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diff --git a/old/65794-0.txt b/old/65794-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 53bebed..0000000 --- a/old/65794-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1313 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Primer of Ohio Archaeology, by H. C. -Shetrone - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Primer of Ohio Archaeology - The Mound Builders and the Indians - -Author: H. C. Shetrone - -Release Date: July 7, 2021 [eBook #65794] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRIMER OF OHIO -ARCHAEOLOGY *** - - - - - - PRIMER OF - OHIO ARCHAEOLOGY - The Mound Builders and the Indians - - - H. C. SHETRONE - - FIFTH EDITION - - COLUMBUS - - THE OHIO STATE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL SOCIETY - - 1951 - - - - - CONTENTS - - - Foreword 3 - The Mound-Builders and the Indians 5 - The First Ohioans 5 - Ancient Mounds and Earthworks 7 - The Archæologist and His Work 12 - Various Kinds of Mound-Builders 13 - The Inside Story of a Mound 15 - Ancient Non-mound-building Tribes 22 - Questions Concerning the Mound-Builders 24 - How Things Began 25 - Arts and Crafts 27 - The Use of Stone 27 - The Use of Flint 32 - Prehistoric Farming 36 - The Use of Bone 37 - Use of Clay for Pottery 38 - Spinning and Weaving 39 - The Use of Metals 40 - Personal Ornamentation 41 - The Art of the Mound-Builders 42 - Tobacco and Tobacco Pipes 43 - “Ceremonial” Objects 44 - - - - - PRIMER OF OHIO ARCHÆOLOGY - - - - - FOREWORD - - -This booklet is issued by the Ohio State Archæological and Historical -Society in response to a demand for a brief outline of the main features -of prehistoric archæology in Ohio. - -While intended primarily for use of students in the elementary schools, -it is hoped that visitors to the Museum, and the general public, as well -as collectors of archæological material, and students of prehistory, may -find the brief summary contained herein of interest and value. - -Since types of archæological specimens are fairly similar throughout the -area east of the Rocky Mountains, and particularly within the general -Mound area, the information contained in this summary is broadly -applicable even outside the boundaries of the state of Ohio. Further, -since the course of human development has been basically the same the -world over, the simple series of local “relics” selected for this study -will serve to illustrate how, through countless centuries of pioneering, -human beings have advanced from savagery to civilization, thus making -for understanding and appreciation of the present time. - -The wealth of material on display and in the study collections at the -Ohio State Museum will serve as an inexhaustible laboratory in further -pursuit of the subject by those who may be so inclined. - - [Illustration: Fig. 1—Archaeological Map of Ohio. - - The dots on this outline map show the location and distribution of - the ancient Mounds of the State.] - - - - - THE MOUND-BUILDERS AND THE INDIANS - - -When white settlers first entered the country north and west of the Ohio -River, from which later on the state of Ohio was to be carved, they -found here, as everyone knows, the Indians. When we pause to consider -that Ohio today is one of the greatest states in the Union, it is hard -to believe that this happened less than two centuries ago. However, the -story of the Indian tribes that white men found living on Ohio soil when -they arrived is a part of Ohio history, and will not be dwelt upon in -this booklet. For the present we are concerned only with the people who -lived in Ohio before the historic Indians, and we may refer to them as -the first Ohioans. - - - THE FIRST OHIOANS - -White people had not been on Ohio soil very long before they began to -notice peculiar mounds and fortifications built of earth and stone. -Evidently these were very ancient, as they were overgrown by the forest. -The Indian inhabitants were neither building nor using such structures, -nor could they tell the white settlers anything about them. A bit of -digging, here and there, soon showed that the mounds contained human -burials and that with these were strange relics. Hence it was clear that -they had been built by human beings. But by whom? The settlers reasoned, -very naturally, that if the tribesmen living in the region had not -constructed them, then they must have been built by a people preceding -the Indians. And so, lacking a better name, they called them “The -Mound-builders,” just as we of today, viewing the few remaining log -cabins scattered over the countryside, might call the pioneers “The -Cabin-builders.” The settlers, however, who built and lived in the log -cabins of pioneer days, realized the value of records, so that people -who came after them might know who they were and what they did. And so -they wrote history. But the Mound-builders had not yet progressed far -enough on the road to civilization to do this; and so we must look -elsewhere for the answers to those questions which naturally come into -our minds. Who were the Mound-builders? Where did they come from, and -when; why did they build Mounds; and what became of them? The pioneer -settlers who first noticed the Mounds could not open a book and read the -answers to these queries. But as the years have passed, the puzzles have -been solved in a most interesting manner, as we shall see presently. - -To begin with the Mounds and Earthworks themselves, it may be said that -there are many thousands of them. They are scattered over 20 or more -states, from the Mississippi River eastward to the Atlantic and -extending southward to the Gulf and into Florida. Ohio, it may be truly -said, was the center of Mound-builder life, as a result of which it has -come to be known as the Mound-builder state. More than 5,000 Mounds, -fortifications and other remains of these interesting people have been -located within its bounds. - - - ANCIENT MOUNDS AND EARTHWORKS - - [Illustration: Fig. 2—The Miamisburg Mound.] - -A glance at the outline map on page 4 shows the location of these -ancient works. It will be noted that the southern one-half of the state -was the favored region, especially along the courses of the streams and -rivers flowing southward to the Ohio. An automobile trip through -southern Ohio affords an excellent outing or vacation, and makes it -possible to see the actual Mounds and other structures of the long ago. -Some of them, the tourist will note, are merely heaps of earth, more or -less pointed at the top and ranging from slight elevations, hardly -noticeable above the surface of the fields, to others as much as twenty, -thirty, or even forty feet in height. The tallest Mound of this kind in -Ohio is the great Miamisburg Mound, near the town of that name, in -Montgomery County, which is 70 feet high and covers nearly three acres -of ground. These conical Mounds, as they are called, are shaped like a -chocolate drop. They are far more numerous than any other kind of -earthen structures and, as we shall see presently, they served as -monuments to the dead; that is, they were burial mounds—tombstones. - -Next in point of numbers are the ancient fortifications, built as means -of protection from enemies. Usually they are the more or less level tops -of hills or plateaus, with steep slopes and ravines offering ready-made -obstructions to the approach of enemies. Around the edges of the area -set aside for the “fort” earthen and stone walls were thrown up, and -probably wooden pickets or stakes were set into these as further -protection from without. Among the largest and finest of these old -fortifications in Ohio are the noted Fort Ancient, in Warren County, and -Fort Hill, in Highland County. - - [Illustration: Fig. 3—The Walls of Fort Ancient.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 4—Map of Fort Hill, Highland County, Ohio.] - - FORT HILL, HIGHLAND COUNTY, OHIO. - _Surveyed by E. G. Squier & F. H. Davis, 1846._ - SCALE 500 ft. to the inch. - -Fort Ancient, perhaps the greatest prehistoric fortification in the -United States, is permanently preserved as one of Ohio’s State -Memorials. It consists of two principal divisions, known as the Old Fort -and the New Fort, the two being connected by a narrow passageway -enclosed within earthen walls. - -Fort Hill, in Highland County, is not as large as Fort Ancient, but is -finely preserved, very bold in outline, and most picturesquely located. - -Other important Fortifications are Glenford Fort, in Perry County; Miami -Fort, near the mouth of the Great Miami River; and Spruce Hill, in Ross -County. - -There is another type of earthwork, resembling somewhat the old forts, -but which served a different purpose. We shall learn more of these in -connection with Hopewell culture Mounds, to be described later. - -In addition to the Mounds and Earthworks, the Mound-builders left behind -them many burial grounds or cemeteries, and numerous village or town -sites. Usually the two are found together, and often the burial mounds -are near-by. In the village sites there may be found, usually beneath -the plow line in cultivated fields, the remains of rude streets, house -foundations, fireplaces, and countless numbers of relics lost or thrown -aside by the residents of the site, centuries ago. From these relics a -good idea of the people and their life may be gained through study. Some -of the principal village-sites and cemeteries explored by the Ohio State -Museum are the Baum and Gartner sites, in Ross County, and the Feurt -village-site, in Scioto County. The largest of all the Ohio village -sites is known as the Madisonville site, located near Cincinnati. - - [Illustration: Fig. 5—The Great Serpent Mound, Adams County, Ohio.] - -Certain prehistoric remains of great interest are the Effigy Mounds, -so-called because they were built in the effigy or image of birds and -animals. The finest of these in Ohio is the Great Serpent Mound, of -Adams County. Another interesting effigy mound is the Opossum Mound, -near Granville, Ohio. - -The Effigy Mounds are believed to have represented the totems or clan -symbols of their builders. Thus the Great Serpent Mound may have been -the totem of the Serpent or Snake tribe. They also very likely played a -part in the religion of the people who built them, as most primitive -people appear to worship natural objects. - -Although most of the Effigy Mounds are found in southern Wisconsin, the -Great Serpent Mound is the largest and finest known. - - - THE ARCHÆOLOGIST AND HIS WORK - -All that we have seen and learned of the Mounds and Earthworks, up to -this point, is merely what anyone, by using his eyes, might see and -learn; in fact, just what the pioneers observed. In other words we have -looked at them from the outside, without knowing the secrets buried -inside them. And now, since the Mound-builders left no written history -behind them, we must get acquainted with another branch of science in -order to obtain the information we desire. This new science is known as -Archæology, and the man or woman who works at it is called an -archæologist. Archæology is really the science of old things; that is, -it concerns itself with the things which human beings did before they -became intelligent enough to write and leave behind them their own -histories. Since he has no intentional records to guide him, the -archæologist depends mostly on exploration or digging into ancient ruins -and remains for his information. Thus he finds the rude relics of -by-gone ages, relics lost or thrown away by their one-time users, and -from these he pieces together the story of a people. - -Having met the archæologist, we may now get an insight into the -interiors of the mounds, cemeteries and village-sites of the -Mound-builders. Let us go ahead of our story for a moment and explain -that archæologists, as a result of their explorations, have found that -there were numerous kinds, or cultures as he calls them, of -Mound-builders. While all of them were closely related, and belonged to -the same race, they differed greatly among themselves in manners and -customs. Some of them were rather highly advanced in their civilization, -while others were rather backward, just as is true of the various tribes -and nations of Indians of later or historic times. With some of them the -trait or habit of building mounds was very important while with others -it was only a sort of “side-line.” Some of them merely placed their dead -upon the surface and piled earth above the remains to form a Mound, -while others prepared carefully made tombs of logs within the Mound for -the dead. Some were skilled in the use of copper and silver, the weaving -of cloth and the making of potteryware, while others contented -themselves with only flint and stone and the simpler arts of living. - - - VARIOUS KINDS OF MOUND-BUILDERS - -In Ohio alone there were three outstanding kinds or cultures of -Mound-builders, besides several less important ones. These three are -known as the Fort Ancient, the Adena and the Hopewell cultures, taking -their names from the places where their Mounds were first examined and -identified. The Fort Ancient peoples were the least advanced of the -three, yet they were the most numerous and prosperous of the prehistoric -peoples of Ohio. Their old village-sites are numerous in the southern -half of the State, as at the Baum, Gartner and Feurt sites, and always -are accompanied by burial Mounds and cemeteries. A number of them have -been explored by the Ohio State Museum where the relics are on display. -They used no metals and had but little art, but they made many useful, -practical things of flint, stone, bone, shell, clay and wood. - -Adena peoples were more highly advanced than the Fort Ancient but were -not nearly so numerous. They worked copper into ornaments and were -highly artistic in carving stone and bone. They are noted for their -large shapely mounds, the great Miamisburg Mound being an example. - - [Illustration: Fig. 6—The Seip Group of Earthworks, Ross County, - Ohio.] - -The Hopewell peoples were not only the most highly advanced in Ohio, but -in many respects in the entire country north of Mexico. They are noted -for their many mounds, usually occurring in groups, and for the peculiar -earthworks or enclosures in groups, earlier in this booklet. These -earthworks or enclosures are known as “Geometric Enclosures,” because -they are built in geometric forms, such as circles, squares, crescents, -and so forth. They differ from the fortifications in that they were used -for social and religious purposes rather than for defense. Important -examples of Hopewell works are the Hopewell Group, in Ross County; the -Mound City Group, within Camp Sherman, Chillicothe; the Seip Group, near -Bainbridge, Ross County; the great works at Newark, the Marietta works, -and others. The Mound City, the Newark and the Seip Groups are now State -Memorials and those at Marietta are preserved by local interests. - - - THE INSIDE STORY OF A MOUND - - [Illustration: Fig. 7—Exploring the Seip Mound, Ross County, Ohio.] - -No doubt every reader of this booklet would like to take part in the -actual “digging” of a mound. This, of course cannot be, since the actual -exploration of a large Mound requires months and even years. But perhaps -we can do the next best thing; perhaps we can take part in an imaginary -examination of a Mound, and in that way get an idea of how it is done -and of what is found. Supposing we select a Mound of the interesting -Hopewell culture. The Hopewell peoples, as we have seen, were very -highly advanced and this fact, therefore, might lead the reader to -expect too much of the other cultures, yet if we keep this in mind we -will be on the safe side. - -Let us imagine that our Mound is located in Ross County, in the charming -Paint Creek Valley, somewhere near old Chillicothe, first capital of -Ohio and ancient capital of the Mound-builders. Before us stands a mound -of earth, 125 feet in diameter at its base and 25 feet in height. The -field in which it stands is under cultivation but the mound itself, -being too steep for farming purposes, is covered by a thicket of -shrubbery and trees. An exploration party has arrived on the scene and -is preparing to examine this ancient earthwork. - -Workmen with picks and shovels step to the edge of the Mound and begin -to dig, throwing the loose earth well behind them. The “boss” explains -that the entire mound is to be removed by slicing it off, as a cake -might be, in five-foot sections. We note surveying instruments, cameras, -notebooks, everything in readiness. Teams and scrapers are waiting to -take away the loose earth after it has been carefully examined. - - [Illustration: Fig. 8—Burials in the Hopewell Mounds, Ross County, - Ohio.] - -The first of the five-foot slices having been removed there appears, at -the level of the surrounding field, what looks like a cement floor. At -the outer edge of this and following the curve of the mound we see post -holes a foot or two apart in some of which are decayed posts. These post -holes prove to the explorer that this Mound was built by the Hopewell -peoples. When a Hopewell Culture band or tribe picked a site for a new -home, he explains, one of the first things it did was to set aside a -place for the burial of its dead and for worship, a sacred place. After -clearing this spot of all underbrush and trees, the top-soil was removed -and in order to make a firm floor they plastered this over with clay. On -top of that was placed an inch or two of sand or fine gravel for a -floor-covering. The next step was to secure some posts and set them in -the ground around the edge of this area to form a wall. Twigs and -branches of trees were woven among these and plastered with clay to keep -out cold and rain. A thatched roof made of closely woven twigs and -boughs was placed over it and the sacred temple was complete. Into this -they brought their dead for funeral ceremonies, burial and cremation. - -Our attention is suddenly called to the actual work at hand. A laborer -has struck his mattock into a loose spot in the face of the Mound. We -are informed that this will be a burial and, sure enough, within an hour -a human skeleton has been unearthed and lies there on the floor all -ready to have its picture taken. The Hopewell people, we learn, made -platforms of earth a few inches above the floor and after placing their -dead on these they built cabin-like structures of logs over them and -covered these, in turn, by small mounds of earth. - - [Illustration: Fig. 9—Crematory Basin in a Hopewell Mound.] - -And now we come to the second burial which appears in every way like the -first, excepting that instead of a skeleton there is merely a “hatful” -of burned bones and ashes. This we are informed is a cremated burial. We -can see no evidences that a fire has burned here and we are curious to -learn how the ashes and charred bones came to be so carefully placed in -a small heap. These questions are answered when we find near-by a little -rectangular basin of baked clay, shaped something like a cement horse -trough, built into the floor. In this basin they had cremated the body -and then had removed the ashes and burned bones to the prepared platform -for burial. - -Thus far in exploring this Mound we have found no relics; these two -people must have been just “poor folks.” But now comes a third. This -grave is larger than the others and, we are told, looks as if it might -be a good one. It proves to be a double burial containing the skeletons -of a male and female. Royalty, they must have been, judging from the -many ornaments that were placed around them; helmet-shaped head-dresses -made of copper; beads and bracelets made of the same metal; spool-shaped -ear ornaments of copper, and hundreds, yes, thousands of fresh-water -pearl beads, and pieces of cloth with colored designs painted on it. - -The workmen have found another burial. This one may have been the chief -of the tribe for, in addition to ear ornaments, a copper head-dress and -a necklace made of bear-teeth, we find a large copper axe and beautiful -spearheads chipped from what appears to be colored glass but which, we -are told, is volcanic glass or obsidian. - -From what we have seen during the exploration of this Mound we try to -form a picture of how the builders of it must have lived. In this the -archæologist assists by telling us that many other things besides those -which we have seen here are found with burials. The Mound-builders made -artistic pottery; from grasses, plants and trees they collected fibers -which they wove into fabrics; from stone, flint, bone, shell, wood, -copper and silver they made their implements, cooking utensils and -ornaments. Many of the materials which they used had been brought from -distant sources. They found copper and silver near Lake Superior which -they hammered and ground into the desired forms. They obtained -grizzly-bear teeth for necklaces from the Rocky Mountains; lead ore from -Illinois; sea shells from the Gulf of Mexico. They may have secured some -of these things by trade or by sending out expeditions, probably both. A -great deal of their time must have been spent in gathering mussels from -the streams in order to secure the thousands of pearls they possessed. - -And now that we have seen how the Hopewell peoples buried their dead, we -ask “Where did they live?” - -Like the ancient Mexicans, the Hopewell peoples, and some others of the -Mound-builders, gave most of their attention to the dead rather than the -living. The Pueblos and Cliff-dwellers built for the living, burying -their dead in the quickest and easiest manner. The Mound-builders built -mainly for the dead. Not far from the mounds are found the sites of -their villages or towns but the only evidences of their homes are the -post molds and fireplaces showing where their rude huts or tepees have -stood. - -In the fields surrounding their villages they raised maize, squash, -beans, and tobacco; but they depended mainly on the game which they -secured in the chase, fish from the streams, and wild fruits, berries -and nuts from the forest, for their food supplies. - - [Illustration: Fig. 10—Statue of a Mound-builder, in the Ohio State - Museum.] - -Having learned something of what the Mound-builders did and how they -lived, we naturally are curious to know what they looked like. Formerly -it was believed that the mysterious builders of the mounds were a race -of giants and that they were altogether different in appearance from any -other people. Careful study of their skeletons however proves that this -is not true. Scientists are able to determine almost exactly how persons -looked, no matter to what race or age they belonged, through a study of -their skeletons, and by making use of these methods we now know that the -Mound-builders were quite similar in appearance to the Indians. In the -Ohio State Museum there are life-size statues of a Mound-builder man and -woman, constructed after these methods and clothed with the garments, -implements and ornaments which they actually used in life. A picture of -the male figure is shown on page 21. - - - ANCIENT NON-MOUND-BUILDING TRIBES - -And now that we have had a look at the Mound-builders, it only remains -to be said that still another people, closely related but somewhat -different, lived in the Ohio country before the coming of white men. -Archæologists, in exploring the ancient Mounds, have learned just what -kinds of implements, ornaments and utensils the Mound-builders used. But -this is not all. In plowing and cultivating the fields, and in shallow -graves found here and there, great numbers of relics of kinds not used -by the Mound-builders have been found. Numerous collections of such -relics, including arrow and spear points, grooved stone hatchets or -tomahawks, stone pestles or corn grinders, ornaments of slate and stone, -rude pottery vessels and other things somewhat different from what the -Mound-builders used; are to be seen in these private collections. Some -of them have been found on almost every farm in Ohio and almost every -family has a few of these “Indian relics.” And the name “Indian relics” -exactly describes them, because the archæologist has found that they -were made and used by ancient tribes of Indians who lived in Ohio, in -prehistoric times, but who did not build Mounds. It is probable that -some of them were here at the same time as were the Mound-builders, but -it is also likely that some of them were earlier, and perhaps they -continued to live here after the passing of the Mound-builders, and up -pretty close to the coming of white men. Doubtless they were the -ancestors—the grandparents and the great-grandparents—of the Indians of -later times. They seem to have belonged to the two great families of -Indians—the Algonquins and the Iroquois—who were here when the Ohio -country was first visited by white men. - -Just who these ancient Indian tribes were—that is, just what they may -have called themselves or what others may have called them—is not known. -Although the Shawnee, Miami, Delaware, Wyandot, Mingo and other Indian -tribes were living in Ohio at the time of settlement, these tribes all -were newcomers in a sense; that is, they had come into the country only -a century or two earlier, mostly from the east and south. The earlier -tribes, which we might call the native tribes, had been driven out of -the country along about 1650 by a great raid or invasion carried on by -the Iroquois Indians of New York state and the St. Lawrence Valley. This -was about a century before the coming of white men, and it is believed -that it left the Ohio country almost without Indian residents, a sort of -no-man’s land, until the Wyandots, Miamis and others arrived. - -And now as to the interesting questions concerning the Mound-builders: -Who were they? Where did they come from and when? Why did they build -Mounds? What became of them? - - - QUESTIONS CONCERNING THE MOUND-BUILDERS - -Time and space will not permit us to discuss these queries very fully, -but perhaps we can tell enough about them in a few lines for the present -purpose. Archæologists are now pretty well agreed that the -Mound-builders, the Indians and all other peoples who lived in the -Americas before the coming of Christopher Columbus, belonged to a single -great race, which we may call the American Indian race. They believe -that the Western Hemisphere was first peopled directly from Asia, by way -of Bering Straits, by bands of savages or barbarians belonging to the -Mongolian or Yellow race. These simple folk appear to have migrated to -America soon after the disappearance of the great ice glaciers which -once covered all of our northern country, reaching as far south as -central Ohio. Geologists tell us that this happened some 12,000 to -15,000 years ago. - -And so, from the Arctic regions on the north, to the southern tip of -South America, these yellow-skinned immigrants spread until they peopled -both continents. In Mexico, Central America and Peru, they came to have -great civilizations, and to be known as the Aztecs, Incas, and others. -Just why some of them became so highly civilized while others, like some -of our Indians, remained the lowly barbarians that they were, is -explained partly by what the archæologists call environment; that is, by -weather, rainfall, soil, natural food supplies as game, fish, wild -fruits—in a word, environment means the things we find around and about -us. In the end we find that while all these peoples belonged to the same -race they had formed different habits and customs and were really very -different from one another in what is termed culture. - -As to what became of the Mound-builders, we cannot give very -satisfactory answers. Some of them must have been destroyed by famine, -disease, and warfare with enemies, just as were many of the nations of -early history, in the Old World. Others probably gave up the habit of -building Mounds, for some reason or other, and contented themselves with -living just like other Indians. In this case, they were of course, the -ancestors of the Indian tribes which we have known in historic times. - -In the following pages there are shown pictures and descriptions of the -commoner relics found in the fields and taken from the Mounds. Most of -these objects were used both by the Mound-builders and the Indians who -did not build Mounds. Where this is not true, it is made plain in the -descriptions. It is hoped that these pictures and descriptions will help -the reader to understand the relics so freely found in Ohio, and that -they will encourage those who may be interested further to visit the -Ohio State Museum, in Columbus. Here the finest collections of Indian -and Mound-builder relics to be found anywhere are displayed for the -study and enjoyment of the public. - - - HOW THINGS BEGAN - -The Mound-builders, and all other peoples at some time during their -existence, lived in the Stone Age period of human development. -Throughout the countless centuries of the Stone Age, human beings did -not know the use of metals, as such. Indeed, it is only during the past -few centuries that men have known such things as iron and steel, to say -nothing of other metals. Some of them made limited use of raw metals and -minerals, believing them to be only peculiar kinds of stone, never -dreaming that they could be melted and refined and cast into implements -and ornaments. Stone and Flint were the “metals” of the Mound-builders -and other primitive peoples, while bone, shell, clay, wood and fibers -were also much used. If peoples of the Stone Age had not made their -humble beginnings, we would not be today living in the Age of Iron and -enjoying the conveniences of civilization. While the specimens -illustrated and described in the following pages belonged altogether to -the Mound-builders and the prehistoric Indians, they are very similar to -those used by early peoples the world over. Their study will aid us in -understanding and appreciating how things began. - -Those who may wish to know more of the story of the Mound-builders and -the Indians will find numerous books on the subject in their local -libraries. When not available otherwise, they may be found in the -Library of the Ohio State Museum, in Columbus. The following are -recommended: - -Publications of the Ohio State Archæological and Historical Society, in -which may be found articles concerning the Ohio Indians, and reports of -explorations of the ancient mounds. - -_The Mound-builders_, by H. C. Shetrone, published by D. Appleton & Co., -in 1930. - - - - - ARTS AND CRAFTS - - - THE USE OF STONE - - [Illustration: Fig. 11—Man’s First Tool, the Hammer Stone.] - -Away back in the days when all human beings were simple Stone Age -peoples, just beginning the long climb toward civilization, their first -tool was nothing more than a Stone or Pebble, picked up along the -stream, and used as a Hammer Stone or Hand Hammer. They would want to -crack a nut for its kernel, to break a bone for its marrow, or to -frighten away a cave bear or hyena that threatened them; and the Hammer -Stone served their needs. Later, when they learned that by breaking, -pounding and pecking, they could change the shape and form of other -stones, in making tools, the Hammer Stone was once more their servant. -It was used by primitive peoples the world over, including of course the -Mound-builders and the Indians. From the humble Hammer Stone, as a -beginning, we may trace without a break all the inventions and progress -that man has made, from the very earliest times up to the present. -Therefore the Hammer Stone may be rightly called the father of -civilization. - - [Illustration: Fig. 12—Grooved Stone Hammer.] - -At first, the human arm was the handle of the Stone Hammer. Later, -primitive man discovered that he could “work” stone by pecking and -grinding it with another harder stone. He then supplied his Stone Hammer -with a groove, and lashed it to a wooden handle by means of a rawhide -thong. This handle not only gave him a longer reach, but added more -power to his blow. - -Putting a groove on a Stone Hammer was really a very important step in -human development, for it made of the tool an actual piece of personal -property, which the owner would want to carry around with him as he -moved from place to place and which, perhaps, would be handed down from -father to son. - -In Ohio, the ancient Indian tribes used the Grooved Hammer quite freely, -and while none have been found in Mounds, it is probable that the -Mound-builders also made use of it. - - [Illustration: Fig. 13—Stone Pestles and Mortars.] - -For crushing and grinding corn and seeds into meal, primitive peoples -used simple stone implements, several of which are shown above. The type -of Pestle, shown at the upper left, known as the Bell-shaped Pestle, is -found abundantly in Ohio and near-by states. They were used with wooden -Mortars or flat stones, and sometimes with shallow stone mortars, like -that shown at the upper right, and were suitable either for pounding or -grinding. - -The lower specimen in the picture, known as a Roller Pestle, was used -like a modern rolling-pin. - -Stone Pestles are rarely found in Mounds, but were used mostly by the -primitive Indian tribes. - -The stone Pestle and Mortar were man’s first grist-mill, out of which -developed the water-driven grist-mills of pioneer days and, later on, -the great electrically-driven flour mills of today. - - [Illustration: Fig. 14—Chisels and Celts, or Ungrooved Axes.] - -These, with the Grooved Axe illustrated on the following page, were the -commoner types of implements used for chiseling and chopping. They could -also be used as wedges. With the Celt, when used as a Chisel or -Hand-hatchet, the human arm was the handle. If it served as a Hatchet, -Tomahawk, or Axe, it was lashed to a wooden handle by means of rawhide -thongs. - -The Celt was used for a great variety of purposes. In Ohio and near-by -states it is often called a “skinning stone,” and it would have been a -very convenient tool for removing the hides of animals. Some Celts are -very rough in appearance, with only the edges ground to a polish, while -others are smooth and highly polished over their entire surfaces. - -The Celt is a very ancient tool, and is found in large numbers on the -surface of the ground in almost every part of the world where men have -lived. - - [Illustration: Fig. 15—Grooved Stone Axes.] - -It is interesting to compare the modern Steel Axe, Hatchet or other -handled cutting tool, with the simple stone implements of prehistoric -times and to note how, little by little, they have been improved and -perfected. The present-day Axe or hatchet is comparatively light and -thin and the handle is inserted through a hole or into a socket. Stone -tools, no matter how the handle is attached, must be heavier and -thicker, because stone will not stand the strain of hard use as will -steel. - -The Ohio Mound-building peoples simply lashed wooden handles to their -ungrooved Axes or Celts, using rawhide thongs. These, when they dried, -held very tightly and made a very useful tool. The ancient Indians also -used this method, and in addition they pecked grooves around their Axes -to supply a firmer fastening for the thong. The above drawings show the -Grooved Axe, and how the handle was secured. This implement served as an -Axe, a Hatchet or a Tomahawk, according to its size. - - - THE USE OF FLINT - - [Illustration: Fig. 16—An Arrowmaker’s Outfit.] - -Primitive man used Stone a long time before finding what proved to be a -very superior variety, Flint, a rough block of which is shown on the -left in the picture. Possibly he chanced upon a piece of Flint and in -using it as a Hammer Stone noticed that it broke into thin flakes with -sharp edges, and with this knowledge he soon learned to make Flint -Knives, Scrapers, Arrow-points, Drills, and other cutting and piercing -tools. For example, from the rough piece of Flint, “A,” the arrowmaker -struck off a few flakes with his Stone Hammer, producing the piece -marked “B,” which has something of the shape of the final point. Then by -means of the chipping tool of deer antler, marked “E,” he pressed off -thin flakes from the edges of “B,” and produced “C,” and finally the -finished point, “D.” - - [Illustration: Fig. 17—Flint Cutting and Scraping Implements.] - -Perhaps the earliest tools made from Flint were simple flakes, struck -from a block of flint by means of a hammerstone. “B,” in the picture, -shows two of these flakes, which remind us, in shape, of a modern knife -blade or a safety razor blade. At first they were simply held in the -fingers, but later probably were mounted in wooden or bone handles. In -“C” is shown the “core” of flint from which the flake or blade was -struck off. In time primitive peoples, including the Mound-builders and -the Indians, came to make more pretentious knife-blades, like that shown -as “D.” - -Scrapers of various sorts were made from flint, and served many -purposes. The simplest form, a mere flake of flint, is the top specimen -in “A,” while an improved type, with notches for securing it to a handle -is shown below it. They were used for scraping wood, bone and stone, in -making tools and ornaments, and for removing the fat from skins, before -tanning. - - [Illustration: Fig. 18—Flint Drills and Perforators.] - -For drilling wood, stone, bone, and other materials, primitive man made -and used Flint implements of the types shown in this picture. Flint -Drills such as these are abundant in village sites and on the surface of -the ground where their makers lived. Two different kinds of perforators -are shown here. The one to the left is made with an expanded base so -that when drilling a hole through hard material, such as wood or a thick -piece of leather, the tool could be turned easily by the hand. The other -specimen, to the right, “A,” was probably used like an ordinary punch of -today, with a twisting motion. Flint is a very hard stone and with such -Drills as the one on the left, holes were made in softer stones like -granite and slate. - -In “B” is shown the manner in which Flint points of this type were -mounted on a shaft and made into a mechanical drill by twining a -bow-string once around the shaft and drawing the bow back and forth. - - [Illustration: Fig. 19—Flint Arrow and Spear Points.] - -Most useful of all Flint implements were the “Points” or “Heads” of -Flint, as shown above. The only difference between an Arrowhead (A) and -a Spearhead (B) is that of size. Those more than three inches long are -usually called Spearheads. - -With Arrows and Spears tipped with Flint Points, the primitive hunter -was able to “bag” an abundance of game. Flint Points like these are -probably the most numerous of the relics left by the prehistoric -inhabitants of America. They are found by the hundreds of thousands in -all parts of the country, on the surface, in mounds and graves, and in -places where the Indians had their villages. - -Shot from strong bows, these Flint Points had great penetrating power. -Arrowheads have been found imbedded in the bones of large animals and -human beings in such positions as to show that they passed through -almost the entire thickness of the body before being brought to a stop. - - - PREHISTORIC FARMING - - [Illustration: Fig. 20—Primitive Agricultural Implements.] - -Although the Mound-builders, like all primitive peoples, drew freely on -nature’s bounty for food supplies, such as hunting, fishing and -gathering wild nuts, fruits, and roots, they had developed agriculture -to a considerable degree. Tending their crops with rude Hoes made from -clam shells (A) and shoulder blades of the deer (B), they produced corn, -beans, squash, tobacco, etc. It is probable also that some of the burial -mounds were built with the aid of such Hoes, which were used for -loosening the soil and scraping it into baskets and carrying bags. - - - THE USE OF BONE - - [Illustration: Fig. 21—Implements of Bone.] - -Next to Stone and Flint, the Mound-builders prized Bone for making -implements and ornaments. Above (B, C) are shown two Bone Awls, which -served for piercing leather and bark, and also as “tableware” in eating -their meals. Other things made from bone were Harpoons and Arrowheads -(A), Fish Hooks (D), Scrapers (F), Hoes, Needles (E), and Ornaments such -as Beads and Pendants. - -With some of the Ohio Mound-builders and prehistoric Indians, Bone was -almost as important as Flint and Stone, and was used for many different -purposes. - - - USE OF CLAY FOR POTTERY - - [Illustration: Fig. 22—Vessels of Burned Clay.] - -The Mound-builders and some of the Indians made their pots and pans out -of clay, of which there is a great abundance in the river valleys of -Ohio. They tempered or hardened the clay by mixing it with ground-up -rock or shells, molded it into the desired shape, and baked the vessel -in an open fire. - -Many of these ancient pots have designs like “B” and “C,” which were -made with small sticks, or perhaps with pieces of flint or bone, before -burning. - -In size, pottery vessels range all the way from that of a thimble to a -bushel basket. They were used for the most part for cooking, storing and -preserving food, but many of the highly decorated pots found in the -mounds were probably made purposely as tributes to the dead. - - - SPINNING AND WEAVING - - [Illustration: Fig. 23—Mound-builder Cloth.] - -The Mound-builders wove serviceable cloth from the tough fibers of -plants and the inner bark of certain trees. The sample shown as “A” -resembles the homespun linen of the days of our pioneer grandmothers, -and in “B” a piece of the same sample is magnified to show the weave. -Cloth, as well as the skins of animals, was used for clothing by the -Mound-builders, and they probably knew how to weave thick blankets to -protect them from the cold in winter. There are many samples of -Mound-builder Cloth, as well as of woven bark matting, in the Ohio State -Museum. These show half a dozen or more different weaving patterns, of -which the weave shown in the above picture is but one. Copper implements -found in the mounds were very often wrapped in Cloth, which was -preserved throughout the centuries by the chemical action of the Copper. - -Some of the prehistoric Indians also wove cloth, but none of them was as -skilled as the Mound-builders. - - - THE USE OF METALS - - [Illustration: Fig. 24—Implements and Ornaments of Copper.] - -Although strictly a Stone Age people, the Mound-builders used Copper, -Silver and other native metals. They had not learned to melt these, but -pounded the metal into the desired shape, afterward polishing the -objects by rubbing. The objects shown in the picture are all made of -Copper. “A” is a Bracelet and “B” is a Celt, or ungrooved Axe. “C” shows -two views of what are called Ear-spools. These were worn as ornaments in -the ears, and probably signified some particular station in life. The -Mound-builders obtained their copper from the shores of Lake Superior, -where it is found near the surface of the ground. Many of the pits they -dug there are still to be seen. Silver was also obtained by them in the -same region. - -Besides Copper and Silver, the Mound-builders used Galena, or Lead-ore, -and Iron, which they probably obtained from fallen meteors. The -non-Mound-building Indians used copper to a lesser extent. - - - PERSONAL ORNAMENTATION - - [Illustration: Fig. 25—Mound-builder Jewelry.] - -Beads always have been popular with human beings as articles of personal -adornment. The Mound-builders and other Indians used them in great -numbers, samples of which are shown in the picture. From left to right -there are: Beads made of fresh-water pearls, which are found in the -mounds by the thousands; a “breast-pin” of sea-shell decorated with the -effigy of an insect, and a Bear Tusk with a Pearl set in it, used as a -pendant for a necklace. - -The Mound-builders made Pendants and Beads and other ornaments, some of -which were sewed onto cloth, out of Copper, Mica, Tortoise-shell, Stone -and Bone. Many Buttons about as large around as a dime, made of -sandstone and covered with thin layers of copper or silver, have been -found in the burial mounds. Some of the Mound-builders even wore rings -of copper on their fingers. - - - THE ART OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS - - [Illustration: Fig. 26—Mound-builder Designs.] - -The Mound-builders were artists, carving and cutting a variety of -patterns in Bone, Mica, Shell, Copper, Clay and Stone. Without doubt -they worked in other materials too, such as Wood and Bark, but these, of -course, have entirely disappeared along with other perishable materials. -We have seen examples of their artistic ability in the great geometrical -circles, squares and octagons which they built up of earth around some -of their burial mounds. - -At the left in the picture is a section of a human leg bone carved with -an attractive design. This was no doubt a sort of family relic or a -memento of some relative who had died. In the middle of the picture is a -rare design, possibly representing the universe, cut from a thin sheet -of copper. At the right is the foot of an eagle, cut out of a thin sheet -of mica, as skillfully as anyone could do it today. - -The finest examples of Mound-builder art are the many tobacco pipes -taken from the Mounds. - - - TOBACCO AND TOBACCO PIPES - - [Illustration: Fig. 27—The Mound-builder Tobacco Pipe.] - -The Mound-builders cultivated and smoked Tobacco long before civilized -people knew of the plant. Above is a picture of one of their Tobacco -Pipes, in which they have shown their artistic ability by carving it in -the image of the Dog, their only domestic animal. Several hundred pipes -like this one have been found in mounds in Ohio, representing many -different animals and birds, and the human form has also been found. The -American Indian not only taught the white man the use of tobacco, but it -was probably from pipes very much like those of the Mound-builders, with -stem and bowl, from which our modern tobacco-pipes are copied. - -This Pipe is made of Ohio Pipestone, which is found in Scioto County. -The Tobacco Pipes of the Mound-builders and prehistoric Indians are made -not only of this material, but of several kinds of stone, including -limestone, slate, steatite or soapstone, and granite. - - - “CEREMONIAL” OBJECTS - - [Illustration: Fig. 28—Charms, Badges and Talismans.] - -Almost every collection of “Indian relics” contains one or more -specimens, like those shown above, that are difficult to account for. -They are called by the Archæologists “Ceremonial” objects, because they -are believed to have been used in mysterious ceremonies of the -Mound-builders and Indians. The specimen marked “A” is a pendant or -Gorget, and was worn suspended from the neck. Specimen “B” is a -Bannerstone, and “C” is a Crescent. They probably were mounted on wooden -handles and served as badges of authority or rank. Other Ceremonial -objects are tubes (D), Cones, Bars, Bird-shaped objects, called -Bird-stones, and others. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - -—Created a Table of Contents based on the chapter headings. - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRIMER OF OHIO -ARCHAEOLOGY *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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