), a drinking-horn (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κέρας</span>).
-Its original form was probably the horn of
-the ox, but one end of it was afterwards
-ornamented with the heads of various animals
-and birds. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rhyton</i> had a small
-opening at the bottom, which the person who
-drank put into his mouth, and allowed the
-wine to run in: hence it derived its name.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="ill322" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill322.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Rhyton, drinking-horn. (Museo Borbonico.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Rica">RĪCA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Flamen">Flamen</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ricinium">RĪCĪNĬUM, an article of female dress,
-appears to have been a kind of mantle, with
-a sort of cowl attached to it, in order to cover
-the head. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mavortium</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mavorte</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mavors</i>
-of later times was thought to be only
-another name for what had formerly been
-called ricinium.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Robigalia">RŌBĪGĀLĬA, a public festival in honour
-of the god Robigus, to preserve the fields
-from mildew, is said to have been instituted
-by Numa, and was celebrated April 25th.
-The sacrifices offered on this occasion consisted
-of the entrails of a dog and a sheep,
-accompanied with frankincense and wine:
-a prayer was presented by a flamen in the
-grove of the ancient deity, whom Ovid and
-Columella make a goddess. A god Robigus
-or a goddess Robigo is a mere invention from
-the name of this festival, for the Romans
-paid no divine honours to evil deities.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Rogatio">RŎGĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex">Lex</a></span>, <a href="#Page_225">p. 225</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Rogatores">RŎGĀTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a></span>, <a href="#Page_107">p. 107</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Rogus">RŎGUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_188">p. 188</a>, <em>b</em>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Romphea">ROMPHEA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Rorarii">RŌRĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_165">p. 165</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Rostra">ROSTRA, or The Beaks, was the name applied
-to the stage (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suggestus</i>) in the Forum,
-from which the orators addressed the people.
-This stage was originally called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum</i>, because
-it was consecrated by the augurs, but
-obtained its name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rostra</i> at the conclusion
-of the great Latin war, when it was adorned
-with the beaks (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rostra</i>) of the ships of the
-Antiates. The Greeks also mutilated galleys
-in the same way for the purpose of trophies:
-this was called by them <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκρωτηριάζειν</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Acroterium">Acroterium</a>.</span>]
-The rostra lay between the Comitium
-or place of meeting for the curies, and
-the Forum or place of meeting for the tribes,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_323"></a>[323]</span>
-so that the speaker might turn either to the
-one or the other; but down to the time of
-C. Gracchus, even the tribunes in speaking
-used to front the Comitium; he first turned
-his back to it and spoke with his face towards
-the forum. The rostra was a circular building,
-raised on arches, with a stand or platform
-on the top, bordered by a parapet, the
-access to it being by two flights of steps, one
-on each side. It fronted towards the comitium,
-and the rostra were affixed to the front
-of it, just under the arches. Its form has
-been in all the main points preserved in the
-ambones or circular pulpits of the most ancient
-churches, which also had two flights of
-steps leading up to them, one on the east
-side, by which the preacher ascended, and
-another on the west side, for his descent.
-The speaker was thus enabled to walk to
-and fro, while addressing his audience. The
-suggestus or rostra was transferred by Julius
-Caesar to a corner of the Forum, but the
-spot where the ancient rostra had stood still
-continued to be called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rostra Vetera</i>, while
-the other was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rostra Nova</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rostra
-Julia</i>. Both the rostra contained statues of
-illustrious men.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill323" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill323.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Rostra on Coin of M. Lollius Palicanus. (British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Rostrum">ROSTRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Rota">RŎTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Currus">Currus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Rudiarii">RŬDĬĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Rudis">RŬDIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="S_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">S</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Saccus" class="drop-capy">SACCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάκκος</span>) signified in general any
-kind of sack or bag made of hair, cloth, or
-other materials. We have only to notice here
-its meaning as&mdash;(1) A head-dress. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coma">Coma</a>.</span>]&mdash;(2)
-A sieve for straining wine. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colum">Colum</a>.</span>]&mdash;(3)
-A purse for holding money. Hence the phrase
-in Plautus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ire ad saccum</i>, “to go a begging.”</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sacellum">SĂCELLUM is a diminutive of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacer</i>, and
-signifies a small place consecrated to a god,
-containing an altar, and sometimes also a
-statue of the god to whom it was dedicated,
-but it was without a roof. It was therefore
-a sacred inclosure surrounded by a fence
-or wall, and thus answered to the Greek
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίβολος</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sacerdos">SĂCERDOS, SĂCERDŌTĬUM. As all the
-different kinds of priests are treated of separately
-in this work, it is only necessary here
-to make some general remarks. In comparison
-with the civil magistrates, all priests
-at Rome were regarded as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">homines privati</i>,
-though all of them, as priests, were sacerdotes
-publici, in as far as their office (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacerdotium</i>)
-was connected with any worship recognised
-by the state. The appellation of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacerdos
-publicus</i> was, however, given principally to
-the chief pontiff and the flamen dialis, who
-were at the same time the only priests who
-were members of the senate by virtue of
-their office. All priestly offices or sacerdotia
-were held for life, without responsibility to
-any civil magistrate. A priest was generally
-allowed to hold any other civil or military
-office besides his priestly dignity; some
-priests, however, formed an exception, for
-the duumviri, the rex sacrorum, and the
-flamen dialis were not allowed to hold any
-state office, and were also exempt from
-service in the armies. Their priestly character
-was, generally speaking, inseparable
-from their person as long as they lived:
-hence the augurs and fratres arvales retained
-their character even when sent into exile, or
-when they were taken prisoners. It also
-occurs that one and the same person held
-two or three priestly offices at a time. Thus
-we find the three dignities of pontifex maximus,
-augur, and decemvir sacrorum united
-in one individual. Bodily defects incapacitated
-a person at Rome, as among all ancient
-nations, from holding any priestly office. All
-priests were originally patricians, but from
-the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 367 the plebeians also began to
-take part in the sacerdotia [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plebes">Plebes</a></span>]; and
-those priestly offices which down to the latest
-times remained in the hands of the patricians
-alone, such as that of the rex sacrorum, the
-flamines, salii, and others, had no influence
-upon the affairs of the state. As regards the
-appointment of priests, the ancients unanimously
-state, that at first they were appointed
-by the kings, but after the sacerdotia were
-once instituted, each college of priests&mdash;for
-nearly all priests constituted certain corporations
-called collegia&mdash;had the right of filling
-up, by cooptatio, the vacancies which occurred.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pontifex">Pontifex</a>.</span>] Other priests, on the
-contrary, such as the vestal virgins and the
-flamines, were appointed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capiebantur</i>) by
-the pontifex maximus, a rule which appears
-to have been observed down to the latest
-times; others again, such as the duumviri
-sacrorum, were elected by the people, or by
-the curiae, as the curiones. But in whatever
-manner they were appointed, all priests after
-their appointment required to be inaugurated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_324"></a>[324]</span>
-by the pontiffs and the augurs, or by the
-latter alone. Those priests who formed colleges
-had originally, as we have already
-observed, the right of cooptatio; but in the
-course of time they were deprived of this
-right, or at least the cooptatio was reduced
-to a mere form, by several leges, called leges
-de sacerdotiis, such as the Lex Domitia, Cornelia,
-and Julia; their nature is described in
-the article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pontifex">Pontifex</a></span>, and what is there said
-in regard to the appointment of pontiffs applies
-equally to all the other colleges. All
-priests had some external distinction, as the
-apex, tutulus, or galerus, the toga praetexta,
-as well as honorary seats in the theatres,
-circuses, and amphitheatres. Most of the
-priestly colleges possessed landed property,
-and some priests had also a regular annual
-salary (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stipendium</i>), which was paid to them
-from the public treasury. This is expressly
-stated in regard to the vestal virgins, the
-augurs, and the curiones, and may therefore
-be supposed to have been the case with other
-priests also. The pontifex maximus, the rex
-sacrorum, and the vestal virgins had moreover
-a domus publica as their place of residence.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sacra">SACRA. This word, in its widest sense,
-expresses what we call divine worship. In
-ancient times, the state, as well as all its
-subdivisions, had their own peculiar forms
-of worship, whence at Rome we find sacra
-of the whole Roman people, of the curies,
-gentes, families, and even of private individuals.
-All these sacra, however, were
-divided into two great classes, the public
-and private sacra (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacra publica et privata</i>),
-that is, they were performed either on behalf
-of the whole nation, and at the expense of
-the state, or on behalf of individuals, families,
-or gentes, which had also to defray their
-expenses. This division is ascribed to Numa.
-All sacra, publica as well as privata, were
-superintended and regulated by the pontiffs.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sacramentum">SACRĀMENTUM, the military oath, which
-was administered in the following manner:&mdash;Each
-tribunus militum assembled his legion,
-and picked out one of the men, to whom
-he put the oath, that he would obey the
-commands of his generals, and execute them
-punctually. The other men then came forward,
-one after another, and repeated the same
-oath, saying that they would do like the first.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sacrarium">SACRĀRĬUM was any place in which sacred
-things were deposited and kept, whether this
-place was a part of a temple or of a private house.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sacrificium">SACRIFĬCĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερεῖον</span>), a sacrifice. Sacrifices
-or offerings formed the chief part of the
-worship of the ancients. They were partly
-signs of gratitude, partly a means of propitiating
-the gods, and partly also intended to
-induce the deity to bestow some favour upon
-the sacrificer, or upon those on whose behalf
-the sacrifice was offered. Sacrifices in a
-wider sense would also embrace the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Donaria">Donaria</a></span>;
-in a narrower sense sacrificia were
-things offered to the gods, which merely
-afforded momentary gratification, and which
-were burnt upon their altars, or were believed
-to be consumed by the gods. All sacrifices
-may be divided into bloody sacrifices
-and unbloody sacrifices.&mdash;<em>Bloody sacrifices.</em>
-In the early times of Greece we find mention
-of human sacrifices, but with a few exceptions
-these had ceased in the historical ages.
-Owing to the influence of civilisation, in
-many cases animals were substituted for human
-beings; in others, a few drops of human
-blood were thought sufficient to propitiate
-the gods. The custom of sacrificing human
-life to the gods arose from the belief that the
-nobler the sacrifice and the dearer to its
-possessor, the more pleasing it would be to
-the gods. Hence the frequent instances in
-Grecian story of persons sacrificing their own
-children, or of persons devoting themselves
-to the gods of the lower world. That the
-Romans also believed human sacrifices to be
-pleasing to the gods, might be inferred from
-the story of Curtius and from the self-sacrifice
-of the Decii. The symbolic sacrifice of
-human figures made of rushes at the Lemuralia
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lemuria">Lemuralia</a></span>] also shows that in the
-early history of Italy human sacrifices were
-not uncommon. For another proof of this
-practice, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Ver">Ver Sacrum</a></span>. A second kind of
-bloody sacrifices were those of animals of
-various kinds, according to the nature and
-character of the divinity. The sacrifices of
-animals were the most common among the
-Greeks and Romans. The victim was called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερεῖον</span>, and in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hostia</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">victima</i>. In
-the early times it appears to have been the
-general custom to burn the whole victim
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁλοκαυτεῖν</span>) upon the altars of the gods, and
-the same was in some cases also observed in
-later times. But as early as the time of
-Homer it was the almost general practice to
-burn only the legs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μηροί, μηρία, μῆρα</span>) enclosed
-in fat, and certain parts of the intestines,
-while the remaining parts of the victim
-were consumed by men at a festive meal.
-The gods delighted chiefly in the smoke
-arising from the burning victims, and the
-greater the number of victims, the more
-pleasing was the sacrifice. Hence it was not
-uncommon to offer a sacrifice of one hundred
-bulls (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑκατόμβη</span>) at once, though it must not
-be supposed that a hecatomb always signifies
-a sacrifice of a hundred bulls, for the name
-was used in a general way to designate any
-great sacrifice. Such great sacrifices were
-not less pleasing to men than to the gods,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_325"></a>[325]</span>
-for in regard to the former they were in
-reality a donation of meat. Hence at Athens
-the partiality for such sacrifices rose to the
-highest degree. The animals which were
-sacrificed were mostly of the domestic kind,
-as bulls, cows, sheep, rams, lambs, goats,
-pigs, dogs, and horses; and each god had
-his favourite animals which he liked best as
-sacrifices. The head of the victim, before it
-was killed, was in most cases strewed with
-roasted barley meal (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐλόχυτα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐλοχύται</span>)
-mixed with salt (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mola salsa</i>). The persons
-who offered the sacrifice wore generally garlands
-round their heads, and sometimes also
-carried them in their hands, and before they
-touched anything belonging to the sacrifice
-they washed their hands in water. The
-victim itself was likewise adorned with garlands,
-and its horns were sometimes gilt.
-Before the animal was killed, a bunch of
-hair was cut from its forehead, and thrown
-into the fire as primitiae (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατάρχεσθαι</span>). In
-the heroic ages the princes, as the high
-priests of their people, killed the victim; in
-later times this was done by the priests themselves.
-When the sacrifice was to be offered
-to the Olympic gods, the head of the animal
-was drawn heavenward; when to the gods
-of the lower world, to heroes, or to the dead,
-it was drawn downwards. While the flesh
-was burning upon the altar, wine and incense
-were thrown upon it, and prayers and
-music accompanied the solemnity. The most
-common animal sacrifices at Rome were the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suovetaurilia</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solitaurilia</i>, consisting of a
-pig, a sheep, and an ox. They were performed
-in all cases of a lustration, and the
-victims were carried around the thing to be
-lustrated, whether it was a city, a people, or
-a piece of land. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lustratio">Lustratio</a>.</span>] The Greek
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trittya</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριττύα</span>), which likewise consisted of
-an ox, a sheep, and a pig, was the same sacrifice
-as the Roman suovetaurilia. The
-customs observed before and during the
-sacrifice of an animal were on the whole the
-same as those observed in Greece. But the
-victim was in most cases not killed by the
-priests who conducted the sacrifice, but by a
-person called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">popa</i>, who struck the animal
-with a hammer before the knife was used.
-The better parts of the intestines (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exta</i>) were
-strewed with barley meal, wine, and incense,
-and were burnt upon the altar. Those parts
-of the animal which were burnt were called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prosecta</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prosiciae</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ablegmina</i>. When a
-sacrifice was offered to gods of rivers, or of
-the sea, these parts were not burnt, but
-thrown into the water. Respecting the use
-which the ancients made of sacrifices to learn
-the will of the gods, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Haruspices">Haruspex</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Divinatio">Divinatio</a></span>.&mdash;<em>Unbloody
-sacrifices.</em> Among these we
-may first mention the libations (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libationes</i>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λοιβαί</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σπονδαί</span>). Bloody sacrifices were
-usually accompanied by libations, as wine
-was poured upon them. The wine was
-usually poured out in three separate streams.
-Libations always accompanied a sacrifice
-which was offered in concluding a treaty
-with a foreign nation, and that here they
-formed a prominent part of the solemnity, is
-clear from the fact that the treaty itself was
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σπονδαί</span>. But libations were also made
-independent of any other sacrifice, as in solemn
-prayers, and on many other occasions
-of public and private life, as before drinking
-at meals, and the like. Libations usually
-consisted of unmixed wine (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔνσπονδος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">merum</i>),
-but sometimes also of milk, honey, and
-other fluids, either pure or diluted with
-water. The libations offered to the Furies
-were always without wine. Incense was
-likewise an offering which usually accompanied
-bloody sacrifices, but it was also burned
-as an offering for itself. A third class of
-unbloody sacrifices consisted of fruit and
-cakes. The former were mostly offered to
-the gods as primitiae or tithes of the harvest,
-and as a sign of gratitude. They were sometimes
-offered in their natural state, sometimes
-also adorned or prepared in various
-ways. Cakes were peculiar to the worship
-of certain deities, as to that of Apollo. They
-were either simple cakes of flour, sometimes
-also of wax, or they were made in the shape
-of some animal, and were then offered as symbolical
-sacrifices in the place of real animals,
-either because they could not easily be procured,
-or were too expensive for the sacrificer.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sacrilegium">SACRĬLĔGĬUM, the crime of stealing things
-consecrated to the gods, or things deposited in
-a consecrated place. A Lex Julia appears to
-have placed the crime of sacrilegium on an
-equality with peculatus. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Peculatus">Peculatus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Saeculum">SAECŬLUM was, according to the calculation
-of the Etruscans, which was adopted
-by the Romans, a space of time containing
-110 lunar years. The return of each saeculum
-at Rome was announced by the pontiffs,
-who also made the necessary intercalations
-in such a manner, that at the commencement
-of a new saeculum the beginning of
-the ten months’ year, of the twelve months’
-year, and of the solar year coincided. But
-in these arrangements the greatest caprice
-and irregularity appear to have prevailed
-at Rome, as may be seen from the unequal
-intervals at which the ludi saeculares were
-celebrated. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Saeculares">Ludi Saeculares</a>.</span>] This also
-accounts for the various ways in which a
-saeculum was defined by the ancients; some
-believed that it contained thirty, and others
-that it contained a hundred years: the latter<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_326"></a>[326]</span>
-opinion appears to have been the most common
-in later times, so that saeculum answered
-to our century.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sagittarii">SĂGITTĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arcus">Arcus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sagmina">SAGMĬNA, were the same as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">verbenae</i>,
-namely, herbs torn up by their roots from
-within the inclosure of the Capitoline, which
-were always carried by the Fetiales or ambassadors,
-when they went to a foreign
-people to demand restitution for wrongs
-committed against the Romans, or to make a
-treaty. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fetiales">Fetiales</a>.</span>] They served to mark
-the sacred character of the ambassadors, and
-answered the same purpose as the Greek
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηρύκεια</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sagum">SĂGUM, the cloak worn by the Roman
-soldiers and inferior officers, in contradistinction
-to the paludamentum of the general
-and superior officers. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Paludamentum">Paludamentum</a>.</span>] It
-is used in opposition to the toga or garb of
-peace, and we accordingly find, that when
-there was a war in Italy, all citizens put on
-the sagum even in the city, with the exception
-of those of consular rank (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saga sumere</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad saga ire</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in sagis esse</i>). The sagum was
-open in the front, and usually fastened across
-the shoulders by a clasp: it resembled in
-form the paludamentum (see cut, <a href="#ill281b">p. 281</a>).
-The cloak worn by the general and superior
-officers is sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sagum</i>, but the
-diminutive <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sagulum</i> is more commonly used in
-such cases. The cloak worn by the northern
-nations of Europe is also called sagum. The
-German sagum is mentioned by Tacitus: that
-worn by the Gauls seems to have been a species
-of plaid (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">versicolor sagum</i>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Salaminia">SĂLĂMINĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Paralus">Paralus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Salii">SĂLĬI, priests of Mars Gradivus, said to
-have been instituted by Numa. They were
-twelve in number, chosen from the patricians
-even in the latest times, and formed an ecclesiastical
-corporation. They had the care of
-the twelve Ancilia, which were kept in the
-temple of Mars on the Palatine hill, whence
-these priests were sometimes called Salii Palatini,
-to distinguish them from the other
-Salii mentioned below. The distinguishing
-dress of the Salii was an embroidered tunic
-bound with a brazen belt, the trabea, and
-the apex, also worn by the Flamines. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Apex">Apex</a>.</span>]
-Each had a sword by his side, and in his
-right hand a spear or staff. The festival of
-Mars was celebrated by the Salii on the 1st
-of March and for several successive days; on
-which occasion they were accustomed to go
-through the city in their official dress, carrying
-the ancilia in their left hands or suspended
-from their shoulders, and at the same
-time singing and dancing, whence comes
-their name. The songs or hymns which
-they sang on this occasion were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Asamenta,
-ssamenta</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Axamenta</i>, and were
-chiefly in praise of Mamurius Veturius, generally
-said to be the armourer, who made
-eleven ancilia like the one that was sent
-from heaven (ancile), though some modern
-writers suppose it to be merely another name
-of Mars. The praises of the gods were also
-celebrated in the songs of the Salii. In later
-times these songs were scarcely understood
-even by the priests themselves. At the conclusion
-of the festival the Salii were accustomed
-to partake of a splendid entertainment
-in the temple of Mars, which was proverbial
-for its excellence. The members of the collegium
-were elected by co-optation. We read
-of the dignities of praesul, vates, and magister
-in the collegium. The shape of the
-ancile is exhibited in the annexed cut, which
-illustrates the accounts of the ancient writers
-that its form was oval, but with the two
-sides receding inwards with an even curvature,
-and so as to make it broader at the
-ends than in the middle. The persons engaged
-in carrying these ancilia on their
-shoulders, suspended from a pole, are probably
-servants of the Salii. At the top of
-the cut is represented one of the rods with
-which the Salii were accustomed to beat the
-shield in their dance, as already described.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp82" id="ill326" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill326.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Salii carrying the Ancilia. (From an ancient Gem.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Tullus Hostilius established another collegium
-of Salii, in fulfilment of a vow which
-he made in a war with the Sabines. These
-Salii were also twelve in number, chosen
-from the patricians, and appear to have been
-dedicated to the service of Quirinus. They
-were called the Salii Collini, Agonales or
-Agonenses. It is supposed that the oldest
-and most illustrious college, the Palatine
-Salii, were chosen originally from the oldest
-tribe, the Ramnes, and the one instituted by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_327"></a>[327]</span>
-Tullus Hostilius, or the Quirinalian, from
-the Tities alone: a third college for the Luceres
-was never established.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Salinae">SĂLĪNAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁλαὶ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁλοπήγιον</span>), a salt-work.
-Throughout the Roman empire the salt-works
-were commonly public property, and were
-let by the government to the highest bidder.
-The first salt-works are said to have been
-established by Ancus Marcius at Ostia. The
-publicani who farmed these works appear to
-have sold this most necessary of all commodities
-at a very high price, whence the
-censors M. Livius and C. Claudius (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 204)
-fixed the price at which those who took the
-lease of them were obliged to sell the salt to
-the people. At Rome the medius was, according
-to this regulation, sold for a sextans,
-while in other parts of Italy the price was
-higher and varied. The salt-works in Italy
-and in the provinces were very numerous.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Salinum">SĂLĪNUM, a salt-cellar. All Romans who
-were raised above poverty had one of silver,
-which descended from father to son, and was
-accompanied by a silver plate, which was
-used together with the salt-cellar in the
-domestic sacrifices. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patera">Patera</a>.</span>] These two
-articles of silver were alone compatible with
-the simplicity of Roman manners in the early
-times of the republic.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill327" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill327.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">A Dance. (Lamberti, Villa Borghese.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Saltatio">SALTĀTĬO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄρχησις</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀρχηστύς</span>), dancing.
-The dancing of the Greeks as well as of the
-Romans had very little in common with the
-exercise which goes by that name in modern
-times. It may be divided into two kinds,
-gymnastic and mimetic; that is, it was intended
-either to represent bodily activity, or
-to express by gestures, movements, and attitudes
-certain ideas or feelings, and also single
-events, or a series of events, as in the modern
-ballet. All these movements, however, were
-accompanied by music; but the terms <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄρχησις</span>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saltatio</i> were used in so much wider a
-sense than our word dancing, that they were
-applied to designate gestures, even when the
-body did not move at all. We find dancing
-prevalent among the Greeks from the earliest
-times. It was originally closely connected
-with religion. In all the public festivals,
-which were so numerous among the Greeks,
-dancing formed a very prominent part. We
-find from the earliest times that the worship
-of Apollo was connected with a religious
-dance, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hyporchema</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπόρχημα</span>). All
-the religious dances, with the exception of
-the Bacchic and the Corybantian, were very
-simple, and consisted of gentle movements of
-the body, with various turnings and windings
-around the altar: such a dance was the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Geranus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γέρανος</span>), which Theseus is said to
-have performed at Delos on his return from
-Crete. The Dionysiac or Bacchic, and the
-Corybantian, were of a very different nature.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill328a" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill328a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Corybantian Dance. (Visconti, Mus. Pio Clem., vol. iv. tav. 9.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the former the life and adventures of the
-god were represented by mimetic dancing.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia</a>.</span>] The Corybantian was of a very
-wild character: it was chiefly danced in
-Phrygia and in Crete; the dancers were
-armed, struck their swords against their
-shields, and displayed the most extravagant
-fury; it was accompanied chiefly by the flute.
-Respecting the dances in the theatre, see
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a></span>. Dancing was applied to gymnastic
-purposes and to training for war, especially
-in the Doric states, and was believed to have
-contributed very much to the success of the
-Dorians in war, as it enabled them to perform
-their evolutions simultaneously and in
-order. There were various dances in early
-times, which served as a preparation for war:
-hence Homer calls the Hoplites <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρυλέες</span>, a
-war-dance having been called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρύλις</span> by the
-Cretans. Of such dances the most celebrated
-was the Pyrrhic (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡ πυῤῥίχη</span>), of which the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρύλις</span> was probably only another name. It
-was danced to the sound of the flute, and its
-time was very quick and light, as is shown<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_328"></a>[328]</span>
-by the name of the Pyrrhic foot (˘˘), which
-must be connected with this dance. In the
-non-Doric states it was probably not practised
-as a training for war, but only as a
-mimetic dance: thus we read of its being
-danced by women to entertain a company.
-It was also performed at Athens at the
-greater and lesser Panathenaea by ephebi,
-who were called Pyrrhichists (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυῤῥιχισταί</span>),
-and were trained at the expense of the choragus.
-In the mountainous parts of Thessaly
-and Macedon dances are performed at the
-present day by men armed with muskets and
-swords. The Pyrrhic dance was introduced
-in the public games at Rome by Julius Caesar,
-when it was danced by the children of the
-leading men in Asia and Bithynia. There
-were other dances, besides the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pyrrhica">Pyrrhic</a></span>, in
-which the performers had arms; but these
-seem to have been entirely mimetic, and not
-practised with any view to training for war.
-Such was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Carpaea</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρπαία</span>), peculiar to
-the Aenianians and Magnetes, and described
-by Xenophon in the Anabasis. Such dances
-were frequently performed at banquets for
-the entertainment of the guests, where also
-the tumblers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυβιστῆρες</span>) were often introduced,
-who in the course of their dance flung
-themselves on their head and alighted again
-upon their feet. These tumblers were also
-accustomed to make their somersets over
-knives and swords, which was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυβιστάν
-εἰς μαχαίρας</span>. We learn from Tacitus that the
-German youths also used to dance among
-swords and spears pointed at them. Other
-kinds of dances were frequently performed at
-entertainments, in Rome as well as in Greece,
-by courtezans, many of which were of a very
-indecent and lascivious nature. Among the
-dances performed without arms one of the
-most important was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hormos</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅρμος</span>),
-which was danced at Sparta by youths and
-maidens together: the youth danced first
-some movements suited to his age, and of a
-military nature; the maiden followed in
-measured steps and with feminine gestures.
-Another common dance at Sparta was the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bibasis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βίβασις</span>), in which the dancer sprang
-rapidly from the ground and struck the feet
-behind.&mdash;Dancing was common among the
-Romans in ancient times, in connection with
-religious festivals and rites, because the ancients
-thought that no part of the body should
-be free from the influence of religion. The
-dances of the Salii, which were performed
-by men of patrician families, are described
-elsewhere. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ancile">Ancile</a>.</span>] Dancing, however,
-was not performed by any Roman citizens
-except in connection with religion, and it
-was considered disgraceful for any freeman
-to dance. The mimetic dances of the Romans,
-which were carried to such perfection under
-the empire, are described under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pantomimus">Pantomimus</a></span>.
-The dancers on the tight-rope (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funambuli</i>)
-under the empire were as skilful as they are
-in the present day.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp70" id="ill328b" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill328b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Tumbler. (Museo Borbonico, vol. <span class="allsmcap">VII.</span> tav. 58.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Salutatores">SĂLŪTATŌRES, the name given in the later<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_329"></a>[329]</span>
-times of the republic, and under the empire,
-to a class of men who obtained their living by
-visiting the houses of the wealthy early in
-the morning, to pay their respects to them
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">salutare</i>), and to accompany them when they
-went abroad. This arose from the visits
-which the clients were accustomed to pay to
-their patrons, and degenerated in later times
-into the above-mentioned practice: such persons
-seem to have obtained a good living
-among the great number of wealthy and vain
-persons at Rome, who were gratified by this
-attention. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sportula">Sportula</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sambuca">SAMBŪCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαμβύκη</span>), a harp, was of
-oriental origin. The performances of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sambucistriae</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαμβυκίστριαι</span>) were only known to
-the early Romans as luxuries brought over
-from Asia. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sambuca</i> was also the name of a
-military engine, used to scale the walls and
-towers of besieged cities. It was called by
-this name on account of its general resemblance
-to the form of a harp.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Samnites">SAMNĪTES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sandalium">SANDĂLĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σανδάλιον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάνδαλον</span>), a
-kind of shoe worn only by women. The
-sandalium must be distinguished from the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hypodema</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπόδημα</span>), which was a simple
-sole bound under the foot, whereas the sandalium
-was a sole with a piece of leather
-covering the toes, so that it formed the transition
-from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hypodema</i> to real shoes. The
-piece of leather over the toes was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζυγός</span>
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζυγόν</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sandapila">SANDĂPĬLA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sarcophagus">SARCŎPHĂGUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sarissa">SARISSA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sarracum">SARRĀCUM, a kind of common cart or
-waggon, which was used by the country-people
-of Italy for conveying the produce of
-their fields, trees, and the like, from one
-place to another.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Satura_a">SĂTŬRA, the root of which is <em>sat</em>, literally
-means a mixture of all sorts of things. The
-name was accordingly applied by the Romans
-in many ways, but always to things consisting
-of various parts or ingredients, <em>e.g.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lanx
-satura</i>, an offering consisting of various
-fruits, such as were offered at harvest festivals
-and to Ceres; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex per saturam lata</i>, a
-law which contained several distinct regulations
-at once, and to a species of poetry, afterwards
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Satira</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Saturnalia">SĀTURNĀLĬA, the festival of Saturnus, to
-whom the inhabitants of Latium attributed
-the introduction of agriculture and the arts
-of civilized life. Falling towards the end of
-December, at the season when the agricultural
-labours of the year were fully completed,
-it was celebrated in ancient times by
-the rustic population as a sort of joyous
-harvest-home, and in every age was viewed
-by all classes of the community as a period of
-absolute relaxation and unrestrained merriment.
-During its continuance no public
-business could be transacted, the law courts
-were closed, the schools kept holiday, to
-commence a war was impious, to punish a
-malefactor involved pollution. Special indulgences
-were granted to the slaves of each
-domestic establishment; they were relieved
-from all ordinary toils, were permitted to
-wear the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pileus</i>, the badge of freedom, were
-granted full freedom of speech, and partook
-of a banquet attired in the clothes of their
-masters, and were waited upon by them at
-table. All ranks devoted themselves to
-feasting and mirth, presents were interchanged
-among friends, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cerei</i> or wax tapers
-being the common offering of the more
-humble to their superiors, and crowds
-thronged the streets, shouting, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Io Saturnalia</i>
-(this was termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clamare Saturnalia</i>), while
-sacrifices were offered with uncovered head,
-from a conviction that no ill-omened sight
-would interrupt the rites of such a happy
-day. Many of the peculiar customs of this
-festival exhibit a remarkable resemblance to
-the sports of our own Christmas and of the
-Italian Carnival. Thus on the Saturnalia
-public gambling was allowed by the aediles,
-just as in the days of our ancestors the most
-rigid were wont to countenance card-playing
-on Christmas-eve; the whole population
-threw off the toga, wore a loose gown, called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">synthesis</i>, and walked about with the pileus
-on their heads, which reminds us of the
-dominos, the peaked caps, and other disguises
-worn by masques and mummers; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cerei</i>
-were probably employed as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">moccoli</i> now
-are on the last night of the Carnival; and
-lastly, one of the amusements in private
-society was the election of a mock king,
-which at once calls to recollection the characteristic
-ceremony of Twelfth-night. During
-the republic, although the whole month of
-December was considered as dedicated to
-Saturn, only one day, the <span class="allsmcap">XIV.</span> Kal. Jan., was
-set apart for the sacred rites of the divinity.
-When the month was lengthened by the addition
-of two days upon the adoption of the
-Julian Calendar, the Saturnalia fell on the
-<span class="allsmcap">XVI.</span> Kal. Jan., which gave rise to confusion
-and mistakes among the more ignorant portion
-of the people. To obviate this inconvenience,
-and allay all religious scruples,
-Augustus enacted that three whole days, the
-17th, 18th, and 19th of December, should in
-all time coming be hallowed, thus embracing
-both the old and new style. Under the empire
-the merry-making lasted for seven days,
-and three different festivals were celebrated
-during this period. First came the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Saturnalia</i><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_330"></a>[330]</span>
-proper, commencing on <span class="allsmcap">XVI.</span> Kal. Dec.,
-followed by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Opalia</i>, anciently coincident
-with the Saturnalia, on <span class="allsmcap">XIV.</span> Kal. Jan.; these
-two together lasted for five days, and the
-sixth and seventh were occupied with the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sigillaria</i>, so called from little earthenware
-figures (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sigilla</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">oscilla</i>) exposed for sale at
-this season, and given as toys to children.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Scalptura">SCALPTŪRA or SCULPTŪRA, originally
-signified cutting figures out of a solid material,
-but was more particularly applied to the
-art of cutting figures into the material (intaglios),
-which was chiefly applied to producing
-seals and matrices for the mints; and 2. the
-art of producing raised figures (cameos),
-which served for the most part as ornaments.
-<em>Sculpture</em> in our sense of the word was
-usually designated by the term <span class="smcap"><a href="#Statuaria">Statuaria</a></span>.
-The first artist who is mentioned as an engraver
-of stones is Theodoras, the son of
-Telecles, the Samian, who engraved the stone
-in the ring of Polycrates. The most celebrated
-among them was Pyrgoteles, who
-engraved the seal-rings for Alexander the
-Great. Several of the successors of Alexander
-and other wealthy persons adopted the custom
-of adorning their gold and silver vessels,
-craters, candelabras, and the like, with precious
-stones on which raised figures (cameos)
-were worked. The art was in a particularly
-flourishing state at Rome under Augustus
-and his successors, in the hands of Dioscurides
-and other artists, many of whose works
-are still preserved. Numerous specimens of
-intaglios and cameos are still preserved in
-the various museums of Europe.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Scamnum">SCAMNUM, <em>dim.</em> SCĂBELLTUM, a step
-which was placed before the beds of the
-ancients in order to assist persons in getting
-into them, as some were very high:
-others which were lower required also lower
-steps, which were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scabella</i>. A scamnum
-was also used as a footstool. A scamnum
-extended in length becomes a bench,
-and in this sense the word is frequently
-used. The benches in ships were sometimes
-called scamna.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Scena">SCĒNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sceptrum">SCEPTRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκῆπτρον</span>), which originally
-denoted a simple staff or walking-stick, was
-emblematic of station and authority. In
-ancient authors the sceptre is represented as
-belonging more especially to kings, princes,
-and leaders of tribes: but it is also borne by
-judges, by heralds, and by priests and seers.
-The sceptre descended from father to son,
-and might be committed to any one in order
-to express the transfer of authority. Those
-who bore the sceptre swore by it, solemnly
-taking it in the right hand and raising it
-towards heaven. The ivory sceptre of the
-kings of Rome, which descended to the consuls,
-was surmounted by an eagle.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Schoenus">SCHOENUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχοῖνος</span>), an Egyptian
-and Persian measure, the length of which is
-stated by Herodotus at 60 stadia, or 2 parasangs.
-It was used especially for measuring
-land.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Scorpio">SCORPĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tormentum">Tormentum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Scribae">SCRĪBAE, public notaries or clerks, in
-the pay of the Roman state. They were
-chiefly employed in making up the public
-accounts, copying out laws, and recording the
-proceedings of the different functionaries of
-the state. The phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriptum facere</i> was
-used to denote their occupation. Being very
-numerous, they were divided into companies
-or classes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decuriae</i>), and were assigned by
-lot to different magistrates, whence they
-were named Quaestorii, Aedilicii, or Praetorii,
-from the officers of state to whom they were
-attached. The appointment to the office of a
-“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriba</span>” seems to have been either made on
-the nomination of a magistrate, or purchased.
-Horace, for instance, bought for himself a
-“patent place as clerk in the treasury”
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriptum quaestorium comparavit</i>). In Cicero’s
-time, indeed, it seems that any one
-might become a scriba or public clerk by
-purchase, and consequently, as freedmen and
-their sons were eligible, and constituted a
-great portion of the public clerks at Rome,
-the office was not highly esteemed, though
-frequently held by ingenui or free-born citizens.
-Very few instances are recorded of
-the scribae being raised to the higher dignities
-of the state. Cn. Flavius, the scribe of
-Appius Claudius, was raised to the office of
-curule aedile in gratitude for his making
-public the various forms of actions, which
-had previously been the exclusive property
-of the patricians [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actio">Actio</a></span>]; but the returning
-officer refused to acquiesce in his election
-till he had given up his books and left his
-profession.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Scrinium">SCRĪNĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Capsa">Capsa</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Scripta">SCRIPTA DUŎDĔCIM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Latrunculi">Latrunculi</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Scriptura">SCRIPTŪRA, that part of the revenue of
-the Roman Republic which was derived from
-letting out, as pasture land, those portions of
-the ager publicus which were not taken into
-cultivation. The names for such parts of the
-ager publicus were, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pascua publica</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saltus</i>, or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silvae</i>. They were let by the censors to the
-publicani, like all other vectigalia; and the
-persons who sent their cattle to graze on
-such public pastures had to pay a certain tax
-or duty to the publicani, which of course
-varied according to the number and quality
-of the cattle which they kept upon them.
-The publicani had to keep the lists of persons
-who sent their cattle upon the public pastures,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_331"></a>[331]</span>
-together with the number and quality
-of the cattle. From this registering (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scribere</i>)
-the duty itself was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriptura</i>, the public
-pasture land <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ager scripturarius</i>, and the
-publicani, or their agents who raised the tax,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scripturarii</i>. The Lex Thoria (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 111) did
-away with the scriptura in Italy, where the
-public pastures were very numerous and
-extensive, especially in Apulia, and the lands
-themselves were now sold or distributed. In
-the provinces, where the public pastures
-were also let out in the same manner, the
-practice continued until the time of the empire;
-but afterwards the scriptura is no longer
-mentioned.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Scrupulum">SCRŪPŬLUM, or more properly <span class="smcap">Scripulum</span>
-or <span class="smcap">Scriplum</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γράμμα</span>), the smallest
-denomination of weight among the Romans.
-It was the 24th part of the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Uncia">Uncia</a></span>, or the
-288th of the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Libra">Libra</a></span>, and therefore = 18·06
-grains English, which is about the average
-weight of the scrupular aurei still in existence.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aurum">Aurum</a>.</span>] As a square measure, it was the
-smallest division of the jugerum, which contained
-288 scrupula. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Jugerum">Jugerum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Scutum">SCŪTUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρεός</span>), the Roman shield worn
-by the heavy-armed infantry, instead of being
-round, like the Greek <span class="smcap"><a href="#Clipeus">Clipeus</a></span>, was adapted
-to the form of the human body, by being
-made either oval or of the shape of a door,
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θύρα</span>), which it also resembled in being
-made of wood or wicker-work, and from
-which consequently its Greek name was
-derived. Polybius says that the dimensions
-of the scutum were 4 feet by 2½.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp52" id="ill331a" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill331a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Scuta, shields. (Bartoli, Arcus Triumph.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Scytale">SCỸTĂLĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκυτάλη</span>) is the name applied
-to a secret mode of writing, by which the
-Spartan ephors communicated with their
-kings and generals when abroad. When a
-king or general left Sparta, the ephors gave
-to him a staff of a definite length and thickness,
-and retained for themselves another of
-precisely the same size. When they had
-any communications to make to him, they cut
-the material upon which they intended to
-write into the shape of a narrow riband,
-wound it round their staff, and then wrote
-upon it the message which they had to send
-to him. When the strip of writing material
-was taken from the staff, nothing but single
-letters appeared, and in this state the strip was
-sent to the general, who, after having wound
-it round his staff, was able to read the communication.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Scythae">SCỸTHAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκύθαι</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Demosii">Demosii</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Secespita">SĔCESPĬTA, an instrument used by the
-Roman priests in killing the victims at sacrifices,
-probably an axe. In the annexed coin,
-the reverse represents a culter, a simpuvium,
-and a secespita.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill331b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill331b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Secespita, Culter, and Simpuvium. (Coin of Sulpicia Gens.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Sectio">SECTĬO, the sale of a man’s property by
-the state (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">publice</i>). This was done in consequence
-of a condemnatio, and for the purpose
-of repayment to the state of such sums of
-money as the condemned person had improperly
-appropriated; or in consequence of
-a proscriptio. Sometimes the things sold
-were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sectio</i>. Those who bought the
-property were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sectores</i>. The property
-was sold <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub hasta</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sector">SECTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sectio">Sectio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Securis">SĔCŪRIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀξινη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέλεκυς</span>), an axe or
-hatchet. The axe was either made with a
-single edge, or with a blade or head on
-each side of the haft, the latter kind being
-denominated <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bipennis</i>. The axe was used as
-a weapon of war chiefly by the Asiatic nations.
-It was a part of the Roman fasces. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fasces">Fasces</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Secutores">SĔCŪTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp99" id="ill332a" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill332a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Sellae Curules. (The top figure from the Vatican collection;<br />the two bottom figures from the Museum at Naples.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Sella">SELLA, the general term for a seat or
-chair of any description.&mdash;(1) <span id="Sella_cu" class="smcap">Sella Curulis</span>,
-the chair of state. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Curulis</i> is derived by the
-ancient writers from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">currus</i>, but it more
-probably contains the same root as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curia</i>.
-The sella curulis is said to have been used at
-Rome from a very remote period as an emblem
-of kingly power, having been imported,
-along with various other insignia of royalty,
-from Etruria. Under the republic the right<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_332"></a>[332]</span>
-of sitting upon this chair belonged to the
-consuls, praetors, curule aediles, and censors;
-to the flamen dialis; to the dictator, and to
-those whom he deputed to act under himself,
-as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister equitum</i>, since he might be
-said to comprehend all magistracies within
-himself. After <ins class="corr" id="tn-332" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'the downfal of'">
-the downfall of</ins> the constitution,
-it was assigned to the emperors also, or
-to their statues in their absence; to the
-augustales, and perhaps, to the praefectus
-urbi. It was displayed upon all great public
-occasions, especially in the circus and theatre;
-and it was the seat of the praetor when
-he administered justice. In the provinces it
-was assumed by inferior magistrates, when
-they exercised proconsular or propraetorian
-authority. We find it occasionally exhibited
-on the medals of foreign monarchs likewise,
-as on those of Ariobarzanes II. of Cappadocia,
-for it was the practice of the Romans to
-present a curule chair, an ivory sceptre, a
-toga praetexta, and such-like ornaments, as
-tokens of respect and confidence to those
-rulers whose friendship they desired to cultivate.
-The sella curulis appears from the
-first to have been ornamented with ivory; and
-at a later period it was overlaid with gold.
-In shape it was extremely plain, closely resembling
-a common folding camp-stool with
-crooked legs. The sella curulis is frequently
-represented upon the denarii of Roman families.
-In the following cut are represented
-two pair of bronze legs, belonging to a sella
-curulis, and likewise a sella curulis itself.&mdash;(2)
-<span id="Sella_ge" class="smcap">Sella Gestatoria</span>, or <span class="smcap">Fertoria</span>, a
-sedan used both in town and country,
-and by men as well as by women. It
-is expressly distinguished from the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Lectica">Lectica</a></span>,
-a portable bed or sofa, in which the person
-carried lay in a recumbent position,
-while the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella</i> was a portable chair, in
-which the occupant sat upright. It differed
-from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cathedra</i> also, but in what the difference
-consisted, it is not easy to determine.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cathedra">Cathedra</a>.</span>] It appears not to have been
-introduced until long after the lectica was
-common, since we scarcely, if ever, find any
-allusion to it until the period of the empire.
-The sella was sometimes entirely open, but
-more frequently shut in. It was made sometimes
-of plain leather, and sometimes ornamented
-with bone, ivory, silver, or gold,
-according to the fortune of the proprietor.
-It was furnished with a pillow to support the
-head and neck (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cervical</i>); the motion was so
-easy that one might study without inconvenience,
-while at the same time it afforded a
-healthful exercise.&mdash;(3) Chairs for ordinary
-domestic purposes have been discovered in
-excavations, or are seen represented in ancient
-frescoes, many displaying great taste.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill332b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill332b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Sellae, Chairs. (The right-hand figure from the Vatican
-collection;<br />the left-hand figure from a Painting at
-Pompeii.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Semis">SĒMIS, SĒMISSIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Semuncia">SĒMUNCĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Uncia">Uncia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Semunciarium">SĒMUNCIĀRĬUM FĒNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Senatus">SĔNĀTUS. In all the republics of antiquity
-the government was divided between
-a senate and a popular assembly; and in
-cases where a king stood at the head of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_333"></a>[333]</span>
-affairs, as at Sparta and in early Rome, the
-king had little more than the executive. A
-senate in the early times was always regarded
-as an assembly of elders, which is in fact
-the meaning of the Roman senatus, as of the
-Spartan (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γερουσία</span>), and its members were
-elected from among the nobles of the nation.
-The number of senators in the ancient republics
-always bore a distinct relation to the
-number of tribes of which the nation was
-composed. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boule</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Gerousia">Gerousia</a></span>.] Hence in
-the earliest times, when Rome consisted of only
-one tribe, its senate consisted of one hundred
-members (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatores</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres</i>; compare <span class="smcap"><a href="#Patricii">Patricii</a></span>),
-and when the Sabine tribe or the
-Tities became united with the Latin tribe or
-the Ramnes, the number of senators was increased
-to two hundred. This number was
-again augmented to three hundred by Tarquinius
-Priscus, when the third tribe or the
-Luceres became incorporated with the Roman
-state. The new senators added by Tarquinius
-Priscus were distinguished from those
-belonging to the two older tribes by the appellation
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres minorum gentium</i>, as previously
-those who represented the Tities had
-been distinguished, by the same name, from
-those who represented the Ramnes. Under
-Tarquinius Superbus the number of senators
-is said to have become very much diminished,
-as he is reported to have put many
-to death and sent others into exile. This
-account however appears to be greatly exaggerated,
-and it is probable that several vacancies
-in the senate arose from many of the
-senators accompanying the tyrant into his
-exile. The vacancies which had thus arisen
-were filled up immediately after the establishment
-of the republic, when several noble
-plebeians of equestrian rank were made senators.
-These new senators were distinguished
-from the old ones by the name of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Conscripti</i>; and hence the customary mode
-of addressing the whole senate henceforth
-always was: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Patres Conscripti</i>, that is, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Patres
-et Conscripti</i>.&mdash;The number of 300 senators
-appears to have remained unaltered
-for several centuries. The first permanent
-increase to their number was made by Sulla,
-and the senate seems henceforth to have consisted
-of between five and six hundred.
-Julius Caesar augmented the number to 900,
-and raised to this dignity even common soldiers,
-freedmen, and peregrini. Augustus
-cleared the senate of the unworthy members,
-who were contemptuously called by the
-people <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Orcini senatores</i>, and reduced its number
-to 600.&mdash;In the time of the kings the
-senate was probably elected by the gentes,
-each gens appointing one member as its representative;
-and as there were 300 gentes,
-there were consequently 300 senators. The
-whole senate was divided into decuries, each
-of which corresponded to a curia. When the
-senate consisted of only one hundred members,
-there were accordingly only ten decuries
-of senators; and ten senators, one
-being taken from each decury, formed the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Decem Primi</i>, who represented the ten curies.
-When subsequently the representatives of
-the two other tribes were admitted into the
-senate, the Ramnes with their decem primi
-retained for a time their superiority over the
-two other tribes, and gave their votes first.
-The first among the decem primi was the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">princeps senatus</i>, who was appointed by the
-king, and was at the same time custos urbis.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Praefectus_u">Praefectus urbi</a>.</span>] Respecting the age at
-which a person might be elected into the
-senate during the kingly period, we know no
-more than what is indicated by the name
-senator itself, that is, that they were persons
-of advanced age.&mdash;Soon after the establishment
-of the republic, though at what time is
-uncertain, the right of appointing senators
-passed from the gentes into the hands of the
-consuls, consular tribunes, and subsequently
-of the censors. At the same time, the right
-which the magistrates possessed of electing
-senators was by no means an arbitrary
-power, for the senators were usually taken
-from among those whom the people had previously
-invested with a magistracy, so that
-in reality the people themselves always nominated
-the candidates for the senate, which
-on this account remained, as before, a representative
-assembly. After the institution of
-the censorship, the censors alone had the
-right of introducing new members into the
-senate from among the ex-magistrates, and
-of excluding such as they deemed unworthy.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Censor">Censor</a>.</span>] The exclusion was effected by
-simply passing over the names, and not entering
-them on the lists of senators, whence
-such men were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praeteriti Senatores</i>.
-On one extraordinary occasion the eldest
-among the ex-censors was invested with dictatorial
-power for the purpose of filling up
-vacancies in the senate.&mdash;As all curule magistrates,
-and also the quaestors, had by
-virtue of their office a seat in the senate,
-even if they had not been elected senators,
-we must distinguish between two classes of
-senators, viz., real senators, or such as had
-been regularly raised to their dignity by the
-magistrates or the censors, and such as had,
-by virtue of the office which they held or
-had held, a right to take their seats in the
-senate and to speak (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sententiam dicere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus
-sententiae</i>), but not to vote. To this ordo
-senatorius also belonged the pontifex maximus
-and the flamen dialis. Though these<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_334"></a>[334]</span>
-senators had no right to vote, they might,
-when the real senators had voted, step over
-or join the one or the other party, whence
-they were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Senatores Pedarii</i>, an appellation
-which had in former times been applied
-to those juniores who were not consulars.
-When at length all the state offices had become
-equally accessible to the plebeians and
-the patricians, and when the majority of
-offices were held by the former, their number
-in the senate naturally increased in proportion.
-The senate had gradually become an
-assembly representing the people, as formerly
-it had represented the populus, and down to
-the last century of the republic the senatorial
-dignity was only regarded as one conferred
-by the people. But notwithstanding this
-apparently popular character of the senate,
-it was never a popular or democratic assembly,
-for now its members belonged to the
-nobiles, who were as aristocratic as the patricians.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nobiles">Nobiles</a>.</span>] The office of princeps
-senatus, which had become independent of
-that of praetor urbanus, was now given
-by the censors, and at first always to the
-eldest among the ex-censors, but afterwards
-to any other senator whom they thought
-most worthy; and unless there was any
-charge to be made against him, he was
-re-elected at the next lustrum. This distinction,
-however, great as it was, afforded
-neither power nor advantages, and did not
-even confer the privilege of presiding at the
-meetings of the senate, which only belonged
-to those magistrates who had the right of
-convoking the senate.&mdash;During the republican
-period no senatorial census existed,
-although senators naturally always belonged
-to the wealthiest classes. The institution of
-a census for senators belongs to the time of
-the empire. Augustus first fixed it at 400,000
-sesterces, afterwards increased it to double
-this sum, and at last even to 1,200,000 sesterces.
-Those senators whose property did
-not amount to this sum received grants from
-the emperor to make it up. As regards the
-age at which a person might become a senator,
-we have no express statement for the
-time of the republic, although it appears to
-have been fixed by some custom or law, as
-the aetas senatoria is frequently mentioned,
-especially during the latter period of the
-republic. But we may by induction discover
-the probable age. We know that, according
-to the lex annalis of the tribune Villius, the
-age fixed for the quaestorship was 31. Now
-as it might happen that a quaestor was made
-a senator immediately after the expiration
-of his office, we may presume that the
-earliest age at which a man could become a
-senator was 32. Augustus at last fixed the
-senatorial age at 25, which appears to have
-remained unaltered throughout the time of
-the empire.&mdash;No senator was allowed to
-carry on any mercantile business. About
-the commencement of the second Punic war,
-some senators appear to have violated this
-law or custom, and in order to prevent its
-recurrence a law was passed, with the vehement
-opposition of the senate, that none of
-its members should be permitted to possess a
-ship of more than 300 amphorae in tonnage,
-as this was thought sufficiently large to convey
-to Rome the produce of their estates
-abroad. It is clear, however, that this law
-was frequently violated.&mdash;Regular meetings
-of the senate (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatus legitimus</i>) took place
-during the republic, and probably during the
-kingly period also, on the calends, nones,
-and ides of every month: extraordinary
-meetings (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatus indictus</i>) might be convoked
-on any other day, with the exception
-of those which were atri, and those on which
-comitia were held. The right of convoking
-the senate during the kingly period belonged
-to the king, or to his vicegerent, the custos
-urbis. This right was during the republic
-transferred to the curule magistrates, and at
-last to the tribunes also. If a senator did
-not appear on a day of meeting, he was
-liable to a fine, for which a pledge was taken
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pignoris captio</i>) until it was paid. Towards
-the end of the republic it was decreed, that
-during the whole month of February the senate
-should give audience to foreign ambassadors
-on all days on which the senate could lawfully
-meet, and that no other matters
-should be discussed until these affairs were
-settled.&mdash;The places where the meetings of the
-senate were held (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curiae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senacula</i>) were
-always inaugurated by the augurs. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a>.</span>]
-The most ancient place was the
-Curia Hostilia, in which alone originally a
-senatus-consultum could be made. Afterwards,
-however, several temples were used
-for this purpose, such as the temple of Concordia,
-a place near the temple of Bellona
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Legatus">Legatus</a></span>], and one near the porta Capena.
-Under the emperors the senate also met in
-other places: under Caesar, the Curia Julia,
-a building of extraordinary splendour, was
-commenced; but subsequently meetings of
-the senate were frequently held in the house of
-a consul.&mdash;The subjects laid before the senate
-belonged partly to the internal affairs of the
-state, partly to legislation, and partly to
-finance; and no measure could be brought
-before the populus without having previously
-been discussed and prepared by the senate.
-The senate was thus the medium through
-which all affairs of the whole government
-had to pass: it considered and discussed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_335"></a>[335]</span>
-whatever measures the king thought proper
-to introduce, and had, on the other hand, a
-perfect control over the assembly of the populus,
-which could only accept or reject what
-the senate brought before it. When a king
-died, the royal dignity, until a successor was
-elected, was transferred to the Decem Primi,
-each of whom in rotation held this dignity
-for five days. Under the republic, the senate
-had at first the right of proposing to the
-comitia the candidates for magistracies, but
-this right was subsequently lost: the comitia
-centuriata became quite free in regard to
-elections, and were no longer dependent upon
-the proposal of the senate. The curies only
-still possessed the right of sanctioning the
-election; but in the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 299 they were
-compelled to sanction any election of magistrates
-which the comitia might make, before
-it took place, and this soon after became law
-by the Lex Maenia. When at last the curies
-no longer assembled for this empty show of
-power, the senate stepped into their place, and
-henceforth in elections, and soon after also in
-matters of legislation, the senate had previously
-to sanction whatever the comitia
-might decide. After the Lex Hortensia a
-decree of the comitia tributa became law,
-even without the sanction of the senate. The
-original state of things had thus gradually
-become reversed, and the senate had lost very
-important branches of its power, which had
-all been gained by the comitia tributa. In
-its relation to the comitia centuriata, however,
-the ancient rules were still in force, as
-laws, declarations of war, conclusions of
-peace, treaties, &amp;c., were brought before
-them, and decided by them on the proposal
-of the senate.&mdash;The powers of the senate,
-after both orders were placed upon a perfect
-equality, may be thus briefly summed
-up. The senate continued to have the supreme
-superintendence in all matters of religion;
-it determined upon the manner in
-which a war was to be conducted, what
-legions were to be placed at the disposal of a
-commander, and whether new ones were to
-be levied; it decreed into what provinces the
-consuls and praetors were to be sent [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Provincia">Provincia</a></span>],
-and whose imperium was to be prolonged.
-The commissioners who were generally
-sent out to settle the administration of
-a newly-conquered country, were always appointed
-by the senate. All embassies for the
-conclusion of peace or treaties with foreign
-states were sent out by the senate, and such
-ambassadors were generally senators themselves,
-and ten in number. The senate alone
-carried on the negotiations with foreign ambassadors,
-and received the complaints of
-subject or allied nations, who always regarded
-the senate as their common protector.
-By virtue of this office of protector it also
-settled all disputes which might arise among
-the municipia and colonies of Italy, and
-punished all heavy crimes committed in
-Italy, which might endanger the public peace
-and security. Even in Rome itself, the judices
-to whom the praetor referred important
-cases, both public and private, were taken
-from among the senators, and in extraordinary
-cases the senate appointed especial commissions
-to investigate them; but such a
-commission, if the case in question was a
-capital offence committed by a citizen, required
-the sanction of the people. When
-the republic was in danger, the senate might
-confer unlimited power upon the magistrates
-by the formula, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Videant consules, ne quid
-respublica detrimenti capiat</i>, which was
-equivalent to a declaration of martial law
-within the city. This general care for the
-internal and external welfare of the republic
-included, as before, the right of disposing of
-the finances requisite for these purposes.
-Hence all the revenue and expenditure of the
-republic were under the direct administration
-of the senate, and the censors and quaestors
-were only its ministers or agents. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Censor">Censor</a></span>;
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Quaestor">Quaestor</a></span>.] All the expenses necessary for
-the maintenance of the armies required the
-sanction of the senate, before anything could
-be done, and it might even prevent the triumph
-of a returning general, by refusing to
-assign the money necessary for it. There
-are, however, instances of a general triumphing
-without the consent of the senate.&mdash;How
-many members were required to be present
-in order to constitute a legal assembly, is
-uncertain, though it appears that there existed
-some regulations on this point, and
-there is one instance on record, in which at
-least one hundred senators were required to
-be present. The presiding magistrate opened
-the business with the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quod bonum,
-faustum, felix fortunatumque sit populo Romano
-Quiritibus</i>, and then laid before the
-assembly (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">referre</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">relatio</i>) what he had to
-propose. Towards the end of the republic
-the order in which the question was put to
-the senators appears to have depended upon
-the discretion of the presiding consul, who
-called upon each member by pronouncing his
-name; but he usually began with the princeps
-senatus, or if consules designati were
-present, with them. The consul generally
-observed all the year round the same order in
-which he had commenced on the first of
-January. A senator when called upon to
-speak might do so at full length, and even
-introduce subjects not directly connected with
-the point at issue. It depended upon the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_336"></a>[336]</span>
-president which of the opinions expressed he
-would put to the vote, and which he would
-pass over. The majority of votes always
-decided a question. The majority was ascertained
-either by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">numeratio</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">discessio</i>; that
-is, the president either counted the votes, or
-the members who voted on the same side
-separated from those who voted otherwise.
-The latter mode seems to have been the
-usual one. What the senate determined was
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatus consultum</i>, because the consul,
-who introduced the business, was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatum
-consulere</i>. In the enacting part of a lex
-the populus were said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jubere</i>, and in a plebiscitum
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scire</i>; in a senatusconsultum the senate
-was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">censere</i>. Certain forms were observed
-in drawing up a senatusconsultum, of
-which there is an example in Cicero: “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">S. C.
-Auctoritates Pridie Kal. Octob. in Aede
-Apollinis, scribendo adfuerunt L. Domitius
-Cn. Filius Ahenobarbus, &amp;c. Quod M. Marcellus
-Consul V. F. (<em>verba fecit</em>) de prov.
-Cons. D. E. R. I. C. (<em>de ea re ita censuerunt
-Uti, &amp;c.</em>)</span>” The names of the persons who
-were witnesses to the drawing up of the
-senatusconsultum were called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctoritates</i>,
-and these auctoritates were cited as evidence
-of the fact of the persons named in them
-having been present at the drawing up of the
-S.C. There can be no doubt that certain
-persons were required to be present <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scribendo</i>,
-but others might assist if they chose, and a
-person in this way might testify his regard
-for another on behalf of whom or with reference
-to whom the S. C. was made. Besides
-the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scribendo adesse</i>, there are <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">esse ad
-scribendum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">poni ad scribendum</i>. When
-a S. C. was made on the motion of a person,
-it was said to be made <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in sententiam ejus</i>.
-If the S. C. was carried, it was written on
-tablets, and placed in the Aerarium. Senatusconsulta
-were, properly speaking, laws,
-for it is clear that the senate had legislative
-power even in the republican period; but it
-is difficult to determine how far their legislative
-power extended. A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decretum</i> of the
-senate was a rule made by the senate as to
-some matter which was strictly within its
-competence, and thus differed from a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatusconsultum</i>,
-which was a law; but these words
-are often used indiscriminately and with
-little precision. Many of the senatusconsulta
-of the republican period were only determinations
-of the senate, which became leges by
-being carried in the comitia. One instance
-of this kind occurred on the occasion of the
-trial of Clodius for violating the mysteries of
-the Bona Dea. A rogatio on the subject of
-the trial was proposed to the comitia ex
-senatusconsulto, which is also spoken of as
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctoritas</i> of the senate. A senate was
-not allowed to be held before sunrise or to be
-prolonged after sunset: on extraordinary
-emergencies, however, this regulation was set
-aside.&mdash;During the latter part of the republic
-the senate was degraded in various ways by
-Sulla, Caesar, and others, and on many occasions
-it was only an instrument in the hands
-of the men in power. In this way it became
-prepared for the despotic government of the
-emperors, when it was altogether the creature
-and obedient instrument of the princeps.
-The emperor himself was generally also
-princeps senatus, and had the power of convoking
-both ordinary and extraordinary
-meetings, although the consuls, praetors and
-tribunes continued to have the same right. The
-ordinary meetings, according to a regulation
-of Augustus, were held twice in every
-month. In the reign of Tiberius the election
-of magistrates was transferred from the people
-to the senate, which, however, was enjoined
-to take especial notice of those candidates
-who were recommended to it by the
-emperor. At the demise of an emperor the
-senate had the right of appointing his successor,
-in case no one had been nominated by
-the emperor himself; but the senate very
-rarely had an opportunity of exercising this
-right, as it was usurped by the soldiers. The
-aerarium at first still continued nominally to
-be under the control of the senate, but the
-emperors gradually took it under their own
-exclusive management, and the senate retained
-nothing but the administration of the
-funds of the city (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arca publica</i>), which were
-distinct both from the aerarium and from
-the fiscus. Augustus ordained that no accusations
-should any longer be brought before
-the comitia, and instead of them he raised
-the senate to a high court of justice, upon
-which he conferred the right of taking cognisance
-of capital offences committed by senators,
-of crimes against the state and the person
-of the emperors, and of crimes committed
-by the provincial magistrates in the administration
-of their provinces. Respecting the
-provinces of the senate, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Provincia">Provincia</a></span>.
-Under the empire, senatusconsulta began to
-take the place of leges, properly so called,
-and as the senate was, with the exception of
-the emperor, the only legislating body, such
-senatusconsulta are frequently designated by
-the name of the consuls in whose year of
-office they were passed.&mdash;The distinctions and
-privileges enjoyed by senators were: 1. The
-tunica with a broad purple stripe (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">latus
-clavus</i>) in front, which was woven in it, and
-not, as is commonly believed, sewed upon it.
-2. A kind of short boot, with the letter C. on
-the front of the foot. This C. is generally
-supposed to mean <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centum</i>, and to refer to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_337"></a>[337]</span>
-original number of 100 (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centum</i>) senators.
-3. The right of sitting in the orchestra in the
-theatres and amphitheatres. This distinction
-was first procured for the senators by Scipio
-Africanus Major, 194 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 4. On a certain
-day in the year a sacrifice was offered to
-Jupiter in the Capitol, and on this occasion
-the senators alone had a feast in the Capitol;
-the right was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus publice epulandi</i>.
-5. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus liberae legationis</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Legatus">Legatus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_224">p. 224</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Seniores">SĔNĬŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Septemviri">SEPTEMVĬRI ĔPŬLŌNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Epulones">Epulones</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Septimontium">SEPTĬMONTĬUM, a Roman festival which
-was held in the month of December. It was
-celebrated by the montani, or the inhabitants
-of the seven ancient hills or rather districts
-of Rome, who offered on this day sacrifices to
-the gods in their respective districts. These
-sacra were, like the Paganalia, not sacra
-publica, but privata. They were believed to
-have been instituted to commemorate the
-enclosure of the seven hills of Rome within
-the walls of the city, and must certainly be
-referred to a time when the Capitoline, Quirinal,
-and Viminal were not yet incorporated
-with Rome.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Septum">SEPTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a></span>, <a href="#Page_107">p. 107</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Septunx">SEPTUNX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sepulcrum">SĔPULCRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sera">SĔRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Janua">Janua</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sericum">SĒRĬCUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σηρικόν</span>), silk, also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bombycinum</i>.
-Raw silk was brought from the
-interior of Asia, and manufactured in Cos, as
-early as the fourth century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> From this
-island it appears that the Roman ladies obtained
-their most splendid garments [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coa">Coa
-Vestis</a></span>], which were remarkably thin, sometimes
-of a fine purple dye, and variegated
-with transverse stripes of gold. Silk was
-supposed to come from the country of the Seres
-in Asia, whence a silk garment is usually
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Serica vestis</i>. Under the empire the
-rage for such garments was constantly on the
-increase. Even men aspired to be adorned
-with silk, and hence the senate, early in the
-reign of Tiberius, enacted <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ne vestis Serica viros
-fœdaret</i>. The eggs of the silkworm were first
-brought into Europe in the age of Justinian,
-<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 530, in the hollow stem of a plant from
-“Serinda,” which was probably Khotan in
-Little Bucharia, by some monks who had learnt
-the method of hatching and rearing them.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Serta">SERTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Corona">Corona</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Servus">SERVUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δοῦλος</span>), a slave. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span>
-Slavery existed almost throughout the whole
-of Greece; and Aristotle says that a complete
-household is that which consists of slaves
-and freemen, and he defines a slave to be a
-living working-tool and possession. None
-of the Greek philosophers ever seem to have
-objected to slavery as a thing morally wrong;
-Plato in his perfect state only desires that no
-Greeks should be made slaves by Greeks, and
-Aristotle defends the justice of the institution
-on the ground of a diversity of race, and
-divides mankind into the free and those who
-are slaves by nature; under the latter description
-he appears to have regarded all
-barbarians in the Greek sense of the word,
-and therefore considers their slavery justifiable.
-In the most ancient times there are
-said to have been no slaves in Greece, but we
-find them in the Homeric poems, though by
-no means so generally as in later times.
-They are usually prisoners taken in war,
-who serve their conquerors: but we also
-read as well of the purchase and sale of
-slaves. They were, however, at that time
-mostly confined to the houses of the wealthy.
-There were two kinds of slavery among the
-Greeks. One species arose when the inhabitants
-of a country were subdued by an invading
-tribe, and reduced to the condition of
-serfs or bondsmen. They lived upon and
-cultivated the land which their masters had
-appropriated to themselves, and paid them a
-certain rent. They also attended their
-masters in war. They could not be sold out
-of the country or separated from their families,
-and could acquire property. Such were
-the Helots of Sparta [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Helotes">Helotes</a></span>], and the
-Penestae of Thessaly [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Penestae">Penestae</a></span>]. The other
-species of slavery consisted of domestic slaves
-acquired by purchase, who were entirely the
-property of their masters, and could be disposed
-of like any other goods and chattels:
-these were the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δοῦλοι</span> properly so called, and
-were the kind of slaves that existed at Athens
-and Corinth. In commercial cities slaves
-were very numerous, as they performed the
-work of the artisans and manufacturers of
-modern towns. In poorer republics, which
-had little or no capital, and which subsisted
-wholly by agriculture, they would be few:
-thus in Phocis and Locris there are said to
-have been originally no domestic slaves.
-The majority of slaves was purchased; few
-comparatively were born in the family of the
-master, partly because the number of female
-slaves was very small in comparison with the
-male, and partly because the cohabitation of
-slaves was discouraged, as it was considered
-cheaper to purchase than to rear slaves. It
-was a recognised rule of Greek national law
-that the persons of those who were taken
-prisoners in war became the property of the
-conqueror, but it was the practice for Greeks
-to give liberty to those of their own nation
-on payment of a ransom. Consequently
-almost all slaves in Greece, with the exception
-of the serfs above-mentioned, were barbarians.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_338"></a>[338]</span>
-The chief supply seems to have
-come from the Greek colonies in Asia Minor,
-which had abundant opportunities of obtaining
-them from their own neighbourhood and
-the interior of Asia. A considerable number
-of slaves also came from Thrace, where
-the parents frequently sold their children.&mdash;At
-Athens, as well as in other states, there
-was a regular slave-market, called the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύκλος</span>, because the slaves stood round in
-a circle. They were also sometimes sold by
-auction, and were then placed on a stone,
-as is now done when slaves are sold in the
-United States of North America: the same
-was also the practice in Rome, whence the
-phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">homo de lapide emtus</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Auctio">Auctio</a>.</span>] At
-Athens the number of slaves was far greater
-than the free population. Even the poorest
-citizen had a slave for the care of his household,
-and in every moderate establishment
-many were employed for all possible occupations,
-as bakers, cooks, tailors, &amp;c.&mdash;Slaves
-either worked on their masters’ account or
-their own (in the latter case they paid their
-masters a certain sum a day); or they were
-let out by their master on hire, either for the
-mines or any other kind of labour, or as hired
-servants for wages. The rowers on board
-the ships were usually slaves, who either
-belonged to the state or to private persons,
-who let them out to the state on payment of
-a certain sum. It appears that a considerable
-number of persons kept large gangs of
-slaves merely for the purpose of letting out,
-and found this a profitable mode of investing
-their capital. Great numbers were required
-for the mines, and in most cases the mine-lessees
-would be obliged to hire some, as they
-would not have sufficient capital to purchase
-as many as they wanted. The rights of possession
-with regard to slaves differed in no
-respect from any other property; they could
-be given or taken as pledges. The condition,
-however, of Greek slaves was upon the whole
-better than that of Roman ones, with the
-exception perhaps of Sparta, where, according
-to Plutarch, it is the best place in the
-world to be a freeman, and the worst to be a
-slave. At Athens especially the slaves seem
-to have been allowed a degree of liberty and
-indulgence which was never granted to them
-at Rome. The life and person of a slave at
-Athens were also protected by the law: a
-person who struck or maltreated a slave was
-liable to an action; a slave too could not be
-put to death without legal sentence. He
-could even take shelter from the cruelty of
-his master in the temple of Theseus, and
-there claim the privilege of being sold by
-him. The person of a slave was, of course,
-not considered so sacred as that of a freeman:
-his offences were punished with corporal
-chastisement, which was the last mode
-of punishment inflicted on a freeman; he
-was not believed upon his oath, but his evidence
-in courts of justice was always taken
-with torture. Notwithstanding the generally
-mild treatment of slaves in Greece, their
-insurrection was not unfrequent: but these
-insurrections in Attica were usually confined
-to the mining slaves, who were treated with
-more severity than the others. Slaves were
-sometimes manumitted at Athens, though not
-so frequently as at Rome. Those who were
-manumitted (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπελεύθεροι</span>) did not become
-citizens, as they might at Rome, but passed
-into the condition of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metoici</i>. They were
-obliged to honour their former master
-as their patron (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης</span>), and to fulfil
-certain duties towards him, the neglect of
-which rendered them liable to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη ἀποστασίου</span>,
-by which they might again be sold into
-slavery. Respecting the public slaves at
-Athens, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Demosii">Demosii</a></span>. It appears that there
-was a tax upon slaves at Athens, which was
-probably three oboli a year for each slave.&mdash;(2)
-<span id="Serv_r" class="smcap">Roman.</span> The Romans viewed liberty as
-the natural state, and slavery as a condition
-which was contrary to the natural state. The
-mutual relation of slave and master among the
-Romans was expressed by the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Servus</i> and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dominus</i>; and the power and interest which
-the dominus had over and in the slave was expressed
-by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dominium</i>. Slaves existed at Rome
-in the earliest times of which we have any
-record; but they do not appear to have been
-numerous under the kings and in the earliest
-ages of the republic. The different trades
-and the mechanical arts were chiefly carried
-on by the clients of the patricians, and the
-small farms in the country were cultivated
-for the most part by the labours of the
-proprietor and of his own family. But as
-the territories of the Roman state were extended,
-the patricians obtained possession
-of large estates out of the ager publicus,
-since it was the practice of the Romans to
-deprive a conquered people of part of their
-land. These estates probably required a
-larger number of hands for their cultivation
-than could readily be obtained among the
-free population, and since the freemen were
-constantly liable to be called away from their
-work to serve in the armies, the lands began
-to be cultivated almost entirely by slave
-labour. Through war and commerce slaves
-could easily be obtained, and at a cheap rate,
-and their number soon became so great, that
-the poorer class of freemen was thrown
-almost entirely out of employment. This
-state of things was one of the chief arguments
-used by Licinius and the Gracchi for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_339"></a>[339]</span>
-limiting the quantity of public land which a
-person might possess. In Sicily, which supplied
-Rome with so great a quantity of corn,
-the number of agricultural slaves was immense:
-the oppressions to which they were
-exposed drove them twice to open rebellion,
-and their numbers enabled them to defy for
-a time the Roman power. The first of these
-servile wars began in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 134 and ended in
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 132, and the second commenced in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-102 and lasted almost four years. Long,
-however, after it had become the custom to
-employ large gangs of slaves in the cultivation
-of the land, the number of those who
-served as personal attendants still continued
-to be small. Persons in good circumstances
-seem usually to have had one only to wait
-upon them, who was generally called by the
-name of his master with the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">por</i> (that
-is, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">puer</i>) affixed to it, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caipor</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lucipor</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Marcipor</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Publipor</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quintipor</i>, &amp;c. But
-during the latter times of the republic and
-under the empire the number of domestic
-slaves greatly increased, and in every family
-of importance there were separate slaves to
-attend to all the necessities of domestic life.
-It was considered a reproach to a man not to
-keep a considerable number of slaves. The
-first question asked respecting a person’s
-fortune was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quot pascit servos</i>, “How many
-slaves does he keep?” Ten slaves seem to
-have been the lowest number which a person
-could keep in the age of Augustus, with a
-proper regard to respectability in society.
-The immense number of prisoners taken in
-the constant wars of the republic, and the
-increase of wealth and luxury, augmented
-the number of slaves to a prodigious extent.
-A freedman under Augustus, who had lost
-much property in the civil wars, left at his
-death as many as 4,116. Two hundred was
-no uncommon number for one person to keep.
-The mechanical arts, which were formerly
-in the hands of the clients, were now entirely
-exercised by slaves: a natural growth of
-things, for where slaves perform certain
-duties or practise certain arts, such duties or
-arts are thought degrading to a freeman.
-It must not be forgotten, that the games of
-the amphitheatre required an immense number
-of slaves trained for the purpose. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]
-Like the slaves in Sicily, the
-gladiators in Italy rose in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 73 against
-their oppressors, and under the able generalship
-of Spartacus, defeated a Roman consular
-army, and were not subdued till B.C.
-71, when 60,000 of them are said to have
-fallen in battle.&mdash;A slave could not contract
-a marriage. His cohabitation with a woman
-was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contubernium</i>; and no legal relation
-between him and his children was recognized.
-A slave could have no property. He was
-not incapable of acquiring property, but his
-acquisitions belonged to his master. Slaves
-were not only employed in the usual domestic
-offices and in the labours of the field,
-but also as factors or agents for their masters
-in the management of business, and as mechanics,
-artisans, and in every branch of
-industry. It may easily be conceived that,
-under these circumstances, especially as they
-were often entrusted with property to a large
-amount, there must have arisen a practice of
-allowing the slave to consider part of his
-gains as his own; this was his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Peculium</i>, a
-term also applicable to such acquisitions of a
-filius-familias as his father allowed him to
-consider as his own. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patria">Patria Potestas</a>.</span>]
-According to strict law, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peculium</i> was
-the property of the master, but according to
-usage, it was considered to be the property
-of the slave. Sometimes it was agreed between
-master and slave, that the slave
-should purchase his freedom with his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peculium</i>
-when it amounted to a certain sum. A
-runaway slave (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fugitivus</i>) could not lawfully
-be received or harboured. The master was
-entitled to pursue him wherever he pleased;
-and it was the duty of all authorities to give
-him aid in recovering the slave. It was the
-object of various laws to check the running
-away of slaves in every way, and accordingly
-a runaway slave could not legally be
-an object of sale. A class of persons called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fugitivarii</i> made it their business to recover
-runaway slaves. A person was a slave either
-jure gentium or jure civili. Under the republic,
-the chief supply of slaves arose from
-prisoners taken in war, who were sold by
-the quaestors with a crown on their heads
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub corona venire, vendere</i>), and usually on
-the spot where they were taken, as the care
-of a large number of captives was inconvenient.
-Consequently slave-dealers usually
-accompanied an army, and frequently after a
-great battle had been gained many thousands
-were sold at once, when the slave-dealers
-obtained them for a mere nothing. The
-slave trade was also carried on to a great
-extent, and after the fall of Corinth and
-Carthage, Delos was the chief mart for this
-traffic. When the Cilician pirates had possession
-of the Mediterranean, as many as
-10,000 slaves are said to have been imported
-and sold there in one day. A large number
-came from Thrace and the countries in the
-north of Europe, but the chief supply was
-from Africa, and more especially Asia,
-whence we frequently read of Phrygians,
-Lycians, Cappadocians, &amp;c. as slaves. The
-trade of slave-dealers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mangones</i>) was considered
-disreputable; but it was very lucrative,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_340"></a>[340]</span>
-and great fortunes were frequently
-realised from it. Slaves were usually sold
-by auction at Rome. They were placed
-either on a raised stone (hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de lapide
-emtus</i>), or a raised platform (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">catasta</i>), so that
-every one might see and handle them, even
-if they did not wish to purchase them. Purchasers
-usually took care to have them
-stripped naked, for slave-dealers had recourse
-to as many tricks to conceal personal defects
-as the horse-jockeys of modern times: sometimes
-purchasers called in the advice of medical
-men. Newly imported slaves had their
-feet whitened with chalk, and those that
-came from the East had their ears bored,
-which we know was a sign of slavery among
-many eastern nations. The slave-market,
-like all other markets, was under the jurisdiction
-of the aediles, who made many regulations
-by edicts respecting the sale of slaves.
-The character of the slave was set forth in
-a scroll (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">titulus</i>) hanging around his neck,
-which was a warranty to the purchaser: the
-vendor was bound to announce fairly all his
-defects, and if he gave a false account had to
-take him back within six months from the
-time of his sale, or make up to the purchaser
-what the latter had lost through obtaining
-an inferior kind of slave to what had been
-warranted. The chief points which the
-vendor had to warrant, were the health of the
-slave, especially freedom from epilepsy, and
-that he had not a tendency to thievery, running
-away, or committing suicide. Slaves
-sold without any warranty wore at the time
-of sale a cap (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pileus</i>) upon their head.
-Slaves newly imported were generally preferred
-for common work: those who had
-served long were considered artful (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">veteratores</i>);
-and the pertness and impudence of
-those born in their master’s house, called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vernae</i>, were proverbial. The value of slaves
-depended of course upon their qualifications;
-but under the empire the increase of luxury
-and the corruption of morals led purchasers
-to pay immense sums for beautiful slaves,
-or such as ministered to the caprice or whim
-of the purchaser. Eunuchs always fetched
-a very high price, and Martial speaks of
-beautiful boys who sold for as much as
-100,000 or 200,000 sesterces each (885<em>l.</em> 8<em>s.</em> 4<em>d.</em>
-and 1770<em>l.</em> 16<em>s.</em> 8<em>d.</em>). Slaves who possessed
-a knowledge of any art which might bring
-profit to their owners, also sold for a large
-sum. Thus literary men and doctors frequently
-fetched a high price, and also slaves
-fitted for the stage.&mdash;Slaves were divided into
-many various classes: the first division was
-into public or private. The former belonged
-to the state and public bodies, and their condition
-was preferable to that of the common
-slaves. They were less liable to be sold, and
-under less control, than ordinary slaves:
-they also possessed the privilege of the testamenti
-factio to the amount of one half of
-their property, which shows that they were
-regarded in a different light from other slaves.
-Public slaves were employed to take care of
-the public buildings, and to attend upon magistrates
-and priests. A body of slaves belonging
-to one person was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia</i>, but
-two were not considered sufficient to constitute
-a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia</i>. Private slaves were divided
-into urban (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia urbana</i>) and rustic
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia rustica</i>); but the name of urban
-was given to those slaves who served in the
-villa or country residence as well as in the
-town house; so that the words urban and
-rustic rather characterised the nature of their
-occupations than the place where they served.
-Slaves were also arranged in certain classes,
-which held a higher or a lower rank according
-to the nature of their occupation. These
-classes are <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordinarii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vulgares</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mediastini</i>.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ordinarii</i>
-seem to have been those slaves
-who had the superintendence of certain parts of
-the housekeeping. They were always chosen
-from those who had the confidence of their
-master, and they generally had certain slaves
-under them. To this class the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">actores</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">procuratores</i>,
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dispensatores</i> belong, who
-occur in the familia rustica as well as the
-familia urbana, but in the former are almost
-the same as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">villici</i>. They were stewards
-or bailiffs. To the same class also belong the
-slaves who had the charge of the different
-stores, and who correspond to our house-keepers
-and butlers: they are called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cellarii</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">promi</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">condi</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">procuratores peni</i>, &amp;c.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vulgares</i>
-included the great body of slaves in a house
-who had to attend to any particular duty in
-the house, and to minister to the domestic
-wants of their master. As there were distinct
-slaves or a distinct slave for almost
-every department of household economy, as
-bakers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pistores</i>), cooks (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coqui</i>), confectioners
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dulciarii</i>), picklers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">salmentarii</i>), &amp;c., it is
-unnecessary to mention these more particularly.
-This class also included the porters
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ostiarii</i>), the bed-chamber slaves (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cubicularii</i>),
-the litter-bearers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lecticarii</i>), and all
-personal attendants of any kind.&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mediastini</i>,
-the name given to slaves used for any
-common purpose, was chiefly applied to certain
-slaves belonging to the familia rustica.&mdash;The
-treatment of slaves of course varied
-greatly, according to the disposition of their
-masters, but they were upon the whole, as
-has been already remarked, treated with
-greater severity and cruelty than among the
-Athenians. Originally the master could use
-the slave as he pleased; under the republic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_341"></a>[341]</span>
-the law does not seem to have protected the
-person or life of the slave at all; but the
-cruelty of masters was to some extent restrained
-under the empire by various enactments.
-In early times, when the number of
-slaves was small, they were treated with
-more indulgence, and more like members of
-the family: they joined their masters in
-offering up prayers and thanksgivings to the
-gods, and partook of their meals in common
-with their masters, though not at the same
-table with them, but upon benches (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subsellia</i>)
-placed at the foot of the lectus. But with
-the increase of numbers and of luxury among
-masters, the ancient simplicity of manners
-was changed: a certain quantity of food was
-allowed them (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dimensum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demensum</i>), which
-was granted to them either monthly (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">menstruum</i>)
-or daily (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diarium</i>). Their chief food
-was the corn called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">far</i>, of which either four
-or five modii were granted them a month, or
-one Roman pound (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libra</i>) a day. They also
-obtained an allowance of salt and oil: Cato
-allowed his slaves a sextarius of oil a month
-and a modius of salt a year. They also got
-a small quantity of wine, with an additional
-allowance on the Saturnalia and Compitalia,
-and sometimes fruit, but seldom vegetables.
-Butcher’s meat seems to have been hardly
-ever given them. Under the republic they
-were not allowed to serve in the army,
-though after the battle of Cannae, when the
-state was in imminent danger, 8000 slaves
-were purchased by the state for the army,
-and subsequently manumitted on account of
-their bravery. The offences of slaves were
-punished with severity, and frequently with
-the utmost barbarity. One of the mildest
-punishments was the removal from the
-familia urbana to the rustica, where they
-were obliged to work in chains or fetters.
-They were frequently beaten with sticks or
-scourged with the whip. Runaway slaves
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fugitivi</i>) and thieves (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fures</i>) were branded
-on the forehead with a mark (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stigma</i>), whence
-they are said to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">notati</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inscripti</i>. Slaves
-were also punished by being hung up by their
-hands with weights suspended to their feet,
-or by being sent to work in the Ergastulum
-or Pistrinum. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ergastulum">Ergastulum</a>.</span>] The carrying
-of the furca was a very common mode of
-punishment. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Furca">Furca</a>.</span>] The toilet of the
-Roman ladies was a dreadful ordeal to the
-female slaves, who were often barbarously
-punished by their mistresses for the slightest
-mistake in the arrangement of the hair or a
-part of the dress. Masters might work their
-slaves as many hours in the day as they
-pleased, but they usually allowed them holidays
-on the public festivals. At the festival
-of Saturnus, in particular, special indulgences
-were granted to all slaves, of which an account
-is given under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Saturnalia">Saturnalia</a></span>. There
-was no distinctive dress for slaves. It was
-once proposed in the senate to give slaves a
-distinctive costume, but it was rejected, since
-it was considered dangerous to show them
-their number. Male slaves were not allowed
-to wear the toga or bulla, nor females the
-stola, but otherwise they were dressed nearly
-in the same way as poor people, in clothes of
-a dark colour (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pullati</i>) and slippers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crepidae</i>).
-The rights of burial, however, were
-not denied to slaves, for, as the Romans regarded
-slavery as an institution of society,
-death was considered to put an end to the distinction
-between slaves and freemen. Slaves
-were sometimes even buried with their masters,
-and we find funeral inscriptions addressed to
-the Dii Manes of slaves (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dis Manibus</i>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sescunx">SESCUNX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sestertius">SESTERTĬUS, a Roman coin, which properly
-belonged to the silver coinage, in which
-it was one-fourth of the denarius, and therefore
-equal to 2½ asses. Hence the name,
-which is an abbreviation of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">semis tertius</i>
-(sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummus</i>), the Roman mode of expressing
-2½. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummus</i> is often expressed
-with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertius</i>, and often it stands alone,
-meaning <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertius</i>. Hence the symbol HS
-or IIS, which is used to designate the sestertius.
-It stands either for LLS (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libra
-Libra et Semis</i>), or for IIS, the two I’s
-merely forming the numeral two (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">asses</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">librae</i>), and the whole being in either case
-equivalent to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dupondius et semis</i>. When the
-as was reduced to half an ounce, and the
-number of asses in the denarius was made
-sixteen instead of ten [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a></span>], the
-sestertius was still ¼ of the denarius, and
-therefore contained no longer 2½, but 4 asses.
-The old reckoning of 10 asses to the denarius
-was kept, however, in paying the troops.
-After this change the sestertius was coined
-in brass as well as in silver; the metal used
-for it was that called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aurichalcum</i>, which
-was much finer than the common <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes</i>, of
-which the asses were made. The sum of
-1000 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertii</i> was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertium</i>. This
-was also denoted by the symbol HS, the
-obvious explanation of which is “IIS (2½
-millia).” The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertium</i> was always a sum of
-money, never a <em>coin</em>; the <em>coin</em> used in the payment
-of large sums was the denarius. According
-to the value we have assigned to the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a></span>,
-up to the time of Augustus, we have&mdash;</p>
-
-<table class="autotable" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl pad6">&nbsp;</td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdr"><em>£.</em></td>
-<td class="tdr"><em>s.</em></td>
-<td class="tdr"><em>d.</em></td>
-<td class="tdc"><em>&nbsp; farth.</em></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl">the sestertius</td>
-<td class="tdl">=</td>
-<td class="tdr">0</td>
-<td class="tdr">0</td>
-<td class="tdr">2</td>
-<td class="tdc">·5</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl">the sestertium</td>
-<td class="tdl">=</td>
-<td class="tdr">8</td>
-<td class="tdr">17</td>
-<td class="tdr">1</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="7">After the reign of Augustus&mdash;</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl">the sestertius</td>
-<td class="tdl">=</td>
-<td class="tdr">0</td>
-<td class="tdr">0</td>
-<td class="tdr">1</td>
-<td class="tdc">3·5</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl">the sestertium</td>
-<td class="tdl">=</td>
-<td class="tdr">7</td>
-<td class="tdr">16</td>
-<td class="tdr">3</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_342"></a>[342]</span></p>
-
-<p class="noindent">The sestertius was the denomination of money
-almost always used in reckoning considerable
-amounts. There are a very few examples of
-the use of the denarius for this purpose.
-The mode of reckoning was as follows:&mdash;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sestertius</i>
-= <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertius nummus</i> = <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummus</i>.
-Sums below 1000 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertii</i> were expressed by
-the numeral adjectives joined with either of
-these forms. The sum of 1000 sestertii =
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mille sestertii</i> = M <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertium</i> (for <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertiorum</i>)
-= M <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummi</i> = M <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummum</i> (for <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummorum</i>)
-= M <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertii nummi</i> = M <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertium
-nummum</i> = <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertium</i>. These forms are used
-with the numeral adjectives below 1000:
-sometimes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">millia</i> is used instead of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertia</i>:
-sometimes both words are omitted: sometimes
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertium</i> is added. For
-example, 600,000 sestertii = <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sescenta sestertia</i>
-= <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sescenta millia</i> = <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sescenta</i> = <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sescenta sestertia
-nummum</i>. For sums of a thousand
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertia</i> (<em>i.e.</em> a million <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertii</i>) and upwards,
-the numeral adverbs in <em>ies</em> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decies, undecies,
-vicies, &amp;c.</i>) are used, with which the words
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centena millia</i> (a hundred thousand) must be
-understood. With these adverbs the neuter
-singular <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertium</i> is joined in the case required
-by the construction. Thus, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decies
-sestertium</i> = <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decies centena millia sestertium</i>
-= <em>ten times a hundred thousand sestertii</em> =
-1,000,000 sestertii = 1000 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertia</i>: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">millies</i>
-HS = <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">millies centena millia sestertium</i> = a
-thousand times one hundred thousand sestertii
-= 100,000,000 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertii</i> = 100,000 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertia</i>.
-When the numbers are written in cypher, it
-is often difficult to know whether <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertii</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertia</i> are meant. A distinction is sometimes
-made by a line placed over the numeral
-when <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertia</i> are intended, or in other
-words, when the numeral is an adverb in <em>ies</em>.
-Thus</p>
-
-<table class="autotable" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">HS. M.C.</td>
-<td class="tdl">=</td>
-<td class="tdl">1100 sestertii, but</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">HS. M̄.C̄.</td>
-<td class="tdl">=</td>
-<td class="tdl">HS millies centies</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl">=</td>
-<td class="tdl">110,000 sestertia</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl">=</td>
-<td class="tdl">110,000,000 sestertii.</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-
-<p class="noindent"><em>Sesterce</em> is sometimes used as an English
-word. If so, it ought to be used only as the
-translation of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertius</i>, never of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertium</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sevir">SĒVIR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sex">SEX SUFFRĀGĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sextans">SEXTANS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sextarius">SEXTĀRĬUS, a Roman dry and liquid
-measure. It was one-sixth of the congius,
-and hence its name. It was divided, in the
-same manner as the As, into parts named
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uncia, sextans, quadrans, triens, quincunx,
-semissis, &amp;c.</i> The uncia, or twelfth part of
-the sextarius, was the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cyathus">Cyathus</a></span>; its <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sextans</i>
-was therefore two cyathi, its <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrans</i> three,
-its <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triens</i> four, its <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quincunx</i> five, &amp;c. (See
-<a href="#TABLES">Tables</a>.)</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sibyllini">SĬBYLLĪNI LIBRI. These books are said
-to have been obtained in the reign of Tarquinius
-Priscus, or according to other accounts
-in that of Tarquinius Superbus, when a
-Sibyl (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σίβυλλα</span>), or prophetic woman, presented
-herself before the king, and offered nine
-books for sale. Upon the king refusing to
-purchase them, she went and burnt three,
-and then returned and demanded the same
-price for the remaining six as she had done
-for the nine. The king again refused to
-purchase them, whereupon she burnt three
-more, and demanded the same sum for the
-remaining three as she had done at first for
-the nine; the king’s curiosity now became
-excited, so that he purchased the books, and
-then the Sibyl vanished. These books were
-probably written in Greek, as the later ones
-undoubtedly were. They were kept in a
-stone chest under ground in the temple of
-Jupiter Capitolinus, under the custody of
-certain officers, at first only two in number,
-but afterwards increased successively to ten
-and fifteen, of whom an account is given
-under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Decemviri">Decemviri</a></span>. The public were not
-allowed to inspect the books, and they were
-only consulted by the officers, who had the
-charge of them, at the special command of
-the senate. They were not consulted, as the
-Greek oracles were, for the purpose of getting
-light concerning future events; but to learn
-what worship was required by the gods, when
-they had manifested their wrath by national
-calamities or prodigies. Accordingly we find
-that the instruction they give is in the same
-spirit; prescribing what honour was to be
-paid to the deities already recognised, or
-what new ones were to be imported from
-abroad. When the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus
-was burnt in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 82, the Sibylline
-books perished in the fire; and in order to
-restore them, ambassadors were sent to various
-towns in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, to
-make fresh collections, which on the rebuilding
-of the temple were deposited in the same
-place that the former had occupied. The
-Sibylline books were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fata Sibyllina</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libri Fatales</i>. Along with the
-Sibylline books were preserved, under the
-guard of the same officers, the books of the
-two prophetic brothers, the Marcii, the Etruscan
-prophecies of the nymph Bygoe, and
-those of Albuna or Albunea of Tibur. Those
-of the Marcii, which had not been placed
-there at the time of the battle of Cannae,
-were written in Latin.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sica">SĪCA, <em>dim.</em> SĪCĪLA, whence the English
-<em>sickle</em>, a curved dagger, adapted by its form
-to be concealed under the clothes, and therefore
-carried by robbers and murderers. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sica</i>
-may be translated <em>a scimitar</em>, to distinguish<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_343"></a>[343]</span>
-it from <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pugio">Pugio</a></span>, which denoted a dagger of the
-common kind. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sicarius</i>, though properly
-meaning one who murdered with the sica,
-was applied to murderers in general. Hence
-the forms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de sicariis</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inter sicarios</i> were
-used in the criminal courts in reference to
-murder. Thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicium inter sicarios</i>, “a
-trial for murder;” <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">defendere inter sicarios</i>,
-“to defend against a charge of murder.”</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sigillaria">SĬGILLĀRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Saturnalia">Saturnalia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Signa">SIGNA MĪLĬTĀRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σημεῖα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σημαίαι</span>),
-military ensigns or standards. The most
-ancient standard employed by the Romans is
-said to have been a handful of straw fixed to
-the top of a spear or pole. Hence the company
-of soldiers belonging to it was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Manipulus</i>. The bundle of hay or fern was
-soon succeeded by the figures of animals, viz.
-the eagle, the wolf, the minotaur, the horse,
-and the boar. These appear to have corresponded
-to the five divisions of the Roman
-army as shown on <a href="#ill165">p. 165</a>. The eagle (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquila</i>)
-was carried by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquilifer</i> in the midst of
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hastati</i>, and we may suppose the wolf to
-have been carried among the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">principes</i>, and
-so on. In the second consulship of Marius,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 104, the four quadrupeds were entirely
-laid aside as standards, the eagle being alone
-retained. It was made of silver, or bronze,
-and with expanded wings, but was probably
-of a small size, since a standard-bearer (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">signifer</i>)
-under Julius Caesar is said in circumstances
-of danger to have wrenched the eagle
-from its staff, and concealed it in the folds of
-his girdle. Under the later emperors the
-eagle was carried, as it had been for many
-centuries, with the legion, a legion being on
-that account sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquila</i>, and at
-the same time each cohort had for its own
-ensign the serpent or dragon (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">draco</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δράκων</span>),
-which was woven on a square piece of cloth,
-elevated on a gilt staff, to which a cross-bar
-was adapted for the purpose, and carried by
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">draconarius</i>. Another figure used in the
-standards was a ball (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pila</i>), supposed to have
-been emblematic of the dominion of Rome
-over the world; and for the same reason
-a bronze figure of Victory was sometimes
-fixed at the top of the staff. Under the
-eagle or other emblem was often placed a
-head of the reigning emperor, which was
-to the army the object of idolatrous adoration.
-The minor divisions of a cohort,
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centuries</i>, had also each an ensign,
-inscribed with the number both of the cohort
-and of the century. By this provision every
-soldier was enabled with the greatest ease to
-take his place. The standard of the cavalry,
-properly called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexillum</i>, was a square piece
-of cloth expanded upon a cross in the manner
-already indicated, and perhaps surmounted
-by some figure. The following cut, containing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_344"></a>[344]</span>
-several standards, represents the performance
-of the sacrifice called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suovetaurilia</i>.
-The imperial standard from the time of Constantine
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">labarum</i>; on it a figure
-or emblem of Christ was woven in gold upon
-purple cloth, and this was substituted for the
-head of the emperor. Since the movements
-of a body of troops and of every portion of it
-were regulated by the standards, all the evolutions,
-acts, and incidents of the Roman
-army were expressed by phrases derived from
-this circumstance. Thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">signa inferre</i> meant
-to advance, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">referre</i> to retreat, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">convertere</i>
-to face about; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">efferre</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castris vellere</i>, to
-march out of the camp; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad signa convenire</i>,
-to re-assemble. Notwithstanding some obscurity
-in the use of terms, it appears that,
-whilst the standard of the legion was properly
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquila</i>, those of the cohorts were in a
-special sense of the term called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">signa</i>, their
-bearers being <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">signiferi</i>, and that those of the
-manipuli or smaller divisions of the cohort
-were denominated <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexilla</i>, their bearers being
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexillarii</i>. In time of peace the standards
-were kept in the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium</a></span>, under the care
-of the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Quaestor">Quaestor</a></span>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp61" id="ill343" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill343.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Military Standards. (Bellori, Vet. Arc. Aug.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Silicernium">SĬLĬCERNĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Simpulum">SIMPŬLUM or SIMPŬVĬUM, the name of
-a small cup used in sacrifices, by which libations
-of wine were offered to the gods. It is
-represented on the coin figured under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Secespita">Secespita</a></span>.
-There was a proverbial expression <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">excitare
-fluctus in simpulo</i>, “to make much ado
-about nothing.”</p>
-
-
-<p id="Siparium">SĪPĂRĬUM, a piece of tapestry stretched
-on a frame, which rose before the stage of the
-theatre, and consequently answered the purpose
-of the drop-scene with us, although,
-contrary to our practice, it was depressed
-when the play began, so as to go below the
-level of the stage (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aulaea premuntur</i>), and
-was raised again when the performance was
-concluded (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tolluntur</i>). It appears that human
-figures were represented upon it, whose feet
-seemed to rest upon the stage when this
-screen was drawn up. These figures were
-sometimes those of Britons woven in the
-canvass, and raising their arms in the attitude
-of lifting up a purple curtain, so as to
-be introduced in the same manner as Atlantes,
-Persae, and Caryatides. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caryatides">Caryatides</a>.</span>] In
-a more general sense, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">siparium</i> denoted any
-piece of cloth or canvass stretched upon a
-frame.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sistrum">SISTRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σεῖστρον</span>), a mystical instrument
-of music, used by the ancient Egyptians
-in their ceremonies, and especially in
-the worship of Isis. It was held in the right
-hand (see cut), and shaken, from which circumstance
-it derived its name. The introduction
-of the worship of Isis into Italy
-shortly before the commencement of the
-Christian aera made the Romans familiar
-with this instrument.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp74" id="ill344" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill344.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Sistra. (The two figures on the left hand from paintings
-found at Portici;<br />the right-hand figure represents a Sistrum
-formerly belonging to the library of St. Genovefa at
-Paris.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Sitella">SĬTELLA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Situla">Situla</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sitophylaces">SĪTŎPHỸLĂCES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτοφύλακες</span>), a board of
-officers, chosen by lot, at Athens. They were
-at first three, afterwards increased to fifteen,
-of whom ten were for the city, five for the
-Peiraeus. Their business was partly to watch
-the arrival of the corn ships, take account of
-the quantity imported, and see that the import
-laws were duly observed; partly to
-watch the sales of corn in the market, and
-take care that the prices were fair and reasonable,
-and none but legal weights and measures
-used by the factors; in which respect
-their duties were much the same as those of
-the Agoranomi and Metronomi with regard to
-other saleable articles.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sitos">SĪTOS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σῖτος</span>), corn. The soil of Attica,
-though favourable to the production of figs,
-olives, and grapes, was not so favourable for
-corn; and accordingly a large quantity of
-corn was annually imported. Exportation
-was entirely prohibited, nor was any Athenian
-or resident alien allowed to carry corn
-to any other place than Athens. Whoever
-did so, was punishable with death. Of the
-corn brought into the Athenian port two-thirds
-was to be brought into the city and
-sold there. No one might lend money on a
-ship that did not sail with an express condition
-to bring a return cargo, part of it corn,
-to Athens. Strict regulations were made with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_345"></a>[345]</span>
-respect to the sale of corn in the market.
-Conspiracies among the corn-dealers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτοπῶλαι</span>)
-to buy up the corn (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνωνεῖσθαι</span>), or
-raise the price (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνιστάναι τὰς τιμὰς</span>), were
-punished with death. The sale of corn was
-placed under the supervision of a special
-board of officers called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sitophylaces</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτοφύλακες</span>),
-while that of all other marketable
-commodities was superintended by the agoranomi.
-It was their business to see that meal
-and bread were of the proper quality, and
-sold at the legal weight and price. Notwithstanding
-these careful provisions, scarcities
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτοδεῖαι</span>) frequently occurred at Athens.
-The state then made great efforts to supply
-the wants of the people by importing large
-quantities of corn, and selling it at a low
-price. Public granaries were kept in the
-Odeum, Pompeum, Long Porch, and naval
-storehouse near the sea. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sitonae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτῶναι</span>)
-were appointed to get in the supply and
-manage the sale. Persons called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apodectae</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποδέκται</span>) received the corn, measured it out,
-and distributed it in certain quantities.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sitou">SĪTOU DĬCĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σίτου δίκη</span>). If anything
-happened to sever a marriage contract, the
-husband or his representative was bound to
-repay the marriage portion (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προῖξ</span>); or, if he
-failed to do so, he was liable to pay interest
-upon it at the rate of eighteen per cent. per
-annum. A woman’s fortune was usually
-secured by a mortgage of the husband’s property;
-but whether this was so or not, her
-guardian might bring an action against the
-party who unjustly withheld it; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη προικὸς</span>,
-to recover the principal, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη σίτου</span>, for the
-interest. The interest was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σῖτος</span> (alimony
-or maintenance), because it was the
-income out of which the woman had to be
-maintained. The word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σῖτος</span> is often used
-generally for provisions, just as we use the
-word <em>bread</em>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Situla">SĬTŬLA, <em>dim.</em> SĬTELLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑδρία</span>), was probably
-a bucket or pail for drawing and
-carrying water, but was more usually applied
-to the vessel from which lots were drawn.
-The diminutive <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sitella</i>, however, was more
-commonly used in this signification. It appears
-that the vessel was filled with water (as
-among the Greeks, whence the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑδρία</span>),
-and that the lots (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sortes</i>) were made of wood;
-and as, though increasing in size below, it
-had a narrow neck, only one lot could come
-to the top of the water at the same time,
-when it was shaken. The vessel used for
-drawing lots was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">urna</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">orca</i> as
-well as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Situla</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sitella</i>. It is important to understand
-the difference in meaning, between
-Sitella and Cista, in their use in the comitia
-and courts of justice, since they have been
-frequently confounded. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sitella</i> was the
-urn, from which the names of the tribes or
-centuries were drawn out by lot, so that each
-might have its proper place in voting, and
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cista</i> was the ballot-box into which the
-tabellae were cast in voting. The Cista
-seems to have been made of wicker or similar
-work.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill345a" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill345a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Cista. <span class="pad10">Sitella.</span></div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Soccus">SOCCUS, <em>dim.</em> SOCCŬLUS, was nearly if
-not altogether equivalent in meaning to <span class="smcap"><a href="#Crepida">Crepida</a></span>,
-and denoted a slipper or low shoe,
-which did not fit closely, and was not fastened
-by any tie. The Soccus was worn by
-comic actors, and was in this respect opposed
-to the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cothurnus">Cothurnus</a></span>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="ill345b" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill345b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Socci, slippers, worn by a Mimus or Buffoon. (From an
-ancient Painting.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Socii">SŎCĬI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύμμαχοι</span>). In the early times,
-when Rome formed equal alliances with any
-of the surrounding nations, these nations
-were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Socii</i>. After the dissolution of
-the Latin league, when the name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Latini</i>, or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nomen Latinum</i>, was artificially applied to a
-great number of Italians, only a few of whom
-were real inhabitants of the old Latin towns,
-and the majority of whom had been made
-Latins by the will and the law of Rome,
-there necessarily arose a difference between
-these Latins and the Socii, and the expression
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Socii Nomen Latinum</i> is one of the old
-asyndeta, instead of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Socii et Nomen Latinum</i>.
-The Italian allies again must be distinguished
-from foreign allies. The Italian allies consisted,
-for the most part, of such nations as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_346"></a>[346]</span>
-had either been conquered by the Romans,
-or had come under their dominion through
-other circumstances. When such nations
-formed an alliance with Rome, they generally
-retained their own laws; or if they
-were not allowed this privilege at first, they
-usually obtained it subsequently. The condition
-of the Italian allies varied, and mainly
-depended upon the manner in which they
-had come under the Roman dominion; but
-in reality they were always dependent upon
-Rome. The following are the principal duties
-which the Italian Socii had to perform towards
-Rome: they had to send subsidies in
-troops, money, corn, ships, and other things,
-whenever Rome demanded them. The number
-of troops requisite for completing or increasing
-the Roman armies was decreed
-every year by the senate, and the consuls
-fixed the amount which each allied nation
-had to send; in proportion to its population
-capable of bearing arms, of which each nation
-was obliged to draw up accurate lists, called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">formulae</i>. The consul also appointed the
-place and time at which the troops of the
-socii, each part under its own leader, had to
-meet him and his legions. The infantry of
-the allies in a consular army was usually
-equal in numbers to that of the Romans; the
-cavalry was generally three times the number
-of the Romans: but these numerical proportions
-were not always observed. The consuls
-appointed twelve praefects as commanders of
-the socii, and their power answered to that
-of the twelve military tribunes in the consular
-legions. These praefects, who were
-probably taken from the allies themselves,
-and not from the Romans, selected a third of
-the cavalry, and a fifth of the infantry of the
-socii, who formed a select detachment for
-extraordinary cases, and who were called the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">extraordinarii</i>. The remaining body of the
-socii was then divided into two parts, called
-the right and the left wing. The infantry of
-the wings was, as usual, divided into cohorts,
-and the cavalry into turmae. In some cases
-also legions were formed of the socii. Pay
-and clothing were given to the allied troops
-by the states or towns to which they belonged,
-and which appointed quaestors or
-paymasters for this purpose: but Rome furnished
-them with provisions at the expense
-of the republic: the infantry received the
-same as the Roman infantry, but the cavalry
-only received two-thirds of what was given
-to the Roman cavalry. In the distribution
-of the spoil and of conquered lands they frequently
-received the same share as the Romans.
-They were never allowed to take up
-arms of their own accord, and disputes among
-them were settled by the senate. Notwithstanding
-all this, the socii fell gradually
-under the arbitrary rule of the senate and
-the magistrates of Rome; and after the year
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 173, it even became customary for magistrates,
-when they travelled through Italy,
-to demand of the authorities of allied towns
-to pay homage to them, to provide them with
-a residence, and to furnish them with beasts
-of burden when they continued their journey.
-The only way for the allies to obtain any
-protection against such arbitrary proceedings,
-was to enter into a kind of clientela with
-some influential and powerful Roman. Socii
-who revolted against Rome were frequently
-punished with the loss of their freedom, or
-of the honour of serving in the Roman
-armies. Such punishments however varied
-according to circumstances. After the civitas
-had been granted to all the Italians by the
-Lex Julia de Civitate (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 90), the relation
-of the Italian socii to Rome ceased. But
-Rome had long before this event applied the
-name Socii to foreign nations also which were
-allied with Rome, though the meaning of the
-word in this case differed from that of the
-Socii Italici. There were two principal kinds
-of alliances with foreign nations: 1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foedus
-aequum</i>, such as might be concluded either
-after a war in which neither party had
-gained a decisive victory, or with a nation
-with which Rome had never been at war;
-2. a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foedus iniquum</i>, when a foreign nation
-conquered by the Romans was obliged to
-form the alliance on any terms proposed by
-the conquerors. In the latter case the foreign
-nation was to some extent subject to Rome,
-and obliged to comply with anything that
-Rome might demand. But all foreign socii,
-whether they had an equal or unequal alliance,
-were obliged to send subsidies in troops
-when Rome demanded them; these troops,
-however, did not, like those of the Italian
-socii, serve in the line, but were employed
-as light-armed soldiers, and were called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">milites auxiliares</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auxiliarii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auxilia</i>, or sometimes
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auxilia externa</i>. Towards the end of
-the republic all the Roman allies, whether
-they were nations or kings, sank down to the
-condition of mere subjects or vassals of Rome,
-whose freedom and independence consisted in
-nothing but a name. [Compare <span class="smcap"><a href="#Foederatae">Foederatae
-Civitates</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sodalitium">SŎDĀLĬTĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Solarium">SŌLĀRIUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Horologium">Horologium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Solea">SŎLĔA was the simplest kind of sandal
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sandalium">Sandalium</a></span>], consisting of a sole with little
-more to fasten it to the foot than a strap
-across the instep.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Solidus">SŎLĬDUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aurum">Aurum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Solitaurilia">SOLĬTAURĪLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sacrificium">Sacrificium</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Lustratio">Lustratio</a></span>;
-and woodcut on <a href="#ill343">p. 343</a>.]</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_347"></a>[347]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Sophronistae">SOPHRŌNISTAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gymnasium">Gymnasium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sortes">SORTES, lots. It was a frequent practice
-among the Italian nations to endeavour to
-ascertain a knowledge of future events by
-drawing lots (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sortes</i>): in many of the ancient
-Italian temples the will of the gods was consulted
-in this way, as at Praeneste, Caere,
-&amp;c. These sortes or lots were usually little
-tablets or counters, made of wood or other
-materials, and were commonly thrown into
-a sitella or urn, filled with water, as is explained
-under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Situla">Situla</a></span>. The lots were sometimes
-thrown like dice. The name of sortes
-was in fact given to anything used to determine
-chances, and was also applied to any
-verbal response of an oracle. Various things
-were written upon the lots according to circumstances,
-as for instance the names of the
-persons using them, &amp;c.: it seems to have
-been a favourite practice in later times to
-write the verses of illustrious poets upon
-little tablets, and to draw them out of the
-urn like other lots, the verses which a person
-thus obtained being supposed to be applicable
-to him.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Specularia">SPĔCŬLĀRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Speculatores">SPĔCŬLĀTŌRES, or EXPLŌRĀTŌRES,
-were scouts or spies sent before an army, to
-reconnoitre the ground and observe the
-movements of the enemy. Under the emperors
-there was a body of troops called Speculatores,
-who formed part of the praetorian
-cohorts, and had the especial care of the emperor’s
-person.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Speculum">SPĔCŬLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάτοπτρον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔσοπτρον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔνοπτρον</span>),
-a mirror, a looking-glass. The looking-glasses
-of the ancients were usually made
-of metal, at first of a composition of tin and
-copper, but afterwards more frequently of
-silver. The ancients seem to have had glass
-mirrors also like ours, consisting of a glass
-plate covered at the back with a thin leaf of
-metal. They were manufactured as early as
-the time of Pliny at the celebrated glass-houses
-of Sidon, but they must have been inferior
-to those of metal, since they never
-came into general use, and are never mentioned
-by ancient writers among costly
-pieces of furniture, whereas metal mirrors
-frequently are. Looking-glasses were generally
-small, and such as could be carried in
-the hand. Instead of their being fixed so as
-to be hung against the wall or to stand upon
-the table or floor, they were generally held
-by female slaves before their mistresses when
-dressing.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp38" id="ill347a" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill347a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Looking-glass held by a Nymph. (From a Painting at
-Herculaneum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Specus">SPĔCUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aquae">Aquae Ductus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sphaeristerium">SPHAERISTĒRIUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gymnasium">Gymnasium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Spiculum">SPĪCŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Spira">SPĪRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σπεῖρα</span>), <em>dim.</em> SPĪRŬLA, the base
-of a column. This member did not exist in
-the Doric order of Greek architecture, but
-was always present in the Ionic and Corinthian,
-and, besides the bases properly
-belonging to those orders, there was one
-called the Attic, which may be regarded as a
-variety of the Ionic [<span class="smcap">Atticurges</span>]. In the
-Ionic and Attic the base commonly consisted
-of two tori (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">torus superior</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">torus inferior</i>)
-divided by a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scotia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρόχιλος</span>), and in the
-Corinthian of two tori divided by two scotiae.
-The upper torus was often fluted (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥαβδωτός</span>),
-and surmounted by an astragal [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Astragalus">Astragalus</a></span>],
-as in the left-hand figure of the annexed
-woodcut, which shows the form of the base
-in the Ionic temple of Panops on the Ilissus.
-The right-hand figure in the same woodcut
-shows the corresponding part in the temple
-of Minerva Polias at Athens. In this the
-upper torus is wrought with a plaited ornament,
-perhaps designed to represent a rope
-or cable. In these two temples the spira
-rests not upon a plinth (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plinthus</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλίνθος</span>), but
-on a podium.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill347b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill347b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Spirae (bases) of Columns. (From ancient Columns.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Spolia">SPŎLĬA. Four words are commonly employed
-to denote booty taken in war, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praeda,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_348"></a>[348]</span>
-anubiae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Exuviae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Spolia</i>. Of these <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praeda</i>
-bears the most comprehensive meaning, being
-used for plunder of every description. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Manubiae</i>
-would seem strictly to signify that portion
-of the spoil which fell to the share of
-the commander-in-chief, the proceeds of
-which were frequently applied to the erection
-of some public building. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Exuviae</i> indicates
-anything stripped from the person of a foe,
-while <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Spolia</i>, properly speaking, ought to be
-confined to armour and weapons, although
-both words are applied loosely to trophies,
-such as chariots, standards, beaks of ships
-and the like, which might be preserved and
-displayed. Spoils collected on the battlefield
-after an engagement, or found in a
-captured town, were employed to decorate
-the temples of the gods, triumphal arches,
-porticoes, and other places of public resort,
-and sometimes in the hour of extreme need
-served to arm the people; but those which
-were gained by individual prowess were
-considered the undoubted property of the
-successful combatant, and were exhibited in
-the most conspicuous part of his dwelling,
-being hung up in the atrium, suspended
-from the door-posts, or arranged in the vestibulum,
-with appropriate inscriptions. They
-were regarded as peculiarly sacred, so that
-even if the house was sold the new possessor
-was not permitted to remove them. But
-while on the one hand it was unlawful to
-remove spoils, so it was forbidden to <em>replace</em>
-or <em>repair</em> them when they had fallen down or
-become decayed through age; the object of
-this regulation being doubtless to guard
-against the frauds of false pretenders. Of
-all spoils the most important were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spolia
-opima</i>, a term applied to those only which
-the commander-in-chief of a Roman army
-stripped in a field of battle from the leader
-of the foe. Plutarch expressly asserts that
-Roman history up to his own time afforded
-but three examples of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spolia opima</i>. The
-first were said to have been won by Romulus
-from Acro, king of the Caeninenses, the
-second by Aulus Cornelius Cossus from Lar
-Tolumnius, king of the Veientes, the third by
-M. Claudius Marcellus from Viridomarus,
-king of the Gaesatae. In all these cases, in
-accordance with the original institution, the
-spoils were dedicated to Jupiter Feretrius.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sponsa">SPONSA, SPONSUS, SPONSĀLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sportula">SPORTŬLA. In the days of Roman freedom,
-clients were in the habit of testifying
-respect for their patron by thronging his
-atrium at an early hour, and escorting him
-to places of public resort when he went
-abroad. As an acknowledgment of these
-courtesies, some of the number were usually
-invited to partake of the evening meal.
-After the extinction of liberty, the presence
-of such guests, who had now lost all political
-importance, was soon regarded as an irksome
-restraint, while at the same time many of
-the noble and wealthy were unwilling to
-sacrifice the pompous display of a numerous
-body of retainers. Hence the practice was
-introduced under the empire of bestowing on
-each client, when he presented himself for his
-morning visit, a certain portion of food as a substitute
-and compensation for the occasional invitation
-to a regular supper (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coena recta</i>), and
-this dole, being carried off in a little basket provided
-for the purpose, received the name of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sportula</i>. For the sake of convenience it
-soon became common to give an equivalent
-in money, the sum established by general
-usage being a hundred quadrantes. The
-donation in money, however, did not entirely
-supersede the sportula given in kind, for we
-find in Juvenal a lively description of a great
-man’s vestibule crowded with dependents,
-each attended by a slave bearing a portable
-kitchen to receive the viands and keep them
-hot while they were carried home. Under
-the empire great numbers of the lower orders
-derived their whole sustenance, and the
-funds for ordinary expenditure, exclusively
-from this source, while even the highborn
-did not scruple to increase their incomes by
-taking advantage of the ostentatious profusion
-of the rich and vain.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Stadium">STĂDĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ στάδιος</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ στάδιον</span>), a
-Greek measure of length, and the chief one
-used for itinerary distances. It was equal to
-600 Greek or 625 Roman feet, or to 125
-Roman paces; and the Roman mile contained
-8 stadia. Hence the stadium contained 606
-feet 9 inches English. This standard prevailed
-throughout Greece, under the name of
-the Olympic stadium, so called because it was
-the exact length of the stadium or foot-race
-course at Olympia, measured between the
-pillars at the two extremities of the course.
-The first use of the measure seems to be contemporaneous
-with the formation of the
-stadium at Olympia when the Olympic games
-were revived by Iphitus (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 884 or 828).
-This distance doubled formed the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίαυλος</span>, the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππικον</span> was 4 stadia, and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόλιχος</span> is differently
-stated at 6, 7, 8, 12, 20, and 24
-stadia. A day’s journey by land was reckoned
-at 200 or 180 stadia, or for an army 150
-stadia. The stadium at Olympia was used
-not only for the foot-race, but also for the
-other contests which were added to the games
-from time to time [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Olympia">Olympia</a></span>], except the
-horse-races, for which a place was set apart,
-of a similar form with the stadium, but
-larger; this was called the Hippodrome (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππόδρομος</span>).<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_349"></a>[349]</span>
-The name stadium was also given
-to all other places throughout Greece wherever
-games were celebrated. The stadium was an
-oblong area terminated at one end by a straight
-line, at the other by a semicircle having the
-breadth of the stadium for its base. Round
-this area were ranges of seats rising above
-one another in steps.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Stater">STĀTĒR (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στατῆρ</span>), which means simply <em>a
-standard</em> (in this case both of weight and
-more particularly of money), was the name
-of the principal gold coin of Greece, which
-was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Chrysus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρυσοῦς</span>). The stater
-is said to have been first coined in Lydia by
-Croesus, and probably did not differ materially
-from the stater which was afterwards
-current in Greece, and which was equal <em>in
-weight</em> to <em>two</em> drachmae, and <em>in value</em> to
-<em>twenty</em>. The Macedonian stater, which was
-the one most in use after the time of Philip
-and his son Alexander the Great, was of the
-value of about 1<em>l.</em> 3<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em> In calculating the
-value of the stater in our money the ratio of
-gold to silver must not be overlooked. Thus
-the stater of Alexander, which we have
-valued, according to the present worth of gold,
-at 1<em>l.</em> 3<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em>, passed for twenty drachmae,
-which, according to the present value of
-silver, were worth only 16<em>s.</em> 3<em>d.</em> But the
-former is the true worth of the stater, the
-difference arising from the greater value of
-silver in ancient times than now.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Stationes">STĂTĬŌNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Stator">STĂTOR, a public servant, who attended
-on the Roman magistrates in the provinces.
-The Statores seem to have derived their name
-from standing by the side of the magistrate,
-and thus being at hand to execute all his
-commands; they appear to have been chiefly
-employed in carrying letters and messages.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Statuaria">STĀTŬĀRĬA ARS is in its proper sense
-the art of making statues or busts, whether
-they consist of stone or metal or other materials,
-and includes the art of making the
-various kinds of reliefs (alto, basso, and
-mezzo relievo). These arts in their infant
-state existed among the Greeks from time
-immemorial. There is no material applicable
-to statuary which was not used by the Greeks.
-As <em>soft clay</em> is capable of being shaped without
-difficulty into any form, and is easily
-dried, either by being exposed to the sun or
-by being baked, we may consider this substance
-to have been the earliest material of
-which figures were made. The name plastic
-art (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡ πλαστική</span>), by which the ancients sometimes
-designate the art of statuary, properly
-signifies to form or shape a thing of clay.
-The second material was <em>wood</em>, and figures
-made of wood were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξόανα</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξέω</span>,
-“polish” or “carve.” It was chiefly used
-for making images of the gods, and probably
-more on account of the facility of working in
-it, than for any other reason. <em>Stone</em> was
-little used in statuary during the early ages
-of Greece, though it was not altogether unknown,
-as we may infer from the relief on
-the Lion-gate of Mycenae. In Italy, where
-the soft peperino afforded an easy material
-for working, stone appears to have been used
-at an earlier period and more commonly than
-in Greece. But in the historical times the
-Greeks used all the principal varieties of
-marble for their statues. Different kinds of
-marble and of different colours were sometimes
-used in one and the same statue, in
-which case the work is called Polylithic statuary.
-<em>Bronze</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χάλκος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes</i>), <em>silver</em>, and <em>gold</em>
-were used profusely in the state of society
-described in the Homeric poems. At that
-period, however, and long after, the works
-executed in metal were made by means of the
-hammer, and the different pieces were joined
-together by pins, rivets, cramps, or other
-mechanical fastenings, and, as the art advanced,
-by a kind of glue, cement, or solder.
-Iron came into use much later, and the art of
-casting both bronze and iron is ascribed to
-Rhoecus and to Theodoras of Samos. <em>Ivory</em>
-was employed at a later period than any of
-the before-mentioned materials, and then was
-highly valued both for its beauty and rarity.
-In its application to statuary, ivory was
-generally combined with gold, and was used
-for the parts representing the flesh. The
-history of ancient art, and of statuary in particular,
-may be divided into five periods.</p>
-
-<p>I. <em>First Period, from the earliest times till
-about 580</em> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>&mdash;Three kinds of artists may
-be distinguished in the mythical period.
-The first consists of gods and daemons; such
-as Athena, Hephaestus, the Phrygian or Dardanian
-Dactyli, and the Cabiri. The second
-contains whole tribes of men distinguished
-from others by the mysterious possession of
-superior skill in the practice of the arts, such
-as the Telchines and the Cyclopes. The
-third consists of individuals who are indeed
-described as human beings, but yet are
-nothing more than personifications of particular
-branches of art, or the representatives
-of families of artists. Of the latter the most
-celebrated is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Daedalus</i>, whose name indicates
-nothing but a smith, or an artist in general,
-and who is himself the mythical ancestor of
-a numerous family of artists (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Daedalids</i>),
-which can be traced from the time of Homer
-to that of Plato, for even Socrates is said to
-have been a descendant of this family. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Smilis</i>
-(from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σμίλη</span>, a carving-knife) exercised his
-art in Samos, Aegina, and other places, and
-some remarkable works were attributed to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_350"></a>[350]</span>
-him. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Endoeus</i> of Athens is called a disciple
-of Daedalus. According to the popular traditions
-of Greece, there was no period in
-which the gods were not represented in some
-form or other, and there is no doubt that for
-a long time there existed no other statues in
-Greece than those of the gods. The earliest
-representations of the gods, however, were
-only symbolic. The presence of a god was
-indicated by the simplest and most shapeless
-symbols, such as unhewn blocks of stone (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λίθοι
-ἀργοί</span>), and by simple pillars or pieces of wood.
-The general name for a representation of a
-god not consisting of such a rude symbol was
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄγαλμα</span>. In the Homeric poems there are sufficient
-traces of the existence of statues of the
-gods; but they probably did not display any
-artistic beauty. The only work of art which
-has come down to us from the heroic age is
-the relief above the ancient gate of Mycenae,
-representing two lions standing on their hind
-legs, with a sort of pillar between them (woodcut
-under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Murus">Murus</a></span>). The time which elapsed
-between the composition of the Homeric
-poems and the beginning of the fifth century
-before our aera may be termed the age of discovery;
-for nearly all the inventions, upon
-the application of which <ins class="corr" id="tn-350" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'the developement of'">
-the development of</ins>
-the arts is dependent, are assigned to this
-period. Glaucus of Chios or Samos is said to
-have invented the art of soldering metal
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιδήρου κόλλησις</span>). The two artists most
-celebrated for their discoveries were the two
-brothers Telecles and Theodoras of Samos,
-about the time of Polycrates. They invented
-the art of casting figures of metal. During
-the whole of this period, though marble and
-bronze began to be extensively applied, yet
-wood was more generally used for representations
-of the gods. These statues were
-painted [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pictura">Pictura</a></span>], and in most cases dressed
-in the most gorgeous attire. The style in
-which they are executed is called the <em>archaic</em>
-or the <em>hieratic</em> style. The figures are stiff
-and clumsy, the countenances have little or
-no individuality, the eyes long and small, and
-the outer angles turned a little upwards; the
-mouth, which is likewise drawn upwards at
-the two corners, has a smiling appearance.
-The hair is carefully worked, but looks stiff
-and wiry, and hangs generally down in
-straight lines, which are curled at the ends.
-The arms hang down the sides of the body,
-unless the figure carries something in its
-hands. The drapery is likewise stiff, and the
-folds are very symmetrical and worked with
-little regard to nature.</p>
-
-<p>II. <em>Second Period, from 580 to 480</em> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>&mdash;The
-number of artists who flourished during
-this period is truly astonishing. The Ionians
-of Asia Minor and the islanders of the Aegean,
-who had previously been in advance of the
-other Greeks in the exercise of the fine
-arts, had their last flourishing period from
-560 to 528 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Works in metal were
-produced in high perfection in Samos, in
-Aegina and Argos, while Chios gained the
-greatest reputation from its possessing the
-earliest great school of sculptors in marble, in
-which Bupalus and Anthermus were the
-most distinguished about 540 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Their
-works were scattered over various parts of
-Greece, and their value may be inferred from
-the fact that Augustus adorned with them
-the pediment of the temple of Apollo on the
-Palatine. Sicyon also possessed a celebrated
-school of sculptors in marble, and about 580
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Dipoenus and Scyllis, who had come from
-Crete, were at the head of it, and executed
-several marble statues of gods. Respecting
-Magna Graecia and Sicily we know few particulars,
-though it appears that the arts here
-went on improving and continued to be in advance
-of the mother-country. The most celebrated
-artists in southern Italy were Dameas
-of Croton, and Pythagoras of Rhegium. In
-Athens the arts made great progress under
-the patronage of the Pisistratids. The most
-celebrated among the Athenian sculptors of
-this period were Critias and Hegias, or Hegesias,
-both distinguished for their works in
-bronze. The former of them made in 477 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-the statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton.
-Argos also distinguished itself, and it is a
-curious circumstance, that the greatest Attic
-artists with whom the third period opens, and
-who brought the Attic art to its culminating
-point, are disciples of the Argive Ageladas
-(about 516 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>) In the statues of the gods
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγάλματα</span>), which were made for temples as
-objects of worship, the hieratic style was more
-or less conscientiously retained, and it is therefore
-not in these statues that we have to seek
-for proofs of the progress of art. But even in
-temple-statues wood began to give way to
-other and better materials. Besides bronze,
-marble also, and ivory and gold were now
-applied to statues of the gods, and it was not
-uncommon to form the body of a statue of
-wood, and to make its head, arms, and feet
-of stone (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκρόλιθοι</span>), or to cover the whole of
-such a wooden figure with ivory and gold.
-From the statues of the gods erected for worship
-we must distinguish those statues which
-were dedicated in temples as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀναθήματα</span>, and
-which now became customary instead of
-craters, tripods, &amp;c. In these the artists
-were not only not bound to any traditional or
-conventional forms, but were, like the poets,
-allowed to make free use of mythological subjects,
-to add, and to omit, or to modify the
-stories, so as to render them more adapted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_351"></a>[351]</span>
-for their artistic purposes. A third class of
-statues, which were erected during this
-period in great numbers, were those of the
-victors in the national games, and, though
-more rarely, of other distinguished persons
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνδριάντες</span>). Those of the latter kind appear
-generally to have been portraits (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰκόνες</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">statuae iconicae</i>). The first iconic statues
-of Harmodius and Aristogiton were made
-by Antenor in 509 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and in 477 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-new statues of the same persons were made
-by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Critias</i>. It was also at the period we
-are now describing that it became customary
-to adorn the pediments, friezes, and other
-parts of temples with reliefs or groups of
-statues of marble. We still possess two
-great works of this kind which are sufficient
-to show their general character during this
-period. 1. The <em>Selinuntine Marbles</em>, or the
-metopes of two temples on the acropolis of
-Selinus in Sicily, which were discovered in
-1823, and are at present in the Museum
-of Palermo. 2. The <em>Aeginetan Marbles</em>,
-which were discovered in 1812 in the island
-of Aegina, and are now at Munich. They
-consist of eleven statues, which adorned
-two pediments of a temple of Athena, and
-represent the goddess leading the Aeacids
-against Troy, and contain manifest allusions
-to the war of the Greeks with the Persians.</p>
-
-<p id="Iii">III. <em>Third Period, from 480 to 336</em> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>&mdash;During
-this period Athens was the centre
-of the fine arts in Greece. Statuary went
-hand in hand with the other arts and with
-literature: it became emancipated from its
-ancient fetters, from the stiffness and conventional
-forms of former times, and reached
-its culminating point in the sublime and
-mighty works of Phidias. His career begins
-about 452 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> The genius of this artist
-was so great and so generally recognised,
-that all the great works which were executed
-in the age of Pericles were placed
-under his direction, and thus the whole host
-of artists who were at that time assembled at
-Athens were engaged in working out his designs
-and ideas. Of these we have still
-some remains:&mdash;1. Parts of the eighteen
-sculptured metopes, together with the frieze
-of the small sides of the cella of the temple of
-Theseus. Ten of the metopes represent the
-exploits of Hercules, and the eight others
-those of Theseus. The figures in the frieze
-are manifestly gods, but their meaning is uncertain.
-Casts of these figures are in the
-British Museum. 2. A considerable number
-of the metopes of the Parthenon, which are
-all adorned with reliefs in marble, a great
-part of the frieze of the cella, some colossal
-figures, and a number of fragments of the
-two pediments of this temple. The greater
-part of these works is now in the British
-Museum, where they are collected under the
-name of the Elgin Marbles. Besides the
-sculptures of these temples, there are also
-similar ornaments of other temples extant,
-which show the influence which the school of
-Phidias exercised in various parts of Greece.
-Of these the most important are, the Phigalian
-marbles, which belonged to the temple of Apollo
-Epicurius, built about 436 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, by Ictinus.
-They were discovered in 1812, and consist of
-twenty-three plates of marble belonging to
-the inner frieze of the cella. They are now
-in the British Museum. The subjects represented
-in them are fights with Centaurs and
-Amazons, and one plate shows Apollo and
-Artemis drawn in a chariot by stags. About
-the same time that the Attic school rose
-to its highest perfection under Phidias, the
-school of Argos was likewise raised to its
-summit by Polycletus. The art of making
-bronze statues of athletes was carried by him
-to the greatest perfection: ideal youthful and
-manly beauty was the sphere in which he excelled.
-One of his statues, a youthful Doryphorus,
-was made with such accurate observation
-of the proportions of the parts of the
-body, that it was looked upon by the ancient
-artists as a canon of rules on this point.
-Myron of Eleutherae, about 432 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, adhered
-to a closer imitation of nature than Polycletus,
-and as far as the impression upon the
-senses was concerned, his works were most
-pleasing. The cow of Myron in bronze was
-celebrated in all antiquity. The change which
-took place after the Peloponnesian war in the
-public mind at Athens could not fail to show
-its influence upon the arts also. It was especially
-Scopas of Paros and Praxiteles of
-Athens, about one generation after Myron
-and Polycletus, who gave the reflex of their
-time in their productions. Their works expressed
-the softer feelings and an excited state
-of mind, such as would make a strong impression
-upon and captivate the senses of the
-beholders. Both were distinguished as sculptors
-in marble, and both worked in the same
-style; the legendary circles to which most of
-their ideal productions belong are those of
-Dionysus and Aphrodite, a fact which also
-shows the character of the age. Cephissodorus
-and Timarchus were sons of Praxiteles.
-There were several works of the former at
-Rome in the time of Pliny; he made his art
-subservient to passions and sensual desires.
-Most of the above-mentioned artists, however
-widely their works differed from those of the
-school of Phidias, may yet be regarded as
-having only continued and developed its
-principles of art in a certain direction; but
-towards the end of this period Euphranor and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_352"></a>[352]</span>
-Lysippus of Sicyon carried out the principles
-of the Argive school of Polycletus. Their
-principal object was to represent the highest
-possible degree of physical beauty and of athletic
-and heroic power. The chief characteristic
-of Lysippus and his school is a close
-imitation of nature, which even contrived to
-represent bodily defects in some interesting
-manner, as in his statues of Alexander.</p>
-
-<p id="Iv">IV. <em>Fourth Period, from 336 to 146</em> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>&mdash;During
-the first fifty years of this period
-the schools of Praxiteles and Lysippus continued
-to flourish, especially in works of
-bronze; but after this time bronze statues
-were seldom made, until the art was carried
-on with new vigour at Athens about the
-end of the period. The school of Lysippus
-gave rise to that of Rhodes, where his disciple
-Chares formed the most celebrated
-among the hundred colossal statues of the
-sun. It was seventy cubits high, and partly
-of metal. It stood near the harbour, and was
-thrown down by an earthquake about 225
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Antiquarians assign to this part of the
-fourth period several very beautiful works
-still extant, as the magnificent group of Laocoon
-and his sons, which was discovered in
-1506 near the baths of Titus, and is at present
-at Rome. This is, next to the Niobe, the most
-beautiful group among the extant works of
-ancient art; it was according to Pliny the
-work of three Rhodian artists: Agesander,
-Polydorus, and Athenodorus. The celebrated
-Farnesian bull is likewise the work of two
-Rhodian artists, Apollonius and Tauriscus.
-In the various kingdoms which arose out of
-the conquests of Alexander the arts were
-more or less cultivated. Not only were the
-great master-works of former times copied to
-adorn the new capitals, but new schools of
-artists sprang up in several of them. At
-Pergamus the celebrated groups were composed
-which represented the victories of Attalus
-and Eumenes over the Gauls. It is
-believed by some that the so-called dying
-gladiator at Rome is a statue of a Gaul, which
-originally belonged to one of these groups.
-The Borghese gladiator in the Louvre is supposed
-to be the work of an Ephesian Agasias,
-and to have originally formed a part of such a
-battle-scene. About the close of this period,
-and for more than a century afterwards, the
-Romans, in the conquest of the countries
-where the arts had flourished, made it a
-regular practice to carry away the works of
-art. The triumphs over Philip, Antiochus,
-the Aetolians, the Gauls in Asia, Perseus,
-Pseudo-Philip, and above all the taking of
-Corinth, and subsequently the victories over
-Mithridates and Cleopatra, filled the Roman
-temples and porticoes with the greatest
-variety of works of art. The sacrilegious
-plunder of temples and the carrying away of
-the sacred statues from the public sanctuaries
-became afterwards a common practice. The
-manner in which Verres acted in Sicily is but
-one of many instances of the extent to which
-these robberies were carried on. The emperors,
-especially Augustus, Caligula, and
-Nero, followed these examples, and the immense
-number of statues which, notwithstanding
-all this, remained at Rhodes, Delphi,
-Athens, and Olympia, is truly astonishing.&mdash;We
-can only briefly advert to the history of
-statuary among the Etruscans and Romans
-down to the year 146 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> The Etruscans
-were on the whole an industrious and enterprising
-people. With the works of Grecian
-art they must have become acquainted at an
-early time through their intercourse with the
-Greeks of southern Italy, whose influence
-upon the art of the Etruscans is evident in
-numerous cases. The whole range of the
-fine arts was cultivated by the Etruscans at
-an early period. Statuary in clay (which
-here supplied the place of wood, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξόανα</span>, used
-in Greece) and in bronze appears to have
-acquired a high degree of perfection. In 267
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> no fewer than 2000 bronze statues are
-said to have existed at Volsinii, and numerous
-works of Etruscan art are still extant, which
-show great vigour and life, though they do
-not possess a very high degree of beauty.
-Some of their statues are worked in a Greek
-style; others are of a character peculiar to
-themselves, and entirely different from works
-of Grecian art, being stiff and ugly: others
-again are exaggerated and forced in their
-movements and attitudes, and resemble the
-figures which we meet with in the representations
-of Asiatic nations. The Romans
-previously to the time of the first Tarquin
-are said to have had no images of the gods;
-and for a long time afterwards their statues
-of gods in clay or wood were made by Etruscan
-artists. During the early part of the
-republic the works executed at Rome were
-altogether of a useful and practical, and not
-of an ornamental character; and statuary was
-in consequence little cultivated. But in the
-course of time the senate and the people, as
-well as foreign states which desired to show
-their gratitude to some Roman, began to
-erect bronze statues to distinguished persons
-in the Forum and other places.</p>
-
-<p id="V">V. <em>fifth period, from</em> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> <em>146 to the fall
-of the Western Empire.</em>&mdash;During this period
-Rome was the capital of nearly the whole of
-the ancient world, not through its intellectual
-superiority, but by its military and political
-power. But it nevertheless became the centre
-of art and literature, as the artists resorted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_353"></a>[353]</span>
-thither from all parts of the empire for
-the purpose of seeking employment in the
-houses of the great. The mass of the people,
-however, had as little taste for and were
-as little concerned about the arts as ever.
-In the time of Nero, who did much for the
-arts, we meet with Zenodorus, a founder of
-metal statues, who was commissioned by the
-emperor to execute a colossal statue of 110
-feet high, representing Nero as the Sun. In
-the reign of Hadrian the arts seem to begin
-a new aera. He himself was undoubtedly a
-real lover of art, and encouraged it not only
-at Rome, but in Greece and Asia Minor.
-The great Villa of Hadrian below Tivoli, the
-ruins of which cover an extent of ten Roman
-miles in circumference, was richer in works
-of art than any other place in Italy. Here
-more works of art have been dug out of the
-ground than anywhere else within the same
-compass. Some statues executed at this time
-are worthy of the highest admiration. Foremost
-among these stand the statues and busts
-of Antinous, for whom the emperor entertained
-a passionate partiality, and who was
-represented in innumerable works of art.
-The colossal bust of Antinous in the Louvre
-is reckoned one of the finest works of ancient
-art, and is placed by some critics on an
-equality with the best works that Greece has
-produced. There are also some very good
-works in red marble which are referred to
-this period, as that material is not known to
-have been used before the age of Hadrian.
-As the arts had received such encouragement
-and brought forth such fruits in the reign of
-Hadrian, the effects remained visible for some
-time during the reigns of the Antonines.
-The frieze of a temple, which the senate
-caused to be erected to Antoninus Pius and
-Faustina, is adorned with griffins and vessels
-of very exquisite workmanship. The best
-among the extant works of this time are the
-equestrian statue of M. Aurelius of gilt
-bronze, which stands on the Capitol, and the
-column of M. Aurelius with reliefs representing
-scenes of his war against the Marcomanni.
-After the time of the Antonines the
-symptoms of decline in the arts became more
-and more visible. The most numerous works
-continued to be busts and statues of the emperors,
-but the best among them are not free
-from affectation and mannerism. In the time
-of Caracalla many statues were made, especially
-of Alexander the Great. Alexander
-Severus was a great admirer of statues, not
-from a genuine love of art, but because he
-delighted in the representations of great and
-good men. The reliefs on the triumphal
-arch of Septimius Severus, representing his
-victories over the Parthians, Arabs, and Adiabenians,
-have scarcely any artistic merits.
-Art now declined with great rapidity: busts
-and statues were more seldom made than
-before, and are awkward and poor; the hair
-is frequently indicated by nothing else but
-holes bored in the stone. The reliefs on the
-sarcophagi gradually become monotonous and
-lifeless. The reliefs on the arch of Constantine,
-which are not taken from that of Trajan,
-are perfectly rude and worthless, and those
-on the column of Theodosius were not better.
-Before concluding, it remains to say a few
-words on the destruction of ancient works of
-art. During the latter part of the reign of
-Constantine many statues of the gods were
-destroyed, and not long after his time a systematic
-destruction began, which under Theodosius
-spread to all parts of the empire. The
-spirit of destruction, however, was not directed
-against works of art in general and as
-such, but only against the pagan idols. The
-opinion, therefore, which is entertained by
-some, that the losses we have sustained in
-works of ancient art, are mainly attributable
-to the introduction of Christianity, is too
-sweeping and general. Of the same character
-is another opinion, according to which
-the final decay of ancient art was a consequence
-of the spiritual nature of the new religion.
-The coincidence of the general introduction
-of Christianity with the decay of the arts is
-merely accidental. That the early Christians
-did not despise the arts as such, is clear from
-several facts. We know that they erected
-statues to their martyrs, of which we have a
-specimen in that of St. Hippolytus in the
-Vatican library. The numerous works, lastly,
-which have been found in the Christian catacombs
-at Rome, might alone be a sufficient
-proof that the early Christians were not hostile
-towards the representation of the heroes
-of their religion in works of art. In fact,
-Christianity during the middle ages became
-as much the mother of the arts of modern
-times, as the religion of Greece was the mother
-of ancient art. Another very general
-and yet incorrect notion is, that the northern
-barbarians after the conquest of Rome intentionally
-destroyed works of art. This opinion
-is not supported by any of the contemporary
-historians, nor is it at all probable. The barbarians
-were only anxious to carry with
-them the most precious treasures in order to
-enrich themselves; a statue must have been
-an object of indifference to them. What perished,
-perished naturally by the circumstances
-and calamities of the times. In times
-of need bronze statues were melted down and
-the material used for other purposes; marble
-statues were frequently broken to pieces and
-used for building materials. If we consider<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_354"></a>[354]</span>
-the history of Rome during the first centuries
-after the conquest of Italy by the Germans,
-we have every reason to wonder that so
-many specimens of ancient art have come
-down to our times. The greatest destruction,
-at one time, of ancient works of art is supposed
-to have occurred at the taking of Constantinople,
-in the beginning of the thirteenth
-century. Among the few works saved from
-this devastation are the celebrated bronze
-horses which now decorate the exterior of
-St. Mark’s church at Venice. They have
-been ascribed, but without sufficient authority,
-to Lysippus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Stilus">STĬLUS or STỸLUS is in all probability
-the same word with the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στύλος</span>, and
-conveys the general idea of an object tapering
-like an architectural column. It signifies,
-(1) An iron instrument, resembling a
-pencil in size and shape, used for writing
-upon waxed tablets. At one end it was
-sharpened to a point for scratching the
-characters upon the wax, while the other
-end, being flat and circular, served to render
-the surface of the tablets smooth again, and
-so to obliterate what had been written.
-Thus, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vertere stilum</i> means <em>to erase</em>, and
-hence <em>to correct</em>. The stylus was also termed
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">graphium</i>, and the case in which it was kept
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">graphiarium</i>.&mdash;(2) A sharp stake or spike
-placed in pitfalls before an entrenchment,
-to embarrass the progress of an attacking
-enemy.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="ill354" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill354.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Stilus. (Museo Borbonico, vol. vi. tav. 35.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Stipendiarii">STIPENDĬĀRĬI. The stipendiariae urbes
-of the Roman provinces were so denominated,
-as being subject to the payment of a fixed
-money-tribute, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stipendium</i>, in contradistinction
-to the vectigales, who paid a certain
-portion as a tenth or twentieth of the produce
-of their lands, their cattle, or customs.
-The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stipendium</i> was used to signify the
-tribute paid, as it was originally imposed for
-and afterwards appropriated to the purpose
-of furnishing the Roman soldiers with pay.
-The condition of the urbes stipendiariae is
-generally thought to have been more honourable
-than that of the vectigales, but the distinction
-between the two terms was not
-always observed. The word stipendiarius is
-also applied to a person who receives a fixed
-salary or pay, as a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stipendiarius miles</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Stipendium">STĪPENDĬUM, a pension or pay, from
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stipem</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pendo</i>, because before silver was
-coined at Rome the copper-money in use was
-paid by weight and not by tale. According
-to Livy, the practice of giving pay to the
-Roman soldiers was not introduced till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-405, on the occasion of the taking of Tarracina
-or Anxur. It is probable, however, that
-they received pay before this time, but, since
-it was not paid regularly, its first institution
-was referred to this year. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 403 a
-certain amount of pay was assigned to the
-knights also, or <span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a></span>, <a href="#Page_156">p. 156</a>, <em>b</em>. This,
-however, had reference to the citizens who
-possessed an equestrian fortune, but had no
-horse (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equus publicus</i>) assigned to them by
-the state, for it had always been customary
-for the knights of the 18 centuries to receive
-pay out of the common treasury, in the shape
-of an allowance for the purchase of a horse,
-and a yearly pension of 2000 asses for its
-keep. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes_e">Aes Equestre</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes_e">Aes Hordearium</a></span>.]
-In the time of the republic the pay of a
-legionary soldier amounted to two oboli, or
-3⅓ asses; a centurion received double, and
-an eques or horseman triple. Polybius states
-that foot soldiers also received in corn every
-month an allowance (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demensum</i>) of ⅔ of an
-Attic medimnus, or about 2 bushels of wheat:
-the horsemen 7 medimni of barley and 2 of
-wheat. The infantry of the allies received
-the same allowance as the Roman: the horsemen
-1⅓ medimni of wheat and 5 of barley.
-But there was this difference, that the allied
-forces received their allowances as a gratuity;
-the Roman soldiers, on the contrary,
-had deducted from their pay the money value
-of whatever they received in corn, armour,
-or clothes. There was indeed a law passed
-by C. Gracchus, which provided that besides
-their pay the soldiers should receive from
-the treasury an allowance for clothes; but
-this law seems either to have been repealed
-or to have fallen into disuse. The pay was
-doubled for the legionaries by Julius Caesar
-before the civil war. He also gave them
-corn whenever he had the means, without
-any restrictions. Under Augustus it appears
-to have been raised to 10 asses a day (three
-times the original sum). It was still further
-increased by Domitian. The praetorian
-cohorts received twice as much as the
-legionaries.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Stola">STŎLA, a female dress worn over the
-tunic; it came as low as the ankles or feet,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_355"></a>[355]</span>
-and was fastened round the body by a girdle,
-leaving above the breast broad folds. The
-tunic did not reach much below the knee,
-but the essential distinction between the tunic
-and stola seems to have been that the latter
-always had an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">instita</i> or flounce sewed to
-the bottom and reaching to the instep. Over
-the stola the palla or pallium was worn
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pallium">Pallium</a></span>], as we see in the cut annexed.
-The stola was the characteristic dress of the
-Roman matrons, as the toga was of the
-Roman men. Hence the meretrices were
-not allowed to wear it, but only a dark-coloured
-toga; and accordingly Horace speaks
-of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">matrona</i> in contradistinction to the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">togata</i>. For the same reason, women who
-had been divorced from their husbands on
-account of adultery, were not allowed to wear
-the stola, but only the toga.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp36" id="ill355" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill355.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Stola, female dress. (Museo Borbonico, vol. iii. tav. 37.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Strategus">STRĂTĒGUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρατηγός</span>), general. This
-office and title seems to have been more
-especially peculiar to the democratic states
-of ancient Greece: we read of them, for
-instance, at Athens, Tarentum, Syracuse,
-Argos, and Thurii; and when the tyrants of
-the Ionian cities in Asia Minor were deposed
-by Aristagoras, he established strategi in
-their room, to act as chief magistrates. The
-strategi at Athens were instituted after the
-remodelling of the constitution by Clisthenes,
-to discharge the duties which had in former
-times been performed either by the king or
-the archon polemarchus. They were ten in
-number, one for each of the ten tribes, and
-chosen by the suffrages (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>) of the
-people. Before entering on their duties they
-were required to submit to a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">docimasia</i>, or
-examination of their character; and no one
-was eligible to the office unless he had legitimate
-children, and was possessed of landed
-property in Attica. They were, as their name
-denotes, entrusted with the command on military
-expeditions, with the superintendence of
-all warlike preparations, and with the regulation
-of all matters in any way connected
-with the war department of the state. They
-levied and enlisted the soldiers, either personally
-or with the assistance of the taxiarchs.
-They were entrusted with the collection and
-management of the property-taxes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφοραί</span>)
-raised for the purposes of war; and also presided
-over the courts of justice in which any
-disputes connected with this subject or the
-trierarchy were decided. They nominated
-from year to year persons to serve as
-trierarchs. They had the power of convening
-extraordinary assemblies of the people
-in cases of emergency. But their most important
-trust was the command in war, and
-it depended upon circumstances to how many
-of the number it was given. At Marathon
-all the ten were present, and the chief command
-came to each of them in turn. The
-archon polemarchus also was there associated
-with them, and, according to the ancient
-custom, his vote in a council of war was
-equal to that of any of the generals. Usually,
-however, three only were sent out; one of
-these (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίτος αὐτός</span>) was considered as the
-commander-in-chief, but his colleagues had
-an equal voice in a council of war. The
-military chiefs of the Aetolian and Achaean
-leagues were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strategi</i>. The
-Achaean <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strategi</i> had the power of convening
-a general assembly of the league on extraordinary
-occasions. Greek writers on Roman
-affairs give the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strategi</i> to the
-praetors.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Strena">STRĒNA, a present given on a festive
-day, and for the sake of good omen. It was
-chiefly applied to a new year’s gift, to a
-present made on the calends of January. In
-accordance with a senatusconsultum, new
-year’s gifts had to be presented to Augustus
-in the Capitol, even when he was absent.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Strigil">STRĬGIL. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Strophium">STRŎPHĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταινία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταινίδιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπόδεσμος</span>),
-a girdle or belt worn by women round
-the breast and over the inner tunic or chemise.
-It appears to have been usually made
-of leather.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Stuprum">STUPRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adulterium">Adulterium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Subsignani">SUBSIGNĀNI, privileged soldiers in the
-time of the empire, who fought under a
-standard by themselves, and did not form
-part of the legion. They seem to have been
-the same as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexillarii</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Suffragia">SUFFRĀGĬA SEX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Suffragium">SUFFRĀGĬUM, a vote. At Athens the
-voting in the popular assemblies and the
-courts of justice was either by show of hands<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_356"></a>[356]</span>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>) or by ballot (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψῆφος</span>). Respecting
-the mode of voting at Rome, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a></span>, <a href="#Page_107">p.
-107</a>, and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabellariae">Leges Tabellariae</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Suggestus">SUGGESTUS, means in general any elevated
-place made of materials heaped up
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gero</i>), and is specially applied: (1)
-To the stage or pulpit from which the orators
-addressed the people in the comitia. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Rostra">Rostra</a>.</span>]&mdash;(2)
-To the elevation from which a
-general addressed the soldiers.&mdash;(3) To the
-elevated seat from which the emperor beheld
-the public games, also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cubiculum</i>.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cubiculum">Cubiculum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Suovetaurilia">SUOVĔTAURĪLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sacrificium">Sacrificium</a></span>, <a href="#Page_325">p. 325</a>;
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lustratio">Lustratio</a></span>; and woodcut on <a href="#ill343">p. 343</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Supparum">SUPPĂRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a></span>, <a href="#Page_267">p. 267</a>, <em>b</em>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Supplicatio">SUPPLĬCĀTĬO, a solemn thanksgiving or
-supplication to the gods, decreed by the senate,
-when all the temples were opened, and
-the statues of the gods frequently placed in
-public upon couches (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulvinaria</i>), to which
-the people offered up their thanksgivings and
-prayers. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lectisternium">Lectisternium</a>.</span>] A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">supplicatio</i> was
-decreed for two different reasons. 1. As a
-thanksgiving, when a great victory had been
-gained: it was usually decreed as soon as
-official intelligence of the victory had been
-received by a letter from the general in command.
-The number of days during which it
-was to last was proportioned to the importance
-of the victory. Sometimes it was decreed
-for only one day, but more commonly for
-three or five days. A supplication of ten
-days was first decreed in honour of Pompey
-at the conclusion of the war with Mithridates,
-and one of fifteen days after the victory over
-the Belgae by Caesar, an honour which had
-never been granted to any one before. Subsequently
-a supplicatio of twenty days was
-decreed after his conquest of Vercingetorix.
-A supplicatio was usually regarded as a prelude
-to a triumph, but it was not always
-followed by one. This honour was conferred
-upon Cicero on account of his suppression of
-the conspiracy of Catiline, which had never
-been decreed to any one before in a civil capacity
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">togatus</i>).&mdash;2. A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">supplicatio</i>, a solemn
-supplication and humiliation, was also decreed
-in times of public danger and distress, and on
-account of prodigies, to avert the anger of
-the gods.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sycophantes">SȲCŎPHANTĒS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συκοφάντης</span>). At an early
-period in Attic history a law was made prohibiting
-the exportation of figs. Whether it
-was made in a time of dearth, or through
-the foolish policy of preserving to the natives
-the most valuable of their productions, we
-cannot say. It appears, however, that the
-law continued in force long after the cause of
-its enactment, or the general belief of its
-utility, had ceased to exist; and Attic fig-growers
-exported their fruit in spite of prohibitions
-and penalties. To inform against
-a man for so doing was considered harsh and
-vexatious; as all people are apt to think that
-obsolete statutes may be infringed with impunity.
-Hence the term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συκοφαντεῖν</span>, which
-originally signified <em>to lay an information
-against another for exporting figs</em>, came to
-be applied to all ill-natured, malicious, groundless,
-and vexatious accusations. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sycophantes</i>
-in the time of Aristophanes and Demosthenes
-designated a person of a peculiar class, not
-capable of being described by any single word
-in our language, but well understood and
-appreciated by an Athenian. He had not
-much in common with our <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sycophant</i>, but
-was a happy compound of the <em>common barrator,
-informer, pettifogger, busybody, rogue,
-liar, and slanderer</em>. The Athenian law permitted
-any citizen (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸν βουλόμενον</span>) to give
-information against public offenders, and
-prosecute them in courts of justice. It was
-the policy of the legislator to encourage the
-detection of crime, and a reward (such as
-half the penalty) was frequently given to the
-successful accuser. Such a power, with such
-a temptation, was likely to be abused, unless
-checked by the force of public opinion, or
-the vigilance of the judicial tribunals. Unfortunately,
-the character of the Athenian
-democracy and the temper of the judges
-furnished additional incentives to the informer.
-Eminent statesmen, orators, generals,
-magistrates, and all persons of wealth
-and influence were regarded with jealousy
-by the people. The more causes came into
-court, the more fees accrued to the judges,
-and fines and confiscations enriched the
-public treasury. The prosecutor therefore in
-public causes, as well as the plaintiff in civil,
-was looked on with a more favourable eye
-than the defendant, and the chances of success
-made the employment a lucrative one.
-It was not always necessary to go to trial,
-or even to commence legal proceedings.
-The timid defendant was glad to compromise
-the cause, and the conscious delinquent to
-avert the threat of a prosecution, by paying
-a sum of money to his opponent. Thriving
-informers found it not very difficult to procure
-witnesses, and the profits were divided
-between them.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Sylae">SȲLAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σῦλαι</span>). When a Greek state, or
-any of its members, had received an injury or
-insult from some other state or some of its
-members, and the former was unwilling, or
-not in a condition, to declare open war, it
-was not unusual to give a commission, or
-grant public authority to individuals to make
-reprisals. This was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύλας</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σῦλα</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διδόναι</span>. This ancient practice may be compared<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_357"></a>[357]</span>
-with the modern one of granting letters
-of marque and reprisal.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Syllogeis">SYLLOGEIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συλλογεῖς</span>), usually called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συλλογεῖς τοῦ δήμου</span>, or the Collectors of the
-People, were special commissioners at Athens,
-who made out a list of the property of the
-oligarchs previously to its confiscation.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Symbolaeon">SYMBOLAEON, SỸNALLAGMA, SYNTHĒCĒ
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμβόλαιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνάλλαγμα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνθήκη</span>),
-are all words used to signify a contract, but
-are distinguishable from one another. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συμβόλαιον</span>
-is used of contracts and bargains
-between private persons, and peculiarly of
-loans of money. Thus, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμβαλεῖν εἰς ἀνδράποδον</span>
-is, to lend upon the security of a slave.
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνάλλαγμα</span> signifies any matter negotiated
-or transacted between two or more persons,
-whether a contract or anything else. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνθήκη</span>
-is used of more solemn and important
-contracts, not only of those made between
-private individuals, but also of treaties and
-conventions between kings and states.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Symposium">SYMPŎSĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμπόσιον</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comissatio</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">convivium</i>),
-a drinking-party. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">symposium</i>
-must be distinguished from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deipnon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεῖπνον</span>),
-for though drinking almost always followed
-a dinner-party, yet the former was
-regarded as entirely distinct from the latter,
-was regulated by different customs, and frequently
-received the addition of many guests,
-who were not present at the dinner. For
-the Greeks did not usually drink at their
-dinner, and it was not till the conclusion of
-the meal that wine was introduced. Symposia
-were very frequent at Athens. Their
-enjoyment was heightened by agreeable conversation,
-by the introduction of music and
-dancing, and by games and amusements of
-various kinds: sometimes, too, philosophical
-subjects were discussed at them. The symposia
-of Plato and Xenophon give us a lively
-idea of such entertainments at Athens. The
-name itself shows, that the enjoyment of
-drinking was the main object of the symposia:
-wine from the juice of the grape (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἴνος
-ἀμπέλινος</span>) was the only drink partaken of by
-the Greeks, with the exception of water.
-The wine was almost invariably mixed with
-water, and to drink it unmixed (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκρατον</span>) was
-considered a characteristic of barbarians.
-The mixture was made in a large vessel
-called the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Crater">Crater</a></span>, from which it was conveyed
-into the drinking-cups. The guests at
-a symposium reclined on couches, and were
-crowned with garlands of flowers. A master
-of the revels (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων τῆς πόσεως</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμποσίαρχος</span>,
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλεύς</span>) was usually chosen to conduct
-the symposium, whose commands the whole
-company had to obey, and who regulated the
-whole order of the entertainment, proposed
-the amusements, &amp;c. The same practice
-prevailed among the Romans, and their symposiarch
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Magister</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rex Convivii</i>,
-or the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arbiter Bibendi</i>. The choice
-was generally determined by the throwing of
-astragali or tali. The proportion in which
-the wine and water were mixed was fixed by
-him, and also how much each of the company
-was to drink, for it was not usually
-left to the option of each of the company to
-drink as much or as little as he pleased.
-The cups were always carried round from
-right to left (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπὶ δεξιά</span>), and the same order
-was observed in the conversation, and in
-everything that took place in the entertainment.
-The company frequently drank to the
-health of one another, and each did it especially
-to the one to whom he handed the
-same cup. Respecting the games and amusements
-by which the symposia were enlivened,
-it is unnecessary to say much here, as most
-of them are described in separate articles in
-this work. Enigmas or riddles (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰνίγματα</span>
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γρῖφοι</span>) were among the most usual and
-favourite modes of diversion. Each of the
-company proposed one in turn to his right-hand<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_358"></a>[358]</span>
-neighbour; if he solved it, he was rewarded
-with a crown, a garland, a cake, or
-something of a similar kind, and sometimes
-with a kiss; if he failed, he had to drink a
-cup of unmixed wine, or of wine mixed with
-salt water, at one draught. The cottabos
-was also another favourite game at symposia,
-and was played at in various ways. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cottabus">Cottabus</a>.</span>]
-Representations of symposia are
-very common on ancient vases. Two guests
-usually reclined on each couch (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλίνη</span>), as
-is explained on <a href="#Page_95">p. 95</a>, but sometimes there
-were five persons on one couch. A drinking-party
-among the Romans was sometimes
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">convivium</i>, but the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comissatio</i>
-more nearly corresponds to the Greek symposium.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comissatio">Comissatio</a>.</span>] The Romans, however,
-usually drank during their dinner
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coena</i>), which they frequently prolonged
-during many hours, in the later times of the
-republic and under the empire. Their customs
-connected with drinking differed little
-from those of the Greeks, and have been incidentally
-noticed above.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill357" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill357.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Symposium (From a Painting on a Vase.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Syndicus">SYNDĬCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνδικος</span>), <em>an advocate</em>, is frequently
-used as synonymous with the word
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">synegorus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνήγορος</span>), to denote any one who
-pleads the cause of another, whether in a
-court of justice or elsewhere, but was peculiarly
-applied to those orators who were sent
-by the state to plead the cause of their countrymen
-before a foreign tribunal. Aeschines,
-for example, was appointed to plead before
-the Amphictyonic council on the subject of
-the Delian temple; but a certain discovery
-having been made, not very creditable to his
-patriotism, the court of Arciopagus took upon
-themselves to remove him, and appoint Hyperides
-in his stead. There were other <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">syndici</i>,
-who acted rather as magistrates or judges
-than as advocates, though they probably
-derived their name from the circumstance of
-their being appointed to protect the interests
-of the state. These were extraordinary functionaries,
-created from time to time to exercise
-a jurisdiction in disputes concerning
-confiscated property.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Synedri">SỸNĔDRI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνεδροι</span>), a name given to the
-members of any council, or any body of men
-who sat together to consult or deliberate.
-The congress of Greeks at Salamis is called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνέδριον</span>. Frequent reference is made to the
-general assembly of the Greeks, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ κοινὸν τῶν
-Ἑλλήνων συνέδριον</span>, at Corinth, Thermopylae,
-or elsewhere. The congress of the states
-belonging to the new Athenian alliance,
-formed after <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 377, was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνέδριον</span>,
-and the deputies <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνεδροι</span>, and the sums furnished
-by the allies <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συντάξεις</span>, in order to
-avoid the old and hateful name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φόρος</span> or
-tribute. The name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνέδριον</span> was given at
-Athens to any magisterial or official body, as
-to the court of Areiopagus, or to the place
-where they transacted business, their board
-or council-room.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Synegorus">SỸNĒGŎRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνήγορος</span>). In causes of
-importance, wherein the state was materially
-interested, more especially in those which
-were brought before the court upon an <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσαγγελία</span>,
-it was usual to appoint public advocates
-(called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνήγοροι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνδικοι</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατήγοροι</span>)
-to manage the prosecution. In ordinary cases
-however the accuser or prosecutor (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατήγορος</span>)
-was a distinct person from the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνήγορος</span>,
-who acted only as auxiliary to him. It
-might be, indeed, that the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνήγορος</span> performed
-the most important part at the trial,
-or it might be that he performed a subordinate
-part, making only a short speech in
-support of the prosecution, which was called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίλογος</span>. But however this might be, he
-was in point of law an auxiliary only, and
-was neither entitled to a share of the reward
-(if any) given by the law to a successful accuser,
-nor liable, on the other hand, to a
-penalty of a thousand drachms, or the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτιμία</span>
-consequent upon a failure to get a fifth part
-of the votes. The fee of a drachm (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ συνηγορικόν</span>)
-mentioned by Aristophanes was
-probably the sum paid to the public advocate
-whenever he was employed on behalf of the
-state. There appears to have been (at least
-at one period) a regular appointment of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνήγοροι</span>,
-ten in number. For what purpose
-they were appointed, is a matter about which
-we have no certain information: but it is not
-unreasonable to suppose that these ten <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνήγοροι</span>
-were no other than the public advocates
-who were employed to conduct state prosecutions.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Syngraphe">SYNGRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συγγραφή</span>), signifies a written
-contract: whereas <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνθήκη</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμβόλαιον</span>
-do not necessarily import that the
-contract is in writing; and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁμολογία</span> is,
-strictly speaking, a verbal agreement. At
-Athens important contracts were usually reduced
-to writing; such as leases (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μισθώσεις</span>),
-loans of money, and all executory agreements,
-where certain conditions were to be
-performed. The whole was contained in a
-little tablet of wax or wood (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βιβλίον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραμματεῖον</span>,
-sometimes double, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίπτυχον</span>), which
-was sealed, and deposited with some third
-person, mutually agreed on between the
-parties.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Synoikia">SỸNOIKĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνοίκια</span>).&mdash;(1) A festival celebrated
-every year at Athens on the 16th of
-Hecatombaeon in honour of Athena. It was
-believed to have been instituted by Theseus
-to commemorate the concentration of the
-government of the various towns of Attica
-at Athens.&mdash;(2) A house adapted to hold<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_359"></a>[359]</span>
-several families, a lodging-house, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">insula</i>, as
-the Romans would say. The lodging-houses
-were let mostly to foreigners who came to
-Athens on business, and especially to the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέτοικοι</span>, whom the law did not allow to
-acquire real property, and who therefore
-could not purchase houses of their own. The
-rent was commonly paid by the month.
-Lodging-houses were frequently taken on
-speculation by persons called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναύκληροι</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σταθμοῦχοι</span>, who made a profit by underletting
-them.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Synthesis">SYNTHĔSIS, a garment frequently worn
-at dinner, and sometimes also on other occasions.
-As it was inconvenient to wear the
-toga at table, on account of its many folds, it
-was customary to have dresses especially appropriated
-to this purpose, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vestes coenatoriae</i>,
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coenatoria</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">accubitoria</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">syntheses</i>.
-The synthesis appears to have been a
-kind of tunic, an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">indumentum</i> rather than an
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amictus</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amictus">Amictus</a>.</span>] That it was, however,
-an easy and comfortable kind of dress, as we
-should say, seems to be evident from its use
-at table above mentioned, and also from its
-being worn by all classes at the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Saturnalia">Saturnalia</a></span>,
-a season of universal relaxation and
-enjoyment. More than this respecting its
-form we cannot say; it was usually dyed
-with some colour, and was not white, like the
-toga.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Syrinx">SȲRINX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύριγξ</span>), the Pan’s pipe, or Pandean
-pipe, was the appropriate musical instrument
-of the Arcadian and other Grecian
-shepherds, and was regarded by them as the
-invention of Pan, their tutelary god. When
-the Roman poets had occasion to mention it,
-they called it <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fistula</i>. It was formed in
-general of seven hollow stems of cane or
-reed, fitted together by means of wax, having
-been previously cut to the proper lengths,
-and adjusted so as to form an octave; but
-sometimes nine were admitted, giving an
-equal number of notes. A syrinx of eight
-reeds is represented on <a href="#ill278b">p. 278</a>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp80" id="ill359" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill359.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Pan with a Syrinx. (Mus. Worsleyanum, pl. 9.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Syrma">SYRMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύρμα</span>), which properly means
-that which is drawn or dragged (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύρω</span>),
-is applied to a dress with a train. It was
-more especially the name of the dress worn
-by the tragic actors, which had a train to it
-trailing upon the ground. Hence we find
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">syrma</i> used metaphorically for tragedy itself.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Syssitia">SYSSĪTĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συσσίτια</span>). The custom of
-taking the principal meal of the day in
-public prevailed extensively amongst the
-Greeks from very early ages, but more particularly
-in Crete and at Sparta. The Cretan
-name for the syssitia was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Andreia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνδρεῖα</span>),
-the singular of which is used to denote the
-building or public hall where they were
-given. This title affords of itself a sufficient
-indication that they were confined to men
-and youths only. All the adult citizens partook
-of the public meals amongst the Cretans,
-and were divided into companies or “messes,”
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hetaeriae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑταιρίαι</span>), or sometimes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">andreia</i>.
-The syssitia of the Cretans were
-distinguished by simplicity and temperance.
-They always <em>sat</em> at their tables, even in later
-times, when the custom of reclining had been
-introduced at Sparta. In most of the Cretan
-cities, the expenses of the syssitia were defrayed
-out of the revenues of the public
-lands, and the tribute paid by the perioeci,
-the money arising from which was applied
-partly to the service of the gods, and partly
-to the maintenance of all the citizens, both
-male and female; so that in this respect
-there might be no difference between the rich
-and the poor. The Spartan syssitia were in the
-main so similar to those of Crete, that one was
-said to be borrowed from the other. They differed
-from the Cretan in the following respects.
-The expenses of the tables at Sparta were not
-defrayed out of the public revenues, but every
-head of a family was obliged to contribute a
-certain portion at his own cost and charge;
-those who were not able to do so were excluded
-from the public tables. The guests were
-divided into companies, generally of fifteen
-persons each, and all vacancies were filled up
-by ballot, in which unanimous consent was
-indispensable for election. No persons, not
-even the kings, were excused from attendance
-at the public tables, except for some
-satisfactory reason, as when engaged in a
-sacrifice, or a chase, in which latter case the
-individual was required to send a present to
-his table. Each person was supplied with a
-cup of mixed wine, which was filled again
-when required: but drinking to excess was
-prohibited at Sparta as well as in Crete.
-The repast was of a plain and simple character,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_360"></a>[360]</span>
-and the contribution of each member
-of a mess (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φειδίτης</span>) was settled by law. The
-principal dish was the black broth (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέλας
-ζωμός</span>), with pork. Moreover, the entertainment
-was enlivened by cheerful conversation,
-though on public matters. Singing also was
-frequently introduced. The arrangements
-were under the superintendence of the polemarchs.</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="T_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">T</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Tabella" class="drop-capy">TĂBELLA, <em>dim.</em> of TĂBŬLA, a billet or
-tablet, with which each citizen and judex
-voted in the comitia and courts of justice.
-For details see pp. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tabellarius">TĂBELLĀRĬUS, a letter-carrier. As the
-Romans had no public post, they were obliged
-to employ special messengers, who were called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabellarii</i>, to convey their letters (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabellae</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">literae</i>), when they had not an opportunity
-of sending them otherwise.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tabernaculum">TĂBERNĀCŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tablinum">TABLĪNUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tabulae">TĂBŬLAE. This word properly means
-planks or boards, whence it is applied to
-several objects, as gaming-tables, pictures,
-but more especially to tablets used for writing.
-Generally, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabellae</i> signify waxen
-tablets (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae ceratae</i>), which were thin
-pieces of wood, usually of an oblong shape,
-covered over with wax (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cera</i>). The wax was
-written on by means of the stilus. These
-tabulae were sometimes made of ivory and
-citron-wood, but generally of the wood of a
-more common tree, as the beech, fir, &amp;c. The
-outer sides of the tablets consisted merely of
-the wood; it was only the inner sides that
-were covered over with wax. They were
-fastened together at the back by means of
-wires, which answered the purpose of hinges,
-so that they opened and shut like our books;
-and to prevent the wax of one tablet nibbing
-against the wax of the other, there was a
-raised margin around each, as is clearly seen
-in the woodcut on <a href="#ill354">p. 354</a>. There were
-sometimes two, three, four, five, or even
-more, tablets fastened together in the above-mentioned
-manner. Two such tablets were
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diptycha</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίπτυχα</span>), which merely
-means “twice-folded” (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πτύσσω</span>, “to
-fold”), whence we have <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πτυκτίον</span>, or with
-the τ omitted, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυκτίον</span>. The Latin word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pugillares</i>,
-which is the name frequently given
-to tablets covered with wax, may perhaps be
-connected with the same root, though it is
-usually derived from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pugillus</i>, because they
-were small enough to be held in the hand.
-Three tablets fastened together were called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triptycha</i>; in the same way we also read of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pentaptycha</i>, and of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">polyptycha</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">multiplices</i>
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cerae</i>). The pages of these tablets were
-frequently called by the name of cerae alone;
-thus we read of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prima cera</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">altera cera</i>,
-“first page,” “second page.” In tablets
-containing important legal documents, especially
-wills, the outer edges were pierced
-through with holes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foramina</i>), through
-which a triple thread (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">linum</i>) was passed,
-and upon which a seal was then placed.
-This was intended to guard against forgery,
-and if it was not done such documents were
-null and void. Waxen tablets were used
-among the Romans for almost every species
-of writing, where great length was not required.
-Thus letters were frequently written
-upon them, which were secured by being
-fastened together with packthread and sealed
-with wax. Legal documents, and especially
-wills, were almost always written on waxen
-tablets. Such tablets were also used for accounts,
-in which a person entered what he
-received and expended (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">codex
-accepti et expensi</i>), whence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">novae tabulae</i>
-mean an abolition of debts either wholly or
-in part. The tablets used in voting in the
-comitia and the courts of justice were also
-called tabulae, as well as tabellae. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabella">Tabella</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tabularii">TĂBŬLĀRĬI were notaries or accountants,
-who are first mentioned under this name in
-the time of the empire. Public notaries,
-who had the charge of public documents,
-were also called tabularii. They were first
-established by M. Antoninus in the provinces,
-who ordained that the births of all children
-were to be announced to the tabularii within
-thirty days from the birth.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tabularium">TĂBŬLĀRĬUM, a place where the public
-records (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae publicae</i>) were kept. These
-records were of various kinds, as for instance
-senatusconsulta, tabulae censoriae, registers
-of births, deaths, of the names of those who
-assumed the toga virilis, &amp;c. There were
-various tabularia at Rome, all of which were
-in temples; we find mention made of tabularia
-in the temples of the Nymphs, of
-Lucina, of Juventus, of Libitina, of Ceres,
-and more especially in that of Saturn, which
-was also the public treasury.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tagus">TAGUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταγός</span>), a leader or general, was
-more especially the name of the military
-leader of the Thessalians. He is sometimes
-called <em>king</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλεύς</span>). His command was of
-a military rather than of a civil nature, and
-he seems only to have been appointed when
-there was a war or one was apprehended.
-We do not know the extent of the power
-which the Tagus possessed constitutionally,
-nor the time for which he held the office;
-probably neither was precisely fixed, and depended
-on the circumstances of the times
-and the character of the individual.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_361"></a>[361]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Talaria">TĀLĀRĬA, small wings, fixed to the ancles
-of Hermes and reckoned among his attributes
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέδιλα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πτηνοπέδιλος</span>). In many works
-of ancient art they are represented growing
-from his ancles (see cut, <a href="#ill063">p. 63</a>); but more
-frequently he is represented with sandals,
-which have wings fastened to them on each
-side over the ancles.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp87" id="ill361a" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill361a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Talaria. (From a Statue of Hermes at Naples.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Talassio">TĂLASSĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Talentum">TĂLENTUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάλαντον</span>) meant originally
-<em>a balance</em> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Libra">Libra</a></span>], then the substance
-weighed, and lastly and commonly a certain
-weight, <em>the talent</em>. The Greek system of
-money, as well as the Roman [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a></span>], was
-founded on a reference to weight. A certain
-weight of silver among the Greeks, as
-of copper among the Romans, was used as a
-representative of a value, which was originally
-and generally that of the metal itself.
-The talent therefore and its divisions are
-denominations of money as well as of weight.
-The Greek system of weights contained four
-principal denominations, which, though different
-in different times and places, and even
-at the same place for different substances,
-always bore the same relation <em>to each other</em>.
-These were the talent (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάλαντον</span>), which was
-the largest, then the mina (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μνᾶ</span>), the drachma
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δραχμή</span>), and the obolus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀβολός</span>). [See
-<a href="#TABLES">Tables</a>.] The Attic and Aeginetan were the
-two standards of money most in use in Greece.
-The Attic mina was 4<em>l.</em> 1<em>s.</em> 3<em>d.</em>, and the talent
-243<em>l.</em> 15<em>s.</em> The Aeginetan mina was 5<em>l.</em> 14<em>s.</em> 7<em>d.</em>,
-and the talent 343<em>l.</em> 15<em>s.</em> The Euboic talent
-was of nearly the same weight as the Attic.
-A much smaller talent was in use for gold.
-It was equal to six Attic drachmae, or about
-¾ oz. and 71 grs. It was called the <em>gold
-talent</em>, or the <em>Sicilian talent</em>, from its being
-much used by the Greeks of Italy and Sicily.
-This is the talent always meant when the
-word occurs in Homer. This small talent
-explains the use of the term <em>great talent</em>
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magnum talentum</i>), which we find in Latin
-authors, for the silver Attic talent was <em>great</em>
-in comparison with this. But the use of the
-word by the Romans is altogether very inexact.
-Where talents are mentioned in the
-classical writers without any specification of
-the standard, we must generally understand
-the Attic.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Talio">TĀLĬO, from Talis, signifies an equivalent,
-but it is used only in the sense of a punishment
-or penalty the same in kind and degree
-as the mischief which the guilty person has
-done to the body of another. Talio, as a
-punishment, was a part of the Mosaic law.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Talus">TĀLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀστράγαλος</span>), a huckle-bone. The
-huckle-bones of sheep and goats were used
-to play with from the earliest times, principally
-by women and children, occasionally by
-old men. To play at this game was sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_362"></a>[362]</span>
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πενταλιθίζειν</span>, because five bones
-or other objects of a similar kind were employed;
-and this number is retained among
-ourselves. When the sides of the bone were
-marked with different values, the game became
-one of chance. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Alea">Alea</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Tessera">Tessera</a></span>.] The
-two ends were left blank, because the bone
-could not rest upon either of them on account
-of its curvature. The four remaining sides
-were marked with the numbers 1, 3, 4, 6;
-1 and 6 being on two opposite sides, and
-3 and 4 on the other two opposite sides.
-The Greek and Latin names of the numbers
-were as follows:&mdash;1. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μονάς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἶς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύων</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χῖος</span>;
-Ion. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἴνη</span>: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Unio</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vulturius</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">canis</i>: 3. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρίας</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ternio</i>; 4. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετράς</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaternio</i>; 6. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑξάς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑξίτης</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κῷος</span>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Senio</i>. Two persons played together
-at this game, using four bones, which they
-threw up into the air, or emptied out of a
-dice-box, and observing the numbers on the
-uppermost sides. The numbers on the four
-sides of the four bones admitted of thirty-five
-different combinations. The lowest throw
-of all was four aces (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jacere vultorios quatuor</i>).
-But the value of a throw was not in
-all cases the sum of the four numbers turned
-up. The highest in value was that called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Venus</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jactus Venereus</i>, in which the
-numbers cast up were all different, the sum
-of them being only fourteen. It was by obtaining
-this throw that the king of the feast
-was appointed among the Romans [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Symposium">Symposium</a></span>],
-and hence it was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Basilicus</i>.
-Certain other throws were called by particular
-names, taken from gods, illustrious men
-and women, and heroes. Thus the throw,
-consisting of two aces and two trays, making
-eight, which number, like the jactus Venereus,
-could be obtained only once, was denominated
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Stesichorus</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill361b" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill361b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Game of Tali. (From an ancient Painting.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Tamiae">TĂMĬAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταμίαι</span>), the treasurers of the
-temples and the revenue at Athens. The
-wealthiest of all the temples at Athens was
-that of Athena on the Acropolis, the treasures
-of which were under the guardianship of ten
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tamiae</i>, who were chosen annually by lot
-from the class of pentacosiomedimni, and
-afterwards, when the distinction of classes
-had ceased to exist, from among the wealthiest
-of Athenian citizens. The treasurers of
-the other gods were chosen in like manner;
-but they, about the 90th Olympiad, were all
-united into one board, while those of Athena
-remained distinct. Their treasury, however,
-was transferred to the same place as that of
-Athena, viz., to the opisthodomus of the
-Parthenon, where were kept not only all the
-treasures belonging to the temples, but also
-the state treasure (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅσια χρήματα</span>, as contra-distinguished
-from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερά</span>), under the care of
-the treasurers of Athena. All the funds of
-the state were considered as being in a manner
-consecrated to Athena; while on the
-other hand the people reserved to themselves
-the right of making use of the sacred monies,
-as well as the other property of the
-temples, if the safety of the state should require
-it. Payments made to the temples
-were received by the treasurers in the presence
-of some members of the senate, just as
-public monies were by the Apodectae; and
-then the treasurers became responsible for
-their safe custody.&mdash;The treasurer of the
-revenue (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταμίας</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιμελητής τῆς κοινῆς
-προσόδου</span>) was a more important personage
-than those last mentioned. He was not a
-mere keeper of monies, like them, nor a
-mere receiver, like the apodectae; but a
-general paymaster, who received through the
-apodectae all money which was to be disbursed
-for the purposes of the administration
-(except the property-taxes, which were paid
-into the war-office, and the tribute from the
-allies, which was paid to the hellenotamiae
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hellenotamiae">Hellenotamiae</a></span>]), and then distributed it in
-such manner as he was required to do by the
-law; the surplus (if any) he paid into the
-war-office or the theoric fund. As this person
-knew all the channels in which the
-public money had to flow, and exercised a
-general superintendence over the expenditure,
-he was competent to give advice to the
-people upon financial measures, with a view
-to improve the revenue, introduce economy,
-and prevent abuses; he is sometimes called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταμίας τῆς διοικήσεως</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ ἐπὶ τῆς διοικήσεως</span>,
-and may be regarded as a sort of minister
-of finance. He was elected by vote (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>),
-and held his office for four years, but
-was capable of being re-elected. A law,
-however, was passed during the administration
-of Lycurgus, the orator, prohibiting re-election;
-so that Lycurgus, who is reported
-to have continued in office for twelve years,
-must have held it for the last eight years
-under fictitious names. The power of this
-officer was by no means free from control;
-inasmuch as any individual was at liberty to
-propose financial measures, or institute criminal
-proceedings for malversation or waste of
-the public funds; and there was an <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντιγραφεὺς
-τῆς διοικήσεως</span> appointed to check the
-accounts of his superior. Anciently there
-were persons called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Poristae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πορίσται</span>), who
-appear to have assisted the tamiae in some
-part of their duties. The money disbursed
-by the treasurer of the revenue was sometimes
-paid directly to the various persons in
-the employ of the government, sometimes
-through subordinate pay offices. Many public
-functionaries had their own paymasters,
-who were dependent on the treasurer of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_363"></a>[363]</span>
-revenue, receiving their funds from him,
-and then distributing them in their respective
-departments. Such were the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριηροποιοί</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τειχοποιοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁδοποιοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταφροποιοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπεμεληταὶ
-νεωρίων</span>, who received through their
-own tamiae such sums as they required from
-time to time for the prosecution of their
-works. The payment of the judicial fees
-was made by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Colacretae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κωλακρέται</span>),
-which, and the providing for the meals in
-the Prytaneium, were the only duties that
-remained to them after the establishment of
-the apodectae by Cleisthenes. The tamiae
-of the sacred vessels (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῆς Παράλου</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῆς
-Σαλαμινίας</span>) acted not only as treasurers, but
-as trierarchs, the expenses (amounting for
-the two ships together to about sixteen talents)
-being provided by the state. They
-were elected by vote. Other trierarchs had
-their own private tamiae.&mdash;The war fund at
-Athens (independently of the tribute) was
-provided from two sources: first, the property-tax
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφορά</span>), and secondly, the surplus
-of the yearly revenue, which remained
-after defraying the expenses of the civil
-administration. Of the ten strategi, who
-were annually elected to preside over the
-war department, one was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρατηγὸς ὁ
-ἐπὶ τῆς διοικήσεως</span>, to whom the management
-of the war fund was entrusted. He had
-under him a treasurer, called the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταμίας τῶν
-στρατιωτικῶν</span>, who gave out the pay of the
-troops, and defrayed all other expenses incident
-to the service. So much of the surplus
-revenue as was not required for the purposes
-of war, was to be paid by the treasurer
-of the revenue into the theoric fund; of
-which, after the archonship of Euclides,
-special managers were created. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theorica">Theorica</a>.</span>]&mdash;Lastly,
-we have to notice the treasurers of
-the demi (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δήμων ταμίαι</span>), and those of the
-tribes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλῶν ταμίαι</span>), who had the care of
-the funds belonging to their respective communities,
-and performed duties analogous
-to those of the state treasurers. The demi,
-as well as the tribes, had their common lands,
-which were usually let to farm. The rents of
-these formed the principal part of their revenue.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Taxiarchi">TAXIARCHI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταξίαρχοι</span>), military officers
-at Athens, next in rank to the strategi.
-They were ten in number, like the strategi,
-one for each tribe, and were elected by vote
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>). In war each commanded the
-infantry of his own tribe, and they were frequently
-called to assist the strategi with their
-advice at the war-council. In peace they
-assisted the strategi in levying and enlisting
-soldiers, and seem to have also assisted the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strategi</i> in the discharge of many of their
-other duties. The taxiarchs were so called
-from their commanding <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taxeis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάξεις</span>), which
-were the principal divisions of the hoplites
-in the Athenian army. Each tribe (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλή</span>)
-formed a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taxis</i>. As there were ten tribes,
-there were consequently in a complete Athenian
-army ten <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taxeis</i>, but the number of men
-contained in each would of course vary according
-to the importance of the war. Among
-the other Greeks, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taxis</i> was the name of
-a much smaller division of troops. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lochus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόχος</span>) among the Athenians was a
-subdivision of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taxis</i>, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lochagi</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λοχαγοί</span>) were probably appointed by the
-taxiarchs.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tegula">TĒGŬLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κέραμος</span>, <em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεραμίς</span>), a roofing-tile.
-Roofing-tiles were originally made,
-like bricks, of baked clay (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γῆς ὀπτῆς</span>). Byzes
-of Naxos first introduced tiles of marble
-about the year 620 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> A still more expensive
-and magnificent method of roofing
-consisted in the use of tiles made of bronze
-and gilt. At Rome the houses were originally
-roofed with shingles, and continued to
-be so down to the time of the war with
-Pyrrhus, when tiles began to supersede the
-old roofing material.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Teichopoii">TEICHŎPOII (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τειχοποιοί</span>), magistrates at
-Athens, whose business it was to build and
-keep in repair the public walls. They appear
-to have been elected by vote (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>),
-one from each tribe, and probably
-for a year. Funds were put at their disposal,
-for which they had their treasurer
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταμίας</span>) dependent on the treasurer of the
-revenue. They were liable to render an
-account (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐθύνη</span>) of their management of
-these funds, and also of their general conduct,
-like other magistrates. This office
-has been invested with peculiar interest in
-modern times, on account of its having been
-held by Demosthenes, and its having given
-occasion to the famous prosecution of Ctesiphon,
-who proposed that Demosthenes should
-receive the honour of a crown before he had
-rendered his account according to law.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tela">TĒLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστός</span>), a loom. Although weaving
-was among the Greeks and Romans a
-distinct trade, carried on by a separate class
-of persons (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑφάνται</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">textores</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">textrices</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">linteones</i>), yet every considerable domestic
-establishment, especially in the country, contained
-a loom, together with the whole apparatus
-necessary for the working of wool
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lanificium</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταλασία, ταλασιουργία</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calathus">Calathus</a>.</span>]
-These occupations were all supposed
-to be carried on under the protection of
-Athena or Minerva, specially denominated
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ergane</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐργάνη</span>). When the farm or the
-palace was sufficiently large to admit of it, a
-portion of it called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">histon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστῶν</span>) or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">textrinum</i>
-was devoted to this purpose. The
-work was there principally carried on by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_364"></a>[364]</span>
-female slaves (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quasillariae</i>), under the superintendence
-of the mistress of the house.
-Every thing woven consists of two essential
-parts, the warp and the woof, called in Latin
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stamen</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subtegmen</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subtemen</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trama</i>;
-in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στήμων</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κροκή</span>. The warp was
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stamen</i> in Latin (from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stare</i>) on account
-of its erect posture in the loom. The
-corresponding Greek term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στήμων</span>, and likewise
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστός</span>, have evidently the same derivation.
-For the same reason, the very first
-operation in weaving was to set up the loom
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστὸν στήσασθαι</span>); and the web or cloth,
-before it was cut down or “descended” from
-the loom, was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vestis pendens</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pendula
-tela</i>, because it hung from the transverse
-beam, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugum</i>. These particulars
-are all clearly exhibited in the picture of
-Circe’s loom given in the annexed cut. We
-observe in the preceding woodcut, about the
-middle of the apparatus, a transverse rod
-passing through the warp. A straight cane
-was well adapted to be so used, and its application
-is clearly expressed by Ovid in the
-words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stamen secernit arundo</i>. In plain
-weaving it was inserted between the threads
-of the warp so as to divide them into two
-portions, the threads on one side of the rod
-alternating with those on the other side
-throughout the whole breadth of the warp.
-In a very ancient form of the loom there was
-a roller underneath the jugum, turned by a
-handle, and on which the web was wound as
-the work advanced. The threads of the warp,
-besides being separated by a transverse rod
-or plank, were divided into thirty or forty parcels,
-to each of which a stone was suspended for
-the purpose of keeping the warp in a perpendicular
-position, and allowing the necessary
-play to the strokes of the spatha. Whilst
-the comparatively coarse, strong, and much-twisted
-thread designed for the warp was
-thus arranged in parallel lines, the woof remained
-upon the spindle [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fusus">Fusus</a></span>], forming a
-<em>spool</em>, <em>bobbin</em>, or <em>pen</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πήνη</span>). This was either
-conveyed through the warp without any
-additional contrivance, or it was made to
-revolve in a shuttle (<em>radius</em>). This was
-made of box brought from the shores of the
-Euxine, and was pointed at its extremities,
-that it might easily force its way through
-the warp. All that is effected by the shuttle
-is the conveyance of the woof across the
-warp. To keep every thread of the woof in its
-proper place, it is necessary that the threads
-of the warp should be decussated. This was
-done by the leashes, called in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">licia</i>, in
-Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτοι</span>. By a leash we are to understand
-a thread having at one end a loop,
-through which a thread of the warp was
-passed, the other end being fastened to a
-straight rod called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liciatorium</i>, and in Greek
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κανών</span>. The warp, having been divided by
-the arundo, as already mentioned, into two
-sets of threads, all those of the same set were
-passed through the loops of the corresponding
-set of leashes, and all these leashes were
-fastened at their other end to the same
-wooden rod. At least one set of leashes was
-necessary to decussate the warp, even in the
-plainest and simplest weaving. The number
-of sets was increased according to the complexity
-of the pattern, which was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bilix</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trilix</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίμιτος, τρίμιτος</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πολύμιτος</span>,
-according as the number was two,
-three, or more. The process of annexing
-the leashes to the warp was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordiri telam</i>,
-also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">licia telae addere</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adnectere</i>. It
-occupied two women at the same time, one
-of whom took in regular succession each
-separate thread of the warp, and handed it
-over to the other (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραφέρειν</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραδίδοναι</span>, or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσφωρεῖσθαι</span>); the other, as she received
-each thread, passed it through the loop in
-proper order; an act which we call “entering,”
-in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διάζεσθαι</span>. Supposing the warp
-to have been thus adjusted, and the pen or
-the shuttle to have been carried through it, it
-was then decussated by drawing forwards the
-proper rod, so as to carry one set of the threads
-of the warp across the rest, after which the
-woof was shot back again, and by the continual
-repetition of this process the warp and
-woof were interlaced. Two staves were occasionally
-used to fix the rods in such a position
-as was most convenient to assist the weaver
-in drawing her woof across her warp. After
-the woof had been conveyed by the shuttle
-through the warp, it was driven sometimes
-downwards, as is represented in the woodcut,
-but more commonly upwards. Two different
-instruments were used in this part of the process.
-The simplest, and probably the most
-ancient, was in the form of a large wooden
-sword (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spatha</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σπάθη</span>). The spatha was, however,
-in a great degree superseded by the comb
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecten</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κερκίς</span>), the teeth of which were inserted
-between the threads of the warp, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_365"></a>[365]</span>
-thus made by a forcible impulse to drive the
-threads of the woof close together.&mdash;The lyre,
-the favourite musical instrument of the
-Greeks, was only known to the Romans as a
-foreign invention. Hence they appear to
-have described its parts by a comparison
-with the loom, with which they were familiar.
-The terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stamina</i> were
-transferred by an obvious resemblance from
-the latter to the former object; and, although
-they adopted into their own language the
-Greek word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plectrum</i>, they used the Latin
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecten</i> to denote the same thing, not because
-the instrument used in striking the lyre was
-at all like a comb in shape and appearance,
-but because it was held in the right
-hand, and inserted between the stamina of
-the lyre, as the comb was between the stamina
-of the loom.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp67" id="ill364" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill364.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Tela, Loom. (From the Vatican MS. of Virgil.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Telamones">TĔLAMŌNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Atlantes">Atlantes</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Telones">TĔLŌNES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελώνης</span>), a farmer of the public
-taxes at Athens. The taxes were let by
-auction to the highest bidder. Companies
-often took them in the name of one person,
-who was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχώνης</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελωνάρχης</span>, and
-was their representative to the state. Sureties
-were required of the farmer for the payment
-of his dues. The office was frequently
-undertaken by resident aliens, citizens not
-liking it, on account of the vexatious proceedings
-to which it often led. The farmer
-was armed with considerable powers: he
-carried with him his books, searched for contraband
-or uncustomed goods, watched the
-harbour, markets, and other places, to prevent
-smuggling, or unlawful and clandestine
-sales; brought a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phasis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάσις</span>) or other legal
-process against those whom he suspected of
-defrauding the revenue; or even seized their
-persons on some occasions, and took them
-before the magistrate. To enable him to
-perform these duties, he was exempted from
-military service. Collectors (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκλογεῖς</span>) were
-sometimes employed by the farmers; but
-frequently the farmer and the collector were
-the same person. The taxes were let by the
-commissioners (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πωλῆται</span>), acting under the
-authority of the senate. The payments were
-made by the farmer on stated prytaneias in
-the senate-house. There was usually one
-payment made in advance, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προκαταβολή</span>, and
-one or more afterwards, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσκατάβλημα</span>.
-Upon any default of payment, the farmer
-became <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimus</i>, if a citizen, and he was liable
-to be imprisoned at the discretion of the
-court, upon an information laid against him.
-If the debt was not paid by the expiration of
-the ninth prytaneia, it was doubled; and if
-not then paid, his property became forfeited
-to the state, and proceedings to confiscation
-might be taken forthwith. Upon this subject,
-see the speech of Demosthenes against
-Timocrates.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Telos">TĔLOS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέλος</span>), a tax. The taxes imposed
-by the Athenians, and collected at home, were
-either ordinary or extraordinary. The former
-constituted a regular or permanent source of
-income; the latter were only raised in time
-of war or other emergency. The ordinary
-taxes were laid mostly upon <em>property</em>, and
-upon citizens <em>indirectly</em>, in the shape of toll
-or customs; though the resident aliens paid
-a poll-tax (called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετοίκιον</span>), for the liberty of
-residing at Athens under protection of the
-state. There was a duty of two per cent.
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκοστή</span>), levied upon all exports and imports.
-An excise was paid on all sales in
-the market (called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπωνία</span>), though we know
-not what the amount was. Slave-owners
-paid a duty of three obols for every slave they
-kept; and slaves who had been emancipated
-paid the same. This was a very productive
-tax before the fortification of Deceleia by the
-Lacedaemonians. The justice fees (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρυτανεῖα</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραστασις</span>, &amp;c.) were a lucrative tax in time
-of peace. The extraordinary taxes were the
-property-tax, and the compulsory services
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liturgies</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λειτουργίαι</span>). Some of these
-last were regular, and recurred annually;
-the most important, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trierarchia</i>, was a
-war-service, and performed as occasion required.
-As these services were all performed,
-wholly or partly, at the expense of the individual,
-they may be regarded as a species of
-tax. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Eisphora">Eisphora</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Leiturgia">Leitourgia</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Trierarchia">Trierarchia</a></span>.]
-The tribute (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φόρος</span>) paid by the allied states
-to the Athenians formed, in the flourishing
-period of the republic, a regular and most
-important source of revenue. In Olymp. 91
-2, the Athenians substituted for the tribute a
-duty of five per cent. (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰκοστή</span>) on all commodities
-exported or imported by the subject
-states, thinking to raise by this means a
-larger income than by direct taxation. This
-was terminated by the issue of the Peloponnesian
-war, though the tribute was afterwards
-revived, on more equitable principles,
-under the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνταξις</span>. Other sources
-of revenue were derived by the Athenians
-from their mines and public lands, fines, and
-confiscations. The public demesne lands,
-whether pasture or arable, houses or other
-buildings, were usually let by auction to private
-persons. The conditions of the lease
-were engraven on stone. The rent was payable
-by prytaneias. These various sources of
-revenue produced, according to Aristophanes,
-an annual income of two thousand talents in
-the most flourishing period of Athenian empire.
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τελεῖν</span> signifies “to settle, complete, or
-perfect,” and hence “to settle an account,”
-and generally “to pay.” Thus <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τέλος</span> comes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_366"></a>[366]</span>
-to mean any payment in the nature of a tax
-or duty. The words are connected with
-<i lang="de" xml:lang="de">zahlen</i> in German, and the old sense of <em>tale</em>
-in English, and the modern word <em>toll</em>. Though
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέλος</span> may signify any payment in the nature
-of a tax or duty, it is more commonly used of
-the ordinary taxes, as customs, &amp;c. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἰσοτέλεια</span>
-signifies the right of being taxed on the same
-footing, and having other privileges, the same
-as the citizens; a right sometimes granted to
-resident aliens. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀτέλεια</span> signifies an exemption
-from taxes, or other duties and services; an
-honour very rarely granted by the Athenians.
-As to the farming of the taxes, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Telones">Telones</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Templum">TEMPLUM is the same word as the Greek
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Temenos</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέμενος</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέμνω</span>, to cut off); for
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum</i> was any place which was circumscribed
-and separated by the augurs from the
-rest of the land by a certain solemn formula.
-The technical terms for this act of the augurs
-are <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liberare</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">effari</i>, and hence a templum
-itself is a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">locus liberatus et effatus</i>. A place
-thus set apart and hallowed by the augurs
-was always intended to serve religious purposes,
-but chiefly for taking the auguries.
-The place in the heavens within which the
-observations were to be made was likewise
-called templum, as it was marked out and
-separated from the rest by the staff of the
-augur. When the augur had defined the
-templum within which he intended to make
-his observations, he fixed his tent in it (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabernaculum
-capere</i>), and this tent was likewise
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum</i>, or, more accurately, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum
-minus</i>. The place chosen for a templum was
-generally an eminence, and in the city it was
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arx</i>, where the fixing of a tent does not
-appear to have been necessary, because here
-a place called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auguraculum</i> was once for all
-consecrated for this purpose. Besides this
-meaning of the word templum in the language
-of the augurs, it also had that of a temple
-in the common acceptation. In this case,
-however, the sacred precinct within which a
-temple was built, was always a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">locus liberatus
-et effatus</i> by the augurs, that is, a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum</i> or
-a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fanum</i>; the consecration was completed by
-the pontiffs, and not until inauguration and
-consecration had taken place, could sacra be
-performed or meetings of the senate be held
-in it. It was necessary then for a temple to
-be sanctioned by the gods, whose will was
-ascertained by the augurs, and to be consecrated
-or dedicated by the will of man (pontiffs).
-Where the sanction of the gods had
-not been obtained, and where the mere act of
-man had consecrated a place to the gods, such
-a place was only a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacrum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacrarium</i>, or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacellum</i>. The ceremony performed by the
-augurs was essential to a temple, as the consecration
-by the pontiffs took place also in
-other sanctuaries which were not templa, but
-mere <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacra</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aedes sacrae</i>. Thus the sanctuary
-of Vesta was not a templum, but an
-aedes sacra, and the various curiae (Hostilia,
-Pompeia, Julia) required to be made templa
-by the augurs before senatusconsulta could be
-made in them. It is impossible to determine
-with certainty in what respects a templum
-differed from a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">delubrum</i>.&mdash;Temples appear to
-have existed in Greece from the earliest
-times. They were separated from the profane
-land around them (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόπος βέβηλος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὰ
-βέβηλα</span>), because every one was allowed to
-walk in the latter. This separation was in
-early times indicated by very simple means,
-such as a string or a rope. Subsequently,
-however, they were surrounded by more efficient
-fences, or even by a wall (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕρκος, περίβολος</span>).
-The whole space enclosed in such a
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίβολος</span> was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέμενος</span>, or sometimes
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερόν</span>; and contained, besides the temple
-itself, other sacred buildings, and sacred
-ground planted with groves, &amp;c. Within
-the precincts of the sacred enclosure no
-dead were generally allowed to be buried,
-though there were some exceptions to this
-rule, and we have instances of persons being
-buried in or at least near certain temples.
-The religious laws of the island of Delos did
-not allow any corpses to be buried within the
-whole extent of the island, and when this
-law had been violated, a part of the island
-was first purified by Pisistratus, and subsequently
-the whole island by the Athenian
-people. The temple itself was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναός</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεώς</span>, and at its entrance fonts (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περιῤῥαντήρια</span>)
-were generally placed, that those who entered
-the sanctuary to pray or to offer sacrifices
-might first purify themselves. The act of
-consecration, by which a temple was dedicated
-to a god, was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἵδρυσις</span>. The character
-of the early Greek temples was dark
-and mysterious, for they had no windows,
-and they received light only through the
-door, which was very large, or from lamps
-burning in them. Architecture in the construction
-of magnificent temples, however,
-made great progress even at an earlier time
-than either painting or statuary, and long
-before the Persian wars we hear of temples of
-extraordinary grandeur and beauty. All
-temples were built either in an oblong or
-round form, and were mostly adorned with
-columns. Those of an oblong form had
-columns either in the front alone, in the fore
-and back fronts, or on all the four sides.
-Respecting the original use of these porticoes
-see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Porticus">Porticus</a></span>. The friezes and metopes were
-adorned with various sculptures, and no expense
-was spared in embellishing the abodes
-of the gods. The light, which was formerly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_367"></a>[367]</span>
-let in at the door, was now frequently let in
-from above through an opening in the middle.
-Most of the great temples consisted of three
-parts: 1. the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόναος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόδομος</span>, the vestibule;
-2. the cella (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σηκός</span>); and 3. the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀπισθόδομος</span>. The cella was the most important
-part, as it was, properly speaking, the temple
-or the habitation of the deity whose statue
-it contained. In one and the same cella
-there were sometimes the statues of two or
-more divinities, as in the Erechtheum at
-Athens, the statues of Poseidon, Hephaestus,
-and Butas. The statues always faced the entrance,
-which was in the centre of the prostylus.
-The place where the statue stood was
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕδος</span>, and was surrounded by a balustrade
-or railings. Some temples also had
-more than one cella, in which case the one
-was generally behind the other, as in the
-temple of Athena Polias at Athens. In temples
-where oracles were given, or where the
-worship was connected with mysteries, the
-cella was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄδυτον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέγαρον</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάκτορον</span>,
-and to it only the priests and the initiated
-had access. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀπισθόδομος</span> was a building
-which was sometimes attached to the back
-front of a temple, and served as a place in
-which the treasures of the temple were kept,
-and thus supplied the place of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θησαυροί</span>,
-which were attached to some temples.&mdash;<em>Quadrangular
-Temples</em> were described by the following
-terms, according to the number and
-arrangement of the columns on the fronts
-and sides. 1. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄστυλος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">astyle</i>, without any
-columns. 2. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐν παραστάσι</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in antis</i>, with
-two columns in front between the antae. 3.
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόστυλος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prostyle</i>, with four columns in
-front. 4. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφιπρόστυλος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amphiprostyle</i>, with
-four columns at each end. 5. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίπτερος</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφικίων</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peripteral</i>, with columns at each
-end and along each side. 6. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίπτερος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dipteral</i>,
-with two ranges of columns (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πτερά</span>) all
-round, the one within the other. 7. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψευδοδίπτερος</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pseudodipteral</i>, with one range only,
-but at the same distance from the walls of
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i> as the outer range of a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίπτερος</span>. To
-these must be added a sort of sham invented
-by the Roman architects, namely: 8. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψευδοπερίπτερος</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pseudoperipteral</i>, where the sides
-had only half-columns (at the angles three-quarter
-columns), attached to the walls of the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i>, the object being to have the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i> large
-without enlarging the whole building, and
-yet to keep up something of the splendour of
-a peripteral temple. Names were also applied
-to the temples, as well as to the porticoes
-themselves, according to the number of
-columns in the portico at either end of the
-temple: namely, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετράστυλος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tetrastyle</i>, when
-there were <em>four</em> columns in front, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑξάστυλος</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hexastyle</i>, when there were <em>six</em>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀκτάστυλος</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">octastyle</i>, when there were <em>eight</em>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκάστυλος</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decastyle</i>, when there were <em>ten</em>. There were
-never more than ten columns in the end portico
-of a temple; and when there were only
-two, they were always arranged in that peculiar
-form called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in antis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐν παραστάσι</span>). The
-number of columns in the end porticoes was
-never uneven, but the number along the
-sides of a temple was generally uneven. The
-number of the side columns varied: where
-the end portico was tetrastyle, there were
-never any columns at the sides, except false
-ones, attached to the walls: where it was
-hexastyle or octastyle, there were generally
-13 or 17 columns at the sides, counting in
-the corner columns: sometimes a hexastyle
-temple had only eleven columns on the sides.
-The last arrangement resulted from the rule
-adopted by the Roman architects, who counted
-by intercolumniations (the spaces between
-the columns), and whose rule was to have <em>twice
-as many intercolumniations along the sides of
-the building as in front</em>. The Greek architects
-on the contrary, counted by columns, and
-their rule was to have <em>twice as many columns
-along the sides as in front, and one more</em>,
-counting the corner columns in each case.
-Another set of terms, applied to temples and
-other buildings having porticoes, as well as
-to the porticoes themselves, was derived from
-the distances between the columns as compared
-with the lower diameters of the columns.
-They were the following:&mdash;1. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυκνόστυλος</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pycnostyle</i>, the distance between the
-columns a diameter of a column and half a
-diameter. 2. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύστυλος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">systyle</i>, the distance
-between the columns two diameters of a
-column. 3. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὔστυλος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">eustyle</i>, the distance
-between the columns two diameters and a
-quarter, except in the centre of the front and
-back of the building, where each intercolumniation
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intercolumnium</i>) was three diameters;
-called eustyle, because it was best
-adapted both for beauty and convenience. 4.
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διάστυλος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diastyle</i>, the intercolumniation, or
-distance between the columns, three diameters.
-5. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀραιόστυλος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">araeostyle</i>, the distances
-excessive, so that it was necessary to
-make the epistyle (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστύλιον</span>), or architrave,
-not of stone, but of timber. These five kinds
-of intercolumniation are illustrated by the
-following diagram.</p>
-
-<table class="autotable" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdc"><span class="pad4">⬤</span></td>
-<td class="tdc pad2">1½</td>
-<td class="tdc">⬤</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdc"><span class="pad3">⬤</span></td>
-<td class="tdc pad2">2</td>
-<td class="tdc"><span class="pad1">⬤</span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdc"><span class="pad2">⬤</span></td>
-<td class="tdc pad2">2¼</td>
-<td class="tdc"><span class="pad2">⬤</span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdc"><span class="pad1">⬤</span></td>
-<td class="tdc pad2">3</td>
-<td class="tdc"><span class="pad3">⬤</span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdcvt">⬤</td>
-<td class="tdcvt pad2">{&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;4 &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;}<br />{or more}</td>
-<td class="tdcvt"><span class="pad4">⬤</span></td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-
-<p>Independently of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_368"></a>[368]</span>
-immense treasures contained in many of the
-Greek temples, which were either utensils or
-ornaments, and of the tithes of spoils, &amp;c.,
-the property of temples, from which they derived
-a regular income, consisted of lands
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τεμένη</span>), either fields, pastures, or forests.
-These lands were generally let out to farm,
-unless they were, by some curse which lay
-on them, prevented from being taken into
-cultivation. Respecting the persons entrusted
-with the superintendence, keeping,
-cleaning, &amp;c., see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aeditui">Aeditui</a></span>. In the earliest
-times there appear to have been very few
-temples at Rome, and on many spots the
-worship of a certain divinity had been established
-from time immemorial, while we hear
-of the building of a temple for the same divinity
-at a comparatively late period. Thus
-the foundation of a temple to the old Italian
-divinity Saturnus, on the Capitoline, did not
-take place till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 498. In the same manner,
-Quirinus and Mars had temples built to them
-at a late period. Jupiter also had no temple
-till the time of Ancus Martius, and the one
-then built was certainly very insignificant.
-We may therefore suppose that the places of
-worship among the earliest Romans were in
-most cases simple altars or sacella. The
-Roman temples of later times were constructed
-in the Greek style. As regards the
-property of temples, it is stated that in early
-times lands were assigned to each temple,
-but these lands were probably intended for
-the maintenance of the priests alone. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sacerdos">Sacerdos</a>.</span>]
-The supreme superintendence of the
-temples of Rome, and of all things connected
-with them, belonged to the college of pontiffs.
-Those persons who had the immediate care of
-the temples were the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aeditui">Aeditui</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tepidarium">TĔPĬDĀRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a></span>, <a href="#Page_56">p. 56</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Terminalia">TERMĬNĀLĬA, a festival in honour of the
-god Terminus, who presided over boundaries.
-His statue was merely a stone or post stuck
-in the ground to distinguish between properties.
-On the festival the two owners of
-adjacent property crowned the statue with
-garlands, and raised a rude altar, on which
-they offered up some corn, honeycombs, and
-wine, and sacrificed a lamb or a sucking-pig.
-They concluded with singing the praises of
-the god. The public festival in honour of
-this god was celebrated at the sixth mile-stone
-on the road towards Laurentum, doubtless
-because this was originally the extent of
-the Roman territory in that direction. The
-festival of the Terminalia was celebrated on
-the 23rd of February, on the day before the
-Regifugium. The Terminalia was celebrated
-on the last day of the old Roman
-year, whence some derive its name. We
-know that February was the last month of the
-Roman year, and that when the intercalary
-month Mercedonius was added, the last five
-days of February were added to the intercalary
-month, making the 23rd of February the
-last day of the year.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Teruncius">TĔRUNCĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tessera">TESSĔRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύβος</span>), a square or cube; a
-die; a token. The dice used in games of
-chance were tesserae, small squares or cubes,
-and were commonly made of ivory, bone, or
-wood. They were numbered on all the six
-sides, like the dice still in use; and in this
-respect as well as in their form they differed
-from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tali</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Talus">Talus</a>.</span>] Whilst four tali were
-used in playing, only three tesserae were anciently
-employed. Objects of the same materials
-with dice, and either formed like
-them, or of an oblong shape, were used as
-tokens for different purposes. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tessera
-hospitalis</i> was the token of mutual hospitality,
-and is spoken of under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Hospitium">Hospitium</a></span>.
-This token was probably in many cases of
-earthenware, having the head of Jupiter
-Hospitalis stamped upon it. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tesserae frumentariae</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummariae</i> were tokens given
-at certain times by the Roman magistrates
-to the poor, in exchange for which they received
-a fixed amount of corn or money.
-From the application of this term to tokens
-of various kinds, it was transferred to <em>the
-word</em> used as a token among soldiers. This
-was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tessera militaris</i>, the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνθημα</span> of the
-Greeks. Before joining battle it was given
-out and passed through the ranks, as a method
-by which the soldiers might be able to
-distinguish friends from foes.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Testamentum">TESTĀMENTUM, a will. In order to be
-able to make a valid Roman will, the Testator
-must have the Testamentifactio, which
-term expresses the legal capacity to make a
-valid will. The testamentifactio was the privilege
-only of Roman citizens who were patresfamilias.
-The following persons consequently
-had not the testamentifactio: those
-who were in the Potestas or Manus of another,
-or in Mancipii causa, as sons and
-daughters, wives In manu and slaves: Latini
-Juniani, Dediticii: Peregrini could not
-dispose of their property according to the
-form of a Roman will: an Impubes could
-not dispose of his property by will even with
-the consent of his Tutor; when a male was
-fourteen years of age, he obtained the testamentifactio,
-and a female obtained the power,
-subject to certain restraints, on the completion
-of her twelfth year: muti, surdi, furiosi,
-and prodigi “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">quibus lege bonis interdictum
-est</span>” had not the testamentifactio. In order
-to constitute a valid will, it was necessary
-that a heres should be instituted, which
-might be done in such terms as follow:&mdash;Titius<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_369"></a>[369]</span>
-heres esto, Titium heredem esse jubeo.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Heres">Heres</a></span> (<span class="smcap">Roman.</span>)] Originally there were
-two modes of making wills; either at Calata
-Comitia, which were appointed twice a year
-for that purpose; or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in procinctu</i>, that is,
-when a man was going to battle. A third
-mode of making wills was introduced, which
-was effected <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per aes et libram</i>, whence the
-name of Testamentum per aes et libram. If
-a man had neither made his will at Calata
-Comitia nor In procinctu, and was in imminent
-danger of death, he would mancipate
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipio dabat</i>) his Familia, that is, his
-Patrimonium to a friend and would tell him
-what he wished to be given to each after his
-death. There seems to have been no rule of
-law that a testament must be written. The
-heres might either be made by oral declaration
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nuncupatio</i>) or by writing. Written
-wills however were the common form among
-the Romans at least in the later republican
-and in the imperial periods. They were
-written on tablets of wood or wax, whence
-the word “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cera</span>” is often used as equivalent
-to “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabella</span>;” and the expressions prima,
-secunda cera are equivalent to prima, secunda
-pagina. The will must have been in
-some way so marked as to be recognized, and
-the practice of the witnesses (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testes</i>) sealing
-and signing the will at last became common.
-It was necessary for the witnesses both to
-seal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">signare</i>), that is, to make a mark with
-a ring (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">annulus</i>) or something else on the
-wax and to add their names (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adscribere</i>).
-Wills were to be tied with a triple thread
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">linum</i>) on the upper part of the margin
-which was to be perforated at the middle
-part, and the wax was to be put over the
-thread and sealed. Tabulae which were produced
-in any other way had no validity.
-A man might make several copies of his will,
-which was often done for the sake of caution.
-When sealed, it was deposited with some
-friend, or in a temple, or with the Vestal
-Virgins; and after the testator’s death it
-was opened (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">resignare</i>) in due form. The
-witnesses or the major part were present,
-and after they had acknowledged their seals,
-the thread (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">linum</i>) was broken and the will
-was opened and read, and a copy was made;
-the original was then sealed with the public
-seal and placed in the archium, whence a
-fresh copy might be got, if the first copy
-should ever be lost.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Testis">TESTIS, a witness.&mdash;(1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Martyria">Martyria</a>.</span>]&mdash;(2)
-<span class="smcap">Roman.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Jusjurandum">Jusjurandum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Testudo">TESTŪDO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χελώνη</span>), a tortoise, was the
-name given to several other objects.&mdash;(1) To
-the Lyra, because it was sometimes made of
-a tortoise-shell.&mdash;(2) To an arched or vaulted
-roof.&mdash;(3) To a military machine moving
-upon wheels and roofed over, used in besieging
-cities, under which the soldiers
-worked in undermining the walls or otherwise
-destroying them. It was usually covered
-with raw hides, or other materials which
-could not easily be set on fire. The battering-ram
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aries">Aries</a></span>] was frequently placed under
-a testudo of this kind, which was then called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Testudo Arietaria</i>.&mdash;(4) The name of testudo
-was also applied to the covering made by a
-close body of soldiers who placed their shields
-over their heads to secure themselves against
-the darts of the enemy. The shields fitted so
-closely together as to present one unbroken
-surface without any interstices between them,
-and were also so firm that men could walk
-upon them, and even horses and chariots be
-driven over them. A testudo was formed
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testudinem facere</i>) either in battle to ward
-off the arrows and other missiles of the enemy,
-or, which was more frequently the case,
-to form a protection to the soldiers when
-they advanced to the walls or gates of a town
-for the purpose of attacking them. Sometimes
-the shields were disposed in such a
-way as to make the testudo slope. The soldiers
-in the first line stood upright, those in
-the second stooped a little, and each line successively
-was a little lower than the preceding
-down to the last, where the soldiers
-rested on one knee. Such a disposition of
-the shields was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fastigata testudo</i>, on
-account of their sloping like the roof of a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_370"></a>[370]</span>
-building. The advantages of this plan were
-obvious: the stones and missiles thrown upon
-the shields rolled off them like water from a
-roof; besides which, other soldiers frequently
-advanced upon them to attack the enemy upon
-the walls. The Romans were accustomed
-to form this kind of testudo, as an exercise,
-in the games of the circus.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp55" id="ill369" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill369.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Testudo. (From the Antonine Column.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Tetrarches">TĔTRARCHĒS or TĔTRARCHA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετράρχης</span>).
-This word was originally used, according
-to its etymological meaning, to signify the governor
-of the fourth part of a country (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετραρχία</span>
-or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετραδαρχία</span>). We have an example
-in the ancient division of Thessaly into four
-tetrarchies, which was revived by Philip.
-Each of the three Gallic tribes which settled
-in Galatia was divided into four tetrarchies,
-each ruled by a tetrarch. Some of the tribes
-of Syria were ruled by tetrarchs, and several
-of the princes of the house of Herod ruled in
-Palestine with this title. In the later period
-of the republic and under the empire, the
-Romans seem to have used the title (as also
-those of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ethnarch</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phylarch</i>) to designate
-those tributary princes who were
-not of sufficient importance to be called
-kings.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tettarakonta">TETTĂRĂKONTA, HOI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ τετταράκοντα</span>),
-<em>the Forty</em>, were certain officers chosen
-by lot, who made regular circuits through the
-demi of Attica, whence they are called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δικασταὶ
-κατὰ δήμους</span>, to decide all cases of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰκία</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὰ
-περὶ τῶν βιαίων</span>, and also all other private
-causes, where the matter in dispute was not
-above the value of ten drachmae. Their
-number was originally thirty, but was increased
-to forty after the expulsion of the
-thirty tyrants, and the restoration of the democracy
-by Thrasybulus, in consequence, it
-is said, of the hatred of the Athenians to the
-number of thirty.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Thargelia">THARGĒLĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θαργήλια</span>), a festival celebrated
-at Athens on the 6th and 7th of Thargelion,
-in honour of Apollo and Artemis.
-The real festival, or the Thargelia in a narrower
-sense of the word, appears to have
-taken place on the 7th; and on the preceding
-day, the city of Athens or rather its
-inhabitants were purified. The manner in
-which this purification was effected is very
-extraordinary, and is certainly a remnant of
-very ancient rites, for two persons were put
-to death on that day, and the one died on
-behalf of the men and the other on behalf of
-the women of Athens. The name by which
-these victims were designated was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pharmaci</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φαρμακοί</span>). It appears probable, however,
-that this sacrifice did not take place annually,
-but only in case of a heavy calamity having
-befallen the city, such as the plague, a famine,
-&amp;c. The victims appear to have been
-criminals sentenced to death. The second
-day of the thargelia was solemnized with a
-procession and an agon, which consisted of a
-cyclic chorus, performed by men at the expense
-of a choragus. The prize of the victor in
-this agon was a tripod, which he had to dedicate
-in the temple of Apollo which had
-been built by Pisistratus. On this day it
-was customary for persons who were adopted
-into a family to be solemnly registered, and
-received into the genos and the phratria of
-the adoptive parents. This solemnity was
-the same as that of registering one’s own
-children at the Apaturia.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp82" id="ill371" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill371.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Plan of Greek Theatre.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Theatrum">THĔĀTRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θέατρον</span>), a theatre. The
-Athenians before the time of Aeschylus had
-only a wooden scaffolding on which their
-dramas were performed. Such a wooden
-theatre was only erected for the time of the
-Dionysiac festivals, and was afterwards pulled
-down. The first drama that Aeschylus brought
-upon the stage was performed upon such a
-wooden scaffold, and it is recorded as a singular
-and ominous coincidence that on that
-occasion (500 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>) the scaffolding broke
-down. To prevent the recurrence of such an
-accident, the building of a stone theatre was
-forthwith commenced on the south-eastern
-descent of the Acropolis, in the Lenaea;
-for it should be observed, that throughout
-Greece theatres were always built upon eminences,
-or on the sloping side of a hill.
-The new Athenian theatre was built on a
-very large scale, and appears to have been
-constructed with great skill in regard to
-its acoustic and perspective arrangements.
-Subsequently theatres were erected in all
-parts of Greece and Asia Minor, although
-Athens was the centre of the Greek drama,
-and the only place which produced great
-masterworks in this department of literature.
-All the theatres, however, which were constructed
-in Greece were probably built after
-the model of that of Athens, and, with slight
-deviations and modifications, they all resembled
-one another in the main points, as
-is seen in the numerous ruins of theatres in
-various parts of Greece, Asia Minor, and
-Sicily. The Attic theatre was, like all the
-Greek theatres, placed in such a manner that
-the place for the spectators formed the upper
-or north-western, and the stage with all that
-belonged to it the south-eastern part, and
-between these two parts lay the orchestra.
-The annexed plan has been made from the
-remains of Greek theatres still extant, and
-from a careful examination of the passages
-in ancient writers which describe the whole
-or parts of a theatre.&mdash;1. The place for the
-spectators was in a narrower sense of the
-word called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">theatrum</i>. The seats for the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_371"></a>[371]</span>
-spectators, which were in most cases cut out
-of the rock, consisted of rows of benches
-rising one above another; the rows themselves
-(<em>a</em>) formed parts (nearly three-fourths)
-of concentric circles, and were at intervals
-divided into compartments by one or more
-broad passages (<em>b</em>) running between them,
-and parallel with the benches. These passages
-were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαζώματα</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατατομαί</span>,
-Lat. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praecinctiones</i>, and when the concourse
-of people was very great in a theatre, many
-persons might stand in them. Across the
-rows of benches ran stairs, by which persons
-might ascend from the lowest to the highest.
-But these stairs ran in straight lines only
-from one praecinctio to another; and the
-stairs in the next series of rows were just
-between the two stairs of the lower series of
-benches. By this course of the stairs the
-seats were divided into a number of compartments,
-resembling cones from which the
-tops are cut off; hence they were termed
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεοκίδες</span>, and in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cunei</i>. The whole of
-the place for the spectators (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θέατρον</span>) was
-sometimes designated by the name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοῖλον</span>,
-Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cavea</i>, it being in most cases a real
-excavation of the rock. Above the highest
-row of benches there rose a covered portico
-(<em>c</em>), which of course far exceeded in height
-the opposite buildings by which the stage
-was surrounded, and appears to have also
-contributed to increase the acoustic effect.
-The entrances to the seats of the spectators
-were partly underground, and led to the
-lowest rows of benches, while the upper
-rows must have been accessible from above.&mdash;2.
-The orchestra (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀρχήστρα</span>) was a circular
-level space extending in front of the spectators,
-and somewhat below the lowest row of
-benches. But it was not a complete circle,
-one segment of it being appropriated to the
-stage. The orchestra was the place for the
-chorus, where it performed its evolutions
-and dances, for which purpose it was covered
-with boards. As the chorus was the element
-out of which the drama arose, so the orchestra
-was originally the most important
-part of a theatre: it formed the centre
-around which all the other parts of the
-building were grouped. In the centre of
-the circle of the orchestra was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">thymele</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυμέλη</span>), that is, the altar of Dionysus (<em>d</em>),<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_372"></a>[372]</span>
-which was of coarse nearer to the stage than
-to the seats of the spectators, the distance
-from which was precisely the length of a
-radius of the circle. In a wider sense the
-orchestra also comprised the broad passages
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάροδοι</span>, <em>e</em>) on each side, between the projecting
-wings of the stage and the seats of
-the spectators, through which the chorus entered
-the orchestra. The chorus generally
-arranged itself in the space between the
-thymele and the stage. The thymele itself
-was of a square form, and was used for
-various purposes, according to the nature of
-the different plays, such as a funeral monument,
-an altar, &amp;c. It was made of boards,
-and surrounded on all sides with steps. It
-thus stood upon a raised platform, which
-was sometimes occupied by the leader of the
-chorus, the flute-player, and the rhabdophori.
-The orchestra as well as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">theatrum</i> lay
-under the open sky; a roof is nowhere mentioned.&mdash;3.
-The stage. Steps led from each
-side of the orchestra to the stage, and by
-them the chorus probably ascended the stage
-whenever it took a real part in the action
-itself. The back side of the stage was closed
-by a wall called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scena</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκηνή</span>), from
-which on each side a wing projected which
-was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">parascenium</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρασκήνιον</span>).
-The whole depth of the stage was not very
-great, as it only comprised a segment of the
-circle of the orchestra. The whole space
-from the scena to the orchestra was termed
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proscenium</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσκήνιον</span>), and was what
-we should call the real stage. That part of
-it which was nearest to the orchestra, and
-where the actors stood when they spoke,
-was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">logeium</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λογείον</span>), also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ocribas</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀκρίβας</span>), in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulpitum</i>, which was of
-course raised above the orchestra, and probably
-on a level with the thymele. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scena</i> was, as we have already stated, the
-wall which closed the stage (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proscenium</i> and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">logeium</i>) from behind. It represented a suitable
-background, or the locality in which the
-action was going on. Before the play began
-it was covered with a curtain (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραπέτασμα</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσκήνιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλαίαι</span>), Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aulaea</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">siparium</i>.
-When the play began this curtain was let
-down, and was rolled up on a roller underneath
-the stage. The proscenium and logeium
-were never concealed from the spectators.
-As regards the scenery represented
-on the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scena</i>, it was different for tragedy,
-comedy, and the satyric drama, and for each
-of these kinds of poetry the scenery must
-have been capable of various modifications,
-according to the character of each individual
-play; at least that this was the case with the
-various tragedies, is evident from the scenes
-described in the tragedies still extant. In
-the latter however the back-ground (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scena</i>)
-in most cases represented the front of a
-palace with a door in the centre (<em>i</em>) which
-was called the <em>royal door</em>. This palace
-generally consisted of two stories, and upon
-its flat roof there appears to have been some
-elevated place from which persons might
-observe what was going on at a distance.
-The palace presented on each side a projecting
-wing, each of which had its separate
-entrance. These wings generally represented
-the habitations of guests and visitors.
-All the three doors must have been visible
-to the spectators. The protagonistes always
-entered the stage through the middle or
-royal door, the deuteragonistes and tritagonistes
-through those on the right and left
-wings. In tragedies like the Prometheus,
-the Persians, Philoctetes, Oedipus in Colonus,
-and others, the back-ground did not
-represent a palace. There are other pieces
-again in which the scena must have been
-changed in the course of the performance, as
-in the Eumenides of Aeschylus and the Ajax
-of Sophocles. The dramas of Euripides required
-a great variety of scenery; and if in
-addition to this we recollect that several
-pieces were played in one day, it is manifest
-that the mechanical parts of stage performance,
-at least in the days of Euripides, must
-have been brought to great perfection. The
-scena in the satyric drama appears to have
-always represented a woody district with
-hills and grottos; in comedy the scena represented,
-at least in later times, the fronts of
-private dwellings or the habitations of slaves.
-The art of scene-painting must have been
-applied long before the time of Sophocles,
-although Aristotle ascribes its introduction
-to him. The whole of the cavea in the
-Attic theatre must have contained about
-50,000 spectators. The places for generals,
-the archons, priests, foreign ambassadors,
-and other distinguished persons, were in the
-lowest rows of benches, and nearest to the
-orchestra, and they appear to have been
-sometimes covered with a sort of canopy.
-The rows of benches above these were occupied
-by the senate of 500, those next in
-succession by the ephebi, and the rest by
-the people of Athens. But it would seem
-that they did not sit indiscriminately, but
-that the better places were let at a higher
-price than the others, and that no one had a
-right to take a place for which he had not
-paid. The usual fee for a place was two
-obols, which was subsequently given to the
-poorer classes by a law of Pericles. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theorica">Theorica</a>.</span>]
-Women were allowed to be present
-during the performance of tragedies, but not
-of comedies.&mdash;The Romans must have become<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_373"></a>[373]</span>
-acquainted with the theatres of the
-Italian Greeks at an early period, whence
-they erected their own theatres in similar
-positions upon the sides of hills. This is
-still clear from the ruins of very ancient
-theatres at Tusculum and Faesulae. The
-Romans themselves, however, did not possess
-a regular stone theatre until a very late
-period, and although dramatic representations
-were very popular in earlier times, it
-appears that a wooden stage was erected
-when necessary, and was afterwards pulled
-down again, and the plays of Plautus and
-Terence were performed on such temporary
-scaffoldings. In the mean while, many of
-the neighbouring towns of Rome had their
-stone theatres, as the introduction of Greek
-customs and manners was less strongly
-opposed in them than in the city of Rome
-itself. Wooden theatres, adorned with the
-most profuse magnificence, were erected at
-Rome even during the last period of the
-republic. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 55 Cn. Pompey built the
-first stone theatre at Rome, near the Campus
-Martius. It was of great beauty, and is
-said to have been built after the model of
-that of Mytilene; it contained 40,000 spectators.
-The construction of a Roman theatre
-resembled, on the whole, that of a Greek
-one. The principal differences are, that
-the seats of the spectators, which rose in
-the form of an amphitheatre around the
-orchestra, did not form more than a semicircle;
-and that the whole of the orchestra
-likewise formed only a semicircle, the diameter
-of which formed the front line of the
-stage. The Roman orchestra contained no
-thymele, and was not destined for a chorus,
-but contained the seats for senators and
-other distinguished persons, such as foreign
-ambassadors, which are called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">primus subselliorum
-ordo</i>. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 68 the tribune L.
-Roscius Otho carried a law which regulated
-the places in the theatre to be occupied by
-the different classes of Roman citizens: it
-enacted that fourteen ordines of benches
-were to be assigned as seats to the equites.
-Hence these quatuordecim ordines are sometimes
-mentioned without any further addition,
-as the honorary seats of the equites.
-They were undoubtedly close behind the
-seats of the senators and magistrates, and
-thus consisted of the rows of benches immediately
-behind the orchestra.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill373" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill373.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Plan of Roman Theatre.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Thensae">THENSAE or TENSAE, highly ornamented
-sacred vehicles, which, in the solemn<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_374"></a>[374]</span>
-pomp of the Circensian games, conveyed the
-statues of certain deities with all their decorations
-to the pulvinaria, and after the
-sports were over bore them back to their
-shrines. We are ignorant of their precise
-form. We know that they were drawn by
-horses, and escorted (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deducere</i>) by the chief
-senators in robes of state, who, along with
-pueri patrimi [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patrimi">Patrimi</a></span>], laid hold of the
-bridles and traces, or perhaps assisted to
-drag the carriage by means of thongs attached
-for the purpose (and hence the proposed
-derivation from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tendo</i>). So sacred
-was this duty considered, that Augustus,
-when labouring under sickness, deemed it
-necessary to accompany the tensae in a litter.
-If one of the horses knocked up, or the
-driver took the reins in his left hand, it was
-necessary to recommence the procession, and
-for one of the attendant boys to let go the
-thong, or to stumble, was profanation. The
-only gods distinctly named as carried in
-tensae are Jupiter and Minerva, though
-others appear to have had the same honour
-paid them.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Theophania">THĔŎPHĂNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεοφάνια</span>), a festival celebrated
-at Delphi, on the occasion of which
-the Delphians filled the huge silver crater
-which had been presented to the Delphic god
-by Croesus.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Theoria">THĔŌRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theori">Theori</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Theorica">THĔŌRĬCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωρικά</span>). Under this name
-at Athens were comprised the monies expended
-on festivals, sacrifices, and public
-entertainments of various kinds; and also
-monies distributed among the people in the
-shape of largesses from the state. There
-were, according to Xenophon, more festivals
-at Athens than in all the rest of Greece. At
-the most important of the public festivals,
-such as the Dionysia, Panathenaea, Eleusinia,
-Thargelia, and some others, there were not
-only sacrifices, but processions, theatrical exhibitions,
-gymnastic contests, and games,
-celebrated with great splendour and at a
-great expense. A portion of the expense was
-defrayed by the individuals upon whom the
-burden of the liturgies devolved; but a considerable,
-and perhaps the larger, part was
-defrayed by the public treasury. Demosthenes
-complains, that more money was spent
-on a single Panathenaic or Dionysiac festival
-than on any military expedition. The religious
-embassies to Delos and other places,
-and especially those to the Olympian, Nemean,
-Isthmian, and Pythian games, drew
-largely upon the public exchequer, though a
-part of the cost fell upon the wealthier
-citizens who conducted them. The largesses
-distributed among the people had their origin
-at an early period, and in a measure
-apparently harmless, though from a small
-beginning they afterwards rose to a height
-most injurious to the commonwealth. The
-Attic drama used to be performed in a
-wooden theatre, and the entrance was free to
-all citizens who chose to go. It was found,
-however, that the crushing to get in led to
-much confusion and even danger. On one
-occasion, about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 500, the wooden scaffolding
-of the theatre fell down, and caused great
-alarm. It was then determined that the
-entrance should no longer be gratuitous.
-The fee for a place was fixed at two obols,
-which was paid to the lessee of the theatre,
-(called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεατρώνης</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεατροπώλης</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχιτέκτων</span>),
-who undertook to keep it in repair, and constantly
-ready for use, on condition of being
-allowed to receive the profits. This payment
-continued to be exacted after the stone
-theatre was built. Pericles, to relieve the
-poorer classes, passed a law which enabled
-them to receive the price of admission from
-the state; after which all those citizens who
-were too poor to pay for their places applied
-for the money in the public assembly, which
-was then frequently held in the theatre. In
-process of time this donation was extended to
-other entertainments besides theatrical ones;
-the sum of two oboli being given to each citizen
-who attended; if the festival lasted two
-days, four oboli; and if three, six oboli; but
-not beyond. Hence all theoric largesses received
-the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diobelia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διωβελία</span>). It is
-calculated that from 25 to 30 talents were
-spent upon them annually. So large an expenditure
-of the public funds upon shows and
-amusements absorbed the resources, which
-were demanded for services of a more important
-nature. By the ancient law, the
-whole surplus of the annual revenue which
-remained after the expense of the civil administration
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὰ περίοντα χρήματα τῆς διοικήσεως</span>)
-was to be carried to the military fund, and
-applied to the defence of the commonwealth.
-Since the time of Pericles various demagogues
-had sprung up, who induced the people to
-divert all that could be spared from the other
-branches of civil expenditure into the theoric
-fund, which at length swallowed up the whole
-surplus, and the supplies needed for the purpose
-of war or defence were left to depend
-upon the extraordinary contributions, or property-tax
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφοραί</span>). An attempt was made
-by the demagogue Eubulus to perpetuate this
-system. He passed a law, which made it a
-capital offence to propose that the theoric
-fund should be applied to military service.
-The law of Eubulus was a source of great
-embarrassment to Demosthenes, in the prosecution
-of his schemes for the national defence;
-and he seems at last, but not before<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_375"></a>[375]</span>
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 339, to have succeeded in repealing it.
-In the earlier times there was no person, or
-board of persons, expressly appointed to
-manage the theoric fund. The money thus
-appropriated was disbursed by the Hellenotamiae.
-After the anarchy, the largess system
-having been restored by Agyrrhius, a
-board of managers was appointed. They were
-elected by show of hands at the period of the
-great Dionysia, one from each tribe.</p>
-
-<p id="Theori">THĔŌRI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωροί</span>), persons sent on special
-missions (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωρίαι</span>) to perform some religious
-duty, as to consult an oracle, or to offer a
-sacrifice, on behalf of the state. There were
-among some of the Dorian states, as the Aeginetans,
-Troezenians, Messenians, and Mantineans,
-official priests called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Theori</i>, whose
-duty it was to consult oracles, interpret the
-responses, &amp;c., as among the Spartans there
-were men called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pythii</i>, chosen by the kings
-to consult the oracle at Delphi. At Athens
-there were no official persons called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Theori</i>,
-but the name was given to those citizens who
-were appointed from time to time to conduct
-religious embassies to various places; of
-which the most important were those that
-were sent to the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean,
-and Isthmian games, those that went to consult
-the God at Delphi, and those that led
-the solemn procession to Delos, where the
-Athenians established a quadriennial festival,
-in revival of the ancient Ionian one, of which
-Homer speaks. The expense of these embassies
-was defrayed partly by the state, and
-partly by wealthy citizens, to whom the management
-of them was entrusted, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Architheori</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχιθέωροι</span>), chiefs of the embassy.
-This was a sort of liturgy, and frequently a
-very costly one; as the chief conductor represented
-the state, and was expected to
-appear with a suitable degree of splendour;
-for instance, to wear a golden crown, to drive
-into the city with a handsome chariot, retinue,
-&amp;c. The Salaminian, or Delian, ship
-was also called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωρὶς ναῦς</span>, and was principally
-used for conveying embassies to Delos,
-though, like the Paralus, it was employed on
-other expeditions besides.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Thermae">THERMAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Thesaurus">THĒSAURUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θησαυρός</span>), a treasure-house.
-Tradition points to subterranean buildings in
-Greece, of unknown antiquity and of peculiar
-formation, as having been erected during
-the heroic period, for the purpose of preserving
-precious metals, arms, and other property
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κειμήλια</span>). Such are the treasury of
-Minyas, at Orchomenus, of which some remains
-still exist, and those of Atreus and
-his sons at Mycenae, the chief one of which,
-the so-called Treasury of Atreus, still exists
-almost in a perfect state. It is, however,
-very questionable whether these edifices were
-treasuries at all: some of the best archaeologists
-maintain that they were tombs. In
-the historical times, the public treasury was
-either in a building attached to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agora</i>, or in
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opisthodomus</i> of some temple. Respecting
-the public treasury at Rome, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Theseia">THĒSEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θησεῖα</span>), a festival celebrated by
-the Athenians in honour of their national
-hero Theseus, whom they believed to have
-been the author of their democratical form of
-government. In consequence of this belief
-donations of bread and meat were given to
-the poor people at the Theseia, which was
-thus for them a feast at which they felt no
-want, and might fancy themselves equal to
-the wealthiest citizens. The day on which
-this festival was held was the eighth of every
-month (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀγδόαι</span>), but more especially the eighth
-of Pyanepsion, whence the festival was sometimes
-called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀγδόδιον</span>. It is probable that
-the festival of the Theseia was not instituted
-till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 469, when Cimon brought the remains
-of Theseus from Scyrus to Athens.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Thesmophoria">THESMŎPHŎRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεσμοφόρια</span>), a great
-festival and mysteries, celebrated in honour
-of Demeter in various parts of Greece, and
-only by women, though some ceremonies
-were also performed by maidens. It was
-intended to commemorate the introduction of
-the laws and regulations of civilised life,
-which was universally ascribed to Demeter.
-The Attic thesmophoria probably lasted only
-three days, and began on the 11th of Pyanepsion,
-which day was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄνοδος</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάθοδος</span>, because the solemnities were opened
-by the women with a procession from Athens
-to Eleusis. In this procession they carried
-on their heads sacred laws (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νόμιμοι βίβλοι</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεσμοί</span>), the introduction of which was ascribed
-to Demeter (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεσμοφόρος</span>), and other
-symbols of civilised life. The women spent
-the night at Eleusis in celebrating the mysteries
-of the goddess. The second day, called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νηστεία</span>, was a day of mourning, during which
-the women sat on the ground around the
-statue of Demeter, and took no other food
-than cakes made of sesame and honey. On
-this day no meetings either of the senate or
-the people were held. It was probably in the
-afternoon of this day that the women held a
-procession at Athens, in which they walked
-barefooted behind a waggon, upon which
-baskets with mystical symbols were conveyed
-to the thesmophorion. The third day, called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλλιγένεια</span>, from the circumstance that Demeter
-was invoked under this name, was a
-day of merriment and raillery among the
-women themselves, in commemoration of
-Iambe, who was said to have made the goddess
-smile during her grief.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_376"></a>[376]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Thesmothetae">THESMŎTHĔTAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Archon">Archon</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Thetes">THĒTES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Census">Census</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tholos">THOLOS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θόλος</span>, also called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκιάς</span>), a name
-given to any round building which terminated
-at the top in a point, whatever might
-be the purpose for which it was used. At
-Athens the name was in particular applied
-to the new round prytaneium near the senate-house,
-which should not be confounded with
-the old prytaneium at the foot of the acropolis.
-It was therefore the place in which
-the prytanes took their common meals and
-offered their sacrifices. It was adorned with
-some small silver statues, and near it stood
-the ten statues of the Attic Eponymi.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Thorax">THŌRAX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lorica">Lorica</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Thraces">THRĀCES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Thranitae">THRANĪTAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Thronus">THRŎNUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θρόνος</span>), a throne, is a Greek
-word, for which the proper Latin term is
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Solium</i>. This did not differ from a chair
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καθέδρα</span>) [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cathedra">Cathedra</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Sella">Sella</a></span>] except in being
-higher, larger, and in all respects more magnificent.
-On account of its elevation it was
-always necessarily accompanied by a foot-stool
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subsellium</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποπόδιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θράνιον</span>). The
-accompanying cut shows two gilded thrones
-with cushions and drapery, intended to be
-the thrones of Mars and Venus, which is expressed
-by the helmet on the one and the
-dove on the other.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill376a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill376a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Throni. (From an ancient Painting.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Thymele">THỸMĔLĒ. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Thyrsus">THỸRSUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θύρσος</span>), a pole carried by
-Bacchus, and by Satyrs, Maenades, and
-others who engaged in Bacchic festivities
-and rites. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia</a>.</span>] It was sometimes
-terminated by the apple of the pine, or fir-cone,
-that tree (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεύκη</span>) being dedicated to
-Bacchus in consequence of the use of the
-turpentine which flowed from it, and also
-of its cones, in making wine. The monuments
-of ancient art, however, most commonly
-exhibit, instead of the pine-apple, a
-bunch of vine or ivy-leaves, with grapes or
-berries, arranged into the form of a cone.
-The fabulous history of Bacchus relates that
-he converted the thyrsi carried by himself
-and his followers into dangerous weapons,
-by concealing an iron point in the head of
-the leaves. Hence his thyrsus is called
-“a spear enveloped in vine-leaves,” and its
-point was thought to incite to madness.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp77" id="ill376b" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill376b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Tiara. (From a Coin in the British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Tiara">TĬĀRA or TĬĀRAS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιάρα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιάρας</span>: <em>Att.</em>
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυρβασία</span>), a hat with a large high crown.
-This was the head-dress which characterised
-the north-western Asiatics, and more especially
-the Armenians, Parthians, and Persians,
-as distinguished from the Greeks and
-Romans, whose hats fitted the head, or had
-only a low crown. The king of Persia wore
-an erect tiara, whilst those of his subjects
-were soft and flexible, falling on one side.
-The Persian name for this regal head-dress
-was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cidaris</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp79" id="ill376c" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill376c.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Tiara. (From a Coin in the British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Tibia">TĪBĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλός</span>), a pipe, the commonest musical
-instrument of the Greeks and Romans. It
-was very frequently a hollow cane, perforated
-with holes in the proper places. In other
-instances it was made of some kind of wood,
-especially box, and was bored with a gimblet.
-When a single pipe was used by itself, the
-performer upon it, as well as the instrument,
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">monaulos</i>. Among the varieties
-of the single pipe the most remarkable were
-the bagpipe, the performer on which was
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">utricularius</i> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσκαύλης</span>; and the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀυλὸς πλάγιος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλαγίαυλος</span>, which, as its
-name implies, had a mouth-piece inserted
-into it at right angles. Pan was the reputed
-inventor of this kind of tibia as well as of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_377"></a>[377]</span>
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fistula</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">syrinx</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Syrinx">Syrinx</a></span>]. But among
-the Greeks and Romans it was much more
-usual to play on two pipes at the same time.
-Hence a performance on this instrument
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tibicinium</i>), even when executed by a single
-person, was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">canere</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cantare tibiis</i>.
-This act is exhibited in very numerous works
-of ancient art, and often in such a way as to
-make it manifest that the two pipes were
-perfectly distinct, and not connected, as some
-have supposed, by a common mouth-piece.
-The mouth-pieces of the two pipes often
-passed through a capistrum. Three different
-kinds of pipes were originally used to produce
-music in the Dorian, Phrygian, and
-Lydian modes. It appears, also, that to produce
-the Phrygian mode the pipe had only
-two holes above, and that it terminated in a
-horn bending upwards. It thus approached
-to the nature of a trumpet, and produced
-slow, grave, and solemn tunes. The Lydian
-mode was much quicker, and more varied
-and animating. Horace mentions “Lydian
-pipes” as a proper accompaniment, when he
-is celebrating the praise of ancient heroes.
-The Lydians themselves used this instrument
-in leading their troops to battle; and the
-pipes employed for the purpose are distinguished
-by Herodotus as “male and female,”
-i.e. probably bass and treble, corresponding
-to the ordinary sexual difference in the human
-voice. The corresponding Latin terms
-are <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tibia dextra</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sinistra</i>: the respective
-instruments are supposed to have been so
-called, because the former was more properly
-held in the right hand and the latter in the
-left. The “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">tibia <em>dextra</em></span>” was used to lead
-or commence a piece of music, and the “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sinistra</span>”
-followed it as an accompaniment.
-The comedies of Terence having been accompanied
-by the pipe, the following notices
-are prefixed to explain the kind of music
-appropriate to each: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tibiis paribus</i>, i.e. with
-pipes in the same mode; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tib. imparibus</i>,
-pipes in different modes; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tib. duabus dextris</i>,
-two pipes of low pitch; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tib. par. dextris et
-sinistris</i>, pipes in the same mode, and of both
-low and high pitch. The use of the pipe
-among the Greeks and Romans was three-fold,
-viz. at sacrifices (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tibiae sacrificae</i>), entertainments
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludicrae</i>), and funerals. The
-pipe was not confined anciently, as it is with
-us, to the male sex, but <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλητρίδες</span>, or female
-tibicines were very common.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp51" id="ill377" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill377.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Woman Playing on two Pipes, Tibiae. (From a Vase in
-the British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Timema">TIMĒMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τίμημα</span>). The penalty imposed
-in a court of criminal justice at Athens,
-and also the damages awarded in a civil
-action, received the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τίμημα</span>, because
-they were <em>estimated</em> or <em>assessed</em> according
-to the injury which the public or the
-individual might respectively have sustained.
-The penalty was either fixed by the judge,
-or merely declared by him according to some
-estimate made before the cause came into
-court. In the first case the trial was called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγὼν τιμητὸς</span>, in the second case <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγὼν ἀτίμητος</span>,
-a distinction which applies to civil as
-well as to criminal trials. Where a man
-sought to recover an estate in land, or a
-house, or any specific thing, as a ring, a
-horse, a slave, nothing further was required,
-than to determine to whom the estate, the
-house, or the thing demanded, of right belonged.
-The same would be the case in an
-action of debt, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρέους δίκη</span>, where a sum certain
-was demanded. In these and many
-other similar cases the trial was <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτίμητος</span>.
-On the other hand, wherever the damages
-were in their nature <em>unliquidated</em>, and no
-provision had been made concerning them
-either by the law or by the agreement of the
-parties, they were to be assessed by the dicasts.
-The following was the course of proceeding
-in the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιμητοὶ ἀγῶνες</span>. The bill of
-indictment (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγκλημα</span>) was always superscribed
-with some penalty by the person who
-preferred it. He was said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιγράφεσθαι
-τίμημα</span>, and the penalty proposed is called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίγραμμα</span>. If the defendant was found
-guilty, the prosecutor was called upon to
-support the allegation in the indictment,
-and for that purpose to mount the platform
-and address the dicasts (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀναβαίνειν εἰς
-τίμημα</span>). If the accused submitted to the
-punishment proposed on the other side, there
-was no further dispute; if he thought it too<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_378"></a>[378]</span>
-severe, he made a counter proposition.
-He was then said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντιτιμᾶσθαι</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑαυτῷ τιμᾶσθαι</span>.
-He was allowed to address the court
-in mitigation of punishment. After both
-parties had been heard, the dicasts were
-called upon to give their verdict. Sometimes
-the law expressly empowered the jury
-to impose an additional penalty (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστίμημα</span>)
-besides the ordinary one. Here the
-proposition emanated from the jury themselves,
-any one of whom might move that
-the punishment allowed by the law should
-be awarded. He was said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστιμᾶσθαι</span>,
-and the whole dicasts, if (upon a division) they
-adopted his proposal, were said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστιμᾷν</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tintinnabulum">TINTINNĀBŬLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κώδων</span>), a bell. Bells
-were of various forms among the Greeks and
-Romans, as among us.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tiro">TĪRO, the name given by the Romans to
-a newly enlisted soldier, as opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">veteranus</i>,
-one who had had experience in war.
-The mode of levying troops is described under
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>. The age at which the liability
-to military service commenced was 17.
-From their first enrolment the Roman soldiers,
-when not actually serving against an
-enemy, were perpetually occupied in military
-exercises. They were exercised every day,
-the tirones twice, in the morning and afternoon,
-and the veterani once. The state of a
-tiro was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tirocinium</i>; and a soldier
-who had attained skill in his profession was
-then said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tirocinium ponere</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deponere</i>. In
-civil life the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tiro</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tirocinium</i> were
-applied to the assumption of the toga virilis,
-which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tirocinium fori</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Toga">Toga</a></span>], and
-to the first appearance of an orator at the
-rostrum, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tirocinum eloquentiae</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tirocinium">TĪRŌCĬNĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tiro">Tiro</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Titii">TĬTĬI SODĀLES, a sodalitas or college of
-priests at Rome, who represented the second
-tribe of the Romans, or the Tities, that
-is, the Sabines, who, after their union with
-the Ramnes or Latins, continued to perform
-their own ancient Sabine sacra. To superintend
-and preserve these, T. Tatius is said
-to have instituted the Titii sodales. During
-the time of the republic the Titii sodales are
-no longer mentioned, as the sacra of the
-three tribes became gradually united into one
-common religion. Under the empire we
-again meet with a college of priests bearing
-the name of Sodales Titii or Titienses, or Sacerdotes
-Titiales Flaviales; but they had nothing
-to do with the sacra of the ancient tribe
-of the Tities, but were priests instituted to
-conduct the worship of an emperor, like the
-Augustales.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tities">TĬTĬES or TĬTĬENSES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patricii">Patricii</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill378a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill378a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Form of the Toga spread out.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Toga">TŎGA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τήβεννος</span>), a gown, the name of the
-principal outer garment worn by the Romans,
-seems to have been received by them from
-the Etruscans. The toga was the peculiar
-distinction of the Romans, who were thence
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">togati</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gens togata</i>. It was originally
-worn only in Rome itself, and the
-use of it was forbidden alike to exiles and to
-foreigners. Gradually, however, it went out
-of common use, and was supplanted by the
-pallium and lacerna, or else it was worn in
-public under the lacerna. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lacerna">Lacerna</a>.</span>] But it
-was still used by the upper classes, who regarded
-it as an honourable distinction, in the
-courts of justice, by clients when they received
-the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Sportula">Sportula</a></span>, and in the theatre or
-at the games, at least when the emperor
-was present. The exact form of the toga,
-and the manner of wearing it, have occasioned
-much dispute; but the following account,
-for which the writer is indebted to his
-friend Mr. George Scharf, jun., will set these
-matters in a clearer light than has hitherto
-been the case. The complete arrangement of
-this dress may be seen in many antique statues,
-but especially in that of Didius Julianus,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_379"></a>[379]</span>
-in the Louvre, and a bronze figure of the elder
-Drusus discovered at Herculaneum. (See
-figs. 2, 3.)</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp35" id="ill378b" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill378b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Statue of Didius Julianus. (From the Louvre.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp40" id="ill379a" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill379a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Fig. 3.&mdash;Bronze of the elder Drusus. (From Herculaneum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The letters upon particular parts
-of the illustrations correspond with each
-other, and refer to the same places upon the
-general form of the toga given above. The
-method of adjusting the toga is simply this:
-the straight edge (<em>a b g d</em>) being kept towards
-the neck, and the rounded towards the hand,
-the first part of the toga hangs in front over
-the left shoulder to the ground (<em>a</em>, fig. 4), so
-as to cover that entire half of the figure
-viewed in front. The remainder falling behind
-is wrapped round the body, being carried
-<em>under</em> the right arm, and brought upwards,
-like a belt, across the chest, covering
-the left arm and shoulder for a second time.
-It again falls behind, and terminates in the
-point <em>d</em> (fig. 5), somewhat higher than the
-front portion (<em>a</em>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp78" id="ill379b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill379b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Fig. 4. <span class="pad6">Fig. 5.</span><br />
-Mode of putting on the Toga.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>So far any mantle of sufficient
-length might be folded, but two distinctive
-features of Roman dress, the umbo
-(<em>f</em>) and the sinus (<em>c e</em>), have yet to be considered.
-The sinus (<em>c e</em>) is that upper hanging
-portion with the curved edge downwards
-which shows conspicuously upon the right
-thigh. When the toga has been brought
-round to the front of the right leg, it has
-attained its greatest width (<em>e c e</em>), although
-on the figure less space is required for it. It
-is therefore folded over at the top, the upper
-part falling forward, down almost to the
-knee. It may be easily raised (see fig. 5)
-and used as a lap&mdash;hence the name sinus&mdash;to
-carry fruits and flowers, so often represented
-in ancient art. The fold at <em>c</em> thus
-becomes the upper edge, and forms the
-balteus, which may be made still more
-effective by being rolled round and slightly
-twisted, as in figs. 2 and 5. A variety again
-was sometimes produced by lifting the hanging
-edge (<em>e</em>) of this sinus up on to the
-shoulder, so as to cover the right arm with
-that alone, and Quintilian hints that it is not
-ungraceful to throw back the extreme edge
-of that again, an effect still to be admired in
-some of the ancient sculptures. Fig. 5 is in
-the act of raising the edge. The umbo (<em>f</em>),
-a projecting mass of folds in front of the
-body, like the boss of a shield, was formed
-<em>after</em> the rest of the dress had been put on
-in a very simple manner: a part of the
-front upright line (<em>a b</em>), almost covered up
-by the adjustment of the upper shoulder portion
-(<em>g</em>), was pulled out and made to hang
-down over the balteus or belt-like part
-(fig. 6). It is clearly traceable in both statues
-here given (figs. 2 and 3), and fig. 4 is
-intended to show the formation of the umbo
-more clearly by the right hand holding the
-edge, which falls over the fingers instead of
-the balteus. In proportion as the umbo (<em>f</em>)
-projects, so of course the end (<em>a</em>) is raised
-from the ground. The smaller figures (4 and
-5) are both drawn without under-garments
-in order to avoid confusion. During sacrifice,
-when necessary to cover the head, the
-edge (<em>b</em>) nearest the neck was pulled up and
-made to cover the head, as in fig. 3, where
-the entire length of the edge, passing from
-the umbo into the sinus, is very clearly
-visible. The dress here is very ample, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_380"></a>[380]</span>
-can spare an extra length, but in the statue
-of a priest in the Louvre the head is covered
-at the expense of the umbo, which has entirely
-disappeared. Fig. 6 is intended to
-show the interlacing and arrangement of the
-toga by following the course of the straight
-edge alone from <em>a</em> to <em>d</em>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp34" id="ill380" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill380.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Fig. 6.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In many ancient statues
-the sleeves and folds of the tunic, being
-very full, are apt to be confounded with the
-rest, but in the best style of art this is not
-the case. Quintilian cautions his orators
-against these incumbrances. A difference in
-size and fulness of the toga, modified according
-to the rank of the wearer, may be detected in
-coins and sculpture, but in all cases the mode
-of adjustment appears to be the same.&mdash;One
-mode of wearing the toga was the Cinctus Gabinus.
-It consisted in forming a part of the
-toga itself into a girdle, by drawing its outer
-edge round the body and tying it in a knot
-in front, and at the same time covering the
-head with another portion of the garment.
-It was worn by persons offering sacrifices,
-by the consul when he declared war, and by
-devoted persons, as in the case of Decius.
-Its origin was Etruscan, as its name implies.
-Persons wearing this dress were said
-to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">procincti</i> (or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">incincti</i>) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cinctu</i> (or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ritu</i>)
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gabino</i>.&mdash;The colour of the toga worn by
-men (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga virilis</i>) was generally white, that
-is, the natural colour of white wool. Hence
-it was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pura</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vestimentum purum</i>, in
-opposition to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetexta</i> mentioned below.
-A brighter white was given to the toga of
-candidates for offices (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">candidati</i> from their
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga candida</i>) by rubbing it with chalk.
-There is an allusion to this custom in the
-phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cretata ambitio</i>. White togas are
-often mentioned as worn at festivals, which
-does not imply that they were not worn commonly,
-but that new or fresh-cleaned togas
-were first put on at festivals. The toga was
-kept white and clean by the fuller. When
-this was neglected, the toga was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sordida</i>,
-and those who wore such garments
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sordidati</i>. This dress (with disarranged hair
-and other marks of disorder about the person)
-was worn by accused persons, as in the
-case of Cicero. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga pulla</i>, which was
-of the natural colour of black wool, was worn
-in private mourning, and sometimes also by
-artificers and others of the lower orders.&mdash;The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga picta</i>, which was ornamented with
-Phrygian embroidery, was worn by generals
-in triumphs [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Triumphus">Triumphus</a></span>], and under the
-emperors by the consuls, and by the praetors
-when they celebrated the games. It was
-also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Capitolina</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga palmata</i>
-was a kind of toga picta.&mdash;The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga praetexta</i>
-had a broad purple border. It was worn
-with the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Bulla">Bulla</a></span>, by children of both sexes.
-It was also worn by magistrates, both those
-of Rome, and those of the colonies and municipia;
-by the sacerdotes, and by persons engaged
-in sacred rites or paying vows. Among
-those who possessed the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus togae praetextae
-habendae</i>, the following may be more particularly
-mentioned: the dictator, the consuls,
-the praetors (who laid aside the praetexta
-when about to condemn a Roman citizen
-to death), the augurs (who, however,
-are supposed by some to have worn the trabea),
-the decemviri sacris faciundis, the
-aediles, the triumviri epulones, the senators
-on festival days, the magistri collegii, and
-the magistri vicorum when celebrating games.
-In the case of the tribuni plebis, censors,
-and quaestors, there is some doubt upon the
-subject. The toga praetexta is said to have
-been derived from the Etruscans, and to have
-been first adopted, with the latus clavus
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Clavus_l">Clavus Latus</a></span>], by Tullus Hostilius as the
-royal robe, whence its use by the magistrates
-in the republic. The toga praetexta and the
-bulla aurea were first given to boys in the
-case of the son of Tarquinius Priscus, who,
-at the age of fourteen, in the Sabine war,
-slew an enemy with his own hand. Respecting
-the leaving off of the toga praetexta,
-and the assumption of the toga virilis, see
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Impubes">Impubes</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Clavus_l">Clavus Latus</a></span>. The occasion
-was celebrated with great rejoicings by the
-friends of the youth, who attended him in a
-solemn procession to the Forum and Capitol.
-This assumption of the toga virilis was
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tirocinium fori</i>, as being the young
-man’s introduction to public life. Girls wore
-the praetexta till their marriage.&mdash;The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trabea</i>
-was a toga ornamented with purple horizontal
-stripes. There were three kinds of trabeae;
-one wholly of purple, which was sacred
-to the gods, another of purple and white,
-and another of purple and saffron, which belonged
-to augurs. The purple and white
-trabea was a royal robe, and is assigned to
-the Latin and early Roman kings, especially
-to Romulus. It was worn by the consuls in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_381"></a>[381]</span>
-public solemnities, such as opening the temple
-of Janus. The equites wore it at the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">transvectio</i>, and in other public solemnities.
-Hence the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trabea</i> is mentioned as the badge
-of the equestrian order. Lastly, the toga
-worn by the Roman emperors was wholly of
-purple. It appears to have been first assumed
-by Julius Caesar.&mdash;The material of
-which the toga was commonly made was
-wool. It was sometimes thick and sometimes
-thin. The former was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga densa</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pinguis</i>,
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hirta</i>. A new toga, with the nap
-neither worn off nor cut close, was called
-pexa, to which is opposed the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trita</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rasa</i>,
-which was used as a summer dress. The
-toga was originally worn by both sexes; but
-when the stola came to be worn by matrons,
-the toga was only worn by the meretrices, and
-by women who had been divorced on account
-of adultery. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Stola">Stola</a>.</span>] In war the toga was
-laid aside, and replaced by the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Paludamentum">Paludamentum</a></span>
-and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Sagum">Sagum</a></span>. Hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">togatus</i> is opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">miles</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tonsor">TONSOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Barba">Barba</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Torcular">TORCŬLAR, TORCŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vinum">Vinum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tormentum">TORMENTUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀφετήρια ὄργανα</span>), a military
-engine, so called from the twisting
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">torquendo</i>) of hairs, thongs, and vegetable
-fibres. The principal military engines were
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balista</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">catapulta</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balista</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πετροβόλος</span>) was used to shoot stones; the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">catapulta</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταπέλτης</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταπελτική</span>) to project
-darts, especially the falarica [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a></span>], and a
-kind of missile, 4½ feet long, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trifax</i>.
-Whilst in besieging a city the ram [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aries">Aries</a></span>] was
-employed in destroying the lower part of the
-wall, the balista was used to overthrow the battlements
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">propugnacula</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπαλξεῖς</span>), and the catapult
-to shoot any of the besieged who appeared
-between them: the forms of these machines
-being adapted to the objects which they were
-intended to throw; the catapult was long, the
-balista nearly square. Instances are recorded
-in which the balista threw stones to the distance
-of a quarter of a mile. Some balistae
-threw stones weighing three hundredweight.
-Of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scorpio</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">onager</i>, which was also a species
-of tormentum, we know next to nothing.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tormentum_t">TORMENTUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βάσανος</span>), torture. (1)
-<span class="smcap">Greek.</span>&mdash;By a decree of Scamandrius it was
-ordained that no free Athenian could be put
-to the torture, and this appears to have been
-the general practice. The evidence of slaves
-was, however, always taken with torture, and
-their testimony was not otherwise received.
-From this circumstance their testimony appears
-to have been considered of more value
-than that of freemen. Any person might
-offer his own slave to be examined by torture,
-or demand that of his adversary, and
-the offer or demand was equally called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόκλησις εἰς βάσανον</span>. The parties interested
-either superintended the torture themselves,
-or chose certain persons for this purpose,
-hence called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασανισταὶ</span>, who took the evidence
-of the slaves. (2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span>&mdash;During the
-time of the republic freemen were never put
-to the torture, and slaves only were exposed
-to this punishment. Slaves, moreover, could
-not be tortured to prove the guilt of their
-own master, except in the case of incestus,
-which was a crime against the gods, or unless
-the senate made an exception in some
-special instance. At a later time slaves
-might be tortured to bear witness against
-their masters in cases of majestas and adultery.
-Under the emperors even free persons
-were put to the torture to extract evidence
-from them in cases of majestas; and although
-this indignity was confined for the most part
-to persons in humble circumstances, we read
-of cases in which even Roman senators and
-equites were exposed to it.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Torques">TORQUES or TORQUIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρεπτός</span>), an
-ornament of gold, twisted spirally and bent
-into a circular form, which was worn round
-the neck by men of distinction among the
-Persians, the Gauls, and other Asiatic and
-northern nations. It was by taking a collar
-from a Gallic warrior that T. Manlius obtained
-the cognomen of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Torquatus</i>. Such
-collars were among the rewards of valour
-bestowed after an engagement upon those
-who had most distinguished themselves.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Torus">TŎRUS, a bed covered with sheets or
-blankets, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Toralia</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Trabea">TRĂBEA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Toga">Toga</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tragoedia">TRĂGOEDIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τραγῳδία</span>), tragedy. (1)
-<span class="smcap">Greek.</span> The tragedy of the ancient Greeks
-as well as their comedy confessedly originated
-in the worship of the god Dionysus.
-The peculiarity which most strikingly distinguishes
-the Greek tragedy from that of
-modern times, is the lyrical or choral part.
-This was the offspring of the dithyrambic
-and choral odes from which, as applied to
-the worship of Dionysus, Greek tragedy took
-its rise. The name of Tragedy (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τραγῳδία</span>)
-is probably derived from the goatlike appearance
-of the Satyrs who sang or acted with
-mimetic gesticulations (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄρχησις</span>) the old Bacchic
-songs, with Silenus, the constant companion
-of Dionysus, for their leader. The
-Dionysian dithyrambs were sometimes of a
-gay and at other times of a mournful character:
-it was from the latter that the stately
-and solemn tragedy of the Greeks arose.
-Great improvements were introduced in the
-dithyramb by Arion, a contemporary of Periander.
-Before his time the dithyramb was
-sung in a wild and irregular manner; but he
-is said to have invented the Cyclic chorus,
-by which we are to understand that the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_382"></a>[382]</span>
-Dithyramb was danced by a chorus of fifty
-men round an altar. The choral Dithyrambic
-songs prevailed to some extent, as all
-choral poetry did, amongst the Dorians of
-the Peloponnesus; whence the choral element
-of the Attic tragedy was always written
-in the Dorian dialect, thus showing its
-origin. The lyrical poetry was, however,
-especially popular at Sicyon and Corinth. In
-the latter city Arion made his improvements;
-in the former “tragic choruses,” i.e. dithyrambs
-of a sad and plaintive character, were
-very ancient. From the more solemn Dithyrambs
-then, as improved by Arion, ultimately
-sprang the dramatic tragedy of Athens, somewhat
-in the following manner. The choruses
-were under the direction of a leader
-or exarchus, who, it may be supposed, came
-forward separately, and whose part was
-sometimes taken by the poet himself. We
-may also conjecture that the exarchus in
-each case led off by singing or reciting his
-part in a solo, and that the chorus dancing
-round the altar then expressed their feelings
-of joy or sorrow at his story, representing
-the perils and sufferings of Dionysus, or some
-hero, as it might be. The subjects of this
-Dithyrambic tragedy were not, however,
-always confined to Dionysus. Even Arion
-wrote Dithyrambs, relating to different
-heroes, a practice in which he was followed
-by succeeding poets. It is easy to conceive
-how the introduction of an actor or speaker
-independent of the chorus might have been
-suggested by the exarchs coming forward
-separately and making short off-hand speeches,
-whether learnt by heart beforehand, or made
-on the spur of the moment. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a>.</span>] But
-it is also possible, if not probable, that it
-was suggested by the rhapsodical recitations
-of the epic and gnomic poets formerly prevalent
-in Greece: the gnomic poetry being
-generally written in Iambic verse, the metre
-of the Attic dialogue. This however is certain,
-that the union of the Iambic dialogue
-with the lyrical chorus took place at Athens
-under Pisistratus, and that it was attributed
-to Thespis, a native of Icaria, one of the
-country demes or parishes of Attica where
-the worship of Dionysus had long prevailed.
-The alteration made by him, and which gave
-to the old tragedy a new and dramatic character,
-was very simple but very important.
-He introduced an actor, as it is recorded, for
-the sake of giving rest to the chorus, and independent
-of it, in which capacity he probably
-appeared himself, taking various parts
-in the same piece, under various disguises,
-which he was enabled to assume by means
-of linen masks, the invention of which is
-attributed to him. Now as a chorus, by
-means of its leader, could maintain a dialogue
-with the actor, it is easy to see how
-with one actor only a dramatic action might
-be introduced, continued, and concluded, by
-the speeches between the choral songs expressive
-of the joy or sorrow of the chorus
-at the various events of the drama. With
-respect to the character of the drama of
-Thespis there has been much doubt: some
-writers, and especially Bentley, have maintained
-that his plays were all satyrical and
-ludicrous, i.e. the plot of them was some
-story of Bacchus, the chorus consisted principally
-of satyrs, and the argument was merry.
-But perhaps the truth is that in the early
-part of his career Thespis retained the satyrical
-character of the older tragedy, but
-afterwards inclined to more serious compositions,
-which would almost oblige him to discard
-the Satyrs from his choruses. That he
-did write serious dramas is intimated by the
-titles of the plays ascribed to him, as well as
-by the character of the fragments of Iambic
-verse quoted by ancient writers as his. It
-is evident that the introduction of the dialogue
-must also have caused an alteration in
-the arrangement of the chorus, which could
-not remain cyclic or circular, but must have
-been drawn up in a rectangular form about
-the thymele or altar of Bacchus in front of
-the actor, who was elevated on a platform or
-table (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐλεός</span>), the forerunner of the stage.
-The lines of Horace (<cite>Ar. Poet.</cite> 276):&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la">
-    <div class="verse indentq">“Dicitur et plaustris vexisse poemata Thespis,</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">Quae canerent agerentque peruncti faecibus ora”&mdash;</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="noindent">are founded on a misconception of the origin
-of the Attic tragedy, and the tale about the
-waggons of Thespis probably arose out of a
-confusion of the waggon of the comedian Susarion
-with the <em>platform</em> of the Thespian actor.
-The first representation of Thespis was in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-535. His immediate successors were the Athenian
-Choerilus and Phrynichus, the former of
-whom represented plays as early as <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 524.
-Phrynichus was a pupil of Thespis, and gained
-his first victory in the dramatic contests <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-511. In his works, the lyric or choral element
-still predominated over the dramatic,
-and he was distinguished for the sweetness
-of his melodies, which in the time of the
-Peloponnesian war were very popular with
-the admirers of the old style of music. The
-first use of female masks is also attributed to
-him, and he so far deviated from the general
-practice of the Attic tragedians as to write
-a drama on a subject of contemporary history,
-the capture of Miletus by the Persians, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-494.&mdash;We now come to the first writer of
-Satyrical dramas, Pratinas of Phlius, a town
-not far from Sicyon, and which laid claim to
-the invention of tragedy as well as comedy.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_383"></a>[383]</span>
-For some time previously to this poet, and
-probably as early as Thespis, tragedy had
-been gradually departing more and more from
-its old characteristics, and inclining to heroic
-fables, to which the chorus of Satyrs was not
-a fit accompaniment. But the fun and merriment
-caused by them were too good to be
-lost. Accordingly the Satyrical drama, distinct
-from the recent and dramatic tragedy,
-but suggested by the sportive element of the
-old Dithyramb, was founded by Pratinas,
-who however appears to have been surpassed
-in his own invention by Choerilus. It was
-always written by tragedians, and generally
-three tragedies and one Satyrical piece were
-represented together, which in some instances
-at least formed a connected whole, called a
-tetralogy (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετραλογία</span>). The Satyrical piece
-was acted last, so that the minds of the spectators
-were agreeably relieved by a merry
-after-piece at the close of an earnest and engrossing
-tragedy. The distinguishing feature
-of this drama was the chorus of Satyrs, in
-appropriate dresses and masks, and its subjects
-seem to have been taken from the same
-class of the adventures of Bacchus and of the
-heroes as those of tragedy; but of course
-they were so treated and selected, that the
-presence of rustic satyrs would seem appropriate.
-In their jokes and drollery consisted
-the merriment of the piece; for the kings and
-heroes who were introduced into their company
-were not of necessity thereby divested of their
-epic and legendary character, though they were
-obliged to conform to their situation and suffer
-some diminution of dignity, from their position.
-Hence Horace (<cite>Ar. Poet.</cite> 231) says:&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la">
-    <div class="verse indentq">“Effutire leves indigna Tragoedia versus</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">Intererit Satyris paulum pudibunda protervis.”&mdash;</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="noindent">alluding in the first line to the mythic or
-epic element of the Satyric drama, which he
-calls Tragoedia, and in the second representing
-it as being rather ashamed of its company.
-The “Cyclops” of Euripides is the
-only Satyric drama now extant.&mdash;The great
-improvements in tragedy were introduced by
-Aeschylus. This poet added a second actor,
-diminished the parts of the chorus, and made
-the dialogue the principal part of the action.
-He also availed himself of the aid of Agatharchus,
-the scene-painter, and improved
-the costume of his actors by giving them
-thick-soled boots (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐμβάται</span>), as well as the
-masks, which he made more expressive and
-characteristic. Horace (<cite>Ar. Poet.</cite> 278) thus
-alludes to his improvements:&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la">
-    <div class="verse indent8">“personae pallaeque repertor honestae</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">Aeschylus, et modicis instravit pulpita tignis</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">Et docuit magnumque loqui, nitique cothurno.”&mdash;</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="noindent">The custom of contending with trilogies (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριλογίαι</span>),
-or with three plays at a time, is said
-to have been also introduced by him. In
-fact he did so much for tragedy, and so completely
-built it up to its “towering height,”
-that he was considered the father of it. The
-subjects of his dramas were not connected
-with the worship of Dionysus; but rather
-with the great cycle of Hellenic legends and
-some of the myths of the Homeric Epos. Accordingly,
-he said of himself that his dramas
-were but scraps and fragments from the great
-feasts of Homer. In the latter part of his
-life Aeschylus made use of one of the improvements
-of Sophocles, namely the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριταγωνιστής</span>,
-or third actor. This was the finishing
-stroke to the dramatic element of Attic
-tragedy, which Sophocles is said to have matured
-by further improvements in costume
-and scene-painting. Under him tragedy appears
-with less of sublimity and sternness
-than in the hands of Aeschylus, but with
-more of calm grandeur and quiet dignity and
-touching incident. The plays of Sophocles
-are the perfection of the Grecian tragic drama,
-as a work of art and poetic composition
-in a thoroughly chastened and classic style.
-In the hands of Euripides tragedy deteriorated
-not only in dignity, but also in its
-moral and religious significance. He introduces
-his heroes in rags and tatters, and
-busies them with petty affairs, and makes
-them speak the language of every-day life.
-As Sophocles said of him, he represented
-men not as they ought to be, but as they are,
-without any ideal greatness or poetic character.
-His dialogues too were little else than
-the rhetorical and forensic language of his
-day cleverly put into verse: full of sophistry
-and quibbling distinctions. One of the
-peculiarities of his tragedies was the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόλογος</span>,
-an introductory monologue, with which
-some hero or god opens the play, telling who
-he is, what is the state of affairs, and what
-has happened up to the time of his address,
-so as to put the audience in possession of
-every fact which it might be necessary for
-them to know: a very business-like proceeding
-no doubt, but a poor make-shift
-for artistical skill. The “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Deus ex machina</span>,”
-also, though not always, in a “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">nodus, tali
-vindice dignus</span>,” was frequently employed by
-Euripides to effect the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dénoûment</i> of his
-pieces. The chorus too no longer discharged
-its proper and high functions either as a representative
-of the feelings of unprejudiced
-observers, or, as one of the actors, and a part
-of the whole, joining in the development of
-the piece. Many of his choral odes in fact
-are but remotely connected in subject with
-the action of the play. Another novelty of
-Euripides was the use of the monodies or
-lyrical songs, in which not the chorus, but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_384"></a>[384]</span>
-the principal persons of the drama, declare
-their emotions and sufferings. Euripides
-was also the inventor of tragi-comedy. A
-specimen of the Euripidean tragi-comedy is
-still extant in the Alcestis, acted <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 438, as
-the last of four pieces, and therefore as a
-substitute for a Satyrical drama. Though
-tragic in its form and some of its scenes, it
-has a mixture of comic and satyric characters
-(<em>e.g.</em> Hercules) and concludes happily.&mdash;The
-parts which constitute a Greek tragedy, <em>as to
-its form</em>, are, the prologue, episode, exode,
-and choral songs; the last divided into the
-parode and stasimon. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόλογος</span> is all
-that part of a tragedy which precedes the
-parodos of the chorus, <em>i.e.</em> the first act. The
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπεισόδιον</span> is all the part between whole choral
-odes. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔξοδος</span> that part which has no
-choral ode after it. Of the choral part the
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάροδος</span> is the first speech of the whole chorus
-(not broken up into parts): the stasimon is
-without anapaests and trochees. These two
-divisions were sung by all the choreutae, but
-the “songs on the stage” and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόμμοι</span> by
-a part only. The commus, which properly
-means a wailing for the dead, was generally
-used to express strong excitement, or lively
-sympathy with grief and suffering, especially
-by Aeschylus. It was common to the
-actors and a portion only of the chorus.
-Again the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάροδος</span> was so named as being the
-passage-song of the chorus sung while it was
-advancing to its proper place in the orchestra,
-and therefore in anapaestic or marching
-verse: the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στάσιμον</span>, as being chaunted by
-the chorus when standing still in its proper
-position.&mdash;The materials of Greek tragedy
-were the national mythology,</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry">
-    <div class="verse indentq">“Presenting Thebes, or Pelop’s line,</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">Or the tale of Troy divine.”</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="noindent">The exceptions to this were the two historical
-tragedies, the “Capture of Miletus” by
-Phrynichus, and the “Persians” of Aeschylus;
-but they belong to an early period of
-the art. Hence the plot and story of the
-Grecian tragedy were of necessity known to
-the spectators, a circumstance which strongly
-distinguishes the ancient tragedy from the
-modern.&mdash;The functions of the Chorus in
-Greek Tragedy were very important, as described
-by Horace (<cite>Ar. Poet.</cite> 193),</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la">
-    <div class="verse indentq">“Actoris partes chorus officiumque virile</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">Defendat: neu quid medios intercinat actus,</div>
-    <div class="verse indent0">Quod non proposito conducat, et haereat apte,” &amp;c.</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="noindent">It often expresses the reflections of a dispassionate
-and right-minded spectator, and inculcates
-the lessons of morality and resignation
-to the will of heaven, taught by the
-occurrence of the piece in which it is engaged.
-With respect to the number of the chorus
-see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a></span>.&mdash;(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span> The tragedy of
-the Romans was borrowed from the Greek,
-but the construction of the Roman theatre
-afforded no appropriate place for the chorus,
-which was therefore obliged to appear on the
-stage, instead of in the orchestra. The first
-tragic poet and actor at Rome was Livius
-Andronicus, a Greek by birth, who began to
-exhibit in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 240. In his monodies (or
-the lyrical parts sung, not by a chorus, but
-by one person), it was customary to separate
-the singing from the mimetic dancing, leaving
-the latter only to the actor, while the
-singing was performed by a boy placed near
-the flute-player (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ante tibicinem</i>); so that the
-dialogue only (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diverbia</i>) was left to be spoken
-by the actors. Livius Andronicus was followed
-by Naevius, Ennius, Pacuvius, and
-Attius. These five poets belong to the earlier
-epoch of Roman tragedy, in which little was
-written but translations and imitations of the
-Greek, with occasional insertions of original
-matter. How they imitated the structure of
-the choral odes is doubtful&mdash;perhaps they
-never attempted it. In the age of Augustus
-the writing of tragedies, whether original or
-imitations, seems to have been quite a fashionable
-occupation. The emperor himself attempted
-an Ajax, but did not succeed. One
-of the principal tragedians of this epoch was
-Asinius Pollio, to whom the line (Virg. <cite>Eclog.</cite>
-viii. 10) applies&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la">
-    <div class="verse indent0">“Sola Sophocleo tua carmina digna cothurno.”</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="noindent">Ovid wrote a tragedy on the subject of Medea.
-Quintilian says of Varius, who was
-distinguished in epic as well as tragic poetry,
-that his Thyestes might be compared with
-any of the Greek tragedies. Some fragments
-of this Thyestes are extant, but we have no
-other remains of the tragedy of the Augustan
-age. The loss perhaps is not great. The
-only complete Roman tragedies that have
-come down to us are the ten attributed to the
-philosopher Seneca; but whether he wrote
-any of them or not is a disputed point. To
-whatever age they belong, they are beyond
-description bombastic and frigid, utterly
-unnatural in character and action, full
-of the most revolting violations of propriety,
-and barren of all theatrical effect.
-Still they have had admirers: Heinsius calls
-the Hippolytus “divine,” and prefers the
-Troades to the Hecuba of Euripides: even
-Racine has borrowed from the Hippolytus in
-Phèdre. Roman tragedians sometimes wrote
-tragedies on subjects taken from their national
-history. Pacuvius, <em>e.g.</em> wrote a
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Paulus</i>, L. Accius a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Brutus</i> and a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Decius</i>.
-Curiatius Maternus, also a distinguished orator
-in the reign of Domitian, wrote a Domitius
-and a Cato, the latter of which gave
-offence to the rulers of the state.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_385"></a>[385]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Tragula">TRĀGŬLA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Transtra">TRANSTRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Transvectio">TRANSVECTĬO ĔQUĬTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a></span>,
-<a href="#Page_157">p. 157</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Triarii">TRIĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tribula">TRĪBŬLA or TRĪBŬLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριβόλος</span>), a
-corn-drag, consisting of a thick and ponderous
-wooden board, which was armed underneath
-with pieces of iron or sharp flints,
-and drawn over the corn by a yoke of oxen,
-either the driver or a heavy weight being
-placed upon it, for the purpose of separating
-the grain and cutting the straw.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tribulus">TRĬBŬLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίβολος</span>), a caltrop, also
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">murex</i>. When a place was beset with
-troops, the one party endeavoured to impede
-the cavalry of the other party, either by
-throwing before them caltrops, which necessarily
-lay with one of their four sharp points
-turned upwards, or by burying the caltrops
-with one point at the surface of the ground.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tribunal">TRĬBŪNAL, a raised platform, on which
-the praetor and judices sat in the Basilica.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Basilica">Basilica</a>.</span>] There was a tribunal in the
-camp, which was generally formed of turf,
-but sometimes, in a stationary camp, of stone,
-from which the general addressed the soldiers,
-and where the consul and tribunes of
-the soldiers administered justice. When the
-general addressed the army from the tribunal
-the standards were planted in front of it, and
-the army placed round it in order. The address
-itself was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Allocutio</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tribunus">TRĬBŪNUS, a tribune. This word seems
-originally to have indicated an officer connected
-with a tribe (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribus</i>), or who represented
-a tribe for certain purposes; and this
-is indeed the character of the officers who
-were designated by it in the earliest times
-of Rome, and may be traced also in the later
-officers of this name.&mdash;(1) <span class="smcap">Tribunes of the
-three ancient tribes.</span>&mdash;At the time when
-all the Roman citizens were contained in the
-three tribes of the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres,
-each of them was headed by a tribune,
-and these three tribunes represented their
-respective tribes in all civil, religious, and
-military affairs; that is to say, they were in
-the city the magistrates of the tribes, and
-performed the sacra on their behalf, and in
-times of war they were their military commanders.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribunus celerum</i> was the
-commander of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">celeres</i>, the king’s body-guard,
-and not the tribune of the tribe of
-the Ramnes, as is supposed by some modern
-writers. In what manner the tribunus celerum
-was appointed is uncertain, but it is
-probable that he was elected by the tribes;
-for we find that when the imperium was to
-be conferred upon the king, the comitia were
-held under the presidency of the tribunus
-celerum; and in the absence of the king, to
-whom this officer was next in rank, he convoked
-the comitia: it was in an assembly of
-this kind that Brutus proposed to deprive
-Tarquinius of the imperium. A law passed
-under the presidency of the tribunus celerum
-was called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex tribunicia</i>, to distinguish it
-from one passed under the presidency of the
-king. The tribunes of the three ancient
-tribes ceased to be appointed when these
-tribes themselves ceased to exist as political
-bodies, and when the patricians became incorporated
-in the local tribes of Servius
-Tullius. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a>.</span>]&mdash;(2) <span class="smcap">Tribunes of the
-Servian tribes</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φύλαρχοι, τριττυάρχοι</span>).&mdash;When
-Servius Tullius divided the commonalty
-into thirty local tribes, we again find a
-tribune at the head of these tribes. The
-duties of these tribunes, who were without
-doubt the most distinguished persons in their
-respective districts, appear to have consisted
-at first in keeping a register of the inhabitants
-in each district, and of their property,
-for purposes of taxation, and for levying the
-troops for the armies. When subsequently
-the Roman people became exempted from
-taxes, the main part of their business was
-taken from them, but they still continued to
-exist. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni aerarii</i>, who occur down
-to the end of the republic, were perhaps only
-the successors of the tribunes of the tribes.
-When (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 406) the custom of giving pay
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stipendium</i>) to the soldiers was introduced,
-each of the tribuni aerarii had to collect the
-tributum in his own tribe, and with it to pay
-the soldiers; and in case they did not fulfil
-this duty, the soldiers had the right of pignoris
-capio against them. In later times
-their duties appear to have been confined to
-collecting the tributum, which they made
-over to the military quaestors who paid the
-soldiers. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Quaestor">Quaestor</a>.</span>] The Lex Aurelia,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 70, called the tribuni aerarii to the
-exercise of judicial functions, along with the
-senators and equites, as these tribunes represented
-the body of the most respectable
-citizens. But of this distinction they were
-subsequently deprived by Julius Caesar.&mdash;(3)
-<span class="smcap">Tribuni Plebis</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δήμαρχοι</span>, the office
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημαρχία</span>).&mdash;The ancient tribunes of the
-plebeian tribes had undoubtedly the right
-of convoking the meetings of their tribes,
-and of maintaining the privileges granted to
-them by king Servius, and subsequently by
-the Valerian laws. But this protection was
-very inadequate against the insatiable ambition
-and usurpations of the patricians.
-When the plebeians, impoverished by long
-wars, and cruelly oppressed by the patricians,
-at last seceded in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 494 to the Mons
-Sacer, the patricians were obliged to grant<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_386"></a>[386]</span>
-to the plebeians the right of appointing tribunes
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni plebis</i>) with more efficient
-powers to protect their own order than those
-which were possessed by the heads of the
-tribes. The purpose for which they were
-appointed was only to afford protection
-against any abuse on the part of the patrician
-magistrates; and that they might be able to
-afford such protection their persons were
-declared sacred and inviolable, and it was
-agreed that whoever invaded this inviolability
-should be an outlaw, and that his property
-should be forfeited to the temple of
-Ceres. A subsequent law enacted that no
-one should oppose or interrupt a tribune
-while addressing the people, and that whoever
-should act contrary to this ordinance
-should give bail to the tribunes for the payment
-of whatever fine they should affix to
-his offence in arraigning him before the
-commonalty; if he refused to give bail, his
-life and property were forfeited. The tribunes
-were thus enabled to afford protection
-to any one who appealed to the assembly of
-the commonalty or required any other assistance.
-They were essentially the representatives
-and the organs of the plebeian order,
-and their sphere of action was the comitia
-tributa. With the patricians and their comitia
-they had nothing to do. The tribunes
-themselves, however, were not judges, and
-could inflict no punishments, but could only
-propose the imposition of a fine to the commonalty
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">multam irrogare</i>). The tribunes
-were thus in their origin only a protecting
-magistracy of the plebs, but in the course of
-time their power increased to such a degree
-that it surpassed that of all other magistrates,
-and the tribunes then became a magistracy
-for the whole Roman people, in opposition to
-the senate and the oligarchical party in general,
-although they had nothing to do with the
-administration or the government. During
-the latter period of the republic they became
-true tyrants, and may be compared to the
-national convention of France during the
-first revolution. At first the number of the
-tribunes was only two, but soon afterwards
-they were increased to five, one being taken
-from each of the five classes, and subsequently
-to ten, two being taken from each of
-the five classes. This last number appears
-to have remained unaltered down to the end
-of the empire. The tribunes entered upon
-their office on the 10th of December, but
-were elected, at least in the time of Cicero,
-on the 17th of July. It is almost superfluous
-to state that none but plebeians were eligible
-to the office of tribune; hence when, towards
-the end of the republic, patricians wished to
-obtain the office, they were obliged first to
-renounce their own order and to become plebeians;
-hence also under the empire it was
-thought that the princeps should not be tribune
-because he was a patrician. But the
-influence which belonged to this office was
-too great for the emperors not to covet it.
-Hence Augustus was made tribune for life.
-During the republic, however, the old regulation
-remained in force, even after the tribunes
-had ceased to be the protectors of the
-plebs alone. There is only one instance recorded
-in which patricians were elected to
-the tribuneship, and this was probably the
-consequence of an attempt to divide the tribuneship
-between the two orders. Although
-nothing appears to be more natural than
-that the tribunes should originally have been
-elected by that body of Roman citizens which
-they represented, yet the subject is involved
-in considerable obscurity. Some writers state
-that they were elected by the comitia of the
-curies; others suppose that they were elected
-in the comitia of the centuries; but whether
-they were elected in the latter or in the
-comitia of the tribes, it is certain that at first
-the sanction of the curies to the election was
-at all events necessary. But after the time
-of the Lex Publilia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 472) the sanction
-of the curies is not heard of, and the election
-of the tribunes was left entirely to the comitia
-tributa, which were convoked and held
-for this purpose by the old tribunes previous
-to the expiration of their office. One of the
-old tribunes was appointed by lot to preside
-at the election. As the meeting could not
-be prolonged after sunset, and the business
-was to be completed in one day, it sometimes
-happened that it was obliged to break up
-before the election was completed, and then
-those who were elected filled up the legitimate
-number of the college by cooptatio.
-But in order to prevent this irregularity, the
-tribune L. Trebonius, in 448 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, got an
-ordinance passed, according to which the
-college of the tribunes should never be completed
-by cooptatio, but the elections should
-be continued on the second day, if they were
-not completed on the first, till the number
-ten was made up. The place where the election
-of the tribunes was held was originally
-and lawfully the Forum, afterwards also the
-Campus Martius, and sometimes the area of
-the Capitol.&mdash;We now proceed to trace the
-gradual growth of the tribunitian power.
-Although its original character was merely
-protection (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auxilium</i> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βοήθεια</span>) against patrician
-magistrates, the plebeians appear
-early to have regarded their tribunes also as
-mediators or arbitrators in matters among
-themselves. The whole power possessed by
-the college of tribunes was designated by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_387"></a>[387]</span>
-name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribunicia potestas</i>, and extended at no
-time farther than one mile beyond the gates
-of the city; at a greater distance than this
-they came under the imperium of the magistrates,
-like every other citizen. As they
-were the public guardians, it was necessary
-that every one should have access to them
-and at any time; hence the doors of their
-houses were open day and night for all who
-were in need of help and protection, which
-they were empowered to afford against any
-one, even against the highest magistrates.
-For the same reason a tribune was not allowed
-to be absent from the city for a whole
-day, except during the Feriae Latinae, when
-the whole people were assembled on the
-Alban Mount. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 456 the tribunes, in
-opposition to the consuls, assumed the right
-of convoking the senate, in order to lay
-before it a rogation, and discuss the same;
-for until that time the consuls alone had had
-the right of laying plebiscita before the
-senate for approbation. Some years after,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 452, the tribunes demanded of the consuls
-to request the senate to make a senatusconsultum
-for the appointment of persons
-to frame a new legislation; and during the
-discussions on this subject the tribunes themselves
-were present in the senate. The
-written legislation which the tribunes then
-wished can only have related to their own
-order; but as such a legislation would only
-have widened the breach between the two
-orders, they afterwards gave way to the remonstrances
-of the patricians, and the new
-legislation was to embrace both orders.
-From the second decemvirate the tribuneship
-was suspended, but was restored after
-the legislation was completed, and now
-assumed a different character from the change
-that had taken place in the tribes. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a>.</span>]
-The tribunes now had the right to be present
-at the deliberations of the senate; but they
-did not sit among the senators themselves,
-but upon benches before the opened doors of
-the senate house. The inviolability of the
-tribunes, which had before only rested upon
-a contract between the two estates, was now
-sanctioned and confirmed by a law of M.
-Horatius. As the tribes now also included
-the patricians and their clients, the tribunes
-might naturally be asked to interpose on
-behalf of any citizen, whether patrician or
-plebeian. Hence the patrician ex-decemvir,
-Appius Claudius, implored the protection of
-the tribunes. About this time the tribunes
-also acquired the right of taking the auspices
-in the assemblies of the tribes. They also
-assumed again the right, which they had
-exercised before the time of the decemvirate,
-of bringing patricians who had violated the
-rights of the plebeians before the comitia of
-the tribes. By the Lex Valeria passed in the
-Comitia Centuriata (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449), it was enacted
-that a plebiscitum, which had been voted by
-the tribes, should bind the patricians as well.
-While the college thus gained outwardly new
-strength every day, a change took place in
-its internal organisation, which to some extent
-paralysed its powers. Before <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 394,
-every thing had been decided in the college
-by a majority; but about this time, we do
-not know how, a change was introduced,
-which made the opposition (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intercessio</i>) of
-one tribune sufficient to render a resolution
-of his colleagues void. This new regulation
-does not appear in operation till 394 and 393
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>; the old one was still applied in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-421 and 415. From their right of appearing
-in the senate, and of taking part in its discussions,
-and from their being the representatives
-of the whole people, they gradually
-obtained the right of intercession against any
-action which a magistrate might undertake
-during the time of his office, and this even
-without giving any reason for it. Thus we
-find a tribune preventing a consul from convoking
-the senate, and preventing the proposal
-of new laws or elections in the comitia;
-they interceded against the official functions
-of the censors; and even against a command
-issued by the praetor. In the same manner
-a tribune might place his veto upon an ordinance
-of the senate; and he could thus either
-compel the senate to submit the subject to a
-fresh consideration, or could raise the session.
-In order to propose a measure to the senate
-they might themselves convene a meeting, or
-when it had been convened by a consul they
-might make their proposal even in opposition
-to the consul, a right which no other magistrates
-had in the presence of the consuls.
-The senate, on the other hand, had itself, in
-certain cases, recourse to the tribunes. Thus,
-in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 431 it requested the tribunes to compel
-the consuls to appoint a dictator, in compliance
-with a decree of the senate, and the
-tribunes compelled the consuls, by threatening
-them with imprisonment, to appoint A. Postumius
-Tubertus dictator. From this time
-forward we meet with several instances in
-which the tribunes compelled the consuls to
-comply with the decrees of the senate, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">si non
-essent in auctoritate senatus</i>, and to execute
-its commands. In their relation to the senate
-a change was introduced by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Plebiscitum
-Atinium</i>, which ordained that a tribune, by
-virtue of his office, should be a senator.
-When this plebiscitum was made is uncertain;
-but we know that in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 170 it was not yet
-in operation. It probably originated with
-C. Atinius, who was tribune in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 132.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_388"></a>[388]</span>
-But as the quaestorship, at least in later
-times, was the office which persons held previously
-to the tribuneship, and as the quaestorship
-itself conferred upon a person the
-right of a senator, the law of Atinius was in
-most cases superfluous.&mdash;In their relation to
-other magistrates we may observe, that the
-right of intercessio was not confined to stopping
-a magistrate in his proceedings, but
-they might even command their viatores to
-seize a consul or a censor, to imprison him,
-or to throw him from the Tarpeian rock.
-When the tribunes brought an accusation
-against any one before the people, they had
-the right of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prehensio</i>, but not the right of
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vocatio</i>, that is, they might command a person
-to be dragged by their viatores before
-the comitia, but they could not summon him.
-They might, as in earlier times, propose a
-fine to be inflicted upon the person accused
-before the comitia, but in some cases they
-dropped this proposal and treated the case as
-a capital one. The college of tribunes had
-also the power of making edicts. In cases in
-which one member of the college opposed a
-resolution of his colleagues nothing could be
-done, and the measure was dropped; but
-this useful check was removed by the example
-of Tiberius Gracchus, in which a precedent
-was given for proposing to the people that a
-tribune obstinately persisting in his veto
-should be deprived of his office. From the
-time of the Hortensian law the power of the
-tribunes had been gradually rising to such a
-height that at length it was superior to every
-other in the state. They had acquired the
-right of proposing to the comitia tributa or
-the senate measures on nearly all the important
-affairs of the state, and it would be
-endless to enumerate the cases in which their
-power was manifested. Their proposals were
-indeed usually made ex auctoritate senatus,
-or had been communicated to and approved
-by it; but cases in which the people itself
-had a direct interest, such as a general legal
-regulation, granting of the franchise, a change
-in the duties and powers of a magistrate, and
-others, might be brought before the people,
-without their having been previously communicated
-to the senate, though there are also
-instances of the contrary. Subjects belonging
-to the administration could not be brought
-before the tribes without the tribunes having
-previously received through the consuls the
-auctoritas of the senate. This, however, was
-done very frequently, and hence we have
-mention of a number of plebiscita on matters
-of administration. It sometimes even occurs
-that the tribunes brought the question concerning
-the conclusion of peace before the
-tribes, and then compelled the senate to
-ratify the resolution, as expressing the wish
-of the whole people. Sulla, in his reform of
-the constitution on the early aristocratic
-principles, left to the tribunes only the jus
-auxiliandi, and deprived them of the right of
-making legislative or other proposals, either
-to the senate or the comitia, without having
-previously obtained the sanction of the senate.
-But this arrangement did not last, for Pompey
-restored to them their former rights.
-During the latter period of the republic,
-when the office of quaestor was in most cases
-held immediately before that of tribune, the
-tribunes were generally elected from among
-the senators, and this continued to be the
-case under the empire. Sometimes, however,
-equites also obtained the office, and
-thereby became members of the senate, where
-they were considered of equal rank with the
-quaestors. Tribunes of the people continued
-to exist down to the fifth century of our era,
-though their powers became naturally much
-limited, especially in the reign of Nero. They
-continued however to have the right of intercession
-against decrees of the senate, and on
-behalf of injured individuals.&mdash;(4) <span class="smcap">Tribuni
-militum cum consulari potestate.</span> When in
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 445 the tribune C. Canuleius brought
-forward the rogation that the consulship
-should not be confined to either order, the
-patricians evaded the attempt by a change in
-the constitution; the powers which had
-hitherto been united in the consulship were
-now divided between two new magistrates,
-viz. the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tribuni militum cum consulari potestate</i>
-and the censors. Consequently, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-444, three military tribunes, with consular
-power, were appointed, and to this office the
-plebeians were to be equally eligible with the
-patricians. For the years following, however,
-the people were to be at liberty, on the
-proposal of the senate, to decide whether
-consuls were to be elected according to the
-old custom, or consular tribunes. Henceforth,
-for many years, sometimes consuls and
-sometimes consular tribunes were appointed,
-and the number of the latter varied from
-three to four, until in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 405 it was increased
-to six, and as the censors were regarded
-as their colleagues, we have sometimes
-mention of eight tribunes. At last,
-however, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 367, the office of these
-tribunes was abolished by the Licinian law,
-and the consulship was restored. These
-consular tribunes were elected in the comitia
-of the centuries, and undoubtedly with less
-solemn auspices than the consuls.&mdash;(5) <span class="smcap">Tribuni
-Militares</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_169">p. 169</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tribus">TRĬBUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φῦλον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλή</span>), a tribe. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span>
-In the earliest times of Greek history mention
-is made of people being divided into<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_389"></a>[389]</span>
-tribes and clans. Homer speaks of such divisions
-in terms which seem to imply that
-they were elements that entered into the
-composition of every community. A person
-not included in any clan (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀφρήτωρ</span>), was regarded
-as a vagrant or outlaw. These divisions
-were rather natural than political,
-depending on family connection, and arising
-out of those times, when each head of a
-family exercised a patriarchal sway over its
-members. The bond was cemented by religious
-communion, sacrifices and festivals,
-which all the family or clansmen attended,
-and at which the chief usually presided.&mdash;Of
-the Dorian race there were originally
-three tribes, traces of which are found in
-all the countries which they colonised.
-Hence they are called by Homer <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δωριέες
-τριχάϊκες</span>. These tribes were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hylleis</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑλλεῖς</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pamphyli</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάμφυλοι</span>), and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dymanatae</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dymanes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δυμανάται</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δυμᾶνες</span>). The
-first derived their name from Hyllus, son of
-Hercules, the two last from Pamphylus and
-Dymas, who are said to have fallen in the
-last expedition when the Dorians took possession
-of the Peloponnesus. The Hyllean
-tribe was perhaps the one of highest dignity;
-but at Sparta there does not appear to have
-been much distinction, for all the freemen
-there were by the constitution of Lycurgus
-on a footing of equality. To these three
-tribes others were added in different places,
-either when the Dorians were joined by other
-foreign allies, or when some of the old inhabitants
-were admitted to the rank of citizenship
-or equal privileges. Thus the Cadmean
-Aegeids are said by Herodotus to have been
-a great tribe at Sparta, descended (as he
-says) from Aegeus, grandson of Theras,
-though others have thought they were incorporated
-with the three Doric tribes. The
-subdivision of tribes into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phratriae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φρατρίαι</span>)
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patrae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάτραι</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">genē</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένη</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trittyes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίττυες</span>),
-&amp;c. appears to have prevailed in various
-places. At Sparta each tribe contained ten
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὠβαί</span>), a word denoting a local division
-or district; each <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obe</i> contained ten <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triacades</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριακάδες</span>), communities containing thirty
-families. But very little appears to be known
-of these divisions, how far they were local,
-or how far genealogical. After the time of
-Cleomenes the old system of tribes was
-changed; new ones were created corresponding
-to the different quarters of the town,
-and they seem to have been five in number.&mdash;The
-first Attic tribes that we read of are said
-to have existed in the reign, or soon after
-the reign, of Cecrops, and were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cecropis</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεκροπίς</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Autochthon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὐτόχθων</span>),
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Actaea</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκταία</span>), and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Paralia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραλία</span>). In
-the reign of a subsequent king, Cranaus,
-these names were changed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cranais</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κραναΐς</span>),
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Atthis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀτθίς</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mesogaea</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μεσόγαια</span>),
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diacris</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διακρίς</span>). Afterwards we find
-a new set of names; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dias</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διάς</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Athenais</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀθηναΐς</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Poseidonias</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ποσειδωνιάς</span>), and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hephaestias</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡφαιστιάς</span>); evidently derived
-from the deities who were worshipped in the
-country. Some of those secondly mentioned,
-if not all of them, seem to have been geographical
-divisions; and it is not improbable
-that, if not independent communities, they
-were at least connected by a very weak bond
-of union. But all these tribes were superseded
-by four others, which were probably
-founded soon after the Ionic settlement in
-Attica, and seem to have been adopted by
-other Ionic colonies out of Greece. The
-names <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Geleontes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γελέοντες</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hopletes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὅπλητες</span>),
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Argades</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀργάδεις</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aegicores</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰγικορεῖς</span>),
-are said by Herodotus to have been
-derived from the sons of Ion, son of Xuthus.
-Upon this, however, many doubts have been
-thrown by modern writers. The etymology
-of the last three names would seem to suggest,
-that the tribes were so called from the
-occupations which their respective members
-followed; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hopletes</i> being the armed men,
-or warriors; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Argades</i>, labourers or husbandmen;
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aegicores</i>, goatherds or shepherds.
-But whatever be the truth with
-respect to the origin of these tribes, one thing
-is certain, that before the time of Theseus,
-whom historians agree in representing as the
-great founder of the Attic commonwealth,
-the various people who inhabited the country
-continued to be disunited and split into factions.&mdash;Theseus
-in some measure changed
-the relations of the tribes to each other, by
-introducing a gradation of ranks in each;
-dividing the people into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Eupatridae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὐπατρίδαι</span>),
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Geomori</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γεωμόροι</span>), and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Demiurgi</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δημιουργοί</span>), of whom the first were nobles,
-the second agriculturists or yeomen, the
-third labourers and mechanics. At the
-same time, in order to consolidate the national
-unity, he enlarged the city of Athens,
-with which he incorporated several smaller
-towns, made it the seat of government,
-encouraged the nobles to reside there, and
-surrendered a part of the royal prerogative
-in their favour. The tribes or phylae
-were divided, either in the age of Theseus
-or soon after, each into three <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phratriae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φρατρίαι</span>,
-a term equivalent to fraternities, and
-analogous in its political relation to the
-Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curiae</i>), and each <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phratria</i> into thirty
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gene</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένη</span>, equivalent to the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gentes</i>),
-the members of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">genos</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένος</span>) being called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gennetae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γεννῆται</span>) or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">homogalactes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁμογαλάκτες</span>).
-Each <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">genos</i> was distinguished by a
-particular name of a patronymic form, which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_390"></a>[390]</span>
-was derived from some hero or mythic ancestor.
-These divisions, though the names
-seem to import family connection, were in
-fact artificial; which shows that some advance
-had now been made towards the establishment
-of a closer political union. The
-members of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phratriae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gene</i> had their
-respective religious rites and festivals, which
-were preserved long after these communities
-had lost their political importance, and perhaps
-prevented them from being altogether
-dissolved.&mdash;After the age of Theseus, the
-monarchy having been first limited and afterwards
-abolished, the whole power of the
-state fell into the hands of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Eupatridae</i> or
-nobles, who held all civil offices, and had besides
-the management of religious affairs, and
-the interpretation of the laws. Attica became
-agitated by feuds, and we find the people,
-shortly before the legislation of Solon, divided
-into three parties, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pediaei</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεδιαῖοι</span>) or lowlanders,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diacrii</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διάκριοι</span>) or highlanders,
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Parali</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάραλοι</span>) or people of the sea-coast.
-The first two remind us of the ancient
-division of tribes, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mesogaea</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diacris</i>;
-and the three parties appear in some
-measure to represent the classes established
-by Theseus, the first being the nobles, whose
-property lay in the champaign and most
-fertile part of the country; the second, the
-smaller landowners and shepherds; the
-third, the trading and mining class, who
-had by this time risen in wealth and importance.
-To appease their discords, Solon
-was applied to; and thereupon framed his
-celebrated constitution and code of laws.
-Here we have only to notice that he retained
-the four tribes as he found them, but abolished
-the existing distinctions of <em>rank</em>, or at
-all events greatly diminished their importance,
-by introducing his property qualification,
-or division of the people into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pentacosiomedimni</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντακοσιομέδιμνοι</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hippeis</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱππεῖς</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Zeugitae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζευγῖται</span>), and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thetes</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θῆτες</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Census">Census</a></span>, <span class="smcap">Greek</span>.] The enactments
-of Solon continued to be the <em>law</em> at Athens,
-though in great measure suspended by the
-tyranny, until the democratic reform effected
-by Clisthenes. He abolished the old tribes,
-and created ten new ones, according to a
-geographical division of Attica, and named
-after ten of the ancient heroes: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Erechtheis</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aegeis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pandionis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leontis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acamantis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Oeneis</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cecropis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hippothoontis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aeantis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antiochis</i>.
-These tribes were divided each into ten
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demi</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆμοι</span>), the number of which was afterwards
-increased by subdivision; but the
-arrangement was so made that several <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demi</i>
-not contiguous or near to one another were
-joined to make up a tribe. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Demus">Demus</a>.</span>] The
-object of this arrangement was, that by the
-breaking of old associations a perfect and
-lasting revolution might be effected, in the
-habits and feelings, as well as the political
-organisation of the people. Solon allowed
-the ancient <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phratriae</i> to exist, but they were
-deprived of all political importance. All
-foreigners admitted to the citizenship were
-registered in a phyle and demus, but not in
-a phratria or genos. The functions which
-had been discharged by the old tribes were
-now mostly transferred to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demi</i>. Among
-others, we may notice that of the forty-eight
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">naucrariae</i> into which the old tribes had
-been divided for the purpose of taxation, but
-which now became useless, the taxes being
-collected on a different system. The reforms
-of Clisthenes were destined to be permanent.
-They continued to be in force (with
-some few interruptions) until the downfall of
-Athenian independence. The ten tribes were
-blended with the whole machinery of the
-constitution. Of the senate of five hundred,
-fifty were chosen from each tribe. The
-allotment of dicasts was according to tribes;
-and the same system of election may be
-observed in most of the principal offices of
-state, judicial and magisterial, civil and military,
-&amp;c. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 307, Demetrius Poliorcetes
-increased the number of tribes to twelve
-by creating two new ones, namely, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antigonias</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Demetrias</i>, which afterwards received
-the names of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ptolemais</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Attalis</i>;
-and a thirteenth was subsequently added by
-Hadrian, bearing his own name.&mdash;(2) <span id="Trib_r" class="smcap">Roman.</span>
-The three ancient Romulian tribes,
-the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, or the
-Ramnenses, Titienses, and Lucerenses, to
-which the patricians alone belonged, must
-be distinguished from the thirty plebeian
-tribes of Servius Tullius, which were entirely
-local, four for the city, and twenty-six for
-the country around Rome. The history and
-organisation of the three ancient tribes are
-spoken of under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Patricii">Patricii</a></span>. They continued
-of political importance almost down to the
-period of the decemviral legislation; but
-after this time they no longer occur in the
-history of Rome, except as an obsolete institution.
-The institution and organisation
-of the thirty plebeian tribes, and their subsequent
-reduction to twenty by the conquests
-of Porsena, are spoken of under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plebes">Plebes</a></span>.
-The four city tribes were called by the same
-names as the regions which they occupied,
-viz. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Suburana</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Esquilina</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Collina</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Palatina</i>.
-The names of the sixteen country
-tribes which continued to belong to Rome
-after the conquest of Porsena, are in their
-alphabetical order as follows: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aemilia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Camilia</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cornelia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fabia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Galeria</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Horatia</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lemonia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Menemia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Papiria</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pollia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Popillia,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_391"></a>[391]</span>
-upinia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Romilia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sergia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Veturia</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Voltinia</i>.
-As Rome gradually acquired possession
-of more of the surrounding territory,
-the number of tribes also was gradually increased.
-When Appius Claudius, with his
-numerous train of clients, emigrated to Rome,
-lands were assigned to them in the district
-where the Anio flows into the Tiber, and a
-new tribe, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribus Claudia</i>, was formed.
-This tribe was subsequently enlarged, and
-was then designated by the name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Crustumina</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Clustumina</i>. This name is the
-first instance of a country tribe being named
-after a place, for the sixteen older ones all
-derived their name from persons or heroes.
-In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 387, the number of tribes was increased
-to twenty-five by the addition of
-four new ones, viz. the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Stellatina</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tromentina</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sabatina</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arniensis</i>. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 358
-two more, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pomptina</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Publilia</i>, were
-formed of Volscians. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 332, the censors
-Q. Publilius Philo and Sp. Postumius
-increased the number of tribes to twenty-nine,
-by the addition of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Maecia</i> and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Scaptia</i>. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 318 the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ufentina</i> and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Falerina</i> were added. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 299 two
-others, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aniensis</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Terentina</i>, were
-added by the censors, and at last in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 241,
-the number of tribes was augmented to
-thirty-five, by the addition of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quirina</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Velina</i>. Eight new tribes were added
-upon the termination of the Social War, to
-include the Socii, who then obtained the Roman
-franchise; but they were afterwards
-incorporated among the old 35 tribes, which
-continued to be the number of the tribes to
-the end of the republic. When the tribes,
-in their assemblies, transacted any business,
-a certain order (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordo tribuum</i>) was observed,
-in which they were called upon to give their
-votes. The first in the order of succession
-was the Suburana, and the last the Arniensis.
-Any person belonging to a tribe
-had in important documents to add to his
-own name that of his tribe, in the ablative
-case. Whether the local tribes, as they were
-established by the constitution of Servius
-Tullius, contained only the plebeians, or
-included the patricians also, is a point on
-which the opinions of modern scholars are
-divided: but it appears most probable that
-down to the decemviral legislation the tribes
-and their assemblies were entirely plebeian.
-From the time of the decemviral legislation,
-the patricians and their clients were undoubtedly
-incorporated in the tribes. Respecting
-the assemblies of the tribes, see
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia_tr">Comitia Tributa</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tributum">TRĬBŪTUM, a tax which was partly applied
-to cover the expenses of war, and
-partly those of the fortifications of the city.
-The usual amount of the tax was one for
-every thousand of a man’s fortune, though
-in the time of Cato it was raised to three in
-a thousand. The tributum was not a property-tax
-in the strict sense of the word, for
-the accounts respecting the plebeian debtors
-clearly imply, that the debts were not deducted
-in the valuation of a person’s property,
-so that he had to pay the tributum
-upon property which was not his own, but
-which he owed, and for which he had consequently
-to pay the interest as well. It was
-a direct tax upon objects without any regard
-to their produce, like a land or house-tax,
-which indeed formed the main part of it.
-That which seems to have made it most oppressive,
-was its constant fluctuation. It
-was raised according to the regions or tribes
-instituted by Servius Tullius, and by the tribunes
-of these tribes, subsequently called
-tribuni aerarii. It was not, like the other
-branches of the public revenue, let out to
-farm, but being fixed in money it was raised
-by the tribunes, unless (as was the case after
-the custom of giving pay to the soldiers was
-introduced) the soldiers, like the knights,
-demanded it from the persons themselves
-who were bound to pay it. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes_e">Aes equestre</a></span>
-and <span class="allsmcap">HORDEARIUM</span>.] When this tax was to
-be paid, what sum was to be raised, and what
-portion of every thousand asses of the census,
-were matters upon which the senate alone
-had to decide. But when it was decreed, the
-people might refuse to pay it when they
-thought it too heavy, or unfairly distributed,
-or hoped to gain some other advantage by
-the refusal. In later times the senate sometimes
-left its regulation to the censors, who
-often fixed it very arbitrarily. No citizen
-was exempt from it, but we find that the
-priests, augurs, and pontiffs made attempts
-to get rid of it: but this was only an abuse,
-which did not last. After the war with Macedonia
-(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 147), when the Roman treasury
-was filled with the revenues accruing
-from conquests and from the provinces, the
-Roman citizens became exempted from paying
-the tributum, and this state of things
-lasted down to the consulship of Hirtius and
-Pansa (43 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>), when the tributum was
-again levied, on account of the exhausted
-state of the aerarium. After this time it was
-imposed according to the discretion of the
-emperors. Respecting the tributum paid by
-conquered countries and cities, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Vectigalia">Vectigalia</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Triclinium">TRICLĪNĬUM, the dining-room of a Roman
-house, the position of which, relatively
-to the other parts of the house, is seen in the
-“house of the Tragic poet” (see <a href="#ill144">p. 144</a>).
-It was of an oblong shape, and was twice<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_392"></a>[392]</span>
-as long as it was broad. The superintendence
-of the dining-room in a great house
-was intrusted to a slave called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tricliniarcha</i>,
-who, through other slaves, took care that
-everything was kept and proceeded in proper
-order. A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triclinium</i> generally contained three
-couches, and as the usual number of persons
-occupying each couch was three, the triclinium
-afforded accommodation for a party of nine.
-Sometimes, however, as many as four lay on
-each of the couches. Each man in order to
-feed himself lay flat upon his breast or nearly
-so, and stretched out his hand towards the
-table; but afterwards, when his hunger was
-satisfied, he turned upon his left side, leaning
-on his elbow. To this Horace alludes in
-describing a person sated with a particular
-dish, and turning in order to repose upon
-his elbow. (<cite>Sat.</cite> ii. 4, 39.) We find the
-relative positions of two persons who lay
-next to one another, commonly expressed by
-the prepositions <em>super</em> or <em>supra</em>, and <em>infra</em>.
-A passage of Livy (xxxix. 43), in which
-he relates the cruel conduct of the consul
-L. Quintius Flamininus, shows that
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">infra aliquem cubare</i> was the same as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in
-sinu alicujus cubare</i>, and consequently that
-each person was considered as <em>below</em> him to
-whose breast his own head approached. On
-this principle we are enabled to explain the
-denominations both of the three couches, and
-of the three places on each couch.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill392a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill392a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">
-
-<table class="autotable" width="80%" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl">lectus medius</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">imus</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">medius</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">summus</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">lectus imus</td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl">lectus summus</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl pad3">summus</td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">imus</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl pad3">medius</td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">medius</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl pad3">imus</td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">summus</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Supposing the annexed arrangement to represent
-the plan of a triclinium, it is evident that,
-as each guest reclined on his left side, the
-countenances of all when in this position
-were directed, first, from No. 1 towards No.
-3, then from No. 4 towards No. 6, and lastly,
-from No. 7 towards No. 9; that the guest
-No. 1 lay, in the sense explained, <em>above</em> No.
-2, No. 3 <em>below</em> No. 2, and so of the rest;
-and that, going in the same direction, the
-couch to the right hand was <em>above</em> the others,
-and the couch to the left hand <em>below</em> the
-others. It will be found, that in a passage
-in the eighth satire of the second book of Horace,
-the guests are enumerated in the order
-of their accubation&mdash;an order exhibited in
-the annexed diagram.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill392b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill392b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">
-
-<table class="autotable" width="80%" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl">Vibidius</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl">Maecenas</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl">Servilius</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Nomentanus</td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl">Varius</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Nasidienus</td>
-<td class="tdl">(Mensa)</td>
-<td class="tdl">Viscus</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">Porcius</td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl">Fundanius</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Tridens">TRĬDENS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fuscina">Fuscina</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Triens">TRĬENS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Trierarchia">TRIĒRARCHĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριήραρχια</span>), one of the
-extraordinary war services or liturgies at
-Athens, the object of which was to provide
-for the equipment and maintenance of the
-ships of war belonging to the state. The
-persons who were charged with it were called
-trierarchs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριήραρχοι</span>), as being the captains
-of triremes, though the name was also applied
-to persons who bore the same charge
-in other vessels. It existed from very early
-times in connection with the forty-eight
-naucraries of Solon, and the fifty of Clisthenes:
-each of which corporations appears
-to have been obliged to equip and man a vessel.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Naucraria">Naucraria</a>.</span>] Under the constitution
-of Clisthenes the ten tribes were at first
-severally charged with five vessels. This
-charge was of course superseded by the later
-forms of the hierarchy. The state furnished
-the ship, and either the whole or part of the
-ship’s rigging and furniture, and also pay
-and provisions for the sailors. The trierarchs
-were bound to keep in repair the ship
-and its furniture, and were frequently put to
-great expense in paying the sailors and supplying
-them with provisions, when the state
-did not supply sufficient money for the purpose.
-Moreover, some trierarchs, whether
-from ambitious or patriotic motives, put
-themselves to unnecessary expense in fitting
-out and rigging their ships, from which the
-state derived an advantage. The average
-expense of the trierarchy was 50 minae.
-In ancient times one person bore the whole
-charge of the trierarchy, afterwards it was
-customary for two persons to share it, who
-were then called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">syntrierarchs</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συντριήραρχοι</span>).
-When this practice was first introduced
-is not known, but it was perhaps about
-the year 412 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, after the defeat of the
-Athenians in Sicily, when the union of two
-persons for the choregia was first permitted.
-The syntrierarchy, however, did not entirely
-supersede the older and single form, being<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_393"></a>[393]</span>
-only meant as a relief in case of emergency,
-when there was not a sufficient number of
-wealthy citizens to bear the expense singly.
-In the case of a syntrierarchy the two trierarchs
-commanded their vessel in turn, six
-months each, according as they agreed between
-themselves.&mdash;The third form of the
-trierarchy was connected with, or suggested
-by, the syntrierarchy. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 358, the
-Athenians were unable to procure a sufficient
-number of legally appointed trierarchs, and
-accordingly they summoned volunteers.
-This, however, was but a temporary expedient;
-and as the actual system was not
-adequate to the public wants, they determined
-to manage the trierarchy somewhat in
-the same way as the property-tax (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">eisphora</i>),
-namely, by classes or symmoriae, according
-to the law of Periander passed in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 358,
-and which was the primary and original
-enactment on the subject. With this view
-1200 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">synteleis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συντελεῖς</span>) or partners were
-appointed, who were probably the wealthiest
-individuals of the state, according to the
-census or valuation. These were divided into
-20 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">symmoriae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμμορίαι</span>) or classes; out of
-which a number of persons (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σώματα</span>) joined
-for the equipment or rather the maintenance
-and management of a ship, under the title of
-a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">synteleia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συντέλεια</span>) or union. To every
-ship there was generally assigned a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">synteleia</i>
-of fifteen persons of different degrees of
-wealth, as we may suppose, so that four ships
-only were provided for by each symmoria of
-sixty persons. It appears, however, that
-before Demosthenes carried a new law on
-this subject (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 340), it had been customary
-for <em>sixteen</em> persons to unite in a synteleia or
-company for a ship, who bore the burden in
-equal shares. This being the case, it follows
-either that the members of the symmoriae
-had been by that time raised from 1200 to
-1280, or that some alterations had taken
-place in their internal arrangements, of which
-no account has come down to us. The superintendence
-of the whole system was in the
-hands of the 300 wealthiest members, who
-were therefore called the “leaders of the
-symmoriae” (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡγεμόνες τῶν συμμοριῶν</span>), on
-whom the burdens of the trierarchy chiefly
-fell, or rather ought to have fallen. The
-services performed by individuals under this
-system appear to have been the same as before:
-the state still provided the ship’s
-tackle, and the only duty then of the trierarchs
-under this system was to keep their
-vessels in the same repair and order as they
-received them. But even from this they
-managed to escape: for the wealthiest members,
-who had to serve for their synteleia,
-let out their trierarchies for a talent, and received
-that amount from their partners (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συντελεῖς</span>),
-so that in reality they paid next to
-nothing, or, at any rate, not what they ought
-to have done, considering that the trierarchy
-was a ground of exemption from other liturgies.&mdash;To
-remedy these abuses Demosthenes
-carried a law when he was the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστάτης τοῦ
-ναυτικοῦ</span>, or the superintendent of the Athenian
-navy, thereby introducing the <em>Fourth
-form</em> of the trierarchy. The provisions of
-the law were as follows: The naval services
-required from every citizen were to depend
-upon and be proportional to his property,
-or rather to his taxable capital, as registered
-for the symmoriae of the property-tax, the
-rate being one trireme for every ten talents
-of taxable capital, up to three triremes and
-one auxiliary vessel (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπηρέσιον</span>) for the
-largest properties; <em>i.e.</em> no person, however
-rich, could be required to furnish more.
-Those who had not ten talents in taxable
-capital were to club together in synteleiae
-till they had made up that amount. By this
-law great changes were effected. All persons
-paying taxes were rated in proportion
-to their property, so that the poor were benefited
-by it, and the state likewise: for, as
-Demosthenes says, those who had formerly
-contributed one-sixteenth to the trierarchy
-of one ship were now trierarchs of two, in
-which case they must either have served by
-proxy, or done duty in successive years. He
-adds, that the consequences were highly beneficial.
-We do not know the amount of
-property which rendered a man liable to serve
-a trierarchy or syntrierarchy, but we read of
-no instance of liability arising from a property
-of less value than 500 minae. The appointment
-to serve under the first and second
-forms of the trierarchy was made by the
-strategi, and in case any person was appointed
-to serve a trierarchy, and thought that any
-one else (not called upon) was better able to
-bear it than himself, he offered the latter an
-exchange of his property [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Antidosis">Antidosis</a></span>] subject
-to the burden of the trierarchy. In cases of
-extreme hardship, persons became suppliants
-to the people, or fled to the altar of Artemis
-at Munychia. If not ready in time, they
-were sometimes liable to imprisonment. On
-the contrary, whoever got his ship ready
-first was to be rewarded with the “crown
-of the trierarchy;” so that in this way considerable
-emulation and competition were
-produced. Moreover, the trierarchs were <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπεύθυνοι</span>,
-or liable to be called to account for
-their expenditure; though they applied
-their own property to the service of the
-state. It has been already stated that the
-trierarchy was a ground of exemption from
-the other liturgies, any of which, indeed,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_394"></a>[394]</span>
-gave an exemption, from all the rest during
-the following year.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Trinundinum">TRĬNUNDĬNUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nundinae">Nundinae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Triobolon">TRIŌBŎLON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριώβολον</span>), the fee of three
-obols, which the Athenian dicasts received.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dicastes">Dicastae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tripos">TRĬPOS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίπους</span>), a tripod, <em>i.e.</em> any utensil
-or article of furniture supported upon
-three feet. More especially (1) A three-legged
-table.&mdash;(2) A pot or caldron, used for
-boiling meat, and either raised upon a three-legged
-stand of bronze, or made with its
-three feet in the same piece.&mdash;(3) A bronze
-altar, not differing probably in its original
-form from the tall tripod caldron already described.
-It was from a tripod that the
-Pythian priestess at Delphi gave responses.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cortina">Cortina</a>.</span>] The celebrity of this tripod produced
-innumerable imitations of it, which
-were made to be used in sacrifice, and still
-more frequently to be presented to the treasury
-both in that place and in many other
-Greek temples.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp37" id="ill394" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill394.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Tripod of Apollo at Delphi. (Böttiger’s Amalthea, vol. i.
-p. 119.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Tripudium">TRĬPŬDĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Auspicium">Auspicium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Triremis">TRIRĒMIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Triumphus">TRĬUMPHUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θρίαμβος</span>), a solemn procession,
-in which a victorious general entered
-the city in a chariot drawn by four horses.
-He was preceded by the captives and spoils
-taken in war, was followed by his troops,
-and after passing in state along the Via
-Sacra, ascended the Capitol to offer sacrifice
-in the temple of Jupiter. From the beginning
-of the republic down to the extinction of
-liberty a regular triumph (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">justus triumphus</i>)
-was recognised as the summit of military
-glory, and was the cherished object of ambition
-to every Roman general. A triumph
-might be granted for successful achievements
-either by land or sea, but the latter were
-comparatively so rare that we shall for the
-present defer the consideration of the naval
-triumph. After any decisive battle had been
-won, or a province subdued by a series of
-successful operations, the imperator forwarded
-to the senate a laurel-wreathed dispatch
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">literae laureatae</i>), containing an account
-of his exploits. If the intelligence
-proved satisfactory, the senate decreed a
-public thanksgiving. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Supplicatio">Supplicatio</a>.</span>] After
-the war was concluded, the general with his
-army repaired to Rome, or ordered his army
-to meet him there on a given day, but did not
-enter the city. A meeting of the senate was
-held without the walls, usually in the temple
-either of Bellona or Apollo, that he might
-have an opportunity of urging his pretensions
-in person, and these were then scrutinised
-and discussed with the most jealous care.
-The following rules were for the most part
-rigidly enforced, although the senate assumed
-the discretionary power of relaxing them in
-special cases. 1. That no one could be permitted
-to triumph unless he had held the
-office of dictator, of consul, or of praetor.
-The honours granted to Pompey, who triumphed
-in his 24th year (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 81) before he
-had held any of the great offices of state, and
-again ten years afterwards, while still a
-simple eques, were altogether unprecedented.
-2. That the magistrate should have been
-actually in office both when the victory was
-gained and when the triumph was to be celebrated.
-This regulation was insisted upon
-only during the earlier ages of the commonwealth.
-Its violation commenced with Q.
-Publilius Philo, the first person to whom the
-senate ever granted a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prorogatio imperii</i> after
-the termination of a magistracy, and thenceforward
-proconsuls and propraetors were
-permitted to triumph without question. 3.
-That the war should have been prosecuted or
-the battle fought under the auspices and in
-the province and with the troops of the
-general seeking the triumph. Thus if a victory
-was gained by the legatus of a general
-who was absent from the army, the honour of
-it did not belong to the former, but to the
-latter, inasmuch as he had the auspices. 4.
-That at least 5000 of the enemy should have
-been slain in a single battle, that the advantage
-should have been positive, and not
-merely a compensation for some previous
-disaster, and that the loss on the part of the
-Romans should have been small compared
-with that of their adversaries. But still we
-find many instances of triumphs granted for
-general results, without reference to the
-numbers slain in any one engagement. 5.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_395"></a>[395]</span>
-That the war should have been a legitimate
-contest against public foes, and not a civil
-contest. Hence Catulus celebrated no triumph
-over Lepidus, nor Antonius over Catiline,
-nor Cinna and Marius over their antagonists
-of the Sullan party, nor Caesar after
-Pharsalia; and when he did subsequently
-triumph after his victory over the sons of
-Pompey, it caused universal disgust. 6.
-That the dominion of the state should have
-been extended, and not merely something
-previously lost regained. The absolute acquisition
-of territory does not appear to have
-been essential. 7. That the war should have
-been brought to a conclusion and the province
-reduced to a state of peace, so as to permit of
-the army being withdrawn, the presence of
-the victorious soldiers being considered indispensable
-in a triumph. The senate claimed
-the exclusive right of deliberating upon all
-these points, and giving or withholding the
-honour sought, and they for the most part
-exercised the privilege without question,
-except in times of great political excitement.
-The sovereignty of the people, however, in
-this matter was asserted at a very early date,
-and a triumph is said to have been voted by
-the tribes to Valerius and Horatius, the consuls
-of <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 446, in direct opposition to the
-resolution of the fathers, and in a similar
-manner to C. Marcius Rutilus the first plebeian
-dictator, while L. Postumius Megellus,
-consul <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 294, celebrated a triumph,
-although resisted by the senate and seven out
-of the ten tribunes. Nay, more, we read of
-a certain Appius Claudius, consul <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 143,
-who having persisted in celebrating a triumph
-in defiance of both the senate and
-people, was accompanied by his daughter (or
-sister) Claudia, a vestal virgin, and by her
-interposition saved from being dragged from
-his chariot by a tribune. A disappointed
-general, however, seldom ventured to resort
-to such violent measures, but satisfied himself
-with going through the forms on the
-Alban Mount, a practice first introduced by
-C. Papirius Maso. If the senate gave their
-consent, they at the same time voted a sum
-of money towards defraying the necessary
-expenses, and one of the tribunes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex auctoritate
-senatus</i> applied for a plebiscitum to permit
-the imperator to retain his imperium on
-the day when he entered the city. This last
-form could not be dispensed with either in an
-ovation or a triumph, because the imperium
-conferred by the comitia curiata did not include
-the city itself, and when a general had
-once gone forth <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paludatus</i>, his military power
-ceased as soon as he re-entered the gates,
-unless the general law had been previously
-suspended by a special enactment; and in
-this manner the resolution of the senate was,
-as it were, ratified by the plebs. For this
-reason no one desiring a triumph ever entered
-the city until the question was decided, since
-by so doing he would ipso facto have forfeited
-all claim. We have a remarkable example of
-this in the case of Cicero, who after his return
-from Cilicia lingered in the vicinity of Rome
-day after day, and dragged about his lictors
-from one place to another, without entering
-the city, in the vain hope of a triumph.&mdash;In
-later times these pageants were marshalled
-with extraordinary pomp and splendour, and
-presented a most gorgeous spectacle. Minute
-details would necessarily be different according
-to circumstances, but the general arrangements
-were as follows. The temples were all
-thrown open, garlands of flowers decorated
-every shrine and image, and incense smoked
-on every altar. Meanwhile the imperator
-called an assembly of his soldiers, delivered
-an oration commending their valour, and
-concluded by distributing rewards to the most
-distinguished, and a sum of money to each
-individual, the amount depending on the
-value of the spoils. He then ascended his
-triumphal car and advanced to the Porta Triumphalis,
-where he was met by the whole body
-of the senate headed by the magistrates. The
-procession then defiled in the following order.
-1. The senate headed by the magistrates.
-2. A body of trumpeters. 3. A train of
-carriages and frames laden with spoils, those
-articles which were especially remarkable
-either on account of their beauty or rarity
-being disposed in such a manner as to be
-seen distinctly by the crowd. Boards were
-borne aloft on fercula, on which were
-painted in large letters the names of vanquished
-nations and countries. Here, too,
-models were exhibited in ivory or wood of
-the cities and forts captured, and pictures
-of the mountains, rivers, and other great
-natural features of the subjugated region,
-with appropriate inscriptions. Gold and
-silver in coin or bullion, arms, weapons,
-and horse furniture of every description,
-statues, pictures, vases, and other works of
-art, precious stones, elaborately wrought
-and richly embroidered stuffs, and every
-object which could be regarded as valuable
-or curious. 4. A body of flute players.
-5. The white bulls or oxen destined for
-sacrifice, with gilded horns, decorated with
-infulae and serta, attended by the slaughtering
-priests with their implements, and followed
-by the Camilli bearing in their hands
-paterae and other holy vessels and instruments.
-6. Elephants or any other strange
-animals, natives of the conquered districts.
-7. The arms and insignia of the leaders of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_396"></a>[396]</span>
-the foe. 8. The leaders themselves, and
-such of their kindred as had been taken prisoners,
-followed by the whole band of inferior
-captives in fetters. 9. The coronae and
-other tributes of respect and gratitude bestowed
-on the imperator by allied kings and
-states. 10. The lictors of the imperator in
-single file, their fasces wreathed with laurel.
-11. The imperator himself in a circular
-chariot of a peculiar form, drawn by four
-horses, which were sometimes, though rarely,
-white. He was attired in a gold-embroidered
-robe (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga picta</i>) and flowered tunic
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tunica palmata</i>): he bore in his right hand
-a laurel bough, and in his left a sceptre; his
-brows were encircled with a wreath of
-Delphic laurel, in addition to which in
-ancient times, his body was painted bright
-red. He was accompanied in his chariot by
-his children of tender years, and sometimes
-by very dear or highly honoured friends,
-while behind him stood a public slave, holding
-over his head a golden Etruscan crown
-ornamented with jewels. The presence of a
-slave in such a place at such a time seems to
-have been intended to avert <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">invidia</i> and the
-influence of the evil eye, and for the same
-purpose a fascinum, a little bell, and a
-scourge were attached to the vehicle. Tertullian
-tells us, that the slave ever and anon
-whispered in the ear of the imperator the
-warning words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Respice post te, hominem memento
-te</i>, but this statement is not confirmed
-by any earlier writer. 12. Behind the chariot
-or on the horses which drew it rode the
-grown-up sons of the imperator, together
-with the legati, the tribuni, and the equites,
-all on horseback. 13. The rear was brought
-up by the whole body of the infantry in
-marching order, their spears adorned with
-laurel, some shouting Io Triumphe, and
-singing hymns to the gods, while others
-proclaimed the praises of their leader or
-indulged in keen sarcasms and coarse ribaldry
-at his expense, for the most perfect
-freedom of speech was granted and exercised.
-Just as the pomp was ascending the
-Capitoline hill, some of the hostile chiefs
-were led aside into the adjoining prison
-and put to death, a custom so barbarous that
-we could scarcely believe that it existed in
-a civilised age, were it not attested by the
-most unquestionable evidence. Pompey, indeed,
-refrained from perpetrating this atrocity
-in his third triumph, and Aurelian on
-like occasion spared Zenobia, but these are
-quoted as exceptions to the general rule.
-When it was announced that these murders
-had been completed, the victims were then
-sacrificed, an offering from the spoils was
-presented to Jupiter, the laurel wreath was
-deposited in the lap of the god, the imperator
-was entertained at a public feast along
-with his friends in the temple, and returned
-home in the evening preceded by torches
-and pipes, and escorted by a crowd of citizens.
-The whole of the proceedings, generally
-speaking, were brought to a close in one
-day; but when the quantity of plunder was
-very great, and the troops very numerous,
-a longer period was required for the exhibition,
-and thus the triumph of Flaminius
-continued for three days in succession. But
-the glories of the imperator did not end with
-the show, nor even with his life. It was
-customary (we know not if the practice was
-invariable) to provide him at the public expense
-with a site for a house, such mansions
-being styled <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triumphales domus</i>. After death
-his kindred were permitted to deposit his
-ashes within the walls, and laurel-wreathed
-statues standing erect in triumphal cars,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_397"></a>[397]</span>
-displayed in the vestibulum of the family
-mansion, transmitted his fame to posterity.&mdash;A
-<span class="smcap">Triumphus Navalis</span> appears to have differed
-in no respect from an ordinary triumph, except
-that it must have been upon a smaller
-scale, and would be characterised by the exhibition
-of beaks of ships and other nautical
-trophies. The earliest upon record was
-granted to C. Duillius, who laid the foundation
-of the supremacy of Rome by sea in the first
-Punic war; and so elated was he by his success,
-that during the rest of his life, whenever
-he returned home at night from supper, he
-caused flutes to sound and torches to be borne
-before him. A second naval triumph was celebrated
-by Lutatius Catulus for his victory
-off the Insulae Aegates, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 241; a third
-by Q. Fabius Labeo, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 189, over the
-Cretans; and a fourth by C. Octavius over
-King Perseus, without captives and without
-spoils.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Triumphus Castrensis</span> was a procession
-of the soldiers through the camp in
-honour of a tribunus or some officer inferior
-to the general, who had performed a brilliant
-exploit. After the extinction of freedom, the
-emperor being considered as the commander-in-chief
-of all the armies of the state, every
-military achievement was understood to be
-performed under his auspices, and hence,
-according to the forms of even the ancient
-constitution, he alone had a legitimate claim
-to a triumph. This principle was soon fully
-recognised and acted upon; for although
-Antonius had granted triumphs to his legati,
-and his example had been freely followed by
-Augustus in the early part of his career, yet
-after the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 14, he entirely discontinued
-the practice, and from that time forward
-triumphs were rarely, if ever, conceded
-to any except members of the imperial family.
-But to compensate in some degree for what
-was then taken away, the custom was introduced
-of bestowing what were termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triumphalia
-Ornamenta</i>, that is, permission to
-receive the titles bestowed upon and to appear
-in public with the robes worn by the imperatores
-of the commonwealth when they
-triumphed, and to bequeath to descendants
-triumphal statues. These <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triumphalia ornamenta</i>
-are said to have been first bestowed
-upon Agrippa or upon Tiberius, and ever
-after were a common mark of the favour of
-the prince.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill396" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill396.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Triumphal Procession. (Zoega, Bassi-rilievi, tav. 9, 76.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Triumviri">TRĬUMVĬRI, or TRESVĬRI, were either
-ordinary magistrates or officers, or else extraordinary
-commissioners, who were frequently
-appointed at Rome to execute any public
-office. The following is a list of the most
-important of both classes.</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Agro Dividundo.</span> [<span class="smcap">Triumviri
-Coloniae Deducendae.</span>]</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Capitales</span> were regular magistrates,
-first appointed about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 292.
-They were elected by the people, the comitia
-being held by the praetor. They succeeded
-to many of the functions of the Quaestores
-Parricidii. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Quaestor">Quaestor</a>.</span>] It was their duty
-to inquire into all capital crimes, and to receive
-informations respecting such, and consequently
-they apprehended and committed
-to prison all criminals whom they detected.
-In conjunction with the aediles, they had to
-preserve the public peace, to prevent all unlawful
-assemblies, &amp;c. They enforced the
-payment of fines due to the state. They had
-the care of public prisons, and carried into
-effect the sentence of the law upon criminals.
-In these points they resembled the magistracy
-of the Eleven at Athens.</p>
-
-<p>4. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Coloniae Deducendae</span> were
-persons appointed to superintend the formation
-of a colony. They are spoken of under
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a></span>, <a href="#Page_99">p. 99</a>, <em>b</em>. Since they had besides
-to superintend the distribution of the land
-to the colonists, we find them also called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triumviri Coloniae Deducendae Agroque Dividundo</i>,
-and sometimes simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triumviri
-Agro Dando</i>.</p>
-
-<p>5. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Epulones.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Epulones">Epulones</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p>6. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Equitum Turmas Recognoscendi</span>,
-or <span class="smcap">Legendis Equitum Decuriis</span>,
-were magistrates first appointed by Augustus
-to revise the lists of the equites, and to admit
-persons into the order. This was formerly
-part of the duties of the censors.</p>
-
-<p>7. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Mensarii.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mensarii">Mensarii</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p>8. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Monetales.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Moneta">Moneta</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p>9. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Nocturni</span> were magistrates
-elected annually, whose chief duty it was to
-prevent fires by night, and for this purpose
-they had to go round the city during the
-night (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vigilias circumire</i>). If they neglected
-their duty they appear to have been accused
-before the people by the tribunes of the plebs.
-The time at which this office was instituted
-is unknown, but it must have been previously
-to the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 304. Augustus
-transferred their duties to the Praefectus
-Vigilum. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Praefectus_v">Praefectus Vigilum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p>10. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Reficiendis Aedibus</span>, extraordinary
-officers elected in the Comitia
-Tributa in the time of the second Punic war,
-were appointed for the purpose of repairing
-and rebuilding certain temples.</p>
-
-<p>11. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Reipublicae Constituendae.</span>
-When the supreme power was shared
-between Caesar (Octavianus), Antony, and
-Lepidus, they administered the affairs of the
-state under the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triumviri Reipublicae
-Constituendae</i>. This office was conferred
-upon them in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 43, for five years; and on
-the expiration of the term, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 38, was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_398"></a>[398]</span>
-conferred upon them again, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 37, for
-five years more. The coalition between Julius
-Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 60,
-is usually called the first triumvirate, and
-that between Octavianus, Antony, and Lepidus,
-the second; but it must be borne in
-mind that the former never bore the title of
-triumviri, nor were invested with any office
-under that name, whereas the latter were
-recognised as regular magistrates under the
-above-mentioned title.</p>
-
-<p>12. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Sacris Conquirendis Donisque
-Persignandis</span>, extraordinary officers
-elected in the Comitia Tributa in the time of
-the second Punic war, seem to have had to
-take care that all property given or consecrated
-to the gods was applied to that purpose.</p>
-
-<p>13. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Senatus Legendi</span> were magistrates
-appointed by Augustus to admit
-persons into the senate. This was previously
-the duty of the censors.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Trochus">TRŎCHUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τροχός</span>), a hoop. The Greek
-hoop was a bronze ring, and had sometimes
-bells attached to it. It was impelled by
-means of a hook with a wooden handle,
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clavis</i>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐλατήρ</span>. From the Greeks
-this custom passed to the Romans, who consequently
-adopted the Greek term. The following
-woodcuts from gems exhibit naked
-youths trundling the hoop by means of the
-hook or key. They are accompanied by the
-jar of oil and the laurel branch, the signs of
-effort and of victory.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill398a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill398a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Trochi, Hoops. (From ancient Gems.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Trojae">TROJAE LŪDUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tropaeum">TRŎPAEUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρόπαιον</span>, <em>Att.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τροπαῖον</span>), a
-trophy, a sign and memorial of victory,
-which was erected on the field of battle
-where the enemy had turned (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρέπω, τρόπη</span>)
-to flight; and in case of a victory gained at
-sea, on the nearest land. The expression
-for raising or erecting a trophy is <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τροπαῖον
-στῆσαι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στήσασθαι</span>, to which may be added
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπὸ</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατὰ τῶν πολεμίων</span>. When the battle
-was not decisive, or each party considered it
-had some claims to the victory, both erected
-trophies. Trophies usually consisted of the
-arms, shields, helmets, &amp;c. of the enemy that
-were defeated; and these were placed on the
-trunk of a tree, which was fixed on some
-elevation. The trophy was consecrated to
-some divinity, with an inscription (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίγραμμα</span>),
-recording the names of the victors and of the
-defeated party; whence trophies were regarded
-as inviolable, which even the enemy
-were not permitted to remove. Sometimes,
-however, a people destroyed a trophy, if they
-considered that the enemy had erected it
-without sufficient cause. That rankling and
-hostile feelings might not be perpetuated by
-the continuance of a trophy, it seems to have
-been originally part of Greek international
-law that trophies should be made only of
-wood, and not of stone or metal, and that
-they should not be repaired when decayed.
-It was not, however, uncommon to erect
-trophies of metal. Pausanias speaks of several
-which he saw in Greece. The trophies
-erected to commemorate naval victories were
-usually ornamented with the beaks or acroteria
-of ships [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Acroterium">Acroterium</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Rostra">Rostra</a></span>]; and
-were generally consecrated to Poseidon or
-Neptune. Sometimes a whole ship was
-placed as a trophy. The Romans, in early
-times, never erected any trophies on the field
-of battle, but carried home the spoils taken
-in battle, with which they decorated the
-public buildings, and also the private houses<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_399"></a>[399]</span>
-of individuals. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Spolia">Spolia</a>.</span>] Subsequently,
-however, the Romans adopted the Greek
-practice of raising trophies on the field of
-battle. The first trophies of this kind were
-erected by Domitius Ahenobarbus and Fabius
-Maximus in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 121, after their conquest
-of the Allobroges, when they built at the
-junction of the Rhone and the Isara towers
-of white stone, upon which trophies were
-placed adorned with the spoils of the enemy.
-Pompey also raised trophies on the Pyrenees
-after his victories in Spain; Julius Caesar
-did the same near Ziela, after his victory
-over Pharnaces; and Drusus, near the Elbe,
-to commemorate his victory over the Germans.
-Still, however, it was more common
-to erect some memorial of the victory at
-Rome than on the field of battle. The
-trophies raised by Marius to commemorate
-his victories over Jugurtha and the Cimbri
-and Teutoni, which were cast down by Sulla,
-and restored by Julius Caesar, must have
-been in the city. In the later times of the
-republic, and under the empire, the erection
-of triumphal arches was the most common
-way of commemorating a victory, many of
-which remain to the present day. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arcus">Arcus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="ill398b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill398b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Trophy of Augustus. (Museo Capitolino, vol i. tav. 5.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Trossuli">TROSSŬLI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a></span>, <a href="#Page_157">p. 157</a>, <em>a</em>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Trua">TRŬA, <em>dim.</em> TRULLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τορύνη</span>), derived
-from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρύω</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόρω</span>, &amp;c., to perforate; a large
-and flat spoon or ladle, pierced with holes; a
-trowel. The annexed woodcut represents
-such a ladle. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trulla vinaria</i> seems to
-have been a species of colander [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colum">Colum</a></span>], used
-as a wine-strainer.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill399a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill399a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Trua. (From the House of Pansa at Pompeii.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Trutina">TRŬTĬNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρυτάνη</span>), a general term, including
-both <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libra</i>, a balance, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">statera</i>, a
-steelyard. Payments were originally made
-by weighing, not by counting. Hence a balance
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trutina</i>) was preserved in the temple
-of Saturn at Rome.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tuba">TŬBA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάλπιγξ</span>), a bronze trumpet, distinguished
-from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornu</i> by being straight
-while the latter was curved. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cornu">Cornu</a>.</span>] The
-tuba was employed in war for signals of
-every description, at the games and public
-festivals, and also at the last rites to the
-dead: those who sounded the trumpet at funerals
-were termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">siticines</i>, and used an instrument
-of a peculiar form. The tones of the
-tuba are represented as of a harsh and fear-inspiring
-character. The invention of the
-tuba is usually ascribed by ancient writers to
-the Etruscans. It has been remarked that
-Homer never introduces the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάλπιγξ</span> in his
-narrative except in comparisons, which
-leads us to infer that, although known in his
-time, it had been but recently introduced
-into Greece; and it is certain that, notwithstanding
-its eminently martial character, it
-was not until a late period used in the
-armies of the leading states. By the Greek
-tragedians its Tuscan origin is fully recognised.
-According to one account it was first
-fabricated for the Tyrrhenians by Athena,
-who in consequence was worshipped by the
-Argives under the title of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σάλπιγξ</span>, while at
-Rome the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tubilustrium</i>, or purification of
-sacred trumpets, was performed on the last
-day of the Quinquatrus. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Quinquatrus">Quinquatrus</a>.</span>]
-There appears to have been no essential
-difference in form between the Greek and
-Roman or Tyrrhenian trumpets. Both were
-long, straight, bronze tubes, gradually increasing
-in diameter, and terminating in a
-bell-shaped aperture.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp76" id="ill399b" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill399b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Soldiers blowing Tubae and Cornua. (From Column of
-Trajan.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Tubilustrium">TŬBĬLUSTRIUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Quinquatrus">Quinquatrus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tullianum">TULLIĀNUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Carcer">Carcer</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tumultuarii">TŬMULTUĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tumultus">Tumultus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tumultus">TŬMULTUS, the name given to a sudden
-or dangerous war in Italy or Cisalpine Gaul,
-and the word was supposed by the ancients
-to be a contraction of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">timor multus</i>. It was,
-however, sometimes applied to a sudden or
-dangerous war elsewhere; but this does not
-appear to have been a correct use of the
-word. Cicero says that there might be a
-war without a tumultus, but not a tumultus
-without a war; but it must be recollected
-that the word was also applied to any sudden
-alarm respecting a war; whence we find a
-tumultus often spoken of as of less importance
-than a war, because the results were of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_400"></a>[400]</span>
-less consequence, though the fear might have
-been much greater than in a regular war. In
-the case of a tumultus there was a cessation
-from all business (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">justitium</i>), and all citizens
-were obliged to enlist without regard being
-had to the exemptions (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vacationes</i>) from military
-service, which were enjoyed at other
-times. As there was not time to enlist the
-soldiers in the regular manner, the magistrate
-who was appointed to command the
-army displayed two banners (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexilla</i>) from
-the Capitol, one red, to summon the infantry,
-and the other green, to summon the cavalry,
-and said, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Qui rempublicam salvam vult, me
-sequatur</i>. Those that assembled took the
-military oath together, instead of one by one,
-as was the usual practice, whence they were
-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conjurati</i>, and their service <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conjuratio</i>.
-Soldiers enlisted in this way were termed
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tumultuarii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Subitarii</i>.</p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp79" id="ill400a" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill400a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Doric Chiton. (From a Bas-relief in the British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp47" id="ill400b" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill400b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ionic Chiton. (From a Statue in the British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="Tunica">TŬNĬCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χιτών</span>, <em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χιτωνίσκος, χιτώνιον</span>),
-an under-garment. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> The
-chiton was the only kind of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔνδυμα</span>, or under-garment
-worn by the Greeks. Of this there
-were two kinds, the Dorian and Ionian. The
-Dorian chiton, as worn by males, was a
-short woollen shirt, without sleeves; the
-Ionian was a long linen garment, with sleeves.
-The former seems to have been originally
-worn throughout the whole of Greece; the
-latter was brought over to Greece by the
-Ionians of Asia. The Ionic chiton was commonly
-worn at Athens by men during the
-Persian wars, but it appears to have entirely
-gone out of fashion for the male sex about the
-time of Pericles, from which time the Dorian
-chiton was the under-garment universally
-adopted by men through the whole of Greece.
-The distinction between the Doric and Ionic
-chiton still continued in the dress of women.
-The Spartan virgins only wore this one garment,
-and had no upper kind of clothing,
-whence it is sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Himation</i>
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pallium">Pallium</a></span>] as well as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Chiton</i>. They appeared
-in the company of men without any further
-covering; but the married women never did
-so without wearing an upper garment. This
-Doric chiton was made, as stated above, of
-woollen stuff; it was without sleeves, and
-was fastened over both shoulders by clasps or
-buckles (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόρπαι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περόναι</span>), which were often
-of considerable size. It was frequently so
-short as not to reach the knee. It was
-only joined together on one side, and on
-the other was left partly open or slit up
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχιστός χίτων</span>), to allow a free motion of the
-limbs. The following cut represents an
-Amazon with a chiton of this kind: some
-parts of the figure appear incomplete, as the
-original is mutilated. The Ionic chiton, on
-the contrary, was a long and loose garment,
-reaching to the feet (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ποδήρης</span>), with wide
-sleeves (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόραι</span>), and was usually made of
-linen. The sleeves, however, appear generally
-to have covered only the upper part of
-the arm; for in ancient works of art we
-seldom find the sleeve extending farther
-than the elbow, and sometimes not so far.
-The sleeves were sometimes slit up, and
-fastened together with an elegant row of
-brooches. The Ionic chiton, according to
-Herodotus, was originally a Carian dress,
-and passed over to Athens from Ionia, as has
-been already remarked. The women at
-Athens originally wore the Doric chiton, but
-were compelled to change it for the Ionic,
-after they had killed with the buckles or
-clasps of their dresses the single Athenian
-who had returned alive from the expedition<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_401"></a>[401]</span>
-against Aegina, because there were no buckles
-or clasps required in the Ionic dress. The
-preceding cut represents the Muse Thalia
-wearing an Ionic chiton. The peplum has
-fallen off her shoulders, and is held up by
-the left hand. Both kinds of dress were fastened
-round the middle with a girdle, and as
-the Ionic chiton was usually longer than the
-body, part of it was drawn up so that the
-dress might not reach farther than the feet,
-and the part which was so drawn up overhung
-or overlapped the girdle, and was called
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόλπος</span>.&mdash;There was a peculiar kind of dress,
-which seems to have been a species of
-double chiton, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diplois</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διπλοΐς</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diploidion</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διπλοΐδιον</span>), and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hemidiploidion</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμιδιπλοΐδιον</span>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp73" id="ill401" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill401.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Diploidia, double Chitons. (Museo Borbonico, vol. ii.
-tav. 4, 6.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It appears not to have been a
-separate article of dress, but merely the
-upper part of the cloth forming the chiton,
-which was larger than was required for the
-ordinary chiton, and was therefore thrown
-over the front and back. The following cuts
-will give a clearer idea of the form of this
-garment than any description. Since the
-Diploidion was fastened over the shoulders
-by means of buckles or clasps, it was called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epomis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπωμίς</span>), which is supposed by some
-writers to have been only the end of the garment
-fastened on the shoulder. The chiton
-was worn by men next their skin; but
-females were accustomed to wear a chemise
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χιτώνιον</span>) under their chiton. It was the
-practice among most of the Greeks to wear
-an himation, or outer garment, over the
-chiton, but frequently the chiton was worn
-alone. A person who wore only a chiton
-was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μονοχίτων</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰοχίτων</span> in Homer), an
-epithet given to the Spartan virgins. In the
-some way, a person who wore only an himation,
-or outer garment, was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀχίτων</span>.
-The Athenian youths, in the earlier times,
-wore only the chiton, and when it became
-the fashion, in the Peloponnesian war, to
-wear an outer garment over it, it was regarded
-as a mark of effeminacy.&mdash;(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span>
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tunica</i> of the Romans, like the
-Greek chiton, was a woollen under-garment,
-over which the toga was worn. It was the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Indumentum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Indutus</i>, as opposed to the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Amictus</i>, the general term for the toga, pallium,
-or any other outer garment. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amictus">Amictus</a>.</span>]
-The Romans are said to have had no
-other clothing originally but the toga; and
-when the tunic was first introduced, it was
-merely a short garment without sleeves, and
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Colobium</i>. It was considered a
-mark of effeminacy for men to wear tunics
-with long sleeves (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manicatae</i>) and reaching
-to the feet (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">talares</i>). The tunic was girded
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cincta</i>) with a belt or girdle around the
-waist, but it was usually worn loose, without
-being girded, when a person was at home,
-or wished to be at his ease. Hence we find
-the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cinctus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praecinctus</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">succinctus</i>,
-applied, like the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὔζωνος</span>, to an active
-and diligent person, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">discinctus</i> to one
-who was idle or dissolute. The form of the
-tunic, as worn by men, is represented in
-many woodcuts in this work. In works of
-art it usually terminates a little above the
-knee; it has short sleeves, covering only the
-upper part of the arm, and is girded at the
-waist: the sleeves sometimes, though less frequently,
-extend to the hands.&mdash;Both sexes at
-Rome usually wore two tunics, an outer and an
-under, the latter of which was worn next the
-skin, and corresponds to our shirt and chemise.
-The under tunics were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Subucula</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Indusium</i>,
-the former of which is supposed to be
-the name of the under tunic of the men, and
-the latter of that of the women: but this is
-not certain. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Interula</i> was of later
-origin, and seems to have been applied
-equally to the under tunic of both sexes. It
-is doubtful whether the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Supparus</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Supparum</i>
-was an outer or an under garment.
-Persons sometimes wore several tunics, as a
-protection against cold: Augustus wore four
-in the winter, besides a subucula. As the
-dress of a man usually consisted of an under
-tunic, an outer tunic, and the toga, so that
-of a woman, in like manner, consisted of an
-under tunic, an outer tunic, and the palla.
-The outer tunic of the Roman matron was
-properly called stola [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Stola">Stola</a></span>], and is represented
-in the woodcut on <a href="#ill355">p. 355</a>; but the
-annexed woodcut, which represents a Roman
-empress in the character of Concordia, or
-Abundantia, gives a better idea of its form.
-Over the tunic or stola the palla is thrown<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_402"></a>[402]</span>
-in many folds, but the shape of the former is
-still distinctly shown. The tunics of women
-were larger and longer than those of men,
-and always had sleeves; but in ancient
-paintings and statues we seldom find the
-sleeves covering more than the upper part of
-the arm. Sometimes the tunics were adorned
-with golden ornaments called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leria</i>. Poor
-people, who could not afford to purchase a
-toga, wore the tunic alone, whence we find
-the common people called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tunicati</i>. A person
-who wore only his tunic was frequently
-called <span class="smcap"><a href="#Nudus">Nudus</a></span>. Respecting the clavus latus
-and the clavus angustus, worn on the tunics
-of the senators and equites respectively, see
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Clavus_l">Clavus Latus</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Clavus_l">Clavus Angustus</a></span>. When a
-triumph was celebrated, the conqueror wore,
-together with an embroidered toga (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Toga
-picta</i>), a flowered tunic (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tunica palmata</i>),
-also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tunica Jovis</i>, because it was taken
-from the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. Tunics
-of this kind were sent as presents to
-foreign kings by the senate.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp36" id="ill402a" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill402a.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Roman Tunic. (Visconti, Monumenti Gabini, n. 34.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Turibulum">TŪRĬBŬLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυμιατήριον</span>), a censer. The
-Greeks and Romans, when they sacrificed,
-commonly took a little frankincense out of
-the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Acerra">Acerra</a></span> and let it fall upon the flaming
-altar. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ara">Ara</a>.</span>] More rarely they used a censer,
-by means of which they burnt the incense
-in greater profusion, and which was in fact
-a small moveable grate or <span class="smcap"><a href="#Focus">Foculus</a></span>. The annexed
-cut shows the performance of both of
-these acts at the same time. Winckelmann
-supposes it to represent Livia, the wife, and
-Octavia, the sister of Augustus, sacrificing to
-Mars in gratitude for his safe return from
-Spain. The censer here represented has two
-handles for the purpose of carrying it from
-place to place, and it stands upon feet so that
-the air might be admitted underneath, and
-pass upwards through the fuel.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill402b" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill402b.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Livia and Octavia Sacrificing. (From an ancient Painting.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Turma">TURMA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_166">p. 166</a>, b.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Turris">TURRIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύργος</span>), a tower. Moveable
-towers were among the most important engines
-used in storming a fortified place. They
-were generally made of beams and planks,
-and covered, at least on the three sides which
-were exposed to the besieged, with iron, not
-only for protection, but also to increase their
-weight, and thus make them steadier. They
-were also covered with raw hides and quilts,
-moistened, and sometimes with alum, to protect
-them from fire. Their height was such
-as to overtop the walls, towers, and all other
-fortifications of the besieged place. They
-were divided into stories (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulata</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tecta</i>),
-and hence they are called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">turres contabulatae</i>.
-The sides of the towers were pierced with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_403"></a>[403]</span>
-windows, of which there were several to each
-story. The use of the stories was to receive
-the engines of war (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tormenta</i>). They contained
-balistae and catapults, and slingers and
-archers were stationed in them, and on the
-tops of the towers. In the lowest story was
-a battering-ram [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aries">Aries</a></span>]; and in the middle
-one or more bridges (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pontes</i>) made of beams
-and planks, and protected at the sides by
-hurdles. Scaling-ladders (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scalae</i>) were also
-carried in the towers, and when the missiles
-had cleared the walls, these bridges and ladders
-enabled the besiegers to rush upon them.
-These towers were placed upon wheels (generally
-6 or 8), that they might be brought up
-to the walls. These wheels were placed for
-security inside of the tower.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tutor">TŪTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Curator">Curator</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Tympanum">TYMPĂNUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τύμπανον</span>), a small drum
-carried in the hand. Of these, some resembled
-in all respects a modern tambourine
-with bells. Others presented a flat circular
-disk on the upper surface and swelled out
-beneath like a kettle-drum. Both forms are
-represented in the cuts below. Tympana
-were covered with the hides of oxen, or of
-asses; were beaten with a stick, or with the
-hand, and were much employed in all wild
-enthusiastic religious rites, especially the
-orgies of Bacchus and Cybele.&mdash;(2) A solid
-wheel without spokes, for heavy waggons,
-such as is shown in the cut on <a href="#ill298">p. 298</a>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill403" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill403.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Tympana. (From ancient Paintings.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Tyrannus">TỸRANNUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τύραννος</span>). In the heroic
-age all the governments in Greece were monarchical,
-the king uniting in himself the
-functions of the priest, the judge, and military
-chief. In the first two or three centuries
-following the Trojan war various
-causes were at work, which led to the abolition,
-or at least to the limitation, of the
-kingly power. Emigrations, extinctions of
-families, disasters in war, civil dissensions,
-may be reckoned among these causes. Hereditary
-monarchies became elective; the different
-functions of the king were distributed;
-he was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Archon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cosmus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόσμος</span>),
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Prytanis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρύτανις</span>), instead of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Basileus</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλεύς</span>), and his character was
-changed no less than his name. Noble and
-wealthy families began to be considered on a
-footing of equality with royalty; and thus in
-process of time sprang up oligarchies or aristocracies,
-which most of the governments that
-succeeded the ancient monarchies were in
-point of fact, though not as yet called by
-such names. These oligarchies did not possess
-the elements of social happiness or
-stability. The principal families contended
-with each other for the greatest share of
-power, and were only unanimous in disregarding
-the rights of those whose station
-was beneath their own. The people, oppressed
-by the privileged classes, began to
-regret the loss of their old paternal form of
-government; and were ready to assist any
-one who would attempt to restore it. Thus
-were opportunities offered to ambitious and
-designing men to raise themselves, by starting
-up as the champions of popular right.
-Discontented nobles were soon found to prosecute
-schemes of this sort, and they had a
-greater chance of success, if descended from
-the ancient royal family. Pisistratus is an
-example; he was the more acceptable to the
-people of Athens, as being a descendant of
-the family of Codrus. Thus in many cities
-arose that species of monarchy which the
-Greeks called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tyrannis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τυραννίς</span>), which
-meant only <em>a despotism</em>, or irresponsible
-dominion of one man; and which frequently
-was nothing more than a revival of the ancient
-government, and, though unaccompanied
-with any recognised hereditary title,
-or the reverence attached to old name and
-long prescription, was hailed by the lower
-orders of people as a good exchange, after suffering
-under the domination of the oligarchy.
-All <em>tyrannies</em>, however, were not so acceptable
-to the majority; and sometimes we find
-the nobles concurring in the elevation of a
-despot, to further their own interests. Thus
-the Syracusan <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gamori</i>, who had been expelled
-by the populace, on receiving the
-protection of Gelon, sovereign of Gela and
-Camarina, enabled him to take possession of
-Syracuse, and establish his kingdom there.
-Sometimes the conflicting parties in the
-state, by mutual consent, chose some eminent
-man, in whom they had confidence, to
-reconcile their dissensions; investing him
-with a sort of dictatorial power for that purpose,
-either for a limited period or otherwise.
-Such a person they called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aesymnetes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰσυμνήτης</span>).
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tyrannus</i> must be distinguished,
-on the one hand, from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aesymnetes</i>, inasmuch
-as he was not elected by general consent,
-but commonly owed his elevation to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_404"></a>[404]</span>
-some violent movement or stratagem, such
-as the creation of a body-guard for him by
-the people, or the seizure of the citadel; and
-on the other hand, from the ancient king,
-whose right depended, not on usurpation,
-but on inheritance and traditionary acknowledgment.
-The power of a king might be
-more absolute than that of a <em>tyrant</em>; as
-Phidon of Argos is said to have made the
-royal prerogative greater than it was under
-his predecessors; yet he was still regarded as
-a king; for the difference between the two
-names depended on title and origin, and not
-on the manner in which the power was exercised.
-The name of <em>tyrant</em> was originally
-so far from denoting a person who abused
-his power, or treated his subjects with
-cruelty, that Pisistratus is praised for the
-moderation of his government. Afterwards,
-when <em>tyrants</em> themselves had become odious,
-the name also grew to be a word of reproach,
-just as <em>rex</em> did among the Romans. Among
-the early <em>tyrants</em> of Greece those most
-worthy of mention are: Clisthenes of Sicyon,
-grandfather of the Athenian Clisthenes, in
-whose family the government continued for
-a century since its establishment by Orthagoras,
-about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 672; Cypselus of Corinth,
-who expelled the Bacchiadae, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 656, and
-his son Periander, both remarkable for their
-cruelty; their dynasty lasted between seventy
-and eighty years; Procles of Epidaurus;
-Pantaleon of Pisa, who celebrated the thirty-fourth
-Olympiad, depriving the Eleans of
-the presidency; Theagenes of Megara, father-in-law
-to Cylon the Athenian; Pisistratus,
-whose sons were the last of the early <em>tyrants</em>
-on the Grecian continent. In Sicily, where
-<em>tyranny</em> most flourished, the principal were
-Phalaris of Agrigentum, who established his
-power in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 568; Theron of Agrigentum;
-Gelon, already mentioned, who, in conjunction
-with Theron, defeated Hamilcar the
-Carthaginian, on the same day on which the
-battle of Salamis was fought; and Hieron,
-his brother: the last three celebrated by
-Pindar. The following also are worthy of
-notice: Polycrates of Samos; Lygdamis of
-Naxos; Histiaeus and Aristagoras of Miletus.
-Perhaps the last mentioned can hardly
-be classed among the <em>Greek tyrants</em>, as they
-were connected with the Persian monarchy.
-The general characteristics of a <em>tyranny</em> were,
-that it was bound by no laws, and had no
-recognised limitation to its authority, however
-it might be restrained <em>in practice</em> by the
-good disposition of the <em>tyrant</em> himself, or by
-fear, or by the spirit of the age. It was
-commonly most odious to the wealthy and
-noble, whom the <em>tyrant</em> looked upon with
-jealousy as a check upon his power, and
-whom he often sought to get rid of by sending
-them into exile or putting them to death.
-The <em>tyrant</em> usually kept a body-guard of
-foreign mercenaries, by aid of whom he controlled
-the people at home; but he seldom
-ventured to make war, for fear of giving an
-opportunity to his subjects to revolt. The
-causes which led to the decline of <em>tyranny</em>
-among the Greeks were partly the degeneracy
-of the <em>tyrants</em> themselves, corrupted by
-power, indolence, flattery, and bad education;
-for even where the father set a good
-example, it was seldom followed by the son;
-partly the cruelties and excesses of particular
-men, which brought them all into disrepute;
-and partly the growing spirit of inquiry
-among the Greek people, who began to speculate
-upon political theories, and soon became
-discontented with a form of government,
-which had nothing in theory, and
-little in practice, to recommend it. Few
-dynasties lasted beyond the third generation.
-Most of the tyrannies, which flourished before
-the Persian war, are said to have been
-overthrown by the exertions of Sparta, jealous,
-probably, of any innovation upon the
-old Doric constitution, especially of any tendency
-to ameliorate the condition of the Periocci,
-and anxious to extend her own influence
-over the states of Greece by means of
-the benefits which she conferred. Upon the
-fall of <em>tyranny</em>, the various republican forms
-of government were established, the Dorian
-states generally favouring oligarchy, the
-Ionian democracy. Of the tyrants of a later
-period, the most celebrated are the two
-Dionysii. The corruption of the Syracusans,
-their intestine discords, and the fear of the
-Carthaginian invaders, led to the appointment
-of Dionysius to the chief military command,
-with unlimited powers; by means of
-which he raised himself to the throne, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-406, and reigned for 38 years, leaving his son
-to succeed him. The younger Dionysius, far
-inferior in every respect to his father, was
-expelled by Dion, afterwards regained the
-throne, and was again expelled by Timoleon,
-who restored liberty to the various states of
-Sicily.</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="U_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">U</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Udo" class="drop-capy">UDO, a sock of goat’s-hair or felt, worn by
-countrymen with the low boots called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perones</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pero">Pero</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ulna">ULNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Umbilicus">UMBĬLĪCUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Liber">Liber</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Umbo">UMBO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Clipeus">Clipeus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Umbraculum">UMBRĀCŬLUM, UMBELLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκιάδειον</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκιάδιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκιαδίσκη</span>), a parasol, was used by
-Greek and Roman ladies as a protection<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_405"></a>[405]</span>
-against the sun. They seem not to have
-been carried generally by the ladies themselves,
-but by female slaves, who held them
-over their mistresses. The daughters of the
-aliens (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέτοικοι</span>) at Athens had to carry parasols
-after the Athenian maidens at the Panathenaea,
-as is mentioned under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Hydriaphoria">Hydriaphoria</a></span>.
-The parasols of the ancients seem
-to have been exactly like our own parasols
-or umbrellas in form, and could be shut up
-and opened like ours. It was considered a
-mark of effeminacy for men to make use of
-parasols. The Roman ladies used them in
-the amphitheatre to defend themselves from
-the sun or some passing shower, when the
-wind or other circumstances did not allow
-the velarium to be extended. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]
-To hold a parasol over a lady was
-one of the common attentions of lovers, and
-it seems to have been very common to give
-parasols as presents. Instead of parasols, the
-Greek women in later times wore a kind of
-straw hat or bonnet, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tholia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θολία</span>).
-The Romans also wore a hat with a broad
-brim (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">petasus</i>) as a protection against the sun.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="ill405" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill405.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Umbraculum, Parasol. (From an ancient Vase.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Uncia">UNCIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀγκία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐγκία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐγγία</span>), the twelfth
-part of the <span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a></span> or <span class="smcap"><a href="#Libra">Libra</a></span>, is derived by Varro
-from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unus</i>, as being the unit of the divisions
-of the as. Its value as a weight was 433·666
-grains, or ¾ of an ounce and 105·36 grains
-avoirdupois. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Libra">Libra</a>.</span>] In connecting the
-Roman system of weights and money with
-the Greek another division of the uncia was
-used. When the drachma was introduced
-into the Roman system as equivalent to the
-denarius of 96 to the pound [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a></span>;
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Drachma">Drachma</a></span>], the uncia contained 8 drachmae,
-the drachma 3 scrupula, the scrupulum 2
-oboli (since 6 oboli made up the drachma),
-and the obolos 3 siliquae (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κερατία</span>). In this
-division we have the origin of the modern
-Italian system, in which the pound is divided
-into 12 ounces, the ounce into 3 drams, the
-dram into 3 scruples, and the scruple into
-6 carats. In each of these systems 1728
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κερατία</span>, siliquae, or carats, make up the
-pound. The Romans applied the uncial division
-to all kinds of magnitude. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a>.</span>] In
-length the uncia was the twelfth of a foot,
-whence the word <em>inch</em> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes</a></span>], in area the
-twelfth of a jugerum [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Jugerum">Jugerum</a></span>], in content
-the twelfth of a sextarius [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sextarius">Sextarius</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cyathus">Cyathus</a></span>],
-in time the twelfth of an hour.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Unciarium">UNCIĀRĬUM FĒNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Unctores">UNCTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Unguenta">UNGUENTA, ointments, oils, or salves.
-The application of unguenta in connection
-with the bathing and athletic contests of the
-ancients is stated under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Athletae">Athletae</a></span>.
-But although their original object
-was simply to preserve the health and elasticity
-of the human frame, they were in later
-times used as articles of luxury. They were
-then not only employed to impart to the body
-or hair a particular colour, but also to give
-to them the most beautiful fragrance possible;
-they were, moreover, not merely applied
-after a bath, but at any time, to render
-one’s appearance or presence more pleasant
-than usual. In short, they were used then
-as oils and pomatums are at present. At
-Rome these luxuries did not become very
-general till towards the end of the republic,
-while the Greeks appear to have been familiar
-with them from early times. The wealthy
-Greeks and Romans carried their ointments
-and perfumes with them, especially when
-they bathed, in small boxes of costly materials
-and beautiful workmanship, which
-were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Narthecia</i>. The traffic which
-was carried on in these ointments and perfumes
-in several towns of Greece and southern
-Italy was very considerable. The persons
-engaged in manufacturing them were called
-by the Romans <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Unguentarii</i>, or, as they frequently
-were women, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Unguentariae</i>, and the
-art of manufacturing them <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Unguentaria</i>. In
-the wealthy and effeminate city of Capua
-there was one great street, called the Seplasia,
-which consisted entirely of shops in which
-ointments and perfumes were sold.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Uragus">ŪRĀGUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Centurio">Centurio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_406"></a>[406]</span></p>
-
-
-<p id="Urceus">URCĔUS, a pitcher or water-pot, generally
-made of earthenware, was used by the priests
-at Rome in the sacrifices, and thus appears
-with other sacrificial emblems on Roman
-coins.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill406" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill406.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Urceus and Lituus on obverse of Coin of Pompey.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Urna">URNA, an urn, a Roman measure of capacity
-for fluids, equal to half an <span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphora">Amphora</a></span>.
-This use of the term was probably founded
-upon its more general application to denote
-a vessel for holding water, or any other substance,
-either fluid or solid. An urn was
-used to receive the names of the judges
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judices</i>) in order that the praetor might
-draw out of it a sufficient number to determine
-causes: also to receive the ashes of
-the dead.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ustrina">USTRĪNA, USTRĪNUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Bustum">Bustum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Usucapio">ŪSŪCĂPĬO, the possession of property for
-a certain time without interruption. The
-Twelve Tables declared that the ownership
-of land, a house, or other immoveable property,
-could be acquired by usucapio in two
-years; and of moveable property by usucapio
-in one year.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Usurae">ŪSŪRAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Usus">ŪSUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ususfructus">ŪSUSFRUCTUS was the right to the enjoyment
-of a thing by one person, while the
-ownership belonged to another. He who
-had the ususfructus was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ususfructuarius</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fructuarius</i>, and the object of the ususfructus
-was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Res Fructuaria</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Utricularius">UTRĬCŬLĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tibia">Tibia</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Uxor">UXOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Uxorium">UXŌRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes_u">Aes Uxorium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="V_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">V</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Vacatio" class="drop-capy">VĂCATĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Emeriti">Emeriti</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vadimonium">VĂDĬMŌNĬUM, VAS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actio">Actio</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Praes">Praes</a></span>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vagina">VĀGĪNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladius">Gladius</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vallum">VALLUM, a term applied either to the
-whole or a portion of the fortifications of a
-Roman camp. It is derived from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallus</i> (a
-stake), and properly means the palisade which
-ran along the outer edge of the agger, but it
-very frequently includes the agger also. The
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallum</i>, in the latter sense, together with the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fossa</i> or ditch which surrounded the camp
-outside of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallum</i>, formed a complete fortification.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">valli</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χάρακες</span>), of which the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallum</i>, in the former and more limited sense,
-was composed, are described by Polybius and
-Livy, who make a comparison between the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallum</i> of the Greeks and that of the Romans,
-very much to the advantage of the latter.
-Both used for <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">valli</i> young trees or arms of
-larger trees, with the side branches on them;
-but the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">valli</i> of the Greeks were much larger
-and had more branches than those of the
-Romans, which had either two or three, or at
-the most four branches, and these generally
-on the same side. The Greeks placed their
-valli in the agger at considerable intervals,
-the spaces between them being filled up by
-the branches; the Romans fixed theirs close
-together, and made the branches interlace,
-and sharpened their points carefully. Hence
-the Greek vallus could easily be taken hold of
-by its large branches and pulled from its
-place, and when it was removed a large opening
-was left in the vallum. The Roman
-vallus, on the contrary, presented no convenient
-handle, required very great force to
-pull it down, and even if removed left a very
-small opening. The Greek valli were cut on
-the spot; the Romans prepared theirs beforehand,
-and each soldier carried three or four
-of them when on a march. They were made
-of any strong wood, but oak was preferred.
-The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallus</i> is sometimes used as equivalent
-to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallum</i>. In the operations of a siege,
-when the place could not be taken by storm,
-and it became necessary to establish a blockade,
-this was done by drawing defences similar
-to those of a camp round the town, which
-was then said to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">circumvallatum</i>. Such
-a circumvallation, besides cutting off all communication
-between the town and the surrounding
-country, formed a defence against
-the sallies of the besieged. There was often
-a double line of fortifications, the inner
-against the town, and the outer against a
-force that might attempt to raise the siege.
-In this case the army was encamped between
-the two lines of works. This kind of circumvallation,
-which the Greeks called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποτειχισμός</span>
-and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περιτειχισμός</span>, was employed by the
-Peloponnesians in the siege of Plataeae.
-Their lines consisted of two walls (apparently
-of turf) at the distance of 16 feet,
-which surrounded the city in the form of a
-circle. Between the walls were the huts of
-the besiegers. The wall had battlements
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπάλξεις</span>), and at every tenth battlement was
-a tower, filling up by its depth the whole
-space between the walls. There was a passage
-for the besiegers through the middle of
-each tower. On the outside of each wall was
-a ditch (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάφρος</span>). This description would
-almost exactly answer to the Roman mode of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_407"></a>[407]</span>
-circumvallation, of which some of the best
-examples are that of Carthage by Scipio, that of
-Numantia by Scipio, and that of Alesia by Caesar.
-The towers in such lines were similar to
-those used in attacking fortified places, but not
-so high, and of course not moveable. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Turris">Turris</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Valvae">VALVAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Janua">Janua</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vannus">VANNUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λικμός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λίκνον</span>), a winnowing-van,
-<em>i.e.</em> a broad basket, into which the corn
-mixed with chaff was received after thrashing,
-and was then thrown in the direction of
-the wind. Virgil dignifies this simple implement
-by calling it <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mystica vannus Iacchi</i>.
-The rites of Bacchus, as well as those of
-Ceres, having a continual reference to the
-occupations of rural life, the vannus was
-borne in the processions celebrated in honour
-of both these divinities. In the cut annexed
-the infant Bacchus is carried in a vannus by
-two dancing bacchantes clothed in skins.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp84" id="ill407" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill407.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Bacchus carried in a Vannus. (From an Antefixa in the British Museum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Vas">VAS (pl. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vasa</i>), a general term for any
-kind of vessel. Thus we read of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vas vinarium</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vas argenteum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vasa Corinthia et Deliaca</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vasa Samia</i>, that is, made of Samian earthenware,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vasa Murrhina</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Murrhina">Murrhina Vasa</a>.</span>]
-The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vas</i> was used in a still wider signification,
-and was applied to any kind of
-utensil used in the kitchen, agriculture, &amp;c.
-The utensils of the soldiers were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vasa</i>,
-and hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vasa colligere</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vasa conclamare</i>
-signify to pack up the baggage, to give the
-signal for departure.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vectigalia">VECTĪGĀLĬA, the general term for all the
-regular revenues of the Roman state. It
-means anything which is brought (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vehitur</i>)
-into the public treasury, like the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φόρος</span>.
-The earliest regular income of the state was
-in all probability the rent paid for the use of
-the public land and pastures. This revenue
-was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pascua</i>, a name which was used as
-late as the time of Pliny, in the tables or
-registers of the censors for all the revenues of
-the state in general. The senate was the
-supreme authority in all matters of finance,
-but as the state did not occupy itself with
-collecting the taxes, duties, and tributes,
-the censors were entrusted with the actual
-business. These officers, who in this respect
-may not unjustly be compared to modern
-ministers of finance, used to let the various
-branches of the revenue to the publicani for a
-fixed sum, and for a certain number of years.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Censor">Censor</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Publicani">Publicani</a></span>.] As most of the
-branches of the public revenues of Rome are
-treated of in separate articles, it is only necessary
-to give a list of them here, and to explain
-those which have not been treated of
-separately. 1. The tithes paid to the state
-by those who occupied the ager publicus.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Decumae">Decumae</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Ager">Ager Publicus</a></span>.] 2. The sums
-paid by those who kept their cattle on the
-public pastures. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Scriptura">Scriptura</a>.</span>] 3. The harbour
-duties raised upon imported and exported
-commodities. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Portorium">Portorium</a>.</span>] 4. The
-revenue derived from the salt-works. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Salinae">Salinae</a>.</span>]
-5. The revenues derived from the
-mines (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metalla</i>). This branch of the public
-revenue cannot have been very productive
-until the Romans had become masters of
-foreign countries. Until that time the mines
-of Italy appear to have been worked, but this
-was forbidden by the senate after the conquest
-of foreign lands. The mines of conquered
-countries were treated like the salinae.
-6. The hundredth part of the value of all
-things which were sold (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centesima rerum venalium</i>).
-This tax was not instituted at
-Rome until the time of the civil wars; the
-persons who collected it were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coactores</i>.
-Tiberius reduced this tax to a two-hundredth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_408"></a>[408]</span>
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ducentesima</i>), and Caligula abolished it for
-Italy altogether, whence upon several coins
-of this emperor we read <span class="allsmcap">R. C. C.</span>, that is,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Remissa Ducentesima</i>. Respecting the tax
-raised upon the sale of slaves, see <span class="smcap">Quinquagesima</span>.
-7. The vicesima hereditatum et
-manumissionum. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vicesima">Vicesima</a>.</span>] 8. The tribute
-imposed upon foreign countries was by
-far the most important branch of the public
-revenue during the time of Rome’s greatness.
-It was sometimes raised at once, sometimes
-paid by instalments, and sometimes changed
-into a poll-tax, which was in many cases
-regulated according to the census. In regard
-to Cilicia and Syria we know that this tax
-amounted to one per cent. of a person’s census,
-to which a tax upon houses and slaves
-was added. In some cases the tribute was
-not paid according to the census, but consisted
-in a land-tax. 9. A tax upon bachelors.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes_u">Aes Uxorium</a>.</span>] 10. A door-tax.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ostiarium">Ostiarium</a>.</span>] 11. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">octavae</i>. In the time
-of Caesar all liberti living in Italy, and possessing
-property of 200 sestertia, and above
-it, had to pay a tax consisting of the eighth
-part of their property.&mdash;It would be interesting
-to ascertain the amount of income which
-Rome at various periods derived from these
-and other sources; but our want of information
-renders it impossible. We have only the
-general statement, that previously to the time
-of Pompey the annual revenue amounted to
-fifty millions of drachmas, and that it was
-increased by him to eighty-five millions.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Velarium">VĒLĀRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a></span>, <a href="#Page_23">p. 23</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Velites">VĒLĬTES, the light-armed troops in a Roman
-army. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_169">p. 169</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Velum">VĒLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλαία</span>).&mdash;(1) A curtain. Curtains
-were used in private houses as coverings
-over doors, or they served in the interior of
-the house as substitutes for doors.&mdash;(2) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Velum</i>,
-and more commonly its derivative <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">velamen</i>,
-denoted the veil worn by women. That
-worn by a bride was specifically called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">flammeum</i>.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]&mdash;(3) (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱστίον</span>.) A
-sail. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a></span>, <a href="#Page_267">p. 267</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Venabulum">VĒNĀBŬLUM, a hunting-spear. This
-may have been distinguished from the spears
-used in warfare by being barbed; at least it
-is often so formed in ancient works of art.
-It was seldom, if ever, thrown, but held so as
-to slant downwards and to receive the attacks
-of the wild boars and other beasts of chace.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Venatio">VĒNĀTĬO, hunting, was the name given
-among the Romans to an exhibition of wild
-beasts, which fought with one another and
-with men. These exhibitions originally
-formed part of the games of the circus. Julius
-Caesar first built a wooden amphitheatre
-for the exhibition of wild beasts, and others
-were subsequently erected; but we frequently
-read of venationes in the circus in subsequent
-times. The persons who fought with the
-beasts were either condemned criminals or
-captives, or individuals who did so for the
-sake of pay, and were trained for the purpose.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Bestiarii">Bestiarii</a>.</span>] The Romans were as passionately
-fond of this entertainment as of the exhibitions
-of gladiators, and during the latter
-days of the republic, and under the empire,
-an immense variety of animals was collected
-from all parts of the Roman world for the
-gratification of the people, and many thousands
-were frequently slain at one time. We
-do not know on what occasion a venatio was
-first exhibited at Rome; but the first mention
-we find of any thing of the kind is in
-the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 251, when L. Metellus exhibited
-in the circus 142 elephants, which he had
-brought from Sicily after his victory over the
-Carthaginians. But this can scarcely be regarded
-as an instance of a venatio, as it was
-understood in later times, since the elephants
-are said to have been only killed because the
-Romans did not know what to do with them,
-and not for the amusement of the people.
-There was, however, a venatio in the later
-sense of the word in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 186, in the games
-celebrated by M. Fulvius in fulfilment of the
-vow which he had made in the Aetolian war; in
-these games lions and panthers were exhibited.
-It is mentioned as a proof of the growing
-magnificence of the age that in the ludi
-circenses, exhibited by the curule aediles P.
-Cornelius Scipio Nasica and P. Lentulus <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
-168, there were 63 African panthers and
-40 bears and elephants. From about this
-time combats with wild beasts probably
-formed a regular part of the ludi circenses,
-and many of the curule aediles made great
-efforts to obtain rare and curious animals,
-and put in requisition the services of their
-friends. Elephants are said to have first
-fought in the circus in the curule aedileship
-of Claudius Pulcher, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 99; and twenty
-years afterwards, in the curule aedileship of
-the two Luculli, they fought against bulls.
-A hundred lions were exhibited by Sulla in
-his praetorship, which were destroyed by
-javelin-men sent by king Bocchus for the purpose.
-This was the first time that lions were
-allowed to be loose in the circus; they were
-previously always tied up. The games, however,
-in the curule aedileship of Scaurus,
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 58, surpassed anything the Romans had
-ever seen; among other novelties, he first
-exhibited an hippopotamos and five crocodiles
-in a temporary canal or trench (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">euripus</i>). At
-the venatio given by Pompey in his second
-consulship, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 55, upon the dedication of
-the temple of Venus Victrix, there was an
-immense number of animals slaughtered,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_409"></a>[409]</span>
-among which we find mention of 600 lions,
-and 18 or 20 elephants; the latter fought
-with Gaetulians, who hurled darts against
-them, and they attempted to break through
-the railings (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clathri</i>) by which they were
-separated from the spectators. To guard
-against this danger Julius Caesar surrounded
-the arena of the amphitheatre with trenches
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">euripi</i>). In the games exhibited by J. Caesar
-in his third consulship, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 45, the venatio
-lasted for five days, and was conducted with
-extraordinary splendour. Cameleopards or
-giraffes were then for the first time seen in
-Italy. The venationes seem to have been
-first confined to the ludi circenses, but during
-the later times of the republic, and under the
-empire, they were frequently exhibited on
-the celebration of triumphs, and on many
-other occasions, with the view of pleasing the
-people. The passion for these shows continued
-to increase under the empire, and the
-number of beasts sometimes slaughtered seems
-almost incredible. Under the emperors we
-read of a particular kind of venatio, in which
-the beasts were not killed by bestiarii, but
-were given up to the people, who were allowed
-to rush into the area of the circus and
-carry away what they pleased. On such occasions
-a number of large trees, which had
-been torn up by the roots, was planted in the
-circus, which thus resembled a forest, and
-none of the more savage animals were admitted
-into it. One of the most extraordinary
-venationes of this kind was that given by
-Probus, in which there were 1000 ostriches,
-1000 stags, 1000 boars, 1000 deer, and numbers
-of wild goats, wild sheep, and other
-animals of the same kind. The more savage
-animals were slain by the bestiarii in the
-amphitheatre, and not in the circus. Thus,
-in the day succeeding the venatio of Probus
-just mentioned, there were slain in the amphitheatre
-100 lions and 100 lionesses, 100
-Libyan and 100 Syrian leopards, and 300 bears.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill409" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill409.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Venationes. (From Bas-reliefs on the Tomb of Scaurus at Pompeii.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Veneficium">VĔNĒFĬCĬUM, the crime of poisoning, is
-frequently mentioned in Roman history.
-Women were most addicted to it: but it
-seems not improbable that this charge was
-frequently brought against females without
-sufficient evidence of their guilt, like that of
-witchcraft in Europe in the middle ages.
-We find females condemned to death for this
-crime in seasons of pestilence, when the people
-are always in an excited state of mind,
-and ready to attribute the calamities under
-which they suffer to the arts of evil-disposed
-persons. Thus the Athenians, when the
-pestilence raged in their city during the Peloponnesian
-war, supposed the wells to have
-been poisoned by the Peloponnesians, and
-similar instances occur in the history of
-almost all states. Still, however, the crime
-of poisoning seems to have been much more
-frequent in ancient than in modern times;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_410"></a>[410]</span>
-and this circumstance would lead persons to
-suspect it in cases when there was no real
-ground for the suspicion. At Athens the
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pharmacon">Pharmacon Graphe</a></span> was brought against
-poisoners. At Rome the first legislative
-enactment especially directed against poisoning
-was a law of the dictator Sulla&mdash;Lex
-Cornelia de Sicariis et Veneficis&mdash;passed in
-<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 82, which continued in force, with some
-alterations, to the latest times. It contained
-provisions against all who made,
-bought, sold, possessed, or gave poison for
-the purpose of poisoning. The punishment
-fixed by this law was the interdictio aquae et
-ignis.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Ver">VER SACRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔτος ἱερόν</span>). It was a
-custom among the early Italian nations,
-especially among the Sabines, in times of
-great danger and distress, to vow to the deity
-the sacrifice of everything born in the next
-spring, that is, between the first of March
-and the last day of April, if the calamity
-under which they were labouring should be
-removed. This sacrifice in the early times
-comprehended both men and domestic animals,
-and there is little doubt that in many
-cases the vow was really carried into effect.
-But in later times it was thought cruel to
-sacrifice so many infants, and accordingly
-the following expedient was adopted. The
-children were allowed to grow up, and in the
-spring of their twentieth or twenty-first year
-they were with covered faces driven across
-the frontier of their native country, whereupon
-they went whithersoever fortune or
-the deity might lead them. Many a colony
-had been founded by persons driven out in
-this manner; and the Mamertines in Sicily
-were the descendants of such devoted persons.
-In the two historical instances in
-which the Romans vowed a ver sacrum,
-that is, after the battle of lake Trasimenus
-and at the close of the second Punic war, the
-vow was confined to domestic animals.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Verbena">VERBĒNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sagmina">Sagmina</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Verbenarius">VERBĒNĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fetiales">Fetialis</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Verna">VERNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Servus">Servus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Versura">VERSŪRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Veru">VĔRU, VERŪTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vespae">VESPAE, VESPILLŌNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_188">p. 188</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vestales">VESTĀLES, the virgin priestesses of Vesta,
-who ministered in her temple and watched
-the eternal fire. Their existence at Alba
-Longa is connected with the earliest Roman
-traditions, for Silvia the mother of Romulus
-was a member of the sisterhood; their establishment
-in the city, in common with
-almost all other matters connected with state
-religion, is generally ascribed to Numa, who
-selected four, two from the Titienses and two
-from the Ramnes; and two more were subsequently
-added from the Luceres, by Tarquinius
-Priscus according to one authority,
-by Servius Tullius according to another.
-This number of six remained unchanged to
-the latest times. They were originally
-chosen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capere</i> is the technical word) by the
-king, and during the republic and empire by
-the pontifex maximus. It was necessary
-that the maiden should not be under six nor
-above ten years of age, perfect in all her
-limbs, in the full enjoyment of all her senses,
-patrima et matrima [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patrimi">Patrimi</a></span>], the daughter
-of free and freeborn parents who had never
-been in slavery, who followed no dishonourable
-occupation, and whose home was in
-Italy. The Lex Papia ordained that when a
-vacancy occurred the pontifex maximus
-should name at his discretion twenty qualified
-damsels, one of whom was publicly (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in
-concione</i>) fixed upon by lot, an exemption
-being granted in favour of such as had a
-sister already a vestal, and of the daughters
-of certain priests of a high class. The above
-law appears to have been enacted in consequence
-of the unwillingness of fathers to
-resign all control over a child, and this reluctance
-was manifested so strongly in later
-times, that in the age of Augustus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libertinae</i>
-were declared eligible. The casting of lots
-moreover does not seem to have been practised
-if any respectable person came forward
-voluntarily, and offered a daughter who fulfilled
-the necessary conditions. As soon as
-the election was concluded, the pontifex
-maximus took the girl by the hand and addressed
-her in a solemn form. After this was
-pronounced she was led away to the atrium
-of Vesta, and lived thenceforward within the
-sacred precincts, under the special superintendence
-and control of the pontifical college.
-The period of service lasted for thirty years.
-During the first ten the priestess was engaged
-in learning her mysterious duties, being
-termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">discipula</i>, during the next ten in
-performing them, during the last ten in
-giving instructions to the novices, and so
-long as she was thus employed she was bound
-by a solemn vow of chastity. But after the
-time specified was completed, she might, if
-she thought fit, throw off the emblems of her
-office, unconsecrate herself (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exaugurare</i>), return
-to the world, and even enter into the
-marriage state. Few however availed themselves
-of these privileges; those who did
-were said to have lived in sorrow and remorse
-(as might indeed have been expected
-from the habits they had formed); hence
-such a proceeding was considered ominous,
-and the priestesses for the most part died, as
-they had lived, in the service of the goddess.
-The senior sister was entitled <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vestalis Maxima</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_411"></a>[411]</span>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Virgo Maxima</i>, and we find also the
-expressions <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vestalium vetustissima</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tres
-maximae</i>. Their chief office was to watch
-by turns, night and day, the everlasting fire
-which blazed upon the altar of Vesta, its
-extinction being considered as the most fearful
-of all prodigies, and emblematic of the
-extinction of the state. If such misfortune
-befell, and was caused by the carelessness of
-the priestess on duty, she was stripped and
-scourged by the pontifex maximus, in the
-dark and with a screen interposed, and he
-rekindled the flame by the friction of two
-pieces of wood from a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">felix arbor</i>. Their
-other ordinary duties consisted in presenting
-offerings to the goddess at stated times, and
-in sprinkling and purifying the shrine each
-morning with water, which according to the
-institution of Numa was to be drawn from
-the Egerian fount, although in later times it
-was considered lawful to employ any water
-from a living spring or running stream,
-but not such as had passed through pipes.
-When used for sacrificial purposes it was
-mixed with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">muries</i>, that is, salt which had
-been pounded in a mortar, thrown into an
-earthen jar, and baked in an oven. They
-assisted moreover at all great public holy
-rites, such as the festivals of the Bona Dea,
-and the consecration of temples; they were
-invited to priestly banquets, and we are told
-that they were present at the solemn appeal
-to the gods made by Cicero during the conspiracy
-of Catiline. They also guarded the
-sacred relics which formed the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fatale pignus
-imperii</i>, the pledge granted by fate for the
-permanency of the Roman sway, deposited in
-the inmost adytum, which no one was permitted
-to enter save the virgins and the chief
-pontifex. What this object was no one
-knew; some supposed that it was the palladium,
-others the Samothracian gods carried
-by Dardanus to Troy, and transported from
-thence to Italy by Aeneas, but all agreed in
-believing that something of awful sanctity
-was here preserved, contained, it was said,
-in a small earthen jar closely sealed, while
-another exactly similar in form, but empty,
-stood by its side. We have seen above that
-supreme importance was attached to the
-purity of the vestals, and a terrible punishment
-awaited her who violated the vow of
-chastity. According to the law of Numa, she
-was simply to be stoned to death, but a more
-cruel torture was devised by Tarquinius
-Priscus, and inflicted from that time forward.
-When condemned by the college of pontifices,
-she was stripped of her vittae and other
-badges of office, was scourged, was attired
-like a corpse, placed in a close litter and
-borne through the forum attended by her
-weeping kindred, with all the ceremonies of
-a real funeral, to a rising ground called the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Campus Sceleratus</i>, just within the city walls,
-close to the Colline gate. There a small
-vault underground had been previously prepared,
-containing a couch, a lamp, and a
-table with a little food. The pontifex maximus,
-having lifted up his hands to heaven
-and uttered a secret prayer, opened the litter,
-led forth the culprit, and placing her on the
-steps of the ladder which gave access to the
-subterranean cell, delivered her over to the
-common executioner and his assistants, who
-conducted her down, drew up the ladder, and
-having filled the pit with earth until the surface
-was level with the surrounding ground,
-left her to perish deprived of all the tributes
-of respect usually paid to the spirits of the
-departed. In every case the paramour was
-publicly scourged to death in the forum.
-The honours which the vestals enjoyed were
-such as in a great measure to compensate for
-their privations. They were maintained at
-the public cost, and from sums of money and
-land bequeathed from time to time to the
-corporation. From the moment of their consecration
-they became as it were the property
-of the goddess alone, and were completely
-released from all parental sway, without going
-through the form of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emancipatio</i> or suffering
-any <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capitis deminutio</i>. They had a
-right to make a will, and to give evidence in
-a court of justice without taking an oath.
-From the time of the triumviri each was
-preceded by a lictor when she went abroad;
-consuls and praetors made way for them,
-and lowered their fasces; even the tribunes
-of the plebs respected their holy character,
-and if any one passed under their litter he
-was put to death. Augustus granted to them
-all the rights of matrons who had borne
-three children, and assigned them a conspicuous
-place in the theatre, a privilege
-which they had enjoyed before at the gladiatorial
-shows. Great weight was attached to
-their intercession on behalf of those in danger
-and difficulty, of which we have a remarkable
-example in the entreaties which
-they addressed to Sulla on behalf of Julius
-Caesar, and if they chanced to meet a criminal
-as he was led to punishment, they had a
-right to demand his release, provided it could
-be proved that the encounter was accidental.
-Wills, even those of the emperors,
-were committed to their charge, for when in
-such keeping they were considered inviolable;
-and in like manner very solemn
-treaties, such as that of the triumvirs with
-Sextus Pompeius, were placed in their hands.
-That they might be honoured in death as in
-life, their ashes were interred within the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_412"></a>[412]</span>
-pomoerium. They were attired in a stola
-over which was an upper vestment made of
-linen, and in addition to the infula and white
-woollen vitta, they wore when sacrificing a
-peculiar head-dress called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suffibulum</i>, consisting
-of a piece of white cloth bordered with
-purple, oblong in shape, and secured by a
-clasp. In dress and general deportment they
-were required to observe the utmost simplicity
-and decorum, any fanciful ornaments
-in the one or levity in the other being always
-regarded with disgust and suspicion. Their
-hair was cut off, probably at the period of
-their consecration: whether this was repeated
-from time to time does not appear,
-but they are never represented with flowing
-locks. The following cut represents the
-vestal Tuccia who, when wrongfully accused,
-appealed to the goddess to vindicate her
-honour, and had power given to her to carry
-a sieve full of water from the Tiber to the
-temple. The form of the upper garment is
-well shown.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp48" id="ill412" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill412.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Vestal Virgin. (From a Gem.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Vestibulum">VESTĬBŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_142">p. 142</a>, a.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Veteranus">VĔTĔRĀNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tiro">Tiro</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vexillarii">VEXILLĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_170">p. 170</a>, b.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vexillum">VEXILLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Signa">Signa Militaria</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Via">VIA, a public road. It was not until the
-period of the long protracted Samnite wars
-that the necessity was felt of securing a safe
-communication between the city and the
-legions, and then for the first time we hear
-of those famous paved roads, which, in after
-ages, connected Rome with her most distant
-provinces, constituting the most lasting of
-all her works. The excellence of the principles
-upon which they were constructed is
-sufficiently attested by their extraordinary
-durability, many specimens being found in
-the country around Rome which have been
-used without being repaired for more than
-a thousand years. The Romans are said to
-have adopted their first ideas upon this
-subject from the Carthaginians, and it is
-extremely probable that the latter people
-may, from their commercial activity and the
-sandy nature of their soil, have been compelled
-to turn their attention to the best
-means of facilitating the conveyance of merchandise
-to different parts of their territory.
-The first great public road made by the
-Romans was the Via Appia, which extended
-in the first instance from Rome to Capua,
-and was made in the censorship of Appius
-Claudius Caecus (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 312.) The general construction
-of a Roman road was as follows:&mdash;In
-the first place, two shallow trenches (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sulci</i>)
-were dug parallel to each other, marking
-the breadth of the proposed road; this in
-the great lines is found to have been from
-13 to 15 feet. The loose earth between the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sulci</i> was then removed, and the excavation
-continued until a solid foundation (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gremium</i>)
-was reached, upon which the materials of
-the road might firmly rest; if this could not
-be attained, in consequence of the swampy
-nature of the ground or from any peculiarity
-in the soil, a basis was formed artificially by
-driving piles (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fistucationibus</i>). Above the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gremium</i> were four distinct strata. The
-lowest course was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">statumen</i>, consisting
-of stones not smaller than the hand could
-just grasp; above the statumen was the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rudus</i>, a mass of broken stones cemented
-with lime, (what masons call <em>rubble-work</em>,)
-rammed down hard, and nine inches thick;
-above the rudus came the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nucleus</i>, composed
-of fragments of bricks and pottery, the
-pieces being smaller than in the rudus, cemented
-with lime, and six inches thick.
-Uppermost was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pavimentum</i>, large polygonal
-blocks of the hardest stone (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silex</i>),
-usually, at least in the vicinity of Rome,
-basaltic lava, irregular in form, but fitted
-and jointed with the greatest nicety, so as to
-present a perfectly even surface, as free from
-gaps or irregularities as if the whole had
-been one solid mass. The general aspect
-will be understood from the cut given below.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp67" id="ill413" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill413.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Street at the entrance of Pompeii.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The centre of the way was a little elevated,
-so as to permit the water to run off easily.
-Occasionally, at least in cities, rectangular
-slabs of softer stone were employed instead
-of the irregular polygons of silex, and hence
-the distinction between the phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silice
-sternere</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saxo quadrato sternere</i>. Nor
-was this all. Regular foot-paths (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">margines</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crepidines</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">umbones</i>) were raised upon each<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_413"></a>[413]</span>
-side and strewed with gravel, the different
-parts were strengthened and bound together
-with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gomphi</i> or stone wedges, and stone
-blocks were set up at moderate intervals on
-the side of the foot-paths, in order that travellers
-on horseback might be able to mount
-without assistance. Finally, Caius Gracchus
-erected mile-stones along the whole extent
-of the great highways, marking the distances
-from Rome, which appear to have been
-counted from the gate at which each road
-issued forth, and Augustus, when appointed
-inspector of the viae around the city, erected
-in the forum a gilded column (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">milliarium
-aureum</i>), on which were inscribed the distances
-of the principal points to which the
-viae conducted. During the earlier ages of
-the republic the construction and general
-superintendence of the roads without, and
-the streets within the city, were committed
-like all other important works to the censors.
-These duties, when no censors were in office,
-devolved upon the consuls, and in their absence
-on the praetor urbanus, the aediles, or
-such persons as the senate thought fit to appoint.
-There were also under the republic
-four officers, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quatuorviri viarum</i>, for
-superintending the streets within the city,
-and two called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curatores viarum</i>, for superintending
-the roads without. Under the
-empire the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curatores viarum</i> were officers of
-high rank. The chief roads which issued
-from Rome are:&mdash;1. The <span class="smcap">Via Appia</span>, the
-<em>Great South Road</em>. It issued from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta
-Capena</i>, and passing through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aricia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tres
-Tabernae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Appii Forum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tarracina</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fundi</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Formiae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Minturnae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sinuessa</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Carilinum</i>,
-terminated at <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Capua</i>, but was eventually
-extended through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Calatia</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caudium</i>
-to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Beneventum</i>, and finally from thence
-through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Venusia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tarentum</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Uria</i>, to
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Brundusium</i>.&mdash;2. The <span class="smcap">Via Latina</span>, from the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta Capena</i>, another great line leading to
-Beneventum, but keeping a course farther
-inland than the Via Appia. Soon after
-leaving the city it sent off a short branch
-(<span class="smcap">Via Tusculana</span>) to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tusculum</i>, and passing
-through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Compitum Anaginum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ferentinum</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Frusino</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fregellae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fabrateria</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aquinum</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Casinum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Venafrum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Teanum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Allifae</i>, and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Telesia</i>, joined the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Appia</i> at <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Beneventum</i>.
-A cross-road called the <span class="smcap">Via Hadriana</span>, running
-from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Minturnae</i> through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Suessa Aurunca</i>
-to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Teanum</i>, connected the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Appia</i>
-with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Latina</i>.&mdash;3. From the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta
-Esquilina</i> issued the <span class="smcap">Via Labicana</span>, which
-passing Labicum fell into the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Latina</i> at
-the station <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad Bivium</i>, 30 miles from Rome.&mdash;4.
-The <span class="smcap">Via Praenestina</span>, originally the <span class="smcap">Via
-Gabina</span>, issued from the same gate with the
-former. Passing through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gabii</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praeneste</i>,
-it joined the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Latina</i> just below
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anagnia</i>.&mdash;5. The <span class="smcap">Via Tiburtina</span>, which
-issued from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta Tiburtina</i>, and proceeding
-N. E. to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tibur</i>, a distance of about
-20 miles, was continued from thence, in the
-same direction, under the name of the <span class="smcap">Via
-Valeria</span>, and traversing the country of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_414"></a>[414]</span>
-Sabines passed through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Carseoli</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Corfinium</i>
-to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aternum</i> on the Adriatic, thence to
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Adria</i>, and so along the coast to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Castrum
-Truentinum</i>, where it fell into the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Salaria</i>.&mdash;6.
-The <span class="smcap">Via Nomentana</span>, anciently
-<span class="smcap">Ficulnensis</span>, ran from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta Collina</i>,
-crossed the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anio</i> to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nomentum</i>, and a little
-beyond fell into the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Salaria</i> at <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Eretum</i>.&mdash;7.
-The <span class="smcap">Via Salaria</span>, also from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta
-Collina</i> (passing <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fidenae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Crustumerium</i>)
-ran north and east through Sabinum and
-Picenum to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Reate</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Asculum Picenum</i>. At
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Castrum Truentinum</i> it reached the coast,
-which it followed until it joined the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via
-Flaminia</i> at <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ancona</i>.&mdash;8. The <span class="smcap">Via Flaminia</span>,
-the <em>Great North Road</em>, carried ultimately to
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ariminum</i>. It issued from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta Flaminia</i>,
-and proceeded nearly north to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ocriculum</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Narnia</i> in Umbria. Here a branch
-struck off, making a sweep to the east through
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Interamna</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Spoletium</i>, and fell again
-into the main trunk (which passed through
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mevania</i>) at <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fulginia</i>. It continued through
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fanum Flaminii</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nuceria</i>, where it again
-divided, one line running nearly straight to
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fanum Fortunae</i> on the Adriatic, while the
-other diverging to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ancona</i> continued from
-thence along the coast to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fanum Fortunae</i>,
-where the two branches uniting passed on
-to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ariminum</i> through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pisaurum</i>. From
-thence the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Flaminia</i> was extended under
-the name of the <span class="smcap">Via Aemilia</span>, and traversed
-the heart of Cisalpine Gaul through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bononia</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mutina</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Parma</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Placentia</i> (where it
-crossed the Po), to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mediolanum</i>.&mdash;9. The
-<span class="smcap">Via Aurelia</span>, the <em>Great Coast Road</em>, issued
-originally from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta Janiculensis</i>, and
-subsequently from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta Aurelia</i>. It
-reached the coast at <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alsium</i>, and followed
-the shore of the lower sea along Etruria
-and Liguria by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Genoa</i> as far as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Forum Julii</i>
-in Gaul. In the first instance it extended
-no farther than <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pisa</i>.&mdash;10. The <span class="smcap">Via Portuensis</span>
-kept the right bank of the Tiber to
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Portus Augusti</i>.&mdash;11. The <span class="smcap">Via Ostiensis</span>
-originally passed through the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta Trigemina</i>,
-afterwards through the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta Ostiensis</i>,
-and kept the left bank of the Tiber to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ostia</i>.
-From thence it was continued under the
-name of <span class="smcap">Via Severiana</span> along the coast
-southward through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Laurentum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antium</i>, and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Circaei</i>, till it joined the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Appia</i> at <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tarracina</i>.
-The <span class="smcap">Via Laurentina</span>, leading direct
-to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Laurentum</i>, seems to have branched off
-from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Ostiensis</i> at a short distance
-from Rome.&mdash;12. The <span class="smcap">Via Ardeatina</span> from
-Rome to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ardea</i>. According to some this
-branched off from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Appia</i>, and thus
-the circuit of the city is completed.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Viaticum">VĬĀTĬCUM is, properly speaking, everything
-necessary for a person setting out on a
-journey, and thus comprehends money, provisions,
-dresses, vessels, &amp;c. When a Roman
-magistrate, praetor, proconsul, or quaestor
-went to his province, the state provided him
-with all that was necessary for his journey.
-But as the state in this, as in most other
-cases of expenditure, preferred paying a sum
-at once to having any part in the actual
-business, it engaged contractors (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">redemptores</i>),
-who for a stipulated sum had to provide
-the magistrates with the viaticum, the
-principal parts of which appear to have been
-beasts of burden and tents (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">muli et tabernacula</i>).
-Augustus introduced some modification
-of this system, as he once for all fixed
-a certain sum to be given to the proconsuls
-(probably to other provincial magistrates
-also) on setting out for their provinces, so
-that the redemptores had no more to do
-with it.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Viator">VĬĀTOR, a servant who attended upon
-and executed the commands of certain Roman
-magistrates, to whom he bore the same relation
-as the lictor did to other magistrates.
-The name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viatores</i> was derived from the circumstance
-of their being chiefly employed on
-messages either to call upon senators to attend
-the meeting of the senate, or to summon
-people to the comitia, &amp;c. In the earlier
-times of the republic we find viatores as
-ministers of such magistrates also as had
-their lictors: viatores of a dictator and of
-the consuls are mentioned by Livy. In
-later times, however, viatores are only mentioned
-with such magistrates as had only
-potestas and not imperium, such as the tribunes
-of the people, the censors, and the
-aediles.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Victima">VICTIMA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sacrificium">Sacrificium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vicesima">VĪCĒSĬMA, a tax of five per cent. Every
-Roman, when he manumitted a slave, had to
-pay to the state a tax of one-twentieth of his
-value, whence the tax was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vicesima
-manumissionis</i>. This tax was first imposed
-by the Lex Manlia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 357), and was not
-abolished when all other imposts were done
-away with in Rome and Italy. A tax called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vicesima hereditatum et legatorum</i> was introduced
-by Augustus (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Julia Vicesimaria</i>):
-it consisted of five per cent., which every
-Roman citizen had to pay to the aerarium
-militare, upon any inheritance or legacy left
-to him, with the exception of such as were
-left to a citizen by his nearest relatives, and
-such as did not amount to above a certain
-sum. It was levied in Italy and the provinces
-by procuratores appointed for the
-purpose.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vicomagistri">VĪCOMĂGISTRI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vicus">Vicus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vicus">VĪCUS, the name of the subdivisions into
-which the four regions occupied by the four<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_415"></a>[415]</span>
-city tribes of Servius Tullius were divided,
-while the country regions, according to an
-institution ascribed to Numa, were subdivided
-into pagi. This division, together with that
-of the four regions of the four city tribes,
-remained down to the time of Augustus, who
-made the vici subdivisions of the fourteen
-regions into which he divided the city. In
-this division each vicus consisted of one main
-street, including several smaller by-streets;
-their number was 424, and each was superintended
-by four officers, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vico-magistri</i>,
-who had a sort of local police, and who, according
-to the regulation of Augustus, were
-every year chosen by lot from among the
-people who lived in the vicus. On certain
-days, probably at the celebration of the compitalia,
-they wore the praetexta, and each
-of them was accompanied by two lictors.
-These officers, however, were not a new institution
-of Augustus, for they had existed
-during the time of the republic, and had had
-the same functions as a police for the vici of
-the Servian division of the city.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Victoriatus">VICTŌRĬĀTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vigiles">VĬGĬLES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_171">p. 171</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vigiliae">VĬGĬLĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vigintisexviri">VĪGINTĬSEXVĬRI, twenty-six magistratus
-minores, among whom were included the Triumviri
-Capitales, the Triumviri Monetales,
-the Quatuorviri Viarum Curandarum for the
-city, the two Curatores Viarum for the roads
-outside the city, the Decemviri Litibus
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stlitibus</i>) Judicandis, and the four praefects
-who were sent into Campania for the purpose
-of administering justice there. Augustus
-reduced the number of officers of this college
-to twenty (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vigintiviri</i>), as the two curatores
-viarum for the roads outside the city and the
-four Campanian praefects were abolished.
-Down to the time of Augustus the sons of
-senators had generally sought and obtained
-a place in the college of the vigintisexviri, it
-being the first step towards the higher offices
-of the republic; but in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 13 a senatusconsultum
-was passed, ordaining that only
-equites should be eligible to the college of
-the vigintiviri. The consequence of this was
-that the vigintiviri had no seats in the
-senate, unless they had held some other
-magistracy which conferred this right upon
-them. The age at which a person might
-become a vigintivir appears to have been
-twenty.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vigintiviri">VĪGINTĬVĬRI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Villa">VILLA, a farm or country-house. The
-Roman writers mention two kinds of villa,
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">villa rustica</i> or farm-house, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">villa
-urbana</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pseudo-urbana</i>, a residence in the
-country or in the suburbs of a town. When
-both of these were attached to an estate they
-were generally united in the same range of
-buildings, but sometimes they were placed at
-different parts of the estate. The interior
-arrangements of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">villa urbana</i> corresponded
-for the most part to those of a town-house.
-[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Villicus">VILLĬCUS, a slave who had the superintendence
-of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">villa rustica</i>, and of all the
-business of the farm, except the cattle, which
-were under the care of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister pecoris</i>.
-The word was also used to describe a person
-to whom the management of any business
-was entrusted.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vinalia">VĪNĀLĬA. There were two festivals of
-this name celebrated by the Romans: the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vinalia urbana</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">priora</i>, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vinalia
-rustica</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">altera</i>. The vinalia urbana were
-celebrated on the 23rd of April, when the
-wine-casks which had been filled the preceding
-autumn were opened for the first time,
-and the wine tasted. The rustic vinalia,
-which fell on the 19th of August, and was
-celebrated by the inhabitants of all Latium,
-was the day on which the vintage was opened.
-On this occasion the flamen dialis offered
-lambs to Jupiter, and while the flesh of the
-victims lay on the altar, he broke with his
-own hands a bunch of grapes from a vine,
-and by this act he, as it were, opened the
-vintage, and no must was allowed to be conveyed
-into the city until this solemnity was
-performed. This day was sacred to Jupiter,
-and Venus too appears to have had a share
-in it.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vindemialis">VINDĒMĬĀLIS FĒRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Feriae">Feriae</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vindex">VINDEX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actio">Actio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vindicta">VINDICTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Manumissio">Manumissio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vinea">VĪNĔA, in its literal signification, is a
-bower formed of the branches of vines; and,
-from the protection which such a leafy roof
-affords, the name was applied by the Romans
-to a roof under which the besiegers of a
-town protected themselves against darts,
-stones, fire, and the like, which were thrown
-by the besieged upon the assailants. The
-whole machine formed a roof, resting upon
-posts eight feet in height. The roof itself
-was generally sixteen feet long and seven
-broad. The wooden frame was in most cases
-light, so that it could be carried by the
-soldiers; sometimes, however, when the purpose
-which it was to serve required great
-strength, it was heavy, and then the whole
-fabric probably was moved by wheels attached
-to the posts. The roof was formed of
-planks and wicker-work, and the uppermost
-layer or layers consisted of raw hides or wet
-cloth, as a protection against fire, by which
-the besieged frequently destroyed the vineae.
-The sides of a vinea were likewise protected
-by wicker-work. Such machines were constructed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_416"></a>[416]</span>
-in a safe place at some distance
-from the besieged town, and then carried or
-wheeled (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agere</i>) close to its walls. Here
-several of them were frequently joined together,
-so that a great number of soldiers
-might be employed under them. When
-vineae had taken their place close to the
-walls, the soldiers began their operations,
-either by undermining the walls, and thus
-opening a breach, or by employing the battering-ram
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aries</i>).</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vinum">VĪNUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἴνος</span>). The general term for the
-fermented juice of the grape. In the Homeric
-poems the cultivation of the grape is
-represented as familiar to the Greeks. It is
-worth remarking that the only wine upon
-whose excellence Homer dilates in a tone
-approaching to hyperbole is represented as
-having been produced on the coast of Thrace,
-the region from which poetry and civilisation
-spread into Hellas, and the scene of several
-of the more remarkable exploits of Bacchus.
-Hence we might infer that the Pelasgians
-introduced the culture of the vine when they
-wandered westward across the Hellespont,
-and that in like manner it was conveyed to
-the valley of the Po, when at a subsequent
-period they made their way round the head
-of the Adriatic. It seems certain that wine
-was both rare and costly in the earlier ages
-of Roman history. As late as the time of the
-Samnite wars, Papirius the dictator, when
-about to join in battle with the Samnites,
-vowed to Jupiter only a small cupful (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vini
-pocillum</i>) if he should gain the victory. In
-the times of Marius and Sulla foreign wines
-were considered far superior to native
-growths; but the rapidity with which luxury
-spread in this matter is well illustrated by
-the saying of M. Varro, that Lucullus when a
-boy never saw an entertainment in his
-father’s house, however splendid, at which
-Greek wine was handed round more than
-once, but when in manhood he returned from
-his Asiatic conquests he bestowed on the
-people a largess of more than a hundred
-thousand cadi. Four different kinds of wine
-are said to have been presented for the first
-time at the feast given by Julius Caesar in
-his third consulship (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 46.), these being
-Falernian, Chian, Lesbian, and Mamertine,
-and not until after this date were the merits
-of the numerous varieties, foreign and domestic,
-accurately known and fully appreciated.
-But during the reign of Augustus
-and his immediate successors the study of
-wines became a passion, and the most scrupulous
-care was bestowed upon every process
-connected with their production and preservation.
-Pliny calculates that the number of
-wines in the whole world deserving to be accounted
-of high quality (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nobilia</i>) amounted to
-eighty, of which his own country could claim
-two-thirds; and that 195 distinct kinds
-might be reckoned up, and that if all the
-varieties of these were to be included in the
-computation, the sum would be almost doubled.&mdash;The
-process followed in wine-making was
-essentially the same among both the Greeks
-and the Romans. After the grapes had been
-gathered they were first trodden with the
-feet in a vat (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ληνός</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">torcular</i>); but as this
-process did not press out all the juice of the
-grapes, they were subjected to the more
-powerful pressure of a thick and heavy beam
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prelum</i>) for the purpose of obtaining all the
-juice yet remaining in them. From the press
-the sweet unfermented juice flowed into
-another large vat, which was sunk below the
-level of the press, and therefore called the
-<em>under wine-vat</em>, in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπολήνιον</span>, in Latin
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lacus</i>. A portion of the must was used at
-once, being drunk fresh after it had been clarified
-with vinegar. When it was desired to
-preserve a quantity in the sweet state, an
-amphora was taken and coated with pitch
-within and without, and corked so as to be
-perfectly air-tight. It was then immersed in
-a tank of cold fresh water or buried in wet
-sand, and allowed to remain for six weeks or
-two months. The contents after this process
-were found to remain unchanged for a year,
-and hence the name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀεὶ γλεῦκος</span>, <em>i.e.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">semper
-mustum</i>. A considerable quantity of must from
-the best and oldest vines was inspissated by
-boiling, being then distinguished by the
-Greeks under the general names of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕψημα</span> or
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γλύξις</span>, while the Latin writers have various
-terms according to the extent to which the
-evaporation was carried. Thus, when the
-must was reduced to two-thirds of its original
-volume it became <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carenum</i>, when one-half
-had evaporated <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">defrutum</i>, when two-thirds
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sapa</i> (known also by the Greek names <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">siraeum</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hepsema</i>), but these words are frequently
-interchanged. Similar preparations are at
-the present time called in Italy <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">musto cotto</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sapa</i>, and in France <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sabe</i>. The process
-was carried on in large caldrons of lead (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vasa
-defrutaria</i>), over a slow fire of chips, on a
-night when there was no moon, the scum
-being carefully removed with leaves, and the
-liquid constantly stirred to prevent it from
-burning. These grape-jellies, for they were
-nothing else, were used extensively for giving
-body to poor wines and making them keep,
-and entered as ingredients into many drinks,
-such as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">burranica potio</i>, so called from
-its red colour, which was formed by mixing
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sapa</i> with milk. The whole of the mustum
-not employed for some of the above purposes
-was conveyed from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lacus</i> to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella vinaria</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_417"></a>[417]</span>
-an apartment on the ground-floor or a
-little below the surface. Here were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dolia</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πίθοι</span>), otherwise called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">seriae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cupae</i>, long
-bell-mouthed vessels of earthenware, very
-carefully formed of the best clay, and lined
-with a coating of pitch. They were usually
-sunk (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">depressa</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">defossa</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demersa</i>) one-half or
-two-thirds in the ground; to the former
-depth, if the wine to be contained was likely
-to prove strong, to the latter if weak. In
-these <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dolia</i> the process of fermentation took
-place, which usually lasted for about nine
-days, and as soon as it had subsided, and the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mustum</i> had become <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vinum</i>, the dolia were
-closely covered. The lids (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opercula doliorum</i>),
-were taken off about once every thirty-six
-days, and oftener in hot weather, in order to
-cool and give air to the contents, to add any
-preparation required to preserve them sound,
-and to remove any impurities that might be
-thrown up. The commoner sorts of wine
-were drunk direct from the dolium, and
-hence draught wine was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vinum doliare</i>
-or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vinum de cupa</i>, but the finer kinds were
-drawn off (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diffundere</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεταγγίζειν</span>), into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amphorae</i>.
-On the outside the title of the wine
-was painted, the date of the vintage being
-marked by the names of the consuls then in
-office. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphora">Amphora</a>.</span>] The amphorae were
-then stored up in repositories (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apothecae</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">horrea</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulata</i>), completely distinct from
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella vinaria</i>, and usually placed in the
-upper story of the house (whence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">descende</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testa</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deripere horreo</i> in Horace), for a
-reason explained afterwards. It is manifest
-that wine prepared and bottled in the manner
-described above must have contained a
-great quantity of dregs and sediment, and it
-became absolutely necessary to separate these
-before it was drunk. This was sometimes
-effected by fining with yolks of eggs, those of
-pigeons being considered most appropriate
-by the fastidious, but more commonly by
-simply straining through small cup-like utensils
-of silver or bronze perforated with numerous
-small holes. Occasionally a piece of linen
-cloth (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάκκος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saccus</i>) was placed over the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colum</i>, and the wine filtered through. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colum">Colum</a>.</span>]
-In all the best wines hitherto described the
-grapes are supposed to have been gathered
-as soon as they were fully ripe, and fermentation
-to have run its full course. But a
-great variety of sweet wines were manufactured
-by checking the fermentation, or by
-partially drying the grapes, or by converting
-them completely into raisins. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Passum</i> or
-<em>raisin-wine</em> was made from grapes dried in
-the sun until they had lost half their weight,
-or they were plunged into boiling oil, which
-produced a similar effect, or the bunches
-after they were ripe were allowed to hang
-for some weeks upon the vine, the stalks
-being twisted or an incision made into the
-pith of the bearing shoot so as to put a stop
-to vegetation. The stalks and stones were
-removed, the raisins were steeped in must or
-good wine, and then trodden or subjected to
-the gentle action of the press. The quantity
-of juice which flowed forth was measured,
-and an equal quantity of water added to the
-pulpy residuum, which was again pressed,
-and the product employed for an inferior
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">passum</i> called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">secundarium</i>. The passum of
-Crete was most prized, and next in rank
-were those of Cilicia, Africa, Italy, and the
-neighbouring provinces. The kinds known
-as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Psythium</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Melampsythium</i> possessed
-the peculiar flavour of the grape and not
-that of wine. The grapes most suitable for
-passum were those which ripened early,
-especially the varieties <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Apiana</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Scirpula</i>, and
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Psithia</i>. The Greeks recognised three colours
-in wines: <em>red</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέλας</span>), <em>white</em>, i.e. pale
-straw-colour (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λευκός</span>), and brown or amber-coloured
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κιῤῥός</span>). The Romans distinguish
-four: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">albus</i>, answering to <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λευκός</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fulvus</i> to
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κιῤῥός</span>, while <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέλας</span> is subdivided into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sanguineus</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">niger</i>, the former being doubtless
-applied to bright glowing wines like
-Tent and Burgundy, while the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">niger</i> or
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ater</i> would resemble Port. We have seen
-that wine intended for keeping was racked<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_418"></a>[418]</span>
-off from the dolia into amphorae. When it
-was necessary in the first instance to transport
-it from one place to another, or when
-carried by travellers on a journey, it was
-contained in bags made of goat-skin (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσκοί</span>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">utres</i>) well pitched over so as to make the
-seams perfectly tight.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp49" id="ill417" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill417.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Silenus astride upon a Wine-skin. (Museo Borbonico.
-vol. iii. tav. 28.)</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>As the process of
-wine-making among the ancients was for the
-most part conducted in an unscientific manner,
-it was found necessary, except in the
-case of the finest varieties, to have recourse
-to various devices for preventing or correcting
-acidity, heightening the flavour, and increasing
-the durability of the second growths.
-The object in view was accomplished sometimes
-by merely mixing different kinds of
-wine together, but more frequently by throwing
-into the dolia or amphorae various condiments
-or seasonings (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρτύσεις</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">medicamina</i>,
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conditurae</i>). The principal substances employed
-as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conditurae</i> were, 1. sea-water;
-2. turpentine, either pure, or in the form
-of pitch (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pix</i>), tar (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pix liquida</i>), or resin
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">resina</i>). 3. Lime, in the form of gypsum,
-burnt marble, or calcined shells. 4. Inspissated
-must. 5. Aromatic herbs, spices,
-and gums; and these were used either
-singly, or cooked up into a great variety of
-complicated confections. But not only were
-spices and gums steeped in wine or incorporated
-during fermentation, but even the
-precious perfumed essential oils (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unguenta</i>)
-were mixed with it before it was drunk
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μυῤῥίνη</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">murrhina</i>.) Of these compound beverages
-the most popular was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">oenomeli</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰνόμελι</span>) of the Greeks, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mulsum</i> of the
-Romans. This was of two kinds; in the one
-honey was mixed with wine, in the other
-with must. The former was said to have
-been invented by the legendary hero Aristaeus,
-the first cultivator of bees, and was
-considered most perfect and palatable when
-made of some old rough (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">austerum</i>) wine,
-such as Massic or Falernian (although Horace
-objects to the latter for this purpose),
-and new Attic honey. The proportions were
-four, by measure, of wine to one of honey,
-and various spices and perfumes, such as
-myrrh, cassia, costum, malobathrum, nard,
-and pepper, might be added. The second
-kind was made of must evaporated to one
-half of its original bulk, Attic honey being
-added in the proportion of one to ten. This,
-therefore, was merely a very rich fruit
-syrup, in no way allied to wine. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mulsum</i>
-was considered the most appropriate draught
-upon an empty stomach, and was therefore
-swallowed immediately before the regular
-business of a repast began and hence the whet
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gustatio</i>) coming before the cup of mulsum
-was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">promulsis</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mulsum</i> was given
-at a triumph by the imperator to his soldiers.
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mulsum</i> (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vinum</i>) or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">oenomeli</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰνόμελι</span>) is
-perfectly distinct from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mulsa</i> (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aqua</i>). The
-latter, or <em>mead</em>, being made of honey and
-water mixed and fermented, is the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">melicraton</i>
-(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μελίκρατον</span>) or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hydromeli</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑδρόμελι</span>) of the
-Greeks. The ancients considered old wine
-not only more grateful to the palate, but also
-more wholesome and invigorating. Generally
-speaking the Greek wines do not seem
-to have required a long time to ripen. Nestor
-in the Odyssey, indeed, drinks wine ten
-years old; but the connoisseurs under the
-empire pronounced that all transmarine
-wines arrived at a moderate degree of maturity
-in six or seven. Many of the Italian
-varieties, however, required to be kept for
-twenty or twenty-five years before they were
-drinkable (which is now considered ample
-for our strongest ports), and even the humble
-growths of Sabinum were stored up for from
-four to fifteen. Hence it became a matter
-of importance to hasten, if possible, the natural
-process. This was attempted in various
-ways, sometimes by elaborate condiments,
-sometimes by sinking vessels containing the
-must in the sea, by which an artificial mellowness
-was induced (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praecox vetustas</i>) and
-the wine in consequence termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">thalassites</i>;
-but more usually by the application of heat.
-Thus it was customary to expose the amphorae
-for some years to the full fervour of
-the sun’s rays, or to construct the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apothecae</i>
-in such a manner as to be exposed to the hot
-air and smoke of the bath-furnaces, and
-hence the name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fumaria</i> applied to such
-apartments, and the phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fumosos</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fumum
-bibere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fuligine testae</i>, in reference to the
-wines. If the operation was not conducted
-with care, and the amphorae not stoppered
-down perfectly tight, a disagreeable effect
-would be produced on the contents. In Italy,
-in the first century of the Christian aera, the
-lowest market price of the most ordinary
-quality of wine was 300 sesterces for 40
-urnae, that is, 15 sesterces for the amphora,
-or 6<em>d.</em> a gallon nearly. At a much earlier
-date, the triumph of L. Metellus during the
-first Punic war (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 250), wine was sold at
-the rate of 8 asses the amphora. The price
-of native wine at Athens was four drachmas
-for the metretes, that is, about 4½<em>d.</em> the
-gallon, when necessaries were dear, and
-we may perhaps assume one half of this
-sum as the average of cheaper times. On
-the other hand, high prices were given freely
-for the varieties held in esteem, since as
-early as the time of Socrates a metretes of
-Chian sold for a mina.&mdash;With respect to
-the way in which wine was drunk, and
-the customs observed by the Greeks and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_419"></a>[419]</span>
-Romans at their drinking entertainments, the
-reader is referred to the article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Symposium">Symposium</a></span>.&mdash;The
-wine of most early celebrity was that
-which the minister of Apollo, Maron, who
-dwelt upon the skirts of Thracian Ismarus,
-gave to Ulysses. It was red (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐρυθρόν</span>), and
-honey-sweet (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μελιηδέα</span>), so precious, that it
-was unknown to all in the mansion save
-the wife of the priest and one trusty house-keeper;
-so strong, that a single cup was mingled
-with twenty of water; so fragrant, that
-even when thus diluted it diffused a divine
-and most tempting perfume. Homer mentions
-also more than once <em>Pramnian wine</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἴνος
-Πραμνεῖος</span>), an epithet which is variously interpreted
-by different writers. In after times
-a wine bearing the same name was produced
-in the island of Icaria, around the hill village
-of Latorea in the vicinity of Ephesus,
-in the neighbourhood of Smyrna, near the
-shrine of Cybele, and in Lesbos. But the
-wines of greatest renown at a later period
-were grown in the islands of Thasos, Lesbos,
-Chios, and Cos, and in a few favoured spots
-on the opposite coast of Asia, such as the
-slopes of Mount Tmolus, the ridge which
-separates the valley of the Hermus from that
-of the Caÿster, Mount Messogis, which divides
-the tributaries of the Caÿster from
-those of the Meander, the volcanic region of
-the Catacecaumene, which still retains its
-fame, the environs of Ephesus, of Cnidus, of
-Miletus, and of Clazomenae. Among these
-the first place seems to have been by general
-consent conceded to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Chian</i>, of which
-the most delicious varieties were brought
-from the heights of Ariusium in the central
-parts, and from the promontory of Phanae
-at the southern extremity of the island.
-The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thasian</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lesbian</i> occupied the second
-place, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Coan</i> disputed the palm
-with them. In Lesbos the most highly
-prized vineyards were around Mytilene and
-Methymna. There is no foundation whatever
-for the remark that the finest Greek
-wines, especially the products of the islands
-in the Aegean and Ionian seas, belonged for
-the most part to the luscious sweet class. The
-very reverse is proved by the epithets <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐστηρός</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκληρός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λεπτός</span>, and the like, applied
-to a great number, while <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γλυκύς</span> and
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γλυκάζων</span> are designations comparatively rare,
-except in the vague language of poetry.&mdash;The
-most noble Italian wines, with a very few
-exceptions, were derived from Latium and
-Campania, and for the most part grew within
-a short distance of the sea. In the first
-rank we must place the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Setinum</i>, which
-fairly deserves the title of <em>Imperial</em>, since it
-was the chosen beverage of Augustus and
-most of his courtiers. It grew upon the hills
-of Setia, above Forum Appii, looking down
-upon the Pomptine marshes. Before the age
-of Augustus the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caecubum</i> was the most
-prized of all. It grew in the poplar swamps
-bordering on the gulf of Amyclae, close to
-Fundi. In the time of Pliny its reputation
-was entirely gone, partly in consequence of
-the carelessness of the cultivators, and partly
-from its proper soil, originally a very limited
-space, having been cut up by the canal of
-Nero extending from Baiae to Ostia. It was
-full-bodied and heady, not arriving at maturity
-until it had been kept for many years.
-The second rank was occupied by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Falernum</i>,
-of which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Faustianum</i> was the most
-choice variety, having gained its character
-from the care and skill exercised in the cultivation
-of the vines. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Falernus ager</i>
-commenced at the Pons Campanus, on the
-left hand of those journeying towards the
-Urbana Colonia of Sulla, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Faustianus ager</i>
-at a village about six miles from Sinuessa,
-so that the whole district in question may be
-regarded as stretching from the Massic hills
-to the river Vulturnus. Falernian became
-fit for drinking in ten years, and might be
-used until twenty years old, but when kept
-longer <ins class="corr" id="tn-419" title="Transcriber’s Note&mdash;Original text: 'gave headachs'">
-gave headaches</ins>, and proved injurious
-to the nervous system. Pliny distinguishes
-three kinds, the rough (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">austerum</i>), the sweet
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dulce</i>), and the thin (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tenue</i>). Others arranged
-the varieties differently; that which
-grew upon the hill tops they called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caucinum</i>,
-that on the middle slopes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Faustianum</i>,
-and that on the plain <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Falernum</i>. In the
-third rank was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Albanum</i>, from the Mons
-Albanus, of various kinds, very sweet (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praedulce</i>),
-sweetish, rough, and sharp; it was
-invigorating (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nervis utile</i>), and in perfection
-after being kept for fifteen years. Here too
-we place the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Surrentinum</i>, from the promontory
-forming the southern horn of the bay of
-Naples, which was not drinkable until it had
-been kept for five-and-twenty years, for,
-being destitute of richness, and very dry, it
-required a long time to ripen, but was
-strongly recommended to convalescents, on
-account of its thinness and wholesomeness.
-Of equal reputation were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Massicum</i>, from
-the hills which formed the boundary between
-Latium and Campania, although somewhat
-harsh, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gauranum</i>, from the
-ridge above Baiae and Puteoli, produced in
-small quantity, but of very high quality,
-full-bodied, and thick. In the same class
-are to be included the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Calenum</i> from Cales,
-and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fundanum</i> from Fundi. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Calenum</i>
-was light and better for the stomach
-than Falernian; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fundanum</i> was full-bodied
-and nourishing, but apt to attack both
-stomach and head; therefore little sought<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_420"></a>[420]</span>
-after at banquets. This list is closed by the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Veliturninum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Privernatinum</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Signinum</i>,
-from Velitrae, Privernum, and Signia, towns
-on the Volscian hills; the first was a sound
-wine, but had this peculiarity, that it always
-tasted as if mixed with some foreign substance;
-the second was thin and pleasant;
-the last was looked upon only in the light of
-a medicine valuable for its astringent qualities.
-We may safely bring in one more,
-the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Formianum</i>, from the Gulf of Caieta,
-associated by Horace with the Caecuban,
-Falernian, and Calenian. The fourth rank
-contained the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mamertinum</i>, from the neighbourhood
-of Messana, first brought into
-fashion by Julius Caesar. The finest was
-sound, light, and at the same time not without
-body.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Virgines">VIRGĬNES VESTĀLES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vestales">Vestales Virgines</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vis">VIS. Leges were passed at Rome for the
-purpose of preventing acts of violence. The
-Lex Plotia or Plautia was enacted against
-those who occupied public places and carried
-arms. The lex proposed by the consul
-Q. Catulus on the subject, with the assistance
-of Plautius the tribunus, appears to be
-the Lex Plotia. There was a Lex Julia of
-the dictator Caesar on this subject, which
-imposed the penalty of exile. Two Juliae
-Leges were passed as to this matter in the
-time of Augustus, which were respectively
-entitled De Vi Publica and De Vi Privata.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Visceratio">VISCĔRĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_190">p. 190</a>, <em>b</em>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vitis">VĪTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Centurio">Centurio</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vitrum">VITRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕαλος</span>), glass. A story has been
-preserved by Pliny, that glass was first discovered
-accidentally by some merchants who,
-having landed on the Syrian coast at the
-mouth of the river Belus, and being unable
-to find stones to support their cooking-pots,
-fetched for this purpose from their ships
-some of the lumps of nitre which composed
-the cargo. This being fused by the heat of
-the fire, united with the sand upon which it
-rested, and formed a stream of vitrified matter.
-No conclusion can be drawn from this
-tale, even if true, in consequence of its
-vagueness; but it probably originated in
-the fact, that the sand of the district in
-question was esteemed peculiarly suitable for
-glass-making, and exported in great quantities
-to the workshops of Sidon and Alexandria,
-long the most famous in the ancient
-world. Alexandria sustained its reputation
-for many centuries: Rome derived a great
-portion of its supplies from this source, and
-as late as the reign of Aurelian we find the
-manufacture still flourishing. There is some
-difficulty in deciding by what Greek author
-glass is first mentioned, because the term
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕαλος</span> unquestionably denotes not only artificial
-glass but rock-crystal, or indeed any
-transparent stone or stone-like substance.
-Thus the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕελος</span> of Herodotus, in which the
-Ethiopians encased the bodies of their dead,
-cannot be glass, for we are expressly told
-that it was dug in abundance out of the
-earth; and hence commentators have conjectured
-that rock-crystal or rock-salt, or
-amber, or oriental alabaster, or some bituminous
-or gummy product, might be indicated.
-But when the same historian, in
-his account of sacred crocodiles, states that
-they were decorated with ear-rings made of
-melted stone, we may safely conclude that he
-intends to describe some vitreous ornament
-for which he knew no appropriate name.
-Glass is, however, first mentioned with certainty
-by Theophrastus, who notices the
-circumstance alluded to above, of the fitness
-of the sand at the mouth of the river Belus
-for the fabrication of glass. Among the
-Latin writers Lucretius appears to be the
-first in which the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitrum</i> occurs; but it
-must have been well known to his countrymen
-long before, for Cicero names it along
-with paper and linen, as a common article
-of merchandise brought from Egypt. Scaurus,
-in his aedileship (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 58), made a display
-of it such as was never witnessed even in
-after-times; for the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scena</i> of his gorgeous
-theatre was divided into three tiers, of which
-the under portion was of marble, the upper of
-gilded wood, and the middle compartment of
-glass. In the poets of the Augustan age it is
-constantly introduced, both directly and in
-similes, and in such terms as to prove that it
-was an object with which every one must be
-familiar. Strabo declares that in his day a
-small drinking-cup of glass might be purchased
-at Rome for half an as, and so common
-was it in the time of Juvenal and
-Martial, that old men and women made a
-livelihood by trucking sulphur matches for
-broken fragments. When Pliny wrote, manufactories
-had been established not only in
-Italy, but in Spain and Gaul also, and glass
-drinking-cups had entirely superseded those
-of gold and silver; and in the reign of Alexander
-Severus we find <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitrearii</i> ranked along
-with curriers, coachmakers, goldsmiths, silversmiths,
-and other ordinary artificers whom
-the emperor taxed to raise money for his
-thermae. The numerous specimens transmitted
-to us prove that the ancients were well
-acquainted with the art of imparting a great
-variety of colours to their glass; they were
-probably less successful in their attempts to
-render it perfectly pure and free from all
-colour, since we are told that it was considered
-most valuable in this state. It was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_421"></a>[421]</span>
-wrought according to the different methods
-now practised, being fashioned into the required
-shape by the blowpipe, <em>cut</em>, as we
-term it, although <em>ground</em> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">teritur</i>) is a more
-accurate phrase, upon a wheel, and engraved
-with a sharp tool like silver. The art of
-etching upon glass, now so common, was entirely
-unknown, since it depends upon the
-properties of fluoric acid, a chemical discovery
-of the last century. The following were the
-chief uses to which glass was applied:&mdash;1.
-Bottles, vases, cups, and cinerary urns. 2.
-Glass pastes, presenting fac-similes either in
-relief or intaglio of engraved precious stones.
-3. Imitations of coloured precious stones,
-such as the carbuncle, the sapphire, the amethyst,
-and, above all, the emerald. 4. Thick
-sheets of glass of various colours appear to
-have been laid down for paving floors, and to
-have been attached as a lining to the walls
-and ceilings of apartments in dwelling houses,
-just as scagliuola is frequently employed in
-Italy, and occasionally in our own country
-also. Rooms fitted up in this way were called
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitreae camerae</i>, and the panels <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitreae quadraturae</i>.
-Such was the kind of decoration
-introduced by Scaurus for the scene of his
-theatre, not columns nor pillars of glass as
-some, nor bas-reliefs as others have imagined.
-5. Glass was also used for windows. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>,
-<a href="#Page_144">p. 144</a>.]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vitta">VITTA, or plural VITTAE, a ribbon or
-fillet, is to be considered, 1. As an ordinary
-portion of female dress. 2. As a decoration
-of sacred persons and sacred things. 1.
-When considered as an ordinary portion of
-female dress, it was simply a band encircling
-the head, and serving to confine the tresses
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crinales vittae</i>), the ends when long (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">longae
-taenia vittae</i>) hanging down behind. It was
-worn by maidens, and by married women
-also, the vitta assumed on the nuptial day
-being of a different form from that used by
-virgins. The Vitta was <em>not</em> worn by libertinae
-even of fair character, much less by
-meretrices; hence it was looked upon as an
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">insigne pudoris</i>, and, together with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stola</i>
-and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">instita</i>, served to point out at first sight
-the freeborn matron. The colour was probably
-a matter of choice: white and purple are
-both mentioned. When employed for sacred
-purposes, it was usually twisted round the
-infula [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Infula">Infula</a></span>], and held together the loose
-flocks of wool. Under this form it was employed
-as an ornament for 1. Priests, and
-those who offered sacrifice. 2. Priestesses,
-especially those of Vesta, and hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vittata
-sacerdos</i> for a vestal, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατ’ ἐξόχην</span>. 3. Prophets
-and poets, who may be regarded as
-priests, and in this case the vittae were frequently
-intertwined with chaplets of olive or
-laurel. 4. Statues of deities. 5. Victims
-decked for sacrifice. 6. Altars. 7. Temples.
-8. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱκετήρια</span> of suppliants. The sacred
-vittae, as well as the infulae, were made of
-wool, and hence the epithets <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lanea</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mollis</i>.
-They were white (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">niveae</i>), or purple (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">puniceae</i>),
-or azure (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caeruleae</i>), when wreathed
-round an altar to the manes.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill421" style="max-width: 25em;">
-  <img class="w100" src="images/ill421.jpg" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Vittae. (Statues from Herculaneum.)</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p id="Volones">VŎLŌNES is synonymous with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Voluntarii</i>
-(from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">volo</i>), and might hence be applied to
-all those who volunteered to serve in the
-Roman armies without there being any obligation
-to do so. But it was applied more
-especially to slaves, when in times of need
-they offered or were allowed to fight in the
-Roman armies. Thus when during the second
-Punic war, after the battle of Cannae, there
-was not a sufficient number of freemen to
-complete the army, about 8000 young and
-able-bodied slaves offered to serve. Their
-proposal was accepted; they received armour
-at the public expense, and as they distinguished
-themselves they were honoured with
-the franchise. In after times the name volones
-was retained whenever slaves chose or
-were allowed to take up arms in defence of
-their masters, which they were the more
-willing to do, as they were generally rewarded
-with the franchise.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Volumen">VŎLŪMEN. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Liber">Liber</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Voluntarii">VŎLUNTĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Volones">Volones</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vomitoria">VŎMĬTŌRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vulcanalia">VULCĀNĀLĬA, a festival celebrated at
-Rome in honour of Vulcan, on the 23rd of
-August, with games in the circus Flaminius,
-where the god had a temple. The sacrifice
-on this occasion consisted of fishes, which the
-people threw into the fire. It was also customary
-on this day to commence working by
-candle-light, which was probably considered
-as an auspicious beginning of the use of fire,
-as the day was sacred to the god of this
-element.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Vulgares">VULGĀRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Servus">Servus</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="X_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">X</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Xenagi" class="drop-capy">XĔNĀGI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξεναγοί</span>). The Spartans, as being
-the head of that Peloponnesian and Dorian
-league, which was formed to secure the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_422"></a>[422]</span>
-independence of the Greek states, had the
-sole command of the confederate troops in
-time of war, ordered the quotas which each
-state was to furnish, and appointed officers
-of their own to command them. Such officers
-were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Xenagi</i>. The generals whom the
-allies sent with their troops were subordinate
-to these Spartan <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">xenagi</i>, though they attended
-the council of war, as representatives of their
-respective countries. After the peace of
-Antalcidas, the league was still more firmly
-established, though Argos refused to join it;
-and the Spartans were rigorous in exacting
-the required military service, demanding
-levies by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scytale</i>, and sending out <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">xenagi</i>
-to collect them. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Xenagus</i> may be
-applied to any leader of a hand of foreigners
-or mercenaries.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Xenelasia">XĔNĒLĂSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξενηλασία</span>). The Lacedaemonians
-appear in very early times, before
-the legislation of Lycurgus, to have been
-averse to intercourse with foreigners. This
-disposition was encouraged by the lawgiver,
-who made an ordinance forbidding strangers
-to reside at Sparta without special permission,
-and empowering the magistrate to expel from
-the city any stranger who misconducted himself,
-or set an example injurious to public
-morals.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Xenias">XĔNĬAS GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξενίας γραφή</span>). As no
-man could be an Athenian citizen except by
-birth or creation (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένει</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ποιήσει</span>), if one,
-having neither of those titles, assumed to act
-as a citizen, either by taking part in the popular
-assembly, or by serving any office, judicial
-or magisterial, or by attending certain
-festivals, or doing any other act which none
-but a citizen was privileged to do, he was
-liable to a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφὴ ξενίας</span>, which any citizen
-might institute against him; or he might be
-proceeded against by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσαγγελία</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Xenus">XĔNUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξένος</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hospitium">Hospitium</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Xestes">XESTES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξέστης</span>), a Greek measure of capacity,
-both fluid and solid, which contained
-12 cyathi or 2 cotylae, and was equal to ⅙ of
-the chous, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>48</sub> of the Roman amphora or
-quadrantal, and <sup>1</sup>/<sub>72</sub> of the Greek amphora or
-metretes; or, viewing it as a dry measure,
-it was half the choenix and <sup>1</sup>/<sub>96</sub> of the medimnus.
-It contained ·9911 of a pint English.
-At this point the Roman and Attic systems
-of measures coincide; for there is no doubt
-that the Attic xestes was identical with the
-Roman sextarius.</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="Z_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">Z</span></h2>
-
-<p id="Zacori" class="drop-capy">ZĂCŎRI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aeditui">Aeditui</a>.</span>]</p>
-
-
-<p id="Zetetae">ZĒTĒTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζητηταί</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Inquisitors</i>, were
-extraordinary officers, appointed by the
-Athenians to discover the authors of some
-crime against the state, and bring them to
-justice. They were more frequently appointed
-to search for confiscated property,
-the goods of condemned criminals and state
-debtors; to receive and give information
-against any persons who concealed, or assisted
-in concealing them, and to deliver an
-inventory of all such goods (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπογράφειν</span>) to
-the proper authorities.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Zona">ZŌNA, also called CINGŬLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζώνη</span>,
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζῶμα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζωστῆρ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτρα</span>), a girdle or zone, worn
-about the loins by both sexes. The chief use
-of this article of dress was to hold up the
-tunic (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζώννυσθαι</span>), which was more especially
-requisite to be done when persons were at
-work, on a journey, or engaged in hunting.
-The zona is also represented in many statues
-and pictures of men in armour as worn
-round the cuirass. The girdle, mentioned
-by Homer, seems to have been a constituent
-part of the cuirass, serving to fasten it by
-means of a buckle, and also affording an additional
-protection to the body, and having a
-short kind of petticoat attached to it, as is
-shown in the figure of the Greek warrior in
-<a href="#ill240c">p. 240</a>. The cut at p. 4 shows that the ancient
-cuirass did not descend low enough to
-secure that part of the body which was covered
-by the ornamental kilt or petticoat.
-To supply this defect was the design of the
-<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mitra</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτρα</span>), a brazen belt lined probably
-on the inside with leather and stuffed with
-wool, which was worn next to the body.
-Men used their girdles to hold money instead
-of a purse. As the girdle was worn to hold
-up the garments for the sake of business or
-of work requiring despatch, so it was loosened
-and the tunic was allowed to fall down to
-the feet to indicate the opposite condition,
-and more especially in preparing to perform
-a sacrifice (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">veste recincta</i>), or funeral rites
-(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">discincti</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">incinctae</i>). A girdle was worn by
-young women, even when their tunic was
-not girt up, and removed on the day of marriage,
-and therefore called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζώνη παρθενική</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p id="Zophorus">ZŌPHŎRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζωφόρος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διάζωμα</span>), the
-frieze of an entablature.</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_423"></a>[423]</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="TABLES">
-<span class="lsp2">TABLES</span><br />
-
-<span class="fs60">OF</span><br />
-
-<span class="fs80">GREEK AND ROMAN MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY.</span></h2>
-
-<hr class="r30" />
-
-
-<table class="autotable fs80" width="70%" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr smcap">Table</td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdr">Page</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">I.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap">Greek Measures of Length.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">(1) Smaller Measures</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_I">424</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">II.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Measures of Length.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">(1) Smaller Measures</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_II">424</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">III.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap">Greek Measures of Length.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">(2) Land and Itinerary</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_III">425</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">IV.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Measures of Length.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">(2) Land and Itinerary</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_IV">426</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">V.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap">Greek Measures of Surface</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_V">426</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">VI.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Measures of Surface</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_VI">427</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">VII.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap">Greek Measures of Capacity.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">(1) Liquid Measures</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_VII">428</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">VIII.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Measures of Capacity.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">(1) Liquid Measures</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_VIII">429</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">IX.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap">Greek Measures of Capacity.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">(2) Dry Measures</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_IX">430</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">X.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Measures of Capacity.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">(2) Dry Measures</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_X">430</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">XI.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap">Greek Weights</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_XI">431</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">XII.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap">Greek Money</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_XII">432</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">XIII.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Weights.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">(1) The As and its Uncial Divisions</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_XIII">433</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">XIV.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Weights.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">(2) Subdivisions of the Uncia</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_XIV">433</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">XV.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Money.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">(1) Before Augustus</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_XV">434</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">XVI.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Money.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad3">(2) After Augustus</td>
-<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_XVI">434</a></td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_424"></a>[424]</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<h3 id="TABLE_I">
-<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE I.</span><br />
-<span class="fs90">GRECIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.</span></h3>
-
-<table class="p2 autotable fs80" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="13">I. Smaller Measures.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Feet.</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">Inches.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="13"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δάκτυλος</span></td>
-<td class="tdctlr">”</td>
-<td class="tdl br">&nbsp; ·7584375</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="12"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόνδυλος</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdl br">1·516875</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="11"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παλαιστή</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δῶρον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δοχμή</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δακτυλοδοχμή</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdl br">3·03375</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="10"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διχάς</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμιπόδιον</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdl br">6·0675</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">10</td>
-<td class="tdctr">5</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1¼</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="9"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διχάς</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdl br">7·584375</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">11</td>
-<td class="tdctr">5½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2¾</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅜</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>10</sub></td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="8"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀρθοδῶρον</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdl br">8·3428125</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅕</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>11</sub></td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="7"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σπιθαμή</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdl br">9·10125</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅗</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1<sup>5</sup>/<sub>11</sub></td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="6"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΠΟῩΣ</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">1</td>
-<td class="tdl br">0·135</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">18</td>
-<td class="tdctr">9</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2¼</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅘</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1<sup>7</sup>/<sub>11</sub></td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅛</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="5"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυγμή</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">1</td>
-<td class="tdl br">1·651875</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">20</td>
-<td class="tdctr">10</td>
-<td class="tdctr">5</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1<sup>9</sup>/<sub>11</sub></td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅔</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1¼</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυγών</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">1</td>
-<td class="tdl br">3·16875</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2⅖</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2<sup>2</sup>/<sub>11</sub></td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅕</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΠΗΧΥΣ</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">1</td>
-<td class="tdl br">6·2025</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">72</td>
-<td class="tdctr">36</td>
-<td class="tdctr">18</td>
-<td class="tdctr">9</td>
-<td class="tdctr">7⅕</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6<sup>6</sup>/<sub>11</sub></td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3⅗</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξύλον</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">4</td>
-<td class="tdl br">6·6075</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr bb">96</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">9⅗</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">8<sup>8</sup>/<sub>11</sub></td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">5⅓</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">4⅘</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">1⅓</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὈΡΓΥΙΆ</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">6</td>
-<td class="tdl bb br">0·81</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class="fs80">N.B.&mdash;<em>Approximate Values.</em> From the above Table, it will be seen that the Greek <em>Foot</em>, <em>Cubit</em>,
-and <em>Orguia</em>, only exceed the English <em>Foot</em>, <em>Foot and a half</em>, and <em>Fathom</em>, by about 1-10th, 2-10ths,
-and 8-10ths of an inch respectively.</p>
-
-
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_II">
-<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE II.</span><br />
-<span class="fs90">ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.</span></h3>
-
-<table class="p2 autotable fs80" width="80%" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="7">I. Smaller Measures.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Feet.</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">Inches.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="7">Digitus</td>
-<td class="tdctlr">”</td>
-<td class="tdr br">·7281</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">1⅓</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="6"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Uncia">Uncia</a></span> or Pollex</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdr br">·9708</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="5">Palmus</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdr br">2·9124</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">9</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Palmus Major (of late times)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdr br">8·7372</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdr br">11·6496</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">20</td>
-<td class="tdctr">15</td>
-<td class="tdctr">5</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅔</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1¼</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Palmipes</td>
-<td class="tdclr">1</td>
-<td class="tdr br">2·562 &nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr bb">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">18</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">1½</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">1⅕</td>
-<td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Cubitus">Cubitus</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">1</td>
-<td class="tdr bb br">5·4744</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class="fs80">N.B.&mdash;<em>Approximate Values.</em> The Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Uncia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pes</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cubitus</i> only fall short of our <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Inch</i>,
-<em>Foot</em>, and <em>Foot and a half</em>, by less than 1-10th, 4-10ths, and 6-10ths of an inch respectively.</p>
-
-
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_425"></a>[425]</span></p>
-
-<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_III">
-<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE III.</span><br />
-<span class="fs90">GRECIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.</span></h3>
-
-
-<table class="p2 autotable fs60" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="14">II. Larger Measures.&mdash;Land and Itinerary.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></td>
-<td class="tdctr">Miles.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Feet.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Inches.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="14"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΠΟΥΣ</span></td>
-<td class="tdctlr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1</td>
-<td class="tdctr">0·135</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="13"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΠΗΧΥΣ</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">6·2025</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">2½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅔</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="12"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βῦμα</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2</td>
-<td class="tdc br">6·3375</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2⅖</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="11"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὈΡΓΥΙΆ</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">6</td>
-<td class="tdc br">0·81</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">10</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6⅔</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅔</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="10"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάλαμος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄκαινα</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκάπους</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">10</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1·35</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">60</td>
-<td class="tdctr">40</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">10</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="9"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄμμα</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">60</td>
-<td class="tdc br">8·1</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">100</td>
-<td class="tdctr">66⅔</td>
-<td class="tdctr">40</td>
-<td class="tdctr">16⅔</td>
-<td class="tdctr">10</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅔</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="8"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλέθρον</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">101</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1·5</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">600</td>
-<td class="tdctr">400</td>
-<td class="tdctr">240</td>
-<td class="tdctr">100</td>
-<td class="tdctr">60</td>
-<td class="tdctr">10</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="7"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΣΤΆΔΙΟΝ</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΣΤΆΔΙΟΣ</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">606</td>
-<td class="tdc br">9</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">1200</td>
-<td class="tdctr">800</td>
-<td class="tdctr">480</td>
-<td class="tdctr">200</td>
-<td class="tdctr">120</td>
-<td class="tdctr">20</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="6"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίαυλος</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1213</td>
-<td class="tdc br">6</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">2400</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1600</td>
-<td class="tdctr">960</td>
-<td class="tdctr">400</td>
-<td class="tdctr">240</td>
-<td class="tdctr">40</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="5"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱππικόν</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2427</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">4800</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3200</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1920</td>
-<td class="tdctr">800</td>
-<td class="tdctr">480</td>
-<td class="tdctr">80</td>
-<td class="tdctr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Miliare">Roman Mile</a></span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίλιον</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">4854</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">18,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr">7200</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3000</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1800</td>
-<td class="tdctr">300</td>
-<td class="tdctr">180</td>
-<td class="tdctr">30</td>
-<td class="tdctr">15</td>
-<td class="tdctr">7½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3¾</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παρασάγγης</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">3</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2362</td>
-<td class="tdc br">6</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">36,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr">14,400</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6000</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3600</td>
-<td class="tdctr">600</td>
-<td class="tdctr">360</td>
-<td class="tdctr">60</td>
-<td class="tdctr">30</td>
-<td class="tdctr">15</td>
-<td class="tdctr">7½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σχοῖνος</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">6</td>
-<td class="tdc br">4735</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr bb tdpp">360,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">240,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">144,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">60,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">36,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">6000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">3600</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">600</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">300</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">150</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">75</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">20</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">10</td>
-<td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap">Degree</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">68<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">5110</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> In order to show the relations more clearly, the foreign measures most familiar to the Greeks are included in this Table.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> This is, of course, not the true number of English statute miles contained in a degree of a great circle of the earth, but the number <em>computed</em> from the
-data exhibited in the Table, some of which are only approximate; namely, 1 Degree = 75 Roman miles = 600 Greek Stadia, and 1 Greek foot = 12·135
-inches. The true value of a degree in English miles is 69<sup>1</sup>/<sub>51</sub> = 69·0196, and the difference is only about 7-100ths of a mile.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_426"></a>[426]</span></p>
-
-<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_IV">
-<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE IV.</span><br />
-<span class="fs90">ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.</span></h3>
-
-
-<table class="p2 autotable fs80" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="9">II. Larger Measures.&mdash;Land and Itinerary.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Miles.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Feet.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Inches.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="9"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdctlr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">11·6496</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="8">Cubitus</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">5·4744</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">2½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅔</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="7">Gradus, or Pes Sestertius</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2</td>
-<td class="tdc br">5·124</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">5</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3⅓</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="6"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Passus">Passus</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">4</td>
-<td class="tdc br">10·248</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">10</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6⅔</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="5">Decempeda, or Pertica</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">9</td>
-<td class="tdc br">8·496</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">120</td>
-<td class="tdctr">80</td>
-<td class="tdctr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Actus (in length)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">116</td>
-<td class="tdc br">5·952</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">5000</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3333⅓</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2000</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1000</td>
-<td class="tdctr">500</td>
-<td class="tdctr">41⅔</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Miliare">Mille Passuum</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">4854</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">7500</td>
-<td class="tdctr">5000</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3000</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1500</td>
-<td class="tdctr">750</td>
-<td class="tdctr">62½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Gallic Leuga</td>
-<td class="tdclr">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2003</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr bb tdpp">375,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">250,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">150,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">75,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">37,500</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">3125</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">75</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">50</td>
-<td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap">Degree</span><a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">68</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">5110</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class="fs70">N.B.&mdash;The Roman mile only differs from the English by less than 1-10th.</p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> See <a href="#Footnote_5">Note to Table III</a>.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_V">
-<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE V.</span><br />
-<span class="fs90">GRECIAN MEASURES OF SURFACE.</span></h3>
-
-
-<table class="p2 autotable fs80" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="7">Ordinary Land Measures.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Perches.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Square Feet.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="7"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΠΟΥΣ</span> (Square Foot)</td>
-<td class="tdctlr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1·0226</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">36</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="6"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑξαπόδης</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">36·81456</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">100</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2<sup>7</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="5"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄκαινα</span> (Square of the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλαμος</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">102·26266</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">833⅓</td>
-<td class="tdctr">23<sup>4</sup>/<sub>27</sub></td>
-<td class="tdctr">8⅓</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμίεκτος</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">3</td>
-<td class="tdc br">35·439</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">1666⅔</td>
-<td class="tdctr">46<sup>8</sup>/<sub>27</sub></td>
-<td class="tdctr">16⅔</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἕκτος</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">6</td>
-<td class="tdc br">70·877</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">2500</td>
-<td class="tdctr">69<sup>4</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td>
-<td class="tdctr">25</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄρουρα</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">9</td>
-<td class="tdc br">106·318</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr bb tdpp">10,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">277<sup>7</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">100</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">4</td>
-<td class="tdl bb"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΠΛΈΘΡΟΝ</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">37</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">153·02<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> This differs from a rood, or a quarter of an acre, by little more than 2 perches; for the rood
-contains 40 perches.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_427"></a>[427]</span></p>
-
-<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_VI">
-<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE VI.</span><br />
-<span class="fs90">ROMAN MEASURES OF SURFACE.</span></h3>
-
-
-<table class="p2 autotable fs70" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="10">Ordinary Land Measures.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Acres.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Roods.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Perches.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Square Feet.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="10"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes Quadratus</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdctlr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">·9445</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">100</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="9">Scrupulum, or Decempeda Quadrata</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">94·245</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">480</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4⅘</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="8"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Actus">Actus Simplex</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">180·127</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">2400</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">5</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="7">Uncia<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">8</td>
-<td class="tdc br">83·885</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">3600</td>
-<td class="tdctr">36</td>
-<td class="tdctr">7½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="6">Clima</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">12</td>
-<td class="tdc br">125·83</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">14,400</td>
-<td class="tdctr">144</td>
-<td class="tdctr">30</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="5"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Actus">Actus Quadratus</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">9</td>
-<td class="tdc br">231·07</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">28,800</td>
-<td class="tdctr">288</td>
-<td class="tdctr">60</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Jugerum">Jugerum</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2</td>
-<td class="tdc br">19</td>
-<td class="tdc br">189·89<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">57,600</td>
-<td class="tdctr">576</td>
-<td class="tdctr">120</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Heredium</td>
-<td class="tdclr">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">0</td>
-<td class="tdc br">39</td>
-<td class="tdc br">107·53<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">5,760,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr">57,600</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2400</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1600</td>
-<td class="tdctr">400</td>
-<td class="tdctr">200</td>
-<td class="tdctr">100</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Centuria</td>
-<td class="tdclr">124</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2</td>
-<td class="tdc br">19</td>
-<td class="tdc br">135·25</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr bb tdpp">23,040,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">230,400</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">48,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">9600</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">6400</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">1600</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">800</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">400</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">4</td>
-<td class="tdl bb">Saltus</td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">498</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">1</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">37</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">268·75<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">As</i> to which this <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Uncia</i> and the above <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Scrupulum</i> belong is the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jugerum</i>. The other uncial divisions of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jugerum</i> may easily be calculated
-from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Uncia</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Semissis</i> is, of course, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Actus Quadratus</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> <em>i.e.</em> almost 5-8ths of an acre.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> <em>i.e.</em> almost an acre and a quarter.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> <em>i.e.</em> almost 500 acres.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_428"></a>[428]</span></p>
-
-<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_VII">
-<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE VII.</span><br />
-<span class="fs90">GRECIAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.</span></h3>
-
-
-<table class="p2 autotable fs70" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="12" rowspan="2">I. Attic Liquid Measures.</td>
-<td class="tdctr" rowspan="2">Gallons.</td>
-<td class="tdctr" rowspan="2">Pints.</td>
-<td class="tdctr" colspan="2">Approximate.<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">Gallons.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Pints.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="12"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοχλιάριον</span></td>
-<td class="tdctlr">“</td>
-<td class="tdctr">·008</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>120</sub></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="11"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χήμη</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">“</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·016</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>60</sub></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">2½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1¼</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="10"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μύστρον</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">“</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·02</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>48</sub></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">5</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="9"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόγχη</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">“</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·04</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>24</sub></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">10</td>
-<td class="tdctr">5</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="8"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΚΎΑΘΟΣ</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">“</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·08</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>12</sub></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">15</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="7"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀξύβαφον</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">“</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·12</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">⅛</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">30</td>
-<td class="tdctr">15</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="6"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τέταρτον</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">“</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·24</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">¼</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">60</td>
-<td class="tdctr">30</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="5"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοτύλη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρυβλίον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμίνα</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">“</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·48</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">½</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">120</td>
-<td class="tdctr">60</td>
-<td class="tdctr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΞΈΣΤΗΣ</span> (Sextarius)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">“</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·96</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">720</td>
-<td class="tdctr">360</td>
-<td class="tdctr">288</td>
-<td class="tdctr">144</td>
-<td class="tdctr">72</td>
-<td class="tdctr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΧΟΥΣ</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">“</td>
-<td class="tdc br">5·76</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">6</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">5760</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2880</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2304</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1152</td>
-<td class="tdctr">576</td>
-<td class="tdctr">384</td>
-<td class="tdctr">192</td>
-<td class="tdctr">96</td>
-<td class="tdctr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Roman Amphora (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεράμιον</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">5</td>
-<td class="tdc br">6·08</td>
-<td class="tdc br">6</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr bb tdpp">8640</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">4320</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">3456</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">1728</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">864</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">576</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">288</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">144</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">72</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl bb"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΑΜΦΟΡΕΥΣ ΜΕΤΡΗΤΗΣ</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">8</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">5·12</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">9</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class="fs80">N.B.&mdash;The <em>Aeginetan</em> measures of capacity may be easily calculated from these, according to the ratio given under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Quadrantal">Quadrantal</a></span>.</p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> As the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sextarius</i> differs from the English pint by only 1-25th part of the latter, it will be found useful, in ordinary rough calculations, to take it at
-exactly a pint, and so with the other measures in this table. The results thus obtained may be corrected by subtracting from each of them its 1-25th part.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_429"></a>[429]</span></p>
-
-<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_VIII">
-<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE VIII.</span><br />
-<span class="fs90">ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.</span></h3>
-
-
-<table class="p2 autotable fs70" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="10" rowspan="2">I. Liquid Measures.</td>
-<td class="tdctr" rowspan="2">Gallons.</td>
-<td class="tdctr" rowspan="2">Pints.</td>
-<td class="tdctr" colspan="2">Approximate.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">Gallons.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Pints.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="10">Ligula</td>
-<td class="tdctlr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">·02</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>48</sub></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">4</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="9"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Cyathus">Cyathus</a></span><a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·08</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>12</sub></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="8">Acetabulum</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·12</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">⅛</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="7">Quartarius, <em>i.e.</em> 1-4th of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sextarius</i></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·24</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">¼</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="6">Hemina or Cotyla</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·48</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">½</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="5"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Sextarius">Sextarius</a></span>, <em>i.e.</em> 1-6th of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Congius</i></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·96</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">288</td>
-<td class="tdctr">72</td>
-<td class="tdctr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Congius">Congius</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">5·76</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">6</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">1152</td>
-<td class="tdctr">288</td>
-<td class="tdctr">192</td>
-<td class="tdctr">96</td>
-<td class="tdctr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Urna</td>
-<td class="tdclr">2</td>
-<td class="tdc br">7·04</td>
-<td class="tdc br">3</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">2304</td>
-<td class="tdctr">576</td>
-<td class="tdctr">384</td>
-<td class="tdctr">192</td>
-<td class="tdctr">96</td>
-<td class="tdctr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphora">Amphora Quadrantal</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">5</td>
-<td class="tdc br">6·08</td>
-<td class="tdc br">6</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr bb tdpp">46,080</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">11,520</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">7680</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">3840</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">1920</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">960</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">160</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">40</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">20</td>
-<td class="tdl bb">Culeus</td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">115</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">1·6</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">120</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> See the <a href="#Footnote_12">Note to Table VII</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> According to the uncial division, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sextarius</i> was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">As</i>, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cyathus</i> the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Uncia</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_430"></a>[430]</span></p>
-
-<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_IX">
-<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE IX.</span><br />
-<span class="fs90">GRECIAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.</span></h3>
-
-<table class="p2 autotable fs70" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="9" rowspan="2">II. Attic Dry Measures.</td>
-<td class="tdctr" rowspan="2">Gallons.</td>
-<td class="tdctr" rowspan="2">Pints.</td>
-<td class="tdctr" colspan="2">Approximate.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">Gallons.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Pints.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="9"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοχλιάριον</span></td>
-<td class="tdctlr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">·008</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>120</sub></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">10</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="8"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΚΎΑΘΟΣ</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·08</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>12</sub></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">15</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="7"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀξύβαφον</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·12</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">⅛</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">60</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="6"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΚΟΤΎΛΗ</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμίνα</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·48</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">½</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">120</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="5"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΞΈΣΤΗΣ</span> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sextarius</i>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·96</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">240</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΧΟΙΝΙΞ</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1·92</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">960</td>
-<td class="tdctr">96</td>
-<td class="tdctr">64</td>
-<td class="tdctr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμίεκτον</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">7·68</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">1920</td>
-<td class="tdctr">192</td>
-<td class="tdctr">128</td>
-<td class="tdctr">32</td>
-<td class="tdctr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἕκτος</span> (equal to the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Modius</i>.)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">7·36</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr bb tdpp">11,520</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">1152</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">768</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">192</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">96</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">6</td>
-<td class="tdl bb"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΜΈΔΙΜΝΟΣ</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">11</td>
-<td class="tdc br bb">4·16</td>
-<td class="tdc br bb">12<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></td>
-<td class="tdc br bb">”</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> See the <a href="#Footnote_12">Note to Table VII</a>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> Or one quart.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> Or one bushel and a half.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="fs80">N.B.&mdash;Respecting the <em>Aeginetan</em> Measures, see the Note to <a href="#TABLE_VII">Table VII</a>.</p>
-
-
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_X">
-<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE X.</span><br />
-<span class="fs90">ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.</span></h3>
-
-<table class="p2 autotable fs70" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="8" rowspan="2">II. Dry Measures.</td>
-<td class="tdctr" rowspan="2">Gallons.</td>
-<td class="tdctr" rowspan="2">Pints.</td>
-<td class="tdctr" colspan="2">Approximate.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">Gallons.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Pints.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="8">Ligula</td>
-<td class="tdctlr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">·02</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>48</sub></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">4</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="7"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Cyathus">Cyathus</a></span><a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·08</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>12</sub></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="6">Acetabulum</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·12</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">⅛</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="5">Quartarius, <em>i.e.</em> 1-4th of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sextarius</i></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·24</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">¼</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Hemina, or Cotyla</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·48</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">½</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Sextarius">Sextarius</a></span>, <em>i.e.</em> 1-6th of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Congius</i></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·96</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">384</td>
-<td class="tdctr">96</td>
-<td class="tdctr">64</td>
-<td class="tdctr">32</td>
-<td class="tdctr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Semimodius</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">7·68</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr bb tdpp">768</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">192</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">128</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">64</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">32</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">2</td>
-<td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Modius">Modius</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">1</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">7·36</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">2<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> See the <a href="#Footnote_12">Note to Table VII</a>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> See the <a href="#Footnote_14">Note to Table VIII</a>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> Or a quarter of a bushel.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_431"></a>[431]</span></p>
-
-<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_XI">
-<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE XI.</span><br />
-<span class="fs90 lsp2">GRECIAN WEIGHTS.</span></h3>
-
-<table class="p2 autotable fs70" width="80%" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp bold" colspan="5">1. Ratios of the three chief Systems.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bl bt">Aeginetan : Euboic or old Attic</td>
-<td class="tdr bt">::</td>
-<td class="tdc bt">6</td>
-<td class="tdc bt">:</td>
-<td class="tdc bt br">5</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bl">Aeginetan : Solonian or later Attic</td>
-<td class="tdr">::</td>
-<td class="tdc">5</td>
-<td class="tdc">:</td>
-<td class="tdc br">3</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bl">Euboic : Solonian</td>
-<td class="tdr">::</td>
-<td class="tdc">138<sup>8</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td>
-<td class="tdc">:</td>
-<td class="tdc br">100</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bl"></td>
-<td class="tdr">or ::</td>
-<td class="tdc">100</td>
-<td class="tdc">:</td>
-<td class="tdc br">72</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bl bb"></td>
-<td class="tdr bb">or ::</td>
-<td class="tdc bb">25</td>
-<td class="tdc bb">:</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">18</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<table class="px autotable fs70" width="80%" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl">The Aeginetan Talent</td>
-<td class="tdl bt">= 6000 Aeginetan Drachmae</td>
-<td class="tdl bt">= 7200 Euboic</td>
-<td class="tdl bt br">= 10,000 Solonian</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bl pad3">Euboic <span class="pad2">”</span></td>
-<td class="tdl">= 5000 <span class="pad3">”</span></td>
-<td class="tdl">= 6000 <span class="pad2">”</span></td>
-<td class="tdl br">= 8,333⅓ <span class="pad1">”</span></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bb bl pad3">Solonian<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> ”</td>
-<td class="tdl bb">= 3600 <span class="pad3">”</span></td>
-<td class="tdl bb">= 4320 <span class="pad2">”</span></td>
-<td class="tdl bb br">= 6,000 <span class="pad2">”</span></td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> Also called the <em>Attic Silver Talent</em>. When Attic weights are spoken of without any further
-distinction, these are generally intended.</p>
-</div>
-
-<table class="p1 autotable fs70" width="80%" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp bold" colspan="4" rowspan="2">2. Aeginetan Weights.</td>
-<td class="tdctr" colspan="3"><em>Exact.</em><a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></td>
-<td class="tdctr" colspan="3"><em>Approximate.</em></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctr">lb.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">oz.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">grs.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">lb.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">oz.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">grs.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="4">Obol (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀβολος</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdctlr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">18·472<sup>2</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">20</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">6</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Drachma (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δραχμή</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">110·83⅛</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">¼</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">600</td>
-<td class="tdctr">100</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mina (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μνᾶ</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">9</td>
-<td class="tdc br">145·83⅓<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></td>
-<td class="tdc br">1⅔</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr bb">36,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">6000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">60</td>
-<td class="tdl bb">Talent (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τάλαντον</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">95</td>
-<td class="tdc br bb">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br bb">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br bb">100</td>
-<td class="tdc br bb">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br bb">”</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> In this and the other tables the English weights used are those of the avoirdupois scale as
-fixed by statute; namely, the grain = the Troy grain, the ounce = 437½ grains, the pound =
-16 ounces = 7000 grains.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> Or ⅓ of an oz.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<table class="p1 autotable fs70" width="80%" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp bold" colspan="4" rowspan="2">3. Euboic or Attic Commercial Weights.</td>
-<td class="tdctr" colspan="3"><em>Exact.</em></td>
-<td class="tdctr" colspan="3"><em>Approximate.</em></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctr">lb.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">oz.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">grs.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">lb.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">oz.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">grs.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="4">Obol</td>
-<td class="tdctlr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">15·398<sup>14</sup>/<sub>27</sub></td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">15½</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">6</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Drachma</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">92·3611<sup>1</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">93⅓</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">600</td>
-<td class="tdctr">100</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mina</td>
-<td class="tdclr">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">5</td>
-<td class="tdc br">48·611<sup>1</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr bb">36,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">6000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">60</td>
-<td class="tdl bb">Talent</td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">79</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">2</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">291·63⅓</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">80</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<table class="p1 autotable fs70" width="80%" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp bold" rowspan="2">4. Attic Commercial Weights increased.</td>
-<td class="tdctr" colspan="3"><em>Exact.</em></td>
-<td class="tdctr" colspan="3"><em>Approximate.</em></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctr">lb.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">oz.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">grs.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">lb.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">oz.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">grs.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl">1 Mina = 150 Drachmae (silver)</td>
-<td class="tdctlr">1</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">350</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bl">5 Minae = 6 Minae (commercial)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">7</td>
-<td class="tdc br">14</td>
-<td class="tdc br">291·6⅔</td>
-<td class="tdc br">7½</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bb bl">1 Talent = 65 Minae (commercial)</td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">88</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">145·8⅓</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">90</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<table class="p1 autotable fs70" width="80%" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp bold" colspan="4" rowspan="2">5. Attic Silver Weights.</td>
-<td class="tdctr" colspan="3"><em>Exact.</em></td>
-<td class="tdctr" colspan="3"><em>Approximate.</em></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctr">lb.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">oz.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">grs.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">lb.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">oz.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">grs.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="4">Obol</td>
-<td class="tdctlr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">11·0833⅓</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">6</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Drachma</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">66·5</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">70</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">600</td>
-<td class="tdctlr">100</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mina</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">15</td>
-<td class="tdc br">87·5<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr bb">36,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">6000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">60</td>
-<td class="tdl bb">Talent <span class="pad4">&nbsp;</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">57</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">60</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> Or ⅕ of an oz.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_432"></a>[432]</span></p>
-
-<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_XII">
-<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE XII.</span><br />
-<span class="fs90 lsp2">GRECIAN MONEY.</span></h3>
-
-<table class="p2 autotable fs70" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="13">I. Attic Copper and Silver.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">£.</td>
-<td class="tdctr"><em>s.</em></td>
-<td class="tdctr"><em>d.</em></td>
-<td class="tdctr">Farth-<br />ings.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="13">Lepton (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λεπτόν</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdctlr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">·116</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">7</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="12">Chalchus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλκοῦς</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·8125</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">14</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="11">Dichalcon, or Quarter Obol (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίχαλκον</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1·625</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">28</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="10">Half Obol (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμιοβόλιον</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">3·25</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">56</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="9">Obol (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀβολός</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2·5</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">112</td>
-<td class="tdctr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="8">Diobolus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διόβολον</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">3</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">168</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="7">Triobolus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριόβολον</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">4</td>
-<td class="tdc br">3·5</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">224</td>
-<td class="tdctr">32</td>
-<td class="tdctr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="6">Tetrobolus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετρόβολον</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">6</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">336</td>
-<td class="tdctr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="5">Drachma<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δραχμή</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">9</td>
-<td class="tdc br">3</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">672</td>
-<td class="tdctr">96</td>
-<td class="tdctr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Didrachm (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίδραχμον</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">7</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">1344</td>
-<td class="tdctr">192</td>
-<td class="tdctr">96</td>
-<td class="tdctr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Tetradrachm (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετράδραχμον</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">3</td>
-<td class="tdc br">3</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">33,600</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4800</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2400</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1200</td>
-<td class="tdctr">600</td>
-<td class="tdctr">300</td>
-<td class="tdctr">200</td>
-<td class="tdctr">150</td>
-<td class="tdctr">100</td>
-<td class="tdctr">50</td>
-<td class="tdctr">25</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mina (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μνᾶ</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">4</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">3</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr bb">2,016,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">288,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">144,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">72,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">36,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">18,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">12,000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">9000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">6000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">3000</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">1500</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">60</td>
-<td class="tdl bb">Talent (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τάλαντον</span>)</td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">243</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">15<br /><a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> The Drachma was very nearly equal to the French Franc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> Or, approximately, 250<em>l.</em>, the difference being only 1-40th.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="fs80">II. <em>Aeginetan and Euboic Silver.</em>&mdash;The coins of these systems can be easily calculated from the Attic, according to the ratios given in Table XI., No. 1.
-As thus calculated, the Aeginetan Talent was equal to 406<em>l.</em> 5<em>s.</em>, and the Euboic was equal to 338<em>l.</em> 10<em>s.</em> 10<em>d.</em>, and the Drachmae were equal respectively to
-1<em>s.</em> 4¼<em>d.</em> for the Aeginetan, and 1<em>s.</em> 1½<em>d.</em> + ⅕ of a farthing for the Euboic.</p>
-
-<p class="fs80">III. <em>Grecian Gold.</em>&mdash;The values of the Grecian gold money cannot be conveniently reduced to the tabular form; they will be found in the articles
-<span class="smcap"><a href="#Stater">Stater</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Dareicus">Dareicus</a></span>.</p>
-
-
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_433"></a>[433]</span></p>
-
-<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_XIII">
-<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE XIII.</span><br />
-<span class="fs90">ROMAN WEIGHTS.</span></h3>
-
-
-<table class="p1 autotable fs70" width="80%" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr smcap" colspan="13" rowspan="2">I. The Uncial Divisions of the Pound.</td>
-<td class="tdctr" colspan="2">Avoirdupois<br />Weight.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctr">Oz.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Grs.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="13"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Uncia">Uncia</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdctlr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">430·83⅓<br /><a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="12">Sescuncia, or Sescunx</td>
-<td class="tdclr">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">203·75</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="11">Sextans</td>
-<td class="tdclr">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">404·16⅔</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="10">Quadrans, or Teruncius</td>
-<td class="tdclr">2</td>
-<td class="tdc br">168·750</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2⅓</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="9">Triens</td>
-<td class="tdclr">3</td>
-<td class="tdc br">270·83⅓</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">5</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3⅓</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅔</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1¼</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="8">Quincunx</td>
-<td class="tdclr">4</td>
-<td class="tdc br">354·16⅔</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅕</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="7"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Semis">Semis</a></span>, or Semissi</td>
-<td class="tdclr">5</td>
-<td class="tdc br">337·5</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">7</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4⅓</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2⅓</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1¾</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅖</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅙</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="6">Septunx</td>
-<td class="tdclr">6</td>
-<td class="tdc br">320·33⅓</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">5⅓</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2⅔</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅗</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>7</sub></td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="5">Bes, or Bessis</td>
-<td class="tdclr">7</td>
-<td class="tdc br">104·16⅔</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">9</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2¼</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅘</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1<sup>2</sup>/<sub>7</sub></td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅛</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Dodrans</td>
-<td class="tdclr">8</td>
-<td class="tdc br">277·5</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">10</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6⅓</td>
-<td class="tdctr">5</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3⅓</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅔</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1<sup>3</sup>/<sub>7</sub></td>
-<td class="tdctr">1¼</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Dextrans</td>
-<td class="tdclr">9</td>
-<td class="tdc br">270·83⅓</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">11</td>
-<td class="tdctr">7⅓</td>
-<td class="tdctr">5½</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3⅔</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2¾</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2⅕</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅚</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1<sup>4</sup>/<sub>7</sub></td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅜</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1<sup>2</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td>
-<td class="tdctr">1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>10</sub></td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Deunx</td>
-<td class="tdclr">10</td>
-<td class="tdc br">260·83⅓</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr bb">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">2⅖</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">1<sup>5</sup>/<sub>7</sub></td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">1½</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">1⅓</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">1⅕</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>11</sub></td>
-<td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a></span>, or <span class="smcap"><a href="#Libra_a">Libra</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">11</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">237·5</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> This only differs from the ounce avoirdupois by less than 7 grains.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_XIV">
-<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE XIV.</span><br />
-<span class="fs90">ROMAN WEIGHTS.</span></h3>
-
-<table class="p1 autotable fs70" width="80%" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="10">II. Subdivisions of the Uncia.</td>
-<td class="tdctr">Grains.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="10">Siliqua</td>
-<td class="tdctlr">2·9224</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">3</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="9">Obolus</td>
-<td class="tdclr">8·767361</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="8"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Scrupulum">Scrupulum</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">17·53472</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="7">Semisextula</td>
-<td class="tdclr">35·0694</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="6"><span class="smcap">Sextula</span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">70·138</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">36</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="5">Sicilicus</td>
-<td class="tdclr">105·2083</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Duella</td>
-<td class="tdclr">140·277</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">72</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Semuncia</td>
-<td class="tdclr">120·416</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">144</td>
-<td class="tdctr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Uncia">Uncia</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">420·833</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr bb">1728</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">576</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">288</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">144</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">72</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">36</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr bb">12</td>
-<td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a></span>, or <span class="smcap"><a href="#Libra">Libra</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">5050</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_434"></a>[434]</span></p>
-
-<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_XV">
-<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE XV.</span><br />
-<span class="fs90">ROMAN MONEY.</span></h3>
-
-<table class="p1 autotable fs70" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr tdpp" colspan="18">I. Before the Reign of Augustus: when the Denarius was 1-7th of an Ounce, or about 60 Grains.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr" colspan="8">1. <em>Copper Coins.</em></td>
-<td class="tdctr" colspan="6">2. <em>Silver Coins.</em></td>
-<td class="tdctr">£.</td>
-<td class="tdctr"><em>s.</em></td>
-<td class="tdctr"><em>d.</em></td>
-<td class="tdctr">Farth-<br />ings.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bl br" colspan="8">Sextula</td>
-<td class="tdc br" colspan="6"></td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·35416</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl br" colspan="7">Quadrans</td>
-<td class="tdl br" colspan="6">Teruncius</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·53125</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td>
-<td class="tdl br" colspan="6">Triens</td>
-<td class="tdc br" colspan="6"></td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·7083</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="5">Semissis</td>
-<td class="tdctlr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="5">Sembella</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1·0625</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="4">As</td>
-<td class="tdctlr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Libella</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2·125</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Dupondius</td>
-
-<td class="tdctlr"></td>
-<td class="tdctr"></td>
-<td class="tdctr"></td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3"></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·25</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Sestertius">Sestertius</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdctlr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Sestertius">Sestertius</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·5</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">32</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdctlr">32</td>
-<td class="tdctr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Quinarius</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">4</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">96</td>
-<td class="tdctr">64</td>
-<td class="tdctr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">32</td>
-<td class="tdctr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdctlr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">32</td>
-<td class="tdctr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">8</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="bt bl br" colspan="18"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="bb bl br" colspan="18"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bl" colspan="14">3. <em>Gold Coins.</em> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aureus">Aureus</a></span><a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>
-    (value in proportion to Roman Silver)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">17</td>
-<td class="tdc br">8</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bl" colspan="7"></td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="7">(value in English current Coin)</td>
-<td class="tdclr">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="bt bl br" colspan="18"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="bb bl br" colspan="18"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bb bl" colspan="14">4. <em>Money of Account (not a Coin).</em>
-    <span class="smcap"><a href="#Sestertius">Sestertium</a></span>, or Mille Nummi</td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">8</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">17</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">1</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> For the subdivisions of the gold money, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aurum">Aurum</a></span>.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_XVI">
-<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE XVI.</span><br />
-<span class="fs90">ROMAN MONEY.</span></h3>
-
-<table class="p1 autotable fs70" width="80%" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr" colspan="9">II. After the Reign of Augustus: when the Denarius was 1-8th<br />of an Ounce, or 52·5 Grains.</td>
-<td class="tdctr"><em>£.</em></td>
-<td class="tdctr"><em>s.</em></td>
-<td class="tdctr"><em>d.</em></td>
-<td class="tdctr">Farth-<br />ings.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="9">Sextula</td>
-<td class="tdctlr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">”</td>
-<td class="tdctr">·3125</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="8">Quadrans</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·46875</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="7">Triens</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·625</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdctr">1½</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="6">Semissis</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">·9375</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">3</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="5">As</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1·875</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">6</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Dupondius</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">3·75</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">12</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Sestertius">Sestertius</a></span></td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">1</td>
-<td class="tdc br">3·5</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">32</td>
-<td class="tdctr">24</td>
-<td class="tdctr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Quinarius, or Victoriatus</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">3</td>
-<td class="tdc br">3</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdctlr">96</td>
-<td class="tdctr">64</td>
-<td class="tdctr">48</td>
-<td class="tdctr">32</td>
-<td class="tdctr">16</td>
-<td class="tdctr">8</td>
-<td class="tdctr">4</td>
-<td class="tdctr">2</td>
-<td class="tdl">Denarius</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">7</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="bt bl br" colspan="13"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="bb bl br" colspan="13"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bl pad2" colspan="9"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Aureus">Aureus</a></span>, reckoned at 25 Denarii</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">15</td>
-<td class="tdc br">7</td>
-<td class="tdc br">2</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bl pad4" colspan="9">” &nbsp;&nbsp; reckoned in English Current Coin</td>
-<td class="tdclr">”</td>
-<td class="tdc br">18</td>
-<td class="tdc br">5</td>
-<td class="tdc br">3·25</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl bb bl pad2" colspan="9"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Sestertius">Sestertium</a></span>, or Mille Nummi</td>
-<td class="tdclr bb">7</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">16</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">3</td>
-<td class="tdc bb br">”</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_435"></a>[435]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="PARALLEL_YEARS">PARALLEL YEARS.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class="center fs80">(<em>See <a href="#Olympia">page 276</a>.</em>)</p>
-
-<table class="p1 autotable fs60" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="bt" colspan="18"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="bt" colspan="18"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">776. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">1.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">616. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">41.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">558. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">518. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">478. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">438. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">772. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">2.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">612. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">42.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">557. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">517. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">477. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">437. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">768. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">3.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">608. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">43.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">556. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">56.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">516. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">66.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">476. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">76.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">436. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">86.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">764. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">4.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">604. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">44.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">555. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">515. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">475. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">435. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">760. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">5.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">600. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">45.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">554. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">514. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">474. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">434. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">756. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">6.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">596. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">46.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">553. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">513. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">473. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">433. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">752. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">7.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">592. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">47.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">552. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">57.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">512. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">67.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">472. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">77.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">432. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">87.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">748. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">8.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">591. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">551. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">511. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">471. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">431. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">744. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">9.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">590. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">550. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">510. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">470. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">430. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">740. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">10.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">589. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">549. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">509. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">469. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">429. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">736. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">11.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">588. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">48.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">548. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">58.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">508. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">68.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">468. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">78.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">428. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">88.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">732. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">12.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">587. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">547. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">507. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">467. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">427. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">728. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">13.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">586. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">546. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">506. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">466. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">426. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">724. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">14.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">585. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">545. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">505. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">465. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">425. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">720. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">15.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">584. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">49.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">544. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">59.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">504. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">69.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">464. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">79.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">424. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">89.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">716. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">16.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">583. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">543. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">503. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">463. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">423. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">712. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">17.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">582. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">542. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">502. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">462. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">422. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">708. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">18.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">581. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">541. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">501. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">461. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">421. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">704. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">19.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">580. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">50.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">540. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">60.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">500. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">70.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">460. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">80.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">420. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">90.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">700. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">20.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">579. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">539. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">499. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">459. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">419. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">696. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">21.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">578. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">538. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">498. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">458. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">418. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">692. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">22.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">577. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">537. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">497. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">457. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">417. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">688. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">23.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">576. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">51.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">536. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">61.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">496. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">71.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">456. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">81.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">416. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">91.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">684. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">24.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">575. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">535. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">495. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">455. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">415. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">680. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">25.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">574. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">534. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">494. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">454. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">414. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">676. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">26.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">573. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">533. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">493. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">453. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">413. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">672. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">27.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">572. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">52.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">532. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">62.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">492. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">72.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">452. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">82.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">412. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">92.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">668. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">28.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">571. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">531. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">491. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">451. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">411. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">664. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">29.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">570. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">530. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">490. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">450. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">410. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">660. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">30.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">569. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">529. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">489. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">449. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">409. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">656. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">31.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">568. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">53.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">528. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">63.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">488. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">73.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">448. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">83.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">408. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">93.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">652. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">32.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">567. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">527. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">487. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">447. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">407. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">648. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">33.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">566. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">526. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">486. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">446. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">406. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">644. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">34.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">565. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">525. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">485. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">445. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">405. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">640. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">35.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">564. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">54.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">524. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">64.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">484. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">74.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">444. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">84.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">404. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">94.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">636. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">36.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">563. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">523. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">483. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">443. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">403. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">632. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">37.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">562. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">522. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">482. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">442. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">402. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">628. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">38.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">561. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">521. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">481. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">441. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">401. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">624. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">39.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">560. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">55.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">520. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">65.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">480. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">75.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">440. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">85.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">400. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">95.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">620. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">40.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">559. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">519. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">479. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">439. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">399. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_436"></a>[436]</span></p>
-
-<table class="p2 autotable fs60" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="bt" colspan="18"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">A.D.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="bt" colspan="18"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">398. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">95.</td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">352. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">107.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">306. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">224. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">139.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">40. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">185.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">121. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">225.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">397. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">351. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">305. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">220. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">140.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">36. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">186.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">125. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">226.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">396. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">96.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">350. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">304. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">119.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">216. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">141.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">32. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">187.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">129. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">227.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">395. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">349. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">303. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">212. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">142.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">28. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">188.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">133. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">228.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">394. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">348. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">108.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">302. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">208. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">143.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">24. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">189.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">137. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">229.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">393. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">347. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">301. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">204. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">144.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">20. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">190.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">141. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">230.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">392. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">97.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">346. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">300. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">120.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">200. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">145.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">16. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">191.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">145. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">231.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">391. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">345. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">299. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">196. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">146.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">12. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">192.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">149. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">232.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">390. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">344. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">109.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">298. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">192. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">147.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">8. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">193.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">153. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">233.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">389. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">343. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">297. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">188. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">148.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">4. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">194.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">157. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">234.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">388. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">98.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">342. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">296. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">121.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">184. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">149.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdrl">161. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">235.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">387. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">341. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">295. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">180. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">150.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdrl">165. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">236.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">386. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">340. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">110.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">294. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">176. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">151.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdrl">169. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">237.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">385. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">339. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">293. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">172. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">152.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdrl">173. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">238.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">384. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">99.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">338. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">292. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">122.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">168. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">153.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">A.D.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">177. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">239.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">383. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">337. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">291. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">164. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">154.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr"></td>
-<td class="tdrl">181. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">240.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">382. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">336. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">111.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">290. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">160. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">155.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">1. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">195.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">185. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">241.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">381. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">335. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">289. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">156. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">156.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">5. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">196.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">189. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">242.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">380. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">100.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">334. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">288. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">123.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">152. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">157.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">9. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">197.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">193. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">243.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">379. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">333. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">287. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">148. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">158.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">13. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">198.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">197. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">244.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">378. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">332. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">112.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">286. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">144. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">159.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">17. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">199.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">201. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">245.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">377. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">331. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">285. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">140. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">160.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">21. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">200.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">205. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">246.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">376. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">101.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">330. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">284. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">124.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">136. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">161.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">25. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">201.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">209. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">247.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">375. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">329. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">283. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">132. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">162.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">29. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">202.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">213. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">248.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">374. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">328. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">113.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">282. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">128. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">163.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">33. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">203.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">217. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">249.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">373. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">327. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">281. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">124. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">164.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">37. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">204.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">221. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">250.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">372. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">102.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">326. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">280. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">125.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">120. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">165.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">41. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">205.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">225. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">251.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">371. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">325. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">279. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">116. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">166.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">45. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">206.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">229. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">252.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">370. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">324. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">114.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">278. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">112. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">167.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">49. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">207.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">233. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">253.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">369. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">323. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">277. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">108. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">168.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">53. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">208.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">237. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">254.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">368. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">103.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">322. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">276. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">126.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">104. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">169.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">57. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">209.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">241. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">255.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">367. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">321. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">275. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">100. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">170.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">61. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">210.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">245. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">256.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">366. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">320. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">115.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">274. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">96. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">171.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">65. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">211.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">249. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">257.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">365. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">319. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">273. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">92. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">172.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">69. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">212.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">253. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">258.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">364. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">104.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">318. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">272. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">127.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">88. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">173.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">73. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">213.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">257. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">259.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">363. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">317. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">268. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">128.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">84. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">174.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">77. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">214.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">261. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">260.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">362. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">316. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">116.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">264. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">129.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">80. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">175.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">81. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">215.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">265. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">261.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">361. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">315. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">260. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">130.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">76. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">176.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">85. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">216.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">269. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">262.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">360. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">105.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">314. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">256. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">131.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">72. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">177.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">89. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">217.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">273. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">263.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">359. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">313. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">252. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">132.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">68. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">178.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">93. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">218.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">277. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">264.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">358. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">312. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">117.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">248. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">133.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">64. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">179.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">97. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">219.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">281. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">265.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">357. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">311. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">244. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">134.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">60. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">180.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">101. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">220.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">285. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">266.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">356. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">106.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">310. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">240. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">135.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">56. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">181.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">105. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">221.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">289. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">267.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">355. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">309. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">236. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">136.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">52. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">182.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">109. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">222.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">293. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">268.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">354. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">308. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">118.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">232. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">137.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">48. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">183.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">113. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">223.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">297. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">269.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdr">353. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">307. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">228. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">138.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrll">44. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">184.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">117. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">224.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-<td class="tdrl">301. &nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">270.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_437"></a>[437]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="CALENDAR">CALENDARIUM:</h2>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r20" />
-
-<table class="autotable fs70" summary="">
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl pad4" colspan="7">Labels:</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl pad4" colspan="7">AK: Ante Kalendas (of the month following).</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl pad4" colspan="7">AKM: Ante Kalendas Martias.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="bl bt br" colspan="9"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdc bl">Our days of the Month.</td>
-<td class="tdc bl" colspan="2">March, May, July, October, have 31 days.</td>
-<td class="tdc bl" colspan="2">January, August, December, have 31 days.</td>
-<td class="tdc bl" colspan="2">April, June, September, November, have 30 days.</td>
-<td class="tdc bl br" colspan="2">February has 28 days, and in Leap Year 29.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="bl bt br" colspan="9"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">1.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Kalendis.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Kalendis.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Kalendis.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap bl br" colspan="2">Kalendis.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">2.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">} ante</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">} ante</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td>
-<td class="tdl br">} ante</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">3.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">V.</td>
-<td class="tdl">} ante</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">III.</td>
-<td class="tdl">} Nonas.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">III.</td>
-<td class="tdl">} Nonas.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">III.</td>
-<td class="tdl br">} Nonas.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">4.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">} Nonas.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie Nonas.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie Nonas.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl br" colspan="2">Pridie Nonas.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">5.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">III.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Nonis.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Nonis.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap bl br" colspan="2">Nonis.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">6.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie Nonas.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VIII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VIII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VIII.</td>
-<td class="tdl br"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">7.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Nonis.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VII.</td>
-<td class="tdl br"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">8.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VIII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td>
-<td class="tdl">} ante</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td>
-<td class="tdl">} ante</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td>
-<td class="tdl br"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">9.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">V.</td>
-<td class="tdl">} Idus.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">V.</td>
-<td class="tdl">} Idus.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">V.</td>
-<td class="tdl br"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">10.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td>
-<td class="tdl">} ante</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td>
-<td class="tdl br"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">11.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">V.</td>
-<td class="tdl">} Idus.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">III.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">III.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">III.</td>
-<td class="tdl br"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">12.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie Idus.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie Idus.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl br" colspan="2">Pridie Idus.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">13.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">III.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Idibus.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Idibus.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap bl br" colspan="2">Idibus.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">14.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie Idus.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XIX.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XVIII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XVI.</td>
-<td class="tdl br">}</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">15.</td>
-<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Idibus.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XVIII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XVII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XV.</td>
-<td class="tdl br">}</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">16.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XVII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XVII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XVI.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XIV.</td>
-<td class="tdl br">}</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">17.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XVI.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XVI.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XIII.</td>
-<td class="tdl br">}</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">18.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XIV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XII.</td>
-<td class="tdl br">}</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">19.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XIV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XIV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XIII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XI.</td>
-<td class="tdl br">}</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">20.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XIII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XIII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">X.</td>
-<td class="tdl br">} AKM</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">21.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XI.</td>
-<td class="tdl">} AK</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">IX.</td>
-<td class="tdl br">}</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">22.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XI.</td>
-<td class="tdl">} AK</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">XI.</td>
-<td class="tdl">} AK</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">X.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VIII.</td>
-<td class="tdl br">}</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">23.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">X.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">X.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">IX.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VII.</td>
-<td class="tdl br">}</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">24.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">IX.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">IX.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VIII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td>
-<td class="tdl br">}</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">25.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VIII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VIII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">V.</td>
-<td class="tdl br">}</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">26.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VII.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td>
-<td class="tdl br">}</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">27.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">V.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">III.</td>
-<td class="tdl br">}</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">28.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">V.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">V.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl br" colspan="2">Pridie</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">29.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">III.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl pad2 bl br" colspan="2">Kalendas</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">30.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">III.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl">III.</td>
-<td class="tdl">}</td>
-<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie</td>
-<td class="tdl pad2 bl br" colspan="2">Martias.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry">31.</td>
-<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie</td>
-<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie</td>
-<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">Kalendas (of</td>
-<td class="tdl bl"></td>
-<td class="tdl br"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">Kalendas (of</td>
-<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">Kalendas (of</td>
-<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">the month</td>
-<td class="tdl bl"></td>
-<td class="tdl br"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">the month</td>
-<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">the month</td>
-<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">following).</td>
-<td class="tdl bl"></td>
-<td class="tdl br"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="tdry"></td>
-<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">following).</td>
-<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">following).</td>
-<td class="tdl bl"></td>
-<td class="tdl"></td>
-<td class="tdl bl"></td>
-<td class="tdl br"></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td class="bl bb br" colspan="9"></td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_438"></a>[438]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="GREEK_INDEX">GREEK INDEX.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r20" />
-
-<p class="center fs80">
-<em>The numerals indicate the pages, and the letters</em> a <em>and</em> b
-<em>the first and second columns respectively.</em></p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Α</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄβαξ</span>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄγαλμα</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b; <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγαθοεργοί</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγγαρεία</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγέλη</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄγημα</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγητής</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγητόρειον</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγητόρια</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄγκιστρον</span>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄγκοινα</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγκύλη</span>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγκύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγορά</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγορανόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, b; <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγρονόμοι</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγροτέρας θυσία</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγύρται</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγχεμάχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγχιστεία</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγωνάρχαι</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγῶνες</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a; <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτίμητοι</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, b; <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τίμητοι</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, b; <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγωνισταί</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγωνοδίκαι</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγωνοθέται</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀδελφιδοῦς</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀδελφός</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀδέσποτοι</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀδύνατοι</span>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀδώνια</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄδυτον</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀείσιτοι</span>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀέτωμα</span>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀθληταί</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀθλητῆρες</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀθλοθέται</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a; <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰγικορεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰγίοχος</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰγίς</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἴθουσα</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰκίας δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἴνιγμα</span>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a; <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰσυμνήτης</span>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, b; <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰχμή</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰχμοφόροι</span>, 587, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰώρα</span>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄκαινα, Ἀκαίνη</span>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκάτειος</span>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκάτιον</span>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, b; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄκατος</span>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, b; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκινάκης</span>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκμόθετον</span>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄκμων</span>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκόντιον</span>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκράτισμα</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκροκέραια</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκρόλιθοι</span>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, a; <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκρόπολις</span>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκροστόλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, a; <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκρωτηριάζειν</span>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, b; <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκρωτήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄκτια</span>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκωκή</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄκων</span>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀλαβάρχης</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁλαί</span>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀλείπται</span>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁλία</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄλληξ</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄλλιξ</span>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄλμα</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁλοπήγιον</span>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀλυσίδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀλύσιον</span>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἅλυσις</span>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀλύται</span>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a; <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀλυτάρχης</span>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a; <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁλῶα</span>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a; <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀλῶα</span>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἅλως</span>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἅμαξα</span>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμαρύνθια</span>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμαρύσια</span>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμβροσία</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμπεχόνη</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμπίτταρες</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμπυκτήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄμπυξ</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφίβληστρον</span>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφίβολος</span>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφιδέαι</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφιδρόμια</span>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφιθάλαμος</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφικίων</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφικτύονες</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφιπρόστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφίστομος</span>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφορεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀναβαθμοί</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνάγλυπτα</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνάγλυφα</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀναγώγια</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀναδικία</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀναθήματα</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a; <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁνακαλυπτήρια</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνακειμένα</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνάκειον</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνάκλιντρον</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνάκρισις</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b; <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνάκτορον</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄναξ</span>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀναξυρίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνδρεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνδριάς</span>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνδρογεώνια</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνδροληψία</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνδρολήψιον</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνδρῶνες</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνδρωνῖτις</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνεύθυνος</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνεψιαδαῦς</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνεψιός</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνθεστήρια</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνθεστηριών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνθεσφόρια</span>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνθράκια</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνθύπατος</span>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνθυπωμοσία</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄνοδος</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄνοπλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀντιγόνεια</span>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀντιγραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, a; <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀντίδοσις</span>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀντιτίμησις</span>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀντιχειροτονεῖν</span>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀντλία</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄντυξ</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, a; <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀντωμοσία</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀξίνη</span>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄξονες</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b; <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄξων</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄορ</span>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπαγωγή</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_439"></a>[439]</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπατούρια</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπαύλια</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπελεύθερος</span>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a; <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποβάθρα</span>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπογραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποδέκται</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, a; <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπόδεσμος</span>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποθέωσις</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποθήκη</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b; <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποικία</span>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄποικοι</span>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπόκλητοι</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπολείψεως δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπολλώνια</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποπέμψεως δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπόῤῥητα</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποστασίου δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποστολεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποτειχισμός</span>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποτελεσματικός</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποτίμημα</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπόφασις</span>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποφορά</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποφράδες ἡμέραι</span>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποχειροτονεῖν</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποχειροτονία</span>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπωμοσία</span>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀραιόστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρβύλη</span>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀργάδεις</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀργυράσπιδες</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀργυροκοπεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄργυρος</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρδάλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρδάνιον</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄρειος πάγος</span>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀριστοκρατία</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄριστον</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἅρμα</span>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, b; <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁρμάμαξα</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄροτρον</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄρουρα</span>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁρπάγη</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁρπαστόν</span>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἅρπη</span>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀῤῥηφόρια</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀῤῥηφόροι</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρτάβη</span>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρτεμίσια</span>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρτοποιός</span>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρτοπῶλαι</span>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρτοπώλιδες</span>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, a; <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρτύσεις</span>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρχεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρχή</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρχίατρος</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρχιθέωρος</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a; <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρχιτεκτονία</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρχιτεκτονική</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρχιτέκτων</span>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄρχων</span>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλέυς</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπώνυμος</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, a; <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a; <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρχώνης</span>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσάμινθος</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄσβολος</span>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσεβείας γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσκαύλης</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσκληπίεια</span>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσκοί</span>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσκωλιασμός</span>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄσκωμα</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσπιδεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσπιδίσκη</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσπίς</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσπισταί</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσσάριον</span>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀστράβη</span>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀστράγαλος</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a; <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀστρατείας γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀστυνόμοι</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσυλία</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄσυλον</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀτέλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, b; <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀτιμία</span>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, a; <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄτιμος</span>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, a; <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄτλαντες</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄτρακτος</span>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὐθέψης</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὐλαία</span>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a; <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὔλακες</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὔλειος θύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὐλή</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b; <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, a; <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὐλητρίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὐλός</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a; <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὐτόνομοι</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὐτοψία</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀφεταί</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀφετήριον ὄργανον</span>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄφλαστον</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄφοδος</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄφρακτος ναῦς</span>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀφρήτορ</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀφροδίσια</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀχίτων</span>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁψίς</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Β.</span></span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βαλανεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βάλαντιον</span>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βαλλισμοί</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βάραθρον</span>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βάρβιτον, -ος</span>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, b; <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βασανισταί</span>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βάσανος</span>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b; <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βασίλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βασιλεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, a; <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βασίλισσα</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βασκανία</span>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βελόνη</span>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βελονίς</span>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βέμβηξ</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βενδίδεια</span>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βηλός</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βῆμα</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b; <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βίβασις</span>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βιβλιοθήκη</span>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βιβλίον</span>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βιδιαῖοι</span>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βῖκος</span>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βιός</span>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βοηδρόμια</span>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βοηδρομιών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βοιωτάρχης, -ος</span>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βολίς</span>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βομβύλιος</span>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βορεασμοί</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βορεασμός</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βουλευτήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βουλή</span>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, b; <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b; <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βοῶναι</span>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βραβεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βραβευταί</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βραυρώνια</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βρόχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βύβλος</span>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βυκάνη</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βυσσός</span>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βωμός</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γ.</span></span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γαισός</span>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γάλως</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γαμηλία</span>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γάμοροι</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γάμος</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γελέοντες</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γενεθλιαλογία</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γένειον</span>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γενέσια</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γένεσις</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γένη</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γεννῆται</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γένος</span>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γέρανος</span>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γερουσία</span>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γέῤῥα</span>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γέφυρα</span>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γεφυρίζειν</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γεφυρισμός</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γεωμόροι</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γλεῦκος</span>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γλύξις</span>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γναφεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γνήσιος</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γνώμων</span>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γοργύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γράμμα</span>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γραμματεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, b; <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, b; <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γραφή δωροδοκίας</span>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δώρων</span>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξενίας</span>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρανοίας</span>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρανόμων</span>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, b; <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕβρεως</span>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φαρμάκων</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψευδεγγραφῆς</span>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γραφική</span>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γραφίς</span>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γρῖφος</span>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γρόσφος</span>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γύης</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνασιάρχης</span>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνασίαρχος</span>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνάσιον</span>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνασταί</span>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνήσιοι</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνῆται</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνῆτες</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_440"></a>[440]</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνοί</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνοπαιδία</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυναικοκόσμοι</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυναικονόμοι</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυναικωνῖτις</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γωρυτός</span>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δ</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δαδοῦχος</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δαίδαλα</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δαιδάλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δακτύλιος</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δάκτυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δαμαρέτειον χρύσιον</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δαμοσία</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b; <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δανάκη</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, b; <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δαρεικός</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δαφνηφόρια</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεῖγμα</span>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δείλη</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεῖπνον</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκαδαρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκαδοῦχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκαρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκασμός</span>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκάστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκατευταί</span>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκάτη</span>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκατηλόγοι</span>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκατῶναι</span>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δελφίνια</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δελφίς</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεσμωτήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεσποσιοναῦται</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δευτεραγωνιστής</span>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δῆγμα</span>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δήλια</span>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b; <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δήμαρχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a; <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δημιοῦργοι</span>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, b; <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a; <a href="#Page_389">389</a>. b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δήμιος</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δημοκρατία</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δῆμος</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b; <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δημόσιοι</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δημόσιον</span>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b; <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δημόται</span>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διαγραφεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διάζωμα</span>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διαζώματα</span>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διαιτηταί</span>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διάκριοι</span>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διαμαρτυρία</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διαμαστίγωσις</span>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διάσια</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διάστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίαυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, b; <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διαχειροτονία</span> 83, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διαψήφισις</span>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διελκυστίνδα παίζειν</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διῆρες</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίκαι ἔμμηνοι</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διιπόλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διιπόλια</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δικαστής</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δικαστικόν</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποστασίου</span>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίκη αὐτοτελής</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βλάβης</span>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξούλης</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λειπομαρτυρίου</span>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προικός</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σίτου</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρέους</span>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίκροτα</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δικτύννια</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίκτυον</span>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διμάχαι</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b; <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίμιτος</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διοικήσεως, ὁ ἐπὶ</span>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διόλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διονύσια</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a> b.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐν ἄστει</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεγάλα</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατ’ ἀργούς</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μικρά</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διοσημεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διοσκούρια</span>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διπλοΐδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διπλοΐς</span>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διπόλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίπτερος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίπτυχα</span>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, b; <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, b; <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίσκος</span>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διφθέρα</span>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, a; <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίφρος</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διωβελία</span>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δόκανα</span>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δοκιμασία</span>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b; <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δόλιχος</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, b; <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δόλων</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δοράτιον</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δόρπον</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δόρυ</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δοῦλος</span>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δράκων</span>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δραχμή</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δρεπάνη, Δρέπανον</span>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δροῖται</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δρόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δυμανάται</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δυμᾶνες</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δωμάτια</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δῶρα</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δωροδοκίας γραφή</span>. 127, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δῶρον</span>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δώρων γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ε</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐγγύησις</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔγκλημα</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔγκτημα</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔγκτησις</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, a; <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔγχος</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἕδνα</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἕδος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑδώλια</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔεδνα</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐθελοπρόξενος</span>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰκόνες</span>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰκοστή</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰκοστολόγοι</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἵλωτες</span>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἴρην</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰσαγγελία</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰσιτήρια</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰσποιεῖσθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰσποίησις</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰσποιητός</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰσφέρειν</span>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>. a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰσφορά</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑκατόμβαια</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑκατομβαιών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑκατομβή</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a; <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔκγονοι</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔκδικος</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔκδοσις</span>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκεχειρία</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>. a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκκλησία</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυρία</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νόμιμος</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύγκλητος</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔκκλητοι</span>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκκομιδή</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκλογεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκμαρτυρία</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b; <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκποιεῖν</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκποιεῖσθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>. a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑκτεύς, Ἕκτη</span>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκφορά</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκφυλλοφορία</span>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐλαία, Ἔλαιον</span>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐλατήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐλαφηβολιών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐλέος</span>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐλευθέρια</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐλευσίνια</span>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑλκυστίνδα παίζειν</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑλλανοδίκαι</span>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a; <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, b; <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑλληνοταμίαι</span>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐλλόβιον</span>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐλλώτια</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑλλώτια</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔλυμα</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐμβάς</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐμβατεία</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔμβλημα</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐμβολή</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔμβολον</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔμβολος</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a; <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐμμέλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔμμηνοι δίκαι</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔμπαισμα</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐμποριον</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔμπορος</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔμφρουρος</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐναγίσματα</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔνατα</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔνδειξις</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἕνδεκα οἱ</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐνδοῦναι</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐνδρομίς</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔνδυμα</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔννατα</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐννεάκρουνος</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐννεατηρίς</span>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔνοπτρον</span>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔντεα</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐνωμοτίαι</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐνώτιον</span>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑξάστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐξέδρα</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b; <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b; <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐξετασταί</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐξηγηταί</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, a; <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_441"></a>[441]</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑξήρεις</span>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐξόδια</span>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔξοδος</span>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐξούλης δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐξωμίς</span>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐξωμοσία</span>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐξώστρα</span>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑορτή</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπαγγελία</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑπάλξεις</span>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a; <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπάριτοι</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπαύλια</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπεισόδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιβάθρα</span>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιβάται</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίβλημμα</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιβόλαιον</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιβολή</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιγαμία</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίγραμμα</span>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιγραφεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιδαύρια</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιδόσεις</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίθημα</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίκληρος</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίκλιντρον</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίλογοι</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιμεληταί</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b; <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοῦ ἐμπορίον</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b; <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῆς κοινῆς προσόδου</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b; <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῶν μοριῶν Ἐλαιῶν</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῶν Μυστηρίων</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῶν νεωρίων</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῶν φυλῶν</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιμύλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιπόραδος</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίπροικοι</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίσκοποι</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπισπάσασθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπισπαστήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιστάτης</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, b; <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῶν δημοσίων ἔργων</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιστολεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιστύλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, a; <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίσωτρον</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίταγμα</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίτονοι</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίτροπος</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιχειροτονία</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, a; <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπόπται</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐποπτεία</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπωβελία</span>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπωμίς</span>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπωνία</span>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπώνυμος</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔρανος</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, b; <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐργάναι</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐργαστῖναι</span>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑρμαῖ</span>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἕρμαια</span>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐῤῥηφόροι</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐρσηφόροι</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐρυκτῆρες</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐρώτια</span>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐρωτίδια</span>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔσοπτρον</span>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐστία</span>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐστιάσις</span>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑστιάτωρ</span>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐσχάρα</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a; <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b; <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐσχαρίς</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> a; <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b; <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑταιρία</span>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a; <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, a; <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἕταιροι</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑτεροστόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὔδειπνος</span>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὔζωνος</span>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὐθυδικία</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὐθύνη</span>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, b; <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὔθυνοι</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὐμολπίδαι</span>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὐνή</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὐπατρίδαι</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, a; <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὔστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὐφημεῖτε</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὐφημία</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐφελκύσασθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐφέσις</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐφέται</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐφηβεία</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔφηβος</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐφήγησις</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐφίππειον</span>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐφίππιον</span>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔφοροι</span>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔφυροι</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐχῖνος</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b; <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, a; <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἕψημα</span>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐώρα</span>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζ</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζάκοροι</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζευγῖται</span>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b; <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, a; <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζεῦγλαι</span>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζευκτηρίαι</span>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζητηταί</span>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζυγά</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζύγιοι</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b; <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζυγῖται</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b; <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζύγον</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a; <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a; <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b; <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζύγος</span>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a; <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζύθος</span>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζωγραφία</span>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζῶμα</span>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζωμὸς μέλας</span>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζώνα</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a; <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζωστήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζωφόρος</span>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, a; <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Η</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡγεμόνες συμμοριῶν</span>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡγεμονία δικαστηρίου</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἠθμός</span>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἠλακάτη</span>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἤλεκτρον -ος</span>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡλιοτρόπιον</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἦμαρ δείελον</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσον</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμέρα κυρία τοῦ νόμου</span>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέση</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμεροδρόμοι</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμιδιπλοΐδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμιεκτεόν</span>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμιέκτον</span>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμικύκλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμίμνα</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμίνα</span>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b; <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡνίοχος</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡραῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡρῷον</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἠώς</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θ</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θαλάμιοι</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θαλαμῖται</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θάλαμος</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b; <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θαλλοφόροι</span>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θάπτειν</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θαργήλια</span>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θαργηλιών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θέατρον</span>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a; <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεατροπώλης</span>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεατρώνης</span>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θέμα</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεοφανία</span>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεράπων</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b; <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θερμά</span>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θέσις</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεσμοθέται</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεσμός</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, b; <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεσμοφόριος</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θετοί</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεωρία</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεωρικά</span>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεωρίς</span>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b; <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεωροί</span>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b; <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θῆκαι</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θηριομάχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θησαυρός</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a; <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θησεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θῆτες</span>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b; <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θίασος</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θολία</span>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θόλος</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θόωκος</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θράνιον</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θρανῖται</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θράνος</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θρηνῳδοί</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θρίαμβος</span>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θρόνος</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θυμέλη</span>,  371, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θυμιατήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, a; <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὔλειος</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βαλανωτός</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηπαία</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσαυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέταυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θυρεός</span>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θύρετρον</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θυρίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θύρσος</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θυρῶν</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θυρωρεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θυρωρός</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b; <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_442"></a>[442]</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θύσανοι</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θυτήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θώραξ</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a; <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ι</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἴακχος</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἴγδη, Ἴγδις</span>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἵδρυσις</span>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱεροδιδάσκαλος</span>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερόδουλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερομαντεία</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερομηνία</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερομνήμονες</span>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, a; <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερόν</span>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, a; <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερονῖκαι</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερονόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱεροποιοί</span>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱεροσκοπία</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱεροφάντης</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, a; <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, b; <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱεροφύλαξ</span>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱκετηρία</span>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἴκρια</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἰλάρια</span>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἴλη</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱμάντες</span>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱμάντες πυκτικοί</span>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱματίδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱμάτιον</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a; <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἰνῶα</span>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱππαρμοστής</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἴππαρχος</span>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, b; <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱππεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b; <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b; <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱππικόν</span>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱπποβόται</span>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱππόδρομος</span>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱπποκόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἴρην</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἴσθμια</span>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἰσοπολιτεία</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, a; <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἰσοτέλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, a; <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, a; <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἰσοτελεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, a; <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱστίον</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, b; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱστοβοεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱστός</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, b; <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a; <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱστών</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b; <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἴτυς</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱφικρατίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κ</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καβείρια</span>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάδος, Κάδδος</span>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, b; <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καθάπαξ</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάθαρσις</span>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καθετήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάθοδος</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καίειν</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάλαθος</span>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάθοδος</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάλαμος</span>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καλλιγένεια</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καλλιερεῖν</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καλλιστεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καλοβάτης</span>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, b; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καλῳδία</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καμάρα</span>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάναβος</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κίναβος</span>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάναθρον</span>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάνδυς</span>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάνεον</span>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κανηφόρος</span>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, a; <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κανών</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καπηλεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάπηλος</span>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a; <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καπνοδόκη</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καρνεάται</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καρνεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καρπαία</span>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καρχήσιον</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καρύα</span>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καρυατίς</span>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταβλητική</span>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταγώγιον</span>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κατάλογος</span>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κατάλυσις</span>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταπειρατήρια</span>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταπέλτης</span>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταπελτική</span>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταῤῥάκτης</span>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κατάστασις</span>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταστρώματα</span>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κατατομαί</span>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κατάφρακτοι</span>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταχειροτονία</span>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταχύσματα</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κατήγορος</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάτοπτρον</span>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κατορύττειν</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κατοχεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καυσία</span>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεάδας</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a; <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κειρία</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεκρύφαλος</span>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κελευστής</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, a; <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεραία</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεραμεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεράμιον</span>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κέραμος</span>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b; <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κέρας</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b; <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κερατίον</span>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κερκίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b; <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεροῦχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεφαλή</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κηπαία θύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κῆπος</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κηρογραφία</span>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κηροός</span>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κηρύκειον</span>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κηρύκιον</span>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κιβωτός</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κίθαρις</span>,245, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κίονες</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κίστη</span>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κιστοφόρος</span>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κίων</span>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλεῖθρον</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλείς</span>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλεψύδρα</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλήιδες</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κληρονόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλῆρος</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κληρουχία</span>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, a; <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κληροῦχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλητῆρες</span>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλήτορες</span>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλιμακίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλίνη</span>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a; <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλινίδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλισίας</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κναφεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κνέφαλον</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κνῆμαι</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κνημίς</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a; <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόγξ</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόθορνος</span>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοιλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοῖλον</span>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοινὸν τῶν Αἰτώλων</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοιτῶνες</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κολεός</span>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κολοσσός</span>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόλπος</span>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κολῶναι</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόμη</span>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κομμός</span>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοντός</span>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοπίς</span>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόρδαξ</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b; <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόρη</span>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κορυβαντικά</span>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόρυμβος</span>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόρυς</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κορώνη</span>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κορωνίς</span>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, b; <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοσμοί</span>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κότινος</span>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κότταβος</span>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοτύλη</span>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοτύττια</span>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κουρά</span>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόφινος</span>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοχλιάριον</span>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοχλίας</span>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κράνος</span>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρατήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρεάγρα</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρήνη</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b; <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρηπίς</span>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρίκος</span>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κριός</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κριταί</span>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κροκή</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κροκωτόν -ός</span>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρόταλον</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρούειν</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρυπτεία</span>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρωβύλος</span>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κτείς</span>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύαθος</span>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κυάμος</span>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κυβερνῆται</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κυβιστηρες</span>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύβος</span>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύκλα</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κυκλάς</span>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύκλος</span>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύλιξ</span>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κῦμα</span>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_443"></a>[443]</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύμβαλον</span>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύμβη</span>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κυνέη</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κυρβασία</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύρβεις</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b; <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύριος</span>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, b; <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύων</span>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κώδων</span>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κωλακρέται</span>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a; <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κῶμος</span>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κωμῳδία</span>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κωνοπεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κώπη</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λ</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λαμπαδαρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λαμπαδηδρομία</span>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λαμπαδηφορία</span>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λαμπάς</span>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λάρνακες</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λάφρια</span>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λέβης</span>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λειτουργία</span>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λεκάνη</span>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λεκανίς</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λέσχη</span>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λέχος</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λήκυθος</span>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, b; <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, a; <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λήναια</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ληνοί</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ληνός</span>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ληξιαρχικὸν γραμματεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λῆξις</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λιβανωτρίς</span>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λιβυρνίς</span>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λιβυρνόν</span>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λιθοτομίαι</span>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λικμός</span>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λίκνον</span>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λίνα</span>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λίτρα</span>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λογεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λογισταί</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λογιστής</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λόγχη</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λοετρόν</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λοιβαί</span>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λουτήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λουτήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λουτρόν</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λουτροφόρος</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λόφος</span>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λοχαγοί</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a; <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λόχος</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a; <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, b; <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λύκαια</span>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λύκος</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λύχνος</span>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λυχνοῦχος</span>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μ</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μάζα</span>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, a; <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαιμακτηριών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μάνδαλος</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μανδύας</span>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μανδύη</span>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαντεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μάντεις</span>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαντική</span>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαρσύπιον</span>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαρτυρία</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b; <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαστιγονόμοι</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαστιγοφόροι</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μάστιξ</span>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μάχαιρα</span>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a; <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μέγαρον</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μέδιμνος</span>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μεθίστασται</span>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μελία</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μελίκρατον</span>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μελιττοῦτα</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μελλείρην</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μεσαύλιος θύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μέσαυλος θύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μεσημβρία</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μεταγειτνιών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μέταλλον</span>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μετάστασις</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μέταυλος θύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μετεωρολογία</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μετοίκιον</span>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, a; <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μέτοικοι</span>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μετόπη</span>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μετρητής</span>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μέτωπον</span>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μήν ἐμβόλιμος</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μητρόπολις</span>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μήτρῳον</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μῖμος</span>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μισθὸς ἐκκλησιαστικός</span>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μίτοι</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μίτρα</span>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a; <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a; <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μίτρη</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μνᾶ</span>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μνήματα</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μνημεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μόθακες</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μόθωνες</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μοιχείας γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μολυβδίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μοναρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μονομάχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μονοχίτων</span>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μόρα</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μουνυχιών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μουσεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μοχλός</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μυκτῆρες</span>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μύλος</span>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μύξαι</span>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μυρίοι</span>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μυῤῥίναι</span>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μύσια</span>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μυσταγωγός</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, a; <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μύσται</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μυστήρια</span>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μυστίλη</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μύστρον</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μύστρος</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ν</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναΐδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναός</span>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναυαρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναύαρχος</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναύκληροι</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, b; <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναυκραρία</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναύκραρος</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναῦς</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναυτικόν</span>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναυτοδίκαι</span>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεάζεσθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεκρόδειπνον</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεκύσια</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεμαῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νέμεα</span>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεμεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεοδαμώδεις</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεός</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεοῦσθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεωκόροι</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, a; <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεώς</span>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νῆες</span>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νήμα</span>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νηστεία</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νομοθέτης</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, b; <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νομοφύλακες</span>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νουμηνία</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νυμφευτής</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νυχθήμερον</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξ</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξεναγία</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξεναγοί</span>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξενηλασία</span>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξενία</span>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξενίας γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξενικά</span>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξένος</span>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a; <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξενῶνες</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξέστης</span>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξίφος</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξόανον</span>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξυήλη</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξυλοκοπία</span>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξυστήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξύστρα</span>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ο</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀβολός</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a; <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀγδόδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀγκία</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὐγκία</span>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὁδοποιοί</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἰκήματα</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἰκιστής</span>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἶκος</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_444"></a>[444]</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἰνιστήρια</span>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἰνόμελι</span>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἶνος</span>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἰωνιστική</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἰωνοπόλος</span>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἰωνοσκόποι</span>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀκρίβας</span>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀκτάστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀλιγαρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a; <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὁλκάδες</span>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὁλκοί</span>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄλμος</span>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀλοκαυτεῖν</span>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀλύμπια</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀλυμπιάς</span>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὁμογάλακτες</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὅμοιοι</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, b; <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b; <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὁμολογία</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀμφάλος</span>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a; <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀνειροπολία</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄνομα</span>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄνος</span>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀξίς</span>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀξυβάφιον</span>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀξύβαφον</span>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, b; <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀξυγράφοι</span>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀπή</span>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀπισθόδομος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὅπλα</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὅπλητες</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὁπλίται</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄργια</span>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀργυιά</span>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀρείχαλκος</span>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄρκος</span>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄρμος</span>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b; <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄρυγμα</span>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄρχησις</span>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀρχήστρα</span>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀρχηστύς</span>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄσιοι</span>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀστράκιον</span>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀστρακισμός</span>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄστρακον</span>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, b; <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b; <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀσχοφόρια</span>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὐγγία</span>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὐγκία</span>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὖδας</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὐλαμοί</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὐλόχυτα</span>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὐλοχύται</span>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὐραγός</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b; <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὐριάχος</span>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄφεις</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀχάνη</span>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄχανον</span>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀχλοκρατία</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄψημα</span>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄψον</span>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀψώνης</span>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Π</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παγκρατιασταί</span>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παγκράτιον</span>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παιάν</span>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παιδαγωγός</span>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παιδονόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παιδοτριβαί</span>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παιήων</span>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παίων</span>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάλαισμα</span>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παλαισμοσύνη</span>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παλαιστή</span>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παλαίστρα</span>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάλη</span>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παμβοιώτια</span>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάμμαχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάμφυλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παναθήναια</span>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πανδοκεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πανήγυρις</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πανιώνια</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πανοπλία</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παράβασις</span>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραγναθίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραγραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παράδεισος</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραθύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραιβάτης</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραλῖται</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάραλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b; <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάραλος</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παράμεσος δάκτυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παρανοίας γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παρανόμων γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, b; <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παράνυμφος</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραπέτασμα</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b; <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραπρεσβεία</span>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραστάδες</span>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραπυλίς</span>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραῤῥύματα</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παρασάγγης</span>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παράσημον</span>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παράσιτος</span>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παρασκήνιον</span>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραστάς</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παράστασι, ἐν</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραστάται</span>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάρεδροι</span>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παρήορος</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάροδοι</span>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάροδος</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάροχος</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παστός</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάτραι</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεδιαῖοι</span>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πέδιλον</span>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεζέταιροι</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πελάται</span>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πέλεκυς</span>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πελτασταί</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, a; <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, a; <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πέλτη</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, a; <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πενέσται</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πενταετηρίς</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πένταθλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πένταθλον</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντακοσιαρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντακοσιομέδιμνοι</span>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b; <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πενταλιθίζειν</span>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντάλιθος</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντάπτυχα</span>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντηκόντορος</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, b; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντηκοστή</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντηκοστήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντηκοστολόγοι</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντηκοστύς</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντήρεις</span>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πέπλος</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίαμμα</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίαπτον</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίβλημα</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περιβόλαιον</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίβολος</span>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίδειπνον</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίοικοι</span>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίπατος</span>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περιπόδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίπολοι</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, b; <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίπτερος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περιῤῥαντήρια</span>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περισκελλίς</span>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περιστύλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, a; <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περιτειχισμός</span>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περόνη</span>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεσσοί</span>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεταλισμός</span>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πέτασος</span>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πέταυρον</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πέτευρον</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πετροβόλος</span>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πηδάλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πήληξ</span>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πήνη</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πηνίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πήνιον</span>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πήρα</span>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πῆχυς</span>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a; <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πίθος</span>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πιθοιγία</span>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πίλημα</span>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πῖλος</span>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πιλωτόν</span>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πινακική</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πινακοθήκη</span>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλαγίαυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλαστική</span>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλέθρον</span>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλῆκτρον</span>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλήμνη</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλημοχόαι</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλημοχόη</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πληρεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλίνθος</span>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλοῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, b; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλυντήρια</span>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πόδες</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, b; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ποιεῖν</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ποιεῖσθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>. a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ποίησις</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ποιητός</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ποινή</span>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πολέμαρχος</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, a; <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, b; <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πόλις</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πολιτεία</span>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, b; <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πολίτης</span>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πόλος</span>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πολύμιτος</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πολύπτυχα</span>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πομπή</span>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_445"></a>[445]</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πορισταί</span>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, a; <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πόρπαξ</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πόρπη</span>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ποσειδεών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ποῦς</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πράκτορες</span>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προάγνευσις</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προβολή</span>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προβούλευμα</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόβουλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προγάμεια</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόδομος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προδοσία</span>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόδρομος</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προεδρία</span>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόεδροι</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόθεσις</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προθεσμία</span>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προθεσμίας νόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόθυρα</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόθυρον</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προικὸς δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προΐξ</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προκάθαρσις</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προκαταβολή</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόκλησις</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόλογος</span>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόμαχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προμήθεια</span>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόναος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προξενία</span>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόξενος</span>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προπύλαια</span>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προσκατάβλημα</span>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προσκεφάλειον</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προσκήνιον</span>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόσκλησις</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, b; <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προσκύνησις</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προστάς</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προστάτης</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, a,<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοῦ δήμου</span>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προστιμᾶν</span>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προστιμᾶσθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προστίμημα</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, b; <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προστόον</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προσωπεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόσωπον</span>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προτέλεια γάμων</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προτομή</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρότονοι</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, b; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προφήτης</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προφῆτις</span>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προχειροτονία</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προωμοσία</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρυλέες</span>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρύλις</span>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρύμνη</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρυτανεία</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρυτανεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, b; <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρυτανεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρυτανεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, b; <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρωΐ</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρώρα</span>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρωράται</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρωρεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρωταγωνιστής</span>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρωτοστάτης</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυανέψια</span>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυανεψιών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυγμαχία</span>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυγμή</span>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυγμοσύνη</span>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυέλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b; <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πύθια</span>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πύθιοι</span>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυκνόστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πύκται</span>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυλαγόραι</span>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυλαία</span>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πύλη</span>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυλίς</span>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυλών</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b; <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πύξ</span>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυξίδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πύξις</span>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυράγρα</span>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυραί</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πύργος</span>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυρία</span>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυριατήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυῤῥίχη</span>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυῤῥιχισταί</span>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πῶγων</span>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πωλῆται</span>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πῶμο</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ρ</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥαβδίον</span>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥαβδονόμοι</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥαβδοῦχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a; <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥαιστήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥαφίς</span>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥήτρα</span>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥινοπύλη</span>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥιπίς</span>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥόμβος</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥυμός</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b; <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥυτόν</span>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σ</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σαγήνη</span>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σάκκος</span>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b; <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a; <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σάκος</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σαλαμίνια</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σαλαμίνιοι</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σάλπιγξ</span>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σαμβύκη</span>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σαμβυκιστριαί</span>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σανδάλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σάνδαλον</span>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σανίς</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σαρδών</span>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σάρισα</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σάρισσα</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σαυρωτήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σεβαστός</span>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σειραφόρος</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σεῖστρον</span>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σηκός</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σημαίαι</span>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σήματα</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σημειογράφοι</span>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σημεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σίγυννος</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σίκιννις</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σιτηρέσιον</span>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σιτοδεῖαι</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σιτοπῶλαι</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σῖτος</span>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σίτου δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σιτοφυλακεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σιτοφύλακες</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b; <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σιτῶναι</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκαλμοί</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκαπέδρα</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκάφη</span>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκέπαρνον</span>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκεύη κρεμαστά</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξύλινα</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκηνή</span>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκῆπτρον</span>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκιάδειον</span>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκιάδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκιαδίσκη</span>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκιάθηρον</span>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκιάς</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκιροφοριών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκόλοψ</span>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκύθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b; <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκυτάλη</span>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σμίλη</span>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σοροί</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σπάθη</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σπάργανον</span>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σπεῖρα</span>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σπονδαί</span>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σπονδοφόροι</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στάδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στάδιος</span>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σταθμός</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a; <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a; <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σταθμοῦχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στάσιμον</span>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, a; <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στατήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σταυρός</span>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στέφανος</span>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στῆλαι</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στήμων</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στλεγγίς</span>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b; <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στοά</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b; <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στόλος</span>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στόμιον</span>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στοιχεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στρατηγός</span>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, b; <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a; <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a; <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ ἐπὶ διοικήσεως</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στρατός</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στρεπτός</span>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στρόβιλος</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στρογγύλαι</span>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, a; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στρῶμα</span>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a; <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στύλος</span>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b; <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στύραξ</span>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συγγένεια</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συγγενεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συγγραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύγκλητος ἐκκλησία</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συκοφάντης</span>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σῦλαι</span>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συλλογεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, a.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_446"></a>[446]</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συμβόλαιον</span>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συμβολή</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύμμαχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συμμορία</span>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, a; <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συμπόσιον</span>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνάλλαγμα</span>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύνδικος</span>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, b; <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνέδριον</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύνεδροι</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνηγορικόν</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνήγορος</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b; <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνθήκη</span>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύνθημα</span>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύνοδος</span>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνοικία</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύνταγμα</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συντάξεις</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύνταξις</span>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συντέλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συντελεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συντριήραρχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνωρίς</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύριγξ</span>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύρμα</span>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύσκηνοι</span>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συσσίτια</span>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύστασις</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφαγίς</span>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφαῖρα</span>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφαιρεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφαιριστήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a; <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφαιριστική</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a; <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφαιριστικός</span>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφαιρίστρα</span>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφενδόνη</span>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, b; <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφενδονήται</span>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφραγίς</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφυρήλατον</span>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σχεδίαι</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σχοινία</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b; <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σχοινοβάτης</span>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σχοῖνος</span>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σωφρονίσται</span>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σωφροσύνη</span>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τ</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταγός</span>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταινία</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b; <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταινίδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τάλαντα</span>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τάλαντον</span>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τάλαρος</span>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταλασία</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταλασιουργία</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταμίας</span>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b; <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταξίαρχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b; <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τάξις</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b; <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταῤῥός</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τάφοι</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταφροποιοί</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τάφρος</span>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταχυγράφοι</span>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τέθριππος</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τειχοποιός</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τεῖχος</span>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τελαμών</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, b; <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταλεταί</span>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τέλος</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b; <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τελωνάρχης</span>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τελώνης</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, b; <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τέμενος</span>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τέρμα</span>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετράδραχμον</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετραλογία</span>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετραορία</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετράρχης</span>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετραρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, a; <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετράστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετρήρεις</span>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετταράκοντα, οἱ</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, a; <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τεύχεα</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τήβεννος</span>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τιάρα</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τιάρας</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τίμημα</span>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b; <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τιμητεία</span>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τιμητής</span>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τόκοι ἔγγειοι</span>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγγυοι</span>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναυτικοί</span>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τόκος</span>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τολύπη</span>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τόνοι</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τόξαρχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τοξοθήκη</span>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τόξον</span>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τοξόται</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b; <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τοπεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τορευτική</span>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τορύνη</span>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τραγῳδία</span>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τράπεζα</span>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τράπεζαι</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεύτεραι</span>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρῶται</span>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τραπεζίται</span>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τράφηξ</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρίαινα</span>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριακάδες</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριακοσιομέδιμνοι</span>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριβόλος</span>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριτηρίς</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριηραρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, b; <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριήραρχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριήρεις</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριηροποιοί</span>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, a; <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρίμιπος</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρίπολος</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρίπους</span>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b; <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρίπτυχα</span>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρίτα</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριταγωνιστής</span>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριττύα</span>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριττύς</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριώβολον</span>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τροπαῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τροπωτήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρόχιλος</span>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τροχός</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a; <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b; <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρυβλίον</span>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρύγοιπος</span>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρυγῳδία</span>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρυτάνη</span>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρυφάλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τυλεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τύλη</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τύμβος</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τύμπανον</span>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τύπος</span>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τυραννίς</span>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τύραννος</span>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Υ</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑακίνθια</span>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὕαλος</span>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὕβρεως γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b; <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑδραγωγία</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑδραλέτης</span>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑδρανός</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑδραύλις</span>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑδρία</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑδριαφορία</span>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑδρόμελι</span>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὕδωρ</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὕλη</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑλλεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὕπαιθρον</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὕπαιθρος</span>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπασπισταί</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b; <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὕπατος</span>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπέραι</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, b; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπερῷον</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a; <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπεύθυνος</span>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, a; <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, a; <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπήνη</span>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπηρεσία</span>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπηρέτης</span>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπόγαιον</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπόγειον</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπογραφίς</span>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπόδημα</span>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b; <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑποζάκοροι</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑποζώματα</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑποκριτής</span>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπολήνιον</span>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπομείονες</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, b; <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπόνομος</span>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b; <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑποπόδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπόρχημα</span>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, b; <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑποστρατηγός</span>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπωμοσία</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑσσός</span>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑφάνται</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φ</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φάλαγγες</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φαλαγγαρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φάλαγξ</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b; <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φάλαρον</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φάλος</span>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φανός</span>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φαρέτρα</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, b<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φαρμακείας γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φαρμακοί</span>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φαρμάκων γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_447"></a>[447]</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φᾶρος</span>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φάρος</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φάσγανον</span>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φάσηλας</span>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φάσις</span>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φειδίτης</span>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φενάκη</span>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φερνή</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φεύγειν</span>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φθορά</span>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φιάλη</span>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φιμός</span>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φορβειά</span>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φορεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φόρμιγξ</span>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φόρος</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φορτηγοί</span>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φορτικά</span>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φρατρία</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φρατρικὸν γραμματεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φυγή</span>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φῦκος</span>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φύλακες</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φυλακτήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φύλαρχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, b; <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φυλή</span>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, a; <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φυλοβασιλεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φῦλον</span>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φωταγωγία</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χ</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλδαίων μέθοδοι</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλδαίων ψηφίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλινός</span>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλκιοίκια</span>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλκός</span>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλκοῦς</span>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a; <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χάρακες</span>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χειρόγραφον</span>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χειροτονεῖν</span>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χειροτονητοί</span>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χειροτονία</span>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, a; <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χέλυς</span>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χελώνη</span>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b; <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χηνίσκος</span>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χιλαρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χιτών</span>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχιστός</span>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χιτώνιον</span>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a; <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χιτωνίσκος</span>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χλαῖνα</span>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χλαμύς</span>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χλαμύδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χλιδών</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χοαί</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χόες</span>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χοεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χοίνιξ</span>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χορηγία</span>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χορηγός</span>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χοροδιδάσκαλος</span>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χορός</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, a; <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύκλικος</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χοῦς</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χρέους δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χρησμόλογοι</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χρηστήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χρονολογία</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χρυσός</span>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χρυσοῦς</span>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χύτρα</span>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χύτροι</span>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χῶμα</span>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, b; <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψ</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψάλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψέλιον</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψέλλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψευδεγγραφῆς γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψευδοδίπτερος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψευδοπερίπτερος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψήφισμα</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, a; <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, b; <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψῆφος</span>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a; <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψιλοί</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψυκτήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ω</span>.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὠβαί</span>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b; <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὠδεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὠρεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὡρολόγιον</span>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὡροσκόπος</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὠσχοφόρια</span>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_448"></a>[448]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="LATIN_INDEX">LATIN INDEX.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">A.</span><br />
-<br />
-Abacus, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ablegmina, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Abolla, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Abrogare legem, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Absolutio, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Accensi, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Accensus, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Acclamatio, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Accubatio, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Accubitoria vestis, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Accusatio, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Accusator, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a; <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Accusatorum libelli, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Acerra, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Acetabulum, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Achaicum fœdus, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Acies, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Acilia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Acilia Calpurnia lex, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Acinaces, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Acisculus, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Aclis, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, a; <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Acroama, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Acropolis, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Acroterium, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Acta, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">diurna, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">forensia, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">jurare in, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">militaria, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">patrum, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">senatus, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Actio, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a; <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">exercitoria, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">fiduciaria, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">injuriarum, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">in jure, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Legis or Legitima, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de pauperie, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de peculio, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">rei uxoriæ, or dotis, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">restitutoria, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Sepulchri violati, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Actionem dare, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">edere, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Actor, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">publicus, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Actuariæ naves, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Actuarii, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a; <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Actus, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b; <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">minimus, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">quadratus, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">simplex, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Acus, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Adcrescendi jure, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Addico, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, b; <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Addicti, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ademptio equi, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Adfines, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Adfinitas, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Adgnati, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Adgnatio, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Adlecti, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Admissionales, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Admissionum proximus, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Adolescentes, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Adoptio, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Adoratio, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Adrogatio, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Adsertor, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Adsessor, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Adversaria, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Adversarius, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Adulterium (Greek), <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Adulterium (Roman), <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Adulti, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b; <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Advocatus, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Aebutia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aedes, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">sacra, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Aediles, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">cereales, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Aeditimi, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aeditui, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aeditumi, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aegis, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Aelia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Sentia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Aemilia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Baebia lex, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Lepidi lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Scauri lex, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Aenatores, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aenei nummi, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a; <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Aenum, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aeora, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aera, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aerarii, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Tribuni, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, b; <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Aerarium, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">militare, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Praetores ad, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">sanctum, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Aerii nummi, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Aes, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aes (money), <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">alienum, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">circumforaneum, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">equestre, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a; <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">grave, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a; <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">hordearium, or hordiarium 12, a; <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">militare, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">uxorium, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Aestivae feriae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Aetolicum fœdus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Affines, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Affinitas, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Agaso, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Agema, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ager, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">iteratus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">publicus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">scriptuarius, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Agger, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, b; <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a; <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Agitator, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Agmen, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">pilatum, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">quadratum, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Agnati, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Agnatio, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Agnomen, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Agonales, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Agonalia, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Agonensis, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Agonia, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Agonium Martiale, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Agonus, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Agoranomi, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Agrariae leges, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Agraulia, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Agrimensores, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Agronomi, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ahenum, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ala, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Alae, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b; <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Alabaster, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Alabastrum, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Alares, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Alarii, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Alauda, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">legio, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Albogalerus, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Album, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">judicum, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Senatorium, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Alea, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aleator, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ales, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Alicula, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Alimentarii pueri et puellae, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Alipilus, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Aliptae, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Alites, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Allocutio, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b; <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_449"></a>[449]</span><br />
-<br />
-Altare, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aluta, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Amanuensis, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ambarvalia, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ambitus, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ambrosia, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ambubaiae, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ambulationes, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Amburbiale, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Amburbium, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Amentum, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Amicire, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Amictorium, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a; <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Amictus, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Amphictyones, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Amphitheatrum, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Amphora, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a; <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b; <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ampliatio, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, b; <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ampulla, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b; <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, b; <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ampullarius, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Amuletum, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Amussis, or Amussium, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Anagnostae, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Anatocismus, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ancilia, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ancora, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ancones, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Andabatae, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Angaria, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Angariarum exhibitio, or praestatio, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Angiportus, or Angiportum, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Angustus clavus, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Animadversio censoria, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Anio novus, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">vetus, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.</span><br />
-Annales maximi, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, b; <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Annalis lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b; <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Annona, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">civica, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Annuli aurei jus, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Annulorum jus, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Annulus, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Annus magnus, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Anquina, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Anquisitio, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, a; <a href="#Page_216">216</a> b.<br />
-<br />
-Antae, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Anteambulones, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Antecessores, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Antecoena, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Antecursores, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Antefixa, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Antemeridianum tempus, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Antenna, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Antepilani, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Antesignani, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Antia lex, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Anticum, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Antiquarii, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Antlia, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Antoniae leges, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Apaturia, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Aperta navis, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Apex, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aplustre, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Apodectae, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Apodyterium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Apollinares ludi, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Apophoreta, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Apotheca, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b; <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Apotheosis, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Apparitio, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Apparitores, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Appellatio (Greek), <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Aprilis, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Apuleia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">agraria lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">frumentaria lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">majestatis lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Aqua, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Alexandrina, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Algentia, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Alsietina, or Augusta, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Appia, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Claudia, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Crabra, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Julia, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Marcia, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Septimiana, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Tepula, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Trajana, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Virgo, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Aquae ductus, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">et ignis interdictio, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Aquarii, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aquila, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aquilifer, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ara, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aratrum, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Arbiter, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Arbiter bibendi, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Arbitrium, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Arca, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, a; <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Arca, ex, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Arca publica, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Arcera, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Archiater, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Archimagirus, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Archimimus, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a; <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Architectura, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Archon, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Arcus, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, a; <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">triumphalis, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Constantini, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Drusi, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Gallieni, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Septimii Severi, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Titi, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Area, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Areiopagus, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Arena, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aretalogi, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Argei, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Argentarii, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Argentum, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Argyraspides, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aries, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Arma, Armatura, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Armarium, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Armatura levis, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Armilla, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Armilustrium, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Arra, Arrabo, or Arrha, Arrhabo, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Arrogatio, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ars Chaldaeorum, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Artaba, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Artopta, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Artopticii, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Arvales Fratres, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Arundo, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Arura, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aruspices, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Arx, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-As, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-As libralis, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Asamenta, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ascia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Asiarchae, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Assamenta, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Assarius, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Asseres lecticarii, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Assertor, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Assertus, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Asses Usurae, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Assessor, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Assidui, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Assiduitas, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Astragalus, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Astrologi, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Astrologia, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Astronomi, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Asyli jus, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Asylum, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Atellanae Fabulae, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Aternia Tarpeia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Athenaeum, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Athletae, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Atia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Atilia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Atinia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Atlantes, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Atramentum, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Atrium, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, a; <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Auctio, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Auctor, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Auctores fieri, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Auctoramentum, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b; <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Auctorati, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Auctoritas, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">senatus, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Auditorium, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Aufidia lex, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Augur, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Auguraculum, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, b; <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, b; <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Augurale, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, b; <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Augurium, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b; <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Augustales, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Augustalia, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Augustus, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, a; <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Avia, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aulaeum, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aurelia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Aures, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aureus nummus, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b; <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Aurichalcum, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Auriga, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Aurum, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">coronarium, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">vicesimarium, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Auspex, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Auspicium, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b; <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_450"></a>[450]</span><br />
-<br />
-Authepsa, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Autonomi, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Auxilia, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Auxiliares, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Auxiliarii, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Axamenta, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Axis, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">B.</span><br />
-<br />
-Babylonii, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">numeri, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Bacchanalia, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Baebia lex, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Aemilia lex, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Balineae, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Balineum, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Balista, Ballista, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Balneae, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Balneator, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Balneum, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Balteus, or Baltea, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Balteus, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Baptisterium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Barathrum, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Barba, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Barbati bene, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Barbatuli, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bascauda, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Basilica, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Basis, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Basterna, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Baxa, or Baxea, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bellaria, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Beneficiarius, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Beneficium, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Benignitas, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bes, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bessis, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bestiarii, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bibasis, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bibliopola, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bibliotheca, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bidens, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, a; <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bidental, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bidiaei, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Biga, or Bigae, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bigati, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Billix, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bipennis, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Biremis, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, b; <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bissextilis annus, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bissextum, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bissextus, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bombycinum, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bona, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">caduca, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">fides, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Bonorum cessio, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">collatio, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">emtio, et emtor, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">possessio, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b; <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Bracae, or Braccae, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bravium, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bruttiani, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Buccina, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Buccinator, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bucculae, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bulla, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bura, or Buris, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bustuarii, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bustum, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a; <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Buxum, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Byssus, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">C.</span><br />
-<br />
-Caduceator, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Caduceus, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Caducum, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cadus, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, b; <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Caecilia lex de censoribus, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">lex de vectigalibus, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Didia lex, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Caelatura, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Caelia lex, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Caementa, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Caesar, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Caetra, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Calamistrum, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Calamus, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Calantica, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Calathus, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Calatores, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Calceamen, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Calceamentum, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Calceus, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Calculator, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Calculi, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a; <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Calda lavatio, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Caldarium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Calendae, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Calendarium, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a; <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Calida, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Caliga, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Calix, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Callis, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Calones, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Calpurnia lex de ambitu, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">lex de repetundis, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Calvatica, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Calumnia, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Calx, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Camara, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Camera, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Camillae, Camilli, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a; <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Caminus, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Campestre, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Canalis, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cancellarius, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cancelli, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a; <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Candela, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Candelabrum, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Candidarii, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Candidatus, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b; <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Canephorus, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Canistrum, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cantharus, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Canthus, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Canticum, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Canuleia lex, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Capistrum, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Capite censi, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Capitis deminutio, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Capitis minutio, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Capitolini, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">ludi, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Capsa, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Capsarii, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a; <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Captio, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Capulum, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Capulus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Caput, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">extorum, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Caracalla, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Carcer, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Carceres, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, b; <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Carchesium, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a; <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Carenum, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Carmen seculare, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Carmentalia, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Carnifex, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Carpentum, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Carptor, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Carrago, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Carruca, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Carrus, or Carrum, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Caryatides, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Caryatis, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cassia lex, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">agraria, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">tabellaria, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Terentia frumentaria, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Cassis, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Castellarii, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Castellum aquae, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Castra, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">stativa, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Castrensis corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cataphracti, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Catapulta, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cataracta, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Catasta, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cateia, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, b; <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Catella, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Catena, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Catervarii, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cathedra, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Catillum, or Catillus, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Catillus, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Catinum, or Catinus, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cavaedium, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cavea, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a; <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cavere, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b; <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Caupo, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Caupona, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Causia, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cauterium, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cautio, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cavum aedium, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Celeres, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Celerum tribunus, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cella, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a; <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b; <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">caldaria, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Cellarius, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Celtes, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cenotaphium, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Censere, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Censor, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, b; <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Censura, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Census, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, b; <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b; <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, a.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_451"></a>[451]</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">(Greek), <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Centesima, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">rerum venalium, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Centesimae usurae, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Centumviri, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Centuria, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, b; <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, a; <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Centuriata comitia, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Centurio, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, a; <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b; <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">primus, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">primipili, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Centussis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cera, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cerae, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b; <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ceratae tabulae, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cerealia, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cerevisia, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cernere hereditatem, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ceroma, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Certamen, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ceruchi, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cessio bonorum, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cestius pons, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cestrum, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cestus, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cetra, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Chaldaei, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Charistia, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Charta, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cheironomia, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cheniscus, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Chirographum, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Chlamys, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Choregia, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Choregus, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Chorus, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Chronologia, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Chrysendeta, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cidaris, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cincia, or Muneralis, lex, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cinctus, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Gabinus, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Cinerarius, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cingulum, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cinifio, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cippus, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Circenses ludi, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Circuitores, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Circus, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cisium, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cista, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a; <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cistophorus, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cithara, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Civica corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Civile jus, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Civis, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Civitas (Greek), <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Clarigatio, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Classica corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Classici, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Classicum, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Clathri, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b; <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Claudia lex, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Clavis, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Claustra, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a; <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Clavus angustus, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">annalis, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">latus, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Clepsydra, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Clibanarii, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cliens, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Clientela, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Clipeus, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Clitellae, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cloaca, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cloacarium, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cloacarum curatores, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Clodiae leges, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, a; <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Coa vestis, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Coactor, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, a; <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, b; <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cochlea, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, a; <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cochlear, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Codex, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b; <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Codex Gregorianus et Hermogianus, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Justinianus, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Theodosianus, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Coelia, or Caelia, lex, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Coemptio, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Coena, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a; <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Coenaculum, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Coenatio, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Coenatoria, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, b; <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cognati, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cognatio, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cognitor, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cognomen, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Coheres, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cohors, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cohortes Alariae, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">equitatae, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">peditatae, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">vigilum, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">urbanae, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Collectio, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Collegae, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Collegium, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Colobium, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Colonia, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Colonus, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Colores, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Colossus, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Colum, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Columbarium, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b; <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Columna, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">rostrata, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Columnarium, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Colus, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Coma, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Commentarii senatus, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Commissatio, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, a; <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Comitia, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">calata, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">centuriata, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">curiata, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">tributa, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Commeatus, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Commentarii sacrorum, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Commentarium, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Commentarius, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Commercium, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Commissoria lex, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Comoedia, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Comperendinatio, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Comperendini dies, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Competitor, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Compitalia, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Compitalicii ludi, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Compluvium, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Concamerata sudatio, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Conceptivae feriae, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Concilium, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Conditivum, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Conditorium, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Conditurae, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Conductor, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Condus, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Confarreatio, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Congiarium, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Congius, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Conjurati, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Conjuratio, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Connubium, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Conopeum, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Conquisitores, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Consanguinei, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Conscripti, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Consecratio, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, a; <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Consilium, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Consualia, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Consul, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Consulares, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Consularis, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Consulti, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Consultores, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Contio, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Controversia, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Contubernales, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Contubernium, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b; <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Contus, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Conventio in manum, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Conventus, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, b; <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Convicium, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Convivii magister, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">rex, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Convivium, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cooptari, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cophinus, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Corbicula, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Corbis, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Corbitae, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Corbula, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cornelia lex&mdash;<br />
-<span class="pad1">agraria, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de alea, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de civitate, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de falsis, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">frumentaria, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de injuriis, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">judiciaria, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">majestatis, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de novis tabellis, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">nummaria, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de parricidio, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de proscriptione et proscriptis, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de repetundis, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de sacerdotiis, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de sicariis et veneficis, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a; <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">sumptuaria, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">testamentaria, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b; <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">tribunicia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_452"></a>[452]</span><span class="pad1">unciaria, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Cornelia Baebia lex, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b; <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Caecilia lex, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">et Caecilia lex, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Cornicines, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cornu, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cornua, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a; <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Corona, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, b; <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">castrensis, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">civica, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">classica, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">convivialis, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">funebris, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">graminea, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">muralis, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">natalitia, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">navalis, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">nuptialis, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">obsidionalis, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">oleagina, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">ovalis, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">rostrata, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">sacerdotalis, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">sepulchralis, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">triumphalis, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">vallaris, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Coronis, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, b; <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Corporati, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Corporatio, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Corpus, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cortina, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Corvus, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Corytos, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cosmetae, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cosmi, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cothurnus, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cotyla, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Covinarii, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Covinus, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Crater, Cratera, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Creditum, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Crepida, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Crepidata tragœdia, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Crepidines, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Creta, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cretio hereditatis, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Crimen, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Crista, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Crocota, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Crotalistria, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Crotalum, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Crusta, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a; <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Crux, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Crypta, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a; <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cryptoporticus, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ctesibica machina, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cubicularii, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cubiculum, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, b; <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a; <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a; <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cubitoria, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cubitus, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cucullus, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cudo, or Cudon, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Culcita, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Culeus, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Culina, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Culleus, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Culter, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, a; <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cultrarius, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cumatium, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cumera, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cumerum, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cunabula, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cuneus, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a; <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b; <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cuniculus, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cupa, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b; <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Curator, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a; <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Curatores, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">annonae, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">aquarum, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">ludorum, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">religionum, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">viarum, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Curia, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b; <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Curiae, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b; <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Curiales, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Curiata comitia, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Curio, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">maximus, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Curriculum, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Currus, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cursores, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cursus, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Curulis sella, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cuspis, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Custodes, Custodiae, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Custos urbis, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cyathus, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cyclas, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cyma, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cymatium, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cymba, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cymbalum, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">D.</span><br />
-<br />
-Dare actionem, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Daricus, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Decanus, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-December, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Decempeda, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Decemviri, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">legibus scribendis, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a; <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">litibus, or stlitibus, judicandis, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">sacrorum, or sacris faciendis, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Decennalia, or Decennia, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Decimatio, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Decretum, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a; <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, b; <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Decumae, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Decumani, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Decuncis, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Decuriae, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Decuriones, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b; <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Decursoria, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Decussis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dedicare, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dedicatio, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Dediticii, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Deditio, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Deductores, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Defrutum, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Delator, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Delectus, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Delia, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Delphinae, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Delphinia, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Delubrum, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Demarchi, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Demens, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Demensum, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a; <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dementia, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Deminutio capitis, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Demiurgi, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Demus, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Denarius, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">aureus, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Denicales feriae, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Dens, or Dentale, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b; <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Deportatio, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">in insulam, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Deportatus, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Depositum, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Derogare legem, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Designator, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Desultor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Detestatio sacrorum, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Deversorium, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Deunx, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dextans, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Diadema, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Diaeta, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, b; <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Diaetetae, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Dialis flamen, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Diarium, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dicere, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dictator, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Didia lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Diem dicere, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dies, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Civilis, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">comitiales, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">comperendini, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">fasti, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a; <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">feriati, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">festi, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">intercisi, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Naturalis, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">nefasti, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">proeliales, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">profesti, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">stati, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Diffarreatio, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Digitus, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dimachae, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Dimensum, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Diminutio capitis, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dionysia, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Diota, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Diploma, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Diptycha, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Diribitores, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Discessio, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Discinctus, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Discipula, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Discus, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Dispensator, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Diversorium, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Divinatio, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_453"></a>[453]</span><span class="pad1">(law term), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Divisores, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Divortium, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Divus, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dodrans, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dolabella, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Dolabra, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Dolium, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b; <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dolo, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dominium, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, a; <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dominus, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a; <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b; <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">funeris, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Domitia lex, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Domo, de, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Domus, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dona, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Donaria, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Donatio, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Donativum, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dormitoria, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dos (Greek), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Drachma, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b; <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Draco, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Draconarius, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ducenarii, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, a; <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ducentesima, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, a; <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Duillia lex, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Maenia lex, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Dulciarii, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Duodecim scripta, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Duplarii, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Duplicarii, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Duplicatio, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dupondium, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dupondius, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dussis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Duumviri, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a; <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">juri dicundo, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">navales, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">perduellionis, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">quinquennales, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">sacri, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">sacrorum, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.</span><br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">E.</span><br />
-<br />
-Eculeus, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Edere actionem, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Edictum, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">novum, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">perpetuum, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">repentinum, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">tralatitium, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">vetus, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Edititii, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Editor, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Elaeothesium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Electrum, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Eleusinia, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ellychnium, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Emancipatio, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Emblema, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Emeriti, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a; <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Emissarium, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Emporium, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Encaustica, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Endromis, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ensis, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Entasis, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b; <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ephebia, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ephippium, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ephori, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Epibatae, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Epidemiurgi, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Epirhedium, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Epistylium, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Epitaphium, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Epithalamium, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, b; <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Epulones, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Epulum Jovis, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Equestris ordo, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Equiria, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Equites, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a; <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Equitum transvectio, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Equuleus, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Equus October, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Publicus, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Ergastulum, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ericius, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Esseda, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Essedarii, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, b; <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Essedum, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Everriator, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Evocati, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Euripus, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, a; <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Exauctorati, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Exauguratio, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Exceptio, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b; <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Exceptores, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Excubiae, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Excubitores, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Exedra, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a; <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Exercitor navis, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Exercitoria actio, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Exercitus, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Exodia, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Exostra, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Expeditus, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, a; <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Exploratores, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Exsequiae, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Exsilium, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">liberum, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Exsul, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Exta, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Extispices, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Extispicium, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Extranei heredes, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Extraordinarii, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a; <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Exverrae, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Exverriator, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Exuviae, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">F.</span><br />
-<br />
-Fabia lex, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fabiani, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fabii, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fabri, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fabula palliata, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">praetextata, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">togata, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">tabernaria, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Fabula trabeata, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fabulae Atellanae, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Factiones aurigarum, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Falarica, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Falcidia lex, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Falcula, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Falsum, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Falx, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Familia, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, b; <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b; <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Familiae emptor, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Famosi libelli, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Famulus, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fannia lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fanum, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Farreum, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fartor, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fas, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fasces, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, b; <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fascia, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, a; <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fascinum, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fasti, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">annales, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">calendares, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Capitolini, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">historici, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">sacri, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Fastigium, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fata Sibyllina, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fauces, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a; <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Favete linguis, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fax, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Februare, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Februarius, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, a; <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Februum, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Februus, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Feciales, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Feminalia, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fenestra, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fenus, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">nauticum, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Feralia, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ferculum, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a; <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ferentarii, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Feretrum, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Feriae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">aestivae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">conceptivae, or conceptae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">denicales, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">imperativae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Latinae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">publicae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">stativae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">stultorum, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">vindemiales, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Ferre legem, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fescennina, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Festi dies, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Festuca, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fetiales, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fibula, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fictile, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a; <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fideicommissarii praetores, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fideicommissum, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fides, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fiducia, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fiduciaria actio, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, a.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_454"></a>[454]</span><br />
-<br />
-Figulina ars, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Figulus, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Filiafamilias, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Filiusfamilias, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Filum, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fiscus, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b; <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fistuca, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fistucatio, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fistula, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Flabelliferae, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Flabellum, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Flagellum, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Flagrum, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Flamen, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Dialis, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Martialis, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Quirinalis, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pomonalis, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Flaminia lex, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Flaminica, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Flammeum, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Flavia agraria lex, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Flexumines, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Floralia, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Focale, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Foculus, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a; <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Focus, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Foederatae civitates, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Foederati, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Foedus, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, a; <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Foenus, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">nauticum, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Follis, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, b; <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fons, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fores, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a; <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fori, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a; <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Foris, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Forma, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Formido, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Formula, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b; <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fornacalia, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fornax, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fornix, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, a; <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Foro cedere, or abire, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">mergi, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Foruli, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Forum, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, b; <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a; <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fossa, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, b; <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Framea, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fratres arvales, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Frenum, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Frigidarium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fritillus, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Frontale, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fructuaria res, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fructuarius, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Frumentariae leges, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Frumentarii, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fucus, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fuga lata, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">libera, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Fugalia, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fugitivarii, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fugitivus, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fulcra, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fullo, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fullonica, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fullonicum, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fullonium, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fumarium, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Funalis equus, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Funambulus, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b; <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Funda, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b; <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Funditores, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Funes, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Funus, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">indictivum, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">plebeium, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">publicum, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">tacitum, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">translatitium, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Furca, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Furcifer, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Furia, or Fusia Caninia lex, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Furiosus, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fuscina, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fustuarium, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fusus, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">G.</span><br />
-<br />
-Gabinia lex, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b; <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Gabinus cinctus, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Gaesum, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Galea, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Galerus, -um, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, a; <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Galli, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, a; <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ganea, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Gausapa, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Gausape, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Gausapum, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Geminae frontes, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Gener, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Genethliaci, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Genitura, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Gens, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Gentilitia sacra, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Germani, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Gerrae, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Gladiatores, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Gladiatorium, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Gladius, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Glandes, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Glomus, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Glos, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Gomphi, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Gradus, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, b; <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Graecostasis, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Graphiarium, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Gregorianus codex, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Gremium, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Gubernaculum, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Gubernator, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Gustatio, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Guttus, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b; <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Gymnasium, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">H.</span><br />
-<br />
-Haeres, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Halteres, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Harmamaxa, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Harmostae, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Harpago, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Harpastum, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Haruspices, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Haruspicina ars, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, a; <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Haruspicium, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hasta, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, a; <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">celibaris, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">pura, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">vendere sub, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Hastarium, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hastati, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, a; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Helepolis, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Heliocaminus, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hellanodicae, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hellenotamiae, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Helotes, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hemina, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b; <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Heraea, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hereditas, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Heredium, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Heres (Greek), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Hermae, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hermaea, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hermanubis, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hermares, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hermathena, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hermeracles, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hermogenianus codex, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hermuli, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a; <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hexaphoron, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hexeres, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hieronica lex, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hieronicae, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hilaria, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hippodromus, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hister, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Histrio, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a; <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Honorarii, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Honorarium, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Honores, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hoplomachi, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hora, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hordearium aes, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, b; <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Horologium, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Horreum, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, b; <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hortator, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hortensia lex, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b; <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hortus, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hospes, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hospitium, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hostia, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hostia ambarvalis, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hostis, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Humare, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hyacinthia, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hydraulis, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hypaethrae, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hypocaustum, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hypogeum, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">I, J.</span><br />
-<br />
-Jaculatores, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Jaculum, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, b; <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Janitor, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b; <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Janua, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b; <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_455"></a>[455]</span><br />
-<br />
-Januarius, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Iconicae statuae, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Idus, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Jentaculum, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ignominia, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, a; <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ilicet, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Imagines, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, b; <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Immunitas, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Imperativae feriae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Imperator, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Imperium, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Impluvium, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Impubes, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-In bonis, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Inauguratio, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">regis, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Inauris, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Incendium, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Incensus, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, b; <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Inceramenta navium, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Incestum, -us, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Incunabula, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Index, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Induere, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Indumentum, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a; <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Indusium, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Indutus, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a; <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Infamia, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Infans, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Infantia, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Inferiae, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Infula, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Infundibulum, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ingenui, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Injuria, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Injuriarum actio, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Inlicium, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Inquilinus, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Insigne, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Instita, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a; <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Insula, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Intentio, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Intercessio, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Intercisi dies, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Interdictio aquae et ignis, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Interdictum, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">prohibitorium, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">restitutorium, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Interpres, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b; <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b; <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Interregnum, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Interrex, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, b; <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Interula, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Iselastici ludi, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Iter, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Iterare, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Jubere, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Judex, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Judices editi, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">edititii, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Judicium, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">album, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">populi, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b; <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">privatum, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">publicum, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Jugerum, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Jugum, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a; <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a; <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Jugumentum, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Juliae leges, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Julia lex de civitate, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, b; <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">de foenore, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">judiciaria, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de liberis legationibus, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">majestatis, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">municipalis, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">et Papia Poppaea, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">peculatus, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">et Plautia, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de provinciis, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">repetundarum, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de sacerdotiis, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de sacrilegis, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">sumptuaria, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">theatralis, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">et Titia, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de vi publica et privata, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">vicesimaria, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Julius, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Junea, or Junia, Norbana lex, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Junia lex repetundarum, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Juniores, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Junius, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Jure, actio in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">adcrescendi, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">agere, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Jure cessio, in, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, b; <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Jureconsulti, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Juris auctores, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Jurisconsulti, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Jurisdictio, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a; <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Jurisperiti, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Jurisprudentes, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Jus, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">annuli aurei, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">annulorum, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">applicationis, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">augurium, or augurum, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Censurae, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">civile, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">civile Papirianum, or Papisianum, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">civitatis, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">commercii, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">connubii, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">edicendi, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, a; <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">exsulandi, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">fetiale, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">honorum, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Latii, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a; <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">liberorum, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pontificium, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a; <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">postliminii, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">privatum, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">publice epulandi, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">publicum, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Quiritium, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, b; <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">senatus, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">suffragiorum, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">vocatio, in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Jusjurandum, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">judiciale, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Justa funera, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Justinianeus codex, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Justitium, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, a; <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Juvenalia, or juvenales ludi, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">L.</span><br />
-<br />
-Labarum, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Labrum, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Labyrinthus, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lacerna, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Laciniae, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Laconicum, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lacunar, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lacus, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a; <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Laena, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Laesa majestas, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lancea, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lances, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lanificium, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lanista, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lanx, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lapicidinae, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lapis, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">specularis, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Laquear, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Laqueatores, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Laqueus, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lararium, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Larentalia, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Larentinalia, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Largitio, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Larva, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lata fuga, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Later, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lateraria, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Laticlavius, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Latii jus, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Latinae feriae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Latinitas, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Latinus, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a; <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Latium, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Latomiae, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Latrones, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Latrunculi, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Latumiae, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Latus clavus, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lavatio calda, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Laudatio funebris, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Laurentalia, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lautomiae, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lautumiae, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lectica, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lecticarii, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lectisternium, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lectus, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">funebris, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Legatio libera, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Legatum, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Legatus, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b; <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Leges, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">censoriae, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">centuriatae, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, a; <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">curiatae, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Juliae, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Legio, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, a; <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Legis actiones, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Legitima hereditas, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Legitimae actiones, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lembus, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lemniscus, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lemuralia, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_456"></a>[456]</span><br />
-<br />
-Lemuria, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lenaea, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Leria, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lessus, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Levir, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lex, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, a; <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Acilia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Acilia Calpurnia, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Aebutia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Aelia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Aelia Sentia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Aemilia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Aemilia, de censoribus, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Aemilia Baebia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Aemilia Lepidi, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Aemilia Scauri, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">agraria, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, b; <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">ambitus, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Ampia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">annalis, or Villia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b; <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">annua, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Antia, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Antonia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Apuleia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Apuleia agraria, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Apuleia frumentaria, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Apuleia majestatis, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Aternia Tarpeia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Atia de sacerdotiis, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Atilia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Atilia Marcia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Atinia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Aufidia, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Aurelia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Aurelia Tribunicia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Baebia, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Baebia Aemilia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Caecilia de Censoribus, or Censoria, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Caecilia de Vectigalibus, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Caecilia Didia, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Calpurnia de ambitu, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Calpurnia de repetundis, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Campana, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Canuleia, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Cassia, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Cassia agraria, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Cassia tabellaria, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Cassia Terentia frumentaria, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Centuriata, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Cincia, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Claudia, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Claudia de Senatoribus, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Clodiae, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, a; <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Coelia or Caelia, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Lex Cornelia&mdash;<br />
-<span class="pad1">agraria, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de civitate, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de falsis, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">frumentaria, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de injuriis, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">judiciaria, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de magistratibus, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">majestatis, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de novis tabellis, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">nummaria, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de parricidio, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de proscriptione et proscriptis, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de repetundis, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de sacerdotiis, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de sicariis et veneficis, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a; <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">sumptuaria, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">testamentaria, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b; <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">tribunicia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">unciaria, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Baebia, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b; <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Caecilia, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">et Caecilia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Lex Curiata de imperio, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, a; <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, b; <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Curiata de adoptione, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Decemviralis, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Decia de duumviris navalibus, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Didia, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Domitia de sacerdotiis, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Duilia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Duilia maenia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Duodecim Tabularum, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Fabia de plagio, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Fabia de numero sectatorum, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Falcidia, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Fannia, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Flaminia, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Flavia agraria, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">frumentariae, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b; <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Fufia de religione, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Fufia judiciaria, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Furia or Fusia Caninia, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Furia or Fusia testamentaria, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Gabinia tabellaria, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b; <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Gellia Cornelia, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Genucia, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Hieronica, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Hortensia de plebiscitis, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b; <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Icilia, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Julia de adulteriis, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Julia de ambitu, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Juliae, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Junia de peregrinis, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Junia Licinia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Junia Norbana, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Junia repetundarum, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Laetoria, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Licinia de sodalitiis, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Licinia de ludis Apollinaribus, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Licinia Junia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Licinia Mucia de civibus regundis, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Licinia sumptuaria, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Liciniae rogationes, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Liviae, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Lutatia de vi, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Maenia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">majestatis, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Lex Mamilia de Jugurthae Fautoribus, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Mamilia finium regundarum, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">mancipii, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Manilia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Manlia de vicesima, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Marcia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Maria, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Memmia, or Remmia, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Mensia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Minucia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Nervae Agraria, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Octavia, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b; <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Ogulnia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Oppia, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Orchia, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Ovinia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Papia de peregrinis, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Papia Poppaea, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Papiria, or Julia Papiria de mulctarum aestimatione, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Papiria, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Papiria Plautia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Papiria Poetelia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Papiria tabellaria, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pedia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Peducaea, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pesulania, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Petreia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Petronia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pinaria, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Plaetoria, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Plautia, or Plotia de vi, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Plautia, or Plotia judiciaria, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Plautia Papiria, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Poetelia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Poetelia Papiria, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pompeia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pompeia de ambitu, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pompeia de civitate, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pompeia de imperio Caesari prorogando, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pompeia judiciaria, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pompeia de jure magistratuum, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pompeia de parricidiis, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pompeia tribunitia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pompeia de vi, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a; <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pompeiae, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Popilia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Porciae de capite civium, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Porcia de provinciis, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Publicia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Publilia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Publiliae, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pupia, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Quina vicemaria, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Quintia, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">regia, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">regiae, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Remmia, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">repetundarum, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Rhodia, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_457"></a>[457]</span><span class="pad1">Roscia theatralis, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Lex Rubria, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Rupiliae, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">sacratae, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Saenia de patriciorum numero augendo, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Satura, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Scantinia, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Scribonia, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Scribonia viaria, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Sempronia de foenore, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Semproniae, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Servilia agraria, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Servilia Glaucia de civitate, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Servilia Glaucia de repetundis, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Servilia judiciaria, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Silia, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Silvani et Carbonis, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Sulpicia Sempronia, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Sulpiciae, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Sumptuariae, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Tabellariae, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Tarpeia Aternia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Terentia Cassia, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Terentilia, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Testamentariae, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Thoria, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Titia, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Titia de alea, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Titia de tutoribus, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Trebonia, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Trebonia de provinciis consularibus, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Tribunicia, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a; <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Tullia de ambitu, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Tullia de legatione libera, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Valeria, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Valeriae, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Valeriae et Horatiae, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b; <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Varia, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Vatinia de provinciis, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Vatinia de colonis, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Vatinia de rejectione judicum, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">de vi, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">viaria, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">vicesimaria, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Villia annalis, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Visellia, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Voconia, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Libatio, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Libella, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a; <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Libellus, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b; <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Liber, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Libera fuga, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Liberales ludi, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Liberalia, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Liberalis causa, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">manus, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Liberalitas, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Liberi, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Libertus, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Libertinus, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b; <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Libitinarii, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Libra, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">or as, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Librarium, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Libraria taberna, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Librarii, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b; <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Librator, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Libripens, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Liburna, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Liburnica, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Liceri, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Licia, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Liciatorum, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Licinia lex de sodalitiis, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Junia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Mucia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">lex sumptuaria, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Liciniae rogationes, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Licitari, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lictor, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ligula, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Limen, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Linteones, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Linter, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Linteum, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b; <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Linum, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lirare, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Literae, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lithostrotum, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lituus, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lixae, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Locatio, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Loculus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b; <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Locuples, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Locus liberatus et effatus, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lodix, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Logistae, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lorica, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a; <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lucar, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lucerences, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Luceres, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lucerna, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lucta, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Luctatio, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ludi, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Apollinares, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Augustales, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Capitolini, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Circenses, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, a; <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">compitalitii, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Florales, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">funebres, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b; <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">liberales, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">magni, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Megalenses, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Osci, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">plebeii, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Romani, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">saeculares, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">scenici, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a; <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Tarentini, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Taurii, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Ludus, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Trojae, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Lupanar, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lupatum, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lupercalia, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Luperci, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, b; <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lupus ferreus, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lustratio, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, b; <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lustrum, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a; <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lyra, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">M.</span><br />
-<br />
-Maceria, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Maculae, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Maenia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Maenianum, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, b; <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Magadis, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Magister, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">admissionum, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">auctionis, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">equitum, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">populi, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">societatis, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Magistratus, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Maius, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Majestas, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Majores, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b; <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Malleolus, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Malus, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Malus oculus, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Mamilia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Manceps, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, a; <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Mancipatio, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mancipi res, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mancipium, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mandatum, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mangones, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Manilia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Manipulares, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Manipularii, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Manipulus, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, a; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, a; <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Manlia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mansio, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mansionarius, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Mansiones, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Manubiae, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, b; <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Manum, conventio in, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Manumissio, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Manus ferrea, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mappa, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Marcia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Margines, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Maria lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Marsupium, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Martialis flamen, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Martius, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Materfamilias, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Mathematici, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mathesis, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Matralia, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Matrimonium, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Matrona, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Matronales feriae, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Matronalia, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Matura, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Mausoleum, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, a; <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Mediastini, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, a; <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Medicamina, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Medimnus, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Medix tuticus, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Megalenses ludi, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Megalensia, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Megalesia, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Membrana, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Memmia lex, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_458"></a>[458]</span><br />
-<br />
-Mensa, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">de, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Mensae scripturam, per, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mensam per, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mensarii, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Mensularii, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Mensia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mensis, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Menstruum, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Mercedonius, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Meridiani, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Meridies, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Metae, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Metallum, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Metator, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Metretes, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, b; <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mille passuum, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Milliare, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Milliarium, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">aureum, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Mimus, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Minores, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a; <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Minucia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Minutio capitis, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Mirmillones, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Missio, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b; <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">causaria, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">honesta, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">ignominiosa, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Missus, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">aerarius, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Mitra, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, a; <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Modiolus, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Modius, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Moenia, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Mola, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">aquaria, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">asinaria, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">manuaria, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">trusatilis, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">versatilis, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">salsa, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Monarchia, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Monaulos, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Moneris, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Moneta, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Monetales triumviri, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Monile, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Monstrum, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Monumentum, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Morator, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Morbus comitialis, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Mortarium, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Morum cura, or praefectura, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Mos, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Motio e senatu, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">e tribu, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Mulleus, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mulsa, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mulsum, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Munerator, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Municeps, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Municipes, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Municipium, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Munus, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b; <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Muralis corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Muries, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Murrea vasa, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Murrhina vasa, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Murus, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Musculus, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Museum, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Musica muta, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Musivum opus, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b; <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Mustum, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mysteria, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">N.</span><br />
-<br />
-Nacca, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Naenia, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Narthecia, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Natatio, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Natatorium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Nationes, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Navales Socii, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Navalis corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Navarchus, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Navis, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">aperta, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Naumachia, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Naumachiarii, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Necessarii heredes, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Nefasti dies, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Negotiatores, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Nenia, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Neptunalia, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Nexum, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Nexus, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Nobiles, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Nobilitas, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Nomen, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">expedire, or expungere, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Latinum, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">(Greek), <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Nomenclator, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Nonae, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Nota, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">censoria, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Notarii, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Notatio censoria, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Novale, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Novare, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-November, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Novendiale, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b; <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Noverca, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Novi homines, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Novitas, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Nucleus, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Nudus, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Numeratio, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Numeri, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Nummularii, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Numularii, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Nummus, or Numus, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">aureus, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Nuncupatio, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Nundinae, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a; <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Nundinum, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Nuntiatio, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Nuptiae, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Nurus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">O.</span><br />
-<br />
-Obices, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Obnuntiatio, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Obolus, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a; <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Obrogare legem, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Obsidionalis corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Obsonium, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Occatio, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ocrea, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a; <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Octavae, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Octavia lex, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b; <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-October, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">equus, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Octophoron, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Odeum, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Oecus, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Oenomelum, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Officium admissionis, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Offringere, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ogulnia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Olea, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Oleagina corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Oleum, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Oliva, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Olla, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b; <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Olympia, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Onager, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Onerariae naves, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, b; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Onyx, alabaster, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Opalia, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b; <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Opifera, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Opima spolia, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Oppia lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Oppidum, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Opsonator, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Opsonium, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Optio, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Optimates, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Opus incertum, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Oraculum, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Orarium, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Oratio, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Orator, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Orbis, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Orca, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Orchestra, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Orchia lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Orcinus senator, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ordinarii servi, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ordinum ductores, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b; <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ordo, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b; <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, a; <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">decurionum, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">equestris, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">senatorius, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Oreae, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Orichalcum, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ornamenta triumphalia, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ornatrix, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Oscines, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Oscillum, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ostentum, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ostiarium, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ostiarius, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_459"></a>[459]</span><br />
-<br />
-Ostium, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a; <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b; <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ova, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ovalis corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ovatio, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ovile, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ovinia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">P.</span><br />
-<br />
-Paean, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Paedagogia, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Paedagogus, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Paenula, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Paganalia, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pagani, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Paganica, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pagi, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pala, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Palaestra, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a; <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Palangae, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Palilia, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Palimpsestus, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Palla, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Palliata fabula, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Palliolum, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pallium, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Palmipes, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Palmus, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Paludamentum, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Paludatus, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Panathenaea, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pancratiastae, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pancratium, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Panegyris, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pantomimus, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Papia lex de peregrinis, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Poppaea lex, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Papiria lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Plautia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Poetelia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">tabellaria lex, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Papyrus, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Paradisus, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Parapherna, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Parasiti, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Parentalia, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Paries, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Parma, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Parmula, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Parochi, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Paropsis, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Parricida, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Parricidium, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Partes, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Particulae, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pascua, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">publica, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Passum, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Passus, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Patella, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pater, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">familias, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">patratus, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Patera, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Patibulum, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Patina, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Patres, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">conscripti, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Patria potestas, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Patricii, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Patrimi et matrimi, or Patrimes et matrimes, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Patrimonium, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Patronomi, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Patronus, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, b; <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pavimentum, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b; <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pauperie, aetio de, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pauperies, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pausarii, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pecten, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a; <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Peculator, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Peculatus, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Peculio, actio de, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Peculium, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pecunia, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a; <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a; <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">vacua, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Pecuniae repetundae, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pecus, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pedarii senatores, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pedisequi, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Peducaea lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pedum, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pegma, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pegmares, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pelta, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Penicillus -um, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pentacosiomedimni, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b; <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pentathli, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pentathlon, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Peplum, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pera, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Perduellio, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a; <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Perduellionis duumviri, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Peregrinus, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a; <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Perferre legem, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Peripetasmata, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Periscelis, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Peristroma, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b; <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Peristylium, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, a; <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Peritiores, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Permutatio, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pero, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Perscriptio, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Persona, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pes, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b; <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">sestertius, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Pessulus, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pesulania lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Petasus, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a; <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Petauristae, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Petaurum, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Petitor, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a; <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Petorritum, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Petreia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Petronia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Phalangae, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Phalanx, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b; <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Phalarica, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Phalera, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pharetra, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pharos, or Pharus, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Phaselus, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pictura, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pignoris captio, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pila, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a; <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, a; <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pilani, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pileati, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pilentum, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pileum, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pileus, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pilum, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, a; <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pinacotheca, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pinaria lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Piscina, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a; <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a; <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pistor, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pistrinum, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Plaetoria lex, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Plagiarius, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Plagium, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Planetarii, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Planipedes, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Plaustrum, or Plostrum, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Plautia, or Plotia lex de vi, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">judiciaria, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Plebeii, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">ludi, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Plebes, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Plebiscitum. 225, b; <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Plebs, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Plectrum, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pluteus, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, a; <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a; <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pnyx, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Poculum, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Podium, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, b; <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Poena, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Poetelia Papiria lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pollinctores, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Polus, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Polychromy, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pomeridianum tempus, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pomoerium, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pompa, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Circensis, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Pompeiae leges, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pons, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, b; <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Aelius, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Cestius, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Fabricius, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Janiculensis, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Milvius, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Palatinus, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Sublicius, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">suffragiorum, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Vaticanus, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Pontifex, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pontificales libri, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pontifices minores, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pontificii libri, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pontificium jus, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a; <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Popa, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a; <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b; <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Popilia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Popina, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Popularia, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Populi scitum, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Populifugia, or Poplifugia, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Populus, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, a; <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Porcae, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Porciae leges, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Porta, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">decumana, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_460"></a>[460]</span><span class="pad1">pompae, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Porta praetoria, or extraordinaria, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">principalis, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Portentum, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b; <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Porticus, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Portisculus, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Portitores, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Portorium, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Portula, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Possessio, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Possessor, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Postes, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Posticum, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Postliminium, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Postmeridianum tempus, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Postsignani, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Potestas, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Praecinctio, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a; <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Praecinctus, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Praecones, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Praeconium, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Praeda, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, b; <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Praedes, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Praedia, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Praediator, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Praefecti sociorum, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Praefectus, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">aerarii, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">annonae, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b; <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">aquarum, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">castrorum, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">classis, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">fabrûm, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">juri dicundo, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">praetorio, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">vigilum, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">urbi, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, a; <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Praefectura, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">morum, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Praeficae, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Praejudicium, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Praelusio, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Praemium, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Praenomen, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Praerogativa tribus, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Praerogativae, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Praes, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Praescriptio, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Praeses, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Praesidia, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Praeteriti senatores, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, b; <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Praetexta, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Praetextata fabula, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, b; <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Praetor, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">peregrinus, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">urbanus, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Praetoria cohors, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Praetoriani, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Praetorium, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a; <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Prandium, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Prehensio, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Prelum, or Praelum, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Prensatio, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Primipilus, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>. b.<br />
-<br />
-Primitiae, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Princeps juventutis, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Princeps senatus, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Principes, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Principia, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">via, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Principium, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Privatum jus, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Privilegium, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Privigna, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Privignus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Probatio nummorum, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Proconsul, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Procubitores, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Procuratio prodigiorum, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Procurator, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a; <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a; <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b; <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, b; <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">peni, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Prodigium, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Prodigus, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Proeliales dies, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Profesti dies, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Progener, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Proletarii, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Promulsis, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, b; <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Promus, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a; <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pronubae, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pronubi, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pronurus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Propraetor, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Propugnaculum, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Proquaestor, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Prora, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Proscenium, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Proscindere, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Proscribere, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Proscripti, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Proscriptio, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Prosecta, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Prosiciae, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Prosocrus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Provincia, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Provocatio, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Provocatores, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Proximus admissionum, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Prudentiores, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pteron, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pubertas, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pubes, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Publicae feriae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Publicani, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Publicia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Publicum, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">jus, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Publicus ager, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Publilia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Publiliae leges, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pugilatus, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pugiles, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pugillares, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pugio, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pugna equestris et pedestris, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pullarius, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pullati, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pulmentarium, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pulpitum, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pulvinar, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a; <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pulvinus, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Punctae, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pupia lex, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pupillus, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Puppis, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Puteal, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Puteus, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Puticulae, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Puticuli, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pyra, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pyrgus, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pythia, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, a; <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pyxidula, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pyxis, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">Q.</span><br />
-<br />
-Quadragesima, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Quadrans, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Quadrantal, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Quadriga, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Quadrigati, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Quadriremes, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Quadrupes, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Quadruplatores, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Quadruplicatio, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Quadrussis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Quaesitor, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Quaestiones, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a; <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">perpetuae, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Quaestor, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Quaestores classici, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">parricidii, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a; <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">rerum capitalium, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">urbani, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Quaestorium, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Quaestura Ostiensis, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Qualus, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Quasillariae, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Quasillus, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Quatuorviri juri dicundo, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">viarum curandarum, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, a; <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Quinctiliani, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Quinctilii, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Quinctilis, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Quincunx, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Quindecemviri, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Quinquatria, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Quinquatrus, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">minores or minusculae, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Quinquennalia, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Quinquennalis, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Quinqueremes, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Quinquertium, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Quinqueviri, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">mensarii, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Quintana, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Quintia lex, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Quirinalia, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Quirinalis flamen, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Quiritium jus, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, b; <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">R.</span><br />
-<br />
-Radius, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a; <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ramnenses, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ramnes, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Rationes, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_461"></a>[461]</span><br />
-<br />
-Rationes Chaldaicae, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Recuperatores, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b; <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Reda, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Redemptor, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, a; <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Redimiculum, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Regia, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">lex, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Regifugium, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Regimen morum, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Regina sacrorum, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Rei uxoriae, or dotis actio, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Relatio, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Relegatio, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Relegatus, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Religiosus, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Remancipatio, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Remmia lex, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Remulcum, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Remuria, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Remus, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Renuntiatio, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Repagula, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a; <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Repetundae, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Replicatio, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Repositorium, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Repotia, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Repudium, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Res mancipi, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">nec mancipi, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">privatae, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">singulae, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Responsa, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Restitutoria actio, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Rete, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Retiarii, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Reticulum, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a; <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Retinaculum, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, a; <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Retis, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Reus, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a; <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Rex, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">sacrificulus, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">sacrificus, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a; <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">sacrorum, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, a; <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Rheda, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Rhinthonica, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Rhodia lex, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Rica, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ricinium, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Robigalia, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Robur, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Rogare legem, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Rogatio, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, a; <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, b; <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Rogationem accipere, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">promulgare, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Rogationes Liciniae, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Rogator, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Rogus, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Romphea, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Rorarii, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Roscia theatralis lex, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Rostra, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Rostrata columna, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Rostrum, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Rota, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a; <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Rubria lex, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Rubrica, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ruderatio, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Rudiarii, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Rudis, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Rudus, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Rupiliae leges, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">S.</span><br />
-<br />
-Saccus, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b; <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, a; <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sacellum, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, b; <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, a; <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sacer, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sacerdos, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sacerdotes Augustales, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sacerdotium, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sacra, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, b; <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">gentilitia, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">privata, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">publica, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Sacramentum, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, b; <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sacrarium, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a; <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sacratae leges, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sacrificium, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sacrilegium, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sacrorum detestatio, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sacrum novemdiale, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Saeculares ludi, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Saeculum, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sagittarii, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sagmina, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sagulum, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sagum, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Salaminia, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Salii, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Salinae, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Salinum, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Saltatio, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, a; <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Saltus, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a; <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Salutatores, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sambuca, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Samnites, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sandalium, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sandapila, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sapa, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sarcophagus, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sarissa, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sarracum, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Satira, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Satura, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a; <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Saturnalia, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scabellum, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scalae, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a; <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scalmi, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Scalptura, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scamnum, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a; <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scantinia lex, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scapha, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, b; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Scapus, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Scena, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scenici ludi, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a; <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sceptrum, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Schoenus, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sciothericum, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scire, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scissor, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scitum populi, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Scorpio, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a; <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scotia, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Scribae, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Scribere, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scribonia lex, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scrinium, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Scriplum, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scripta, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scriptura, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Scripturarii, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scripulum, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scrupulum, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b; <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a; <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sculptura, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scutica, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scutum, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scytale, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Secespita, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sectatores, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sectio, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sector, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Secundarium, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Securis, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Secutores, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Seges, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Segestre, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sella, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a; <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sembella, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Semis, Semissis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a; <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Semproniae leges, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sempronia lex de foenere, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Semunciarium fenus, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Senator, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Senatores Orcini, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">pedarii, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Senatus, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">auctoritas, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">consultum, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">jus, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Seniores, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sepelire, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-September, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Septemviri Epulones, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Septimontium, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Septum, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Septunx, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sepulchri violati actio, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sepulchrum, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sequestres, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sera, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Seriae, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sericum, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Serrati, <em>sc.</em> nummi, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Serta, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Servare de coelo, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Servilia agraria lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Glaucia lex, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">judiciaria lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Servus (Greek), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">ad manum, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">publicus, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Sescuncia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sescunx, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sestertium, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sestertius, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sevir turmae equitum, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Seviri, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sex suffragia, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sextans, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sextarius, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, a; <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sextilis, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sibina, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_462"></a>[462]</span><br />
-<br />
-Sibyllini libri, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sica, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sicarius, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sicila, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sidus natalitium, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sigillaria, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Signa militaria, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Signifer, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b; <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Signum, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Silentium, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Silia lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Silicarii, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Silicernium, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Siliqua, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Silvae, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Silvani et Carbonis lex, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Simpulum, or Simpuvium, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b; <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Siparium, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, a; <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sistrum, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sitella, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Siticines, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Situla, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Socculus, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Soccus, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Socer, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">magnus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Societas, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Socii, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, b; <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, a; <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Socrus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">magna, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Sodales, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">Augustales, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Titii, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Sodalitium, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Solarium, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a; <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, b; <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Solea, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Solidorum venditio, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Solidus, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Solitaurilia, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a; <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Solium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a; <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Solum, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sophronistae, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sordidati, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sortes, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a; <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sparus, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Spectacula, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Spectio, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Specularia, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Specularis lapis, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Speculatores, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Speculum, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Specus, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sperata, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sphaeristerium, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Spiculum, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b; <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Spina, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Spira, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b; <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Spirula, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Spolia, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sponda, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sponsa, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sponsalia, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sponsus, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sportula, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Stadium, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Stalagamia, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Stamen, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b; <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Stater, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Statera, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Stati dies, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Stationes, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Stativae feriae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Stator, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Statuaria ars, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Statumen, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Stesichorus, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Stilus, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Stipendiarii, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Stipendium, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Stiva, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Stola, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Stragulum, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Stratum, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Strena, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Strigil, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Strophium, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Structor, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Stultorum feriae, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Stuprum, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Stylus, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Subitarius exercitus, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Subitarii, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Subrogare legem, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Subscriptores, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Subscriptio censoria, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Subsellium, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Subsignanus, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b; <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Subtegmen, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Subtemen, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Subucula, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Suburana, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Succinctus, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sudatio concamerata, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sudatorium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Suffibulum, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Suffitio, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Suffragia sex, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Suffragium, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Suggestus, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, b; <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b; <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Suggrundarium, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sui heredes, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sulci, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sulcus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sulpiciae leges, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sulpicia Sempronia lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sumptuariae leges, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Suovetaurilia, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, b; <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Supparum, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b; <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Supparus, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Supplicatio, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Supposititii, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Susceptores, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Suspensura, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sutorium, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Symposium, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Syndicus, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Syngrapha, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Synthesis, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, b; <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Syrinx, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Syssitia, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">T.</span><br />
-<br />
-Tabella, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tabellariae leges, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tabellarius, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Taberna, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b; <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">diversoria, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Tabernaria fabula, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tablinum, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tabulae, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b; <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">censoriae, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">novae, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">publicae, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Tabulam, adesse ad, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tabularii, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tabularium, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tabulatum, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Talaria, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Talasius, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Talassio, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Talentum, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Talio, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Talus, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tarentini ludi, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tarpeia Aternia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Taurii ludi, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tectores, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tectorium, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tegula, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tela, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Telamones, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Temo, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b; <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a; <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Templum, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Temporis praescriptio, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tensae, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tepidarium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Terentilia lex, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Terentini ludi, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Terminalia, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Termini, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tertiare, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Teruncius, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a; <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tessera, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">hospitalis, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">nummaria, or frumentaria, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Testamentariae leges, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Testamentifactio, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Testamentum, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, a; <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Testator, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Testis, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, a; <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Testudo, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, b; <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b; <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tetrarcha, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tetrarches, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Textores, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Textrices, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Textrinum, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Thalassites, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Thargelia, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Theatrum, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Thensae, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Theodosianus codex, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Thermae, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Thermopolium, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Thesmophoria, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Thorax, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Thoria lex, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Thraces, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Threces, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Thronus, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Thyrsus, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tiara, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tiaras, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_463"></a>[463]</span><br />
-<br />
-Tibia, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tibicinium, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tintinnabulum, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tirocinium, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tiro, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Titia lex, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Titienses, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tities, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Titii Sodales, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Titulus, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, a; <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Toga, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">candida, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">palmata, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">picta, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">praetexta, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">pulla, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">pura, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">sordida, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">virilis, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Togata fabula, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Togatus, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tonsor, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Topiaria ars, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Topiarius, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Toralia, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Torcular, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Torculum, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tormentum, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a; <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Torques, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Torquis, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Torus, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a; <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, b; <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Trabea, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Trabeata fabula, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tragoedia, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tragula, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a; <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tragum, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Trama, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Transactio in via, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Transtillum, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Transtra, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Transvectio equitum, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Trebonia lex, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tremissis, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tressis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tresviri, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Triarii, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tribula, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tribulum, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tribulus, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tribunal, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tribuni Laticlavii, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">militum, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, a; <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Tribunicia lex, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a; <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">potestas, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Tribunus, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">celerum, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Tribus (Greek), <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Tributa comitia, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tributum, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tricliniarchia, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Triclinium, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tridens, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Triens, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Trifax, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Triga, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Trilix, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Trinum nundinum, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Trinundinum, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Triplicatio, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tripos, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tripudium, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Triremes, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Triticum, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Triumphalia ornamenta, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Triumphalis corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Triumphus, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">castrensis, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">navalis, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Triumviri, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">agro dividundo, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">capitalis, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">coloniae deducendae, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, b; <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">epulones, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">equitum turmas recognoscendi, or legendis equitum decuriis, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">mensarii, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">monetales, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">nocturni, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">reficiendis aedibus, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">reipublicae constituendae, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">sacris conquirendis donisque</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">persignandis, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">senatus legendi, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Trochleae, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Trochus, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Trojae ludus, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tropaeum, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Trossuli, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Trua, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Trulla, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Trutina, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tuba, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tubicen, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tubilustrium, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tullia lex de ambitu, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">de legatione libera, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Tullianum, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tumultuarii, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tumultuarius Exercitus, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tumultus, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tunica, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tunica recta, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tunicati, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Turibulum, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Turma, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Turricula, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Turris, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tutela, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tutor, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tympanum, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, a; <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, a; <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">U, V.</span><br />
-<br />
-Vacatio, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a; <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vadari reum, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vades, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vades dare, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vadimonium, Vas, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vagina, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Valeriae leges, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Valeriae et Horatiae leges, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b; <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Valeria lex, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vallaris corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vallum, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, b; <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a; <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vallus, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a; <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Valva, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vannus, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vari, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Varia lex, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vas, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vatinia lex, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Udo, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vectigal rerum venalium, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vectigalia, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Velarium, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Velites, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b; <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Velum, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a; <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Venabulum, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Venatio, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, a; <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Venditio, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Veneficium, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Venereus jactus, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Venus, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ver sacrum, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Verbena, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b; <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Verbenarius, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Verna, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Verriculum, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Versura, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Veru, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vervactum, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Verutum, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vespae, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vespillones, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vestalis, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">maxima, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Vestibulum, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Veteranus, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b; <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Veteratores, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vexillarii, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, b; <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vexillum, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, b; <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Via Principalis, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Viae, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Viaria lex, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Viaticum, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Viator, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Victima, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vicesima, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b; <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">hereditatum et legatorum, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">manumissionis, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b; <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Vicesimaria lex, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vicesimarii, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vico magistri, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vicus, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Victoriatus, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vigiles, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vigiliae, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vigintisexviri, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vigintiviri, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Villa, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">publica, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">rustica, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Villia annalis lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Villicus, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a; <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a; <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, b; <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vinalia, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vindemialis feria, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_464"></a>[464]</span><br />
-<br />
-Vindex, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vindicta, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vinea, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vinum, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Virgines Vestales, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Virgo maxima, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Viridarium, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Viridarius, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Virilis toga, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vis, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Visceratio, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Viscellia lex, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vitis, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vitium, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vitrearii, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vitricus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vitrum, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vitta, Vittae, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vittata sacerdos, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ulna, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Umbella, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Umbilicus, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Umbo, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a; <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, b; <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Umbraculum, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Uncia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a; <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b; <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Unciarum fenus, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Unctores, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Unctorium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Unguenta, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Unguentaria, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Unguentariae, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Unguentarii, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Universitas, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vocatio, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Voconia lex, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Volones, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Volumen, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Voluntarii, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vomer, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vomitoria, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Vorticellum, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Urceus, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Urna, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, a; <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a; <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ustrina, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a; <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ustrinum, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Usucapio, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Usurae, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Usus, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ususfructuarius, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ususfructus, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Uterini, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Utres, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Utricularius, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vulcanalia, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Vulgares, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Uxor, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Uxorium, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">X.</span><br />
-<br />
-Xystus, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">Z.</span><br />
-<br />
-Zona, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Zophorus, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, a; <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_465"></a>[465]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="ENGLISH_INDEX">ENGLISH INDEX.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r20" />
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">A.</span><br />
-<br />
-Actors (Greek), <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Adoption (Greek), <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Advocate, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Adze, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Altar, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ambassadors, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Anchor, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Anvil, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Aqueduct, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Arch, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Archers, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Armour, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Arms, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Army (Greek), <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Astronomy, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Auction (sale), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Axe, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Axle, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">B.</span><br />
-<br />
-Bail (Greek), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Bakers, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Balance, the, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ball, game at, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, b; <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bankers, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Banishment (Greek), <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Barber, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Basket, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Baths (Greek), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Beard, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Beds, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Beer, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bell, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bellows, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Belt, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bit (of horses), <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Boeotian constitution, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Books, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bookseller, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Boots, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b; <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bottomry, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bow, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Boxing, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bracelet, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Brass, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a; <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Brazier, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Breakfast, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bribery (Greek), <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Bricks, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Bridge, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bridle, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Bronze, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Brooch, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Burial (Greek), <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, b.</span><br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">C.</span><br />
-<br />
-Calendar (Greek), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman); <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Cameos, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Camp, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">breaking up of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">choice of ground for, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">construction of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Candle, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Candlestick, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Canvassing, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Capital (of columns), <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cart, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Casque, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ceilings, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Celt, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Censer, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Chain, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Chariot, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Chimneys, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Chisel, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Circumvallation, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Citizenship (Greek), <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Clerks (Athenian), <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Clocks, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Coffins, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b; <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Colony (Greek), <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Column, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Combs, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Comedy (Greek), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Cooks, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cordage, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Corn crops, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">preservation of, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Couches, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cowl, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cretan constitution, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Criers, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Crook, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Crops, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Cross, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Crown, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Crucifixion, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cubit, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cup, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Cymbal, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">D.</span><br />
-<br />
-Daggers, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a;  342, b.<br />
-<br />
-Dance, the Pyrrhic, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dancing, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Day, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dice, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Dice-box, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Dinner, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dish, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a; <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Distaff, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Dithyramb, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Divorce (Greek), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Door, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Dowry (Greek), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Drains, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Draughts, game of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Drum, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Dynasty, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">E.</span><br />
-<br />
-Ear-ring, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Earthenware, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Eleven, the, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ensigns, military, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Era, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Evil Eye, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Executioner, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_466"></a>[466]</span><br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">F.</span><br />
-<br />
-Fan, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Felting, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fire-place, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Floors of houses, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Fresco, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Fuller, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Funerals (Greek), <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Furnace, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a; <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">G.</span><br />
-<br />
-Gambler, Gaming, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Garden, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Gates of cities, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Girdle, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Gladiators, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Glass, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Gold, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Granary, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Greaves, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Guards, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">H.</span><br />
-<br />
-Hair (Greek), <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Hammers, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a; <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Harp, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hatchet, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hearth, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Heir (Greek), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Helmet, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hemlock, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Heraclean tablet, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Holidays, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Hoop, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hospitality, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hour, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-House (Greek), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Hunting, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Hunting-spear, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">I, J.</span><br />
-<br />
-Informer, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Inheritance (Greek), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Ink, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Inn, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Intaglios, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Intercalary month, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Interest of money (Greek), <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Istumian games, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Italy, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Judges (Greek), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a; <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.</span><br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">K.</span><br />
-<br />
-Kiln, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-King (Greek), <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Kitchen, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Knife, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Knights (Athenian), <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Knockers, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">L.</span><br />
-<br />
-Ladders, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lamps, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Law, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a; <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Legacy, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Legion, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Letter-carrier, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Levy, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Library, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Light-house, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Litters, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Liturgies, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Looking-glass, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Loom, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Lots, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Luncheon, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Lyre, the, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">M.</span><br />
-<br />
-Marriage (Greek), <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Masks, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Masts, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Meals (Greek), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Mile, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mile-stones, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b; <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Mills, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Mines, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mint, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mirror, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Money, coined, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Greek), gold, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman),&nbsp;  ”&nbsp;  53, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Month (Greek), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Mortars, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a; <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Mosaics, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b; <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Mourning for the dead, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b; <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">N.</span><br />
-<br />
-Names (Greek), <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Necklaces, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Nemean games, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Nets, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Notary, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">O.</span><br />
-<br />
-Oars, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Oath (Greek), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-October-horse, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Officers, duty of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">parade of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Olympiad, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Olympic games, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Oracles, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Orders of architecture, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b; <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Organ, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ostracism, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Oven, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Ounce, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">P.</span><br />
-<br />
-Painting, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Paper, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Parasol, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Parchment, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pay of soldiers, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pediment, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pen, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Perfumes, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pipe, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Plough, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Poisoning, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Poles, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Portcullis, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pottery, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Priests, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Prison, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Prodigies, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Property-tax (Greek), <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Prow, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Purification, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Purses, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Pyrrhic dance, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Pythian games, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">Q.</span><br />
-<br />
-Quiver, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">R.</span><br />
-<br />
-Races, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Rings, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Road, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Rope-dancers, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_467"></a>[467]</span><br />
-<br />
-Ropes, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Rounds, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Rudder, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">S.</span><br />
-<br />
-Sacrifices, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Saddles, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sails, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Salt, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Salt-cellar, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Salt-works, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sandal, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Scales, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Screw, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Scythe, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Senate (Greek), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, a; <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Sentinels, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Shawl, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Shields, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a; <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, a; <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a; <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Ships, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Shoe, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b; <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Shops, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sibyl, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sickle, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Silk, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Silver, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Slaves (Greek), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Sling, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Slingers, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Spartan constitution, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Spear, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Speusinians, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Spindle, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Standards, military, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Statuary, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Stern, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Stoves, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Sun-dial, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Sword, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">T.</span><br />
-<br />
-Tables, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Talent, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tapestry, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Taxes (Greek), <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, b; <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Temple, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Testament, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Theatre, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Thessalian constitution, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Threshold, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Throne, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tiles, roofing, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tombs, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Torch, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Torture, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tower, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tragedy (Greek), <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Triangle, the, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tribes (Greek), <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Tribunes, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Trident, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Tripod, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Trophy, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Trousers, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Trumpet, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, b; <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Tumblers, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">U, V.</span><br />
-<br />
-Vase-painting, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Veil, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Voting (Greek), <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, a; <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Usurers, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">W.</span><br />
-<br />
-Waggon, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Wall, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, b; <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Weaving, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Wheel, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Whip, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Wills, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Window, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br />
-<br />
-Wine, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Witnesses (Greek), <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.</span><br />
-<br />
-Wrestling, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 noindent fs80">
-<span class="pad4">Y.</span><br />
-<br />
-Yards of a sail, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br />
-<br />
-Year (Greek), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a.<br />
-<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, b.</span><br />
-<br />
-Yoke, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a.<br />
-</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_468"></a>[468]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="CLASSIFIED_INDEX">CLASSIFIED INDEX.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r20" />
-
-<p class="center fs80"><em>Under each head the names of the articles in the Index are given in which the subject is explained.</em></p>
-
-
-<p class="fs80">
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Agriculture.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hortus">Hortus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Olea">Olea, Oliva.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Oscillum">Oscillum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scamnum">Scamnum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sitos">Sitos.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Villa">Villa rustica.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vinum">Vinum.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Agricultural Implements.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aratrum">Aratrum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jugum">Jugum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pala.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pecten">Pecten.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pedum">Pedum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Plaustrum">Plaustrum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Prelum">Prelum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sarracum">Sarracum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stilus">Stilus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tintinnabulum">Tintinnabulum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Torcular">Torculum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tribula">Tribula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tympanum">Tympanum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vannus">Vannus.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Amusements and Playthings.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Abacus">Abacus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aenigma">Aenigma.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Alea">Alea.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ascoliasmus">Ascoliasmus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Buxum">Buxum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calculi">Calculi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cottabus">Cottabos.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Follis.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fritillus">Fritillus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Latrunculi">Latrunculi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Talus">Talus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tessera">Tessera.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Trochus">Trochus.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Architecture.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Abacus">Abacus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acroterium">Acroterium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Antae">Antae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Antefixa">Antefixa.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apsis">Apsis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Architectura">Architectura.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arcus">Arcus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Astragalus">Astragalus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Atlantes">Atlantes.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Balteus">Balteus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Camara">Camara.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Canalis">Canalis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Columbarium">Columbaria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Columna">Columna.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Coronis">Coronis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cortina">Cortina.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crypta">Crypta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cyma">Cyma.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Entasis">Entasis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epistylium">Epistylium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fascia">Fascia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fastigium">Fastigium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Janua">Janua.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jugum">Jugum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Later">Later.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Maenianum">Maenianum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Metopa">Metopa.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Peristylium">Peristylium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Podium">Podium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Porticus">Porticus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Spira">Spira.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Testudo">Testudo.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Tholus.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tympanum">Tympanum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Zophorus">Zophorus.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Arithmetic.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Abacus">Abacus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calculi">Calculi.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Armour and Weapons.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acinaces">Acinaces.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aegis">Aegis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arcus">Arcus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arma">Arma.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arma">Armatura.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aratrum">Capulus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cateia">Cateia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cetra">Cetra.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Clipeus">Clipeus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dolo">Dolo.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Funda">Funda.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Galea">Galea.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gerrha">Gerrha.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gladius">Gladius.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lorica">Lorica.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ocrea">Ocrea.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Palma">Palma.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pelta">Pelta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pharetra">Pharetra.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pugio">Pugio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scutum">Scutum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Securis">Securis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sica">Sica.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Venabulum">Venabulum.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Assemblies and Councils.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agora">Agora.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amphictyones">Amphictyones.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Areiopagus">Areiopagus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Boule">Boule.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Comitia_ca">Comitia calata.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Comitia_cu">curiata.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Comitia_ce">centuriata.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Comitia_tr">tributa.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Concilium">Concilium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Concio.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Conventus">Conventus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Curia">Curia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ecclesia">Ecclesia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eccleti">Eccleti.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gerousia">Gerousia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Myrii">Myrii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Panegyris">Panegyris.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Panionia">Panionia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Synedri">Synedri.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Astronomy.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Astrologia">Astrologia.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Camps and Forts.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acropolis">Acropolis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agger">Agger.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arx">Arx.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carrago">Carrago.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Castra">Castra.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Castra">stativa.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pagi">Pagi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praetorium">Praetorium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Turris">Turris.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vallum">Vallum.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Charities and Donations.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Alimentarii">Alimentarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Congiarium">Congiaria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Dianomae.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Donaria">Donaria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Frumentariae">Frumentariae Leges.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Strena">Strena.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Civil Punishments.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arca">Arca.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Barathron">Barathron, or Orugma.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carcer">Carcer.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ceadas">Ceadas.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crux">Crux.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_469"></a>[469]</span><span class="pad1"><a href="#Equuleus">Equuleus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ergastulum">Ergastulum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Flagrum">Flagrum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Furca">Furca, patibulum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Laqueus">Laqueus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lautumiae">Latumiae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sestertius">Sestertium.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Classes of Citizens and others.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Adlecti">Adlecti.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aerarii">Aerarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agela">Agela.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aretalogi">Aretalogi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Camilli">Camilli.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Canephoros">Canephoros.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dediticii">Dediticii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Delator">Delator.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Demus">Demos.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eiren">Eiren.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Emphruri.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ephebus">Ephebus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Equites">Equites.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eupatridae">Eupatridae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Geomori">Geomori.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Hetaerae.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hippobotae">Hippobotae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Homoei">Homoei.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Libertus">Libertus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Locupletes">Locupletes.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Metoici">Metoeci.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Naucraria">Naucraria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nobiles">Nobiles.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ordo">Ordo.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Parasiti">Parasiti.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Patricii">Patricii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Patrimi">Patrimi et Matrimi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Perioeci">Perioeci.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Plebes">Plebes.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Quadruplatores">Quadruplatores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Salutatores">Salutatores.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Colonies &amp; Mother Country.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Apoikia.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cleruchi">Cleruchiae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Metropolis">Metropolis.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Crimes.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calumnia">Calumnia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Falsum">Falsum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Incendium">Incendium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Injuria">Injuria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Corneliae">Leges Corneliae et Juliae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Majestas">Majestas.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Parricida">Parricidium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Plagium">Plagium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sacrilegium">Sacrilegium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sodalitium">Sodalitium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stuprum">Stuprum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Talio">Talio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Veneficium">Veneficium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vis">Vis.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Division of Land.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ager">Ager publicus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cippus">Cippus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pyrgos.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Templum">Temenos.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Drama, Dramatic Entertainments.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Comoedia">Comoedia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exodia">Exodia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exostra">Exostra.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mimus">Mimus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pantomimus">Pantomimus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Periactos.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Persona">Persona.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Siparium">Siparium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tragoedia">Tragoedia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Velum">Velum.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Dress, Ornaments, the Toilet.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Abolla">Abolla.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Alicula">Alicula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amictorium">Amictorium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amictus">Amictus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ampyx">Ampyx.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Annulus">Annulus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apex">Apex.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Armilla">Armilla.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Barba">Barba.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Baxa">Baxa.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bracae">Braccae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bulla">Bulla.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calamistrum">Calamistrum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calceus">Calceus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Campestre">Campestre.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Candys">Candys.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caracalla">Caracalla.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Catena">Catena.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Causia">Causia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cestus">Cestus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chlamys">Chlamys.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Clavus_l">Clavus latus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Clavus_l">angustus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Coma">Coma.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cothurnus">Cothurnus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crepida">Crepida.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crocota">Crocota.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cucullus">Cucullus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cudo">Cudo.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cyclas">Cyclas.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diadema">Diadema.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Embas">Embas.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Emblema">Emblema.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Endromis">Endromis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exomis">Exomis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fascia">Fascia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Feminalia">Feminalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fibula">Fibula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Fimbriae.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Flabellum">Flabellum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Focale">Focale.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fucus">Fucus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Galerus">Galerus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Inauris">Inauris.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Incunabula">Incunabula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Infula">Infula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Instita">Instita.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lacerna">Lacerna.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Laciniae">Laciniae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Laena">Laena.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lemniscus">Lemniscus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Marsupium">Marsupium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mitra">Mitra.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Monile">Monile.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nudus">Nudus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Orarium">Orarium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paenula">Paenula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pallium">Pallium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pecten">Pecten.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Peplum">Peplum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pera">Pera.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Periscelis">Periscelis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pero">Pero.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Phalerae">Phalera.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pileus">Pileus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Redimiculum">Redimiculum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Reticulum">Reticulum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ricinium">Ricinium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Saccus">Saccus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sandalium">Sandalium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Serta">Serta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Soccus">Soccus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Solea">Solea.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stola">Stola.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Strophium">Strophium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Synthesis">Synthesis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tiara">Tiara.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Toga">Toga.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Torques">Torques.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tunica">Tunica.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Udo">Udo.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Velum">Velum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vitta">Vitta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Umbraculum">Umbraculum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Unguenta">Unguenta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Zona">Zona.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Engineering.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aquae">Aquae ductus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cloaca">Cloaca.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crypta">Crypta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Emissarium">Emissarium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syrinx">Fistula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fons">Fons.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Librator">Librator aquae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Murus">Murus, moenia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Navalia">Navalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pharos">Pharos.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Piscina">Piscina.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pons">Pons.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Porta">Porta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syrinx">Syrinx.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Engraving and Chasing.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caelatura">Caelatura.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Entertainments. Food.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apophoreta">Apophoreta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calida">Calida.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cerevisia">Cerevisia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Coena">Coena.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Comissatio">Commissatio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Erani">Erani.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Opsonium">Opsonium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paropsis">Paropsis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Posca.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sportula">Sportula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Symposium">Symposium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syssitia">Syssitia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vinum">Vinum.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Epochs and Divisions of Time.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium, 1. Greek.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Calendarium_r">2. Roman.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chronologia">Chronologia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Clavus">Clavus annalis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dies">Dies.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Dies_f">fasti et nefasti.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fasti">Fasti.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Fasti">sacri, or kalendares.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Fasti">annales, or historici.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Feriae">Feriae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hora">Hora.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Horologium">Horologium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lustrum">Lustrum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nundinae">Nundinae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Olympias">Olympias.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Saeculum">Saeculum.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Exercises.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ceroma">Ceroma.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cestus">Cestus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cheironomia">Cheironomia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Desultor">Desultor.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Discus">Discus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gymnasium">Gymnasium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Halteres">Halteres.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Harpastum">Harpastum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_470"></a>[470]</span><span class="pad1"><a href="#Hippodromus">Hippodromus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lucta">Lucta, luctatio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Palaestra">Palaestra.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pancratium">Pancratium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pentathlon">Pentathlon.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Petaurum">Petaurum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pila">Pila.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pugilatus">Pugilatus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Saltatio">Saltatio.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Festivals, Games, and Shows.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Actia">Actia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Adonia">Adonia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aeora">Aeora.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agonalia">Agonalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agones">Agones.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agraulia">Agraulia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agroteras">Agroteras thusia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aloa">Aloa or haloa.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amarynthia">Amarynthia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ambrosia">Ambrosia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amphidromia">Amphidromia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Anagogia">Anagogia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Androgeonia">Androgeonia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Anthesphoria">Anthesphoria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apaturia">Apaturia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aphrodisia">Aphrodisia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apollonia">Apollonia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Oschophoria">Ariadneia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Armilustrium">Armilustrium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arrhephoria">Arrhephoria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Artemisia">Artemisia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Asclepieia">Asclepieia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Augustales">Augustales.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bendideia">Bendideia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Boedromia">Boedromia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Boreasmus">Boreasmus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Brauronia">Brauronia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cabeiria">Cabeiria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Callisteia">Callisteia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carmentalia">Carmentalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carneia">Carneia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carya">Carya.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cerealia">Cerealia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chalcioecia">Chalcioikia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Charistia">Charistia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Compitalia">Compitalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Consualia">Consualia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cotyttia">Cotyttia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Daedala">Daedala.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decennalia">Decennalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Delia">Delia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Delphinia">Delphinia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diipoleia">Diipoleia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diocleia">Diocleia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eleusinia">Eleusinia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eleutheria">Eleutheria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ellotia">Ellotia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Equiria">Equiria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Floralia">Floralia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fornacalia">Fornacalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gymnopaedia">Gymnopaedia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Heraea">Heraea.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hermaea">Hermaea.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hestiasis">Hestiasis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hilaria">Hilaria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hyacinthia">Hyacinthia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Inoa">Inoa.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Isthmia">Isthmia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Juvenalia">Juvenalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lampadephoria">Lampadephoria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Laphria">Laphria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Larentalia">Larentalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lectisternium">Lectisternium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lemuria">Lemuralia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ludi">Ludi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2">[<em>In the text an alphabetical list of the principal ludi</em></span><br />
-<span class="pad3"><em>is given.</em>]</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lupercalia">Lupercalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lycaea">Lycaea.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Matralia">Matralia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Matronalia">Matronalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Megalesia">Megalensia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mysia">Mysia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mysteria">Mysteria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Neptunalia">Neptunalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Novendiale">Novendiale.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Olympia">Olympia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Opalia">Opalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Oschophoria">Oschophoria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Palilia">Palilia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pamboeotia">Pamboeotia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Panathenaea">Panathenaea.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Plynteria">Plynteria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Populifugia">Poplifugia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Prometheia">Prometheia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pyanepsia">Pyanepsia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pythia">Pythia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Quinquatrus">Quinquatrus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Quinquennalia">Quinquennalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Quirinalia">Quirinalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Regifugium">Regifugium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Robigalia">Robigalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Saturnalia">Saturnalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Septimontium">Septimontium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Sthenia.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Synoikia">Synoikia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Terminalia">Terminalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Theophania">Theophania.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Theseia">Theseia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Thesmophoria">Thesmophoria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vinalia">Vinalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vulcanalia">Vulcanalia.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Forms of Government.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aristocratia">Aristocratia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Democratia">Democratia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Monarchia">Monarchia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Ochlocratia.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Oligarchia">Oligarchia.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Funerals.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arca">Arca.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cenotaphium">Cenotaphium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cippus">Cippus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Columbarium">Columbarium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crypta">Crypta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Funus">Funus, 1. Greek.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Funus_r">2. Roman.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mausoleum">Mausoleum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Urna">Urna.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Furniture.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Abacus">Abacus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Armarium">Armarium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Balneum">Balnea.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cathedra">Cathedra.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Conopeum">Conopeum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cortina">Cortina.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Incitega.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lectus">Lectus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mensa">Mensa.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pluteus">Pluteus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pulvinar">Pulvinar.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scamnum">Scamnum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sella">Sella.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Speculum">Speculum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Thronus">Thronus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Torus">Torus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Triclinium">Triclinium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tripos">Tripos.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Greek Law.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Adoptio">Adoptio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aikias">Aikias dike.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Anacrisis">Anakrisis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Androlepsia">Androlepsia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Antidosis">Antidosis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Antigraphe">Antigraphe.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apographe">Apographe.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apophasis">Apophasis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aporrheta">Aporrheta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Apostasiou dike.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Appellatio">Appellatio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Asebeias">Asebeias graphe.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Astrateias">Astrateias graphe.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ateleia">Ateleia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Atimia">Atimia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Axones">Axones.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas, politeia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cleteres">Cleteres.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decasmus">Decasmus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diaetetae">Diaetetae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diapsephisis">Diapsephisis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dicastes">Dicastes.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dice">Dike.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Divortium">Divortium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Docimasia">Dokimasia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dos">Dos.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ecmartyria">Ecmartyria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eisangelia">Eisangelia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Embateia">Embateia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Emmeni">Emmeni dikae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Endeixis">Endeixis, ephegesis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epangelia">Epangelia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epibole">Epibole.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epiclerus">Epiclerus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epitropus">Epitropus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epobelia">Epobelia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Euthyne">Euthyne.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exomosia">Exomosia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gamelia">Gamelia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Graphe">Graphe.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Heres">Heres.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hieromnemones">Hieromenia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hybreos">Hybreos graphe.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jusjurandum">Jusjurandum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Prodosia">Prodosia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Proeisphoras dike.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Prostates_t">Prostates tou demou.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Prothesmia">Prothesmia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Psephus">Psephus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pseudengraphes">Pseudengraphes graphe.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pseudocleteias">Pseudocleteias graphe.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Rhetrae">Rhetrae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sitou">Sitou dike.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sycophantes">Sycophantes.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sylae">Sylae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syndicus">Syndicus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Synegorus">Synegorus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syngraphe">Syngraphe.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Timema">Timema.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tormentum">Tormentum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Xenias">Xenias graphe.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Horse Furniture.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ephippium">Ephippium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Frenum">Frenum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Habenae.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hippobotae">Hippoperae.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Income, Public and Private.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aes_u">Aes uxorium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apophoreta">Apophora.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arca">Arca.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Census">Census.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Centesima">Centesima.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Columnarium">Columnarium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decumae">Decumae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eicoste">Eicoste.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eisphora">Eisphora.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epidoseis">Epidoseis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fiscus">Fiscus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ostiarium">Ostiarium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pentecoste">Pentecoste.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Phoros.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Portorium">Portorium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Quadragesima">Quadragesima.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Salinae">Salinae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scriptura">Scriptura.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stipendiarii">Stipendiarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Telones">Telones.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Telos">Telos.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Theorica">Theorica.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tributum">Tributum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vectigalia">Vectigalia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_471"></a>[471]</span><span class="pad1"><a href="#Vicesima">Vicesima.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Insignia and Attributes.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caduceus">Caduceus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fasces">Fasces.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Insignia.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sceptrum">Sceptrum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Talaria">Talaria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Thyrsus">Thyrsus.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Leagues.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Achaicum">Achaicum Foedus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aetolicum">Aetolicum Foedus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Socii">Socii.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Literature.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Commentarius">Commentarius.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fescennina">Fescennina.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Logographi.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paean">Paean.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Satura">Satura.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Machines and Contrivances.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Antlia">Antlia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Catena">Catena.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Clitellae">Clitellae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cochlea">Cochlea.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Columbarium">Columbarium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ephippium">Ephippium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exostra">Exostra.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ferculum">Ferculum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syrinx">Fistula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Follis">Follis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Forma">Forma.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Fornax.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jugum">Jugum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Libra">Libra, Libella.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mortarium">Mortarium, pila.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pegma">Pegma.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Phalanx">Phalangae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Retis">Retis, Rete.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scalae_n">Scalae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tela">Tela.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tintinnabulum">Tintinnabulum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Torcular">Torculum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Trutina">Trutina.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Magistrates and Rulers.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acta">Acta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Adlecti">Adlecti.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aesymnetes">Aesymnetes.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Alabarches">Alabarches.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amphictyones">Amphictyones.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Archon">Archon.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Areiopagus">Areiopagus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bidiaei">Bidiaei.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Boeotarches">Boetarches.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Boule">Boule.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Censor">Censor.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Centumviri">Centumviri.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Consul">Consul.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Consularis">Consularis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cosmi">Cosmi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decaduchi">Decaduchi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decarchia">Decarchia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decemviri">Decemviri.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2">legibus scribendis.</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">litibus judicandis.</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">sacris faciundis.</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">agris dividundis.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Demarchi">Demarchi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Demiurgi">Demiurgi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dictator">Dictator.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Duumviri">Duumviri.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ephetae">Ephetae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ephori">Ephori.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epimeletae">Epimeletae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eponymus">Eponymus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gerousia">Gerousia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gynaeconomi">Gynaeconomi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Harmostae">Harmostae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hendeca">Hendeka, hoi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hieromnemones">Hieromnemones.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Interrex">Interrex.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Magistratus">Magistratus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Medix">Medix tuticus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nomophylaces">Nomophylaces.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paedonomus">Paedonomus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Patronomi">Patronomi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Duumviri">Perduellionis duumviri.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Phylarchi">Phylarchi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Phylobasileis">Phylobasileis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Polemarchus">Polemarchus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Poletae">Poletae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Poristae">Poristae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praetor">Praetor.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Proconsul">Proconsul.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Rex">Rex.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tetrarches">Tetrarches.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tribunus">Tribunus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Triumviri">Triumviri.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tyrannus">Tyrannus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Manufactures and Materials.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Byssus">Byssus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Coa">Coa vestis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fictile">Fictile.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gausapa">Gausapa.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lodix">Lodix, lodicula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Salinae">Salinae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sericum">Sericum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Serta">Serta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vitrum">Vitrum.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Manners and Customs.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acclamatio">Acclamatio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acta">Acta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Angaria">Angaria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cheirotonia">Cheirotonia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Chelidonia.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chirographum">Chirographum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Corona">Corona convivialis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2">nuptialis.</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">natalitia.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crypteia">Crypteia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diploma">Diploma.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hospitium">Hospitium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hydriaphoria">Hydriaphoria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Immunitas">Immunitas.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jusjurandum">Jusjurandum, 1. Greek.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Jusj_r">2. Roman.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Leiturgia">Leiturgia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium, 1. Greek.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Matr_r">2. Roman.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nomen">Nomen.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nudus">Nudus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Proscriptio">Proscriptio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Prytaneium">Prytaneium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Suffragium">Suffragium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Synoikia">Synoikia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syssitia">Syssitia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tabella">Tabella.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus, 1. Greek.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Trib_r">2. Roman.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Trierarchia">Trierarchia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Venatio">Venatio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Viaticum">Viaticum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Xenelasia">Xenelasia.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Maritime Affairs.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Camara">Camara.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carchesium">Carchesium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cataphracti">Cataphracti.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Corbitae">Corbitae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cymba">Cymba.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Delphis">Delphis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dolo">Dolo.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epibatae">Epibatae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epistoleus">Epistoleus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Harpago">Harpago.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Insignia.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jugum">Jugum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lembus">Lembus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Navarchus">Navarchus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Navis">Navis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Naumachia">Naumachia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paralus">Paralus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Phaselus">Phaselus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Portisculus">Portisculus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praefectus_s">Praefectus classis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Remulcum">Remulcum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Rudens.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Markets.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agora">Agora.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Deigma">Deigma.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Emporium">Emporium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Forum">Forum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Macellum.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Measures and Weights.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acaena">Acaena.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acetabulum">Acetabulum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Actus">Actus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amphora">Amphora.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Artaba">Artaba.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arura">Arura.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#As">As.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Choenix">Choenix.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chous">Chous.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Congius">Congius.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cotyla">Cotyla.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cubitus">Cubitus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Culeus">Culeus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cyathus">Cyathus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dactylus">Dactylus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decempeda">Decempeda.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Gradus.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hecte">Hecte.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hemina">Hemina.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Hippicon.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jugerum">Jugerum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Libra_a">Libra, as.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ligula">Ligula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Litra">Litra.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Medimnus">Medimnus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Metretes">Metretes.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Miliare">Milliare.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Modius">Modius.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Obolus">Obolus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Orgyia">Orgyia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Palmipes">Palmipes.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Palmus">Palmus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Parasanga">Parasanga.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Passus">Passus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pes">Pes.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Plethron">Plethron.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Quadrantal">Quadrantal.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Schoenus">Schoenus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scrupulum">Scrupulum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sextarius">Sextarius.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stadium">Stadium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ulna">Ulna.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Uncia">Uncia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Urna">Urna.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_472"></a>[472]</span><span class="pad1"><a href="#Xestes">Xestes.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Metals.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aes">Aes.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Argentum">Argentum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aurum">Aurum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Electrum">Electrum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Metallum">Metallum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Orichalcum">Orichalcum.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Military Costume.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Abolla">Abolla.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Alicula">Alicula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Balteus">Balteus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bulla">Bulla.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caliga">Caliga.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paludamentum">Paludamentum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sagum">Sagum.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Military Engines.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aries">Aries.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Catapulta">Catapulta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cataracta">Cataracta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Corvus">Corvus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cuniculus">Cuniculus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ericius">Ericius.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Helepolis">Helepolis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lupus">Lupus ferreus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pluteus">Pluteus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scalae_n">Scalae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stilus">Stylus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Testudo">Testudo.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tormentum">Tormentum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tribulus">Tribulus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Turris">Turris.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vinea">Vinea.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Military Ensigns.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Signa">Signa Militaria.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Military Levies.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Catalogus">Catalogus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Conquisitores">Conquisitores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Emphruri.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epariti">Epariti.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tumultus">Tumultus.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Military Manœuvres.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cuneus">Cuneus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Forfex.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Testudo">Testudo.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Military Pay and Allowances.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acta">Acta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aes_e">Aes equestre.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2">hordearium.</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">militare.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praeda">Praeda.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stipendium">Stipendium.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Military Punishments.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decimatio">Decimatio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fustuarium">Fustuarium.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Military Rewards.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aurum_c">Aurum coronarium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Corona">Corona obsidionalis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2">civica.</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">navalis.</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">muralis.</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">castrensis, vallaris.</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">ovalis.</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">oleagina.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hasta_p">Hasta pura.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ovatio">Ovatio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praeda">Praeda.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Spolia">Spolia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Triumphus">Triumphus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tropaeum">Tropaeum.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Money.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aes">Aes.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Aes_c">circumforaneum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Argentum">Argentum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#As_c">As.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Assarius">Assarius nummus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aurum">Aurum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chalcus">Chalcus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cistophorus">Cistophorus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Damaretion">Damaretion.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Danace">Danace.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dareicus">Daricus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Drachma">Drachma.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hecte">Hecte.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Libella">Libella.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Litra">Litra.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nummus">Nummus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Obolus">Obolus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sestertius">Sestertius.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stater">Stater.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Uncia">Uncia.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Music and Musical Instruments.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acroama">Acroama.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aeneatores">Aeneatores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Buccina">Buccina.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Canticum">Canticum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Capistrum">Capistrum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cornu">Cornu.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crotalum">Crotalum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cymbalum">Cymbalum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hydraulis">Hydraula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lituus">Lituus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lyra">Lyra.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pecten">Pecten.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sambuca">Sambuca.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sistrum">Sistrum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syrinx">Syrinx.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Testudo">Testudo.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tibia">Tibia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tuba">Tuba.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tympanum">Tympanum.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Officers and Soldiers.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Accensus">Accensi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aeneatores">Aeneatores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agathoergi">Agathoergi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ala">Ala.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Alauda">Alauda.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Antecessores">Antecessores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Argyraspides">Argyraspides.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Catalogus">Catalogus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cataphracti">Cataphracti.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Celeres">Celeres.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Conquisitores">Conquisitores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Contubernales">Contubernales.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Damosia">Damosia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dimachae">Dimachae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ducenarii">Ducenarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Duplarii">Duplarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epariti">Epariti.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Evocati">Evocati.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Excubitores">Excubitores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus, 1. Greek.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Exer_r">2. Roman.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Librator">Libratores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Phylarchi">Phylarchi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praefectus_c">Praefectus castrorum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Praefectus_p">praetorio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praetor">Praetor.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praetoriani">Praetoriani.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Strategus">Strategus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tagus">Tagus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Taxiarchi">Taxiarchi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tiro">Tiro.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Volones">Volones.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Xenagi">Xenagi.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Oracles and Divination.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Augur">Augurium, auspicium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caput_e">Caput extorum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Oraculum">Oraculum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sibyllini">Sibyllini Libri.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sortes">Sortes.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Priests and Priestly Offices.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aeditui">Aeditui.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agyrtae">Agyrtae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arvales">Arvales fratres.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Asiarchae">Asiarchae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Augur">Augur, auspex.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Augustales">Augustales.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Curio">Curio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epulones">Epulones.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eumolpidae">Eumolpidae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exegetae">Exegetae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fetiales">Fetiales.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Flamen">Flamen.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Galli">Galli.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Haruspices">Haruspices.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Luperci">Luperci.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Neocori">Neocori.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Portisculus">Pausarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pontifex">Pontifex.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Rex_s">Rex sacrificulus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sacerdos">Sacerdos.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Salii">Salii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Theori">Theori.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Titii">Titii sodales.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vestales">Vestales.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Private Buildings.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aithousa">Aithousa.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apotheca">Apotheca.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Armarium">Armarium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Atrium">Atrium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bibliotheca">Bibliotheca.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caupona">Caupona.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cella">Cella.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cubiculum">Cubiculum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Domus">Domus, 1. Greek.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Domu_r">2. Roman.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Vestibulum">vestibulum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Ostium">ostium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Atrium">atrium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Ala">alae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Tablinum">tablinum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Domus">fauces.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Peristylium">perystylum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Cubiculum">cubicula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Triclinium">triclinia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2">oeci.</span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Exedra">exedrae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Culina">culina.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Coenaculum">coenacula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2">diaeta.</span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Solarium">solaria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exedra">Exedrae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Focus">Focus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Fornax.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fornix">Fornix.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hemicyclium">Hemicyclium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Janua">Janua.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lararium">Lararium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Later">Later.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paries">Paries cratitius.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2">formaceus.</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">lateritius.</span><br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_473"></a>[473]</span>
-<span class="pad2">reticulata structura.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paries">Paries structura antiqua.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2">emplecton.</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">e lapide quadrato.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pergula.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Pinacotheca.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pluteus">Pluteus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Puteal">Puteal.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scalae_a">Scalae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Synoikia">Synoikia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caupona">Taberna.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tegula">Tegula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Triclinium">Triclinium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Villa">Villa.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Public Buildings.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Archeion">Archeion.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arcu_t">Arcus triumphalis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Argyrocopeion">Argyrocopeion.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Athenaeum">Athenaeum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Auditorium">Auditorium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Balneum">Balneae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Basilica">Basilica, chalcidicum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bibliotheca">Bibliotheca.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carcer">Carcer.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Circus">Circus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cochlea">Cochlea.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Curia">Curia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Forum">Forum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Graecostasis">Graecostasis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hippodromus">Hippodromus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Horreum">Horreum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Labyrinthus">Labyrinthus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lautumiae">Lautumiae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lesche">Lesche.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Moneta">Moneta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Museum">Museum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paradisus">Paradisus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Porticus">Porticus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Prytaneium">Prytaneion.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Rostra">Rostra.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stadium">Stadium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Suggestus">Suggestus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tabularium">Tabularium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Thesaurus">Thesaurus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tribunal">Tribunal.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Public Officers.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Accensus">Accensi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Actuarii">Actuarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Adlecti">Adlecti.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Admissionales">Admissionales.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aediles">Aediles.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agathoergi">Agathoergi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agonothetae">Agonothetae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agoranomi">Agoranomi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agrimensores">Agrimensores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agronomi">Agronomi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apodectae">Apodectae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apostoleus">Apostoleis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apparitor">Apparitores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Asiarchae">Asiarchae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Astynomi">Astynomi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Boonae">Boonae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carnifex">Carnifex.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Choregus">Choregus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Coactor">Coactor.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crites">Critae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Curatores">Curatores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2">[<em>An alphabetical list of curatores is given.</em>]</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diaetetae">Diaetetae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diribitores">Diribitores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ducenarii">Ducenarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ecdicus">Ecdicus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Episcopi">Episcopi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epistates">Epistates.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Euthyne">Euthyni.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Exetastae.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Frumentarii">Frumentarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Grammateus">Grammateus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hieropoii">Hieropoii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Hodopoei.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Legatus">Legatus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Leiturgia">Leiturgia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lictor">Lictor.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Magister">Magister.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2">[<em>An alphabetical list of magistri is given.</em>]</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Manceps">Manceps.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mastigophori">Mastigophori.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mensarii">Mensarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Notarii">Notarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paredri">Paredri.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Parochi">Parochi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Practores">Practores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praecones">Praecones.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praefectus_a">Praefectus Annonae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Praefectus_u">Urbi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Probouli">Probouli.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Procurator">Procurator.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Publicani">Publicani.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pythii">Pythii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Quaestor">Quaestores classici.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Quaestor">parricidii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Quinqueviri">Quinqueviri.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scribae">Scribae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sitophylaces">Sitophylaces.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stator">Stator.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Stratores.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syllogeis">Syllogeis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tabularii">Tabularii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tamiae">Tamias.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Teichopoii">Teichopoeus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tettarakonta">Tettaraconta, hoi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Theori">Theori.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Trierarchia">Trierarchia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Triumviri">Triumviri.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Viator">Viatores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Zetetae">Zetetae.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Roads and Streets.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Angiportus">Angiportus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Callis">Callis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mansio">Mansio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Via">Viae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vicus">Vicus.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Roman Law.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Actio">Actio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Actor">Actor.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Adoptio">Adoptio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Advocatus">Advocatus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aediles">Aediles.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Affines">Affinitas.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agrariae">Agrariae leges.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Album">Album.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Appellatio">Appellatio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arra">Arra, Arrha.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arra">Arrabo, Arrhabo.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Assertor">Assertor.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Assessor">Assessor.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Auctio">Auctio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Auctor">Auctor, Auctoritas.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Basilica">Basilica.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Beneficium">Beneficium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bona">Bona.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Bona_c">caduca.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Bona_f">fides.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bonorum">Bonorum cessio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Bonorum_c">collatio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Bonorum_e">emptio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Bonorum_p">possessio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calumnia">Calumnia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caput">Caput.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caupona">Caupo.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cautio">Cautio, cavere.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Centumviri">Centumviri.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Certi, incerti actio.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chirographum">Chirographum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cliens">Cliens.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Codex">Codex Gregorianus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2">Hermogenianus.</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">Justinianeus.</span><br />
-<span class="pad2">Theodosianus.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cognati">Cognati.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Collegium">Collegium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Commissoria">Commissoria lex.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crimen">Crimen, delictum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Curator">Curator.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decretum">Decretum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dediticii">Dediticii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Depositum">Depositum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Divortium">Divortium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dominium">Dominium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dominium">Dominus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dos">Dos.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Edictum">Edictum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2">Theodorici.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Emancipatio">Emancipatio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exercitoria">Exercitoria actio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Falsum">Falsum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Familia">Familia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fideicommissum">Fidei commissum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fiducia">Fiducia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fiscus">Fiscus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Foederatae">Foederatae civitates.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Frumentariae">Frumentariae leges.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gens">Gens.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Heres">Heres.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Honores">Honores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Imperium">Imperium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Impubes">Impubes.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Incendium">Incendium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Incestum">Incestum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Infamia">Infamia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Infans">Infans.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ingenui">Ingenui.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Injuria">Injuria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Intercessio">Intercessio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Interdictum">Interdictum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Judex">Judex.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bonorum">Jure, cessio in.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jurisconsulti">Jurisconsulti.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jurisdictio">Jurisdictio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jus">Jus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2">Civile Papirianum.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jusjurandum">Jusjurandum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Latinitas">Latinitas.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Legatum">Legatum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lex">Lex.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2">[<em>Under this head an alphabetical list of the principal laws</em></span><br />
-<span class="pad3"><em>is given.</em>]</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Libellus">Libelli accusatorum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Libellus">famosi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Libertus">Libertus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Magistratus">Magistratus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Majestas">Majestas.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mancipium">Mancipium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mandatum">Mandatum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Manumissio">Manumissio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Negotiatores">Negotiatores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nexum">Nexum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Orator">Orator.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Patria">Patria potestas.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Patronus">Patronus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pauperies">Pauperies.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Peculatus">Peculatus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Plagium">Plagium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Plebiscitum">Plebiscitum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Poena">Poena.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Possessio">Possessio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Postliminium">Postliminium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praes">Praedium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praejudicium">Praejudicium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praes">Praes.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praescriptio">Praescriptio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praetor">Praetor.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Procurator">Procurator.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Proscriptio">Proscriptio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Provincia">Provincia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae pecuniae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sectio">Sectio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus consultum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Societas.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Sumptuariae leges.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tabellariae">Tabellariae leges.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Talio">Talio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Testamentum">Testamentum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tormentum">Tormentum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tutor">Tutor.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vindicta">Vindicta.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vis">Vis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Collegium">Universitas.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_474"></a>[474]</span>
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ususfructus">Usufructus.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Sacrifices and Religious Rites.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acerra">Acerra.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amburbium">Amburbium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Anakleteria.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Antigoneia.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apotheosis">Apotheosis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ara">Ara.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Canephoros">Canephoros.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Corona_sa">Corona sacerdotalis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cortina">Cortina.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diamastigosis">Diamastigosis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eisiteria">Eisiteria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eleusinia">Eleusinia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exauguratio">Exauguratio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Inauguratio">Inauguratio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lituus">Lituus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lustratio">Lustratio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lustrum">Lustrum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sacra">Sacra.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sacrificium">Sacrificium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sagmina">Sagmina.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Secespita">Secespita.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Simpulum">Simpulum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Supplicatio">Supplicatio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Thensae">Thensae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tripos">Tripos.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Turibulum">Turibulum.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Slaves and Bondsmen.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agaso">Agaso.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Alipilus">Alipilus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aliptae">Aliptae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amanuensis">Amanuensis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Anagnostes">Anagnostae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Anteambulones">Anteambulones.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aquarii">Aquarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bruttiani">Bruttiani.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calones">Calones.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Capsarii">Capsarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Colonia">Coloni.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cosmetae">Cosmetae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cubicularii">Cubicularii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cursores">Cursores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Demosii">Demosii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fartor">Fartor.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gymnesii">Gymnesii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Helotes">Helotes.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hieroduli">Ieroduli.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Librarii">Librarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mediastini">Mediastini.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Notarii">Notarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paedagogus">Paedagogus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pedisequi">Pedisequi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Penestae">Penestae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Servus">Servus, 1. Greek.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Serv_r">2. Roman.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tabellarius">Tabellarius.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Thetes">Thetes.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Villicus">Villicus.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Statuary.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acrolithi">Acrolithi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caryatides">Caryatides.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Colossus">Colossus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Daedala">Daedala.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hermae">Hermae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Imago">Imago.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scalptura">Sculptura.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Statuaria">Statuaria ars.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Typus.</span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Superstitions.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amuletum">Amuletum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Apophrades hemerai.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Astrologia">Astrologia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fascinum">Fascinum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Oscillum">Oscillum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Prodigium">Prodigium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sortes">Sortes.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Temples and Holy Places.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Argei">Argei.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Asylum">Asylum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bidental">Bidental.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Docana">Docana.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Propylaea">Propylaea.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sacellum">Sacellum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sacrarium">Sacrarium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Templum">Templum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Velum">Velum.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Titles.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Augustus">Augustus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caesar">Caesar.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Tools and Implements.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acus">Acus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amussis">Amussis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apsis">Apsis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ascia">Ascia.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Colus">Colus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Contus">Contus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Culter">Culter.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dolabra">Dolabra, Dolabella.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Falx">Falx.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Fistuca.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Follis">Follis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fuscina">Fuscina.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fusus">Fusus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Harpago">Harpago.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jugum">Jugum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Malleolus">Malleolus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Norma.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Securis">Securis.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Trades and Occupations.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ambubaiae">Ambubaiae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Argentarii">Argentarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Athletae">Athletae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bestiarii">Bestiarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bibliopola">Bibliopola.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calculator">Calculator.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caupona">Caupo.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fabri">Fabri.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fullo">Fullo.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Funambulus">Funambulus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hemerodromi">Hemerodromi.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Histrio">Histrio.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Interpres">Interpres.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Notarii">Notarii.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pelatae">Pelatae.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pistor">Pistor.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Redemptor">Redemtor.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Vehicles and their parts.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Antyx">Antyx.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arcera">Arcera.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Basterna">Basterna.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Canathron">Canathron.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Capistrum">Capistrum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carpentum">Carpentum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carruca">Carruca.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Chiramaxium.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cisium">Cisium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Covinus">Covinus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Currus">Currus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Esseda">Esseda.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Harmamaxa">Harmamaxa.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jugum">Jugum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lectica">Lectica.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Petorritum">Petorritum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pilentum">Pilentum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Rheda">Rheda.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sella">Sella.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Utensils.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acetabulum">Acetabulum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aenum">Aenum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Alabaster">Alabastrum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amphora">Amphora.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ampulla">Ampulla.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Anaglypha">Anaglypha.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Authepsa">Authepsa.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bascauda">Bascauda.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bicos">Bicos.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cadus">Cadus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calathus">Calathus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calix">Calix.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Candela">Candela.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Candelabrum">Candelabrum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cantharus">Cantharus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Capsa">Capsa.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carchesium">Carchesium.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Catinus">Catinus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chrysendeta">Chrysendita.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cista">Cista.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cochlear">Cochlear.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Colum">Colum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cophinus">Cophinus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Corbis">Corbis, Corbula, Corbicula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cortina">Cortina.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crater">Crater.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cupa">Cupa.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cyathus">Cyathus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fax">Fax.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ferculum">Ferculum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Guttus">Guttus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lanx">Lanx.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Lecythus.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lucerna">Lucerna.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Currus">Modiolus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Murrhina">Murrhina vasa.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Oenophorum.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Olla">Olla, aula.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Patera">Patera, Patella.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Patina">Patina.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Poculum">Poculum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Psycter">Psycter.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pyxis">Pyxis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Rhyton">Rhyton.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Salinum">Salinum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Situla">Situla, Sitella.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tripos">Tripos.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Trua">Trua, Trulla.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vas">Vas.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Urceus">Urceus.</a></span><br />
-<br />
-<span class="p1 smcap">Writing and Writing Materials.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Adversaria">Adversaria.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Album">Album.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Atramentum">Atramentum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Buxum">Buxum.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calamus">Calamus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Codex">Codex.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Libellus">Libellus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad2"><a href="#Libellus">memorialis.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Liber">Liber.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nota">Nota.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1">Regula.</span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scytale">Scytale.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stilus">Stylus.</a></span><br />
-<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tabulae">Tabulae.</a></span><br />
-</p>
-
-
-<p class="p2 pfs90">THE END.</p>
-
-<hr class="p4 r30a" />
-
-<p class="pfs60">
-LONDON: PRINTED BY WM. CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,<br />
-STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.<br />
-</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter"></div>
-
-<div class="transnote">
-<a name="TN" id="TN"></a>
-<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p>
-
-<p>Most illustrations have been placed at the start, or the end, of
-a dictionary entry. In some long multi-page entries with several
-illustrations, a paragraph break has been inserted to allow
-placement of an illustration at a relevant point of the text.</p>
-
-<p>The original text used Y with breve (Ῠ) in 49 entry headings that
-were latinized versions of a Greek word, for example ĂLῨTAE (ἀλύται).
-These have been changed to Y with tilde (Ỹ), ĂLỸTAE (ἀλύται), because
-there is no Y with breve in the Unicode Latin tables.</p>
-
-<p>There are a few references in the main text to entries that do not
-exist in this (Shorter) version of the Dictionary, for example:
-<span class="smcap">Furtum, Atticurges</span>, and in the Classified Index there are several
-dozen more, for example: Pala, Follis, Dianomae, Pyrgos.</p>
-
-<p>Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
-corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
-the text and consultation of external sources.</p>
-
-<p>Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the
-text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.</p>
-
-<p>
-<a href="#tn-24">Pg 24</a>: ‘ἀμπυκτῆρ’ replaced by ‘ἀμπυκτήρ’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-33">Pg 33</a>: ‘ἀρχιτεκτονια’ replaced by ‘ἀρχιτεκτονία’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-37">Pg 37</a>: ‘corytus’ has been italicized for consistency.<br />
-<a href="#tn-42">Pg 42</a>: ‘ἀμφιδεᾶ’ replaced by ‘ἀμφιδέα’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-46">Pg 46</a>: ‘by the Emperior’ replaced by ‘by the Emperor’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-51">Pg 51</a>: ‘of each parties’ replaced by ‘of such parties’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-57">Pg 57</a>: ‘Basilica Portia, in’ replaced by ‘Basilica Porcia, in’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-146">Pg 146</a>: ‘have tried causes’ replaced by ‘have tried cases’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-150">Pg 150</a>: ‘oath of secresy’ replaced by ‘oath of secrecy’ (twice).<br />
-<a href="#tn-154">Pg 154</a>: ‘στρῶματα’ replaced by ‘στρώματα’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-157">Pg 157</a>: ‘traduc equum’ replaced by ‘traducere equum’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-180">Pg 180</a>: ‘εστια’ replaced by ‘ἑστία’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-211">Pg 211</a>: ‘once distinguised’ replaced by ‘once distinguished’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-212">Pg 212</a>: ‘be distingushed’ replaced by ‘be distinguished’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-215">Pg 215</a>: ‘μοχλόν’ replaced by ‘μοχλὸν’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-222">Pg 222</a>: ‘ἀνάκλίντρον’ replaced by ‘ἀνάκλιντρον’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-249">Pg 249</a>: ‘ἠγεμὼν’ replaced by ‘ἡγεμὼν’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-250">Pg 250</a>: ‘this conventio.’ replaced by ‘this convention.’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-266">Pg 266</a>: ‘ἱστός’ replaced by ‘ἱστὸς’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-299">Pg 299</a>: ‘In (B.C. 445), the’ replaced by ‘In B.C. 445, the’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-332">Pg 332</a>: ‘the downfal of’ replaced by ‘the downfall of’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-350">Pg 350</a>: ‘the developement of’ replaced by ‘the development of’.<br />
-<a href="#tn-419">Pg 419</a>: ‘gave headachs’ replaced by ‘gave headaches’.<br />
-</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES ***</div>
-<div style='text-align:left'>
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