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padding-left: 0;} - li {list-style-type: none; padding-left: 1em; text-indent: -1.5em;} - - .blockquot {margin: 1.5em 3% 1.5em 3%;} - .poetry-container {text-align: center;} - .poetry {display: block; text-align: left; margin-left: 10%;} - .poetry .attrib {text-align: right; margin-right: 0;} - .poetry .stanza {page-break-inside: avoid;} - .poetry .tb {text-align: left; padding-left: 2em;} - - .transnote { - page-break-inside: avoid; - margin-left: 2%; - margin-right: 2%; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - padding: .5em; - } - - .index {margin-left: 0;} -} - - </style> - </head> - -<body> - -<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Michael Faraday, by Silvanus P. Thompson</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Michael Faraday</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0;'>His Life and Work</p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Silvanus P. Thompson</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: June 30, 2021 [eBook #65735]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Fay Dunn, Charlie Howard, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MICHAEL FARADAY ***</div> - -<div class="transnote"> -<p class="center larger">Transcriber’s Note</p> - -<p>Larger versions of most illustrations may be seen by right-clicking them -and selecting an option to view them separately, or by double-tapping and/or -stretching them.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="cover" /> -</div> - -<div class="narrow center"> -<p class="newpage p4"><i class="u">THE CENTURY SCIENCE SERIES</i></p> - -<p><span class="u"><span class="smcap">Edited by</span> SIR HENRY E. ROSCOE, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.</span></p> -</div> - -<h1 class="p4 wspace">MICHAEL FARADAY<br /> -<span class="subhead">HIS LIFE AND WORK</span></h1> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"><div class="bbox" id="ad"> -<p class="center xlarge wspace">The Century Science Series.</p> - -<p class="center vspace wspace"><i>Edited by</i> <span class="smcap">Sir</span> HENRY ROSCOE, D.C.L., F.R.S.</p> - -<p class="p1 center smaller">3s. 6d. <i>each</i>.</p> - -<p class="bold">Pasteur.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>By <span class="smcap">Percy Frankland</span>, Ph.D.(Würzburg), B.Sc. (Lond.), -F.R.S., and Mrs. <span class="smcap">Percy Frankland</span>.</p> -</div> - -<p class="bold">Humphry Davy, Poet and Philosopher.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>By <span class="smcap">T. E. Thorpe</span>, LL.D., F.R.S.</p> -</div> - -<p class="bold">Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural -Selection.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>By <span class="smcap">Edward B. Poulton</span>, M.A., F.R.S.</p> -</div> - -<p class="bold">John Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>By Sir <span class="smcap">Henry E. Roscoe</span>, F.R.S.</p> -</div> - -<p class="bold">Major Rennell, F.R.S., and the Rise of English -Geography.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>By Sir <span class="smcap">Clements R. Markham</span>, C.B., F.R.S.</p> -</div> - -<p class="bold">Justus von Liebig: his Life and Work (1803–1873).</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>By <span class="smcap">W. A. Shenstone</span>, F.I.C., Lecturer on Chemistry in -Clifton College.</p> -</div> - -<p class="bold">The Herschels and Modern Astronomy.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>By <span class="smcap">Agnes M. Clerke</span>.</p> -</div> - -<p class="bold">Charles Lyell and Modern Geology.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>By Professor <span class="smcap">T. G. Bonney</span>, F.R.S.</p> -</div> - -<p class="bold">J. Clerk Maxwell and Modern Physics.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>By <span class="smcap">R. T. Glazebrook</span>, F.R.S.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="narrow2" /> - -<p class="bold">Michael Faraday: his Life and Work.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>By Prof. <span class="smcap">Silvanus P. Thompson</span>, F.R.S. 5s.</p> -</div> - -<p class="p1 center">CASSELL & COMPANY, <span class="smcap">Limited</span>, <i>London; Paris, New -York & Melbourne</i>.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="i_frontis" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31em;"> - <img src="images/i_001.jpg" width="1466" height="2210" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Ever Yours Truly<br /> - M Faraday</p></div></div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"><div class="newpage p4 center vspace wspace larger"> - -<p><i class="u">THE CENTURY SCIENCE SERIES</i></p> - -<p class="p4 vspace3"><span class="smcap xxlarge">MICHAEL FARADAY</span><br /> - -<span class="larger">HIS LIFE AND WORK</span></p> - -<p class="p4 vspace"><span class="small">BY</span><br /> -<span class="larger">SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, D.Sc., F.R.S.</span></p> - -<p class="small"><span class="smcap">Principal of and Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds<br /> -of London Technical College, Finsbury</span></p> - -<p class="p4"><span class="smcap vspace larger">CASSELL and COMPANY, Limited</span><br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>LONDON, PARIS, NEW YORK & MELBOURNE</i></span><br /> -<span class="smaller">1898</span><br /> -<span class="small">[ALL RIGHTS RESERVED]</span> -</p> -</div></div> - -<hr /> -<div id="i_logo" class="figcenter newpage p4" style="max-width: 9em;"> - <img src="images/i_002.jpg" width="415" height="415" alt="" /></div> - -<hr /> -<p class="newpage p4 center larger">ON A PORTRAIT OF FARADAY.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></p> -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Was ever man so simple and so sage,</div> - <div class="verse indent4">So crowned and yet so careless of a prize!</div> - <div class="verse indent4">Great Faraday, who made the world so wise,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And loved the labour better than the wage.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">And this you say is how he looked in age,</div> - <div class="verse indent4">With that strong brow and these great humble eyes</div> - <div class="verse indent4">That seem to look with reverent surprise</div> - <div class="verse indent0">On all outside himself. Turn o’er the page,</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Recording Angel, it is white as snow.</div> - <div class="verse indent4">Ah God, a fitting messenger was he</div> - <div class="verse indent0">To show Thy mysteries to us below.</div> - <div class="verse indent4">Child as he came has he returned to Thee.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Would he could come but once again to show</div> - <div class="verse indent4">The wonder-deep of his simplicity.</div> - </div> - <div class="attrib"><span class="smcap">Cosmo Monkhouse.</span></div> -</div> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Shortly</span> after the death of Faraday in 1867, three -biographies of him—each admirable in its own line—were -published. The “Life and Letters of Faraday,” -by Dr. Bence Jones, secretary of the Royal Institution, -which was issued in 1868 in two volumes, has long -been out of print. “Faraday as a Discoverer,” written -in 1868 by Professor Tyndall, which, though slighter -as a record, brings out many points of character into -striking relief, is also now exhausted. Dr. Gladstone’s -“Michael Faraday,” published in 1872, so rich in -reminiscences, and so appreciative of the moral and -religious side of his character, is also out of print. -Other and briefer biographies exist; the “Éloge -Historique” of M. Dumas; the article “Faraday” in -the “Encyclopædia Britannica” by Professor Clerk -Maxwell; and the chapter on Faraday in Dr. W. -Garnett’s “Heroes of Science.” But there seems -room for another account of the life and labours of -the man whose influence upon the century in which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span> -he lived was so great. For forty years he was a -living and inspiring voice in the Royal Institution, -beyond all question the greatest scientific expositor -of his time. Throughout almost the whole of that -time his original researches in physics, and chiefly -in electricity, were extending the boundaries of knowledge -and laying the foundations not only for the -great developments of electrical engineering of the -last twenty years but for those still greater developments -in the theories of electricity, magnetism, and -light which are every year being extended and made -fruitful. Were there no other reason than these -developments in practice and theory, they would -amply justify the effort to review now, after so many -years, the position of Faraday amongst the eminent -men of the century now drawing to its close.</p> - -<p>Those who were intimately acquainted with him -are a fast dwindling band. In the recollection of -such as have survived him, his image lives and -moves, surrounded with gracious memories, a vivid -personality instinct with rare and unselfish kindliness. -But the survivors are few, and their ranks grow -thinner with each succeeding year. And so it comes -about that the task of writing of his life and work -has been entrusted to one who never ceases to regret -that he never met Faraday.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span></p> - -<p>Thanks to the permission of the managers of the -Royal Institution, a number of short extracts from -Faraday’s notebooks, hitherto unpublished, are now -printed for the first time. Much more remains which -it is to be hoped, for the benefit of science, may be -published ere long. The author desires further to -acknowledge the kindness of Messrs. Longmans & Co. -in allowing the reproduction of the illustrations on -pages 3 and 258, which are taken from Bence Jones’s -“Life and Letters of Faraday,” published in 1868. -Mr. Elkin Mathews has kindly permitted the insertion -of the sonnet by Mr. Cosmo Monkhouse which -follows the title-page. The author is also indebted -to Dr. J. Hall Gladstone, F.R.S., for many valuable -notes and suggestions, and to Miss M. K. Reynolds -for photographs used in preparing <a href="#i_159">Fig. 14</a>. Most of -all he is indebted to Miss Jane Barnard for access -to Faraday’s private papers, and for permission to -print certain extracts from them.</p> - -<p class="sigright">S. P. T.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">x</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table id="toc" summary="Contents"> -<tr class="small"> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Chap. I.—Early Life, Training, and Travel</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_1">1</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Chap. II.—Life at the Royal Institution</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_35">35</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Chap. III.—Scientific Researches—First Period</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_75">75</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Chap. IV.—Scientific Researches—Second Period</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_102">102</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Chap. V.—Scientific Researches—Third Period</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_172">172</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Chap. VI.—Middle and Later Life</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_222">222</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Chap. VII.—Views on the Pursuit of Science and on Education</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_261">261</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Chap. VIII.—Religious Views</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_286">286</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> -</div> - -<table id="loi" summary="Illustrations"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Portrait</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_frontis"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> -</tr> -<tr class="small"> - <td class="tdr">FIGS.</td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdr">PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">1.</td> - <td class="tdl">Riebau’s Shop</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_3">3</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">2.</td> - <td class="tdl">Electromagnetic Rotations (facsimile sketch)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_88">88</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">3.</td> - <td class="tdl">Apparatus for Rotation (facsimile sketch)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_88b">88</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">4.</td> - <td class="tdl">Faraday’s Ring (facsimile sketch)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_108">108</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">5.</td> - <td class="tdl">Induction Experiment (facsimile sketch)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_111">111</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">6.</td> - <td class="tdl">The “New Electrical Machine” (facsimile sketch)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_121">121</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">7.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Teetotum Apparatus</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_123">123</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">8.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Revolving Copper Cylinder (facsimile sketch)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_124">124</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">9.</td> - <td class="tdl">Earth Inductor</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_125">125</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">10.</td> - <td class="tdl">A Spark from a Magnet (facsimile sketch)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_129">129</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">11.</td> - <td class="tdl">How to Cut the Magnetic Lines</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_133">133</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">12.</td> - <td class="tdl">Illustration of the New Terms (facsimile sketch)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_145">145</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">13.</td> - <td class="tdl">Bundle of Wires (facsimile sketch)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_151">151</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">14.</td> - <td class="tdl">Apparatus for Investigating Dielectric Capacity</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_159">159</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">15.</td> - <td class="tdl">Block of Heavy-glass (facsimile sketch)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_176">176</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">16.</td> - <td class="tdl">Action of Magnet on Light (facsimile sketch)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_177">177</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">17.</td> - <td class="tdl">Arrangements of Magnets (facsimile sketch)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_178">178</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">18.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Ring Electromagnet (facsimile sketch)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_179">179</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">19.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Equatorial Position</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_188">188</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">20.</td> - <td class="tdl">Illustration of Lateral Vibrations</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_195">195</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">21.</td> - <td class="tdl">A Lecture Model</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_239">239</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr top">22.</td> - <td class="tdl">Cottage at Hampton Court</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_258">258</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_1" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="MICHAEL_FARADAY"><span class="larger">MICHAEL FARADAY.</span></h2> -</div> - -<hr class="narrow" /> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">EARLY LIFE, TRAINING, AND TRAVEL.</span></h2> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">On</span> the 22nd of September, 1791, was born, at -Newington Butts, then an outlying Surrey village, -but since long surrounded and swallowed up within -the area of Greater London, the boy Michael Faraday. -He was the third child of his parents, James and -Margaret Faraday, who had but recently migrated -to London from the little Yorkshire village of -Clapham. Clapham lies under the shadow of Ingleborough, -on the western border of the county, -midway between Settle and Kirkby Lonsdale. The -father, James Faraday, was a working blacksmith; -the mother, daughter of a farmer of Mallerstang, the -romantic valley which runs past Pendragon Castle to -Kirkby Stephen. James Faraday was one of the ten -children of a Robert Faraday, who in 1756 had -married Elizabeth Dean, the owner of a small homestead -known as Clapham Wood Hall, since pulled -down. All Robert Faraday’s sons appear to have -been brought up to trades, one being a shoemaker,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span> -another a grocer, another a farmer, another a flax-worker, -and another a shopkeeper. Descendants of -some of these still live in the district.</p> - -<p>After Michael’s birth, his parents moved to the -north side of the Thames, living for a short time -in Gilbert Street, but removing in 1796 to rooms -over a coach-house in Jacob’s Well Mews, Charles -Street, Manchester Square, where they lived till -1809. In that year, young Michael being now nearly -eighteen years old, they moved to 18, Weymouth -Street, Portland Place. Here in the succeeding -year James Faraday, who had long been an invalid, -died; his widow, who for some years remained -on at Weymouth Street, maintaining herself -by taking in lodgers until her sons could support -themselves and her, survived till 1838. Though a -capable woman and a good mother, she was quite -uneducated. In her declining years she was wholly -supported by her son, of whom she was very proud, -and to whom she was devoted.</p> - -<p>Michael received very little schooling. One of -his nephews tells the following tale of his boyhood. -He was at a dame’s school; and, either from -some defect in his speech or because he was too -young to articulate his <em>r</em>’s properly, he pronounced -his elder brother’s name “Wobert.” The harsh -schoolmistress, bent on curing the defect by personal -chastisement, sent the aforesaid “Wobert” out with a -halfpenny to get a cane, that young Michael might be -duly flogged. But this refinement of cruelty reacted -on itself; for Robert, boiling with indignation, pitched -the halfpenny over a wall, and went home to tell his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span> -mother, who promptly came down to the scene of -action and removed both boys from the school. -From the age of five to thirteen Michael lived at -Jacob’s Well Mews, spending his out-of-school hours -at home or in the streets playing at marbles and -other games with the children of the neighbourhood.</p> - -<div id="i_3" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30em;"> - <img src="images/i_003.jpg" width="1455" height="1135" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">RIEBAU’S SHOP.</div></div> - -<div class="sidenote">BOOKBINDER’S ERRAND-BOY.</div> - -<p>In 1804 he went on trial for twelve months as -errand-boy to a bookseller and stationer at No. 2, -Blandford Street—Mr. George Riebau. This -house, which is still kept as a stationer’s shop -(by Mr. William Pike), is now marked with an -enamelled tablet recording its connection with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> -life of Faraday.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> When he first went to Mr. Riebau, -it was his duty to carry round the newspapers -in the morning. He has been graphically described -as a bright-eyed errand-boy who “slid along the -London pavements, with a load of brown curls upon -his head and a packet of newspapers under his arm.” -Some of the journals were lent out, and had to be -called for again. He was very particular on Sunday -mornings to take them round early, that he might -complete his work in time to go with his parents -to their place of worship. They belonged—as his -grandfather before him—to the sect known as Sandemanians, -a small body which separated from the -Presbyterian Church of Scotland towards the middle -of the eighteenth century. Their views, which were -very primitive, were held with intense earnestness -and sincerity of purpose. Their founder had taught -that Christianity never was or could be the formal or -established religion of any nation without subverting -its essential principles; that religion was the affair -of the individual soul; and that “the Bible” alone, -with nothing added to it or taken away from it by -man, was the sole and sufficient guide for the soul. -They rejected all priests or paid ministers, but -recognised an institution of unpaid eldership. Their -worship was exceedingly simple. Though their -numbers were few, they were exceedingly devout, -simple, and exclusive in their faith. Doubtless the -rigorous moral influences pervading the family and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> -friends of James Faraday had a great part in -moulding the character of young Michael. To his -dying day he remained a member of this obscure -sect. As he was no merely nominal adherent, -but an exceedingly devoted member, and at two -different periods of his life an elder and a preacher, -no review of his life-work would be complete without -a fuller reference to the religious side of his -character.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">APPRENTICED AS BOOKBINDER.</div> - -<p>After the year of trial, Michael Faraday was -formally apprenticed to learn the arts of bookbinder, -stationer, “and bookseller,” to Mr. Riebau. The indenture<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> -is dated October 7, 1805. It is stated that, -“in consideration of his faithful service, no premium -is given.” During his seven years of apprenticeship -there came unexpected opportunities for self-improvement. -Faraday’s lifelong friend and co-religionist, -Cornelius Varley, says:—“When my attention was -first drawn to Faraday, I was told that he had been -apprenticed to a bookbinder. I said he was the best -bookworm for eating his way to the inside; for -hundreds had worked at books only as so much -printed paper. Faraday saw a mine of knowledge, -and resolved to explore it.” To one of his friends he -said that a book by Watts, “On the Mind,” first made -him think, and that the article on “Electricity” in a -cyclopædia which came into his hands to be bound -first turned his attention to science. He himself -wrote:—“Whilst an apprentice I loved to read the -scientific books which were under my hand; and,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span> -amongst them, delighted in Marcet’s ‘Conversations -in Chemistry’ and the electrical treatises in the -‘Encyclopædia Britannica.’ I made such simple -experiments in chemistry as could be defrayed in -their expense by a few pence per week, and also -constructed an electrical machine, first with a glass -phial, and afterwards with a real cylinder, as well as -other electrical apparatus of a corresponding kind.” -This early machine<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> is now preserved at the Royal -Institution, to which it was presented by Sir -James South. Amongst the books which he had -to bind were Lyons’ “Experiments on Electricity” -and Boyle’s “Notes about the Producibleness of -Chymicall Principles,” which books, together -with Miss Burney’s “Evelina,” all bound with his -own hands, are still preserved in the Royal Institution.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">NEW ACQUAINTANCES.</div> - -<p>Walking near Fleet Street, he saw displayed a bill -announcing that evening lectures on natural philosophy -were delivered by Mr. Tatum at 53, Dorset -Street, Salisbury Square, E.C., price of admission one -shilling. With his master’s permission, and money -furnished by his elder brother Robert, who was a -blacksmith and (later) a gasfitter, Michael began -to taste scientific teaching. Between February, -1810, and September, 1811, he attended some twelve -or thirteen lectures. He made full and beautiful -notes of all he heard: his notebooks, bound by himself, -being still preserved. At these lectures he fell -in with several thoroughly congenial comrades, one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> -of them, by name Benjamin Abbott, being a well-educated -young Quaker, who was confidential clerk -in a mercantile house in the City. Of the others—amongst -whom were Magrath, Newton, Nicol, Huxtable, -and Richard Phillips (afterwards F.R.S. and -President of the Chemical Society)—several remained -lifelong friends. Happily for posterity, the letters—long -and chatty—which the lad wrote in the fulness -of his heart to Abbott have been preserved; they -are published in Bence Jones’s “Life and Letters.” -They are remarkable not only for their vivacity -and freshness but for their elevated tone and excellent -composition—true specimens of the lost art -of letter-writing. The most wonderful thing about -them is that they should have been written by a -bookbinder’s apprentice of no education beyond the -common school of the district. In his very first -letter he complains that ideas and notions which -spring up in his mind “are irrevocably lost for want -of noting at the time.” This seems the first premonition -of that loss of memory which so afflicted him -in after life. In his later years he always carried -in his waistcoat pocket a card on which to jot down -notes and memoranda. He would stop to set down -his notes in the street, in the theatre, or in the -laboratory.</p> - -<p>Riebau, his master in the bookbinding business, -seems, from the way he encouraged the studies of his -young apprentice, to have been no ordinary man. -His name would suggest a foreign extraction; and -to his shop resorted more than one political refugee. -There lodged at one time at Riebau’s an artist named<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> -Masquerier,<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> who had painted Napoleon’s portrait -and had fled from France during the troublous times. -For the apprentice boy, who used to dust his room and -black his boots, Masquerier took a strong liking. He -lent him books on perspective and taught him how -to draw. Another frequenter of Riebau’s shop was -a Mr. Dance, whose interest in the industry and intelligence -of the apprentice led him to an act which -changed the whole destiny of his life. Faraday -himself, in the very few autobiographical notes which -he penned, wrote <span class="locked">thus:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>During my apprenticeship I had the good fortune, through -the kindness of Mr. Dance, who was a customer of my master’s -shop and also a member of the Royal Institution, to hear four -of the last lectures of Sir H. Davy in that locality.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> The -dates of these lectures were February 29, March 14, April 8 -and 10, 1812. Of these I made notes, and then wrote out the -lectures in a fuller form, interspersing them with such drawings -as I could make. The desire to be engaged in scientific -occupation, even though of the lowest kind, induced me, -whilst an apprentice, to write, in my ignorance of the world -and simplicity of my mind, to Sir Joseph Banks, then President -of the Royal Society. Naturally enough, “No answer” was -the reply left with the porter.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">LETTERS TO ABBOTT.</div> - -<p>He submitted his notes to the criticism of his -friend Abbott, with whom he discussed chemical and -electrical problems, and the experiments which they -had individually tried. Out of this correspondence,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span> -one letter only can be given; it was written September -28, 1812, ten days before the expiry of his -<span class="locked">apprenticeship:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Dear A——, ... I will hurry on to philosophy, where I -am a little more sure of my ground. Your card was to me a -very interesting and pleasing object. I was highly gratified in -observing so plainly delineated the course of the electric fluid -or fluids (I do not know which). It appears to me that by -making use of a card thus prepared, you have hit upon a happy -illustrating medium between a conductor and a non-conductor; -had the interposed medium been a conductor, the electricity -would have passed in connection through it—it would not have -been divided; had the medium been a non-conductor, it would -have passed in connection, and undivided, as a spark over it, -but by this varying and disjoined conductor it has been divided -most effectually. Should you pursue this point at any time -still further, it will be necessary to ascertain by what particular -power or effort the spark is divided, whether by its affinity to -the conductor or by its own repulsion; or if, as I have no -doubt is the case, by the joint action of these two forces, it -would be well to observe and ascertain the proportion of each -in the effect. There are problems, the solution of which will -be difficult to obtain, but the science of electricity will not be -complete without them; and a philosopher will aim at perfection, -though he may not hit it—difficulties will not retard him, -but only cause a proportionate exertion of his mental faculties.</p> - -<p>I had a very pleasing view of the planet Saturn last week -through a refractor with a power of ninety. I saw his ring -very distinctly; ’tis a singular appendage to a planet, to a -revolving globe, and I should think caused some peculiar -phenomena to the planet within it. I allude to their mutual -action with respect to meteorology and perhaps electricity....</p> -</div> - -<p>The master, a French emigré named De la Roche, -of King Street, Portman Square, to whom he engaged -himself as a journeyman bookbinder, was of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> -very passionate disposition, and made Faraday very -uncomfortable. He longed to get out of trade, and -under the encouragement of Mr. Dance he wrote to -Sir Humphry Davy, sending, “as a proof of my -earnestness,” the notes he had taken of Davy’s last -four lectures. Faraday’s letter, which has been -preserved but never published, is an astounding -example of the high-flown cringing style in vogue at -that date. Davy’s reply was favourable, and led to a -temporary engagement of some days as amanuensis -at the time when he was wounded in the eye by an -explosion of the chloride of nitrogen. Faraday himself, -nearly twenty years afterwards, wrote<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> a full -account of the circumstances.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center">[<i>M. Faraday to Dr. J. A. Paris.</i>]</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -Royal Institution, December 23, 1829. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">My dear Sir</span>,—You asked me to give you an account of -my first introduction to Sir H. Davy, which I am very happy -to do, as I think the circumstances will bear testimony to his -goodness of heart.</p> - -<p>When I was a bookseller’s apprentice, I was very fond of -experiment and very adverse to trade. It happened that a -gentleman, a member of the Royal Institution, took me to -hear some of Sir H. Davy’s last lectures in Albemarle Street. -I took notes, and afterwards wrote them out more fairly in a -quarto volume.</p> - -<p>My desire to escape from trade, which I thought vicious -and selfish, and to enter into the service of Science, which I -imagined made its pursuers amiable and liberal, induced me at -last to take the bold and simple step of writing to Sir H. Davy, -expressing my wishes, and a hope that, if an opportunity came<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span> -in his way, he would favour my views; at the same time, I -sent the notes I had taken of his lectures.</p> - -<p>The answer, which makes all the point of my communication, -I send you in the original, requesting you to take great -care of it, and to let me have it back, for you may imagine -how much I value it.</p> - -<p>You will observe that this took place at the end of the year -1812, and early in 1813 he requested to see me, and told me -of the situation of assistant in the laboratory of the Royal -Institution, then just vacant.</p> - -<p>At the same time that he thus gratified my desires as to -scientific employment, he still advised me not to give up the -prospects I had before me, telling me that Science was a harsh -mistress; and in a pecuniary point of view but poorly rewarding -those who devoted themselves to her service. He smiled -at my notion of the superior moral feelings of philosophic men, -and said he would leave me to the experience of a few years -to set me right on that matter.</p> - -<p>Finally, through his good efforts I went to the Royal -Institution early in March of 1813, as assistant in the laboratory; -and in October of the same year went with him abroad as his -assistant in experiments and in writing. I returned with him -in April, 1815, resumed my station in the Royal Institution, -and have, as you know, ever since remained there.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l2">I am, dear Sir, very truly yours,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">WINS FAVOUR WITH DAVY.</div> - -<p>The following is Davy’s <span class="locked">note:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center"><i>Mr. P. Faraday, 188, Weymouth St., Portland Place.</i></p> - -<p class="sigright"> -December 24, 1812. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>,—I am far from displeased with the proof you have -given me of your confidence, and which displays great zeal, -power of memory, and attention. I am obliged to go out of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span>Town, and shall not be settled in town till the end of Jan<sup>y</sup> -I will then see you at any time you wish. It would gratify -me to be of any service to you; I wish it may be in my power.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l4">I am Sir</span><br /> -your obt. humble servt.<br /> -<span class="smcap l2">H. Davy.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>Accordingly, Faraday called on Davy, who received -him in the anteroom to the lecture theatre, by the -window nearest to the corridor. He advised him -then to stick to bookbinding, promising to send him -books from the Institution to bind, as well as other -books. He must have been agreeably impressed, -otherwise he would not, when disabled, have sent for -Faraday to write for him. Early in 1813 the humble -household, in which Faraday lived with his widowed -mother in Weymouth Street, was one night startled -by the apparition of Sir Humphry Davy’s grand -coach, from which a footman alighted and knocked -loudly at the door. For young Faraday, who was at -that moment undressing upstairs, he left a note from -Sir Humphry Davy requesting him to call next -morning. At that interview Davy asked him whether -he was still desirous of changing his occupation, and -offered him the post of assistant in the laboratory in -place of one who had been dismissed. The salary was -to be twenty-five shillings a week, with two rooms at -the top of the house. The minute appointing him is -dated March 1, <span class="locked">1813:—</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">ENTERS ROYAL INSTITUTION.</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Sir Humphry Davy has the honour to inform the managers -that he has found a person who is desirous to occupy the -situation in the Institution lately filled by William Payne. -His name is Michael Faraday. He is a youth of twenty-two -years of age. As far as Sir H. Davy has been able to observe<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span> -or ascertain, he appears well fitted for the situation. His -habits seem good, his disposition active and cheerful, and his -manner intelligent. He is willing to engage himself on the -same terms as those given to Mr. Payne at the time of quitting -the Institution.</p> - -<p>Resolved—That Michael Faraday be engaged to fill the -situation lately occupied by Mr. Payne on the same terms.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a></p> -</div> - -<p>There have come down several additions to the -story. One, probably apocryphal, says that Faraday’s -first introduction to Davy was occasioned by Davy’s -calling at Riebau’s to select some bookbinding, and -seeing on the shelves the bound volume of manuscript -notes of his own lectures. The other was narrated -by Gassiot to Tyndall, as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l2">Clapham Common, Surrey,</span><br /> -November 28, 1867. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">My dear Tyndall</span>,—Sir H. Davy was accustomed to call -on the late Mr. Pepys in the Poultry, on his way to the -London Institution, of which Pepys was one of the original -managers; the latter told me that on one occasion Sir H. Davy, -showing him a letter, said, “Pepys, what am I to do?—here is a -letter from a young man named Faraday; he has been attending -my lectures, and wants me to give him employment at the -Royal Institution—what can I do?” “Do?” replied Pepys,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span> -“put him to wash bottles; if he is good for anything he will do -it directly; if he refuses, he is good for nothing.” “No, no,” -replied Davy, “we must try him with something better than -that.” The result was, that Davy engaged him to assist in -the Laboratory at weekly wages.</p> - -<p>Davy held the joint office of Professor of Chemistry and -Director of the Laboratory; he ultimately gave up the former -to the late Professor Brande, but he insisted that Faraday -should be appointed Director of the Laboratory, and, as -Faraday told me, this enabled him on subsequent occasions to -hold a definite position in the Institution, in which he was -always supported by Davy. I believe he held that office to the -last.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l2">Believe me, my dear Tyndall, yours truly,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">J. P. Gassiot.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>In 1808 Mr. Tatum had founded a City Philosophical -Society.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> It consisted of thirty or forty -young men in humble or moderate rank, who met on -Wednesdays for mutual instruction; lectures being -given once a fortnight by the members in turn. -Tatum introduced Faraday to this Society in 1813. -Edward Magrath was secretary. Amongst Faraday’s -notes of his life is the <span class="locked">following:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>During this spring Magrath and I established the mutual-improvement -plan, and met at my rooms up in the attics of -the Royal Institution, or at Wood Street at his warehouse. It -consisted perhaps of half-a-dozen persons, chiefly from the -City Philosophical Society, who met of an evening to read -together, and to criticise, correct, and improve each other’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> -pronunciation and construction of language. The discipline -was very sturdy, the remarks very plain and open, and the -results most valuable. This continued for several years.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">AT WORK IN CHEMISTRY.</div> - -<p>He writes, after a week of work at the Royal -Institution, to <span class="locked">Abbott:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -Royal Institution, March 8, 1813. -</p> - -<p>It is now about nine o’clock, and the thought strikes me -that the tongues are going both at Tatum’s and at the lecture -in Bedford Street; but I fancy myself much better employed -than I should have been at the lecture at either of those places. -Indeed, I have heard one lecture already to-day, and had a -finger in it (I can’t say a hand, for I did very little). It was -by Mr. Powell, on mechanics, or rather on rotatory motion, and -was a pretty good lecture, but not very fully attended.</p> - -<p>As I know you will feel a pleasure in hearing in what I -have been or shall be occupied, I will inform you that I have -been employed to-day, in part, in extracting the sugar from a -portion of beetroot, and also in making a compound of sulphur -and carbon—a combination which has lately occupied in a -considerable degree the attention of chemists.</p> - -<p>With respect to next Wednesday, I shall be occupied until -late in the afternoon by Sir H. Davy, and must therefore -decline seeing you at that time; this I am the more ready to -do as I shall enjoy your company next Sunday, and hope to -possess it often in a short time.</p> -</div> - -<p>The next letter to Abbott, dated April 9, recounts -an explosion in which both he and Sir Humphry -Davy received considerable injury. In June he wrote -to Abbott four very remarkable letters concerning -lectures and lecturers. He had already heard Tatum -and Davy, and had now assisted Brande and Powell -in their lectures, and had keenly observed their habits, -peculiarities, and defects, as well as the effects they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> -produced on the audience. He writes without the -slightest suspicion of suggestion that he himself has -any likelihood of becoming a lecturer, and says that -he does not pretend to any of the requisites for such -an office. “If I am unfit for it,” he says, “’tis evident -that I have yet to learn; and how learn better than -by the observation of others? If we never judge at -all, we shall never judge right.” “I, too, have inducements -in the C[ity] P[hilosophical] S[ociety] to -draw me forward in the acquisition of a small portion -of knowledge on this point.” “I shall point out but -few beauties or few faults that I have not witnessed -in the presence of a numerous assembly.”</p> - -<p>He begins by considering the proper shape of a -lecture-room; its proper ventilation, and need of -suitable entrances and exits. Then he goes on to -consider suitability of subjects and dignity of subject. -In the second of the letters he contrasts the perceptive -powers of the eye and ear, and the proper arrangements -for a lecturer’s table; then considers diagrams -and illustrations. The third letter deals with the -delivery and style of the lecture, the manner and -attitudes of the lecturer, his methods of keeping alive -the attention of the audience, and duration of the -discourse. In the fourth of these letters (see <a href="#Page_228">p. 228</a>), -he dwells on the mistakes and defects of lecturers, -their unnecessary apologies, the choice of apt experiments, -and avoidance of trivialities.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">PROPOSALS FOR FOREIGN TRAVEL.</div> - -<p>In September, 1813, after but six months of work -in the laboratory, a proposition came to him from Sir -Humphry Davy which resulted in a complete change -of scene. It was an episode of foreign travel, lasting,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> -as it proved, eighteen months. In the autobiographical -notes he <span class="locked">wrote:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>In the autumn Sir H. Davy proposed going abroad, and -offered me the opportunity of going with him as his amanuensis, -and the promise of resuming my situation in the Institution -upon my return to England. Whereupon I accepted the offer, -left the Institution on October 13, and, after being with Sir -H. Davy in France, Italy, Switzerland, the Tyrol, Geneva, &c., -in that and the following year, returned to England and -London April 23, 1815.</p> -</div> - -<p>Before he left England, on September 18, 1813, at -the request of his mother, he wrote to an uncle and -aunt the following account of <span class="locked">himself:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I was formerly a bookseller and binder, but am now turned -philosopher, which happened thus:—Whilst an apprentice, I, -for amusement, learnt a little of chemistry and other parts of -philosophy, and felt an eager desire to proceed in that way -further. After being a journeyman for six months, under a -disagreeable master, I gave up my business, and, by the -interest of Sir H. Davy, filled the situation of chemical assistant -to the Royal Institution of Great Britain, in which office I -now remain, and where I am constantly engaged in observing -the works of Nature and tracing the manner in which she -directs the arrangement and order of the world. I have lately -had proposals made to me by Sir Humphry Davy to accompany -him, in his travels through Europe and into Asia, as philosophical -assistant. If I go at all I expect it will be in October -next, about the end, and my absence from home will perhaps -be as long as three years. But as yet all is uncertain. I have -to repeat that, even though I may go, my path will not pass -near any of my relations, or permit me to see those whom I so -much long to see.</p> -</div> - -<p>To Faraday, who was now twenty-two years old, -foreign travel meant much more than to most young<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span> -men of equal age. With his humble bringing up and -slender resources, he had never had the chance of -seeing the outside world; he had never, to his own -recollection, even seen the sea. When on Wednesday, -October 13, he started out on the journey to Plymouth, -in order to cross to the port of Morlaix, he -began his journal of foreign travel <span class="locked">thus:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>This morning formed a new epoch in my life. I have never -before, within my recollection, left London at a greater distance -than twelve miles.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">A NEW ELEMENT.</div> - -<p class="in0">This journal he kept with minute care, with the sole -purpose of recalling events to his mind. It gives full -details as to Davy’s scientific friends and work, intermingled -with graphic descriptions of scenery; and is -remarkable also for its personal reticence. As with -many another, so with Faraday, foreign travel took -in his life the place of residence at a University. In -France, in Italy, he received enlarged ideas; and -what he saw of learned men and academies of science -exercised no small formative effect upon one then at -the most impressionable age. He comments gaily on -the odd incidents of travel; the luminescence of the -sea at night; the amazing fuss at the Custom House; -the postilion with his jack-boots, whip, and pouch; -the glow-worm (the first glow-worm he had ever -seen); and the slim pigs of Normandy. At Paris he -visits the Louvre, where his chief comment on its -treasures is, that by their acquisition France has -made herself “a nation of thieves.” He goes to the -Prefecture of Police for his passport, in which he is -described as having “a round chin, a brown beard, -a large mouth, a great nose,” etc. He visits the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> -churches, where the theatrical air pervading the -place “makes it impossible to attach a serious or -important feeling to what is going on.” He comments -on the wood fires, the charcoal used in cooking, the -washerwomen on the river bank, the internal decorations -of houses, the printing of the books. Then he -goes about with Davy amongst the French chemists. -Ampère, Clément, and Désormes come to Davy to -show him the new and strange substance “X,” -lately discovered by M. Courtois. They heat it, and -behold it rise in vapour of a beautiful violet colour. -Ampère himself, on November 23rd, gives Davy a -specimen. They carefully note down its characters. -Davy and his assistant make many new experiments -on it. At first its origin is kept a profound secret by -the Frenchman. Then it transpires that it is made -from ashes of seaweed. They work on it at Chevreul’s -laboratory. Faraday borrows a voltaic pile from -Chevreul. With that intuition which was characteristic -of him, Davy jumps almost at once to a conclusion -as to the nature of the new body, which for -nearly two years had been in the hands of the Frenchmen -awaiting elucidation. When he leaves Paris, -they do not wholly bless his rapidity of thought. -But Faraday has seen—with placid indifference—a -glimpse of the great Napoleon “sitting in one corner -of his carriage, covered and almost hidden by an -enormous robe of ermine, and his face overshadowed -by a tremendous plume of feathers, that descended -from a velvet hat”; he has also met Humboldt, and -he has heard M. Gay Lussac lecture to about two -hundred pupils.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span></p> - -<p>Dumas has recorded in his “Éloge Historique” a -reflection of the impressions left by the travellers. -After speaking of the criticism to which Davy was -exposed during his visit, he <span class="locked">says:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>His laboratory assistant, long before he had won his great -celebrity by his works, had by his modesty, his amiability, and -his intelligence, gained most devoted friends at Paris, at -Geneva, at Montpellier. Amongst these may be named in -the front rank M. de la Rive, the distinguished chemist, father -of the illustrious physicist whom we count amongst our foreign -associates. The kindnesses with which he covered my youth -contributed not a little to unite us—Faraday and myself. -With pleasure we used to recall that we made one another’s -acquaintance under the auspices of that affectionate and helpful -philosopher whose example so truly witnessed that science -does not dry up the heart’s blood. At Montpellier, beside the -hospitable hearth of Bérard, the associate of Chaptal, doyen -of our corresponding members, Faraday has left memories -equally charged with an undying sympathy which his master -could never have inspired. We admired Davy, we loved -Faraday.</p> -</div> - -<p>It is December 29 when the travellers leave Paris -and cross the forest of Fontainebleau. Faraday thinks -he never saw a more beautiful scene than the forest -dressed in an airy garment of crystalline hoar frost. -They pass through Lyons, Montpellier, Aix, Nice, -searching on the way for iodine in the sea-plants of -the Mediterranean. At the end of January, 1814, -they cross the Col de Tende over the snow at an -elevation of 6,000 feet into Italy, and find themselves -in the midst of the Carnival at Turin. They reach -Genoa, and go to the house of a chemist to make -experiments on the <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">raia torpedo</i>, the electric skate,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> -trying to ascertain whether water could be decomposed -by the electrical discharges of these singular -fishes. From Genoa they go by sea to Lerici in an -open boat, with much discomfort and fear of ship-wreck; -and thence by land to Florence.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">WITH DAVY IN ITALY.</div> - -<p>At Florence he goes with Davy to the Accademia -del Cimento. He sees the library, the gardens, the -museum. Here is Galileo’s own telescope—a simple -tube of paper and wood, with lenses at each end—with -which he discovered Jupiter’s satellites. Here is -the great burning glass of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. -And here is a numerous collection of magnets, including -one enormous loadstone supporting a weight of -150 pounds. They make “the grand experiment of -burning the diamond” in oxygen by the sun’s heat -concentrated through the Grand Duke’s burning -glass. They find the diamond to be pure carbon. -Then early in April they depart for Rome.</p> - -<p>From Rome Faraday wrote to his mother a long -chatty letter summarising his travels, and sending -messages of kindly remembrance to his old master -Riebau and others. He tells how, in spite of political -troubles, Sir Humphry Davy’s high name has procured -them free admission everywhere, and how they -have just heard that Paris has been taken by the -Allied troops.</p> - -<p>At Rome they witness unconvinced some attempts -of Morichini to impart magnetism to steel needles -by the solar rays. They pass the Colosseum by moonlight, -making an early morning start across the -Campagna, on the road to Naples, with an armed -guard for fear of brigands. Twice, in the middle of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> -May, they ascend Vesuvius, the second time during -a partial eruption rendered all the more vivid by the -lateness of the hour—half-past seven—at which the -edge of the crater was reached. In June they visit -Terni, and note the nearly circular rainbow visible in -the spray of the cataract; and so across the Apennines -to Milan.</p> - -<p>At Milan occurs the following <span class="locked">entry:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Friday 17th [June, 1814], Milan. Saw M. Volta, who came -to Sir H. Davy, an hale elderly man, bearing the red ribbon, -and very free in conversation.</p> -</div> - -<p>He does <em>not</em> record how the ceremonious old Count, -who had specially attired himself in his Court uniform -to welcome the illustrious chemist, was horrified -at the informal manners and uncourtly dress of the -tourist philosopher.</p> - -<p>So, travelling by Como and Domo d’Ossola, they -come to Geneva, and here remain a long time; -and Faraday writes again to his mother and to -Abbott. He can even find time to discuss with the -latter the relative merits of the French and Italian -languages, and the trend of civilisation in Paris and -in Rome. Twice he sends messages to Riebau. One -of his letters to Abbott, in September, contains -passages of more than transient <span class="locked">interest:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Some doubts have been expressed to me lately with respect -to the continuance of the Royal Institution; Mr. Newman can -probably give a guess at the issue of them. I have three boxes -of books, &c., there, and I should be sorry if they were lost by -the turning up of unforeseen circumstances; but I hope all -will end well (you will not read this out aloud). Remember<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> -me to all friends, if you please. And “now for you and I to -ourselves.”...</p> - -<p>In passing through life, my dear friend, everyone must -expect to receive lessons, both in the school of prosperity and -in that of adversity; and, taken in a general sense, these -schools do not only include riches and poverty, but everything -that may cause the happiness and pleasure of man, and every -feeling that may give him pain. I have been in at the door of -both these schools; nor am I so far on the right hand at present -that I do not get hurt by the thorns on my left. With respect -to myself, I have always perceived (when, after a time, I saw -things more clearly) that those things which at first appeared -as misfortunes or evils ultimately were actually benefits, and -productive of much good in the future progress of things. -Sometimes I compared them to storms and tempests, which -cause a temporary disarrangement to produce permanent good; -sometimes they appeared to me like roads—stony, uneven, -hilly, and uncomfortable, it is true—but the only roads to a -good beyond them; and sometimes I said they were clouds -which intervened between me and the sun of prosperity, but -which I found were refreshing, reserving to me that tone and -vigour of mind which prosperity alone would enervate and -ultimately destroy....</p> - -<div class="sidenote">HINTS OF DISCOMFORT.</div> - -<p>You talk of travelling, and I own the word is seducing, but -travelling does not secure you from uneasy circumstances. I -by no means intend to deter you from it; for though I should -like to find you at home when I come home, and though I -know how much the loss would be felt by our friends, yet I -am aware that the fund of knowledge and of entertainment -opened would be almost infinite. But I shall set down a few -of my own thoughts and feelings, &c., in the same circumstances. -In the first place, then, my dear B., I fancy that -when I set my foot in England I shall never take it out again; -for I find the prospect so different from what it at first -appeared to be, that I am certain, if I could have foreseen the -things that have passed, I should never have left London. In -the second place, enticing as travelling is—and I appreciate -fully its advantages and pleasures—I have several times been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> -more than half decided to return hastily home; but second -thoughts have still induced me to try what the future may -produce, and now I am only retained by the wish of improvement. -I have learned just enough to perceive my ignorance, -and, ashamed of my defects in everything, I wish to seize the -opportunity of remedying them. The little knowledge I have -gained in languages makes me wish to know more of them, -and the little I have seen of men and manners is just enough -to make me desirous of seeing more; added to which, the -glorious opportunity I enjoy of improving in the knowledge of -chemistry and the sciences continually determines me to -finish this voyage with Sir Humphry Davy. But if I wish to -enjoy those advantages, I have to sacrifice much; and though -those sacrifices are such as an humble man would not feel, yet -I cannot quietly make them. Travelling, too, I find, is almost -inconsistent with religion (I mean modern travelling), and I -am yet so old-fashioned as to remember strongly (I hope -perfectly) my youthful education; and upon the whole, <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">malgré</i> -the advantages of travelling, it is not impossible but that you -may see me at your door when you expect a letter.</p> - -<p>You will perceive, dear B., that I do not wish you hastily -to leave your present situation, because I think that a hasty -change will only make things worse. You will naturally -compare your situation with others you see around you, and -by this comparison your own will appear more sad, whilst the -others seem brighter than in truth they are; for, like the two -poles of a battery, the ideas of each will become exalted by -approaching them. But I leave you, dear friend, to act in -this case as your judgment may direct, hoping always for -the best.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>Sir Humphry works often on iodine, and has lately been -making experiments on the prismatic spectrum at M. Pictet’s. -They are not yet perfected, but from the use of very delicate -air thermometers, it appears that the rays producing most -heat are certainly out of the spectrum and beyond the red -rays. Our time has been employed lately in fishing and -shooting; and many a quail has been killed in the plains of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span> -Geneva, and many a trout and grayling have been pulled -out of the Rhone.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>I need not say, dear Ben, how perfectly I am yours,</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">ARISTOCRATIC HAUTEUR.</div> - -<p>This letter reveals, what the diary of travel so -scrupulously hides, the existence of circumstances -which were hardly tolerable in Faraday’s position. -To make the reference intelligible it should be remembered -that Davy, who had come up to London -in 1801 as a raw youth, of immense ability but very -uncouth exterior, had developed into a fashionable -person, had become the idol of the hour, had married -a very wealthy widow, had been knighted, and had -given himself up very largely to the pursuits of -fashionable society and to the company of the aristocratic -<i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">beau monde</i>. Lady Davy accompanied Sir -Humphry in this Continental tour; and though -Faraday had been taken with them as secretary and -scientific assistant, it would seem that he had not -always been treated with the respect due to one in -that position. The above letter evidently disquieted -Abbott, for he wrote back to Faraday to inquire more -closely into his personal affairs, telling him he was -sure he was not happy, and asking him to share his -difficulties. Faraday, who was now back in Rome, -replied in January in a long letter of twelve pages,<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> -which he says he had intended to fill with an account -of the waterfalls he had seen, but which gives instead -a detailed account of his vexations. He had, he -said, written his former letter when in a ruffled state -of mind. He now gives the explanation. Before, -however, this letter could reach Abbott, the latter -had written yet more urgently to know what was the -matter. To this Faraday replied on February 23rd. -As this shorter letter summarises the previous one -it may be given here. Both are printed in Bence -Jones’s “Life and <span class="locked">Letters”:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -Rome, February 23, 1815. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dear B——</span>,—In a letter of above twelve pages I gave -answers to your question respecting my situation. It was a -subject not worth talking about, but I consider your inquiries -as so many proofs of your kindness and the interest you take -in my welfare, and I thought the most agreeable thanks I -could make you would be to answer them. The same letter -also contained a short account of a paper written by Sir -Humphry Davy on ancient colours, and some other miscellaneous -matters.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SECRET OF MORTIFICATION.</div> - -<p>I am quite ashamed of dwelling so often on my own affairs, -but as I know you wish it, I shall briefly inform you of my -situation. I do not mean to employ much of this sheet of -paper on the subject, but refer you to the before-mentioned -long letter for clear information. It happened a few days -before we left England, that Sir H.’s valet declined going with -him, and in the short space of time allowed by circumstances -another could not be got. Sir H. told me he was very sorry, -but that, if I would do such things as were absolutely necessary -for him until he got to Paris, he should there get another. I -murmured, but agreed. At Paris he could not get one. No -Englishmen were there, and no Frenchman fit for the place -could talk English to me. At Lyons he could not get one; -at Montpellier he could not get one; nor at Genoa, nor at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> -Florence, nor at Rome, nor in all Italy; and I believe at last -he did not wish to get one: and we are just the same now as -we were when he left England. This of course throws things -into my duty which it was not my agreement, and is not my -wish, to perform, but which are, if I remain with Sir H., -unavoidable. These, it is true, are very few; for having been -accustomed in early years to do for himself, he continues to do -so at present, and he leaves very little for a valet to perform; -and as he knows that it is not pleasing to me, and that I do -not consider myself as obliged to do them, he is always as -careful as possible to keep those things from me which he -knows would be disagreeable. But Lady Davy is of another -humour. She likes to show her authority, and at first I found -her extremely earnest in mortifying me. This occasioned -quarrels between us, at each of which I gained ground, and -she lost it; for the frequency made me care nothing about -them, and weakened her authority, and after each she behaved -in a milder manner. Sir H. has also taken care to get servants -of the country, ycleped <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">lacquais de place</i>, to do everything she -can want, and now I am somewhat comfortable; indeed, at -this moment I am perfectly at liberty, for Sir H. has gone to -Naples to search for a house or lodging to which we may -follow him, and I have nothing to do but see Rome, write my -journal, and learn Italian.</p> - -<p>But I will leave such an unprofitable subject, and tell you -what I know of our intended route. For the last few weeks it -has been very undecided, and at this moment there is no -knowing which way we shall turn. Sir H. intended to see -Greece and Turkey this summer, and arrangements were half -made for the voyage; but he has just learned that a quarantine -must be performed on the road there, and to do this he has -an utter aversion, and that alone will perhaps break up the -journey.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>Since the long letter I wrote you, Sir H. has written two -short papers for the Royal Society—the first on a new solid -compound of iodine and oxygen, and the second a new gaseous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> -compound of chlorine and oxygen, which contains four times -as much oxygen as euchlorine.</p> - -<p>The discovery of these bodies contradicts many parts of -Gay-Lussac’s paper on iodine, which has been very much -vaunted in these parts. The French chemists were not aware -of the importance of the subject until it was shown to them, -and now they are in haste to reap all the honours attached -to it; but their haste opposes their aim. They reason theoretically, -without demonstrating experimentally, and errors are -the result.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l2">I am, my dear Friend, yours ever and faithfully,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>The equivocal position thus forced upon Faraday -by the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">hauteur</i> of Lady Davy nearly caused a <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">contretemps</i> -during the stay at Geneva, which lasted from -the end of June, 1814, to about the middle of -September. Bence Jones’s account, derived from -Faraday himself, is as follows:—Professor G. de la -Rive, undazzled by the brilliancy of Davy’s reputation, -was able to see the true worth of his assistant. Davy -was fond of shooting, and Faraday, who accompanied -them, used to load Davy’s gun for him, while De la -Rive loaded his own. Entering into conversation -with Faraday, De la Rive was astonished to find that -the intelligent and charming young man whom he -had taken hitherto for a domestic was really <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">préparateur -de laboratoire</i> in the Royal Institution. This -led him to place Faraday, in one respect, on an -equality with Davy. Whilst they were staying in his -house, he wished them to dine together at his table. -Davy, it is said, declined, because Faraday acted in -some things as his servant. De la Rive expressed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> -his feelings strongly, and ordered dinner in a separate -room for Faraday. A rumour spread years after that -De la Rive gave a dinner in Faraday’s honour: this is -not so, however.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">VISIT TO GENEVA.</div> - -<p>Of that Geneva visit Faraday says, in 1858, to M. -A. de la <span class="locked">Rive:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I have some such thoughts (of gratitude) even as regards -your own father, who was, I may say, the first who personally -at Geneva, and afterwards by correspondence, encouraged and -by that sustained me.</p> -</div> - -<p>This correspondence, which began with the father -and was continued with the son, lasted altogether -nearly fifty years.</p> - -<p>From Geneva the travellers went northward, by -Lausanne, Vevay, Bern, Zürich, and Schaffhausen, -across Baden and Würtemburg to Munich. After -visiting this and other German towns, they crossed -Tyrol southwards to Vicenza, halting in the neighbourhood -of the Pietra Mala to collect the inflammable -gas which there rises from the soil. -They spent a day in Padua, and three days in Venice; -and on by Bologna to Florence, where Davy completed -his analysis of the gas collected at Pietra Mala. -Early in November they were again in Rome. He -writes once and again to his mother, while his anxiety -about the Royal Institution makes him send inquiries -to Abbott as to what is going to happen there, and to -charge him, “if any change should occur in Albemarle -Street,” not to forget his books which are lying there. -“I prize them now more than ever.”</p> - -<p>To his former master, Riebau, he wrote from Rome -as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -Rome, Jan. 5th, 1815.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Honoured Sir</span>,</p> - -<p class="ti4">It is with very peculiar but very pleasing and -indeed flattering sentiments that I commence a letter intended -for you, for I esteem it as a high honour that you should not -only allow but even wish me to write to you. During the -whole of the short eight years that I was with you, Sir, and -during the year or two that passed afterwards before I left -England, I continually enjoyed your goodness and the effects -of it; and it is gratifying to me in the highest degree to find -that even absence has not impaired it, and that you are willing -to give me the highest proof of (allow me to say) friendship -that distance will admit. I have received both the letters that -you have wrote to me, Sir, and consider them as far from -being the least proofs of your goodwill and remembrance of -me. Allow me to thank you humbly but sincerely for these -and all other kindness, and I hope that at some future day -an opportunity will occur when I can express more strongly -my gratitude.</p> - -<p>I beg leave to return a thousand thanks to my kind -Mistress, to Mr. and Mrs. Paine and George for their remembrances, -and venture to give mine with respect in return. -I am very glad to hear that all are well. I am very much -afraid you say too much of me to Mr. Dance, Mr. Cosway, -Mrs. Udney, etc., for I feel unworthy of what you have said of -me formerly, and what you may say now. Since I have left -England, the experience I have gained in more diversified and -extended life, and the knowledge I have gained of what is to -be learned and what others know, have sufficiently shown me -my own ignorance, the degree in which I am surpassed by -all the world, and my want of powers; but I hope that at -least I shall return home with an addition to my self-knowledge. -When speaking of those who are so much my superiors, -as Mr. Dance, Mr. Cosway, and Mrs. Udney, etc., I feel a -continual fear that I should appear to want respect, but the -manner in which you mention their names in your letter -emboldens me to beg that you will give my humblest respects -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span>to those honored persons, if, and only if (I am afraid of -intruding) they should again speak of me to you. Mr. Dance’s -kindness claims my gratitude, and I trust that my thanks, the -only mark that I can give, will be accepted.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BOOKS AND BOOKSELLERS.</div> - -<p>Since I have been abroad, my old profession of books has -oftentimes occurred to my mind and been productive of much -pleasure. It was my wish at first to purchase some useful -book at every large town we came to, but I found my stock -increase so fast that I was obliged to alter my plan and purchase -only at Capital Cities. The first books that I wanted were -grammars and dictionaries, but I found few places like London -where I could get whatever I wanted. In France (at the time -we were there) English books were very scarce, and also -English and French books; and a French grammar for an -Englishman was a thing difficult to find. Nevertheless the -shops appeared well stocked with books in their own language, -and the encouragement Napoleon gave to Arts and Sciences -extended its influence even to the printing and binding of -books. I saw some beautiful specimens in both these branches -at the Bibliothèque Impériale at Paris, but I still think they -did not exceed or even equal those I had seen in London -before. We have as yet seen very little of Germany, having -passed rapidly through Switzerland and stopping but a few -days at Munich, but that little gave me a very favorable idea -of the Booksellers’ shops. I got an excellent English and -German dictionary immediately I asked for it, and other books -I asked for I found were to be had, but E. and G. Grammars -were scarce, owing to the little communication between the -two Empires, and the former power of the French in Germany. -Italy I have found the country furnished with the fewest -means—if books are the means of disseminating knowledge, -and even Venice which is renowned for Printing appeared to -me bare and little worthy of its character. It is natural to -suppose that the great and most estimable use of printing is to -produce those books which are in most general use and which -are required by the world at large; it is those books which -form this branch of trade, and consequently every shop in it -gives an account of the more valuable state of the art (<i>i.e.</i>) the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> -use made of it. In Italy there are many books, and the -shelves of the shops there appear full, but the books are old, -or what is new have come from France; they seem latterly to -have resigned printing and to have become satisfied with the -libraries their forefathers left them. I found at Florence an E. -and I. Grammar (Veneroni’s), which does a little credit to -Leghorn; but I have searched unsuccessfully at Rome, Naples, -Milan, Bologna, Venice, Florence, and in every part of Italy -for and E. and I. Dictionary, and the only one I could get was -Rollasetti in 8vo. E. F. and I. A circumstance still more -singular is the want of bibles; even at Rome, the seat of the -Roman Catholic faith, a bible of moderate size is not to be -found, either Protestant or Catholic. Those which exist are -large folios or 4tos and in several volumes, interspersed with -the various readings and commentaries of the fathers, and they -are in the possession of the Priests and religious professors. -In all shops at Rome where I ask for a small pocket bible the -man seemed afraid to answer me, and some Priest in the shop -looked at me in a very inquisitive way.</p> - -<p>I must now, Kind Sir, put an end to this letter, which I -fear you will think already too long. I beg you will have the -goodness to send to my Mother and say I am well, and give -my duty to her and my love to my brother and sisters. I have -wrote four or five times lately from Rome to various friends. -Remember me, if you please, to Mr. Kitchen, and others who -may enquire after me. I thank you for your concluding -wishes and am, Sir,</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l2">Your most dutifully,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>To his sisters he wrote also. To the elder, on the -Church festivals, the Carnival, and the ruins of the -Colosseum. To the younger, on the best way of -learning French. His diary is full of the Carnival, -the foolishness of which afforded him much amusement. -He witnessed the horse-races in the Corso, -went four times to masked balls, where his boyish<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> -love of uproarious fun broke out beyond restraint, for -to the last one he went disguised in a night-gown and -night-cap. Between gaieties in the evenings and -chemical experiments with Davy in the day, his time -must have been pretty fully occupied. They had had -the intention of going on to Greece and Turkey, but -owing to dread of quarantine these projects were -abandoned, and at the end of February, 1815, they -moved southwards to Naples. Here is a characteristic -<span class="locked">entry:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Tuesday, March 7th.—I heard for news that Bonaparte was -again at liberty. Being no politician, I did not trouble myself -much about it, though I suppose it will have a strong influence -on the affairs of Europe.</p> -</div> - -<p class="in0">He went with Sir Humphry to explore Monte Somma, -and ventured to make another ascent of the cone -of Vesuvius, with the gratification of finding the crater -in much greater activity than during the visits of the -preceding year.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE END OF THE TOUR.</div> - -<p>Then, for reasons not altogether clear, the tour was -suddenly cut short. Naples was left on March 21st, -Rome on 24th, Mantua was passed on 30th. Tyrol -was recrossed, Germany traversed by Stuttgardt, -Heidelberg, and Cologne. Brussels was reached on -16th April, whence London was regained <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">viâ</i> Ostend -and Deal. A letter written from Brussels to his -mother positively overflows with the joy of expected -return. He does not want his mother to be inquiring -at Albemarle Street as to when he is <span class="locked">expected:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>You may be sure that my first moments will be in your -company. If you have opportunities, tell some of my dearest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> -friends, but do not tell everybody—that is, do not trouble -yourself to do it. I am of no consequence except to a few, -and there are but a few that are of consequence to me, and -there are some whom I should like to be the first to tell myself—Mr. -Riebau for one. However, let A. know, if you can...</p> - -<p>Adieu till I see you, dearest Mother; and believe me ever -your affectionate and dutiful son,</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> - -<p>[P.S.] ’Tis the shortest and (to me) the sweetest letter I -ever wrote you.</p> -</div> - -<p>A fortnight after his return to London, Faraday -was re-engaged, at a salary of thirty shillings a week, -at the Royal Institution as assistant in the laboratory -and mineralogical collection. He returned to the -scene of his former labours; but with what widened -ideas! He had had eighteen months of daily intercourse -with the most brilliant chemist of the age. -He had seen and conversed with Ampère, Arago, -Gay-Lussac, Chevreul, Dumas, Volta, De la Rive, -Biot, Pictet, De Saussure, and De Stael. He had -formed a lasting friendship with more than one of -these. He had dined with Count Rumford, the -founder of the Royal Institution. He had gained -a certain mastery over foreign tongues, and had seen -the ways of foreign society. Though it was many -years before he again quitted England for a foreign -tour, he cherished the most lively recollection of -many of the incidents that had befallen him.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_35" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">LIFE AT THE ROYAL INSTITUTION.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Amongst</span> the scientific societies of Great Britain, -the Royal Institution of London occupies a conspicuous -place. It has had many imitators in its time, -yet it remains unique. A “learned society” it may -claim to be, in the sense that it publishes scientific -transactions, and endeavours to concentrate within -itself and promote the highest science, within a -certain range of subjects. In some respects it resembles -a college; for it appoints professors, and -provides them with space, appliances, and materials -for research, and a theatre wherein to lecture. For -its members it provides a comfortable, well-stocked -library, and a reading-room where daily and periodic -journals may be consulted. But it has achieved a -reputation far in excess of any it would have held, -had that reputation depended solely on its publications, -or on the numerical strength of its membership.</p> - -<p>Founded in the year 1799 by that erratic genius -Count Rumford, as a sort of technical school,<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> it -would speedily have come to an end had not others -stepped in to develop it in new ways. From the -certain ruin which seemed impending in 1801, it was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> -saved by the appearance upon the scene of the -brilliant youth Humphry Davy, whose lectures made -it for ten years the resort of fashion. In 1814 it was -again in such low water that Faraday, travelling on -the Continent at that time as amanuensis to Sir -Humphry, was every month expecting to hear of -its collapse. Until about 1833, when the two Fullerian -Professorships were founded, it was continually in -financial difficulties. The persistent and extraordinary -efforts made by Faraday from 1826 to 1839, and the -reputation of the place which accrued by his discoveries, -were beyond all question its salvation -from ruin. When it was founded it was located in -two private houses in Albemarle Street, then regarded -as quite out of town, if not almost suburban; the -premises being altered and an entrance hall with -staircase added. A little later the lecture-theatre, -much as it still exists, was constructed. The exterior -at first remained unchanged. The stucco pilasters of -Grecian style, which give it its air of distinction, -were not erected until 1838. The fine rooms of the -Davy-Faraday laboratory at the south end were only -added in 1896 by the liberality of Mr. Ludwig Mond. -Besides the laboratories for research in physical -chemistry, which have thus been associated with the -older part of the Institution, additional rooms for the -library have been provided in this munificent gift to -science. The older laboratories of the Institution, -though they retain some features from Rumford’s -time, have been considerably remodelled. The old -rooms where Davy, Young, Brande, Faraday, Frankland, -and Tyndall conducted their researches are still<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> -in existence; but the chief laboratory was reconstructed -in 1872 in Tyndall’s time; and it has been -quite recently enlarged and reconstructed to accommodate -the heavy machinery required in Professor -Dewar’s researches on liquid air and the properties of -bodies at low temperatures.</p> - -<p>The spirit of the place may be summed up very -briefly. It has existed for a century as the home -of the highest kind of scientific research, and of -the best and most specialised kind of scientific -lectures. It was here that Davy first showed the -electric arc lamp; that he astonished the world by -decomposing potash and producing potassium; that -he invented the safety lamp. It was here that -Faraday worked and laboured for nearly fifty years. -Here that Tyndall’s investigations on radiant heat -and diamagnetism were carried on. Here that Brande, -Frankland, Odling, Gladstone, and Dewar have handed -on the torch of chemistry from the time of Davy. -Professorships, of which the educational duties are -restricted to a few lectures in the year, giving leisure -and scope for research as the main duty, are not to be -found anywhere else in the British Islands; those at -colleges and universities being invariably hampered -with educational and administrative duties.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ROYAL INSTITUTION LABORATORIES.</div> - -<p>As for the lectures at the Royal Institution, they -may be divided under three heads: the afternoon -courses; the juvenile lectures at Christmas; the -Friday night discourses. The afternoon lectures are -thrice a week at three o’clock, and consist usually of -short courses, from three lectures to as many as twelve, -by eminent scientific and literary men. Invariably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> -one of these courses during the season, either before -or after Easter, is given by one of the regular Professors; -the remaining lecturers are paid professional -fees in proportion to the duration of their course. -The Christmas lectures, always six in number, are -given, sometimes by one of the Professors, sometimes -by outside lecturers of scientific reputation. But -the Friday night discourses, given at nine o’clock, -during the season from January till June, are unique. -No fee is paid to the lecturer, save a contribution -toward expenses if applied for, and it is considered to -be a distinct honour to be invited to give such a -discourse. There is no scientific man of any original -claim to distinction; no chemist, engineer, or electrician; -no physiologist, geologist, or mineralogist, during the -last fifty years, who has not been invited thus to give -an account of his investigations. Occasionally a -wider range is taken, and the eminent writer of books, -dramatist, metaphysician, or musician has taken his -place at the lecture-table. The Friday night gathering -is always a brilliant one. From the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">salons</i> of -society, from the world of politics and diplomacy, as -well as from the ranks of the learned professions and -of the fine arts, men and women assemble to listen to -the exposition of the latest discoveries or the newest -advances in philosophy by the men who have made -them. Every discourse must, so far as the subject -admits, be illustrated in the best possible way by -experiments, by diagrams, by the exhibition of -specimens. Not infrequently, the person invited to -give a Friday evening discourse at the Royal Institution -will begin his preparations five or six months<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> -beforehand. At least one instance is known—the -occasion being a discourse by the late Mr. Warren De -la Rue—where the preparations were begun more -than a year beforehand, and cost several hundreds of -pounds. And this was to illustrate a research already -made and completed, of which the bare scientific -results had already been communicated in a memoir -to the Royal Society. A mere enumeration of the -eminent men who have thus given their time and -labours to the Royal Institution would fill many -pages. It is little cause for wonder then that the -lecture-theatre at Albemarle Street is crowded week -after week in the pursuit of science under conditions -like these; or that every lecturer is spurred -on by the spirit of the place to do his subject the -utmost justice by the manner in which he handles -it. There are no lectures so famous, in the best -sense of the word so popular, certainly none sustained -at so high a level, as the lectures of the Royal -Institution.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE FAMOUS LECTURES.</div> - -<p>But it was not always thus. Davy’s brilliant but -ill-balanced genius had drawn fashionable crowds -to the morning lectures which he gave. Brande -proved to be a much more humdrum lecturer; and -though with young Faraday at his elbow he found -his work of lecturing a task “on velvet,” he was -not exactly an inspiring person. During Davy’s -protracted tour abroad things had not altogether -prospered, and his return was none too soon. Faraday -threw himself whole-heartedly into the work of the -Institution, not only helping as lecture assistant, but -giving a hand also in the preparation of the <i>Quarterly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> -Journal of Science</i>, which had been established as a -kind of journal of proceedings.</p> - -<p>But now Faraday was to take a quiet step forward. -He appears at the City Philosophical Society in the -character of lecturer. He gave seven lectures there, -in 1816, on chemistry, the fourth of them being “On -Radiant Matter.” Extracts are given from most of -these lectures in Bence Jones’s “Life and Letters of -Faraday”; they show all that love of accuracy, that -philosophic suspense of judgment in matters of -hypothesis, which in after years were so characteristic -of the man.</p> - -<p>He also kept a commonplace book filled with -notes of scientific matters, with literary excerpts, -anagrams, epitaphs, algebraic puzzles, varieties of -spelling of his own name, and personal experiences, -including a poetical diatribe against falling in love, -together with the following more prosaic <span class="locked">aphorism:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>What is Love?—A nuisance to everybody but the parties -concerned. A private affair which every one but those concerned -wishes to make public.</p> -</div> - -<p>It also includes a piece in verse, by a member of -the City Philosophical Society—a Mr. Dryden—called -“Quarterly Night,” which is interesting as embalming -a portrait of the youthful Faraday as he appeared to -his <span class="locked">comrades:—</span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Neat was the youth in dress, in person plain;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">His eye read thus, <em>Philosopher in grain</em>;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Of understanding clear, reflection deep;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Expert to apprehend, and strong to keep.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">His watchful mind no subject can elude,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Nor specious arts of sophists ere delude;</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> - <div class="verse indent0">His powers, unshackled, range from pole to pole;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">His mind from error free, from guilt his soul.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Warmth in his heart, good humour in his face,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">A friend to mirth, but foe to vile grimace;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">A temper candid, manners unassuming,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Always correct, yet always unpresuming.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Such was the youth, the chief of all the band;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">His name well known, Sir Humphry’s right hand.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>At this date there were no evening duties at the -Royal Institution, but Faraday found his evenings -well occupied, as he explains to Abbott when rallied -about his having deserted his old friend. Monday -and Thursday evenings he spent in self-improvement -according to a regular plan. Wednesdays he gave to -“the Society” (<i>i.e.</i> the City Philosophical). Saturdays -he spent with his mother at Weymouth Street; -leaving only Tuesdays and Fridays for his own -business and friends.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CITY PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.</div> - -<p>And so the busy months pass, and he gives more -lectures in the privacy of the City Society, one of -them, “On some Observations on the Means of obtaining -Knowledge,” attaining the dignity of print at the -hands of Effingham Wilson, the enterprising City -publisher, who a few years later printed Browning’s -“Paracelsus” and Alfred Tennyson’s first volume, -“Poems: Chiefly Lyrical.” By the time he has given -nine lectures he has gained confidence. The discourses -had all been written out beforehand, though never -literally “read.” For the tenth lecture—on Carbon—he -wrote notes only. This is in July, 1817, and in these -notes he touches on a matter in which he had been -very busily aiding Sir Humphry Davy, the invention of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> -the safety lamp. Many of the early forms of experimental -apparatus constructed, and some of the early -lamps, are still preserved in the museum of the Royal -Institution. Dr. Clanny had, in 1813, proposed an -entirely closed lamp, supplied with air from the mine, -through water, by bellows. After many experiments -on explosive mixtures of gas and air, and on the -properties of flame, Davy adopted an iron-wire gauze -protector for his lamp, which was introduced into -coal mining early in 1816. In Davy’s preface to his -work describing it, he says: “I am myself indebted -to Mr. Michael Faraday for much able assistance in -the prosecution of my experiments.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A RIFT WITHIN THE LUTE.</div> - -<p>And well might Davy be grateful. With all his -immense ability, he was a man almost destitute of -the faculties of order and method. He had little -self-control, and the fashionable dissipations which he -permitted himself lessened that little. Faraday not -only kept his experiments going, but made himself -responsible for their records. He preserved every -note and manuscript of Davy’s with religious care. -He copied out Davy’s scrawled researches in a neat -clear delicate handwriting, begging only for his pains -to be allowed to keep the originals, which he bound -in two quarto volumes. Faraday has been known -to remark to an intimate friend that amongst his -advantages he had had before him a model to teach -him what he should avoid. But he was ever loyal to -Davy, earnest in his praise, and frank in his acknowledgment -of his debt to his master in science. Still -there arose the little rift within the lute. The safety -lamp, great as was the practical advantage it brought<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span> -to the miner, is not safe in all circumstances. -Davy did not like to admit this, and would never -acknowledge it. Examined before a Parliamentary -Committee as to whether under a certain condition -the safety lamp would become unsafe, Faraday -admitted that this was the case. Not even his -devotion to his master would induce him to hide the -truth. He was true to himself in making the acknowledgment, -though it angered his master. One Friday -evening at the Royal Institution—probably about -1826—there was exhibited an improved Davy lamp -with a eulogistic inscription; Faraday added in pencil -the words: “The opinion of the inventor.”</p> - -<p>At this time he began to give private lessons in -chemistry to a pupil to whom he had been recommended -by Davy. His lectures at the City Society in -Dorset Street were continued in 1818, and at the -conclusion of those on chemistry he delivered one on -“Mental Inertia,” which has been recorded at some -length by Bence Jones.</p> - -<p>In 1818 he attended a course of lessons on oratory -by the elocutionist Mr. B. H. Smart, paying out of his -slender resources half a guinea a lesson, so anxious -was he to improve himself, even in his manner of -lecturing. His notes on these lessons fill 133 manuscript -pages.</p> - -<p>His other notes now begin to partake less of the -character of quotations and excerpts, and more of the -nature of queries or problems for solution. Here are -some <span class="locked">examples:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“Do the pith balls diverge by the disturbance of electricity -in consequence of mutual induction or not?”</p> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> -<p>“Distil oxalate of ammonia. Query, results?”</p> - -<p>“Query, the nature of the body Phillips burns in his spirit -lamp?”</p> -</div> - -<p>The Phillips here mentioned was the chemist -Richard Phillips (afterwards President of the Chemical -Society), one of his City friends, whose name so -frequently occurs in the correspondence of Faraday’s -middle life. Phillips busied himself to promote the -material interests of his friend who—to use his own -language—was “constantly engaged in observing the -works of Nature, and tracing the manner in which she -directs the arrangement and order of the world,” on -the splendid salary of £100 per annum. The following -note in a letter to Abbott, dated February 27, 1818, -reveals new professional <span class="locked">labours:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I have been more than enough employed. We have been -obliged even to put aside lectures at the Institution; and now -I am so tired with a long attendance at Guildhall yesterday -and to-day, being subpœnaed, with Sir H. Davy, Mr. Brande, -Phillips, Aikin, and others, to give chemical information on a -trial (which, however, did not come off), that I scarcely know -what I say.</p> -</div> - -<p>Shortly afterwards Davy again went abroad, but -Faraday remained in England. From Rome Davy -wrote a note, the concluding sentence of which shows -how Faraday was advancing in his <span class="locked">esteem:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -Rome: October, 1818. -</p> - -<p>Mr. Hatchett’s letter contained praises of you which were -very gratifying to me; for, believe me, there is no one more -interested in your success and welfare than your sincere well-wisher -and friend,</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="smcap">H. Davy.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span></p> - -<p>In the next year Davy wrote again, suggesting to -Faraday that he might possibly be asked to come to -Naples as a skilled chemist to assist in the unrolling -of the Herculaneum manuscripts. In May he wrote -again, from <span class="locked">Florence:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>It gives me great pleasure to hear that you are comfortable -at the Royal Institution, and I trust that you will not only do -something good and honourable for yourself, but likewise for -science.</p> - -<p>I am, dear Mr. Faraday, always your sincere friend and -well-wisher,</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="smcap">H. Davy.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>The wish that Davy expressed that Faraday might -“do something” for himself and likewise for science -was destined soon to come to fulfilment. But in -the case of one who had worked so closely and had -been so intimately associated as an assistant, it must -necessarily be no easy matter always to draw a -distinction between the work of the master and that -of the assistant. Ideas suggested by one might easily -have occurred to the other, when their thoughts had -so long been directed to the same ends. And so it -proved.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BEGINS ORIGINAL RESEARCHES.</div> - -<p>Reference to Chapter III. will show that already, -beginning in 1816 with a simple analysis of caustic -lime for Sir Humphry Davy, Faraday had become an -active worker in the domain of original research. The -fascination of the quest of the unknown was already -upon him. While working with and for Davy on the -properties of flame and its non-transmission through -iron gauze, in the investigation of the safety lamp, -other problems of a kindred nature had arisen. One<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> -of these, relating to the flow of gases through capillary -tubes, Faraday had attacked by himself in 1817. The -subject formed one of the six original papers which -he published that year. In the next two years he -contributed in all no fewer than thirty-seven papers -or notes to the <i>Quarterly Journal of Science</i>. In -1819 began a long research on steel which lasted over -the year 1820. He had already given evidence of -that dislike of half-truths, that aversion for “doubtful -knowledge” which marked him so strongly. He had -exposed, with quiet but unsparing success, the emptiness -of the claim made by an Austrian chemist to -have discovered a new metal, “Sirium,” by the simple -device of analysing out from the mass all the constituents -of known sorts, leaving behind—nothing.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">HE FALLS IN LOVE.</div> - -<p>And now, Faraday being twenty-nine years of age, -a new and all-important episode in his life occurred. -Amongst the members of the little congregation -which met on Sundays at Paul’s Alley, Red Cross -Street, was a Mr. Barnard, a working silversmith of -Paternoster Row, an elder in the Sandemanian body. -He had two sons, Edward Barnard, a friend of -Faraday’s, and George, who became a well-known -water-colour artist; and three daughters; one who was -already at this time married; Sarah, now twenty-one -years of age; and Jane, who was still younger. -Edward had seen in Faraday’s note-book those boyish -tirades against falling in love, and had told his sister -Sarah of them. Nevertheless, in spite of all such -misogynistic fancies, Faraday woke up one day to -find that the large-eyed, clear-browed girl had grown -to a place in his heart that he had thought barred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> -against the assaults of love. She asked him on one -occasion to show her the rhymes against love in his -note-book. In reply he sent her the hitherto unpublished -<span class="locked">poem:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l2">R. I.</span><br /> -Oct. 11th, 1819. -</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">You ask’d me last night for the lines which I penn’d,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">When, exulting in ignorance, tempted by pride,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">I dared torpid hearts and cold breasts to commend,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">And affection’s kind pow’r and soft joys to deride.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">If you urge it I cannot refuse your request:</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Though to grant it will punish severely my crime:</div> - <div class="verse indent0">But my fault I repent, and my errors detest;</div> - <div class="verse indent2">And I hoped to have shown my conversion in time.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Remember, our laws in their mercy decide</div> - <div class="verse indent2">That no culprit be forced to give proof of his deed:</div> - <div class="verse indent0">They protect him though fall’n, his failings they hide,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">And enable the wretch from his crimes to receed (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">sic</i>).</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">The principle’s noble! I need not urge long</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Its adoption; then turn from a judge to a friend.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Do not ask for the proof that I once acted wrong,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">But direct me and guide me the way to amend.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> -<p class="sigright">M. F.</p> -</div> - -<p class="in0">What other previous passages between them are hinted -at in the letter which he sent her, is unknown; but -on July 5, 1820, he <span class="locked">wrote:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -Royal Institution. -</p> - -<p>You know me as well or better than I do myself. You -know my former prejudices, and my present thoughts—you -know my weaknesses, my vanity, my whole mind; you have -converted me from one erroneous way, let me hope you will -attempt to correct what others are wrong.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>Again and again I attempt to say what I feel, but I cannot.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> -Let me, however, claim not to be the selfish being that -wishes to bend your affections for his own sake only. In -whatever way I can best minister to your happiness either by -assiduity or by absence, it shall be done. Do not injure me -by withdrawing your friendship, or punish me for aiming to -be more than a friend by making me less; and if you cannot -grant me more, leave me what I possess, but hear me.</p> -</div> - -<p>Sarah Barnard showed the letter to her father. -She was young, and feared to accept her lover. All -her father would say by way of counsel was that love -made philosophers say many foolish things. The -intensity of Faraday’s passion proved for the time a -bar to his advance. Fearing lest she should be unable -to return it with equal force, Miss Barnard shrank -from replying. To postpone an immediate decision, -she went away with her sister, Mrs. Reid, to Ramsgate. -Faraday followed to press his suit, and after several -happy days in her company, varied with country -walks and a run over to Dover, he was able to say: -“Not a moment’s alloy of this evening’s happiness -occurred. Everything was delightful to the last -moment of my stay with my companion, because she -was so.”</p> - -<p>Of the many letters that Faraday wrote to his -future wife a number have been preserved. They are -manly, simple, full of quiet affection, but absolutely -free from gush or forced sentiment of any kind. -Extracts from several of them are printed by Bence -Jones. One of these, written early in 1821, runs as -<span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I tied up the enclosed key with my books last night, -and make haste to return it lest its absence should occasion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> -confusion. If it has, it will perhaps remind you of the disorder -I must be in here also for the want of a key—I mean the one to -my heart. However, I know where my key is, and hope soon -to have it here, and then the Institution will be all right again. -Let no one oppose my gaining possession of it when unavoidable -obstacles are removed.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l2">Ever, my dear girl, one who is perfectly yours,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>Faraday obtained leave of the managers to bring -his wife to live in his rooms at the Institution; and -in May, 1821, his position was changed from that of -lecture assistant to that of superintendent of the -house and laboratory. In these changes Sir Humphry -Davy gave him willing assistance. But his salary -remained £100 a year.</p> - -<p>Obstacles being now removed, Faraday and Miss -Barnard were married on June 12. Few persons were -asked to the wedding, for Faraday wished it to be -“just like any other day.” “There will,” he wrote, -“be no bustle, no noise, no hurry ... it is in the -heart that we expect and look for pleasure.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A HAPPY MARRIAGE.</div> - -<p>His marriage, though childless, was extremely -happy. Mrs. Faraday proved to be exactly the true -helpmeet for his need; and he loved her to the end -of his life with a chivalrous devotion which has -become almost a proverb. Little indications of his -attachment crop up in unexpected places in his -subsequent career; but as with his religious views so -with his domestic affairs, he never obtruded them -upon others, nor yet shrank from mentioning them -when there was cause. Tyndall, in after years, made -the intensity of Faraday’s attachment to his wife the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> -subject of a striking simile: “Never, I believe, existed -a manlier, purer, steadier love. Like a burning -diamond, it continued to shed, for six and forty years, -its white and smokeless glow.”</p> - -<p>In his diploma-book, now in possession of the -Royal Society, in which he carefully preserved all the -certificates, awards, and honours bestowed upon him -by academies and universities, there may be found on -a slip inserted in the volume this <span class="locked">entry:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -25th January, 1847. -</p> - -<p>Amongst these records and events, I here insert the date of -one which, as a source of honour and happiness, far exceeds -the rest. We were <em>married</em> on June 12, 1821.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>And two years later, in the autobiographical notes -he <span class="locked">wrote:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>On June 12, 1821, he married—an event which more than -any other contributed to his earthly happiness and healthful -state of mind. The union has continued for twenty-eight -years, and has nowise changed, except in the depth and strength -of its character.</p> -</div> - -<p>When near the close of his life, he presented to -the Royal Institution the bookcase with the volumes -of notes of Davy’s lectures and of books bound by -himself, the inscription recorded that they were the -gift of “Michael <em>and</em> Sarah Faraday.”</p> - -<p>Every Saturday evening he used to take his wife -to her father’s house at Paternoster Row, so that on -Sunday they should be nearer to the chapel at Paul’s -Alley. And in after years, when he was away on -scientific work, visiting lighthouses, or attending<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span> -meetings of the British Association, he always tried -to return for the Sunday.</p> - -<p>A letter from Liebig in 1844 (see <a href="#Page_225">p. 225</a>) gives one -of the very few glimpses of contemporary date of the -impression made by Mrs. Faraday upon others.</p> - -<p>One month after his marriage Faraday made his -profession of faith before the Sandemanian church, to -which his wife already belonged, and was admitted a -member. To his religious views, and his relations to -the body he thus formally joined, reference will be -found later.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FIRST ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY.</div> - -<p>Faraday now settled down to a routine life of -scientific work. His professional reputation was -rising, and his services as analyst were being sought -after. But in the midst of this he was pursuing -investigations on his own account. In the late -summer of this year he made the discovery of the -electro-magnetic rotations described in Chapter III.—his -first important piece of original research—and -had in consequence a serious misunderstanding with -Dr. Wollaston. On September 3rd, working with -George Barnard in the laboratory, he saw the electric -wire for the first time revolve around the pole of the -magnet. Rubbing his hands as he danced around the -table with beaming face, he exclaimed: “There they -go! there they go! we have succeeded at last.” Then -he gleefully proposed that they should wind up -the day by going to one of the theatres. Which -should it be? “Oh, to Astley’s, to see the horses.” -And to Astley’s they went. On Christmas Day he -called his young wife to see something new: an electric -conducting-wire revolving under the influence of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span> -magnetism of the earth alone. He also read two -chemical papers at the Royal Society, announcing -new discoveries; one of them in conjunction with his -friend Phillips. In July, 1822, he took his wife and -her mother to Ramsgate, whilst he went off with -Phillips to Swansea to try a new process in Vivian’s -copper works. During this enforced parting, Faraday -wrote his wife three letters from which the following -are extracts:—-</p> - -<div class="sidenote">“A MERE LOVE-LETTER.”</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -(July 21, 1822). -</p> - -<p>I perceive that if I give way to my thoughts, I shall write -you a mere love-letter, just as usual, with not a particle of -news in it: to prevent which I will constrain myself to a -narrative of what has happened since I left you up to the -present time, and then indulge my affection.</p> - -<p>Yesterday was a day of events—little, but pleasant. I -went in the morning to the Institution, and in the course of -the day analysed the water, and sent an account of it to Mr. -Hatchett. Mr. Fisher I did not see. Mr. Lawrence called in, -and behaved with his usual generosity. He had called in the -early part of the week, and, finding that I should be at the -Institution on Saturday only, came up, as I have already said, -and insisted on my accepting two ten-pound bank-notes for -the information he professed to have obtained from me at -various times. Is not this handsome? The money, as you -know, could not have been at any time more acceptable; and -I cannot see any reason, my dear love, why you and I should -not regard it as another proof, among many, that our trust -should without a moment’s reserve be freely reposed on Him -who provideth all things for His people. Have we not many -times been reproached, by such mercies as these, for our caring -after food and raiment and the things of this world? -On coming home in the evening, <i>i.e.</i>, coming to Paternoster -Row home, I learned that Mr. Phillips had seen C., and had -told her we should not leave London until Monday evening.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> -So I shall have to-morrow to get things ready in, and I shall -have enough to do. I fancy we are going to a large mansion -and into high company, so I must take more clothes. Having -the £20, I am become bold....</p> - -<p>And now, how do my dear wife and mother do? Are you -comfortable? are you happy? are the lodgings convenient, and -Mrs. O. obliging? Has the place done you good? Is the -weather fine? Tell me all things as soon as you can. I think -if you write directly you get this it will be best, but let it be a -long letter. I do not know when I wished so much for a long -letter as I do from you now. You will get this on Tuesday, -and any letter from you to me cannot reach Swansea before -Thursday or Friday—a sad long time to wait. Direct to me, -Post Office, Swansea; or perhaps better, to me at — Vivian -Esq., Marino, near Swansea, South Wales....</p> - -<p>And now, my dear girl, I must set business aside. I am -tired of the dull detail of things, and want to talk of love to -you; and surely there can be no circumstances under which I -can have more right. The theme was a cheerful and delightful -one before we were married, but it is doubly so now. I now -can speak, not of my own heart only, but of both our hearts. -I now speak, not with any doubt of the state of your thoughts, -but with the fullest conviction that they answer to my own. -All that I can now say warm and animated to you, I know -that you would say to me again. The excess of pleasure which -I feel in knowing you mine is doubled by the consciousness -that you feel equal joy in knowing me yours.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">FROM HUSBAND TO WIFE.</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -Marino: Sunday, July 28, 1822. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">My Dearly Beloved Wife</span>,—I have just read your letter -again, preparatory to my writing to you, that my thoughts -might be still more elevated and quickened than before. I -could almost rejoice at my absence from you, if it were only -that it has produced such an earnest and warm mark of -affection from you as that letter. Tears of joy and delight fell -from my eyes on its perusal. I think it was last Sunday -evening, about this time, that I wrote to you from London; -and I again resort to this affectionate conversation with you,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> -to tell you what has happened since the letter which I got -franked from this place to you on Thursday I believe.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>We have been working very hard here at the copper works, -and with some success. Our days have gone on just as before. -A walk before breakfast; then breakfast; then to the works -till four or five o’clock, and then home to dress, and dinner. -After dinner, tea and conversation. I have felt doubly at a -loss to-day, being absent from both the meeting and you. -When away from London before, I have had you with me, and -we could read and talk and walk; to-day I have had no one to -fill your place, so I will tell you how I have done. There are -so many here, and their dinner so late and long, that I made -up my mind to avoid it, though, if possible, without appearing -singular. So, having remained in my room till breakfast time, -we all breakfasted together, and soon after Mr. Phillips and -myself took a walk out to the Mumbles Point, at the extremity -of this side of the bay. There we sat down to admire the -beautiful scenery around us, and, after we had viewed it long -enough, returned slowly home. We stopped at a little village -in our way, called Oystermouth, and dined at a small, neat, -homely house about one o’clock. We then came back to -Marino, and after a little while again went out—Mr. Phillips -to a relation in the town, and myself for a walk on the sands -and the edge of the bay. I took tea in a little cottage, and, -returning home about seven o’clock, found them engaged at -dinner, so came up to my own room, and shall not see them -again to-night. I went down for a light just now, and heard -them playing some sacred music in the drawing-room; they -have all been to church to-day, and are what are called regular -people.</p> - -<p>The trial at Hereford is put off for the present, but yet we -shall not be able to be in town before the end of this week. -Though I long to see you, I do not know when it will be; but -this I know, that I am getting daily more anxious about you. -Mr. Phillips wrote home to Mrs. Phillips from here even before -I did—<i>i.e.</i> last Wednesday. This morning he received a letter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> -from Mrs. Phillips (who is very well) desiring him to ask me -for a copy of one of my letters to you, that he may learn to -write love-letters of sufficient length. He laughs at the scolding, -and says that it does not hurt at a distance....</p> - -<p>It seems to me so long since I left you that there must have -been time for a great many things to have happened. I -expect to see you with such joy when I come home that I shall -hardly know what to do with myself. I hope you will be well -and blooming, and animated and happy, when you see me. I -do not know how we shall contrive to get away from here. -We certainly shall not have concluded before Thursday evening, -but I think we shall endeavour earnestly to leave this -place on Friday night, in which case we shall get home late on -Saturday night. If we cannot do that, as I should not like to -be travelling all day on Sunday, we shall probably not leave -until Sunday night; but I think the first plan will be adopted, -and that you will not have time to answer this letter. I expect, -nevertheless, an answer to my last letter—<i>i.e.</i> I expect that -my dear wife will think of me again. Expect here means -nothing more than I trust and have a full confidence that it -will be so. My kind girl is so affectionate that she would not -think a dozen letters too much for me if there were time to -send them, which I am glad there is not.</p> - -<p>Give my love to our mothers as earnestly as you would -your own, and also to Charlotte or John, or any such one that -you may have with you. I have not written to Paternoster -Row yet, but I am going to write now, so that I may be -permitted to finish this letter here. I do not feel quite sure, -indeed, that the permission to leave off is not as necessary -from my own heart as from yours.</p> - -<p>With the utmost affection—with perhaps too much—I am, -my dear wife, my Sarah, your devoted husband,</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>Faraday’s next scientific success was the liquefaction -of chlorine (see Chapter III., <a href="#Page_93">p. 93</a>). This discovery, -which created much interest in the scientific<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> -world, was the occasion of a serious trouble with Sir -Humphry Davy; for doubtless Davy was annoyed -that he had left such a simple experiment to a mere -assistant. Writing on the matter years after, Faraday -<span class="locked">said:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>When my paper was written, it was, according to a custom -consequent upon our relative positions, submitted to Sir H. -Davy (as were all my papers for the “Philosophical Transactions” -up to a much later period), and he altered it as he -thought fit. This practice was one of great kindness to me, -for various grammatical mistakes and awkward expressions -were from time to time thus removed, which might else have -remained.</p> -</div> - -<p>In point of fact, Davy on this occasion added a -note (which was duly printed) saying precisely how -far he had any share in suggesting the experiment, -but in no wise traversing any of Faraday’s claims. -Although he thus acted generously to the latter, there -can be no question that he began to be seriously -jealous of Faraday’s rising fame. The matter was the -more serious because some who did not have a nice -appreciation of the circumstances chose to rake up a -charge which had been raised two years before against -Faraday by some of Dr. Wollaston’s friends—in particular -by Dr. Warburton—about the discovery of the -electro-magnetic rotations, a charge which Faraday’s -straightforward action and Wollaston’s frank satisfaction -ought to have dissipated for ever. And all -this was doubly aggravating because Faraday was -now expecting to be proposed as a candidate for the -Fellowship of the Royal Society, of which Sir Humphry -was President.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">PROPOSED FOR THE FELLOWSHIP.</div> - -<p>At that time, as now, the proposal paper or -“certificate” of a candidate for election must be -presented, signed by a number of influential Fellows. -Faraday’s friend Phillips took in hand the pleasant -task of drawing up this certificate and of collecting -the necessary signatures. The rule then was that the -certificate so presented must be read out at ten -successive meetings of the Society; after which a -ballot took place. Faraday’s certificate bears twenty-nine -names. The very first is that of Wollaston, and -it is followed by those of Children, Babington, Sir John -Herschel, Babbage, Phillips, Roget, and Sir James -South.</p> - -<p>On the 5th of May, 1823, Faraday wrote to -<span class="locked">Phillips:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>A thousand thanks to you for your kindness—I am delighted -with the names—Mr. Brande had told me of it before I got -your note and thought it impossible to be better. I suppose -you will not be in Grosvenor Street this Evening, so I will put -this in the post.</p> - -<p>Our Best remembrances to Mrs. Phillips.</p> - -<p class="sigright"><span class="l2">Yours Ever,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>The certificate was read for the first time on -May 1st. The absence of the names of Davy and -Brande is accounted for by the one being President -and the other Secretary. Bence Jones gives the -following account of what <span class="locked">followed:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>That Sir H. Davy actively opposed Faraday’s election is no -less certain than it is sad.</p> - -<p>Many years ago, Faraday gave a friend the following facts,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> -which were written down immediately:—“Sir H. Davy told -me I must take down my certificate. I replied that I had not -put it up; that I could not take it down, as it was put up by -my proposers. He then said I must get my proposers to take -it down. I answered that I knew they would not do so. -Then he said, I as President will take it down. I replied that -I was sure Sir H. Davy would do what he thought was for the -good of the Royal Society.”</p> - -<p>Faraday also said that one of his proposers told him that -Sir H. Davy had walked for an hour round the courtyard of -Somerset House, arguing that Faraday ought not to be elected. -This was probably about May 30.</p> -</div> - -<p>Faraday also made the following notes on the -circumstance of the charge made by Wollaston’s -<span class="locked">friends:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>1823. <i>In relation to Davy’s opposition to my election at the -Royal Society.</i></p> - -<p>Sir H. Davy angry, May 30.</p> - -<p>Phillips’ report through Mr. Children, June 5.</p> - -<p>Mr. Warburton called first time, June 5 (evening).</p> - -<p>I called on Dr. Wollaston, and he not in town, June 9.</p> - -<p>I called on Dr. Wollaston, and saw him, June 14.</p> - -<p>I called at Sir H. Davy’s, and he called on me, June 17.</p> -</div> - -<p>On July 8 Dr. Warburton wrote that he was -satisfied with Faraday’s explanation, and added that -he would tell his friends that “my objections to you -as a Fellow are and ought to be withdrawn, and that -I now wish to forward your election.”</p> - -<p>Bence Jones <span class="locked">adds:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>On June 29, Sir H. Davy ends a note, “I am, dear Faraday, -very sincerely your well wisher and friend.” So that outwardly -the storm rapidly passed away; and when the ballot was -taken, after the certificate had been read at ten meetings, there -was only one black ball.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">FELLOWSHIP AND MAGNANIMITY.</div> - -<p>The election took place January 8, 1824.</p> - -<p>Of this unfortunate misunderstanding,<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> Davy’s -biographer, Dr. Thorpe, <span class="locked">writes:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The jealousy thus manifested by Davy is one of the most -pitiful facts in his history. It was a sign of that moral weakness -which was at the bottom of much of his unpopularity, -and which revealed itself in various ways as his physical -strength decayed....</p> -</div> - -<p>Faraday allowed himself in after days no shade of -resentment against Davy; though he confessed rather -sadly that after his election as F.R.S. his relations -with his former master were never the same as before. -If anyone recurred to the old scandal, he would fire -with indignation. Dumas in his “Éloge Historique” -has given the following <span class="locked">anecdote:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Faraday never forgot what he owed to Davy. Visiting him -at the family lunch, twenty years after the death of the latter, -he noticed evidently that I responded with some coolness to -the praises which the recollection of Davy’s great discoveries -had evoked from him. He made no comment. But, after the -meal, he simply took me down to the library of the Royal -Institution, and stopping before the portrait of Davy he said: -“He was a great man, wasn’t he?” Then, turning round, he -added, “It was here<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> that he spoke to me for the first time.” -I bowed. We went down to the laboratory. Faraday took<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> -out a note-book, opened it and pointed out with his finger the -words written by Davy, at the very moment when by means -of the battery he had just decomposed potash, and had seen -the first globule of potassium ever isolated by the hand of man. -Davy had traced with a feverish hand a circle which separates -them from the rest of the page: the words, “Capital Experiment,” -which he wrote below, cannot be read without emotion -by any true chemist. I confessed myself conquered, and this -time, without hesitating longer, I joined in the admiration of -my good friend.</p> -</div> - -<p>Dr. Thorpe in his life of Davy <span class="locked">adds:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>... To the end of his days he [Faraday] regarded Davy -as his true master, preserving to the last, in spite of his knowledge -of the moral frailties of Davy’s nature, the respect and -even reverence which is to be seen in his early lecture notes -and in his letters to his friend Abbott.</p> -</div> - -<p>In 1823 the Athenæum Club was started by J. -Wilson Croker, Sir H. Davy, Sir T. Lawrence, Sir F. -Chantrey, and others, as a resort for literary and -scientific men. Faraday was made Club Secretary; -but he found the duties totally uncongenial, and in -1824 resigned the post to his friend Magrath.</p> - -<p>Faraday was advanced in 1825 to the position of -Director of the Laboratory of the Royal Institution, -Brande remaining Professor of Chemistry. One of -the first acts of the new Director was to hold evening -meetings of the members in the laboratory, when -experiments were shown and some demonstration was -given. There were three or four of these informal -gatherings that year. In the next year these Friday -evening meetings were held more systematically. -There were seventeen during the season, at six of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> -which Faraday gave discourses (see <a href="#Page_100">p. 100</a>). In 1827 -there were nineteen, of which he delivered three. -By this time the gatherings were held in the theatre -as at present, save that ladies were only admitted at -that date, and for many years, to the upper gallery. -He also originated the Christmas lectures to juveniles, -while continuing to give regular courses of morning -lectures, as his predecessors Young and Davy had -done. His activity for the Royal Institution was -incessant.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FEES FOR PROFESSIONAL WORK.</div> - -<p>Down to the year 1830 Faraday continued to -undertake, at professional fees, chemical analyses and -expert work in the law-courts, and thereby added -considerably to the very slender emolument of his -position; but, finding this work to make increasing -demands on his time, which he could ill spare from -the absorbing pursuit of original researches, he -decided to abandon a practice which would have -made him rich, and withdrew from expert practice. -The following letter to Phillips was written only a few -weeks before this <span class="locked">determination:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center">[<i>M. Faraday to Richard Phillips.</i>]</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l2">Royal Institution,</span><br /> -June 21, 1831. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">My dear Phillips</span>,—I have been trying hard to get time -enough to write to you by post to-night, but without success; -the bell has rung, and I am too late. However, I am resolved -to be ready to-morrow. We have been very anxious and -rather embarrassed in our minds about your anxiety to know -how things were proceeding, and uncertain whether reference -to them would be pleasant, and that has been the cause why I<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> -have not written to you, for I did not know what character -your connexion with Badams had. I was a little the more -embarrassed because of my acquaintance with Mr. Rickard -and his family, and, of course with his brother-in-law, Dr. -Urchell, of whom I have made numerous enquiries to know -what Mr. Rickard intended doing at Birmingham. He -(expressed a) hope it would be nothing unpleasant to you, but -was not sure. Our only bit of comfort in the matter was on -hearing from Daniell about you a little; he was here to-day, -and glad to hear of you through me. But now that I may -write, let me say that Mrs. Faraday has been very anxious -with myself, and begs me earnestly to remember her to Mrs. -Phillips. We have often wished we could have had you here -for an hour or two, to break off what we supposed might be -the train of thoughts at home.</p> - -<p>With regard to the five guineas, do not think of it for a -moment. Whilst I supposed a mercantile concern wanted my -opinion for its own interested uses, I saw no reason why it -should not pay me; but it is altogether another matter when -it becomes <em>your affair</em>. I do not think you would have -wished <em>me</em> to pay <em>you</em> five guineas for anything you might -have done personally for me. “Dog don’t eat dog,” as Sir E. -Home said to me in a similar case. The affair is settled.</p> - -<p>I have no doubt I shall be amused and, as you speak of -new facts, instructed by your letter to Dr. Reid, as I am by all -your letters. Daniell says he thinks you are breaking a fly -upon the wheel. You know I consider you as the Prince of -Chemical critics.</p> - -<p>Pearsall has been working, as you know, on red manganese -solutions. He has not proved, but he makes out a -strong case for the opinion, that they owe their colour and -other properties to manganesic acid. This paper will be in -the next number of the Journal.</p> - -<p>With regard to the gramme, wine-pint, etc., etc., in the -manipulation I had great trouble about them, for I could find -no agreement, and at last resolved to take certain conclusions -from Capt. Kater’s paper and the Act of Parliament, and -calculate the rest. I think I took the data at page 67,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> -paragraph 119, as the data, but am not sure, and cannot go -over them again.</p> - -<p>My memory gets worse and worse daily. I will not, -therefore, say I have not received your Pharmacopœia—that -of 1824 is what I have at hand and use. I am not aware of -any other. I have sent a paper to the R. S., but not chemical. -It is on sound, etc., etc. If they print it, of course you will -have a copy in due time.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l8">I am, my dear Phillips,</span><br /> -Most faithfully and sincerely yours,<br /> -<span class="smcap l1">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> - -<p>Is it right to ask what has become of Badams? I suppose -he is, of course, a defaulter at the R. S.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">SACRIFICES FOR SCIENCE.</div> - -<p>This sacrifice for science was not small. He had -made £1,000 in 1830 out of these professional -occupations, and in 1831 would have made more but -for his own decision. In 1832 some Excise work that -he had retained brought him in £155 9s.; but in no -subsequent year did it bring in so much. He might -easily have made £5,000 a year had he chosen to -cultivate the professional connection thus formed; -and as he continued, with little intermission, in -activity till 1860, he might have died a wealthy man. -But he chose otherwise; and his first reward came in -the autumn of 1831, in the great discovery of -magneto-electric currents—the principle upon which -all our modern dynamos and transformers are based, -the foundation of all the electric lighting and electric -transmission of power. From this work he went on -to a research on the identity of all the kinds of -electricity, until then supposed to be of separate sorts, -and from this to electro-chemical work of the very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> -highest value. Of all these investigations some -account will be found in the chapters which -follow.</p> - -<p>But the immense body of patient scientific work -thus done for the love of science was not accomplished -without sacrifices of a more than pecuniary -kind. He withdrew more and more from society, -declined to dine in company, ceased to give dinners, -withdrew from all social and philanthropic organisations; -even withdrew from taking any part in the -management of any of the learned societies. The -British Association for the Advancement of Science -was started in 1831. Faraday took no part in that -movement, and did not attend the inaugural meeting -at York. The next year, however, he attended the -second meeting of that body at Oxford. Here he -“had the pleasure”—it is his own phrase—of making -an experiment on the great magnet in the University -museum, drawing a spark by induction in a coil of -wire. This was a coil 220 feet long, wound on a -hollow cylinder of pasteboard, which had been used -in the classical experiments of the preceding year. -He also showed that the induced currents could heat -a thin wire connected to the terminals of this coil. -These experiments, which were made in conjunction -with Mr. (afterwards Sir William Snow) Harris, Professor -Daniell, and Mr. Duncan, seem to have excited -great attention at the time. The theologians of -Oxford appear to have been mightily distressed both -by the success of the spark experiment and by the -welcome shown by the University to the representatives -of science. The following passage from Pusey’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> -life<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> reveals the rampant clericalism which then and -for a score of years sought to put back the clock of -civilisation.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>During the Long Vacation of 1832 Pusey had plenty of -work on hand. The British Association had held its first -meeting in Oxford during the month of June, and on the 21st -the honorary degree of D.C.L. was bestowed on four of its -distinguished members: Brewster, Faraday, Brown, and -Dalton. Keble, who was now Professor of Poetry, was angry -at the “temper and tone of the Oxford doctors”; they had -“truckled sadly to the spirit of the times” in receiving “the -hodge-podge of philosophers” as they did. Dr. L. Carpenter -had assured Dr. Macbride that “the University had prolonged -her existence for a hundred years by the kind reception he -and his fellows had received.”</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">THE HODGE-PODGE OF PHILOSOPHERS.</div> - -<p>It is not without significance, perhaps, that all the -four men thus contemptuously labelled by Keble as -the “hodge-podge of philosophers” were Dissenters. -Brewster and Brown (the great botanist and discoverer -of the “Brownian” motion of particles) -belonged to the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, -Dalton was a Member of the Society of Friends, and -Faraday a Sandemanian. Newman appears to have -been equally discomposed by the circumstance, for he -got his friend Mr. Rose to write an article—a long -and weary diatribe—against the British Association, -which he inserted in the <i>British Critic</i> for 1839. -Its slanders, assumptions, suppressions, and suggestions -are in a very unworthy temper.</p> - -<p>Faraday’s devotion to the Royal Institution and -its operations was marvellous. He had already<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> -abandoned outside professional work. From 1838 he -refused to see any callers except three times a week. -His extreme desire was to give himself uninterruptedly -to research. His friend A. de la Rive <span class="locked">says:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Every morning Faraday went into his laboratory as the -man of business goes to his office, and then tried by experiment -the truth of the ideas which he had conceived overnight, -as ready to give them up if experiment said <em>no</em> as to follow -out the consequences with rigorous logic if experiment answered -<em>yes</em>.</p> -</div> - -<p>He had in 1827 declined the appointment of -Professor of Chemistry in the University (afterwards -called University College) of London, giving as his -reason the interests of the Royal Institution. He -<span class="locked">wrote:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I think it a matter of duty and gratitude on my part to do -what I can for the good of the Royal Institution in the -present attempt to establish it firmly. The Institution has -been a source of knowledge and pleasure to me for the last -fourteen years; and though it does not pay me in salary what -I <em>now</em> strive to do for it, yet I possess the kind feelings and -goodwill of its authorities and members, and all the privileges -it can grant or I require; and, moreover, I remember the -protection it has afforded me during the past years of my -scientific life. These circumstances, with the thorough conviction -that it is a useful and valuable establishment, and the -strong hopes that exertions will be followed with success, have -decided me in giving at least two years more to it, in the -belief that after that time it will proceed well, into whatever -hands it may pass.</p> -</div> - -<p>In 1829, however, he was asked to become lecturer -on chemistry at the Royal Academy at Woolwich. As -this involved only twenty lectures a year he agreed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span> -the salary being fixed at £200 a year. These lectures -were continued until 1849.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TRINITY HOUSE APPOINTMENT.</div> - -<p>In 1836 the whole course of his scientific work -was changed by his appointment as scientific adviser -to Trinity House, the body which has official charge -of the lighthouse service in Great Britain. To the -Deputy-master he <span class="locked">wrote:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I consider your letter to me as a great compliment, and -should view the appointment at the Trinity House, which you -propose, in the same light; but I may not accept even honours -without due consideration.</p> - -<p>In the first place, my time is of great value to me; and -if the appointment you speak of involved anything like -periodical routine attendances, I do not think I could accept it. -But if it meant that in consultation, in the examination of -proposed plans and experiments, in trials, etc., made as my -convenience would allow, and with an honest sense of a duty -to be performed, then I think it would consist with my present -engagements. You have left the title and the sum in pencil. -These I look at mainly as regards the character of the appointment; -you will believe me to be sincere in this when you -remember my indifference to your proposition as a matter -of interest, though <em>not as a matter of kindness</em>.</p> - -<p>In consequence of the goodwill and confidence of all around -me, I can at any moment convert my time into money, but I -do not require more of the latter than is sufficient for necessary -purposes. The sum, therefore, of £200 is quite enough in -itself, but not if it is to be the indicator of the character of -the appointment; but I think you do not view it so, and that -you and I understand each other in that respect; and your -letter confirms me in that opinion. The position which I -presume you would wish me to hold is analogous to that -of a standing counsel.</p> - -<p>As to the title, it might be what you pleased almost. -Chemical adviser is too narrow, for you would find me venturing -into parts of the philosophy of light not chemical.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span> -Scientific adviser you may think too broad (or in me too -presumptuous); and so it would be, if by it was understood -all science.</p> -</div> - -<p>He held the post of scientific adviser for nearly -thirty years. The records of his work are to be -found in nineteen large portfolios full of manuscripts, -all indexed with that minute and scrupulous attention -to order and method which characterised all -his work.</p> - -<p>He also held nominally the post of scientific -adviser to the Admiralty, at a salary of £200 a year. -But this salary he never drew. Once the officials of -the Admiralty requested his opinion upon a printed -advertising pamphlet of somebody’s patent disinfecting -powder and anti-miasma lamp. Faraday returned -it, with a quietly indignant protest that it was not -such a document as he could be expected to give an -opinion upon.</p> - -<p>Faraday’s hope, expressed in 1827, that in two -years the Royal Institution might be restored to a -financially sound position, was not realised. He -worked with the most scrupulous economy, noting -down every detail of expenditure even in farthings. -“We were living on the parings of our own skin,” -he once told the managers. In 1832 the financial -question became acute. At the end of that year a -committee of investigation reported as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The Committee are certainly of opinion that no reduction -can be made in Mr. Faraday’s salary—£100 per annum, house, -coals, and candles; and beg to express their regret that the -circumstances of the Institution are not such as to justify -their proposing such an increase of it as the variety of duties<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> -which Mr. Faraday has to perform, and the zeal and ability -with which he performs them, appear to merit.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">A HUNDRED A YEAR, AND TWO ROOMS.</div> - -<p>A hundred a year, the use of two rooms, and -coals! Such was the stipend of the man who had -just before been made D.C.L. of Oxford, and had received -from the Royal Society the highest award it -can bestow—the Copley Medal! True, he made £200 -by the Woolwich lectures; but he had a wife to maintain, -his aged mother was entirely dependent upon -him, and there were many calls upon his private -exercise of charity.</p> - -<p>About the year 1835 it was the intention of Sir -Robert Peel to confer upon him a pension from the -Civil List, but he went out of office before this could -be arranged, and Lord Melbourne became Prime -Minister. Sir James South had in March written -to Lord Ashley, afterwards the well-known Earl of -Shaftesbury, asking him to place a little historiette -of Faraday in Sir Robert Peel’s hands. The said -historiette<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> contained an account of Faraday’s early -career and a description of the electrical machine -which he had constructed as a lad. “Now that his -pecuniary circumstances,” it went on, “were improved, -he sent his younger sister to boarding-school, -but to enable him to defray the expense, to deprive -himself of dinner every other day was absolutely indispensable.” -Peel expressed to Ashley lively regret -at not having received the historiette earlier when he -was still in office. To Ashley, later, he wrote the -following hitherto unpublished <span class="locked">letter:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l1">Drayton Manor,</span><br /> -May 3, 1835. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">My Dear Ashley</span>,—You do me but justice in entertaining -the belief that had I remained in office one of my -earliest recommendations to his Majesty would have been to -grant a pension to Mr. Faraday, on the same principles precisely -upon which one was granted to Mr. Airy. If there -had been the means, I would have made the offer before I -left office.</p> - -<p>I was quite aware of Mr. Faraday’s high eminence as a -man of science, and the valuable practical service he has -rendered to the public in that capacity; but I was to blame in -not having ascertained whether his pecuniary circumstances -made an addition to his income an object to him.</p> - -<p>I am sure no man living has a better claim to such a consideration -from the State than he has, and I trust the principle -I acted on with regard to the award of civil pensions will not -only remove away impediments of delicacy and independent -feeling from the acceptance of them, but will add a higher -value to the grant of a pension as an honourable distinction -than any that it could derive from its pecuniary amount.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l4">Ever, my dear Ashley,</span><br /> -<span class="l2">Most faithfully yours,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">Robert Peel.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">LORD MELBOURNE’S PARTICIPLE.</div> - -<p>Sir James South still endeavoured to bring about -the grant thus deferred, and wrote to the Hon. Caroline -Fox, asking her to put the historiette of Faraday in -the hands of Lord Holland, for him to lay before -Melbourne. Faraday at first demurred to Sir James -South’s action, but on the advice of his father-in-law, -Barnard, withdrew his demurrer. Later in the year -he was asked to wait on Lord Melbourne at the -Treasury. He has left a diary of the events of the -day, October 26th. According to these notes it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> -appears that Faraday first had a long talk with -Melbourne’s secretary, Mr. Young, about his first -demurring on religious grounds to accept the pension, -about his objection to savings’ banks, and the laying-up -of wealth. Later in the day he had a short interview -with the First Lord of the Treasury, when Lord -Melbourne, utterly mistaking the nature of the man -before him, inveighed roundly upon the whole system -of giving pensions to scientific and literary persons, -which he described as a piece of humbug. He prefixed -the word “humbug” with a participle which -Faraday’s notes describe as “theological.” Faraday, -with an instant flash of indignation, bowed and withdrew. -The same evening he left his card and the -following note at the <span class="locked">Treasury:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center"><i>To the Right Hon. Lord Viscount Melbourne, First Lord of -the Treasury.</i></p> - -<p class="sigright"> -October 26. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">My Lord</span>,—The conversation with which your Lordship -honoured me this afternoon, including, as it did, your Lordship’s -opinion of the general character of the pensions given of -late to scientific persons, induces me respectfully to decline -the favour which I believe your Lordship intends for me; for -I feel that I could not, with satisfaction to myself, accept at -your Lordship’s hands that which, though it has the form of -approbation, is of the character which your Lordship so pithily -applied to it.</p> -</div> - -<p>Faraday’s diary <span class="locked">says:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Did not like it much, and, on the whole, regret that friends -should have placed me in the situation in which I found -myself. Lord Melbourne said that “he thought there had -been a great deal of humbug in the whole affair. He did not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> -mean my affair, of course, but that of the pensions altogether.”... -I begged him to understand that I had known nothing -of the matter until far advanced, and, though grateful to those -friends who had urged it forward, wished him to feel at -perfect liberty in the affair as far as I was concerned.... -In the evening I wrote and left a letter. I left it myself at -ten o’clock at night, being anxious that Lord Melbourne -should have it before anything further was done in the -affair.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">MICHAEL’S PENSION.</div> - -<p>However, the matter did not end here. Faraday’s -friends were indignant. A caustic, and probably -exaggerated, account—for which Faraday disclaimed -all responsibility—of the interview appeared in <i>Fraser’s -Magazine</i>, and was copied into <i>The Times</i> of November -28th, with the result that, had it not been for -the personal intervention of the King, the pension -might have been refused. The storm, however, -passed away, and the pension of £300 per annum was -granted on December 24th. Years afterwards, writing -to Mr. B. Bell, Faraday said, “Lord Melbourne behaved -very handsomely in the matter.”</p> - -<p>In <cite>Fraser’s Magazine</cite> for February, 1836 (vol. -xiii., p. 224), is a portrait of Faraday by Maclise, -accompanied by a very amusing biographical notice -by Dr. Maginn. The picture represents Faraday -lecturing, and surrounded by his apparatus. The -article begins <span class="locked">thus:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Here you have him in his glory—not that his position was -<em>inglorious</em> when he stood before Melbourne, then decorated -with a blue velvet travelling cap, and lounging with one leg -over the chair of Canning!—and distinctly gave that illustrious -despiser of “humbug” to understand that he had -mistaken his lad. No! but here you have him as he first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> -flashed upon the intelligence of mankind the condensation of -the gases, or the identity of the five electricities.</p> -</div> - -<p>After a lively summary of his career, and the -jocular suggestion that, as the successor of Sir -Humphry Davy, Far-a-day must be near-a-knight -the article <span class="locked">continues:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The future Baronet is a very good little fellow ... playing -a fair fork over a leg of mutton, and devoid of any reluctance to -partake an old friend’s third bottle. We know of few things -more agreeable than a cigar and a bowl of punch (which he -mixes admirably) in the society of the unpretending ex-bookbinder....</p> - -<p>Well, although Young got Broderip to write a sort of -defence of his master, and “Justice B——”—<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">mirabile dictu!</i>—got -Hook to print it in the <i>John Bull</i>, the current of public -feeling could not be stopped: <span class="smcap">Regina</span> spoke out—<span class="smcap">William -Rex</span>, as in duty bound, followed—Melbourne apologised—and -“Michael’s pension, Michael’s pension” is all right.</p> -</div> - -<p>In one of his note-books of this period is found -the following <span class="locked">entry:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -15 January, 1834. -</p> - -<p>Within the last week have observed twice that a slight -obscurity of the sight of my left eye has happened. It -occurred on reading the letters of a book held about fourteen -inches from the eye, being obscured as by a fog over a space -about half an inch in diameter. This space was a little to the -right and below the axes of the eye. Looking for the effect -now and other times, I cannot perceive it. I note this down -that I may hereafter trace the progress of the effect if it -increases or becomes more common.</p> -</div> - -<p>Happily, the trouble did not recur; but the entry -is characteristic of the habits of accuracy of the man. -Loss of memory, unfortunately, early set in. There is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> -actually a hint of this in the first of his letters to -Abbott (p. 7), and references to the trouble and -to dizziness in the head recur perpetually in his -correspondence. Whenever these brain-troubles -threatened, he was compelled to drop all work and -seek rest and change of scene. He often ran down to -Brighton, which he thought, however, a poor place. -He constructed for himself a velocipede<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> on which -to take exercise. Two or three times he went to -Switzerland for a longer holiday, usually accompanied -by his wife and her brother, George Barnard.</p> - -<p>“Physically,” says Tyndall, “Faraday was below -the middle size, well set, active, and with extraordinary -animation of countenance. His head from -forehead to back was so long that he had usually to -bespeak his hats.” In youth his hair was brown, -curling naturally; later in life it approached to white, -and he always parted it down the middle. His voice -was pleasant, his laugh was hearty, his manners when -with young people, or when excited by success in the -laboratory, were gay to boyishness. Indeed, until the -end of the active period of his life he never lost the -capacity for boyish delight, or for unbending in fun -after the stress of severe labour.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_75" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES: FIRST PERIOD.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">From</span> first to last the original scientific researches of -Faraday extend over a period of forty-four years, -beginning with an analysis of caustic lime, published -in the <i>Quarterly Journal of Science</i> in 1816, and -ending with his last unfinished researches of 1860 -to 1862, on the possible existence of new relations -between magnetism and gravity and between magnetism -and light. The mere list of their titles fills -several pages in the catalogue of scientific papers -published by the Royal Society.</p> - -<p>For convenience of description, these forty-four -years may be divided into three periods: the first -lasting from 1816 to 1830, a period of miscellaneous -and in some respects preliminary activity; the second -from 1831 to the end of 1839, the period of the -classical experimental researches in electricity down -to the time when they were temporarily suspended by -the serious state of his health; the third from 1844, -when he was able to resume work, down to 1860, a -period which includes the completion of the experimental -researches on electricity, the discovery of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span> -relations between light and magnetism, and that of -diamagnetism.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">RESEARCHES BEGINNING.</div> - -<p>Faraday’s first research was an analysis for Sir -Humphry Davy of a specimen of caustic lime which -had been sent to him by the Duchess of Montrose -from Tuscany. The <i>Quarterly Journal of Science</i>, in -which it appeared, was a precursor of the <i>Proceedings -of the Royal Institution</i>, and was indeed edited by -Professor W. F. Brande. Faraday frequently wrote -for it during these years, and took editorial charge of -it on more than one occasion during Brande’s holidays. -The paper on caustic lime was reprinted by Faraday -in the volume of his “Experimental Researches on -Chemistry and Physics,” prefaced by the following -<span class="locked">note:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I reprint this paper at full length; it was the beginning of -my communications to the public, and in its results very -important to me. Sir Humphry Davy gave me the analysis -to make as a first attempt in chemistry, at a time when my -fear was greater than my confidence, and both far greater than -my knowledge; at a time also when I had no thought of ever -writing an original paper on science. The addition of his own -comments, and the publication of the paper, encouraged me to -go on making, from time to time, other slight communications, -some of which appear in this volume. Their transference from -the <i>Quarterly</i> into other journals increased my boldness, and -now that forty years have elapsed, and I can look back on -what successive communications have led to, I still hope, much -as their character has changed, that I have not either now or -forty years ago been too bold.</p> -</div> - -<p>For the next two or three years Faraday was -very closely occupied in the duties of assisting Sir -Humphry Davy in his researches, and in helping to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> -prepare the lectures for both Davy and Brande. Yet -he found time still to work on his own account. In -1817 he had six papers and notes in the <i>Quarterly -Journal of Science</i>, including one on the escape of -gases through capillary tubes, and others on wire-gauze -safety lamps and Davy’s experiments on flame. -In 1818 he had eleven papers in the <i>Journal</i>; the -most important being on the production of sound in -tubes by flames, while another was on the combustion -of the diamond. In 1819 he had nineteen papers in -the <i>Quarterly Journal</i>, chiefly of a chemical nature. -These related to boracic acid, the composition of -steels, the separation of manganese from iron, and on -the supposed new metal, “Sirium” or “Vestium,” -which he showed to be only a mixture of iron and -sulphur with nickel, cobalt, and other metals.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">OERSTED’S DISCOVERY.</div> - -<p>The year 1820 was marked in the annals of science -by the discovery, by Oersted of Copenhagen, of the -prime fact of electromagnetism, the deflexion which is -produced upon a magnetic needle by an electric current -that passes either under or over the needle. Often had -it been suspected that there must be some connection -between the phenomena of electricity and those of -magnetism. The similarities between the attractions -and repulsions caused by electrified bodies, and those -due to the magnet when acting on iron, had constantly -suggested the possibility that there was some real -connection. But, as had been pointed out centuries -before by St. Augustine, while the rubbed amber will -attract any substance if only small or light enough, -being indifferent to its material, the magnet will only -attract iron or compounds of iron, and is totally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> -inoperative<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> on all other substances. Again, while it -had been noticed that in houses which had been -struck by lightning knives, needles, and other steel -objects near the path of the electric flash had become -magnetised, no one had been able, by using the most -powerful electric machines, to repeat with certainty -the magnetisation of needles. In vain they had tried -to magnetise knives and wires by sending sparks -through them. Sometimes they showed a trace of -magnetism, sometimes none. And in the cases where -some slight magnetisation resulted, the polarity could -not be depended upon. Van Swinden had written -a whole treatise in two volumes on the analogies -between electricity and magnetism, but left the real -relation between the two more obscure than ever. -After the invention, in 1800, of the voltaic pile, which -for the first time provided a means of generating a -steady flow or current of electricity, several experimenters, -including Oersted himself, had again essayed -to discover the long-suspected connection, but without -success. Oersted was notoriously a poor experimenter, -though a man of great philosophical genius. -Having in 1820 a more powerful voltaic battery in -operation than previously, he repeated<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> the operation -of bringing near to the compass needle the copper wire -that conveyed the current; and, laying it parallel to -the needle’s direction, and over or under it, found that -the needle tended to turn into a direction at right<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> -angles to the line of the current, the sense of the -deviation depending upon the direction of flow of the -current, and also on the position of the wire as to -whether it were above or below the needle. A current -flowing from south to north over the needle caused -the north-pointing end of the needle to be deflected -westwards. If the wire were vertical, so that the -current flowed downwards, and a compass needle was -brought near the wire on the south side, therefore -tending under the earth’s directive influence to point -northwards toward the wire, it was observed that the -effect of the current flowing in the wire was to cause -the north-pointing end of the needle to turn westwards. -Or, reversing the flow of current, the effect -on the needle was reversed; it now tended eastwards. -All these things Oersted summed up in the phrase -that “the electric conflict acts in a revolving manner” -around the wire.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> In modern phraseology the whole -of the actions are explained if one can conceive that -the effect of the electric flow in the wire is to tend to -make the north pole of a magnet revolve in one sense -around the wire, whilst it also tends to make the -south pole of the magnet revolve around the wire in -the other sense. The nett result in most cases is that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span> -the magnetic needle tends to set itself square across -the line of the current. Oersted himself was not too -clear in his explanations, and seems, in his later -papers, to have lost sight of the circular motion -amidst repulsions and attractions.</p> - -<p>This discovery, which showed what was the -geometrical relation between the magnet and the -current, also showed why the earlier attempts had -failed. It was requisite that the electricity should -be in a state of steady flow; neither at rest as in the -experiments with electric charges, nor yet in capricious -or oscillatory rush as in those with spark-discharges. -Faraday, adverting a quarter of a century later to -Oersted’s discovery, said: “It burst open the gates of -a domain in science, dark till then, and filled it with -a flood of light.”</p> - -<p>The very day that Oersted’s memoir was published -in England, Davy brought a copy down into -the laboratory of the Royal Institution, and he and -Faraday at once set to work to repeat the experiments -and verify the facts.</p> - -<p>It is a matter of history how, on the publication -of Oersted’s discovery, Ampère leaped forward to -generalise on electromagnetic actions, and discovered -the mutual actions that may exist between two -currents, or rather between two conducting wires that -carry currents. They are found to experience mutual -mechanical forces urging them into parallel proximity. -Biot and Laplace added to these investigations, -as also did Arago. Davy discovered that the -naked copper wire, while carrying a current, could -attract iron filings to itself—not end-ways in adherent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> -tufts, as the pole of a magnet does, but laterally, each -filing or chainlet of filings tending to set itself -tangentially at right angles to the axis of the -wire.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A PARADOXICAL PHENOMENON.</div> - -<p>This curious right-angled relation between electric -flow and magnetic force came as a complete paradox -or puzzle to the scientific world. It had taken -centuries to throw off the strange unmechanical ideas -of force which had dominated the older astronomy. -The epicyclic motions of the planets postulated by -the Ptolemaic system were in no way to be accounted -for upon mechanical principles. Kepler’s laws of -planetary motion were merely empirical, embodying -the results of observation, until Newton’s discovery of -the laws of circular motion and of the principle of -universal gravitation placed the planetary theory on -a rational basis. Newton’s laws required that forces -should act in straight lines, and that to every action -there should be an equal and opposite reaction. If -<span class="allsmcap">A</span> attracted <span class="allsmcap">B</span>, then <span class="allsmcap">B</span> attracted <span class="allsmcap">A</span> with an equal force, -and the mutual force must be in the line drawn from -<span class="allsmcap">A</span> to <span class="allsmcap">B</span>. The discovery by Oersted that the magnet -pole was urged by the electric wire in a direction -<em>transverse</em> to the line joining them, appeared at first -sight to contravene the ideas of force so thoroughly -established by Newton. How could this transversality -be explained? Some sought to explain the -effect by considering the conducting wire to operate -as if made up of a number of short magnets set -transversely across the wire, all their north poles -being set towards the right, and all their south poles -towards the left. Ampère took the alternative view<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> -that the magnet might be regarded as equivalent to a -number of electric currents circulating transversely -around the core as an axis. In neither case was the -explanation complete.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TWO YEARS WASTED.</div> - -<p>Faraday’s scientific activities in the year 1820 -were very marked. New researches on steel had -been going on for some months. It had been -hoped that by alloying iron with some other metals, -such as silver, platinum, or nickel, a non-rusting -alloy might be found. This idea took its rise from -the erroneous notion that meteoric iron, which is -richly alloyed with nickel, does not rust. Faraday -found nickel steel to be more readily oxidised, not -less, than ordinary steel. The platinum steel was -also a failure. Silver steel was of more interest, -though it was found impossible to incorporate in -the alloy more than a small percentage of silver. -Nevertheless, silver steel was used for some time -by a Sheffield firm for manufacture of fenders. -The alloys of iron with platinum, iridium, and -rhodium were also of no great use. But the research -demonstrated the surprising effects which -minute quantities of other metals may have upon -the quality of steel. Occasionally in later life Faraday -would present one of his friends with a razor made -from his own special steel. A paper on the use of -alloys of steel in surgical instrument making was -published in the <i>Quarterly Journal</i> in collaboration -with Mr. Stodart. Faraday also read his first paper -before the Royal Society on two new compounds of -chlorine and carbon, and on a new compound of -iodine, carbon, and hydrogen. He also succeeded in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> -making artificial plumbago from charcoal. In writing -to his friend Professor G. de la Rive, he gives a long -and chatty abstract of his researches on the alloys of -steel. They appear to have originated in some analyses -of wootz or Indian steel, a material which, when etched -with acid, shows a beautifully damascened or reticulated -surface. This effect Faraday never found -with pure steel, but imitated it successfully with a -steel alloyed with “the metal of alumine,” an element -which down to that time had not been isolated. He -then describes the rhodium, silver, and nickel steels, -and mentions incidentally how he has been surprised -to discover that he can volatilise silver, and that he -cannot reduce the metal titanium. He is doubtful -whether this metal “ever has been reduced at all in -the pure state.” [It can now be readily reduced -either in the electric arc or by the use of metallic -aluminium.] He winds up the letter with the words: -“Pray pity us that, after two years’ experiments, we -have got no further; but I am sure, if you knew the -labour of the experiments, you would applaud us for -our perseverance at least.”</p> - -<p>In 1821, the year of his marriage, came the first of -the important scientific discoveries which brought -him international fame. This was the discovery of -the electromagnetic rotations. It appears that -Oersted’s brilliant flash of insight that the “electric -conflict acts in a revolving manner” upon the pole of -the neighbouring compass needle had been lost sight -of in the discussions which followed, and to which -allusion has been made above. All the world was -thinking about attractions and repulsions. Two men,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> -however, seem to have gone a little further in their -ideas. Dr. Wollaston had suggested that there ought -to be a tendency, when a magnet pole was presented -towards a straight conducting wire carrying a current, -for that conducting wire to revolve around its own -axis. This effect—though in recent years it has been -observed by Mr. George Gore—he unsuccessfully tried -to observe by experiments. He came in April, 1821, -to the laboratory of the Royal Institution to make an -experiment, but without result. Faraday, at the -request of his friend Phillips, who was editor of the -<i>Annals of Philosophy</i>, wrote for that magazine in -July, August, and September a historical sketch of -electromagnetism down to date. This was one of -the very few of Faraday’s writings that was anonymous. -It was simply signed “M.” This is in vol. iii. p. 107. -On p. 117 the editor says: “To the historical sketch -of electromagnetism with which I have been favoured -by my anonymous correspondent, I shall add a sketch -of the discoveries that have been made by Mr. -Faraday of the Royal Institution.” In the course of -this work Faraday repeated for his own satisfaction -almost all the experiments that he described. This -led him to discover that a wire, included in the circuit, -but mounted so as to hang with its lower end in a -pool of quicksilver, could rotate around the pole of a -magnet; and conversely that if the wire were fixed -and the pole of the magnet free to move, the latter -would rotate around the former. “I did not realise,” -he wrote, “Dr. Wollaston’s expectation of the rotation -of the electromagnetic wire around its axis.” As was -so often his custom, he had no sooner finished the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> -research for publication than he dashed off a brief -summary of it in a letter to one of his friends. On -this occasion it was Professor G. de la Rive, of Geneva, -who was the recipient of his confidences. On -September 12 he <span class="locked">wrote:—</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">LETTER TO DE LA RIVE.</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I am much flattered and encouraged to go on by your good -opinion of what little things I have been able to do in science, -and especially as regards the chlorides of carbon.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>You partly reproach us here with not sufficiently esteeming -Ampère’s experiments on electromagnetism. Allow me to -extenuate your opinion a little on this point. With regard to -the experiments, I hope and trust that due weight is allowed -to them; but these you know are few, and theory makes up -the great part of what M. Ampère has published, and theory -in a great many points unsupported by experiments when they -ought to have been adduced. At the same time, M. Ampère’s -experiments are excellent, and his theory ingenious; and, for -myself, I had thought very little about it before your letter -came, simply because, being naturally sceptical on philosophical -theories, I thought there was a great want of experimental -evidence. Since then, however, I have engaged on the subject, -and have a paper in our “Institution Journal,” which will -appear in a week or two, and that will, as it contains experiment, -be immediately applied by M. Ampère in support of his -theory, much more decidedly than it is by myself. I intend -to enclose a copy of it to you with the other, and only want -the means of sending it.</p> - -<p>I find all the usual attractions and repulsions of the -magnetic needle by the conjunctive wire are deceptions, the -motions being not attractions or repulsions, nor the result of -any attractive or repulsive forces, but the result of a force in -the wire, which instead of bringing the pole of the needle -nearer to, or further from the wire, endeavours to make it -move round it in a never ending circle and motion whilst the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span> -battery remains in action. I have succeeded not only in -showing the existence of this motion theoretically, but experimentally, -and have been able to make the wire revolve round -a magnetic pole, or a magnetic pole round the wire, at pleasure. -The law of revolution, and to which all the other motions -of the needle and wire are reducible, is simple and -beautiful.</p> - -<p>Conceive a portion of connecting wire north and south, the -north end being attached to the positive pole of a battery, the -south to the negative. A north magnetic pole would then pass -round it continually in the apparent direction of the sun, from -east to west above, from west to east below.</p> - -<p>Reverse the connections with the battery, and the motion -of the pole is reversed; or if the south pole be made to revolve, -the motions will be in the opposite directions, as with the -north pole.</p> - -<p>If the wire be made to revolve round the pole, the motions -are according to those mentioned. In the apparatus I used -there were but two plates, and the directions of the motions -were of course<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> the reverse of those with a battery of several -pairs of plates, and which are given above. Now I have been -able, experimentally, to trace this motion into its various forms -as exhibited by Ampère’s, Nelice’s, &c., and in all cases to show -that the attractions and repulsions are only appearances due -to this circulation of the pole, to show that dissimilar poles -repel as well as attract, and that similar poles attract as well as -repel, and to make, I think, the analogy between the helix and -common bar magnet far stronger than before. But yet I am -by no means decided that there are currents of electricity in -the common magnet.</p> - -<p>I have no doubt that electricity puts the circles of the helix -into the same state as those circles are in, that may be conceived -in the bar magnet, but I am not certain that this state -is directly dependant on the electricity, or that it cannot be -produced by other agencies; and therefore, until the presence -of electrical currents be proved in the magnet by other than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> -magnetical effects, I shall remain in doubt about Ampère’s -theory.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>Wishing you all health and happiness, and waiting for news -from you,</p> - -<p>I am, my dear Sir, your very obliged and grateful</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>The reference at the beginning of this letter to -the chlorides of carbon has to do with his discovery -communicated to the Royal Society. Later in the -year, a joint paper on another compound of carbon -and chlorine, by himself and his friend Richard -Phillips, was sent in. Both were printed together in -the <cite>Philosophical Transactions</cite> of 1821.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">LEAVES FROM THE NOTE-BOOK.</div> - -<p>The following is an extract from Faraday’s laboratory -book relating to the discovery. The account is -incomplete, a leaf having been torn <span class="locked">out:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="in0 in4"> -1821, Sept. 3. -</p> - -<p>The effort of the wire is always to pass off at a right angle -from the pole, indeed to go in a circle round it, so when either -pole was brought up to the wire perpendicular to it and to the -radius of the circle it described, there was neither attraction -nor repulsion, but the moment the pole varied in the slightest -manner either in or out, the wire moved one way or the other.</p> - -<p>The poles of the magnet act on the bent wire in all positions -and not in the direction <em>only</em> of any axis of the magnet, so -that the current can hardly be cylindrical or arranged round -the axis of a cylinder?</p> - -<p>From the motion above a north magnet pole in the centre -of one of the circles should make the wire continually turn -round. Arranged a magnet needle in a glass tube with mercury -about it, and by a cork, water, &c., supported a connecting -wire so that the upper end should go into the silver cup and -its mercury, and the lower move in a channel of mercury round<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> -the pole of the needle. The battery arranged with the wire as -before. In this way got the revolution of the wire round the -pole of the magnet. The direction was as follow, looking from -above <span class="locked">down:—</span></p> - -<div id="i_88" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;"> - <img src="images/i_088.png" width="1067" height="390" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> (<span class="smcap">Facsimile of Original Sketch.</span>)</div></div> - -<p class="in0">Very satisfactory, but make more sensible apparatus.</p> - -<p class="p1 in2"> -Tuesday, Sept. 4. -</p> - -<p>Apparatus for revolution of wire and magnet. A deep -basin with bit of wax at bottom and then filled with mercury. -A magnet stuck upright in wax so that pole just above the -surface of mercury. Then piece of wire floated by cork at -lower end dipping into merc<sup>y</sup> and above into silver cup as -<span class="locked">before:—</span></p> - -<div id="i_88b" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 10em;"> - <img src="images/i_088b.png" width="385" height="384" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> <span class="smcap">(facsimile of Original Sketch.</span>) -</p> -</div></div> - -</div> - -<p>The research on the electromagnetic rotations, -which was published in the <i>Quarterly Journal of -Science</i> for October, 1821 (and reprinted in the second -volume of the “Experimental Researches in Electricity”), -was the occasion of a very serious misunderstanding -with Dr. Wollaston and his friends, which -at one time threatened to cause Faraday’s exclusion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> -from the Royal Society. Faraday’s prompt and frank -action in appealing to Dr. Wollaston saved him in a -very unpleasant crisis; and the latter came three or -four times to the laboratory to witness the experiments. -On Christmas Day of the same year, Faraday -succeeded in making a wire through which an electric -current is passing move under the influence of the -earth’s magnetism alone. His brother-in-law, George -Barnard, who was in the laboratory at the time, -wrote:—“All at once he exclaimed, ‘Do you see, do -you see, do you see, George?’ as the wire began to -revolve. One end I recollect was in the cup of quicksilver, -the other attached above to the centre. I shall -never forget the enthusiasm expressed in his face -and the sparkling in his eyes!”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SCENES IN THE LABORATORY.</div> - -<p>In 1822 little was added to Faraday’s scientific -work. He had a joint paper with Stodart on steel -before the Royal Society, and in the <i>Quarterly -Journal</i> two short chemical papers and four on -electromagnetical motions and magnetism. He had -long kept a commonplace book in which he entered -notes and queries as well as extracts from books and -journals; but this year he began a fresh manuscript -volume, into which he transferred many of the -queries and suggestions of his own originating. This -volume he called “Chemical Notes, Hints, Suggestions, -and Objects of Pursuit.” It contains many of the -germs of his own future discoveries, as the following -examples <span class="locked">show:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Convert magnetism into electricity.</p> - -<p>Do pith balls diverge by disturbance of electricities in -consequence of induction or not?</p> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> -<p>General effects of compression, either in condensing gases, -or producing solutions, or even giving combinations at low -temperatures.</p> - -<p>Light through gold leaf on to zine or most oxidable metals, -these being poles—or on magnetic bars.</p> - -<p>Transparency of metals. Sun’s light through gold leaf. -Two gold leaves made poles—light passed through one to the -other.</p> -</div> - -<p>Whenever any query found an answer, he drew -his pen through it and added the date. In front of -the book—probably at some later time—he wrote -these <span class="locked">words:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I already owe much to these notes, and think such a -collection worth the making by every scientific man. I am -sure none would think the trouble lost after a year’s experience.</p> -</div> - -<p>A striking example had already occurred of similar -suggestive notes in the optical queries of Sir Isaac -Newton.</p> - -<p>In another manuscript notebook occur the following -entries under date of September 10, <span class="locked">1821:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>2 similar poles though they repell at most distances attract -at very small distances and adhere. Query why....</p> - -<p>Could not magnetise a plate of steel so as to resemble flat -spiral. Either the magnetism would be very weak and -irregular or there would be none at all.</p> -</div> - -<p>These are interesting as showing how Faraday -was educating himself by continual experiment. The -explanation of each of these paradoxes has long -passed into the commonplace of physics; but they -would still puzzle many who have learned their -science bookishly at second-hand.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span></p> - -<p>It will be noted that amongst the entries cited -above there are two of absolutely capital importance, -one foreshadowing the great discovery of magneto-electric -induction, the other indicating how the -existence of electro-optical relations was shaping -itself as a possibility in Faraday’s mind. An entry in -his laboratory book of September 10 is of great -<span class="locked">interest:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Polarised a ray of lamp-light by reflection, and endeavoured -to ascertain whether any depolarising action [is] exerted on it -by water placed between the poles of a voltaic battery in a -glass cistern; one Wollaston’s trough used; the fluids -decomposed were pure water, weak solution of sulphate of -soda, and strong sulphuric acid: none of them had any effect -on the polarised light, either when out of or in the voltaic -circuit, so that no particular arrangement of particles could be -ascertained in this way.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">AN UNSUCCESSFUL EXPERIMENT.</div> - -<p>It may be added that no such optical effect of -electrolytic conduction as that here looked for has -yet been discovered. The experiment, unsuccessful -at that day, remains still an unsuccessful one. A -singular interest attaches to it, however, and it was -repeated several times by Faraday in subsequent -years, in hope of some results.</p> - -<p>In 1823 Faraday read two papers to the Royal -Society, one on Liquid Chlorine, the other on the -Condensation of several Gases into Liquids. No -sooner was the work completed than he dashed off a -letter to De la Rive to tell him what he had accomplished. -Under date March 24, 1823, he <span class="locked">writes:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I have been at work lately, and obtained results which I -hope you will approve of. I have been interrupted twice in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> -the course of experiments by explosions, both in the course of -eight days—one burnt my eyes, the other cut them; but -fortunately escaped with slight injury only in both cases, and -am now nearly well. During the winter I took the opportunity -of examining the hydrate of chlorine, and analysing it; the -results, which are not very important, will appear in the next -number of the <i>Quarterly Journal</i>, over which I have no -influence. Sir H. Davy, on seeing my paper, suggested to me -to work with it under pressure, and see what would happen by -heat, &c. Accordingly I enclosed it in a glass tube hermetically -sealed, heated it, obtained a change in the substance, and a -separation into two different fluids; and upon further examination -I found that the chlorine and water had separated from -each other, and the chlorine gas, not being able to escape, had -condensed into the liquid form. To prove that it contained -no water, I dried some chlorine gas, introduced it into a long -tube, condensed it, and then cooled the tube, and again -obtained fluid chlorine. Hence what is called chlorine gas is -the vapour of a fluid....</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>I expect to be able to reduce many other gases to the liquid -form, and promise myself the pleasure of writing you about -them. I hope you will honour me with a letter soon.</p> - -<p>I am, dear Sir, very faithfully, your obedient servant,</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">CHLORINE LIQUEFIED.</div> - -<p>The work of liquefying the gases had been taken -up by Faraday during his hours of liberty from other -duties. It was probably his characteristic dislike to -“doubtful knowledge” which prompted him to re-examine -a substance which had at one time been -regarded as chlorine in a solid state, but which Davy -in 1810 had demonstrated to be a hydrate of that -element. The first work was, as narrated above, to -make a new analysis of the supposed substance. This -analysis, duly written out, was submitted to Sir<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span> -Humphry, who, without stating precisely what results -he anticipated might follow, suggested heating the -hydrate under pressure in a hermetically sealed glass -tube. This Faraday did. When so heated, the tube -filled with a yellow atmosphere, and on cooling was -found to contain two liquids, one limpid and colourless -like water, the other of an oily appearance. -Concerning this research a curious story is told in the -life of Davy. Dr. Paris, Davy’s friend and biographer, -happened to visit the laboratory while Faraday was -at work on these tubes. Seeing the oily liquid, he -ventured to rally the young assistant upon his carelessness -in employing greasy tubes. Later in the day, -Faraday, on filing off the end of the tube, was startled -by finding the contents suddenly to explode; the -oily matter completely disappearing. He speedily -ascertained the cause. The gas, liberated from combination -with water by heat, had under the pressure -of its own evolution liquefied itself, only to re-expand -with violence when the tube was opened. Early the -next day Dr. Paris received the following laconic -<span class="locked">note:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dear <span class="locked">Sir</span>,—</span></p> - -<p class="ti4">The <em>oil</em> you noticed yesterday turns out to be liquid -chlorine.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l2">Yours faithfully,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>Later he adopted a compressing syringe to condense -the gas, and again succeeded in liquefying it. Davy, -who added a characteristic note to Faraday’s published -paper, immediately applied the same method of -liquefaction by its own pressure to hydrochloric acid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> -gas; and Faraday reduced a number of other gases -by the same means. These researches were not without -danger. In the preliminary experiments an explosion -of one of the tubes drove thirteen fragments -of glass into Faraday’s eye. At the end of the year he -drew up a historical statement on the liquefaction of -gases, which was published in the <i>Quarterly Journal</i> -for January, 1824. A further statement by him was -published in the <i>Philosophical Magazine</i> for 1836; -and in 1844 his further researches on the liquefaction -of gases were published in the <i>Philosophical -Transactions</i>.</p> - -<p>In 1824 Faraday again brought to the Royal -Society a chemical discovery of first importance. -The paper was on some new compounds of carbon -and hydrogen, and on certain other products obtained -during decomposition of oil by heat. From condensed -oil-gas, so obtained, Faraday succeeded in separating -the liquid known as benzin or benzol, or, as he named -it at the time, bicarburet of hydrogen. It has since -its discovery formed the basis of several great chemical -industries, and is manufactured in vast quantities. -Prior to the reading of this paper he had, as we have -already related, been elected a Fellow of the Royal -Society, an honour to which he had for some years -aspired, and which stood alone in his regard above -the scientific honours of later years.</p> - -<p>In this year he tried, amongst his unsuccessful -experiments, two of singular interest. One was an -attempt to find whether two crystals (such as nitre) -exercised upon one another any polar attractions like -those of two lodestones. He suspended them by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span> -fibres of cocoon silk, and, finding this material not -delicate enough, by spider-lines. The other was an -attempt to discover magneto-electricity. For various -reasons he concluded that the approximation of the -pole of a powerful magnet to a conductor carrying a -current would have the effect of diminishing the -amount of that current. He placed magnets within -a copper wire helix, and observed with a galvanometer -whether the current sent through the circuit of the -helix by a given battery was less when the magnet -was absent. The result was negative.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">RESEARCH ON OPTICAL GLASS.</div> - -<p>In this year also began the laborious researches -on optical glass, which though in themselves leading to -no immediate success of commercial value, nevertheless -furnished Faraday with the material essential at the -time for the making of the most momentous of all -his discoveries. A committee had been appointed by -the President and Council of the Royal Society for -the improvement of glass for optical purposes, -and Faraday was amongst those chosen to act -upon it.</p> - -<p>In 1825 the Royal Society Committee delegated -the investigation of optical glass to a sub-committee -of three, Herschel (afterwards Sir John), Dollond -(the optician), and Faraday. The chemical part, including -the experimental manufacture, was entrusted -to Faraday. Dollond was to work the glass and test -its qualities from the instrument maker’s point of -view, whilst Herschel was to examine its refraction, -dispersion, and other physical properties. This sub-committee -worked for nearly five years, though by -the removal of Herschel from England its number was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span> -reduced to two. In 1827 the work became more -arduous. Faraday thus <span class="locked">writes:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The President and Council of the Royal Society applied to -the President and Managers of the Royal Institution for leave -to erect on their premises an experimental room with a -furnace, for the purpose of continuing the investigation on the -manufacture of optical glass. They were guided in this by the -desire which the Royal Institution has always evinced to -assist in the advancement of science; and the readiness with -which the application was granted showed that no mistaken -notion had been formed in this respect. As a member of both -bodies, I felt much anxiety that the investigation should be -successful. A room and furnaces were built at the Royal -Institution in September, 1827, and an assistant was engaged, -Sergeant Anderson, of the Royal Artillery. He came on the -3rd of December.</p> -</div> - -<p>Anderson, who was thus made assistant to Faraday, -remained in that capacity till his death in 1866. He -was a most devoted servant. In a footnote to the -“Experimental Researches” (vol. iii. p. 3) Faraday in -1845 wrote of <span class="locked">him:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I cannot resist the occasion that is thus offered me of -mentioning the name of Mr. Anderson, who came to me as an -assistant in the glass experiments, and has remained ever since -in the laboratory of the Royal Institution. He assisted me in -all the researches into which I have entered since that time; -and to his care, steadiness, exactitude, and faithfulness in the -performance of all that has been committed to his charge, I -am much indebted.—M. F.</p> -</div> - -<p>Tyndall, who had a great admiration for Anderson, -declared that his merits as an assistant might be -summed up in one phrase—blind obedience. The -story is told of him by Benjamin <span class="locked">Abbott:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">ANDERSON’S OBEDIENCE.</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Sergeant Anderson ... was chosen simply because of -the habits of strict obedience his military training had given -him. His duty was to keep the furnaces always at the same -heat, and the water in the ashpit always at the same level. In -the evening he was released, but one night Faraday forgot to -tell Anderson he could go home, and early next morning he -found his faithful servant still stoking the glowing furnace, as -he had been doing all night long.</p> -</div> - -<p>The research on optical glass was viewed askance -by several parties. The expenditure of money which -it involved was one of the “charges” hurled against -the Council of the Royal Society by Sir James South -in 1830. Nevertheless it was deemed sufficiently -important to receive powerful support, as the following -letter <span class="locked">shows:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -Admiralty, 20 Dec., 1827. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>,</p> - -<p class="ti4">I hereby request, on behalf of the Board of Longitude, -that you will continue, in the furnace built at the Royal -Institution, the experiments on glass, directed by the joint -Committee of the Royal Society and the Board of Longitude -and already sanctioned by the Treasury and the Board of -Excise.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l12">I am, Sir,</span><br /> -<span class="l4">Your obedient servant,</span><br /> -<span class="l2"><span class="smcap">Thomas Young</span>, M.D.,</span><br /> -Sec. Bd. Long. -</p> - -<p class="in0 in1"> -Michael Faraday, Esq.,<br /> -<span class="in4">Royal Institution.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>In February, 1825, Faraday’s duties towards the -Royal Institution were somewhat modified. Hitherto -he had been nominally a mere assistant to Davy -and Brande, though he had occasionally undertaken -lectures for the latter. Now, on Davy’s recommendation, -he was, as we have seen, appointed by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span> -managers Director of the Laboratory under the superintendence -of the Professor of Chemistry. He was -relieved, “because of his occupation in research,” from -his duty as chemical assistant at the lectures.</p> - -<p>The research on optical glass was not concluded -till 1829, when its results were communicated to the -Royal Society in the Bakerian lecture of that year—a -memoir so long that it is said three sittings were -occupied in its delivery. It is printed <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">in extenso</i> in -the <cite>Philosophical Transactions</cite> of 1830. It opens -as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>When the philosopher desires to apply glass in the construction -of perfect instruments, and especially the achromatic -telescope, its manufacture is found liable to imperfections so -important and so difficult to avoid, that science is frequently -stopped in her progress by them—a fact fully proved by the -circumstance that Mr. Dollond, one of our first opticians, has -not been able to obtain a disc of flint glass 4½ inches in diameter, -fit for a telescope, within the last five years; or a similar disc, -of 5 inches, within the last ten years.</p> - -<p>This led to the appointment by Sir H. Davy of the Royal -Society Committee, and the Government removed the excise -restrictions, and undertook to bear all the expenses as long as -the investigation offered a reasonable hope of success.</p> - -<p>The experiments were begun at the Falcon Glass Works, -three miles from the Royal Institution, and continued there in -1825, 1826, and to Sept., 1827, when a room was built at the -Institution. At first the inquiry was pursued principally as -related to flint and crown glass; but in September, 1828, it -was directed exclusively to the preparation and perfection of -peculiar heavy and fusible glasses, from which time continued -progress has been made.</p> -</div> - -<p>In 1830 the experiments on glass-making were -stopped.</p> - -<p>In 1831 the Committee for the Improvement of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> -Glass for Optical Purposes reported to the Royal -Society Council that the telescope made with Mr. -Faraday’s glass had been examined by Captain Kater -and Mr. Pond. “It bears as great a power as can -reasonably be expected, and is very achromatic. The -Committee therefore recommend that Mr. Faraday be -requested to make a perfect piece of glass of the -largest size that his present apparatus will admit, and -also to teach some person to manufacture the glass -for general sale.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">GLASS-MAKING LAID ASIDE.</div> - -<p>In answer to this Faraday sent the following letter -to Dr. Roget, Sec. <span class="locked">R.S.:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center">[<i>M. Faraday to P. M. Roget.</i>]</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -Royal Institution, July 4, 1831. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dear Sir</span>,—I send you herewith four large and two small -manuscript volumes relating to optical glass, and comprising -the journal book and sub-committee book, since the period -that experimental investigations commenced at the Royal -Institution.</p> - -<p>With reference to the request which the Council of the -Royal Society have done me the honour of making—namely, -that I should continue the investigation—I should, under circumstances -of perfect freedom, assent to it at once; but obliged -as I have been to devote the whole of my spare time to the experiments -already described, and consequently to resign the -pursuit of such philosophical inquiries as suggested themselves -to my own mind, I would wish, under the present circumstances, -to lay the glass aside for a while, that I may enjoy the pleasure -of working out my own thoughts on other subjects.</p> - -<p>If at a future time the investigation should be renewed, I -must beg it to be clearly understood I cannot promise full -success should I resume it: all that industry and my abilities -can effect shall be done; but to perfect a manufacture, not -being a manufacturer, is what I am not bold enough to promise.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l4">I am, &c.,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span></p> - -<p>The optical glass was a failure, so far as concerned -the original hope that it would lead to great improvements -in telescopes. Nevertheless it furnished -scientific men with a new material, the “heavy glass” -consisting essentially of boro-silicate of lead, for which -sundry uses in spectroscopy and other optical instruments -have since been found.</p> - -<p>In 1845 Faraday added this <span class="locked">note:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I consider our results as negative, except as regards any -good that may have resulted from my heavy glass in the hands -of Amici (who applied it to microscopes) and in my late -experiments on light.</p> -</div> - -<p>These were the famous experiments on magneto-optics -and diamagnetism. Incidentally the research -had led also to the permanent engagement of Sergeant -Anderson as assistant to Faraday.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">RESEARCHES AND LECTURES.</div> - -<p>During these years, from 1825 to 1829, which had -been thus occupied in an apparently fruitless quest, -he had been far from idle. He had gone on contributing -chemical papers to the <i>Philosophical -Transactions</i> and to the <i>Quarterly Journal</i>. These -dealt with sulpho-naphthalic acid, with the limits of -vaporisation, with caoutchouc, bisulphide of copper, -the fluidity of sulphur and phosphorus, the diffusion -of gases, and the relation of water to hot polished -surfaces. He had also originated at the Royal Institution -the Friday evening discourses (see <a href="#Page_33">p. 33</a>), the -first of which he held in 1826. For some years he -himself delivered no inconsiderable portion of these -discourses every session. In 1826 he gave six, in -1827 three, in 1828 five, in 1829 six, and these in -addition to his regular afternoon courses of six or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> -eight lectures on some connected subject. He had -also, in 1826, begun the Christmas lectures adapted -to a juvenile audience, and had in 1827 given a course -of twelve lectures at the London Institution in -Finsbury Circus. In addition to these labours he -had, in 1827, brought out the first edition of his book -on “Chemical Manipulation.” In 1829 he began his -lectures at the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, -which continued till 1849.</p> - -<p>The year 1830 may be regarded as the close of -the first period of Faraday’s researches, during which -time, though much of his labour had been of a -preparatory and even desultory kind, it had been a -training for the higher work to come. He had made -three notable discoveries in chemistry, the new substances -benzol and butylene, and the solubility of -naphthalene in sulphuric acid forming the first of a -new class of bodies, the sulpho-acids. He had also -made an important discovery in physics, that of the -electromagnetic rotations. He had already published -sixty original papers, besides many notes of lesser -importance, nine of these papers being memoirs in the -<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>. He had already begun -to receive from learned societies, academies, and -universities the recognition of his scientific attainments, -and he had established firmly both his own -reputation as a lecturer, and the reputation of the -Royal Institution, which was the scene of his lectures.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_102" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES: SECOND PERIOD.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">With</span> the year 1831 begins the period of the celebrated -“Experimental Researches in Electricity and -Magnetism.” During the years which had elapsed -since his discovery of the electromagnetic rotations in -1823, Faraday, though occupied, as we have seen, with -other matters, had not ceased to ponder the relation -between the magnet and the electric current. The -great discoveries of Oersted, Ampère, and Arago had -culminated in England in two results: in Faraday’s -discovery that the wire which carries an electric -current tends to revolve around the pole of a neighbouring -magnet; and in Sturgeon’s invention of the -soft-iron electromagnet, a core of iron surrounded by -a coil of copper wire, capable of acting as a magnet at -will when the electric current is transmitted to the -coil and so caused to circulate around the iron core.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FORESHADOWINGS.</div> - -<p>This production of magnetism from electricity, at -will, and at a distance, by the simple device of sending -the electricity to circulate as a current around -the central core of iron was then, as now, a cause of -much speculation. The iron core which is to be -made temporarily into a magnet stands alone, isolated.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span> -Though surrounded outwardly by the magnetising -coil of copper wire, it does not touch it; nay, must be -screened from contact with it by appropriate insulation. -The electric current entering the copper coil at -one end is confined from leaving the copper wire by -any lateral path: it must circulate around each and -every convolution, nor be permitted to flow back by -the return-wire until it has performed the required -amount of circulation. That the mere external -circulation of electric current around a totally disconnected -interior core of iron should magnetise that -core; that the magnetisation should be maintained so -long as the circulation of electricity is maintained; -and that the magnetising forces should cease so soon -as the current is stopped, are facts, familiar enough to -every beginner in the science, but mysterious enough -from the abstract point of view. Faraday was firmly -persuaded that, great as had been these discoveries of -the production of magnetism and magnetic motions -from electricity, there remained other relations of no -less importance to be discovered. Again and again -his mind recurred to the subject. If it were possible -to use electricity to produce magnetism, why should -not the converse be true? In 1822 his notebook -suggestion was, as we have seen, “Convert magnetism -into electricity.” Yes, but how?</p> - -<p>He possessed an intuitive bent of mind to inquire -about the relations of facts to one another. Convinced -by sheer converse with nature in the laboratory, of the -correlation of forces and of the conservation of energy -long before either of those doctrines had received distinct -enunciation as principles of natural philosophy,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> -he seems never to have viewed an action without -thinking of the necessary and appropriate reaction; -never to have deemed any physical relation complete -in which discovery had not been made of the converse -relations for which instinctively he sought. So in -December, 1824, we find him experimenting on the -passage of a bar magnet through a helix of copper wire -(see <i>Quarterly Journal</i> for July, 1825), but without -result. In November, 1825, he sought for evidence that -might prove an electric current in a wire to exercise -an influence upon a neighbouring wire connected to a -galvanometer. But again, and yet again in December -of the same year, the entry stands “No result.” A -third failure did not convince him that the search -was hopeless: it showed him that he had not yet -found the right method of experimenting. It is -narrated of him how at this period he used to carry -in his waistcoat pocket a small model of an electromagnetic -circuit—a straight iron core about an inch -long, surrounded by a few spiral turns of copper wire—which -model he at spare moments would take out -and contemplate, using it thus objectively to concentrate -his thoughts upon the problem to be solved. -A copper coil, an iron core. Given that electricity -was flowing through the one, it evoked magnetism in -the other. What was the converse? At first sight -it might seem simple enough. Put magnetism from -some external source into the iron core, and then try -whether on connecting the copper coil to a galvanometer -there was any indication of an electric current. -But this was exactly what was found not to result.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">OTHER MEN’S FAILURES.</div> - -<p>And not Faraday alone, but others, too, were foiled<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> -in the hope of observing the expected converse. Not -all who tried were as wise or as frank as Faraday in -confessing failure. Fresnel, in the height of the fever -of Oersted’s discovery, had announced to the Academy -of Sciences at Paris, on the 6th of November, 1820, -that he had decomposed water by means of a magnet -which was laid motionless within a spiral of wire. -Emboldened by this announcement, Ampère remarked -that he too had noticed something in the way of -production of currents from a magnet. But before -the end of the year both these statements were withdrawn -by their authors. Again, in the year 1822, -Ampère, being at Geneva, showed to Professor A. de -la Rive in his laboratory a number of electromagnetic -experiments from his classical researches; and amongst -them one<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> which has been almost forgotten, but -which, had it been followed up, would assuredly have -led Ampère to the discovery of the induction of -currents. In the experiment in question a thin copper -ring, made of a narrow strip folded into a circle, was -hung inside a circular coil of wire, traversed by a -current. To this apparatus a powerful horse-shoe -magnet was presented; and De la Rive states that, -when the magnet was brought up, the suspended ring -was observed sometimes to move between the two -limbs of the magnet, and sometimes to be repelled -from between them according to the sense of the -current in the surrounding coil. He and Ampère -both attributed the effect to temporary magnetism -conferred upon the copper ring. Ampère himself was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> -at the time disposed to attribute it to the possible -presence of a little iron as an impurity in the copper. -There are, however, some discrepancies in the three -published versions of the story. According to -Becquerel, Ampère had by 1825 satisfied himself of -the non-existence of induction currents.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A PUZZLING EXPERIMENT.</div> - -<p>Quite independently, the question of the possibility -of creating currents by magnets was raised by another -discovery, that of the so-called “magnetism of rotation.” -In 1824 Arago had observed that a fine magnetic -compass constructed for him by Gambey, having the -needle suspended in a cell, the base of which was a -plate of pure copper, was thereby damped in its -oscillations, and instead of making two or three -hundred vibrations before it came to rest, as would be -the case in the open air, executed only three or four -of rapidly decreasing amplitude.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> In vain did Dumas -at the request of Arago analyse the copper, in the -supposition that iron might be present. Inquiry -compelled the conclusion that some other explanation -must be sought. And, reasoning from the apparent -action of stationary copper in bringing a moving -magnetic needle to rest, he conjectured that a moving -mass of copper might produce motion in a stationary -magnetic needle. Accordingly he set into revolution, -beneath a compass needle, a flat disc of copper, and -found that, even when a sheet of card or glass was -interposed to cut off all air-currents, the needle tended -to follow the moving copper disc, turning as if dragged<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> -by some invisible influence. To the suggestion that -mere rotation conferred upon copper a sort of -temporary magnetism Arago listened with some -impatience. All theories proposed to account for the -phenomenon he discredited, even though emanating -from the great mathematician Poisson. He held -his judgment in absolute suspense. Babbage and -Herschel measured the amount of retarding force -exerted on the needle by different materials, and -found the most effective to be silver and copper -(which are the two best conductors of electricity), -after them gold and zinc, whilst lead, mercury, and -bismuth were inferior in power. The next year the -same experimenters announced the successful inversion -of Arago’s experiment; for by spinning the magnet -underneath a pivoted copper disc they caused the -latter to rotate briskly. They also made the notable -observation that if slits are cut radially in the copper -disc they diminish its tendency to be dragged by the -spinning magnet. Sturgeon showed that the damping -effect of a moving copper disc was diminished by -the presence of a second magnet pole of contrary kind -placed beside the first. All these things were most -suggestive of the real explanation. It clearly had -something to do with the electric conductivity of -the metal disc, and therefore with electric currents. -Sturgeon five years later came very near to the -explanation: after repeating the experiments he concluded -that the effect was an electric disturbance in -the copper disc, “a kind of reaction to that which -takes place in electromagnetism.”</p> - -<p>Faraday knew of all the discussions which had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> -arisen respecting Arago’s rotations. They may have -been the cause of his unsuccessful attempts of 1824 -and 1825. In April, 1828, for the fourth time he -tried to discover the currents which he was convinced -must be producible by the magnet, and for the fourth -time without result. The cause of failure was that -both magnet and coil were at rest.</p> - -<div id="i_108" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 15em;"> - <img src="images/i_108.png" width="692" height="767" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span></div></div> - -<p>The summer of 1831 witnessed him for the fifth -time making the attack on the problem thus persistently -before him. In his laboratory note-book he -heads the research “Experiments on the production -of electricity from magnetism.” The following excellent -summary of the laboratory notes is taken from -Bence Jones’s “Life and <span class="locked">Letters”:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I have had an iron ring made (soft iron), iron round and -⅞ths of an inch thick, and ring six inches in external diameter. -Wound many coils of copper round, one half of the coils being -separated by twine and calico; there were three lengths of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span> -wire, each about twenty-four feet long, and they could be connected -as one length, or used as separate lengths. By trials -with a trough each was insulated from the other. Will call -this side of the ring <span class="allsmcap">A</span>. On the other side, but separated by -an interval, was wound wire in two pieces, together amounting -to about sixty feet in length, the direction being as with the -former coils. This side call <span class="allsmcap">B</span>.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a></p> - -<p>Charged a battery of ten pairs of plates four inches square. -Made the coil on <span class="allsmcap">B</span> side one coil, and connected its extremities -by a copper wire passing to a distance, and just over a magnetic -needle (three feet from wire ring), then connected the ends of -one of the pieces on <span class="allsmcap">A</span> side with battery: immediately a -sensible effect on needle. It oscillated and settled at last in -original position. On breaking connection of <span class="allsmcap">A</span> side with -battery, again a disturbance of the needle.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">SUCCESS IN SIGHT.</div> - -<p>In the seventeenth paragraph, written on the 30th -of August, he says, “May not these transient effects be -connected with causes of difference between power of -metals at rest and in motion in Arago’s experiments?” -After this he prepared fresh apparatus.</p> - -<p>As was his manner, he wrote off to one of his -friends a letter telling what he was at work upon. -On this occasion the recipient of his confidences was -his friend <span class="locked">Phillips:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center">[<i>Michael Faraday to Richard Phillips.</i>]</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l4">Royal Institution.</span><br /> -Sept. 23, 1831. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">My Dear Phillips</span>,</p> - -<p class="ti4">I write now, though it may be some time before I -send my letter, but that is of no great consequence. I received<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span> -your letter to Dr. Reid and read it on the coach going to -Hastings, where I have been passing a few weeks, and I fancy -my fellow passengers thought I had got something very droll -in hand; they sometimes started at my sudden bursts, especially -when I had the moment before been very grave and serious -amongst the proportions. As you say in the letter there are -some new facts and they are always of value; otherwise I -should have thought you had taken more trouble than the -matter deserved. Your quotation from Boyle has nevertheless -great force in it.</p> - -<p>I shall send with this a little thing in your own way “On the -Alleged decline of science in England.” It is written by Dr. -Moll of Utrecht, whose name may be mentioned in conversation -though it is not printed in the pamphlet. I understand -the view taken by Moll is not at all agreeable to some. “I do -not know what business Moll had to interfere with our scientific -disputes” is however the strongest observation I have heard of -in reply.</p> - -<p>I do not think I thanked you for your last Pharmacopœia. -I do so now very heartily. I shall detain this letter a few days -that I may send a couple of my papers (<i>i.e.</i> a paper and appendix) -with it, for though not chemical I think you will like to have -them. I am busy just now again on Electro-Magnetism, and -think I have got hold of a good thing, but can’t say; it may be -a weed instead of a fish that after all my labour I may at last -pull up. I think I know why metals are magnetic when in -motion though not (generally) when at rest.</p> - -<p>We think about you all very much at times, and talk over -affairs of Nelson Square, but I think we dwell more upon the -illnesses and nursings and upon the sudden calls and chats -rather than the regular parties. Pray remember us both to -Mrs. Phillips and the damsils—I hope the word is not too -familiar.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l4">I am Dear Phillips,</span><br /> -<span class="l2">Most Truly Yours,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> - -<p> -R. Phillips, Esq.,<br /> -<span class="in6">&c., &c., &c.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">TEN DAYS OF SPLENDID WORK.</div> - -<p>September 24 was the third day of his experiments. -He began (paragraph 21) by trying to find the effect of -one helix of wire, carrying the voltaic current of ten -pairs of plates, upon another wire connected with a -galvanometer. “No induction sensible.” Longer and -different metallic helices (paragraph 22) showed no -effect; so he gave up those experiments for that day, -and tried the effects of bar magnets instead -of the ring magnet he had used on -the first day.</p> - -<div id="i_111" class="figright" style="max-width: 5em;"> - <img src="images/i_111.png" width="217" height="780" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span></div></div> - -<p>In paragraph 33 he <span class="locked">says:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>An iron cylinder had a helix wound on it. -The ends of the wires of the helix were connected -with the indicating helix at a distance by copper -wire. Then the iron placed between the poles of -bar magnets as in accompanying figure (<a href="#i_111">Fig. 5</a>). -Every time the magnetic contact at <span class="allsmcap">N</span> or <span class="allsmcap">S</span> was -made or broken, there was magnetic motion at -the indicating helix—the effect being, as in -former cases, not permanent, but a mere momentary -push or pull. But if the electric communication -(<i>i.e</i>. by the copper wire) was broken, -then the disjunction and contacts produced no effect whatever. -Hence here distinct conversion of magnetism into electricity.</p> -</div> - -<p>The fourth day of work was October 1. Paragraphs -36, 37, and 38 describe the discovery of -induced voltaic <span class="locked">currents:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>36. A battery of ten troughs, each of ten pairs of plates -four inches square, charged with good mixture of sulphuric -and nitric acid, and the following experiments made with it in -the following order.</p> - -<p>37. One of the coils (of a helix of copper wire 203 feet long) -was connected with the flat helix, and the other (coil of same<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> -length round same block of wood) with the poles of the battery -(it having been found that there was no metallic contact -between the two); the magnetic needle at the indicating flat -helix was affected, but so little as to be hardly sensible.</p> - -<p>38. In place of the indicating helix, our galvanometer was -used, and then a sudden jerk was perceived when the battery -communication was <em>made</em> and <em>broken</em>, but it was so slight as -to be scarcely visible. It was one way when made, the other -when broken, and the needle took up its natural position at -intermediate times.</p> - -<p>Hence there is an inducing effect without the presence of -iron, but it is either very weak or else so sudden as not to -have time to move the needle. I rather suspect it is the latter.</p> -</div> - -<p>The fifth day of experiment was October 17. -Paragraph 57 describes the discovery of the production -of electricity by the approximation of a magnet -to a <span class="locked">wire:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>A cylindrical bar magnet three-quarters of an inch in -diameter, and eight inches and a half in length, had one end -just inserted into the end of the helix cylinder (220 feet long); -then it was quickly thrust in the whole length, and the <em>galvanometer</em> -needle moved; then pulled out, and again the <em>needle -moved</em>, but in the opposite direction. This effect was repeated -every time the magnet was put in or out, and therefore a wave -of electricity was so produced from <em>mere approximation of a -magnet</em>, and not from its formation <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">in situ</i>.</p> -</div> - -<p>The cause of all the earlier failures was, then, that -both magnet and coil were at rest. The magnet might -lie in or near the coil for a century and cause no effect. -But while moving towards the coil, or from it, or -by spinning near it, electric currents were at once -induced.</p> - -<p>The ninth day of his experiments was October 28,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> -and this day he “made a copper disc turn round -between the poles of the great horse-shoe magnet of -the Royal Society. The axis and edge of the disc -were connected with a galvanometer. The needle -moved as the disc turned.” The next day that he -made experiments, November 4, he found “that a -copper wire one-eighth of an inch drawn between the -poles and conductors produced the effect.” In his -paper, when describing the experiment, he speaks of -the metal “cutting” the magnetic curves, and in a -note to his paper he says, “By magnetic curves I -mean lines of magnetic forces which would be depicted -by iron filings.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SUCCESS AND ITS SECRET.</div> - -<p>We here come upon those “lines of force” which -played so important a part in these and many of -Faraday’s later investigations. They were known -before Faraday’s time—had, in fact, been known for -two hundred years. Descartes had seen in them -evidence for his hypothetical vortices. Musschenbroek -had mapped them. But it was reserved to -Faraday to point out their true significance. To the -very end of his life he continued to speculate and -experiment upon them.</p> - -<p>All this splendid work had occupied but a brief -ten days. Then he rearranged the facts which he had -thus harvested, and wrote them out in corrected form -as the first series of his “Experimental Researches in -Electricity.” The memoir was read to the Royal -Society on November 24, 1831, though it did not -appear in printed form until January, 1832—a delay -which gave rise to serious misunderstandings. The -paper having been read, he went away to Brighton to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span> -take a holiday, and in the exuberance of his heart -penned the following letter<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> to <span class="locked">Phillips:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot" id="letter_114"> - -<p class="center">[<i>M. Faraday to R. Phillips.</i>]</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -Brighton: November 29, 1831. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dear Phillips</span>,—For once in my life I am able to sit down -and write to you without feeling that my time is so little that -my letter must of necessity be a short one and accordingly I -have taken an extra large sheet of paper intending to fill it -with news and yet as to news I have none for I withdraw -more and more from Society, and all I have to say is about -myself.</p> - -<p>But how are you getting on? are you comfortable? and how -does Mrs. Phillips do; and the girls? Bad correspondant as I -am, I think you owe me a letter and as in the course of half an -hour you will be doubly in my debt pray write us, and let us -know all about you. Mrs. Faraday wishes me not to forget to -put her kind remembrances to you and Mrs. Phillips in my -letter.</p> - -<p>To-morrow is St. Andrew’s day,<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> but we shall be here until -Thursday. I have made arrangements to be <em>out</em> of the Council -and care little for the rest although I should as a matter of -curiosity have liked to see the Duke in the chair on such an -occasion.</p> - -<p>We are here to refresh. I have been working and writing -a paper and that always knocks me up in health, but now I -feel well again and able to pursue my subject and now I will -tell you what it is about. The title will be, I think, <span class="smcap">Experimental -Researches in Electricity</span>: §I. <i>On the induction -of electric currents.</i> § II. <i>On the evolution of Electricity from -magnetism.</i> § III. <i>On a New electrical condition of matter.</i> -§ IV. <i>On Arago’s magnetic phenomena.</i> There is a bill of fare -for you; and what is more I hope it will not disappoint you.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> -Now the pith of all this I must give you very briefly; the -demonstrations you shall have in the paper when <span class="locked">printed—</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE PITH OF THE DISCOVERY.</div> - -<p>§ I. When an electric current is passed through one of two -parallel wires it causes at first a current in the same direction<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> -through the other, but this induced current does not last a -moment, notwithstanding the inducing current (from the -Voltaic battery) is continued all seems unchanged except that -the principal current continues its course, but when the current -is stopped then a return current occurs in the wire under -induction of about the same intensity and momentary duration -but in the opposite direction to that first found. Electricity -in currents therefore exerts an inductive action like ordinary -electricity but subject to peculiar laws: the effects are a current -in the same direction when the induction is established: a -reverse current when the induction ceases and a <em>peculiar state</em> -in the interim. Common electricity probably does the same -thing but as it is at present impossible to separate the beginning -and the end of a spark or discharge from each other, -all the effects are simultaneous and neutralise each <span class="locked">other—</span></p> - -<p>§ II. Then I found that magnets would induce just like -voltaic currents and by bringing helices and wires and jackets -up to the poles of magnets, electrical currents were produced -in them these currents being able to deflect the galvanometer, -or to make, by means of the helix, magnetic needles, or in one -case even to give a spark. Hence the evolution of <em>electricity -from magnetism</em>. The currents were not permanent, they -ceased the moment the wires ceased to approach the magnet -because the new and apparently quiescent state was assumed -just as in the case of the induction of currents. But when the -magnet was removed, and its induction therefore ceased, the -return currents appeared as before. These two kinds of -induction I have distinguished by the terms <em>Volta-electric</em> and -<em>Magneto-electric</em> induction. Their identity of action and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span> -results is, I think, a very powerful proof of the truth of M. -Ampère’s theory of magnetism.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A JUBILANT EPISTLE.</div> - -<p>§ III. The new electrical condition which intervenes by -induction between the beginning and end of the inducing -current gives rise to some very curious results. It explains -why chemical action or other results of electricity have never -been as yet obtained in trials with the magnet. In fact, the -currents have no sensible duration. I believe it will explain -perfectly the <em>transference of elements</em> between the poles of the -pile in decomposition but this part of the subject I have -reserved until the present experiments are completed and it is -so analogous, in some of its effects to those of Ritter’s secondary -piles, De la Rive and Van Beck’s peculiar properties of the -poles of a voltaic pile, that I should not wonder if they all -proved ultimately to depend on this state. The condition of -matter I have dignified by the term <em>Electrotonic</em>, <span class="smcap">The Electrotonic -State</span>. What do you think of that? Am I not a bold -man, ignorant as I am, to coin words but I have consulted the -scholars,<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> and now for § IV. The new state has enabled me -to make out and explain all Arago’s phenomena of the rotating -magnet or copper plate, I believe, perfectly; but as great -names are concerned Arago, Babbage, Herschel, &c., and as I -have to differ from them, I have spoken with that modesty -which you so well know you and I and John Frost<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> have in -common, and for which the world so justly commends us. I -am even half afraid to tell you what it is. You will think I -am hoaxing you, or else in your compassion you may conclude -I am deceiving myself. However, you need do neither, but -had better laugh, as I did most heartily when I found that it -was neither attraction nor repulsion, but just one of <em>my old -rotations</em> in a new form. I cannot explain to you all the -actions, which are very curious; but in consequence of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span> -electrotonic state being assumed and lost as the parts of the -plate whirl under the pole, and in consequence of magneto-electric -induction, currents of electricity are formed in the -direction of the radii; continuing, for simple reasons, as long as -the motion continues, but ceasing when that ceases. Hence -the wonder is explained that the metal has powers on the -magnet when moving, but not when at rest. Hence is also -explained the effect which Arago observed, and which made -him contradict Babbage and Herschel, and say the power was -repulsive; but, as a whole, it is really tangential. It is quite -comfortable to me to find that experiment need not quail -before mathematics, but is quite competent to rival it in -discovery; and I am amused to find that what the high mathematicians -have announced as the <em>essential condition</em> to the -rotation—namely, that <em>time is required</em>—has so little foundation, -that if the time could by possibility be anticipated instead -of being required—<i>i.e.</i> if the currents could be formed <em>before</em> -the magnet came over the place instead of <em>after</em>—the effect -would equally ensue. Adieu, dear Phillips.</p> - -<p>Excuse this egotistical letter from yours very faithfully,</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>The second section shows that Faraday had discovered -the cause of all the previous failures to evoke -electric currents in wires by means of a magnet: it -required <em>relative motion</em>. What the magnet at rest -fails to do, the magnet in motion accomplishes. This -crucial point is admirably commemorated in the -following impromptu given by Mr. Herbert Mayo to -Sir Charles <span class="locked">Wheatstone:—</span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Around the magnet Faraday</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Was sure that Volta’s lightnings play:</div> - <div class="verse indent4">But how to draw them from the wire?</div> - <div class="verse indent0">He took a lesson from the heart:</div> - <div class="verse indent0">’Tis when we meet, ’tis when we part,</div> - <div class="verse indent4">Breaks forth the electric fire.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span></p> -<p>Faraday’s holiday was brief; by December 5 he -was again at work on his researches. He re-observed -the directions of the induced currents about which, as -the slip in his letter to Phillips shows, his mind was -in some doubt. Then on December 14th comes the -entry:—“Tried the effects of terrestrial magnetism in -evolving electricity. Obtained beautiful results.”</p> - -<p>“The helix had the soft iron cylinder (freed from -magnetism by a full red heat and cooling slowly) put -into it, and it was then connected with the galvanometer -by wires eight foot long; then inverted the -bar and helix, and immediately the needle moved; -inverted it again, the needle moved back; and, by -repeating the motion with the oscillations of the -needle, made the latter vibrate 180°, or more.”</p> - -<p>The same day he “made Arago’s experiment with -the earth magnet, only no magnet used, but the plate -put horizontal and rotated. The effect at the needle -was slight but very distinct.... Hence Arago’s -plate a new electrical machine.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">POINTS IN THE DISCOVERY.</div> - -<p>When we compare these manuscript notes, recording -the experiments in the order in which they were -made with the published account of them in the -“Experimental Researches,” we find many of them -transcribed almost verbatim. But there is a difference -in the order of their arrangement. In point of time -the experiments on the evolution of electricity from -magnetism, beginning with the ring (<a href="#Page_108">p. 108</a>), preceded -those on the induction of a current by another current. -In the printed “Researches” the experiments -on the induction of currents are put first, with an -introductory paragraph on the general phenomenon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> -of induction.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> Faraday’s habit of working up an -experiment—whether successful or unsuccessful—by -increasing the power to the maximum available is -illustrated in the course of the experiments on the -iron ring. At first he used a battery of ten pairs -of plates four inches square. Then, having been -eminently successful in producing deflexions of his -galvanometer, he increased the battery to one hundred -pairs of plates, with the result that when contact -was completed or broken in the primary circuit the -impulse on the galvanometer in the secondary circuit -was so great as to make the needle spin round rapidly -four or five times before its motion was reduced to a -mere oscillation. Then he removed the galvanometer -and fixed small pencils of charcoal to the ends of the -secondary helix; and to his great joy perceived a -minute <em>spark</em> between the lightly touching charcoal -points whenever the contact of the battery to the -primary helix was completed. This was the first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span> -transformer, for the first time set—on a small scale—to -produce a tiny electric light. The spark he -regarded as a precious indication that what he was -producing really was an electric current. Using the -great compound steel magnet of the Royal Society -(constructed by Dr. Gowin Knight) at Christie’s house -at Woolwich he had, as narrated above, also obtained -a spark from the induced current. For some time he -failed to obtain either physiological or chemical effects. -But upon repeating the experiments more at leisure -at the Royal Institution, with Daniell’s armed loadstone -capable of lifting thirty pounds, a frog was -found to be convulsed very strongly each time magnetic -contact between the magnet and the iron core -of the experimental coil was made or broken.</p> - -<p>The absence of evidence as to chemical action -seemed still to disquiet him. He wanted to be sure -that his induced currents would do everything that -ordinary voltaic currents would do. Failing the final -proof from chemical action, he rested the case on the -other identical properties. “But an agent,” he says, -“which is conducted along metallic wires in the -manner described; which, whilst so passing, possesses -the peculiar magnetic actions and force of a current -of electricity; which can agitate and convulse the -limbs of a frog; and which, finally, can produce a -spark by its discharge through charcoal, can only be -electricity. As all the effects can be produced by -ferruginous electro-magnets, there is no doubt that -arrangements like the magnets of Professors Moll, -Henry, Ten Eyke, and others, in which as many as -two thousand pounds have been lifted, may be used<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span> -for these experiments; in which case not only a -brighter spark may be obtained, but wires also ignited, -and as the currents can pass liquids, chemical action -be produced. These effects are still more likely to be -obtained when the magneto-electric arrangements, to -be explained in the fourth section, are excited by the -powers of such apparatus.” The apparatus described -in the fourth section comprised several forms of -magneto-electric machines, that is to say, primitive -kinds of dynamos. Having in his mind the phenomenon -discovered by Arago, and the experiments of -Babbage and Herschel on the so-called magnetism of -rotation, he followed up the idea that these effects -might be due to induced currents eddying round in -the copper disc. No sooner had he obtained electricity -from magnets than he attempted to make Arago’s -experiment a new source of electricity, and, as he -himself says, “did not despair” “of being able to -construct a new electrical machine.”</p> - -<div id="i_121" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;"> - <img src="images/i_121.png" width="1124" height="683" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> (<span class="smcap">Facsimile of Original Sketch.</span>)</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">A NEW ELECTRICAL MACHINE.</div> - -<p>The “new electrical machine” was an exceedingly -simple contrivance. A disc of copper, twelve inches -in diameter (<a href="#i_121">Fig. 6</a>), and about one-fifth of an inch in -thickness, fixed upon a brass axle, was mounted in -frames, so as to allow of revolution, its edge being at -the same time introduced between the magnetic poles -of a large compound permanent magnet, the poles -being about half an inch apart.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> The magnet first -used was the historical magnet of Gowin Knight. -The edge of the plate was well amalgamated, for the -purpose of obtaining a good but movable contact, and -a part round the axle was also prepared in a similar -manner. Conducting strips of copper and lead, to -serve as electric collectors, were prepared, so as to be -placed in contact with the edge of the copper disc; -one of these was held by hand to touch the edge of -the disc between the magnet poles. The wires from a -galvanometer were connected, the one to the collecting-strip, -the other to the brass axle; then on revolving -the disc a deflexion of the galvanometer was -obtained, which was reversed in direction when the -direction of the rotation was reversed. “Here, therefore, -was demonstrated the production of a permanent -current of electricity by ordinary magnets.” These -effects were also obtained from the poles of electro-magnets, -and from copper helices without iron cores. -Several other forms of magneto-electric machines were -tried by Faraday.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">NEW FORMS OF APPARATUS.</div> - -<div id="i_123" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 14em;"> - <img src="images/i_123.png" width="637" height="464" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span></div></div> - -<p>In one,<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> a flat ring of twelve inches’ external -diameter, and one inch broad, was cut from a thick -copper plate, and mounted to revolve between the -poles of the magnet, two conductors being applied to -make rubbing contact at the inner and outer edge at -the part which passed between the magnetic poles. -In another,<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> a disc of copper, one-fifth of an inch -thick and only 1½ inch in diameter (<a href="#i_123">Fig. 7</a>), was amalgamated -at the edge, and mounted on a copper axle. A -square piece of sheet metal had a circular hole cut in -it, into which the disc fitted loosely; a little mercury -completed communication between the disc and its -surrounding ring. The latter was connected by wire -to a galvanometer; the other wire being connected -from the instrument to the end of the axle. Upon -rotating the disc in a horizontal plane, currents were -obtained, though the earth was the only magnet -employed.</p> - -<div id="i_124" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 13em;"> - <img src="images/i_124.png" width="595" height="666" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span></div></div> - -<p>Faraday also proposed a multiple machine<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> having -several discs, metallically connected alternately at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> -edges and centres by means of mercury, which were -then to be revolved alternately in opposite directions, -In another apparatus,<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> a copper cylinder (<a href="#i_124">Fig. 8</a>), -closed at one extremity, was put over a magnet, one -half of which it enclosed like a cap, and to which it -was attached without making metallic contact. The -arrangement was then floated upright in a narrow jar -of mercury, so that the lower edge of the copper cap -touched the fluid. On rotating the magnet and its -attached cap, a current was sent through wires from -the mercury to the top of the copper cap. In another -apparatus,<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> still preserved at the Royal Institution, a -cylindrical bar magnet, half immersed in mercury, -was made to rotate, and generated a current, its own -metal serving as a conductor. In another form,<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> the -cylindrical magnet was rotated horizontally about its -own axis, and was found to generate currents which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> -flowed from the middle to the ends, or <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">vice versâ</i>, -according to the rotation. The description of these -new electrical machines is concluded with the following -pregnant <span class="locked">words:—</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">AN EARTH-INDUCTOR.</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I have rather, however, been desirous of discovering new -facts and relations dependent on magneto-electric induction, -than of exalting the force of those already obtained; being -assured that the latter would find their full development -hereafter.</p> -</div> - -<div id="i_125" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;"> - <img src="images/i_125.png" width="1146" height="570" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span></div></div> - -<p>In yet another machine (<a href="#i_125">Fig. 9</a>), constructed by -Faraday some time later,<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> a simple rectangle of copper -wire <em>w</em>, attached to a frame, was rotated about a -horizontal axis placed east and west, and generated -alternate currents, which could be collected by a -simple commutator <em>c</em>.</p> - -<p>Within a few months machines on the principle of -magneto-induction had been devised by Dal Negro, -and by Pixii. In the latter’s apparatus a steel horseshoe -magnet, with its poles upwards, was caused to -rotate about a vertical shaft, inducing alternating -currents in a pair of bobbins fixed above it, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> -provided with a horseshoe core of soft iron. Later, in -1832, Pixii produced, at the suggestion of Ampère,<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> a -second machine, provided with mercury cup connections -to rectify the alternations of the current. -One of these machines was shown at the British -Association meeting at Oxford in the same year -(<a href="#Page_64">p. 64</a>).</p> - -<p>The idea developed in the third part of this -research was intensely original and suggestive. Faraday’s -own statement is as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE ELECTROTONIC STATE.</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Whilst the wire is subject to either volta-electric or magneto-electric -induction, it appears to be in a peculiar state; for it -resists the formation of an electrical current in it, whereas, if -left in its common condition, such a current would be produced; -and when left uninfluenced it has the power of originating a -current, a power which the wire does not possess under common -circumstances. This electrical condition of matter has not -hitherto been recognised, but it probably exerts a very important -influence in many, if not most, of the phenomena -produced by currents of electricity. For reasons which will -immediately appear, I have, after advising with several learned -friends, ventured to designate it as the <em>electrotonic</em> state.</p> - -<p>This peculiar condition shows no known electrical effects -whilst it continues; nor have I yet been able to discover any -peculiar powers exerted or properties possessed by matter -whilst retained in this state.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>This state is altogether the effect of the induction exerted, -and ceases as soon as the inductive force is removed.... -The state appears to be instantly assumed, requiring hardly -a sensible portion of time for that purpose.... In all -those cases where the helices or wires are advanced towards -or taken from the magnet, the direct or inverted current of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span> -induced electricity continues for the time occupied in the -advance or recession; for the electro-tonic state is rising to a -higher or falling to a lower degree during that time, and the -change is accompanied by its corresponding evolution of -electricity; but these form no objections to the opinion that -the electro-tonic state is instantly assumed.</p> - -<p>This peculiar state appears to be a state of tension, and may -be considered as <em>equivalent</em> to a current of electricity, at least -equal to that produced either when the condition is induced -or destroyed.</p> -</div> - -<p>Faraday further supposed that the formation of -this state in the neighbourhood of a coil would -exert a reaction upon the original current, giving -rise to a retardation of it; but he was unable at -the time to ascertain experimentally whether this was -so. He even looked—though also unsuccessfully—for -a self-induced return current from a conductor of -copper through which a strong current was led and -then suddenly interrupted, the expected current of -reaction being “due to the discharge of its supposed -electrotonic state.”</p> - -<p>If we would understand the rather obscure language -in which this idea of an electrotonic state is couched, -we must try to put ourselves back to the epoch -when it was written. At that date the only ideas -which had been formulated to explain magnetic and -electric attractions and repulsions were founded upon -the notion of action at a distance. Michell had -propounded the view that the electric and magnetic -forces vary, like gravity, according to a law of the -inverse squares of the distances. Coulomb, in a series -of experiments requiring extraordinary patience as -well as delicacy of manipulation, had shown—by an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span> -application of Michell’s torsion balance—that in particular -cases where the electric charges are concentrated -on small spheres, or where the magnetic poles -are small, so as to act as mere points, this law—which -is essentially a geometric law of point-action—is -approximately fulfilled. The mathematicians, Laplace -and Poisson at their head, had seized on this demonstration -and had elaborated their mathematical theories. -Before them, though the research lay for a century -unpublished, Cavendish had shown that the only law -of force as between one element of an electric charge -and another compatible with a charge being in -equilibrium was the law of inverse squares. But in -all these mathematical reasonings one thing had been -quite left out of sight—namely, the possible properties -of the intervening medium. Faraday, to whom the -idea of mere action at a distance was abhorrent, if not -unthinkable, conceived of all these forces of attraction -and repulsion as effects taking place by something -going on <em>in the intervening medium</em>, as effects -propagated from point to point continuously through -space. In his earlier work on the electromagnetic -rotations he had grown to regard the space around -the conducting wire as being affected by the so-called -current; and the space about the poles of a magnet -he knew to be traversed by curved magnetic lines, -invisible indeed, but real, needing only the simplest of -expedients—the sprinkling of iron filings—to reveal -their existence and trend. When therefore he found -that these new effects of the induction of one electric -current by another could likewise cross an intervening -space, whether empty or filled with material bodies,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> -he instinctively sought to ascribe this propagation -of the effect to a property or state of the medium. -And finding that state to be different from any state -previously known, different from the state existing -between two magnets at rest or between two stationary -electric charges, he followed the entirely philosophical -course of exploring its properties and of denoting it -by a name which he deemed appropriate. As we -shall see, this idea of an electrotonic state recurred in -his later researches with new and important connotations.</p> - -<div id="i_129" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 14em;"> - <img src="images/i_129.png" width="674" height="404" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span></div></div> - -<p>He was soon at work again, as we have seen.</p> - -<p>He experimented, in January, 1832, on the currents -produced by the earth’s rotation—on the 10th at the -round pond in Kensington Gardens, and on the 12th -and 13th at Waterloo Bridge.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A SPARK FROM A MAGNET.</div> - -<p>“This evening,” he writes in his notebook under -date February 8, “at Woolwich, experimenting with -magnet,<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> and for the first time got the magnetic spark -myself. Connected ends of a helix into two general -ends, and then crossed the wires in such a way that a -blow at <em>a b</em> would open them a little [<a href="#i_129">Fig. 10</a>]. Then<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> -bringing <em>a b</em> against the poles of a magnet, the ends -were disjoined, and bright sparks resulted.”</p> - -<p>From succeeding with a steel magnet it was but a -short step to succeed when a natural loadstone was -used. The next day we find this entry:—“At home -succeeded beautifully with Mr. Daniell’s magnet. -Amalgamation of wires very needful. This is a -natural loadstone, and perhaps the first used for the -spark.”</p> - -<p>He sent to the Royal Society an account of these -and the earlier experiments; his paper on terrestrial -magneto-electric induction, and on the force and -direction of magneto-electric induction, received the -distinction of being read as the Bakerian lecture of -the year.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TYNDALL’S SUMMARY.</div> - -<p>The following summary of this second paper is -from the pen of Professor <span class="locked">Tyndall:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>He placed a bar of iron in a coil of wire, and lifting the -bar into the direction of the dipping needle, he excited by this -action a current in the coil. On reversing the bar, a current -in the opposite direction rushed through the wire. The same -effect was produced, when, on holding the helix in the line of -dip, a bar of iron was thrust into it. Here, however, the earth -acted on the coil through the intermediation of the bar of iron. -He abandoned the bar, and simply set a copper plate spinning -in a horizontal plane; he knew that the earth’s lines of -magnetic force then crossed the plate at an angle of about 70°. -When the plate spun round, the lines of force were intersected -and induced currents generated, which produced their proper -effect when carried from the plate to the galvanometer. -“When the plate was in the magnetic meridian, or in any -other plane coinciding with the magnetic dip, then its rotation -produced no effect upon the galvanometer.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span></p> - -<p>At the suggestion of a mind fruitful in suggestions of a -profound and philosophic character—I mean that of Sir John -Herschel—Mr. Barlow, of Woolwich, had experimented with a -rotating iron shell. Mr. Christie had also performed an -elaborate series of experiments on a rotating iron disc. Both -of them had found that when in rotation the body exercised a -peculiar action upon the magnetic needle, deflecting it in a -manner which was not observed during quiescence; but -neither of them was aware at the time of the agent which -produced this extraordinary deflection. They ascribed it to -some change in the magnetism of the iron shell and disc.</p> - -<p>But Faraday at once saw that his induced currents must -come into play here, and he immediately obtained them from -an iron disc. With a hollow brass ball, moreover, he produced -the effects obtained by Mr. Barlow. Iron was in no way -necessary; the only condition of success was that the rotating -body should be of a character to admit of the formation of -currents in its substance; it must, in other words, be a conductor -of electricity. The higher the conducting power, the -more copious were the currents. He now passes from his little -brass globe to the globe of the earth. He plays like a magician -with the earth’s magnetism. He sees the invisible lines along -which its magnetic action is exerted, and, sweeping his wand -across these lines, he evokes this new power. Placing a simple -loop of wire round a magnetic needle, he bends its upper -portion to the west; the north pole of the needle immediately -swerves to the east; he bends his loop to the east, and the -north pole moves to the west. Suspending a common bar -magnet in a vertical position, he causes it to spin round its -own axis. Its pole being connected with one end of a galvanometer -wire, and its equator with the other end, electricity -rushes round the galvanometer from the rotating magnet. He -remarks upon the “<em>singular independence</em>” of the magnetism -and the body of the magnet which carries it. The steel behaves -as if it were isolated from its own magnetism.</p> - -<p>And then his thoughts suddenly widen, and he asks himself -whether the rotating earth does not generate induced currents -as it turns round its axis from west to east. In his experiment<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> -with the twirling magnet the galvanometer wire remained at -rest; one portion of the circuit was in motion <em>relatively</em> to -<em>another portion</em>. But in the case of the twirling planet the -galvanometer wire would necessarily be carried along with the -earth; there would be no relative motion. What must be the -consequence? Take the case of a telegraph wire with its two -terminal plates dipped into the earth, and suppose the wire to -lie in the magnetic meridian. The ground underneath the -wire is influenced, like the wire itself, by the earth’s rotation; -if a current from south to north be generated in the wire, a -similar current from south to north would be generated in the -earth under the wire; these currents would run against the -same terminal plate, and thus neutralise each other.</p> - -<p>This inference appears inevitable, but his profound vision -perceived its possible invalidity. He saw that it was at least -possible that the difference of conducting power between the -earth and the wire might give one an advantage over the other, -and that thus a residual or differential current might be -obtained. He combined wires of different materials, and -caused them to act in opposition to each other, but found the -combination ineffectual. The more copious flow in the better -conductor was exactly counterbalanced by the resistance of the -worst. Still, though experiment was thus emphatic, he would -clear his mind of all discomfort by operating on the earth -itself. He went to the round lake near Kensington Palace, -and stretched 480 feet of copper wire, north and south, over -the lake, causing plates soldered to the wire at its ends to dip -into the water. The copper wire was severed at the middle, -and the severed ends connected with a galvanometer. No -effect whatever was observed. But though quiescent water -gave no effect, moving water might. He therefore worked at -Waterloo Bridge for three days, during the ebb and flow of the -tide, but without any satisfactory result. Still he urges, -“Theoretically it seems a necessary consequence, that where -water is flowing there electric currents should be formed. If a -line be imagined passing from Dover to Calais through the sea -and returning through the land, beneath the water, to Dover, -it traces out a circuit of conducting matter, one part of which,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span> -when the water moves up or down the Channel, is cutting the -magnetic curves of the earth, whilst the other is relatively at -rest.... There is every reason to believe that currents -do run in the general direction of the circuit described, either -one way or the other, according as the passage of the waters is -up or down the Channel.” This was written before the submarine -cable was thought of, and he once informed me that -actual observation upon that cable had been found to be in -accordance with his theoretic deduction.</p> -</div> - -<div id="i_133" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 10em;"> - <img src="images/i_133.png" width="466" height="396" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span></div></div> - -<p>It may here be apposite to discuss a fundamental -question raised in these researches. In Faraday’s -mind there arose the conviction of a connection between -the induction of currents by magnets and the -magnetic lines which invisibly fill all the space in the -neighbourhood of the magnet. That relation he discovered -and announced in the following <span class="locked">terms:—</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE LAW OF INDUCTION.</div> - -<p>“The relation which holds between the magnetic -pole, the moving wire or metal, and the direction of -the current evolved—<i>i.e.</i> <em>the law</em> which governs the -evolution of electricity by magneto-electric induction, -is very simple, though rather difficult to express. If -in <a href="#i_133">Fig. 11</a>, <span class="smcap">P N</span> represent a horizontal wire passing by -a marked [<i>i.e.</i> ‘north-seeking’] magnetic pole, so -that the direction of its motion shall coincide with -the curved line proceeding from below upwards; or if<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span> -its motion parallel to itself be in a line tangential to -the curved line, but in the general direction of the -arrows; or if it pass the pole in other directions, but -so as to cut the magnetic curves<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> in the same general -direction, or on the same side as they would be cut by -the wire if moving along the dotted curved line; -then the current of electricity in the wire is from <span class="allsmcap">P</span> to -<span class="allsmcap">N</span>. If it be carried in the reverse direction, the electric -current will be from <span class="allsmcap">N</span> to <span class="allsmcap">P</span>. Or if the wire be in the -vertical position, figured <span class="allsmcap">P´ N´</span>, and it be carried in -similar directions, coinciding with the dotted horizontal -curve so far as to cut the magnetic curves on the -same side with it, the current will be from <span class="allsmcap">P´</span> to <span class="allsmcap">N´</span>.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CUTTING THE MAGNETIC LINES.</div> - -<p>When resuming the research in December, Faraday -investigated the point whether it was essential or -not that the moving wire should, in “cutting” the -magnetic curves, pass into positions of greater or -lesser magnetic force; or whether, always intersecting -curves of equal magnetic intensity, the mere motion -sufficed for the production of the current. He found -the latter to be true. This notion of <em>cutting</em> the -invisible magnetic lines as the essential act necessary -and sufficient for induction was entirely original with -Faraday. For long it proved a stumbling-block to -the abstract mathematicians, since there was, in most -cases, no direct or easy way in which to express the -number of magnetic lines that were cut. Neither -had any convention been adopted up to that time as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span> -to how to reckon numerically the number of magnetic -lines in any given space near a magnet. Later, in -1851, Faraday himself gave greater precision to these -ideas. He found that the current was proportional -to the velocity, when the conductor was moving in a -uniform magnetic field with a uniform motion. Also, -that the quantity of electricity thrown by induction -into the circuit was directly proportional to the -“amount of curves intersected.” The following -passage, from Clerk Maxwell’s article on Faraday -in the “Encyclopædia Britannica,” admirably sums -up the <span class="locked">matter:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The magnitude and originality of Faraday’s achievement -may be estimated by tracing the subsequent history of his -discovery. As might be expected, it was at once made the -subject of investigation by the whole scientific world, but some -of the most experienced physicists were unable to avoid -mistakes in stating, in what they conceived to be more scientific -language than Faraday’s, the phenomena before them. Up to -the present time the mathematicians who have rejected Faraday’s -method of stating his law as unworthy of the precision of -their science, have never succeeded in devising any essentially -different formula which shall fully express the phenomena -without introducing hypotheses about the mutual action of -things which have no physical existence, such as elements of -currents which flow out of nothing, then along a wire, and -finally sink into nothing again.</p> - -<p>After nearly half a century of labour of this kind, we may -say that, though the practical applications of Faraday’s discovery -have increased and are increasing in number and value -every year, no exception to the statement of these laws as -given by Faraday has been discovered, no new law has been -added to them, and Faraday’s original statement remains to -this day the only one which asserts no more than can be -verified by experiment, and the only one by which the theory<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span> -of the phenomena can be expressed in a manner which is -exactly and numerically accurate, and at the same time within -the range of elementary methods of exposition.</p> -</div> - -<p>In the year 1831, which witnessed this masterpiece -of scientific research, Faraday was busy in -many other ways. He was still undertaking chemical -analyses and expert work for fees, as witness his -letter to Phillips on <a href="#Page_62">p. 62</a>. He was also, until -November, on the Council of the Royal Society. To -the “Philosophical Transactions” he contributed a -paper “On Vibrating Surfaces,” in which he solved a -problem in acoustics which had previously gone without -explanation. It had long been known that in the -experiments of obtaining the patterns called “Chladni’s -figures,” by strewing powders upon vibrating plates, -while the heavier powders, such as sand, moved into -the nodal lines, lighter substances, such as lycopodium -dust, collected in little circular heaps over the parts -where the vibration was most energetic. Faraday’s -explanation was that these lighter powders were -caught and whirled about in little vortices which -formed themselves at spots where the motions were -of greatest amplitude.</p> - -<p>He also wrote a paper “On a Peculiar Class of -Optical Deceptions,” dealing with the illusions that -result from the eye being shown in successive glimpses, -as between the teeth of a revolving wheel, different -views of a moving body. This research was, in effect, -the starting point of a whole line of optical toys, beginning -with the phenakistiscope or stroboscope, which -developed through the zoetrope and praxino-scope into -the kinematograph and animatograph of recent date.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">LECTURES ON PHYSICAL SUBJECTS.</div> - -<p>He gave four afternoon lectures at the Royal -Institution and five Friday evening discourses. These -were on optical deceptions, on light and phosphorescence, -being an account of experiments recently -made by Mr. Pearsall, chemical assistant in the Institution; -on oxalamide, then recently discovered by M. -Dumas; on Trevelyan’s experiments about the production -of sound by heated bodies; and on the arrangements -assumed by particles upon vibrating surfaces.</p> - -<p>In 1832 he gave five Friday evening discourses, -four of which related to his own researches. In -August he entered upon the third series of “Experimental -Researches in Electricity,” which was devoted -to the identity of electricities derived from different -sources, and on the relation by measure of common -[<i>i.e.</i> frictional] and voltaic electricity. He did not -like any doubt to hang about as to whether the -electricity obtained from magnets by induction was -really the same as that obtainable from other sources. -Possibly he had in his mind the difficulties which had -arisen thirty years before over the discoveries of -Galvani and Volta, when it was so far doubted whether -the electricity in currents from piles and batteries of -cells was the same as the electricity evoked by -friction, that the distinctive and misleading name of -“galvanism” was assigned to the former. He commented -on the circumstance that many philosophers—and -he included Davy by name in an explicit -reference—were vainly drawing distinctions<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> -electricities from different sources, or at least doubting -whether their identity were proven. His first -point was to consider whether “common electricity,” -“animal electricity,” and “magneto-electric currents” -could, like “voltaic electricity,” produce chemical -decompositions. He began by demonstrating that an -ordinary electric discharge from a friction machine -can affect a suitably disposed galvanometer. One of -his instruments of sufficient sensitiveness was surrounded -by an enclosing cage of double metal foil and -wire-work, duly connected to “earth,” so as to render -it independent of all disturbances by external electric -charges in its neighbourhood. His “earth” for this -purpose consisted of a stout metal wire connected -through the pipes in the house to the metallic gas-pipes -belonging to the public gas works of London, -and also with the metallic water-pipes of London—an -effectual “discharging train.” He used a friction -electric machine with a glass plate 50 inches in -diameter, and a Leyden-jar battery of fifteen jars, each -having about 84 square inches of coated glass. This -battery of jars was first charged from the machine -and then discharged through a wet thread four feet -long, and through the galvanometer to earth <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">viâ</i> the -“discharging train.” Having by this means satisfied -himself that these electric discharges could deflect a -galvanometer, whether through the wet thread, a -copper wire, or through water, or rarefied air, or by -connection through points in air, he went on to the -question of chemical decomposition. Dipping two -silver wires into a drop of solution of sulphate of -copper, he found that one of them became copper-plated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> -by the electricity that was evolved by 100 or -200 turns of the disc machine. He bleached indigo, -turned starch purple with iodine liberated from iodide -of potassium, exactly as might have been done by a -“volta-electric current” from a battery of cells. He -also decomposed water, giving due recognition to the -antecedent experiments of Van Troostwyk, Pearson, -and Wollaston.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">IDENTITY OF ELECTRICITIES.</div> - -<p>In the paper which he drew up he compares -these results with others made with electric discharges -from an electric kite and with those of the -torpedo and other electric fishes. He recapitulates -the properties of magneto-electricity and the proofs -now accumulating that it can decompose water. He -drew up a schedule of the different effects which -electricity can produce, and of the different sources of -electricity, showing in tabular form how far each so-called -kind of electricity had been found to produce -each effect. The conclusion was that there is no -philosophical difference between the different cases; -since the phenomena produced by the different kinds -of electricity differ not in their character but only in -degree. “<em>Electricity, whatever may be its source, is -identical in its nature.</em>” On comparing the effects -produced by different discharges, he concludes that -“if the same absolute quantity<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> of electricity pass -through the galvanometer, whatever may be its -intensity, the deflecting force upon the magnetic -needle is the same.” He was then able to go on to a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> -quantitative comparison between the “quantity” of -electricity from different sources, and came to the -conclusion that both in magnetic deflection and in -chemical force the current of electricity given by his -standard battery for eight beats of his watch was -equal to that of the friction machine evolved by thirty -revolutions; further, that “the chemical power, like -the magnetic force, is in direct proportion to the -absolute quantity of electricity which passes.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ELECTRO-CHEMICAL WORK.</div> - -<p>This series of researches was published in January, -1833. In April of the same year he sent to the -Royal Society another paper—the fourth series—on -electric conduction. It arose from the surprising -observation that, though water conducts, ice acts as -a complete non-conductor. This led to an examination -of the conducting power of fusible solids -in general. He found that as a rule—excepting -on the one hand the metals, which conduct whether -solid or liquid, and on the other hand fatty bodies, -which are always non-conductors—they assume conducting -power when liquefied, and lose it when -congealed. Chloride of lead, of silver, of potassium, -and of sodium, and many chlorates, nitrates, sulphates, -and many other salts and fusible substances -were found to follow this rule. All the substances -so found to act were compound bodies, and capable -of decomposition by the current. When conduction -ceased, decomposition ceased also. An apparent -exception was found in sulphide of silver, which, -when heated, acquired conducting powers even before -it assumed the liquid state, yet decomposed in the -solid state. This led him on to study electro-chemical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span> -decompositions more closely. Here he was following -directly in the footsteps of his master Davy, whose -discovery of the decomposition of potash and soda -by the electric current had been one of the most -prominent scientific advances resulting from the -invention of the voltaic cell. The fifth series of -researches, published in June, 1833, embodies the -work. He first combats the prevailing opinion that -the presence of water is necessary for electro-chemical -decomposition; then analyses the views of various -philosophers—Grotthuss, Davy, De la Rive, and -others—who had discussed the question whether the -decompositions are due to attractions exercised by -the two poles of the electric circuit. This he contests -in the most direct manner. Already he has reason -to believe that for a given quantity of electricity -passed through the liquid the amount of electro-chemical -action is a constant quantity, and depends -in no way on the distance of the particles -of the decomposable substance from the poles. -He regards the elements as progressing in two -streams in opposite directions parallel to the -current, while the poles “are merely the surfaces -or doors by which the electricity enters into or -passes out of the substance suffering decomposition.”</p> - -<p>Amongst the laboratory notes of this time are -many which were never published in the “Experimental -Researches,” or of which only brief -abstracts appeared. Some of these are of great -interest.</p> - -<p>Here is one literally <span class="locked">transcribed:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>26 Feb. 1833.</p> - -<p><em>Chloride Magnesium.</em>—When solid and wire fuzed in non-conductor—When -fuzed conducted very well and was -decomposed A and P Pole much action and gas—chlorine? -At N Pole Magnesium separated and no gas. Sometimes -Magnesium burnt flying off in globules burning brilliantly. -When wire at that pole put in water or white M A -[muriatic acid] matter round it acted powerfully evolving -hydrogen and forming Magnesia; and when wire and -surrounding matter heated in spirit lamp <em>Magnesium</em> burnt -with intense light into <em>Magnesia</em>. VERY GOOD EXPT.</p> -</div> - -<p>This recalls the “capital experiment” entry which -Sir Humphry Davy wrote after the account of his -decomposition of caustic potash. On the 7th of -April we come to a marvellous page of speculations. -He has seen that liquids, both solutions and fused -salts, can be decomposed by the current, and that -at least one solid is capable of electrolysis. But he -finds that alloys and metals are not decomposed. -He finds that electrolysis is easiest for those compounds -that consist of the most diverse elements, -and is led on to speculate as to the possible constitution -of those conductors that the current does -not decompose. This may involve a recasting of -accepted ideas; but from such a step he does not -shrink, as the following extracts <span class="locked">show:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Metals <em>may</em> not be compounds of elements most frequently -combined, but rather of such as are so similar to -each other as to pass out of the limit of voltaic decomposition.</p> - -<p>13th April (same page).</p> - -<p>If voltaic decomposition of the kind I believe then -review all substances upon the new view to see if they -may not be decomposable, &c. &c. &c.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">ATTRACTION BY POLES DOUBTED.</div> - -<p>He has now found that the facts observed do -not admit of being explained on the supposition -that the motion of the ions is due to the attraction -of the poles, and accordingly there follows the -<span class="locked">entry:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>(Ap. 13, 1833.)</p> - -<p>A single element is never attracted by a pole, <i>i.e.</i> -without attraction of other element at other pole. Hence -doubt Mr. Brande’s Expts on attraction of gases and -vapours. Doubt attraction by poles altogether.</p> -</div> - -<p>To this subject he returned in 1834; an intervening -memoir—the sixth—being taken up with -the power of metals and solids to bring about the -combination of gaseous bodies. In the seventh -series, published in January, 1834, his first work -is to explain the new terms which he has adopted, -on the advice of Whewell, to express the facts. -The so-called poles, being in his view merely doors -or ways by which the current passes, he now terms -<em>electrodes</em>, distinguishing the entrance and exit respectively -as <em>anode</em> and <em>cathode</em>,<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> while the decomposable -liquid is termed an <em>electrolyte</em>, and the -decomposing process <em>electrolysis</em>. “Finally,” he says, -in a passage (here italicised) worthy to be engraved -in gold for the essential truth it enunciates on a -question of terminology, “I require a term to express -those bodies which can pass to the <em>electrodes</em>, or,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span> -as they are usually called, the poles. Substances -are frequently spoken of as being <em>electronegative</em>, -or <em>electropositive</em>, according as they go under the -supposed influence of a direct attraction to the -positive or negative pole. But these terms are much -too significant for the use to which I should have -to put them; <em>for though the meanings are perhaps -right, they are only hypothetical, and may be -wrong; and then, through a very imperceptible but -still very dangerous, because continual, influence, -they do great injury to science, by contracting and -limiting the habitual views of those engaged in -pursuing it</em>. I propose to distinguish such bodies -by calling those <em>anions</em> which go to the anode of -the decomposing body; and those passing to the -<em>cathode</em>, <em>cations</em>; and when I shall have occasion -to speak of these together, I shall call them <em>ions</em>.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> -Thus, the chloride of lead is an <em>electrolyte</em>, and -when <em>electrolyzed</em> evolves the two <em>ions</em>, chlorine -and lead, the former being an <em>anion</em> and the latter -a <em>cation</em>.” In Faraday’s own bound volume of the -“Experimental Researches” he has illustrated these -terms by the sketch here reproduced. (<a href="#i_145">Fig. 12</a>.)</p> - -<p>Faraday’s letter to Whewell when he consulted -him as to the new words has not been preserved. He -discarded, when the paper was printed, the terms he -had first used. Whewell’s replies of April 25th and -May 5th, 1834, have been preserved and are printed -in Todhunter’s biography of Whewell. From the later -of the two the following passage is <span class="locked">extracted:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">NEW NOMENCLATURE.</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center">[<i>Whewell to Faraday</i>], May 5, 1834.</p> - -<p>If you take <em>anode</em> and <em>cathode</em>, I would propose for the two -elements resulting from <em>electrolysis</em> the terms <em>anion</em> and <em>cation</em>, -which are neuter participles signifying <em>that which goes up</em>, and -<em>that which goes down</em>; and for the two together you might -use the term <em>ions</em>.... The word is not a substantive in -Greek, but it may easily be so taken, and I am persuaded that -the brevity and simplicity of the terms you will thus have will -in a fortnight procure their universal acceptation. The <em>anion</em> -is that which goes to the <em>anode</em>, the <em>cation</em> is that which goes -to the <em>cathode</em>. The <em>th</em> in the latter word arises from the -aspirate in <em>hodos</em> (way), and therefore is not to be introduced -in cases where the second term has not an aspirate, as <em>ion</em> -has not.</p> -</div> - -<div id="i_145" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31em;"> - <img src="images/i_145.png" width="1486" height="604" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span></div></div> - -<p>On May 15th Faraday replied as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center">[<i>Faraday to Whewell.</i>]</p> - -<p>I have taken your advice and the names, and use <em>anode</em>, -<em>cathode</em>, <em>anions</em>, <em>cations</em> and <em>ions</em>; the last I shall have but -little occasion for. I had some hot objections made to them -here, and found myself very much in the condition of the man -with his Son and Ass, who tried to please everybody; but -when I held up the shield of your authority it was wonderful -to observe how the tone of objection melted away. I am quite<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span> -delighted with the facility of expression which the new terms -give me, and shall ever be your debtor for the kind assistance -you have given me.</p> -</div> - -<p>As though to prepare the way for a still further -cutting of himself adrift from the slavery of using -terms that might be found misleading, he added the -following <span class="locked">note:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>It will be well understood that I am giving no opinion -respecting the nature of the electric current now, beyond what -I have done on former occasions; and that though I speak of -the current as proceeding from the parts which are positive to -those which are negative, it is merely in accordance with the -conventional, though in some degree tacit, agreement entered -into by scientific men, that they may have a constant, certain, -and definite means of referring to the direction of the forces of -that current.</p> -</div> - -<p>The “former occasions” is a reference to an earlier -suggestion that a <em>current</em> might mean anything progressive, -whether a flow in one direction or two fluids -moving in opposite directions, or merely vibrations, or, -still more generally, progressive forces. He had -expressly said that what we call the electric current -“may perhaps best be conceived of as <em>an axis of power -having contrary forces, exactly equal in amount, in -contrary directions</em>.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ELECTRO-CHEMICAL LAWS.</div> - -<p>He then suggests as a measurer of current the -standard form of electrolytic cell ever since known as -the <em>voltameter</em>. He preferred that kind in which -water is decomposed, the quantity of electricity which -had flowed through it being measured by the quantity -of the gas or gases evolved during the operation. -Before adopting this he undertook careful experiments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span> -in which his fine manipulative skill, no less than his -chemical experience, was called into service to verify -the fact that the quantity of water decomposed was -really proportionate to the quantity of electricity -which has been passed through the instrument. -Having this standard, he investigated numerous other -cases of decomposition by the current, and so arrived -at a substantial basis for the doctrine of <em>definite -electro-chemical</em> action. Speaking of the substances -into which electrolytes are divided by the current, -and which he had called ions, he says: “They are -combining bodies; are directly associated with the -fundamental parts of the doctrine of chemical affinity; -and have each a definite proportion, in which they -are always evolved during electrolytic action.... -I have proposed to call the numbers representing the -proportions in which they are evolved <em>electro-chemical -equivalents</em>. Thus hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, iodine, -lead, tin are <em>ions</em>; the three former are <em>anions</em>, the -two metals <em>cations</em>, and 1, 8, 36, 125, 104, 58, are their -<em>electro-chemical equivalents</em> nearly.”</p> - -<p>This fundamental law being set upon an impregnable -basis of facts, he goes on to speculate upon the -<em>absolute quantity</em> of electricity or electric power -belonging to different bodies; a notion which only -within the last few years has found general acceptance.</p> - -<p>In developing this theory he uses the following -<span class="locked">language:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>According to it [<i>i.e.</i> this theory], the equivalent weights of -bodies are simply those quantities of them which contain -equal quantities of electricity, or have naturally equal electric -powers; it being the <span class="allsmcap">ELECTRICITY</span> which <em>determines</em> the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span> -equivalent number, <em>because</em> it determines the combining force. -Or, if we adopt the atomic theory or phraseology, then the -atoms of bodies which are equivalents to each other in their -ordinary chemical action, have equal quantities of electricity -naturally associated with them. But I must confess I am -jealous of the term <em>atom</em>....</p> -</div> - -<p>Here we find the modern doctrine of <em>electrons</em> or -unitary atomic charges, clearly formulated in 1834. -In the course of this speculation he remarks that “if -the electrical power which holds the elements of a -grain of water in combination, or which makes a grain -of oxygen or hydrogen in the right proportions unite -into water when they are made to combine, could be -thrown into the condition of <em>a current</em>, it would exactly -equal the current required for the separation of that -grain of water into its elements again.” And all this -years before there was any doctrine of the conservation -of energy to guide the mind of the philosopher! The -passage just cited contains the germs of the thermodynamic -theory of electromotive forces worked out -a dozen years later by Sir William Thomson (now -Lord Kelvin), by which theory we can predict the -electromotive forces of any given chemical combination -from a knowledge of the heat evolved by -a given mass of the product in the act of combining.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ANOTHER UNSUCCESSFUL QUEST.</div> - -<p>The eighth series of the researches, which was -read in June, 1834, deals chiefly with voltaic cells and -batteries of cells. He is now applying to the operations -inside the primary cell the electrochemical -principles learned by the study of electrolysis in -secondary cells. His thoughts have been incessantly -playing around the problem of electrolytic conduction.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span> -He was convinced that the forces which shear the -anions from combination with the cations and transfer -them in opposite directions must be inherent before -the circuit is completed, and therefore before any -actual transfer or movement takes place. “It seems to -me impossible,” he says, “to resist the idea that it [the -“transfer,” or “what is called the voltaic current”] -must be preceded by a <em>state of tension</em> in the fluid. -I have sought carefully for indications of a state -of tension in the electrolytic conductor; and conceiving -that it might produce something like structure, -either before or during its discharge, I endeavoured -to make this evident by polarised light.” He used -a solution of sulphate of soda, but without the -slightest trace of optical action in any direction of -the ray. He repeated the experiment, using a solid -electrolyte, borate of lead, in its non-conducting state, -but equally without result.</p> - -<p>During the time of these electrochemical researches -in 1833 and 1834, Faraday’s activities for the Royal -Institution were undiminished. In 1833 he gave -seven Friday discourses, three of them on the researches -in hand, one on Wheatstone’s investigation -of the velocity of the electric spark, and one on the -practical prevention of dry rot in timber, which was -afterwards republished as a pamphlet, and ran to two -editions. In 1834 he gave four Friday discourses; -two on his electrochemical researches, one on Ericsson’s -heat-engine, and the other on caoutchouc.</p> - -<p>The ninth series of electrical researches occupied -the autumn of 1834. In it he returns to the study -of the magnetic and inductive actions of the current,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> -investigating the self-induced spark at the break of -the circuit, to which his attention had been directed -by Mr. W. Jenkin. Several points in this research -are little known even now to electricians, the laboratory -notes being much more detailed than the published -paper. He describes an exceedingly neat high-speed -break for producing rapid interruptions, using -for that purpose stationary ripples on the surface of -a pool of mercury. In a wonderful day’s work on -13th November, filling thirty-four pages of the laboratory -book, illustrated with numerous unpublished -sketches, he tracks out the properties of self-induction. -He proves that the spark (on breaking -circuit) from a wire coiled up in a helix is far -brighter than that from an identical wire laid out -straight. He finds that a non-inductive and, therefore, -sparkless coil can be made by winding the -wire in two opposite helices. “Thus the whole [inductive] -effect of the length of wire was neutralised -by the reciprocal and contrary action of the two -halves which constituted the helices in contrary -directions.” The next day he writes: “These effects -show that every part of an electric circuit is acting -by induction on the neighbouring parts of the same -current, even in the <em>same wire</em> and the <em>same part</em> -of the wire.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">EFFECTS OF SELF-INDUCTION.</div> - -<p>On 22nd November he is trying another set of -experiments, also never fully published. They relate -to the diminution of self-induction of a straight -conductor by dividing it into several parallel strands -at a small distance apart from one another. The -note in the laboratory book runs <span class="locked">thus:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Copper wire 1/23 of inch in diameter. Six lengths of five -feet each, soldered at ends to piece of copper plate so as -form terminations, and these amalgamated. When this -bundle was used to connect the electro-motor it gave but -very feeble spark on breaking contact, but the spark was -sensibly better when the wires are held together so as to -act laterally than when they were opened out from each -other, thus showing lateral action.</p> - -<p>Made a larger bundle of the same fine copper wire. -There were 20 lengths of 18 feet 2 inches each and the -thick terminal pieces of copper wire 6 inches long and ⅓ of -inch thick.</p> -</div> - -<div id="i_151" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;"> - <img src="images/i_151.png" width="1148" height="143" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span></div></div> - -<p>This bundle he compared with a length of 19 feet -6 inches of a single copper wire ⅕ inch in diameter, -having about equal sectional area. The latter gave -decidedly the largest sparks on breaking circuit.</p> - -<p>Faraday did not see fit at this time to accept -the idea, suggested indeed by himself in 1831, that -these effects of self-induction were the analogue of -momentum or inertia. That explanation he set aside -on finding that the same wire when coiled had -greater self-inductive action than when straight. -Had he at that time grasped this analogy, he would -have seen that the very property which gives rise -to the spark at break of circuit also retards the -rapid growth of a current; and then the experiment -described above would have shown him that Sir -W. Snow Harris was right in preferring flat copper -ribbon to a round wire of equivalent section as a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span> -material for lightning conductors. He was, however, -disappointed to find so small a difference between -round wires and parallel strands. The memoir as -published contains an exceedingly interesting <span class="locked">conclusion:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Notwithstanding that the effects appear only at the -making and breaking of contact (the current, remaining -unaffected, seemingly, in the interval,) I cannot resist the -impression that there is some connected and correspondent -effect produced by this lateral action of the elements of -the electric stream during the time of its continuance. An -action of this kind, in fact, is evident in the magnetic -relations of the parts of the current. But admitting (as -we may do for the moment) the magnetic forces to constitute -the power which produces such striking and different results -at the commencement and termination of a current, still -there appears to be a link in the chain of effects—a wheel -in the physical mechanism of the action, as yet unrecognised.</p> -</div> - -<p>The tenth series of researches, on the voltaic -battery, though completed in October, 1834, was not -published till June, 1835.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ACTION IN A MEDIUM.</div> - -<p>The next research, begun in the autumn of 1835, -after a lull of about eight months, lasted over two -years. It was not completed till December, 1837. This -investigation took Faraday away from magnetic and -electrochemical matters to the old subject of statical -electric charges, a subject hitherto untouched in his -researches. But he had long brooded over the -question as to the nature of an electric charge. Over -and over again, as he had watched the inductive -effect of electric currents acting from wire to wire, -his mind turned to the old problem of the inductive -influence—discovered eighty years before, by John<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> -Canton—exerted, apparently at a distance, by electric -charges. He had learned to distrust action at a -distance, and now the time was ripe for a searching -inquiry as to whether electric <em>influence</em>, or induction<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a> -as it was then called, was also an action propagated -by contiguous actions in the intervening medium.</p> - -<p>Faraday had done no special electric work during -the first nine months of 1835. He had worked at -a chemical investigation of fluorine through the -spring, and in July took a hurried tour in Switzerland, -and returned to work at fluorine. Not till -November 3rd does he turn to the subject over which -he had been brooding. On that date, intercalated -between notes of his chemical studies, filling a dozen -pages of the laboratory book, are a magnificent series -of speculations as to the nature of charges, and on -the part played by the electric—or, as we should now -say, the dielectric—medium. They begin <span class="locked">thus:—</span></p> - -<p>“Have been thinking much lately of the relation -of common and voltaic electricity, of induction by the -former and decomposition by the latter, and am quite -convinced that there must be the closest connection. -Will be first needful to make out the true character”—note -the phrase—“of ordinary electrical phenomena.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> -The following notes are for experiment and observation.</p> - -<p>“Does common electricity reside upon the surface -of a conductor or upon the surface of the -[di-]electric in contact with it?”</p> - -<p>He goes on to consider the state of a dielectric -substance, such as glass, when situated between a -positively charged and a negatively charged surface, -as in a charged Leyden jar, and argues from analogy -<span class="locked">thus:—</span></p> - -<p>“Hence the state of the plate [of glass] under -induction is the same as the state of a magnet, and if -split or broken would present new P[ositive] and -N[egative] surfaces before not at all evident.” This -speculation was later verified by Matteucci.</p> - -<p>“Probable that phenomena of induction prove -more decidedly than anything else that the electricity -is in the [di-]electric not in the conductor.”</p> - -<p>He still worked for a week or two on fluorine, -interposing some experiments on the temperature-limit -of magnetisation, but on December 4th decides -not to go on with fluorine at present. Then, beginning -on December 5th, there follow twenty-nine pages of -the laboratory diary, illustrated with sketches. He -had borrowed from a Mr. Kipp a large deep copper -pan thirty-five inches in diameter, and he set to work -electrifying it and exploring the distribution of the -charges, inside and out, and the inductive effect on -objects placed within. Everywhere he is mentally -comparing the distribution of the effects with that of -the flow of currents in an electrolyte. Before many -days he <span class="locked">writes:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">PREGNANT SUGGESTIONS.</div> - -<p>“It appears to me at present that <em>ordinary</em> and -<em>electrolytic</em> induction are identical in their first nature, -but that the latter is followed by an effect which -cannot but from the nature and state of the substances -take place with the former.” Then comes this pregnant -<span class="locked">suggestion:—</span></p> - -<p>“Try induction through a solid crystalline body as -to the consequent action on polarized light.”</p> - -<p>By the end of a week he had begun to suspect -that his magnet analogy went farther than he was at -first prepared to hold. The action of a magnet was -along curved lines of force. So he <span class="locked">asks:—</span></p> - -<p>“Can induction through air take place in curves -or round a corner—can probably be found experimentally—if -so not a radiating effect.”</p> - -<p>After ten days more he has made another step.</p> - -<p>“Electricity appears to exist only in <em>polarity</em> as in -air, glass, electrolytes, etc. Now metals, being conductors, -cannot take up that polar state of their own -power, or rather retain it, and hence probably cannot -retain developed electric forces.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>“Metals, however, probably hold it for a moment, as -other things do for a longer time; an end coming at -last to all.”</p> - -<p>This, it will be observed, is nothing more or -less than Clerk Maxwell’s theory of conduction as -being the breaking down of an electrostatic strain.</p> - -<p>In January, 1836, followed the famous experiment -of building a twelve-foot cube, which when electrified -exteriorly to the utmost extent, showed inside no trace -of electric forces. The account in the unpublished<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span> -MS. of the laboratory book is, as is the case with -so many of these middle-period researches, much -fuller than the published <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">résumé</i> of them in the -“Experimental Researches.” All through 1836 he -was still at work. Even when on a holiday in the -Isle of Wight, in August, he took his notebook with -him, and <span class="locked">writes:—</span></p> - -<p>“After much consideration (here at Ryde) of the -manner in which the electric forces are arranged in -the various phenomena generally, I have come to -certain conclusions which I will endeavour to note -down without committing myself to any opinion as to -the cause of electricity, <i>i.e.</i> as to the nature of the -power. If electricity exist independently of matter, -then I think that the hypothesis of one fluid will not -stand against that of two fluids. There are, I think, -evidently, what I may call two elements of power of -equal force and acting towards each other. These -may conventionally be represented by oxygen and -hydrogen, which represent them in the voltaic battery. -But these powers may be distinguished only <em>by direction</em>, -and may be no more separate than the north -and south forces in the elements of a magnetic needle. -They may be the polar points of the forces originally -placed in the particles of matter; and the description -of the current as an axis of power which I have -formerly given suggests some similar general impression -for the forces of quiescent electricity. Law -of electric tension might do, and though I shall use -the terms positive and negative, by them I merely -mean the termini of such lines.”</p> - -<p>Right on until November 30th, 1837, this research<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span> -was continued. The summary of this and the succeeding -researches of 1838 on the same subject, drawn up -by Professor Tyndall,<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> is at once so masterly and so -impartial that it cannot be bettered. It is therefore -here transcribed without alteration.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ACTION AT A DISTANCE UNTHINKABLE.</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>His first great paper on frictional electricity was sent to the -Royal Society on November 30, 1837. We here find him face -to face with an idea which beset his mind throughout his whole -subsequent life—the idea of <em>action at a distance</em>. It perplexed -and bewildered him. In his attempts to get rid of this perplexity -he was often unconsciously rebelling against the limitations -of the intellect itself. He loved to quote Newton upon -this point: over and over again he introduces his memorable -words, “That gravity should be innate, inherent, and essential -to matter, so that one body may act upon another at a distance -through a <em>vacuum</em> and without the mediation of anything else, -by and through which this action and force may be conveyed -from one to another, is to me so great an absurdity, that I -believe no man who has in philosophical matters a competent -faculty of thinking can ever fall into it. Gravity must be -caused by an agent acting constantly according to certain laws; -but whether this agent be material or immaterial I have left to -the consideration of my readers.”<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a></p> - -<p>Faraday does not see the same difficulty in his contiguous -particles. And yet by transferring the conception from masses -to particles we simply lessen size and distance, but we do not -alter the quality of the conception. Whatever difficulty the -mind experiences in conceiving of action at sensible distances, -besets it also when it attempts to conceive of action at insensible -distances. Still the investigation of the point whether electric -and magnetic effects were wrought out through the intervention -of contiguous particles or not, had a physical interest altogether -apart from the metaphysical difficulty. Faraday grapples with -the subject experimentally. By simple intuition he sees that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span> -action at a distance must be exerted in straight lines. Gravity, -he knows, will not turn a corner, but exerts its pull along a -right line; hence his aim and effort to ascertain whether -electric action ever takes place in curved lines. This once -proved, it would follow that the action is carried on <em>by means -of a medium</em> surrounding the electrified bodies. His experiments -in 1837 reduced, in his opinion, this point to demonstration. -He then found that he could electrify by induction an -insulated sphere placed completely in the shadow of a body -which screened it from direct action. He pictured the lines of -electric force bending round the edges of the screen, and reuniting -on the other side of it; and he proved that in many -cases the augmentation of the distance between his insulated -sphere and the inducing body, instead of lessening, increased -the charge of the sphere. This he ascribed to the coalescence -of the lines of electric force at some distance behind the screen.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SPECIFIC INDUCTIVE CAPACITY.</div> - -<p>Faraday’s theoretic views on this subject have not received -general acceptance, but they drove him to experiment, and -experiment with him was always prolific of results. By suitable -arrangements he places a metallic sphere in the middle of -a large hollow sphere, leaving a space of something more than -half an inch between them. The interior sphere was insulated, -the external one uninsulated. To the former he communicated -a definite charge of electricity. It acted by induction upon -the concave surface of the latter, and he examined how this act -of induction was affected by placing insulators of various kinds -between the two spheres. He tried gases, liquids, and solids, -but the solids alone gave him positive results. He constructed -two instruments of the foregoing description, equal in size and -similar in form. The interior sphere of each communicated -with the external air by a brass stem ending in a knob. The -apparatus was virtually a Leyden jar, the two coatings of which -were the two spheres, with a thick and variable insulator -between them. The amount of charge in each jar was determined -by bringing a proof-plane into contact with its knob, -and measuring by a torsion balance the charge taken away. -He first charged one of his instruments, and then dividing the -charge with the other, found that when air intervened in both<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span> -cases, the charge was equally divided. But when shell-lac, -sulphur, or spermaceti was interposed between the two spheres -of one jar, while air occupied this interval in the other, then he -found that the instrument occupied by the “solid dielectric” -took <em>more than half</em> the original charge. A portion of the -charge was absorbed in the dielectric itself. The electricity -took time to penetrate the dielectric. Immediately after the -discharge of the apparatus no trace of electricity was found -upon its knob. But after a time electricity was found there, -the charge having gradually returned from the dielectric in -which it had been lodged. Different insulators possess this -power of permitting the charge to enter them in different -degrees. Faraday figured their particles as polarised, and he -concluded that the force of induction is propagated from -particle to particle of the dielectric from the inner sphere to -the outer one. This power of propagation possessed by insulators -he calls their “<em>Specific Inductive Capacity</em>.”</p> - -<div id="i_159" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;"> - <img src="images/i_159.jpg" width="1271" height="939" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span></div></div> - -<p>Faraday visualises with the utmost clearness the state of -his contiguous particles; one after another they become<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> -charged, each succeeding particle depending for its charge -upon its predecessor. And now he seeks to break down the -wall of partition between conductors and insulators. “Can -we not,” he says, “by a gradual chain of association carry up -discharge from its occurrence in air through spermaceti and -water to solutions, and then on to chlorides, oxides, and metals, -without any essential change in its character?” Even copper, -he urges, offers a resistance to the transmission of electricity. -The action of its particles differs from those of an insulator -only in degree. They are charged like the particles of the -insulator, but they discharge with greater ease and rapidity; -and this rapidity of molecular discharge is what we call -conduction. Conduction, then, is always preceded by atomic -induction; and when through some quality of the body, which -Faraday does not define, the atomic discharge is rendered slow -and difficult, conduction passes into insulation.</p> - -<p>Though they are often obscure, a fine vein of philosophic -thought runs through these investigations. The mind of the -philosopher dwells amid those agencies which underlie the -visible phenomena of induction and conduction; and he tries -by the strong light of his imagination to see the very molecules -of his dielectrics. It would, however, be easy to criticise these -researches, easy to show the looseness, and sometimes the -inaccuracy, of the phraseology employed; but this critical -spirit will get little good out of Faraday. Rather let those -who ponder his works seek to realise the object he set before -him, not permitting his occasional vagueness to interfere with -their appreciation of his speculations. We may see the ripples, -and eddies, and vortices of a flowing stream, without being -able to resolve all these motions into their constituent elements; -and so it sometimes strikes me that Faraday clearly saw the -play of fluids and ethers and atoms, though his previous training -did not enable him to resolve what he saw into its constituents, -or describe it in a manner satisfactory to a mind -versed in mechanics. And then again occur, I confess, dark -sayings, difficult to be understood, which disturb my confidence -in this conclusion. It must, however, always be remembered -that he works at the very boundaries of our knowledge, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span> -that his mind habitually dwells in the “boundless contiguity -of shade” by which that knowledge is surrounded.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CABLE RETARDATION PREDICTED.</div> - -<p>In the researches now under review the ratio of speculation -and reasoning to experiment is far higher than in any of -Faraday’s previous works. Amid much that is entangled and -dark we have flashes of wondrous insight and utterances -which seem less the product of reasoning than of revelation. -I will confine myself here to one example of this divining -power:—By his most ingenious device of a rapidly rotating -mirror, Wheatstone had proved that electricity required time -to pass through a wire, the current reaching the middle of the -wire later than its two ends. “If,” says Faraday, “the two -ends of the wire in Professor Wheatstone’s experiments were -immediately connected with two large insulated metallic -surfaces exposed to the air, so that the primary act of induction, -after making the contact for discharge, might be in part -removed from the internal portion of the wire at the first -instance, and disposed for the moment on its surface jointly -with the air and surrounding conductors, then I venture to -anticipate that the middle spark would be more retarded than -before. And if those two plates were the inner and outer -coatings of a large jar or Leyden battery, then the retardation -of the spark would be much greater.” This was only a -<em>prediction</em>, for the experiment was not made. Sixteen years -subsequently, however, the proper conditions came into play, -and Faraday was able to show that the observations of Werner -Siemens and Latimer Clark on subterraneous and submarine -wires were illustrations, on a grand scale, of the principle -which he had enunciated in 1838. The wires and the surrounding -water act as a Leyden jar, and the retardation -of the current predicted by Faraday manifests itself in every -message sent by such cables.</p> - -<p>The meaning of Faraday in these memoirs on induction -and conduction is, as I have said, by no means always -clear; and the difficulty will be most felt by those who are -best trained in ordinary theoretic conceptions. He does not -know the reader’s needs, and he therefore does not meet -them. For instance, he speaks over and over again of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span> -impossibility of charging a body with one electricity, though -the impossibility is by no means evident. The key to the -difficulty is this. He looks upon every insulated conductor -as the inner coating of a Leyden jar. An insulated sphere -in the middle of a room is to his mind such a coating; the -walls are the outer coating, while the air between both is -the insulator, across which the charge acts by induction. -Without this reaction of the walls upon the sphere, you -could no more, according to Faraday, charge it with electricity -than you could charge a Leyden jar, if its outer coating were -removed. Distance with him is immaterial. His strength -as a generaliser enables him to dissolve the idea of magnitude; -and if you abolish the walls of the room—even the -earth itself—he would make the sun and planets the outer -coating of his jar. I dare not contend that Faraday in these -memoirs made all these theoretic positions good. But a -pure vein of philosophy runs through these writings; while -his experiments and reasonings on the forms and phenomena -of electrical discharge are of imperishable importance.</p> -</div> - -<p>In another part of the twelfth memoir, not included -in the above summary, Faraday deals with -the disruptive discharge, and with the nature of the -spark under varying conditions. This is continued -on into the thirteenth memoir, read February, 1838, -and is extended to the cases of “brush” and “glow” -discharges. He discovered the existence of the very -remarkable phenomenon of the “dark” discharge -near the cathode in rarefied air. He sought to -correlate <em>all</em> the various forms of discharge, as showing -the essential nature of an electric current. “If -a ball be electrified positively,” he says, “in the -middle of a room, and be then moved in any -direction, effects will be produced, as if a <em>current</em> -in the same direction (to use the conventional mode<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span> -of expression) had existed.” This is the theory of -convection currents later adopted by Maxwell, and -verified by experiment by Rowland in 1876.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">COINAGE OF NEW WORDS.</div> - -<p>In the course of this research on induction, -Faraday had, as we have seen, been compelled to -adopt new ideas, and therefore to adopt new names -to denote them. The term <em>dielectric</em> for the medium -in or across which the electric forces operate was -one of these. As in previous cases, he consulted -with his friends as to suitable terms. In this instance -the following letter from Whewell explains -itself. The letter to which it is a reply has not -been preserved, but the reference to Faraday’s objection -to the word <em>current</em> may be elucidated by -a comparison with what Faraday wrote in criticism -of that word on pages 146 and 212.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center">[<i>Rev. W. Whewell to M. Faraday.</i>]</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="smcap">Trin. Coll., Cambridge</span>, <i>Oct. 14, 1837</i>. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">My dear Sir</span>,—I am always glad to hear of the progress -of your researches, and never the less so because they require -the fabrication of a new word or two. Such a coinage has -always taken place at the great epochs of discovery; like -the medals that are struck at the beginning of a new reign:—or -rather like the change of currency produced by the -accession of a new sovereign; for their value and influence -consists in their coming into common circulation. I am -not sure that I understand the views which you are at -present bringing into shape sufficiently well to suggest any -such terms as you think you want. I think that if I could -have a quarter of an hour’s talk with you I should probably -be able to construct terms that would record your new -notions, so far as I could be made to understand them -better than I can by means of letters: for it is difficult<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> -without question and discussion to catch the precise kind -of relation which you want to express. However, by way -of beginning such a discussion, I would ask you whether -you want abstract terms to denote the different and related -conditions of the body which exercises and the body which -suffers induction? For though both are active and both -passive it may still be convenient to suppose a certain -ascendancy on one side. If so would two such words as -<em>inductricity</em> and <em>inducteity</em> answer your purpose? They -are not very monstrous in their form; and are sufficiently -distinct. And if you want the corresponding adjectives -you may call the one the <em>inductric</em>, and the other the -<em>inducteous</em> body. This last word is rather a startling one; -but if such relations are to be expressed, terminations are -a good artifice, as we see in chemistry: and I have no -doubt if you give the world facts and laws which are better -expressed with than without such solecisms, they will soon -accommodate to the phrases, as they have often done to -worse ones. But I am rather in the dark as to whether -this is the kind of relation which you want to indicate. -If not, the attempt may perhaps serve to shew you where -my dulness lies. I do not see my way any better as to -the other terms, for I do not catch your objection to -<em>current</em>, which appears to me to be capable of jogging on -very well from <em>cathode</em> to <em>anode</em>, or vice versa. As for -positive and negative, I do not see why <em>cathodic</em> and <em>anodic</em> -should not be used, if they will do the service you want -of them.</p> - -<p>I expect to be in London at the end of the month, -and could probably see you for half an hour on the 1st of -November, say at 10, 11, or 12. But in the mean time I -shall be glad to hear from you whether you can make -anything of such conundrums as I have mentioned, and am -always yours very truly,</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="smcap">W. Whewell.</span> -</p> - -<p class="in0"> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday</span> Esq<sup>re.</sup><br /> -<span class="in2">Royal Institution.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">LATERAL ACTIONS OF CURRENT.</div> - -<p>The concluding part of the thirteenth memoir, -in which these new terms are used, is an exceedingly -striking speculation on the lateral or transverse -effects of the current. In calling special attention -to them, he says: “I refer of course to the magnetic -action and its relations; but though this is the -only recognised lateral action of the current, there -is great reason for believing that others exist and -would by their discovery reward a close search for -them.” He seems to have had an instinctive perception -of something that eluded his grasp. Not -until after Maxwell had given mathematical form -to Faraday’s own suggestions was this vision to be -realised. He is dimly aware that there appears to -be a lateral tension or repulsion possessed by the -lines of electric inductive action; and onward runs -his thought in free <span class="locked">speculation:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>When current or discharge occurs between two bodies, -previously under inductrical relations to each other, the -lines of inductive force will weaken and fade away, and, -as their lateral repulsive tension diminishes, will contract -and ultimately disappear in the line of discharge. May not -this be an effect identical with the attractions of similar -currents? <i>i.e.</i> may not the passage of static electricity into -current electricity, and that of the lateral tension of the -lines of the inductive force into the lateral attraction of -lines of similar discharge, have the same relation and dependences, -and run parallel to each other?</p> -</div> - -<p>Series fourteen of the memoirs is on the nature -of the electric force and on the relation of the -electric and magnetic forces, and comprises an inconclusive -inquiry as to a possible relation between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span> -specific inductive capacity and axes of crystallisation -in crystalline dielectrics—a relation later assumed -as true by Maxwell even before it was demonstrated -by Von Boltzmann. In this memoir, too, occurs a -description of a simple but effective induction balance. -Then he asks what happens to insulating substances, -such as air or sulphur, when they are put in a place -where the magnetic forces are varying; they ought, -he thinks, to undergo some state or condition corresponding -to the state that causes currents in metals -and conductors, and, further, that state ought to -be one of <em>tension</em>. “I have,” he says, “by rotating -non-conducting bodies near magnetic poles, and poles -near them, and also by causing powerful electric -currents to be suddenly formed and to cease around -and about insulators in various directions, endeavoured -to make some such state sensible, but -have not succeeded.” In short, he was looking for -direct evidence of the existence of what Maxwell -called “displacement currents”—evidence which was -later found independently by the author and by -Röntgen. And, again, there rises in his mind a -perception of that <em>electrotonic state</em> which had -haunted his earlier researches as a something imposed -upon the surrounding medium during the -growth or dying of an electric current.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">INCESSANT ACTIVITIES.</div> - -<p>In these years (1835–1838) Faraday was still indefatigable -in his lecture duties. In 1835 he gave -four Friday discourses, and in May and June eight -afternoon lectures at the Royal Institution on the -metals; also a course of fourteen lectures on electricity -to the medical students at St. George’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span> -Hospital. In 1836 he published in the <i>Philosophical -Magazine</i> a paper on the magnetism of the metals—notable -as containing the still unverified speculation -that all metals would become magnetic in -the same way as iron if only cooled to a sufficiently -low temperature—and three other papers, including -one on the “passive” state of iron. He gave four -Friday discourses and six afternoon lectures on -heat. In 1837 also four Friday night discourses -and six afternoon lectures were delivered. In 1838 -three Friday discourses and eight afternoon lectures -on electricity, ending in June with a distinct enunciation -of the doctrine of the transformations of -“force” (<i>i.e.</i> energy) and its indestructibility, afforded -evidence of his industry in this respect. At the same -time he was giving scientific advice to the authorities -of Trinity House as to their lighthouses.</p> - -<p>The laboratory notebook for March to August, -1838, shows a long research, occupying nearly 100 -folio pages, on the relation of specific inductive -capacity to crystalline structure. This is followed -by some experiments upon an electric eel, at the -Royal Adelaide Gallery, with some unpublished -sketches of the distribution in the water of the -currents it emits. He proved, with great satisfaction, -that the currents it gave were capable of producing -magnetic effects, sparks, and chemical decomposition. -These observations were embodied in the -fifteenth series of memoirs.</p> - -<p>One entry in the laboratory book, of date -April 5th, 1838, is of great interest, as showing how -his mind ever recurred to the possibility of finding a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> -connection between optical and electric phenomena: -“Must try polarized light across a crystalline dielectric -under charge. Good reasons perhaps now -evident why a non-crystalline dielectric should have -no effect.”</p> - -<p>Faraday was now feeling greatly the strain of -all these years of work, and in 1839 did little research -until the autumn. Then he returned to the -question of the origin of the electromotive force -of the voltaic cell, and by the end of the year -completed two long papers on this vexed question; -they formed the sixteenth and seventeenth series, -and conclude the memoirs of this second period.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE CONTACT THEORY OF ELECTRICITY.</div> - -<p>In the eighth series, completed in April, 1834, -on the “Electricity of the Voltaic Pile,” Faraday -had dealt with the question—at that time a topic -of excited controversy—of the origin of the electromotive -force in a cell, Volta, who knew nothing -of the chemical actions, ascribed it to the contact -of dissimilar metals, whilst Wollaston, Becquerel, and -De la Rive considered it the result of chemical -actions. The controversy has long ceased to interest -the scientific world; for, with the recognition of -the principle of the conservation of energy, it became -evident that mere contact cannot provide a -continuing supply of energy. It would now be -altogether dead but for the survival of a belief in -the contact theory on the part of one of the most -honoured veterans in science. But in the years 1834 -to 1840 it was of absorbing interest. Faraday’s -work quietly removed the props which supported -the older theory, and it crumbled away. He found<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span> -that the chemical and electrical effects in the cell -were proportional one to the other, and inseparable. -He discovered a way of making a cell without any -metallic contacts. He showed that without chemical -action there was no current produced. But his results -were ignored for the time. After six years -Faraday reopened the question. Again the admirable -summary of Professor Tyndall is drawn upon -for the following <span class="locked">account:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The memoir on the “Electricity of the Voltaic Pile,” -published in 1834, appears to have produced but little impression -upon the supporters of the contact theory. These -indeed were men of too great intellectual weight and insight -lightly to take up, or lightly to abandon, a theory. -Faraday therefore resumed the attack in two papers communicated -to the Royal Society on February 6 and March -19, 1840. In these papers he hampered his antagonists by -a crowd of adverse experiments. He hung difficulty after -difficulty about the neck of the contact theory, until in its -efforts to escape from his assaults it so changed its character -as to become a thing totally different from the theory proposed -by Volta. The more persistently it was defended, -however, the more clearly did it show itself to be a congeries -of devices, bearing the stamp of dialectic skill rather than -that of natural truth.</p> - -<p>In conclusion, Faraday brought to bear upon it an argument -which, had its full weight and purport been understood -at the time, would have instantly decided the controversy. -“The contact theory,” he urged, “assumes that a force which -is able to overcome powerful resistance, as for instance that -of the conductors, good or bad, through which the current -passes, and that again of the electrolytic action where bodies -are decomposed by it, <em>can arise out of nothing</em>; that without -any change in the acting matter, or the consumption of any -generating force, a current shall be produced which shall<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span> -go on for ever against a constant resistance, or only be -stopped, as in the voltaic trough, by the ruins which its -exertion has heaped up in its own course. This would -indeed be <em>a creation of power</em>, and is like no other force in -nature. We have many processes by which the <em>form</em> of the -power may be so changed, that an apparent <em>conversion</em> of -one into the other takes place. So we can change chemical -force into the electric current, or the current into chemical -force. The beautiful experiments of Seebeck and Peltier -show the convertibility of heat and electricity; and others -by Oersted and myself show the convertibility of electricity -and magnetism. <em>But in no case, not even in those of the -gymnotus and torpedo, is there a pure creation or a production -of power without a corresponding exhaustion of -something to supply it.</em>”</p> -</div> - -<p>In 1839 Faraday gave five Friday discourses and -a course of eight afternoon lectures on the non-metallic -elements. In 1840 he gave three Friday -discourses and seven lectures on chemical affinity. -But in the summer came the serious breakdown -alluded to on page 75. He did no experimental work -after September 14th, nor indeed for nearly two -years. Even then it was only a temporary return -to research to investigate the source of the electrification -produced by steam in the remarkable experiments -of Mr. (afterwards Lord) Armstrong. He proved -it to be due to friction. This done, he continued -to rest from research until the middle of 1844, -though he lectured a little for the Royal Institution. -In 1841 he gave the juvenile lectures. In -1842 he gave two Friday discourses, one of them -being on the lateral discharge in lightning-rods. He -also gave the Christmas lectures on electricity.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">END OF SECOND ACTIVE PERIOD.</div> - -<p>In 1843 he gave three Friday discourses, one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span> -of which was on the electricity generated by a jet -of steam; and repeated the eight afternoon lectures -he had given in 1838. In 1844 he gave eight -lectures on heat and two Friday discourses. He -also resumed research on the condensation of gases, -and vainly tried to liquefy oxygen and hydrogen, -though he succeeded with ammonia and nitrous -oxide.</p> - -<p>During these years of rest he also did a little -work for Trinity House, chiefly concerning lighthouses -and their ventilation.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_172" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES: THIRD PERIOD.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Throughout</span> the fruitful ten years of Faraday’s -middle period two magistral ideas had slowly grown -up in his mind, and as he let his thought play about -the objects of his daily activities, these ideas possessed -and dominated him as no newly suggested idea could -have done. They were the correlation and inter-convertibility -of the forces of nature, and the optical -relations of magnetism and electricity.</p> - -<p>During the period of enforced rest, from 1839 to -1844, these ideas had been ever with him. His was a -mind which during times of quiet brooding did not -cease to advance. In silence his thoughts arranged -themselves in readiness for the next period of activity, -and his work, when it began again, was all the more -fruitful for the antecedent period of cogitation.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">OPTICAL ANALYSIS.</div> - -<p>On August 30th, 1845, Faraday for the sixth time -set to work in his laboratory to search for the connection -between light and electricity for which he -had so often looked, and about which he had so boldly -speculated. He began by looking for some effect -to be produced on polarised light by passing it -through a liquid which was undergoing electrolysis. -What effect precisely he expected to observe is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span> -unknown. Doubtless he had an open mind to perceive -effects of any kind had such occurred. Earlier -in the century the phenomena of polarised light had -been worked out in great detail, through a host of -beautiful phenomena, by Arago, Biot, Brewster, and -others; and their discoveries had shown that this -agent is capable of revealing in transparent substances -details of structure which otherwise would be quite -invisible. Placed between two Nicol prisms or two -slices of tourmaline, to serve respectively as “polariser” -and “analyser,” thin sheets of transparent crystal—selenite -or mica—were made to reveal the fact that -they possessed an axis of maximum elasticity. For -when the analyser and polariser were set in the -“crossed” position, where the one would cut off -all the luminous vibrations that the other would -transmit, no light would be visible to the observer, -unless in the intervening space there were interposed -some substance endowed with one of two properties, -either that of resolving some part of the vibrations -into an oblique direction or else that of rotating the -plane of the vibrations to right or to left. If either -of these things is done, light appears through the -analyser. It is thus that structure is observed in -horn and in starch grains. It is thus that the -strains in a piece of compressed glass are made -visible. It is thus that crystalline structures generally -can be studied. It is thus that the discovery was -made of the substances which possess the strange -property of twisting or rotating the plane of polarisation -of light—namely, quartz crystal, solutions of -sugar and of certain alkaloids, and certain other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span> -liquids, such as turpentine. Such was the agent -which Faraday proposed to employ to detect whether -electric forces impress any quality resembling that of -<em>structure</em> upon transparent materials.</p> - -<p>The notes begin with the <span class="locked">words:—</span></p> - -<p>“I have had a glass trough made 24 inches long, -1 inch wide and about 1½ deep, in which to decompose -electrolites and, whilst under decomposition, -along which I could pass a ray of light in different -conditions and afterwards examine it.”</p> - -<p>He put into this trough two platinum electrodes -and a solution of sulphate of soda, but could find no -effects. Eight pages of the notebook are filled with -details all leading to negative results. For ten days -he worked at these experiments with liquid electrolytes. -The substances used were distilled water, solution of -sugar, dilute sulphuric acid, solution of sulphate -of soda (using platinum electrodes), and solution of -sulphate of copper (using copper electrodes). The -current was sent along the ray, and perpendicular -to it in two directions at right angles with each other. -The ray was made to rotate, by altering the position -of the polariser (in this case a black-glass mirror -at the proper angle), so that the plane of polarisation -might be varied. The current was used as a continuous -current, as a rapidly intermitting current, and -as a rapidly alternating induction current; <em>but in no -case was any trace of action perceived</em>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A DIFFICULT RESEARCH.</div> - -<p>Then he turned to solid dielectrics to see if under -electric strain they would yield any optical effect. -He had indeed so far back as 1838 tried the experiment -of coating two opposite faces of a glass cube<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span> -with metal foil plates that were then electrified by a -powerful electric machine. But the experiment had -no result. This experiment he now repeats with a -score of elaborate variations, trying both crystalline -and non-crystalline dielectrics. Rock-crystal, Iceland -spar, flint glass, heavy-glass, turpentine, and air, had -a beam of polarised light passed through them, and at -the same time “lines of electrostatic tension” were, -by means of the coatings, Leyden jars, and the electric -machine, directed across these bodies, both parallel to -the polarised ray and across it, both in and across the -plane of polarisation; but again without any visible -effect. Then he tries on the same bodies, and on -water, the “tension” of a rapidly alternating induced -current, but still with the same negative result. -Professor Tyndall stated that from conversation with -Faraday, and with his faithful assistant Anderson, he -inferred that the labour expended on this preliminary -and apparently fruitless research was very great. It -occupies many pages of the laboratory notebook. That -thirty-two years later Dr. Kerr succeeded in finding -this optical effect of electrostatic strain for which -Faraday vainly sought, is no reflection upon Faraday’s -powers of observation. Had there been no Faraday -there had doubtless been no discovery by Kerr.</p> - -<p>So far the quest had been carried on either with -electric currents flowing through the transparent -substance or else with mere statical electric forces, -and a whole fortnight had been spent without result. -Now another track is taken, and it leads straight -to success. He substitutes magnetic for electric -forces.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">MAGNETO-OPTIC DISCOVERY.</div> - -<p>“13th Sept. 1845.</p> - -<div id="i_176" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 12em;"> - <img src="images/i_176.png" width="543" height="413" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span></div></div> - -<p>“To-day worked with lines of magnetic force, -passing them across different bodies transparent in -different directions, and at the same time passing a -polarized ray of light through them, and afterwards -examining the ray by a Nichol’s Eye-piece or other -means. The magnets were Electro-magnets one -being our large cylinder Electro-magnet and the -other a temporary iron core put into the helix on -a frame. This was not nearly so strong as the former. -The current of 5 cells of Grove’s battery was sent -through both helices at once and the magnets were -made and unmade by putting in or stopping off the -electric current.” Air, flint-glass, rock-crystal, calcareous -spar, were examined, but without effect. And -so he worked on through the morning, trying first -one specimen, then another, altering the directions -of the poles of his magnets, reversing their polarity, -changing the position of his optical apparatus, increasing -the battery-power of his magnetising current. -Then he bethinks him of that “heavy-glass”—the -boro-silicate of lead—which had cost him nearly four -years of precious labour during the first period of his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span> -scientific life. The entry in the notebook is characteristic.</p> - -<div id="i_177" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 16em;"> - <img src="images/i_177.png" width="731" height="829" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span></div></div> - -<p>“A piece of heavy glass, which was 2 inches by -1·8 inches and 0·5 of an inch thick, being a silico-borate -of lead, was experimented with. It gave no -effects when the <em>same magnetic poles</em> or the <em>contrary</em> -poles were on opposite sides (as respects the course of -the polarised ray);—nor when the same poles were on -the same side either with the constant or intermitting -current; <b>BUT</b> when contrary magnetic poles were on -the same side there <em>was an effect produced on the -polarised ray</em>, and thus magnetic force and light were -proved to have relations to each other. This fact will -most likely prove exceedingly fertile, and of great -value in the investigation of conditions of natural -force.</p> - -<p>“The effect was of this kind. The glass, a result -of one of my old experiments on optical glass, had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span> -been exceedingly well annealed so that it did not -in any degree affect the polarized ray. The two -magnetic poles were in a horizontal plane, and the -piece of glass put up flat against them so that the -polarized ray could pass through its edges and be -examined by the eye at a Nicholl’s eye piece. In its -natural state the glass had no effect on the polarized -ray but on making contact at the battery so as -to render the cores N and S magnets instantly -the glass acquired a certain degree of <em>power of -depolarizing the ray</em> which it retained steadily as -long as the cores were magnets but which it lost -the instant the electric current was stopped. Hence -it was a permanent condition and as was expected -did not sensibly appear with an intermitting current.</p> - -<div id="i_178" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;"> - <img src="images/i_178.png" width="1028" height="358" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span></div></div> - -<p>“The effect was not influenced by any jogging -motion or any moderate pressure of the hands on -the glass.</p> - -<p>“The heavy glass had tinfoil coatings on its -two sides but when these were taken off the effect -remained exactly the same.</p> - -<p>“A mass of soft iron on the outside of the <em>heavy -glass</em> greatly <em>diminished</em> the effect [see <a href="#i_178">Fig. 17</a>]....</p> - -<p>“All this shews that it is when the <em>polarized ray</em> -passes <em>parallel</em> to the <em>lines of magnetic induction</em><span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span> -or rather to the <em>direction of the magnetic curves</em>, -that the glass manifests its power of affecting the -ray. So that the heavy glass in its magnetized -state corresponds to the cube of rock crystal: the -direction of the magnetic curves in the piece -of glass corresponding to the direction of the -optic axis in the crystal (see Exp. Researches -1689–1698)....</p> - -<div id="i_179" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 11em;"> - <img src="images/i_179.png" width="488" height="423" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span></div></div> - -<p>“Employed our large <em>ring electro-magnet</em> which -is very powerful and has of course the poles in the -right [position] only they are very close not more -than [0·5] of an inch apart. When the <em>heavy -glass</em> was put up against it the effect was produced -better than in any former case....</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ENOUGH FOR TO-DAY.</div> - -<p>“Have got enough for to-day.”</p> - -<p>The description which he published in the -“Researches” of the first successful experiment is -as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>“A piece of this glass about 2 inches square -and 0·5 of an inch thick, having flat and polished -edges, was placed as a <em>diamagnetic</em><a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> between the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span> -poles (not as yet magnetized by the electric current), -so that the polarized ray should pass through its -length; the glass acted as air, water, or any other -indifferent substance would do; and if the eye-piece -[<i>i.e.</i> analyzer] were previously turned into such a -position that the polarized ray was extinguished, or -rather the image produced by it rendered invisible, -then the introduction of this glass made no alteration -in that respect. In this state of circumstances the -force of the electromagnet was developed, by sending -an electric current through its coils, and immediately -the image of the lamp-flame became visible, and -continued so as long as the arrangement continued -magnetic. On stopping the electric current, and so -causing the magnetic force to cease, the light instantly -disappeared; these phænomena could be -renewed at pleasure, at any instant of time, and -upon any occasion, showing a perfect dependence -of cause and effect.”</p> - -<p>He paused for four days in order to procure -more powerful electromagnets, for the effect which -he had observed was exceedingly slight: “A person -looking for the phænomenon for the first time would -not be able to see it with a weak magnet.”</p> - -<p>The entry in the notebook begins <span class="locked">again:—</span></p> - -<p>“18th Sept. 1845.</p> - -<p>“Have now borrowed and received the Woolwich -magnet.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">AN EXCELLENT DAY’S WORK.</div> - -<p>This was a more powerful electromagnet than -that at the Institution. With this he sets to -work with such energy that twelve pages of the -laboratory book are filled in one day. His thoughts -had ripened during the five days, and he advanced -rapidly from point to point. The first experiment -with the Woolwich magnet brings out another point, -of which at once he grasped the <span class="locked">significance:—</span></p> - -<p>“Heavy Glass (original, or 174<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a>) when placed -thus produced a very fine effect. The brightness of -the image produced rose gradually not instantly, due -to this that the iron cores do not take their full -intensity of magnetic state at once but require -time, and so the magnetic curves rise in intensity. -In this way the effect is one by which an optical -examination of the electromagnet can be made—and -the time necessary clearly shewn.”</p> - -<p>He next ascertains definitely that the phenomenon -is one of rotatory polarisation—that is to say, the -action of the magnet is to twist and rotate the -plane of polarisation through a definite angle depending -on the strength of the magnet and the -direction of the exciting current. He finds the -direction of the rotation, and verifies it by comparison -with the ordinary optical rotation produced -by turpentine and by a solution of sugar, winding -up with the <span class="locked">words:—</span></p> - -<p>“<em>An excellent day’s work.</em>”</p> - -<p>For four days he went on accumulating proofs, -and now succeeding with the very substances with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span> -which he formerly failed. On September 26th he -tried the conjoint effect of a magnetic and an -electric field. He also tried the effect of a current -running along a transparent liquid electrolytically -whilst the magnet was in operation. The only results -appeared to be those due to the magnet alone. -For six days in October the experiments were continued. -He noted, as a desideratum, a transparent -oxide of iron. “With some degree of curiosity and -hope” he “put gold leaf into the magnetic lines, -but could perceive no effect.” He was instinctively -looking for the phenomenon which Kundt later -discovered as a property of thin transparent films -of iron. He entered amongst the speculative suggestions -in his notebook the query: “Does this [magnetic] -force tend to make iron and oxide of iron transparent?” -On October 3rd he tried experiments on -light reflected from the surface of metals placed in -the magnetic field. He indeed obtained an optical -rotation by reflection at the surface of a polished -steel button, but the results were inconclusive owing -to imperfection of the surface. It was reserved for -Dr. Kerr to rediscover and follow up this effect. -On October 6th he looked for mechanical and -magnetic effects on pieces of heavy-glass and on -liquids in glass bulbs placed between the poles of -his magnet, but found none. He also looked for -possible effects of rapid motion given to the diamagnetic -while jointly subject to the action of -magnetism and the light, but found none.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">UNFULFILLED EXPECTATIONS.</div> - -<p>On October 11th he thinks he has got hold of -another new fact when experimenting on liquids in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span> -long glass tube, the record of it filling three pages. -But two days afterwards he finds it only a disturbing -effect due to the communication of heat to the liquid -from the surrounding magnetising coil. He seems to -regret the loss of the new fact, but adds: “As to the -other phenomenon of circular polarization, that comes -out constant, clear, and beautiful.”</p> - -<p>Then, with that idea of the correlation of forces -always in his head, there recurs to him the notion -that if magnetism or electric currents can affect a -beam of light, there must be some sort of converse -phenomenon, and that in some way or other light -must be able to electrify or to magnetise. Thirty-one -years before, when visiting Rome with Davy, he had -witnessed the experiments of Morichini on the -alleged magnetic effect of violet light, and had -remained unconvinced. His own idea is very -different. And October 14th being a bright day with -good sunlight, he makes the attempt. Selecting a -very sensitive galvanometer, he connects it to a spiral -of wire 1 inch in diameter, 4·2 inches long, of 56 -convolutions, and then directs a beam of sunlight -along its axis. He tries letting the beam pass -alternately through the coil while the outside is -covered, and then along the exterior while the interior -is shaded. But still there is no effect. Then he -inserts an unmagnetised steel bar within the coil, and -rotates it while it is exposed to the sun’s rays. Still -there is no effect, and the sun goes down on another -of the unfulfilled expectations. But had he lived to -learn of the effect of light in altering the electric -resistance of selenium discovered by Mayhew, of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span> -photoelectric currents discovered by Becquerel, of -the discharging action of ultra-violet light discovered -by Hertz, of the revivifying effect of light on recently -demagnetised iron discovered by Bidwell, he would -have rejoiced that such other correlations should -have been found, though different from that which -he sought. On November 3rd he receives a new -horseshoe magnet, with which he hoped to find some -optical effect on air and other gases, but again -without result. That the magnetism of the earth -does actually rotate the plane of polarisation of -sky light was the discovery of Henri Becquerel so late -as 1878.</p> - -<p>Faithful to his own maxim: “Work, finish, -publish,” Faraday lost no time in writing out his -research. It was presented to the Royal Society on -November 6th, but the main result was verbally -mentioned on November 3rd at the monthly meeting -of the Royal Institution, and reported in the -<i>Athenæum</i> of November 8th, 1845.</p> - -<p>But even before the memoir was thus given to the -world another discovery had been made. For on -November 4th with the new magnet he repeated an -experiment which a month previously had been -without result. So preoccupied was he over the new -event that he did not even go to the meeting of the -Royal Society on November 20th, when his paper on -the “Action of Magnets on Light” was read. What -that new discovery was is well told by Faraday himself -in the letter which he sent to Professor A. de la Rive -on December <span class="locked">4th:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">FRESH MAGNETIC DISCOVERY.</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center">[<i>Faraday to Professor Aug. de la Rive.</i>]</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -Brighton, December 4, 1845. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">My Dear Friend</span>,— * * * I count upon you as one -of those whose free hearts have pleasure in my success, and I -am very grateful to you for it. I have had your last letter by -me on my desk for several weeks, intending to answer it; but -absolutely I have not been able, for of late I have shut myself -up in my laboratory and wrought, to the exclusion of everything -else. I heard afterwards that even your brother had -called on one of these days and been excluded.</p> - -<p>Well, a part of this result is that which you have heard, -and my paper was read to the Royal Society, I believe, last -Thursday, for I was not there; and I also understand there -have been notices in the <i>Athenæum</i>, but I have not had time -to see them, and I do not know how they are done. However, -I can refer you to the <i>Times</i> of last Saturday (November 29th) -for a very good abstract of the paper. I do not know who -put it in, but it is well done, though brief. To that account, -therefore, I will refer you.</p> - -<p>For I am still so involved in discovery that I have hardly -time for my meals, and am here at Brighton both to refresh -and work my head at once, and I feel that unless I had been -here, and been careful, I could not have continued my labours. -The consequence has been that last Monday I announced to -our members at the Royal Institution another discovery, of -which I will give you the pith in a few words. The paper will -go to the Royal Society next week, and probably be read as -shortly after as they can there find it convenient.</p> - -<p>Many years ago I worked upon optical glass, and made a -vitreous compound of silica, boracic acid, and lead, which I -will now call heavy glass, and which Amici uses in some of his -microscopes; and it was this substance which enabled me first -to act on light by magnetic and electric forces. Now, if a -square bar of this substance, about half an inch thick and two -inches long, be very freely suspended between the poles of a -powerful horse-shoe electro-magnet, immediately that the -magnetic force is developed, the bar points; but it does not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> -point from pole to pole, but equatorially or across the magnetic -lines of force—<i>i.e.</i> east and west in respect of the north and -south poles. If it be moved from this position it returns to -it, and this continues as long as the magnetic force is in action. -This effect is the result of a still simpler action of the magnet -on the bar than what appears by the experiment, and which -may be obtained at a single magnetic pole. For if a cubical -or rounded piece of the glass be suspended by a fine thread six -or eight feet long, and allowed to hang very near a strong -magneto-electric pole (not as yet made active), then on rendering -the pole magnetic the glass will be repelled, and continue -repelled until the magnetism ceases. This effect or power I -have worked out through a great number of its forms and -strange consequences, and they will occupy two series of the -“Experimental Researches.” It belongs to <em>all matter</em> (not -magnetic, as iron) without exception, so that every substance -belongs to the one or the other class—magnetic or diamagnetic -bodies. The law of action in its simple form is that such -matter tends to go from strong to weak points of magnetic -force, and in doing this the substance will go in either -direction along the magnetic curves, or in either direction -across them. It is curious that amongst the metals are found -bodies possessing this property in as high a degree as perhaps -any other substance. In fact, I do not know at present -whether heavy glass, or bismuth, or phosphorus is the most -striking in this respect. I have very little doubt that you -have an electro-magnet strong enough to enable you to verify -the chief facts of pointing equatorially and repulsion, if you -will use bismuth carefully examined as to its freedom from -magnetism, and making of it a bar an inch and a half long, -and one-third or one-fourth of an inch wide. Let me, however, -ask the favour of your keeping this fact to yourself for -two or three weeks, and preserving the date of this letter as a -record. I ought (in order to preserve the respect due to the -Royal Society) not to write a description to anyone until the -paper has been received or even read there. After three -weeks or a month I think you may use it, guarding, as I am -sure you will do, my right.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span> -And now, my dear friend, I must conclude, and hasten to -work again. But first give my kindest respects to Madame de -la Rive, and many thanks to your brother for his call.</p> - -<p>Ever your obedient and affectionate friend,</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">MAGNETIC EXPERIMENTS.</div> - -<p>The discovery of diamagnetism which Faraday -thus announced was in itself a notable achievement. -As Tyndall points out, the discovery itself was in all -probability due to Faraday’s habit of not regarding -as final any negative result of an experiment until he -had brought to bear upon it the most powerful -resources at his command. He had tried the effects of -ordinary magnets on brass and copper and other -materials commonly considered as non-magnetic. -But when, for the purpose of the preceding research -on the relation of magnetism to light, he had -deliberately procured electromagnets of unusual -power, he again tried what their effect might be upon -non-magnetic stuffs. Suspending a piece of his -heavy glass near the poles in a stirrup of writing-paper -slung upon the end of a long thread of cocoon -silk, he found it to experience a strong mechanical -action when the magnet was stimulated by turning -on the current. His precision of description is -<span class="locked">characteristic:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I shall have such frequent occasion to refer to two chief -positions of position across the magnetic field, that, to avoid -periphrasis, I will here ask leave to use a term or two -conditionally. One of these directions is that from pole to -pole, or along the lines of magnetic force, I will call it the -axial direction; the other is the direction perpendicular to -this, and across the line of magnetic force and for the time,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> -and as respects the space between the poles, I will call it the -<em>equatorial</em> direction.</p> -</div> - -<p>Note the occurrence in the above passage for the -first time of the term “the magnetic field.” Faraday’s -description of the discovery continues as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The bar of silicated borate of lead or heavy glass already -described as the substance in which magnetic forces were first -made effectually to bear on a ray of light, and which is 2 -inches long, and about 0·5 inch wide and thick, was suspended -centrally between the magnetic poles, and left until the effect -of torsion was over. The magnet was then thrown into action -by making contact at the voltaic battery. Immediately the -bar moved, turning round its point of suspension, into a -position across the magnetic curve or line of force, and, after a -few vibrations, took up its place of rest there. On being -displaced by hand from this position it returned to it, and -this occurred many times in succession.</p> - -<div id="i_188" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 14em;"> - <img src="images/i_188.png" width="640" height="324" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span></div></div> - -<p>Either end of the bar indifferently went to either side of -the axial line. The determining circumstance was simply -inclination of the bar one way or the other to the axial line at -the beginning of the experiment. If a particular or marked -end of the bar were on one side of the magnetic or axial -line when the magnet was rendered active, that end went -further outwards until the bar had taken up the equatorial -position....</p> - -<p>Here, then, we have a magnetic bar which points east -and west in relation to north and south poles—<i>i.e.</i> points -perpendicularly to the lines of magnetic force....</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">DIAMAGNETIC LAWS.</div> - -<p>To produce these effects of pointing across the magnetic -curves, the form of the heavy glass must be long. A cube or -a fragment approaching roundness in form will not point, but -a long piece will. Two or three rounded pieces or cubes, -placed side by side in a paper tray, so as to form an oblong -accumulation, will also point.</p> - -<p>Portions, however, of any form are <em>repelled</em>; so if two -pieces be hung up at once in the axial line, one near each pole, -they are repelled by their respective poles, and approach, -seeming to attract each other. Or if two pieces be hung -up in the equatorial line, one on each side of the axis, -then they both recede from the axis, seeming to repel each -other.</p> - -<p>From the little that has been said, it is evident that the -bar presents in its motion a complicated result of the force -exerted by the magnetic power over the heavy glass, and that -when cubes or spheres are employed a much simpler indication -of the effect may be obtained. Accordingly, when a cube was -thus used with the two poles, the effect was repulsion or -recession from either pole, and also recession from the magnetic -axis on either side.</p> - -<p>So the indicating particle would move either along the -magnetic curves or across them, and it would do this either in -one direction or the other, the only constant point being that -its tendency was to move from stronger to weaker places of -magnetic force.</p> - -<p>This appeared much more simply in the case of a single -magnetic pole, for then the tendency of the indicating cube or -sphere was to move outwards in the direction of the magnetic -lines of force. The appearance was remarkably like a case of -weak electric repulsion.</p> - -<p>The cause of the pointing of the bar, or any oblong -arrangement of the heavy glass, is now evident. It is merely -a result of the tendency of the particles to move outwards, or -into the positions of weakest magnetic action.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>When the bar of heavy glass is immersed in water, -alcohol, or æther, contained in a vessel between the poles, all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span> -the preceding effects occur—the bar points and the cube -recedes exactly in the same manner as in air.</p> - -<p>The effects equally occur in vessels of wood, stone, earth, -copper, lead, silver, or any of those substances which belong to -the diamagnetic class.</p> - -<p>I have obtained the same equatorial direction and -motions of the heavy glass bar as those just described, but -in a very feeble degree, by the use of a good common steel -horseshoe magnet.</p> -</div> - -<p>Then he goes on to enumerate the many bodies of -all sorts: crystals, powders, liquids, acids, oils; organic -bodies such as wax, olive-oil, wood, beef (fresh and -dry), blood, apple, and bread, all of which were found -to be diamagnetic. On this he <span class="locked">remarks:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>It is curious to see such a list as this of bodies presenting -on a sudden this remarkable property, and it is strange to find -a piece of wood, or beef, or apple, obedient to or repelled by a -magnet. If a man could be suspended with sufficient delicacy -after the manner of Dufay, and placed in the magnetic field, -he would point equatorially, for all the substances of which he -is formed, including the blood, possess this property.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">THE MAGNETIC BRAKE.</div> - -<p>A few bodies were found to be feebly magnetic, -including paper, sealing-wax, china ink, asbestos, -fluorspar, peroxide of lead, tourmaline, plumbago, -and charcoal. As to the metals, he found iron, -cobalt, and nickel to stand in a distinct class. A -feeble magnetic action in platinum, palladium, and -titanium was suspected to be due to traces of iron in -them. Bismuth proved to be the most strongly -diamagnetic, and was specially studied. The repellent -effect between bismuth and a magnet had indeed -been casually observed twice in the prior history of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span> -science, first by Brugmans, then by Le Baillif. -Faraday, with characteristic frankness, refers to his -having a “vague impression” that the repulsion of -bismuth by a magnet had been observed before, -though unable at the time of writing to recollect any -reference. His own experiments ran over the whole -range of substances, however, and demonstrated the -universal existence in greater or less degree of this -magnetic nature. Certain differences observed between -the behaviour of bismuth and of heavy glass -on the one hand, and of copper on the other hand, -though all are diamagnetic, led him to note and -describe some of the pseudo-diamagnetic effects which -occur in copper and silver, in consequence of the -induction in them of eddy-currents, from which heavy-glass -and bismuth are, by their inferior electric -conductivity, comparatively free. He described the -beautiful and now classical experiment of arresting, -by turning on the exciting current, the rotation of -a copper cylinder spinning between the poles of an -electromagnet.</p> - -<p>Faraday continued to prosecute this newest line of -research, and at the end of December, 1845, presented -another memoir (the twenty-first series of the Experimental -Researches) to the Royal Society. He had -now examined the salts of iron, and had found that -every salt and compound containing iron in the basic -part was magnetic, both in the solid and in the liquid -state. Even prussian-blue and green bottle-glass -were magnetic. The solutions of the salts of iron -were of special importance, since they furnish the -means of making a magnet which is for the time<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span> -liquid, transparent, and, within certain limits, adjustable -in strength. His next step was to examine how -bodies behaved when immersed in some surrounding -medium. A weak solution of iron, enclosed in a very -thin glass tube, though it pointed axially when hung -in air, pointed equatorially when immersed in a -stronger solution. A tube full of air pointed axially, -and was attracted as if magnetic when surrounded -with water. Substances such as bismuth, copper, and -phosphorus are, however, highly diamagnetic when -suspended <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">in vacuo</i>. Such a view would make <em>mere -space</em> magnetic. Hence Faraday inclined at first to -the opinion that diamagnetics had a specific action -antithetically distinct from ordinary magnetic action. -Several times he pointed out that all the phenomena -resolve themselves simply into this, that a portion of -such matter as is termed diamagnetic tends to move -from stronger to places or points of weaker force in -the magnetic field. He does, indeed, hazard the -suggestion that the phenomena might be explained -on the assumption that there was a sort of diamagnetic -polarity—that magnetic induction caused in -them a contrary state to that which it produced in -ordinary magnetic matter. But his own experiments -failed to support this view, and, in opposition -to Weber and Tyndall, he maintained -afterwards the non-polar nature of diamagnetic -action.</p> - -<p>In 1846 Faraday gave two Friday night discourses -on these magnetic researches, one on the cohesive -force of water, and one on Wheatstone’s electromagnetic -chronoscope. At the conclusion of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span> -last-named he said that he was induced to utter a -speculation which had long been gaining strength in -his mind, that perhaps those vibrations by which -radiant energies, such as light, heat, actinic rays, etc., -convey their force through space are not mere -vibrations of an æther, but of the lines of force which, -in his view, connect different masses, and so was -inclined, in his own phrase, “to dismiss the æther.” -In one of his other discourses he made the suggestion -that we might “perhaps hereafter obtain magnetism -from light.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THOUGHTS ON RAY VIBRATIONS.</div> - -<p>The speculation above referred to is of such -intrinsic importance, in view of the developments of -the last decade, that it compels further notice. -Faraday himself further expanded it in a letter to -Richard Phillips, which was printed in the <i>Philosophical -Magazine</i> for May, 1846, under the title -“Thoughts on Ray-vibrations.” In this avowedly -speculative paper Faraday touched the highest point -in his scientific writings, and threw out, though in a -tentative and fragmentary way, brilliant hints of that -which his imagination had perceived, as in a vision;—the -doctrine now known as the electromagnetic -theory of light. At the dates when the earlier -biographies of Faraday appeared, neither that doctrine -nor this paper had received the recognition due to its -importance. Tyndall dismisses it as “one of the -most singular speculations that ever emanated from -a scientific man.” Bence Jones just mentions it in -half a line. Dr. Gladstone does not allude to it. It -therefore seems expedient to give here some extracts -from the letter <span class="locked">itself:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="center"> -THOUGHTS ON RAY-VIBRATIONS.</p> - -<p class="center p1 b1"><i>To Richard Phillips, Esq.</i> -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dear Sir</span>,—At your request, I will endeavour to convey -to you a notion of that which I ventured to say at the close -of the last Friday evening meeting ...; but, from first -to last, understand that I merely threw out, as matter for -speculation, the vague impressions of my mind, for I gave -nothing as the result of sufficient consideration, or as the -settled conviction, or even probable conclusion at which I had -arrived.</p> - -<p>The point intended to be set forth for the consideration -of the hearers was whether it was not possible that the -vibrations—which in a certain theory are assumed to account -for radiation and radiant phenomena—may not occur in the -lines of force which connect particles, and consequently -masses, of matter together—a notion which, as far as it is -admitted, will dispense with the æther, which, in another -view, is supposed to be the medium in which these vibrations -take place.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>Another consideration bearing conjointly on the hypothetical -view, both of matter and radiation, arises from the -comparison of the velocities with which the radiant action and -certain powers of matter are transmitted. The velocity of -light through space is about 190,000 miles<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> a second. The -velocity of electricity is, by the experiments of Wheatstone, -shown to be as great as this, if not greater. The light is -supposed to be transmitted by vibrations through an æther -which is, so to speak, destitute of gravitation, but infinite in -elasticity; the electricity is transmitted through a small -metallic wire, and is often viewed as transmitted by vibrations -also. That the electric transference depends on the forces or -powers of the matter of the wire can hardly be doubted when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span> -we consider the different conductibility of the various metallic -and other bodies, the means of affecting it by heat or cold, the -way in which conducting bodies by combination enter into the -constitution of non-conducting substances, and the contrary, -and the actual existence of one elementary body (carbon) both -in the conducting and non-conducting state. The power of -electric conduction, being a transmission of force equal in -velocity to that of light, appears to be tied up in and -dependent upon the properties of the matter, and is, as it -were, existent in them.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote">LATERAL VIBRATIONS.</div> - -<div id="i_195" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 10em;"> - <img src="images/i_195.png" width="449" height="299" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span></div></div> - -<p>In experimental philosophy we can, by the phenomena -presented, recognise various kinds of lines of force. Thus -there are the lines of gravitating force, those of electrostatic -induction, those of magnetic action, and others partaking of a -dynamic character might be perhaps included. The lines of -electric and magnetic action are by many considered as -exerted through space like the lines of gravitating force. For -my own part, I incline to believe that when there are intervening -particles of matter—being themselves only centres of -force—they take part in carrying on the force through the -line, but that when there are none the line proceeds through -space. Whatever the view adopted respecting them may be, -we can, at all events, affect these lines of force in a manner -which may be conceived as partaking of the nature of a shake -or lateral vibration. For suppose two bodies, <span class="allsmcap">A</span> <span class="allsmcap">B</span>, distant -from each other, and under mutual action,<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a> and therefore<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span> -connected by lines of force, and let us fix our attention upon -one resultant of force having an invariable direction as regards -space; if one of the bodies move in the least degree right or -left, or if its power be shifted for a moment within the mass -(neither of these cases being difficult to realise if <span class="allsmcap">A</span> or <span class="allsmcap">B</span> be -either electric or magnetic bodies), then an effect equivalent to -a lateral disturbance will take place in the resultant upon -which we are fixing our attention, for either it will increase -in force whilst the neighbouring resultants are diminishing, -or it will fall in force while they are increasing.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>The view which I am so bold as to put forth considers, -therefore, radiation as a high species of vibration in the lines -of force which are known to connect particles, and also masses, -of matter together. It endeavours to dismiss the æther, but -not the vibrations. The kind of vibration which, I believe, -can alone account for the wonderful, varied, and beautiful -phenomena of polarisation is not the same as that which -occurs on the surface of disturbed water or the waves of sound -in gases or liquids, for the vibrations in these cases are direct, -or to and from the centre of action, whereas the former are -lateral. It seems to me that the resultant of two or more -lines of force is in an apt condition for that action, which may -be considered as equivalent to a <em>lateral</em> vibration; whereas a -uniform medium like the æther does not appear apt, or more -apt than air or water.</p> - -<p>The occurrence of a change at one end of a line of force -easily suggests a consequent change at the other. The -propagation of light, and therefore probably of all radiant -action, occupies <em>time</em>; and that a vibration of the line of force -should account for the phenomena of radiation, it is necessary -that such vibration should occupy time also.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote">THE SHADOW OF A SPECULATION.</div> - -<p>And now, my dear Phillips I must conclude. I do not -think I should have allowed these notions to have escaped -from me had I not been led unawares, and without previous -consideration, by the circumstances of the evening on which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span> -I had to appear suddenly<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> and occupy the place of another. -Now that I have put them on paper, I feel that I ought to -have kept them much longer for study, consideration, and -perhaps final rejection; and it is only because they are sure -to go abroad in one way or another, in consequence of their -utterance on that evening, that I give them a shape, if shape -it may be called, in this reply to your inquiry. One thing is -certain, that any hypothetical view of radiation which is likely -to be received or retained as satisfactory must not much -longer comprehend alone certain phenomena of light, but must -include those of heat and of actinic influence also, and even -the conjoined phenomena of sensible heat and chemical power -produced by them. In this respect a view which is in some -degree founded upon the ordinary forces of matter may -perhaps find a little consideration amongst the other views -that will probably arise. I think it likely that I have made -many mistakes in the preceding pages, for even to myself my -ideas on this point appear only as the shadow of a speculation, -or as one of those impressions on the mind which are allowable -for a time as guides to thought and research. He who labours -in experimental inquiries knows how numerous these are, and -how often their apparent fitness and beauty vanish before the -progress and development of real, natural truth.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l2">I am, my dear Phillips,</span><br /> -<span class="l2">Ever truly yours,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> - -<p> -<i>Royal Institution</i>,<br /> -<span class="in4"><i>April 15, 1846</i>.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>If it be thought that too high a value has here -been set upon a document which its author -himself only claimed to be “the shadow of a -speculation,” let that value be justified out of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span> -mouth of the man who eighteen years later enriched -the world with the mathematical theory of the propagation -of electric waves, the late Professor Clerk -Maxwell. In 1864 he published in the <cite>Philosophical -Transactions</cite> a “Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic -Field,” in which the following passages -<span class="locked">occur:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>We have therefore reason to believe, from the phenomena -of light and heat, that there is an æthereal medium filling -space and permeating bodies capable of being set in motion, -and of transmitting that motion to gross matter, so as to heat -it and affect it in various ways.... Hence the parts of -this medium must be so connected that the motion of one part -depends in some way on the motion of the rest; and at the -same time these connections must be capable of a certain kind -of elastic yielding, since the communication of motion is not -instantaneous, but occupies time. The medium is therefore -capable of receiving and storing up two kinds of energy—namely, -the “actual” energy depending on the motion of its -parts, and “potential” energy, consisting of the work which -the medium will do in recovering from displacement in virtue -of its elasticity.</p> - -<p>The propagation of undulations consists in the continual -transformation of one of these forms of energy into the other -alternately, and at any instant the amount of energy in the -whole medium is equally divided, so that half is energy of -motion and half is elastic resilience.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>In order to bring these results within the power of -symbolic calculation, I then express them in the form of the -general equations of the electromagnetic field.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>The general equations are next applied to the case of a -magnetic disturbance propagated through a non-conducting -field, and it is shown that the only disturbances which can be -so propagated are those which are transverse to the direction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span> -of propagation, and that the velocity of propagation is the -velocity <em>v</em>, found from experiments such as those of Weber, -which expresses the number of electrostatic units of electricity -which are contained in one electromagnetic unit. This velocity -is so nearly that of light, that it seems we have strong -reason to conclude that light itself (including radiant heat and -other radiations, if any) is an electromagnetic disturbance in -the form of waves propagated through the electromagnetic -field according to electromagnetic laws.... Conducting -media are shown to absorb such radiations rapidly, and therefore -to be generally opaque.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY OF LIGHT.</div> - -<p>The conception of the propagation of transverse magnetic -disturbances to the exclusion of normal ones is distinctly set -forth by Professor Faraday in his “Thoughts on Ray Vibrations.” -<em>The electromagnetic theory of light, as proposed by -him, is the same in substance as that which I have begun to -develop in this paper</em>,<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> except that in 1846 there were no data -to calculate the velocity of propagation.</p> -</div> - -<p>During the rest of this year (1846) and the next -Faraday did very little research, though he continued -his Royal Institution lectures and his reports for -Trinity House. Amongst the latter in 1847 was one -on a proposal to light buoys by incandescent electric -lamps containing a platinum wire spiral. He was -compelled, indeed, to rest by a recurrence of brain -troubles, giddiness, and loss of memory. Honours -however, continued to be heaped upon him both -abroad and at home, as the following extract from -Bence Jones <span class="locked">shows:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>In 1846, for his two great discoveries, the Rumford and -the Royal Medals were both awarded to him. This double -honour will probably long be unique in the annals of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span> -Royal Society. In former years he had already received the -Copley and Royal Medals for his experimental discoveries. -As his medals increased it became remarkable that he—who -kept his diploma-book, his portraits and letters of scientific -men, and everything he had in the most perfect order—seemed -to take least care of his most valuable rewards. They were -locked up in a box, and might have passed for old iron. -Probably he thought, as others did afterwards, that their -value, if seen, might lead to their loss.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">CRYSTALLINE FORCES.</div> - -<p>Between the twenty-first and twenty-second series -of “Experimental Researches” nearly three years -elapsed. In the autumn of 1848 the matter which -claimed investigation was the peculiar behaviour of -bismuth in the magnetic field. Certain anomalies -were observed which were finally traced to the -crystalline nature of the metal, for it appeared that -when in that state the crystals themselves—to adopt -modern phraseology—showed a greater magnetic -permeability in a direction perpendicular to their -planes of cleavage than in any direction parallel to -those planes. Hence when a crystalline fragment -was hung in a <em>uniform</em> magnetic field (where the -diamagnetic tendency to move from a strong to a -weak region of the field was eliminated), it tended to -point in a determinate direction. Faraday expressed -it that the structure of the crystal showed a certain -“axiality,” and he regarded these effects as presenting -evidence of a “magnecrystallic” force, the law of -action being that the line or axis of magnecrystallic -force tended to place itself parallel to the lines of the -magnetic field in which the crystal was placed. -Arsenic, antimony, and other crystalline metals were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span> -similarly examined. The subject was an intricate -one, and there are frequent obscurities in the phraseology -tentatively adopted for explaining the phenomena. -In one place Faraday rather pathetically -laments his imperfect mathematical knowledge. This -seems like an echo of his inability to follow the -analytical reasoning of Poisson, who, starting from a -hypothesis about the supposed “magnetic fluids” -being movable within the particles of a body, -supposing that these particles were non-spherical and -were symmetrically arranged, had predicted (in 1827) -that a portion of such a substance would, when -brought into the neighbourhood of a magnet, act -differently, according to the different positions in -which it might be turned about its centre. But this -very inability to follow Poisson’s refined analysis gave -a new direction to Faraday’s thoughts, and caused -him to conceive the idea of magnetic permeabilities -differing in different directions, an idea which, as -Sir William Thomson (the present Lord Kelvin) -showed in 1851,<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> is equally susceptible of mathematical -treatment by appropriate symbols. Lord -Kelvin has also spoken (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i>, p. 484) of the -matter as follows: “The singular combination of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span> -mathematical acuteness with experimental research -and profound physical speculation which Faraday, -though not a ‘mathematician,’ presented is remarkably -illustrated by his use of the expression ‘<em>conducting -power of a magnetic medium for lines of force</em>.’” -Tyndall has given a succinct summary of these -researches—in which also he took a part—from -which the following extract must <span class="locked">suffice:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>And here follows one of those expressions which characterise -the conceptions of Faraday in regard to force generally: -“It appears to me impossible to conceive of the results -in any other way than by a mutual reaction of the magnetic -force, and the force of the particles of the crystal upon each -other.” He proves that the action of the force, though thus -molecular, is an action at a distance. He shows that a -bismuth crystal can cause a freely-suspended magnetic needle -to set parallel to its magnecrystallic axis. Few living men are -aware of the difficulty of obtaining results like this, or of the -delicacy necessary to their attainment. “But though it thus -takes up the character of a force acting at a distance, still it is -due to that power of the particles which makes them cohere in -regular order and gives the mass its crystalline aggregation, -and so often spoken of as acting at <em>insensible</em> distances.” Thus -he broods over this new force, and looks at it from all points -of inspection. Experiment follows experiment, as thought -follows thought. He will not relinquish the subject as long as -a hope exists of throwing more light upon it. He knows full -well the anomalous nature of the conclusion to which his -experiments lead him. But experiment to him is final, and he -will not shrink from the conclusion. “This force,” he says, -“appears to me to be very strange and striking in its character. -It is not polar, for there is no attraction or repulsion.” And -then, as if startled by his own utterance, he asks: “What is -the nature of the mechanical force which turns the crystal -round and makes it affect a magnet?”... “I do not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span> -remember,” he continues, “heretofore such a case of force as -the present one—where a body is brought into position only -without attraction or repulsion.”</p> - -<p>Plücker, the celebrated geometer already mentioned, who -pursued experimental physics for many years of his life with -singular devotion and success, visited Faraday in those days, -and repeated before him his beautiful experiments on magneto-optic -action. Faraday repeated and verified Plücker’s observations, -and concluded, what he at first seemed to doubt, that -Plücker’s results and magnecrystallic action had the same -origin.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">MAGNETISM AND CRYSTALLISATION.</div> - -<p>At the end of his papers, when he takes a last look along -the line of research, and then turns his eyes to the future, -utterances quite as much emotional as scientific escape from -Faraday. “I cannot,” he says at the end of his first paper on -magnecrystallic action, “conclude this series of researches -without remarking how rapidly the knowledge of molecular -forces grows upon us, and how strikingly every investigation -tends to develop more and more their importance and their -extreme attraction as an object of study. A few years ago -magnetism was to us an occult power, affecting only a few -bodies. Now it is found to influence all bodies, and to possess -the most intimate relations with electricity, heat, chemical -action, light, crystallisation, and through it with the forces -concerned in cohesion. And we may, in the present state of -things, well feel urged to continue in our labours, encouraged -by the hope of bringing it into a bond of union with gravity -itself.”</p> -</div> - -<p>In 1848 Faraday gave five Friday night discourses, -three of them on the “Diamagnetic Condition of -Flame and Gases.” In 1849 he gave two, one of -them on Plücker’s researches. In 1850 he gave -two, one of them being on the electricity of the -air, the other on certain conditions of freezing -water. He had meanwhile continued to work at -magnetism. The twenty-third series dealt with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span> -supposed diamagnetic polarity. It incidentally discussed -the distortion produced in a magnetic field by -a mass of copper in motion across it. The twenty-fourth -series was on the possible relation of gravity -to electricity. The paper concludes with the words: -“Here end my trials for the present. The results are -negative. They do not shake my strong feeling of -the existence of a relation between gravity and -electricity, though they give no proof that such a -relation exists.” The next series (the twenty-fifth) -was on the “Non-expansion of Gases by Magnetic -Force” and on the “Magnetic Characters of Oxygen -[which he had found to be highly magnetic], Nitrogen, -and Space.” He had found that magnetically substances -must be classed either along with iron and -the materials that point axially, or else with bismuth -and those that point equatorially, in the magnetic -field. The best vacuum he could procure he regarded -as the zero of these tests; but before adopting it as -such, he verified by experiment that even in a -vacuum a magnetic body still tends from weaker to -stronger places in the magnetic field; while diamagnetic -bodies tend from stronger to weaker. He then -says we must consider the magnetic character and -relation of <em>space</em> free from any material substance. -“Mere space cannot act as matter acts, even though -the utmost latitude be allowed to the hypothesis of -an ether.” He then proceeds as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">MORE NEW WORDS.</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Now that the true zero is obtained, and the great variety -of material substances satisfactorily divided into two general -classes, it appears to me that we want another name for the -magnetic class, that we may avoid confusion. The word<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span> -<em>magnetic</em> ought to be general, and include <em>all</em> the phenomena -and effects produced by that power. But then a word -for the subdivision opposed to the diamagnetic class is -necessary. As the language of this branch of science may -soon require general and careful changes, I, assisted by a kind -friend, have thought that a word—not selected with particular -care—might be provisionally useful; and as the magnetism -of iron, nickel, and cobalt when in the magnetic field is like -that of the earth as a whole, so that when rendered active -they place themselves parallel to its axes or lines of magnetic -force, I have supposed that they and their similars (including -oxygen now) might be called paramagnetic bodies, giving -the following <span class="locked">division:—</span></p> - -<p class="center vtight"> -<span class="in4">{ paramagnetic</span><br /> -<span class="l6">Magnetic {</span><br /> -<span class="in4">{ diamagnetic. </span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>The “kind friend” alluded to was Whewell, as the -following letter <span class="locked">shows:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center">[<i>Rev. W. Whewell to M. Faraday.</i>]</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -July, 1850. -</p> - -<p>I am always glad to hear of your wanting new words, -because the want shows that you are pursuing new thoughts—and -your new thoughts are worth something—but I always -feel also how difficult it is for one who has not pursued the -train of thought to suggest the right word. There are so -many relations involved in a new discovery, and the word -ought not glaringly to violate any of them. The purists would -certainly object to the opposition, or co-ordination, of <em>ferromagnetic</em> -and <em>diamagnetic</em>, not only on account of the want of -symmetry in the relation of <em>ferro</em> and <em>dia</em>, but also because the -one is Latin and the other Greek.... Hence it would -appear that the two classes of magnetic bodies are those which -place their length <em>parallel</em>, or <em>according</em>, to the terrestrial -magnetic lines, and those which place their length transverse -to such lines. Keeping the preposition <em>dia</em> for the latter, the -preposition <em>para</em>, or <em>ana</em>, might be used for the former. -Perhaps para would be best, as the word <em>parallel</em>, in which -it is involved, would be a technical memory for it.... I<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span> -rejoice to hear that you have new views of discovery opening -to you. I always rejoice to hail the light of such when they -dawn upon you.</p> -</div> - -<p>The twenty-sixth series of researches opened with -a consideration of magnetic “conducting power,” or -permeability as we should now term it, and then -branched off into a lengthy discussion of atmospheric -magnetism. The subject was continued through the -twenty-seventh series, which was completed in -November, 1850. The gist of this is summed up in -one of his letters to <span class="locked">Schönbein:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -Royal Institution, November 19, 1850. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">My Dear Schönbein</span>,—I wish I could talk with you, -instead of being obliged to use pen and paper. I have fifty -matters to speak about, but either they are too trifling for -writing, or too important, for what can one discuss or say -in a letter?... By the bye, I have been working with -the oxygen of the air also. You remember that three years -ago I distinguished it as a magnetic gas in my paper on -the diamagnetism of flame and gases founded on Bancalari’s -experiment. Now I find in it the cause of all the annual and -diurnal, and many of the irregular, variations in the terrestrial -magnetism. The observations made at Hobarton, Toronto, -Greenwich, St. Petersburg, Washington, St. Helena, the Cape -of Good Hope, and Singapore, all appear to me to accord with -and support my hypothesis. I will not pretend to give you -an account of it here, for it would require some detail, and -I really am weary of the subject. I have sent in three long -papers to the Royal Society, and you shall have copies of them -in due time....</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l2">Ever, my dear Schönbein, most truly yours,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">PAPERS TO BE LET LOOSE.</div> - -<p>While writing out these researches for the Royal -Society, he had been staying in Upper Norwood. He<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span> -wrote thus of himself to Miss Moore at the end of -<span class="locked">August:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>We have taken a little house here on the hill-top, where I -have a small room to myself, and have, ever since we came -here, been deeply immersed in magnetic cogitations. I write, -and write, and write, until three papers for the Royal Society -are nearly completed, and I hope that two of them will be -good if they justify my hopes, for I have to criticise them -again and again before I let them loose. You shall hear of -them at some of the Friday evenings. At present I must not -say more. After writing, I walk out in the evening, hand-in-hand -with my dear wife, to enjoy the sunset; for to me, who -love scenery, of all that I have seen or can see there is none -surpasses that of Heaven. A glorious sunset brings with it a -thousand thoughts that delight me.</p> -</div> - -<p>To De la Rive he wrote later as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center">[<i>M. Faraday to A. de la Rive.</i>]</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -Royal Institution, February 4, 1851. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">My Dear de la Rive</span>,—My wife and I were exceedingly -sorry to hear of your sad loss. It brought vividly to our -remembrance the time when we were at your house, and you, -and others with you, made us so welcome. What can we say -to these changes but that they show by comparison the vanity -of all things under the sun? I am very glad that you have -spirits to return to work again, for that is a healthy and -proper employment of the mind under such circumstances.</p> - -<p>With respect to my views and experiments, I do not -think that anything shorter than the papers (and they will run -to a hundred pages in the “Transactions”) will give you -possession of the subject, because a great deal depends upon -the comparison of observations in different parts of the world -with the facts obtained by experiment, and with the deductions -drawn from them; but I will try to give you an idea of -the root of the matter. You are aware that I use the phrase<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span> -<em>line of magnetic force</em>, to represent the presence of magnetic -force, and the direction (of polarity) in which it is exerted; -and by the idea which it conveys one obtains very well, and I -believe without error, a notion of the distribution of the forces -about a bar magnet, or between near flat poles presenting a -field of equal force, or in any other case. Now, if circumstances -be arranged so as to present a field of equal force, -which is easily done, as I have shown by the electro-magnet, -then if a sphere of iron or nickel be placed in the field, it -immediately disturbs the direction of the lines of force, for -they are concentrated within the sphere. They are, however, -not merely concentrated, but <em>contorted</em>, for the sum of forces -in any one section across the field is always equal to the sum -of forces in any other section, and therefore their condensation -in the iron or nickel cannot occur without this contortion. -Moreover, the contortion is easily shown by using a small -needle (one-tenth of an inch long) to examine the field, for, as -before the introduction of the sphere of iron or nickel, it -would always take up a position parallel to itself. Afterwards -it varies in position in different places near the sphere. -This being understood, let us then suppose the sphere to be -raised in temperature. At a certain temperature it begins to -lose its power of affecting the lines of magnetic force, and ends -by retaining scarcely any. So that as regards the little needle -mentioned above, it now stands everywhere parallel to itself -within the field of force. This change occurs with iron at a -very high temperature, and is passed through within the -compass, apparently, of a small number of degrees. With -nickel it occurs at much lower temperatures, being affected by -the heat of boiling oil.</p> - -<p>Now take another step. Oxygen, as I showed above, -three years ago in the <i>Philosophical Magazine</i> for 1847, vol. -xxxi., pp. 410, 415, 416, is magnetic in relation to nitrogen and -other gases. E. Becquerel, without knowing of my results, -has confirmed and extended them in his paper of last year, -and given certain excellent measures. In my paper of 1847 -I showed also that oxygen (like iron and nickel) lost its -magnetic power and its ability of being attracted by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span> -magnet when heated (p. 417). And I further showed that the -temperatures at which this took place were within the range -of common temperature, for the oxygen of the air—<i>i.e.</i> the air -altogether—is increased in magnetic power when cooled to -0° F. (p. 406). Now I must refer you to the papers themselves -for the (to me) strange results of the incompressibility -(magnetically speaking) of oxygen and the inexpansibility of -nitrogen and other gases; for the description of a differential -balance by which I can compare gas with gas, or the same -gas at different degrees of rarefaction; for the determination -of the true zero, or point between magnetic and diamagnetic -bodies; and for certain views of magnetic conduction and -polarity. You will there find described certain very delicate -experiments upon diamagnetic and very weak magnetic bodies -concerning their action on each other in a magnetic field of -equal force. The magnetic bodies repel each other, and the -diamagnetic bodies repel each other; but a magnetic and a -diamagnetic body <em>attract</em> each other. And these results, -combined with the qualities of oxygen as just described, -convince me that it is able to deflect the lines of magnetic -force passing through it just as iron or nickel is, but to an -infinitely smaller amount, and that its power of deflecting -the lines varies with its temperature and degree of rarefaction.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ATMOSPHERIC MAGNETISM.</div> - -<p>Then comes in the consideration of the atmosphere, and -the manner in which it rises and falls in temperature by the -presence and absence of the sun. The place of the great warm -region nearly in his neighbourhood; of the two colder regions -which grow up and diminish in the northern and southern -hemispheres as the sun travels between the tropics; the effect -of the extra warmth of the northern hemisphere over the -southern; the effect of accumulation from the action of -preceding months; the effect of dip and mean declination at -each particular station; the effects that follow from the non-coincidence -of magnetic and astronomical conditions of -polarity, meridians, and so forth; the results of the distribution -of land and water for any given place—for all these and -many other things I must refer you to the papers. I could -not do them justice in any account that a letter could contain,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span> -and should run the risk of leading you into error regarding -them. But I may say that, deducing from the experiments -and the theory what are the deviations of the magnetic needle -at any given station, which may be expected as the mean -result of the heating and cooling of the atmosphere for a given -season and hour, I find such a general accordance with the -results of observations, especially in the direction and generally -in the amount for different seasons of the <em>declination</em> variation, -as to give me the strongest hopes that I have assigned -the true physical cause of those variations, and shown the -<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">modus operandi</i> of their production.</p> - -<p>And now, my dear de la Rive, I must leave you and run -to other matters. As soon as I can send you a copy of the -papers I will do so, and can only say I hope that they will -meet with your approbation. With the kindest remembrances -to your son,</p> - -<p>Believe me to be, my dear friend, ever truly yours,</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>This hope of explaining the variations of terrestrial -magnetism by the magnetic properties of the oxygen -of the air was destined to be illusory. At that time -the cosmical nature of magnetic storms was unknown -and unsuspected. To this matter we may well apply -Faraday’s own words addressed to Tyndall respecting -the alleged diamagnetic polarity, and the conflict of -views between himself on the one hand and Weber -and Tyndall on the other:—“It is not wonderful that -views differ at first. Time will gradually sift and -shape them. And I believe that we have little idea -at present of the importance they may have ten or -twenty years hence.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">LINES OF MAGNETIC FORCE.</div> - -<p>In 1851, from July to December, Faraday was -actively at work in the laboratory. The results<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span> -constitute the material for the twenty-eighth and -twenty-ninth (the last) series of the “Experimental -Researches.” In these he returned to the subject -with which the first series had opened in 1831: the -induction of electric currents by the relative motion -of magnets and conducting wires. These two -memoirs, together with his Royal Institution lecture -of January, 1852, “On the Lines of Magnetic Force,” -and the paper “On the Physical Character of the -Lines of Magnetic Force” (which he sent to the -<i>Philosophical Magazine</i>, as containing “so much of -a speculative and hypothetical nature”), should be -read, and re-read, and read again, by every student -of physics. They are reprinted at the end of the -third volume of the “Experimental Researches.”</p> - -<p>In the opening of the twenty-eighth memoir he -<span class="locked">says:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>From my earliest experiments on the relation of electricity -and magnetism, I have had to think and speak of lines of -magnetic force as representations of the magnetic power—not -merely in the points of quality and direction, but also in -quantity.... The direction of these lines about and -amongst magnets and electric currents is easily represented -and understood in a general manner by the ordinary use of -iron filings.</p> - -<p>A point equally important to the definition of these lines -is, that they represent a determinate and unchanging amount -of force. Though, therefore, their forms, as they exist between -two or more centres or sources of power, may vary very -greatly, and also the space through which they may be traced, -yet the sum of power contained in any one section of a given -portion of the lines is exactly equal to the sum of power in -any other section<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> of the same lines, however altered in form<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span> -or however convergent or divergent they may be at the second -place.... Now, it appears to me that these lines may -be employed with great advantage to represent the nature, -condition, and comparative amount of the magnetic forces, -and that in many cases they have, to the physical reasoner, at -least, a superiority over that method which represents the -forces as concentrated in centres of action, such as the poles of -magnets or needles; or some other methods, as, for instance, -that which considers north or south magnetisms as fluids -diffused over the end, or amongst the particles, of a bar. No -doubt any of these methods which does not assume too much -will, with a faithful application, give true results. And so -they all ought to give the same results, as far as they can -respectively be applied. But some may, by their very nature, -be applicable to a far greater extent, and give far more varied -results, than others. For, just as either geometry or analysis -may be employed to solve correctly a particular problem, -though one has far more power and capability, generally -speaking, than the other; or, just as either the idea of the -reflexion of images or that of the reverberation of sounds may -be used to represent certain physical forces and conditions, so -may the idea of the attractions and repulsions of centres, or -that of the disposition of magnetic fluids, or that of lines of -force, be applied in the consideration of magnetic phenomena. -It is the occasional and more frequent use of the latter which -I at present wish to advocate.... When the natural -truth, and the conventional representation of it, most closely -agree, then are we most advanced in our knowledge. The -emission and æther theories present such cases in relation to -light. The idea of a fluid or of two fluids is the same for -electricity; and there the further idea of a current has been -raised, which, indeed, has such hold on the mind as occasionally -to embarrass the science as respects the true character of -the physical agencies, and may be doing so even now to a -degree which we at present little suspect. The same is the -case with the idea of a magnetic fluid or fluids, or with the -assumption of magnetic centres of action of which the -resultants are at the poles.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE FUNCTIONS OF THE ÆTHER.</div> - -<p>How the magnetic force is transferred through bodies or -through space we know not—whether the result is merely -action at a distance, as in the case of gravity, or by some -intermediate agency, as in the cases of light, heat, the electric -current, and, as I believe, static electric action. The idea of -magnetic fluids, as applied by some, or of magnetic centres of -action, does not include that of the latter kind of transmission, -but the idea of lines of force does. Nevertheless, because a -particular method of representing the forces does not include -such a mode of transmission, the latter is not disproved, and -that method of representation which harmonises with it may -be the most true to nature. The general conclusion of -philosophers seems to be that such cases are by far the most -numerous. And for my own part, considering the relation of -a vacuum to the magnetic force, and the general character of -magnetic phenomena external to the magnet, I am more -inclined to the notion that in the transmission of the force -there is such an action, external to the magnet, than that the -effects are merely attraction and repulsion at a distance. -<em>Such an action may be a function of the æther, for it is not at -all unlikely that if there be an æther, it should have other uses -than simply the conveyance of radiations.</em><a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a></p> -</div> - -<p>He then proceeds to recount the experimental -evidence of revolving magnets and loops of wire. -Following out the old lines of so moving the parts of -the system that the magnetic lines were “cut” by the -copper conductors, and connecting the latter with a -slow-period galvanometer, to test the resultant induction, -he found that “the <em>amount</em> of magnetic -force” [or <em>flux</em>, as we should nowadays call it] “is -determinate for the same lines of force, whatever the -distance of the point or plane at which their power is -exerted is from the magnet.” The convergence or -divergence of the lines of force caused, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">per se</i>, no<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span> -difference in their amount. Obliquity of intersection -caused no difference, provided the same lines of force -were cut. If a wire was moving in a field of equal -intensity, and with a uniform motion, then the -current produced was proportional to the velocity of -motion. The “quantity of electricity thrown into -a current” was, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">ceteris paribus</i>, “directly as the -amount of curves intersected.” Within the magnet, -running through its substance, existed lines of force -of the <em>same nature</em> as those without, exactly equal in -<em>amount</em> to those without, and were, indeed, <em>continuous</em> -with them. The conclusion must logically -be that every line of force is a closed circuit.</p> - -<p>Having thus established the exact quantitative -laws of magneto-electric induction, he then advanced -to make use of the induced current as a means of -investigating the presence, direction, and amount of -magnetic forces—in other words, to explore and -measure magnetic fields. He constructed revolving -rectangles and rings furnished with a simple commutator, -to measure inductively the magnetic forces of -the earth. Then he employed the induced current to -test the constancy of magnets when placed near to -other magnets in ways that might affect their power. -Next he considers the fields of magnetic force of two -or more associated magnets, and notes how their -magnetic lines may coalesce when they are so placed -as to constitute parts of a common magnetic circuit. -The twenty-ninth series is brought to a close by a -discussion of the experimental way of delineating -lines of magnetic force by means of iron filings.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE ELECTROTONIC STATE.</div> - -<p>The paper on the “Physical Character of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span> -Lines of Magnetic Force” recapitulated the points -established in the twenty-ninth series of “Researches,” -and emphasis is laid upon the logical necessity that -time must be required for their propagation. The -physical effects in a magnetic field, as equivalent to a -tendency for the magnetic lines to shorten themselves, -and to repel one another laterally, are considered, and -are contrasted with the effects of parallel electric -currents. Commenting on the mutual relation -between the directions of an electric current and of -its surrounding magnetic lines, he raises the question -whether or not they consist in a state of tension of -the æther. “Again and again,” he says, “the idea of -an <em>electrotonic</em> state has been forced on my mind. -Such a state would coincide and become identified -with that which would then constitute the physical -lines of magnetic force.” Then he traces out the -analogy between a magnet, with its “sphondyloid” -(or spindle-form field) of magnetic lines, and a voltaic -battery immersed in water, with its re-entrant lines -of flow of circulating current. Incidentally, while -discussing the principle of the magnetic circuit, he -points out that when a magnet is furnished at its -poles with masses of soft iron, it can both receive and -retain a higher magnetic charge than it does without -them, “for these masses carry on the physical lines of -force, and deliver them to a body of surrounding -space, which is either widened, and therefore increased, -in the direction across the lines of force, -or shortened in that direction parallel to them, or -both; and both are circumstances which facilitate -the conduction from pole to pole.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">NOVELTY OF FARADAY’S VIEWS.</div> - -<p>Thus closed, with the exception of two fragmentary -papers, one on “Physical Lines of Force,” and the -other on “Some Points in Magnetic Philosophy,” in -the years 1853 and 1854 respectively, the main life-work -of Faraday, his “Experimental Researches.” -Their effect in revolutionising electric science, if slow, -was yet sure. Though the principle of the dynamo -was discovered and published in 1831, nearly forty -years elapsed before electric-lighting machinery -became a commercial product. Though the dependence -of inductive actions, both electromagnetic and -electrostatic, upon the properties of the intervening -medium was demonstrated and elaborated in these -“Researches,” electricians for many years continued -to propound theories which ignored this fundamental -fact. French and German writers continued to -publish treatises based on the ancient doctrines of -action at a distance, and of imaginary electric and -magnetic fluids. Von Boltzmann, a typical German -of the first rank in science, says that until there came -straight from England the counter-doctrines amidst -which Faraday had lived, “we (in Germany and -France) had all more or less imbibed with our -mothers’ milk the ideas of magnetic and electric -fluids acting direct at a distance.” And again, “The -theory of Maxwell”—that is, Faraday’s theory thrown -by Maxwell into mathematical shape—“is so diametrically -opposed to the ideas which have become -customary to us, that we must first cast behind us all -our previous views of the nature and operation of -electric forces before we can enter into its portals.” -The divergence of view between Faraday and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span> -Continental electricians is nowhere more clearly -stated than by Faraday’s great interpreter, Maxwell, -in the <em>apologia</em> which he prefixed in 1873 to his -“Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism,” wherein, -speaking of the differences between this work and -those recently published in Germany, he <span class="locked">wrote:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>One reason of this is that before I began the study of -electricity I resolved to read no mathematics on the subject till -I had first read through Faraday’s “Experimental Researches -on Electricity.” I was aware that there was supposed to be -a difference between Faraday’s way of conceiving phenomena -and that of the mathematicians. So that neither he nor they -were satisfied with each other’s language. I had also the -conviction that this discrepancy did not arise from either -party being wrong. I was first convinced of this by Sir -William Thomson [Lord Kelvin], to whose advice and assistance, -as well as to his published papers, I owe most of what -I have learned on this subject.</p> - -<p>As I proceeded with the study of Faraday, I perceived -that his method of conceiving the phenomena was also a -mathematical one, though not exhibited in the conventional -form of mathematical symbols. I also found that these -methods were capable of being expressed in the ordinary -mathematical forms, and thus compared with those of the -professed mathematicians.</p> - -<p>For instance, Faraday, in his mind’s eye, saw lines of -force traversing all space where the mathematicians saw -centres of force attracting at a distance. Faraday saw a -medium where they saw nothing but distance. Faraday -sought the seat of the phenomena in real actions going on in -the medium; they were satisfied that they had found it in a -power of action at a distance impressed on electric fluids.</p> - -<p>When I had translated what I considered to be Faraday’s -ideas into a mathematical form, I found that in general the -results of the two methods coincided, so that the same -phenomena were accounted for and the same laws of action<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span> -deduced by both methods, but that Faraday’s methods -resembled those in which we begin with the whole and arrive -at the parts by analysis, while the ordinary mathematical -methods were founded on the principle of beginning with -the parts and building up the whole by synthesis.</p> - -<p>I found, also, that several of the most fertile methods of -research discovered by the mathematicians could be expressed -much better in terms of ideas derived from Faraday than in -their original form.</p> - -<p>The whole theory, for instance, of potential, considered as -a quantity which satisfies a certain partial differential equation, -belongs essentially to the method which I have called of -Faraday....</p> - -<p>If by anything I have here written I may assist any -student in understanding Faraday’s modes of thought and -expression, I shall regard it as the accomplishment of one of -my principal aims: to communicate to others the same delight -which I have found myself in reading Faraday’s “Researches.”</p> -</div> - -<p>Clerk Maxwell may also be credited with the -remark that Faraday’s work had had the result of -banishing the term “the electric fluid” into the -limbo of newspaper science.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ELECTRIC LIGHT IN LIGHTHOUSES.</div> - -<p>Faraday’s work for Trinity House continued -during these last years of research work. He -reported on such subjects as adulteration of white -lead, impure oils, Chance’s lenses, lighthouse ventilation, -and fog signals. Two systems of electric arc -lighting for lighthouses—one by Watson, using -batteries, the other by Holmes, using a magneto-electric -machine—were examined in 1853 and 1854, -but his report on them was adverse. He “could not -put up in a lighthouse what has not been established -beforehand, and is only experimental.” In 1856 he -made five reports, in 1857 six, and in 1858 twelve<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span> -reports to Trinity House, one of these being on the -electric light at the South Foreland. In 1859 he -reported on further trials in which Duboscq’s lamps -were used. In 1860 he gave a final report on the -practicability and utility of magneto-electric lighting, -and expressed the hope it would be applied, as there -was <em>now</em> no difficulty. In 1861 he inspected the -machinery as established at the Dungeness lighthouse. -In 1862 he gave no fewer than seventeen -reports, visiting Dungeness, Grisnez, and the South -Foreland. In 1863 he again visited Dungeness. In -1864 he made twelve reports, and examined the -drawings and estimates for establishing the electric -light at Portland. His last report was in 1865, upon -the St. Bees’ light, and he then retired from this -service.</p> - -<p>His Friday night discourses were still continued -during these years. In 1855 he gave one on -“Ruhmkorff’s Induction-coil.” In 1856 he gave one -on a process for silvering glass, and on finely -divided gold. This latter subject, the optical -properties of precipitated gold, formed the topic of -the Bakerian lecture of that year—his last contribution -to the Royal Society. He gave another discourse -on the same subject in 1857, and also one on -the conservation of force. In 1856, when investigating -the crystallisation of water, he discovered -the phenomenon of regelation of ice. In virtue of -this property two pieces of ice will freeze solidly -together under pressure, even when the temperature -of the surrounding atmosphere is above the freezing -point. This discovery led on the one hand to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span> -explanation of glacier motions; on the other to important -results in thermodynamic theory. In 1859 -he gave two discourses, one on ozone, the other -on phosphorescence and fluorescence. He also gave -two in 1860, on lighthouse illumination by electric -light, and on the electric silk-loom. In 1861 he discoursed -on platinum and on De la Rue’s eclipse photographs. -The last of his Friday night discourses was -given on June 20th, 1862. It was on Siemens’s gas -furnaces. He had been down at Swansea watching -the furnaces in operation, and now proposed to -describe their principle. It was rather a sad occasion, -for it was but too evident that his powers were fast -waning. Early in the evening he had the misfortune -to burn the notes he had prepared, and became -confused. He concluded with a touching personal -explanation how with advancing years his memory -had failed, and that in justice to others he felt it his -duty to retire.</p> - -<p>At intervals he still attempted to work at research. -In 1860 he sent a paper to the Royal Society on the -relations of electricity to gravity, but, on the -advice of Professor (afterwards Sir George) Stokes, it -was withdrawn. He had also in contemplation some -experiments upon the time required in the propagation -of magnetism, and began the construction of a -complicated instrument, which was never finished.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">HYPOTHESIS AND EXPERIMENT.</div> - -<p>His very last experiment, as recorded in his laboratory -notebook, is of extraordinary interest, as showing -how his mind was still at work inquiring into the -borderland of possible phenomena. It was on March -12th, 1862. He was inquiring into the effect of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span> -magnetic field upon a beam of light, which he was -observing with a spectroscope to ascertain whether -there was any change produced in the refrangibility -of the light. The entry concludes: “Not the slightest -effect on the polarised or unpolarised ray was observed.” -The experiment is of the highest interest -in magneto-optics. The effect for which Faraday -looked in vain in 1862 was discovered in 1897 by -Zeeman. That Faraday should have <em>conceived</em> the -existence of this obscure relation between magnetism -and light is a striking illustration of the acuteness of -mental vision which he brought to bear. Living and -working amongst the appliances of his laboratory, -letting his thoughts play freely around the phenomena, -incessantly framing hypotheses to account for -the facts, and as incessantly testing his hypotheses by -the touchstone of experiment, never hesitating to -push to their logical conclusion the ideas suggested -by experiment, however widely they might seem to -lead from the accepted modes of thought, he worked -on with a scientific prevision little short of miraculous. -His experiments, even those which at the time -seemed unsuccessful, in that they yielded no positive -result, have proved to be a mine of amazing richness. -The volumes of his “Experimental Researches” are a -veritable treasure-house of science.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_222" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">MIDDLE AND LATER LIFE.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Although</span> to avoid discontinuity the account of -Faraday’s researches has in the previous chapter been -followed to their close in 1862, we must now return -to his middle period of life, when his activities at the -Royal Institution were at their zenith.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BREAKDOWN OF HEALTH.</div> - -<p>Mention has been made of the serious breakdown -of Faraday’s health at the close of 1839. Dr. Latham, -whom he consulted as to his attacks of giddiness, -wrote to <span class="locked">Brande:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l2">Grosvenor Street,</span><br /> -December 1, 1839. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dear Brande</span>,—I have been seeing our friend Faraday -these two or three days, and been looking after his health. I -trust he has no ailment more than rest of body and mind will -get rid of. But rest is absolutely necessary for him. Indeed, -I think it would be hardly prudent for him to lecture again -for the present. He looks up to his work; but, in truth, he -is not fit, and if he is pressed he will suddenly break down. -When we meet, I will talk the matter over with you.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l2">Yours most sincerely,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">P. M. Latham.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>The advice was taken. He gave up nearly all -research work, but tried to go on with Friday night<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span> -discourses and afternoon lectures in 1840. Then -came a more serious breakdown, and he rested for -nearly four years, with the exception of the Christmas -lectures in 1841 and a few Friday discourses in 1842 -and 1843. This illness caused him great distress of -mind, mainly due to an idea that the physicians did -not understand his condition. When in this state he -sometimes set down pencil notes on scraps of paper -to relieve his feelings. One such is the <span class="locked">following:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Whereas, according to the declaration of that true man of -the world Talleyrand, the use of language is to conceal the -thoughts; this is to declare in the present instance, when I -say I am not able to bear much talking, it means really, and -without any mistake, or equivocation, or oblique meaning, or -implication, or subterfuge, or omission, that I am not able; -being at present rather weak in the head, and able to work -no more.</p> -</div> - -<p>During these times of enforced idleness he used -to amuse himself with games of skill, with paperwork, -and with visits to the theatre and to the -Zoological Gardens. Mrs. Faraday left the following -<span class="locked">note:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Michael was one of the earliest members of the Zoological -Society, and the Gardens were a great resource to him when -overwrought and distressed in the head. The animals were a -continual source of interest, and we, or rather I, used to talk -of the time when we should be able to afford a house within -<em>my</em> walking distance of the entrance; for I much feared he -could not continue to live in the Institution with the continual -calls upon his time and thought; but he always shrank from -the notion of living away from the R. I.</p> -</div> - -<p>His niece, Miss Reid, told how fond he was of -seeing acrobats, tumblers, dwarfs and giants; even<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span> -a Punch and Judy show was an unfailing source of -delight. When travelling in Switzerland, as he did -on several occasions, accompanied by Mrs. Faraday -and her brother, George Barnard, the artist, he kept -a journal, which reveals his simple pleasures and -enthusiasms. He is delighted with waterfalls and -avalanches, watches the cowherd collecting his cows -and the shepherd calling the sheep, which followed -him, leaving the goats to straggle. On one such -visit (in 1841), in order that he might not be absent -on Sunday from his wife, he walked the whole -distance from Leukerbad to Thun, over the Gemmi—a -distance of 45 miles—in one day. At Interlaken, -observing that clout-nail-making was practised as a -local industry, he wrote: “I love a smith’s shop and -everything relating to smithery. My father was a -smith.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">IMPRESSIONS OF LIEBIG.</div> - -<p>In 1844 he was well enough to attend the British -Association meeting at York. Liebig, who had also -been there, wrote to him three months later with -some reminiscences. What had struck him most -was the tendency in England to ignore the more -purely scientific works and to value only those with -a “practical” bearing. “In Germany it is quite the -contrary. Here, in the eyes of scientific men, no -value, or at least but a trifling one, is placed on the -practical results. The enrichment of science is alone -considered worthy of attention.” Liebig further expressed -himself dissatisfied with the meeting at York. -He had been interested to make the acquaintance of -so many celebrated men, but it was, strictly, “a feast -given to the geologists, the other sciences serving only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span> -to decorate the table.” Then came a more personal -<span class="locked">note:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Often do my thoughts wander back to the period which I -spent in England, among the many pleasant hours of which -the remembrance of those passed with you and your amiable -wife is to me always the dearest and most agreeable. With -the purest pleasure I bring to mind my walk with her, in the -botanical garden at York, when I was afforded a glance of the -richness of her mind; what a rare treasure you possess in -her! The breakfast in the little house with Snow Harris, -and Graham, and our being together at Bishopthorpe, are still -fresh in my memory.</p> -</div> - -<p>If Liebig was disposed to underrate the useful -applications of science, Faraday certainly was not. -Though his own research work was carried on with -the single aim of scientific progress; though he himself -never swerved aside into any branch research that -might have yielded money; yet he was ever ready to -examine, and even to lecture upon, the inventions of -others. He accepted for the subjects of his Friday -night discourses all sorts of topics—artificial stone, -machinery for pen-making, lithography, Ruhmkorff’s -induction coil, a process for silvering mirrors, and -lighthouse illumination by electric light. His very -last lecture was on Siemens’s gas-furnaces. He could -be just as enthusiastic over the invention of another -as over some discovery of his own. With respect to -his lecture on the Ruhmkorff coil, Tyndall describes -him in a passage which is interesting, as containing an -epithet since adopted for another great man for whom -Tyndall had less respect than for <span class="locked">Faraday:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I well remember the ecstasy and surprise of <em>the grand old -man</em>, evoked by effects which we should now deem utterly -insignificant.</p> -</div> - -<p>Bence Jones <span class="locked">says:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>When he brought the discoveries of others before his -hearers, one object, and one alone, seemed to determine all -he said and did, and that was, “without commendation and -without censure,” to do the utmost that could be done for the -discoverer.</p> -</div> - -<p>In so perfect a character it would be marvellous if -there were not some flaw. His persistent ignoring of -Sturgeon, and his attribution of the invention of the -electromagnet to Moll and Henry, whose work was -frankly based on Sturgeon’s, is simply inexplicable. -He failed to appreciate the greatness of Dalton, and -thought him an overrated man.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS.</div> - -<p>Amid all his overflowing kindliness of heart, -Faraday preserved other less obvious traits of character. -Any act of injustice or meanness called forth -an almost volcanic burst of indignation. Hot flashes -of temper, fierce moments of wrath were by no means -unknown. But he exercised a most admirable self-control, -and a habitual discipline of soul that kept his -temper under. Grim and forbidding, and even exacting -he could show himself to an idle or unfaithful -servant. There were those who feared as well as -those who loved and admired him. Dr. Gladstone -says of him that he was no “model of all the virtues,” -dreadfully uninteresting, and discouraging to those -who feel calm perfection out of their reach. “His -inner life was a battle, with its wounds as well as its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span> -victory.” “It is true also,” he adds, “that with his -great caution and his repugnance to moral evil, he -was more disposed to turn away in disgust from an -erring companion than to endeavour to reclaim him.”</p> - -<p>For thirty years Faraday was the foremost of -lecturers on science in London. From the first -occasion when, in 1823, as Sir Roderick Murchison -narrates, he was called upon unexpectedly to act as -substitute for Professor Brande at one of his morning -lectures at the Royal Institution (then held in the -subterranean laboratory), down to the time of his -latest appearance as a lecturer in 1862, he was -without a rival as the exponent of natural science.</p> - -<p>As no man could achieve and retain such a -position without possessing both natural gifts and -appropriate training, it is fitting to inquire what were -those gifts and what the training which were so -happily united in him.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I was (he said) a very lively, imaginative person, and could -believe in the Arabian Nights as easily as in the Encyclopædia; -but facts were important to me, and saved me. I could trust -a fact, and always cross-examined an assertion.</p> -</div> - -<p>From the very first Faraday had an appreciation -of the way in which public lectures should be given. -In his notes of Davy’s fourth lecture of April, 1812, -he <span class="locked">wrote:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>During the whole of these observations his delivery was -easy, his diction elegant, his tone good, and his sentiments -sublime.</p> -</div> - -<p>His own first lecture was given in the kitchen of -Abbott’s house, with home-made apparatus placed on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span> -the kitchen table. To Abbott, after only a few weeks -of experience at the Royal Institution, he wrote the -letters upon lectures and lecturers, to which allusion -was made on <a href="#Page_15">p. 15</a>. These show a most remarkably -sound perception of the material and mental -furniture requisite for success. From the third and -fourth of them are culled the following <span class="locked">excerpts:—</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">QUALIFICATIONS OF A LECTURER.</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The most prominent requisite to a lecturer, though perhaps -not really the most important, is a good delivery; for though -to all true philosophers science and nature will have charms -innumerable in every dress, yet I am sorry to say that the -generality of mankind cannot accompany us one short hour -unless the path is strewed with flowers. In order, therefore, -to gain the attention of an audience (and what can be more -disagreeable to a lecturer than the want of it?), it is necessary -to pay some attention to the manner of expression. The -utterance should not be rapid and hurried, and consequently -unintelligible, but slow and deliberate, conveying ideas with -ease from the lecturer, and infusing them with clearness and -readiness into the minds of the audience. A lecturer should -endeavour by all means to obtain a facility of utterance, and -the power of clothing his thoughts and ideas in language -smooth and harmonious, and at the same time simple and easy.</p> - -<p>With respect to the action of the lecturer, it is requisite -that he should have some, though it does not here bear the -importance that it does in other branches of oratory; for -though I know of no species of delivery (divinity excepted) -that requires less motion, yet I would by no means have a -lecturer glued to the table or screwed on the floor. He must -by all means appear as a body distinct and separate from the -things around him, and must have some motion apart from -that which they possess.</p> - -<p>A lecturer should appear easy and collected, undaunted -and unconcerned, his thoughts about him, and his mind clear -and free for the contemplation and description of his subject. -His action should not be hasty and violent, but slow, easy, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span> -natural, consisting principally in changes of the posture of the -body, in order to avoid the air of stiffness or sameness that -would otherwise be unavoidable. His whole behaviour should -evince respect for his audience, and he should in no case -forget that he is in their presence. No accident that does not -interfere with their convenience should disturb his serenity, or -cause variation in his behaviour; he should never, if possible, -turn his back on them, but should give them full reason to -believe that all his powers have been exerted for their pleasure -and instruction.</p> - -<p>Some lecturers choose to express their thoughts extemporaneously -immediately as they occur to the mind, whilst others -previously arrange them and draw them forth on paper. But -although I allow a lecturer to write out his matter, I do not -approve of his reading it—at least, not as he would a quotation -or extract.</p> - -<p>A lecturer should exert his utmost effort to gain completely -the mind and attention of his audience, and irresistibly to -make them join in his ideas to the end of the subject. He -should endeavour to raise their interest at the commencement -of the lecture, and by a series of imperceptible gradations, -unnoticed by the company, keep it alive as long as the subject -demands it. A flame should be lighted at the commencement, -and kept alive with unremitting splendour to the end. For -this reason I very much disapprove of breaks in a lecture, and -where they can by any means be avoided they should on no -account find place.... For the same reason—namely, -that the audience should not grow tired—I disapprove of long -lectures; one hour is long enough for anyone. Nor should -they be allowed to exceed that time.</p> - -<p>A lecturer falls deeply beneath the dignity of his character -when he descends so low as to angle for claps and asks for -commendation. Yet have I seen a lecturer even at this point. -I have heard him causelessly condemn his own powers. I -have heard him dwell for a length of time on the extreme care -and niceness that the experiment he will make requires. I -have heard him hope for indulgence when no indulgence was -wanted, and I have even heard him declare that the experiment<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span> -now made cannot fail, from its beauty, its correctness, -and its application, to gain the approbation of all.... I -would wish apologies to be made as seldom as possible, and -generally only when the inconvenience extends to the -company. I have several times seen the attention of by far -the greater part of the audience called to an error by the -apology that followed it.</p> - -<p>’Tis well, too, when the lecturer has the ready wit and the -presence of mind to turn any casual circumstance to an illustration -of his subject. Any particular circumstance that has -become table-talk for the town, any local advantages or disadvantages, -any trivial circumstance that may arise in company, -give great force to illustrations aptly drawn from them, -and please the audience highly, as they conceive they perfectly -understand them.</p> - -<p>Apt experiments (to which I have before referred) ought to -be explained by satisfactory theory, or otherwise we merely -patch an old coat with new cloth, and the whole [hole] becomes -worse. If a satisfactory theory can be given, it ought to be -given. If we doubt a received opinion, let us not leave the -doubt unnoticed and affirm our own ideas, but state it clearly, -and lay down also our objections. If the scientific world is -divided in opinion, state both sides of the question, and let -each one judge for himself by noticing the most striking and -forcible circumstances on each side. Then, and then only, -shall we do justice to the subject, please the audience, and -satisfy our honour, the honour of a philosopher.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">USE OF CRITICISM.</div> - -<p>One who already had set before himself such high -ideals could not fail at least to attempt to fulfil them. -Accordingly, when in 1816 he began to lecture to the -City Philosophical Society, he began to attend an -evening class on elocution conducted by Mr. B. H. -Smart, though the pinch of poverty made it difficult -to him to afford the needful fees. Again, in 1823, -previous to taking part in Brande’s laboratory lectures,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span> -he took private lessons in elocution from Smart, at -the rate of half-a-guinea a lesson. After 1827, when -he was beginning his regular courses of lectures in the -theatre, he often used to get Mr. Smart to attend in -order to criticise his delivery.</p> - -<p>Amongst the rules found in his manuscript notes -were the <span class="locked">following:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Never to repeat a phrase.</p> - -<p>Never to go back to amend.</p> - -<p>If at a loss for a word, not to ch-ch-ch or eh-eh-eh, but to -stop and wait for it. It soon comes, and the bad habits are -broken and fluency soon acquired.</p> - -<p>Never doubt a correction given to me by another.</p> -</div> - -<p>His niece, Miss Reid, who lived from 1830 to 1840 -at the Institution with the Faradays, gave the following -amongst her <span class="locked">recollections:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Mr. Magrath used to come regularly to the morning lectures, -for the sole purpose of noting down for him any faults -of delivery or defective pronunciation that could be detected. -The list was always received with thanks; although his corrections -were not uniformly adopted, he was encouraged to -continue his remarks with perfect freedom. In early days he -always lectured with a card before him with <em>Slow</em> written upon -it in distinct characters. Sometimes he would overlook it and -become too rapid; in this case, Anderson had orders to place -the card before him. Sometimes he had the word <em>Time</em> on a -card brought forward when the hour was nearly expired.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">AS LECTURER.</div> - -<p>In spite of his recourse to aids in acquiring elocutionary -excellence, his own style remained simple -and unspoiled. “His manner,” says Bence Jones, -“was so natural, that the thought of any art in his -lecturing never occurred to anyone. For his Friday<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span> -discourses, and for his other set lectures in the theatre, -he always made ample preparation beforehand. His -matter was always over-abundant. And, if his experiments -were always successful, this was not solely -attributable to his exceeding skill of hand. For, unrivalled -as he was as a manipulator, in the cases in -which he attempted to show complicated or difficult -experiments, that which was to be shown was always -well rehearsed beforehand in the laboratory. He was -exceedingly particular about small and simple illustrations. -He never merely <em>told</em> his hearers about an -experiment, but <em>showed</em> it to them, however simple -and well known it might be. To a young lecturer he -once remarked: ‘If I said to my audience, “This stone -will fall to the ground if I open my hand,” I should -open my hand and let it fall. Take nothing for granted -as known; inform the eye at the same time as you -address the ear.’ He always endeavoured at the -outset to put himself <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">en rapport</i> with his audience by -introducing his subject on its most familiar side, and -then leading on to that which was less familiar. Before -the audience became aware of any transition, they -were already assimilating new facts which were thus -brought within their range. Nor did he stay his discourse -upon the enunciation of facts merely. Almost -invariably, as his allotted hour drew towards its close, -he gave rein to his imagination. Those who had -begun with him on the lower plane of simple facts -and their correlations were bidden to consider the wider -bearings of scientific principles and their relations to -philosophy, to life, or to ethics. While he never -forced a peroration, nor dragged in a quotation from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span> -the poets, his own scientific inspiration, as he outlined -some wide-sweeping speculation or suggestion for -future discoveries, amply supplied the fitting finale. -If the rush of his ideas might sometimes be compared -to tearing through a jungle, it at least never degenerated -into sermonising; and never, save when he -was physically ill, failed to arouse an enthusiastic glow -of response in his hearers. ‘No attentive listener,’ -says Mrs. Crosse, ‘ever came away from one of Faraday’s -lectures without having the limits of his spiritual -vision enlarged, or without feeling that his imagination -had been stimulated to something beyond the mere -expression of physical facts.’”</p> - -<p>He was not one who let himself dwell in illusions. -When he did well he was perfectly conscious of the -fact, and enjoyed a modest satisfaction. If he had -failed of his best, he was conscious too of that. His -deliberate act in giving up all other lectures at the -time when his brain-troubles were gaining upon him, -while retaining the Christmas lectures to juveniles, -was thoroughly characteristic. Of one of his earlier -courses of lectures he himself made—about 1832—the -following <span class="locked">note:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The eight lectures on the operations of the laboratory at -the Royal Institution, April, 1828, were not to my mind. -There does not appear to be that opportunity of fixing the -attention of the audience by a single clear, consistent, and -connected chain of reasoning which occurs when a principle -(<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">sic</i>) or one particular application is made.... I do not -think the operations of the laboratory can be rendered useful -and popular in lectures....</p> -</div> - -<p>The matter of these same lectures was, however, -the basis of his book on Chemical Manipulation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span> -published in 1827. It went through three editions, -and was reprinted in America. But in 1838 he -declined to let a new edition be issued, as he considered -the work out of date.</p> - -<p>Besides the note quoted above from the Faraday -MS. occurs the <span class="locked">following:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The six juvenile lectures given Christmas, 1827, were just -what they ought to have been, both in matter and manner; -but it would not answer to give an extended course in the -same spirit.</p> -</div> - -<p>Nineteen times did Faraday give the Christmas -lectures. Those on the Chemistry of a Candle were -given more than once; and were the last he gave, in -1860. They have been published, as were those on -the Forces of Nature. The lectures on Metals he -was urged to publish, but declined in the following -<span class="locked">terms:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -Royal Institution, January 3, 1859. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dear Sir</span>,—Many thanks to both you and Mr. Bentley. -Mr. Murray made me an unlimited offer like that of Mr. -Bentley’s many years ago, but for the reasons I am about to -give you I had to refuse his kindness. He proposed to take -them by shorthand, and so save me trouble, but I knew that -would be a thorough failure; even if I cared to give time to -the revision of the MS., still the lectures without the experiments -and the vivacity of speaking would fall far behind those -in the lecture-room as to effect. And then I do not desire to -give time to them, for money is no temptation to me. In fact, -I have always loved science more than money; and because -my occupation is almost entirely personal I cannot afford to -get rich. Again thanking you and Mr. Bentley, I remain,</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l2">Very truly yours,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">AN INSPIRED CHILD.</div> - -<p>Of his lectures Lady Pollock <span class="locked">wrote:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>He would play with his subject now and then, but very -delicately; his sport was only just enough to enliven the -attention. He never suffered an experiment to allure him -away from his theme. Every touch of his hand was a true -illustration of his argument.... But his meaning was -sometimes beyond the conception of those whom he addressed. -When, however, he lectured to children he was careful to be -perfectly distinct, and never allowed his ideas to outrun their -intelligence. He took great delight in talking to them, and -easily won their confidence. The vivacity of his manner and -of his countenance, and his pleasant laugh, the frankness of his -whole bearing, attracted them to him. They felt as if he -belonged to them; and indeed he sometimes, in his joyous -enthusiasm, appeared like an inspired child.</p> - -<p>... His quick sympathies put him so closely in relation -with the child that he saw with the boy’s new wonder, and -looked, and most likely felt for the moment, as if he had never -seen the thing before. Quick feelings, quick movement, quick -thought, vividness of expression and of perception, belonged to -him. He came across you like a flash of light, and he seemed -to leave some of his light with you. His presence was always -stimulating.—<cite>St. Paul’s Magazine</cite>, June, 1870.</p> -</div> - -<p>A writer in the <cite>British Quarterly Review</cite> <span class="locked">says:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>He had the art of making philosophy charming, and this -was due in no little measure to the fact that to grey-headed -wisdom he united wonderful juvenility of spirit.... -Hilariously boyish upon occasion he could be, and those who -knew him best knew he was never more at home, that he -never seemed so pleased, as when making an old boy of himself, -as he was wont to say, lecturing before a juvenile audience -at Christmas.</p> -</div> - -<p>Caroline Fox (in “Memories of Old Friends”), -under date June 13th, 1851, wrote in her <span class="locked">journal:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>We went to Faraday’s lecture on “Ozone.” He tried the -various methods of making ozone which Schönbein had already -performed in our kitchen, and he did them brilliantly. He -was entirely at his ease, both with his audience and his -chemical apparatus.</p> -</div> - -<p>In the diary of H. Crabb Robinson is an appreciation -of Faraday of some <span class="locked">interest:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>May 8th, 1840.... Attended Carlyle’s second lecture. -It gave great satisfaction, for it had uncommon thoughts and -was delivered with unusual animation.... In the evening -heard a lecture by Faraday. What a contrast to Carlyle! A -perfect experimentalist with an intellect so clear. Within his -sphere <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">un uomo compito</i>.</p> -</div> - -<p>Many references to Faraday’s lectures occur in the -life of Sir Richard Owen (published 1894), chiefly extracted -from Mrs. Owen’s diary. Two or three extracts -must <span class="locked">suffice:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>1839, Jan. 8th. At eight o’clock with R. to the Royal -Institution to hear Faraday lecture on electricity, galvanism, -and the electric eel. Faraday is the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">beau idéal</i> of a popular -lecturer.</p> - -<p>1845, Jan. 31. To Faraday’s lecture at the Royal Institution. -The largest crowd I have ever seen there. Many -gentlemen were obliged to come into the ladies’ gallery, as -they could not get seats elsewhere. After an exceedingly -interesting lecture, Faraday said he had a few remarks to -make on some new reform laws for the Institution. These -remarks were admirably made, and no one could feel offended, -although it was a direct attack on those gentlemen who helped -to render the ladies very uncomfortable, sometimes by filling -seats, and often front seats, in the part intended only for -ladies. Wearing a hat in the library was one of the delinquencies, -likewise sitting in the seats reserved for the directors, -who were obliged by their office and duties to be last in. Mr.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span> -Faraday also remarked that the formation of two currents -caused by certain gentlemen rushing upstairs the instant the -lecture was over to fetch their lady friends was not conducive -to the comfort of those coming downstairs. Everything taken -very well.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ROYAL INSTITUTION LECTURES.</div> - -<p>1849, May 28th. With R. to Royal Institution. We got -there just before three, and there was a crowded audience as -usual to hear Faraday’s lecture. The poor man entered and -attempted to speak, but he was suffering from inflammation or -excessive irritation of the larynx, and after some painful efforts -to speak, a general cry arose of “Postpone,” and someone, -apparently in authority, made a short speech from the gallery. -Mr. Faraday still wished to try and force his voice, saying he -was well aware of the difficulty of getting back the carriages, -etc., before the time for the lecture had elapsed, to say nothing -of the disappointment to some; but every moment the cry -increased. “No, no; you are too valuable to be allowed to -injure yourself. Postpone, postpone.” Poor Faraday was -quite overcome.</p> -</div> - -<p>The interrupted lecture was resumed after a fortnight’s -interval; and he made up the full number -of lectures by giving two extra discourses, at one of -which the Prince Consort was present.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>At another lecture [in 1856] Faraday explained the magnet -and strength of attraction. He made us all laugh heartily; -and when he threw a coalscuttle full of coals, a poker, and a -pair of tongs at the great magnet, and they stuck there, the -theatre echoed with shouts of laughter.</p> -</div> - -<p>His friend De la Rive testified in striking terms -to Faraday’s power as a speaker.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Nothing can give a notion of the charm which he imparted -to these improvised lectures, in which he knew how to -combine animated, and often eloquent, language with a -judgment and art in his experiments which added to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span> -clearness and elegance of his exposition. He exerted an -actual fascination upon his auditors; and when, after having -initiated them into the mysteries of science, he terminated his -lecture, as he was in the habit of doing, by rising into regions -far above matter, space, and time, the emotion which he -experienced did not fail to communicate itself to those who -listened to him, and their enthusiasm had no longer any -bounds.</p> -</div> - -<p>Faraday remained all his life a keen observer of -other lecturers. Visiting France in 1845, he went -to hear Arago give an astronomical lecture. “He -delivered it in an admirable manner to a crowded -audience,” was his comment.</p> - -<p>To the Secretary of the Institution, who in 1846 -consulted him regarding evening lectures, he said:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I see no objection to evening lectures if you can find a fit -man to give them. As to popular lectures (which at the same -time are to be <em>respectable</em> and <em>sound</em>), none are more difficult -to find. Lectures which <em>really teach</em> will never be popular; -lectures which are popular will never <em>really teach</em>. They -know little of the matter who think science is more easily to -be taught or learned than A B C; and yet who ever learned -his A B C without pain and trouble? Still, lectures can -(generally) inform the mind, and show forth to the attentive -man what he really has to learn, and in their way are very -useful, especially to the public. I think they might be useful -to us now, even if they only gave an answer to those who, -judging by their own earnest desire to learn, think much of -them. As to agricultural chemistry, it is no doubt an -excellent and a popular subject, but I rather suspect that -those who know least of it think that most is known about it.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">USE OF MODELS AND CARDS.</div> - -<p>His fondness for illustrating obscure points in his -lectures by models has been more than once alluded -to. He would improvise these out of wood, paper,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span> -wire, or even out of turnips or potatoes, with much -dexterity of hand. In one of his unpublished -manuscripts, dating about 1826, dealing with the -then recently discovered phenomena of electromagnetism, -occurs the following <span class="locked">note:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>It is best for illustration to have a model of the constant -position which the needle takes across the wire: <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">le voila</i> -(<a href="#i_239">Fig. 21</a>).</p> - -<div id="i_239" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 13em;"> - <img src="images/i_239.png" width="609" height="353" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span></div></div> -</div> - -<p>Many such simple models were used in his -lectures. He leaned upon them to aid his defective -memory; but they helped his audience quite as much -as they aided him. Reference was made on <a href="#Page_7">p. 7</a> to -his use of cards, on which to jot down notes of -thoughts that occurred to him. One such runs as -<span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="in0 in2"> -Remember to do one thing at once.<br /> -Also to finish a thing.<br /> -Also to do a little if I could not do <em>much</em>. -</p> - -<p>Pique about mathematics in chemists, and resolution to -support the character of experiment—as better for the mass. -Hence origin of the title <em>Exp. researches</em>.</p> - -<p>Influence of authority. Davy and difficulty of steering -between <em>self-sufficiency</em> and dependance (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">sic</i>) on others.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span></p> - -<p>Aim at high things, but not presumptuously.</p> - -<p>Endeavour to succeed—expect not to succeed.</p> - -<p><em>Criticise</em> one’s own view in every way by experiment—if -possible, leave no objection to be put by others.</p> -</div> - -<p>Faraday’s enthusiasm about experimental researches -was at times unrestrained, and always -contagious. Dumas describes how Faraday repeated -for him the experimental demonstration of the action -of magnetism on light. Having come to the final -experiment, Faraday rubbed his hands excitedly, -while his eyes lit up with fire, and his animated -countenance told the passionate feelings which he -brought to the discovery of scientific truth. On -another occasion Plücker, of Bonn, then on a visit to -London, showed Faraday in his own laboratory the -action of a magnet upon the luminous electric -discharge in vacuum tubes. “Faraday danced round -them; and as he saw the moving arches of light, he -cried: ‘Oh, to live always in it!’” Once a friend -met him at Eastbourne in the midst of a tremendous -storm, rubbing his hands together gleefully because -he had been fortunate enough to see the lightning -strike the church tower. To the Baroness Burdett-Coutts -he once wrote inviting her to see some -experiments upon spectrum analysis in his private -room. <em>The experiments</em>, he wrote, <em>will not be -beautiful except to the intelligent</em>.</p> - -<p>Yet another reminiscence is to be found in the -Memorials of Joseph Henry. It relates, probably, to -the date of 1837, when Henry visited Europe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Henry loved to dwell on the hours that he and Bache had -spent in Faraday’s society. I shall never forget Henry’s -account of his visit to King’s College, London, where Faraday, -Wheatstone, Daniell, and he had met to try and evolve the -electric spark from the thermopile. Each in turn attempted -it and failed. Then came Henry’s turn. He succeeded, -calling in the aid of his discovery of the effect of a long -interpolar wire wrapped around a piece of soft iron. Faraday -became as wild as a boy, and, jumping up, shouted: “Hurrah -for the Yankee experiment!”</p> -</div> - -<p>The following memorandum was found on a slip -of paper in Faraday’s “research <span class="locked">drawer”:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center larger">THE FOUR DEGREES.</p> - -<p>The discoverer of a fact.</p> -<p>The reconciling of it to known principles.</p> -<p>Discovery of a fact not reconcilable.</p> -<p>He who refers all to still more general principles.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -M.F. -</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">FREEDOM OF SPECULATION.</div> - -<p>Faraday’s mind was of a very individual turn; he -could not walk along the beaten tracks, but must -pursue truth wherever it led him. His dogged -tenacity for exact fact was accompanied by a perfect -fearlessness of speculation. He would throw overboard -without hesitation the most deeply-rooted -notions if experimental evidence pointed to newer -ideas. He had learned to doubt the idea of <em>poles</em>; so -he outgrew the idea of <em>atoms</em>, which he considered -an arbitrary conception. Many who heard his bold -speculations and his free coinage of new terms -deemed him vague and loose in thought. Nothing -could be more untrue. He let his mind play freely -about the facts; he framed thousands of hypotheses,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span> -only to let them go by if they were not supported by -facts. “He is the wisest philosopher,” he said in a -lecture on the nature of matter, “who holds his -theory with some doubt—who is able to proportion -his judgment and confidence to the value of the -evidence set before him, taking a fact for a fact and a -supposition for a supposition, as much as possible -keeping his mind free from all source of prejudice; -or, where he cannot do this (as in the case of a -theory), remembering that such a source is there.”</p> - -<p>In one of his later experimental researches he -<span class="locked">wrote:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>As an experimentalist, I feel bound to let experiment -guide me into any train of thought which it may justify; -being satisfied that experiment, like analysis, must lead to -strict truth if rightly interpreted; and believing also that it -is in its nature far more suggestive of new trains of thought -and new conditions of natural power.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">WHY NO SUCCESSOR.</div> - -<p>Perhaps it was this very freedom of thought -which debarred him from enlisting other men as -collaborators in his researches. His one assistant -for thirty years, Sergeant Anderson, was indeed invaluable -to him for his quality of implicit obedience. -Other helpers in the laboratory he had none. Apparently -he found his researches to be of too individual -a character to permit him to deputise any part -of his work. He was never satisfied when told about -another’s experiment; he must perform it for himself. -Often a discovery arose from some chance or trivial -incident of an otherwise unsuccessful experiment. -The power of “lateral vision,” which Tyndall has -so strongly emphasised, was a prime factor in his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span> -successes. That power could not be delegated to any -mere assistant. Many times did outsiders approach -him, thinking to bring new facts to his notice; never, -save on the solitary occasion when a Mr. William Jenkin -drew his attention to the “extra-current” spark seen -on the breaking of an electric circuit, did such novelties -turn out to be really new. Alleged discoveries thus -brought to him merely plagued him. He thought -that anyone who had the wit to observe any really -new phenomenon would be the person best qualified -to work it out. His method was to work on alone, -dwelling amidst his experiments until the mind, -familiarising itself with the facts, was ready to suggest -their correlations. It was sometimes urged against -him as a complaint that he never took up any younger -man to train him as his successor, even as Davy had -taken up himself and trained him in scientific work. -One of the miscellaneous notes, found after his death, -throws some light on <span class="locked">this:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>It puzzles me greatly to know what makes the successful -philosopher. Is it industry and perseverance with a moderate -proportion of good sense and intelligence? Is not a modest -assurance or earnestness a requisite? Do not many fail because -they look rather to the renown to be acquired than to -the pure acquisition of knowledge, and the delight which the -contented mind has in acquiring it for its own sake? I am -sure I have seen many who would have been good and successful -pursuers of science, and have gained themselves a high -name, but that it was the name and the reward they were -always looking forward to—the reward of the world’s praise. -In such there is always a shade of envy or regret over their -minds, and I cannot imagine a man making discoveries in -science under these feelings. As to Genius and its power,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span> -there may be cases; I suppose there are. I have looked long -and often for a genius for our Laboratory, but have never found -one. But I have seen many who would, I think, if they had -submitted themselves to a sound self-applied discipline of -mind, have become successful experimental Philosophers.</p> -</div> - -<p>To Dr. Becker he wrote:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I was never able to make a fact my own without seeing it; -and the descriptions of the best works altogether failed to -convey to my mind such a knowledge of things as to allow -myself to form a judgment upon them. It was so with <em>new</em> -things. If Grove, or Wheatstone, or Gassiot, or any other -told me a new fact, and wanted my opinion either of its value, -or the cause, or the evidence it could give on any subject, I -never could say anything until I had seen the fact. For the -same reason I never could work, as some Professors do most -extensively, by students or pupils. All the work had to be -my own.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">INCOME AND EXPENDITURE.</div> - -<p>Of Faraday’s social life and surroundings during -his meridional and later period much might be -written. After his great researches of 1831 to 1836 -scientific honours flowed in freely upon him, especially -from foreign academies and universities; and the fame -he won at home would have brought him, had he -been so minded, an ample professional fortune and all -the artificial amenities of Society which follow the -successful money-maker. From all such mundane -“success” he cut himself off when in 1831 he decided -to abandon professional fee-earning, and to devote -himself to the advancement of science. Probably the -tenets of the religious body to which he belonged -were a leading factor in compelling this decision. -Not having laid upon him the necessity of providing -for a family, and accustomed to live in an unostentatious<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span> -style, he could contemplate the future without -anxiety. With his pension, his Woolwich lectures, -and his Trinity House appointment, Faraday was in -no sense poor, though his Royal Institution professorship -never brought him so much as £300 a year until -after he was over sixty years of age; but on the other -hand, his private charities were very numerous. How -much of his income was spent in that way can never -be known; for the very privacy of his deeds of kindness -prevented any record from being kept. Certain it -is that his gifts to the aged poor and sick must have -amounted to several hundreds of pounds a year; for -while his income for many years must have averaged -at least £1,000 or £1,100, and his domestic expenditure -could not have much exceeded half that sum, he -does not seem to have attempted to save anything. -Nor did he grudge time or strength to do kindly -charitable acts in visiting the sick.</p> - -<p>From about the year 1834 he resolutely declined -invitations to dinners and such social gaieties; not, as -some averred, from any religious asceticism, but that -he might the more unrestrainedly devote himself to -his researches. “If,” says Mrs. Crosse, “Babbage, -Wheatstone, Grove, Owen, Tyndall, and a host of -other distinguished scientists, were to be met very -generally in the society of the day, there was one man -who was very conspicuous by his absence—this was -Faraday! His biographers say that in earlier years -he occasionally accepted Lady Davy’s invitations to -dinner; but I never heard of his going anywhere, except -in obedience to the commands of royalty.” He -did indeed occasionally dine quietly with Sir Robert<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span> -Peel or Earl Russell; and of the few public dinners -he attended, he enjoyed most the annual banquet of -the Royal Academy of Arts.</p> - -<p>Faraday does not, however, appear to have had -any very direct relations with the world of art. Once -he was consulted by Lord John Russell as to the -removal of Raphael’s cartoons from Hampton Court -to the National Gallery. His advice was adverse, on -account of the penetrating power of dust. Though a -sufficiently good draughtsman to prepare his own -drawings, he had little or no knowledge of the -technicalities of painting. Yet his sensitive and -enthusiastic temperament had much in common with -that of the artist, and he enjoyed music, especially -good music, greatly. In early life he played the flute -and knew many songs by heart. He took bass -parts in concerted singing, and is said to have sung -correctly in time and tune. In his circle of -acquaintanceship were numbered several painters of -eminence—Turner, Landseer, and Stanfield. His -brother-in-law, Mr. George Barnard, the late well-known -water-colour artist, has written the following -<span class="locked">note:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>My first and many following sketching trips were made -with Faraday and his wife. Storms excited his admiration at -all times, and he was never tired of looking into the heavens. -He said to me once, “I wonder you artists don’t study the -light and colour in the sky more, and try more for effect.” I -think this quality in Turner’s drawings made him admire them -so much. He made Turner’s acquaintance at Hullmandel’s, -and afterwards often had applications from him for chemical -information about pigments. Faraday always impressed upon -Turner and other artists the great necessity there was to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span> -experiment for themselves, putting washes and tints of all -their pigments in the bright sunlight, covering up one half, -and noticing the effect of light and gases on the other....</p> - -<p>Faraday did not fish at all during these country trips, but -just rambled about geologising or botanising.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">SCIENCE, LITERATURE, AND ART.</div> - -<p>Earlier in his career, Faraday and his brother-in-law -used to enjoy conversaziones of artists, actors, and -musicians at Hullmandel’s. Sometimes they went up -the river in Hullmandel’s eight-oar boat, camping -gipsy-wise on the banks for dinner, and enjoying the -singing of Signor Garcia and his wife and of his -daughter, afterwards Madame Malibran. From these -things, too, he withdrew very largely when he ceased -to dine out, though he still liked to hear the opera -and to visit the theatre. Curiously enough, he seems -to have had very little in common with literary men. -In the last half of the previous century there had -been many intimate relations between the leaders of -literature and those of science. The circle which -included Watt, Boulton, and Wedgwood included -also Priestley and Erasmus Darwin. In our own time -the names of Darwin, Huxley, Hooker, and Tyndall -are to be found in conjunction with those of Tennyson, -Browning, and Jowett. But the biographies of literary -men and artists of the period from 1830 to 1850 -bear few references to Faraday. He moved in his -own world, and that a world very much apart from -literature or art. In his method of working he was -indeed an artist, often feeling his way rather than -calculating it, and arriving at his conclusions by -what seemed insight rather than by any direct process -of reasoning. The discovery of truth comes about in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span> -many ways; and if Faraday’s method in science was -artistic rather than scientific, it was amply justified by -the brilliant harvest of discoveries which it enabled -him to reap.</p> - -<p>As is well known, Faraday never took out any -patents for his discoveries; indeed, whenever in his -investigations he seemed to come near to the point -where they began to possess a marketable value from -their application to the industries, he left them, to -pursue his pioneering inquiries in other branches. -He sought, indeed, for principles rather than for -processes, for facts new to science rather than for -merchantable inventions. When he had made the -discovery of magneto-electric induction—the basis of -all modern electric engineering—he carried the research -to the point of constructing several experimental -machines, and then abruptly turned away -with these memorable <span class="locked">words:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I have rather, however, been desirous of discovering new -facts and new relations dependent on magneto-electric induction -than of exalting the force of those already obtained; -being assured that the latter would find their full development -hereafter.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">PRACTICAL UTILITIES.</div> - -<p>Several times was Faraday known, when asked -about the possible utility of some new scientific discovery, -to quote Franklin’s rejoinder: “What is the -use of a baby?”</p> - -<p>It is narrated of him that on one occasion, at a -Trinity House dinner, he and the Duke of Wellington -had a little friendly chat, in the course of which the -Duke advised Faraday to give his speculations “a -practical turn as far as possible”—“a suggestion,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span> -said Faraday, who always spoke of the veteran with -pleasure, “full of weight, coming from such a man.” -Faraday was, however, the last to despise the importance -of industrial applications of science. In his -unpublished manuscripts at the Royal Institution -there are some curious references to trials which he -made of a meat-canning process, invented about 1848 -by a Mr. Goldner, of Finsbury. He also had fancies -for other domestic applications, including wine-making. -He used himself to bind his own note-books. To a -Mr. Woolnough, who had written a book on the -marbling of paper, he wrote a letter saying how much -interest he felt in the subject, “because of its associations -with my early occupation of bookbinding; and -also because of the very beautiful principles of natural -philosophy which it involves.” He even, on one -occasion, produced a home-made pair of boots. His -devotion to the practical applications of science is -attested by his untiring work for improving the lighthouses -of our coast. It is believed that his death was -accelerated by a severe cold caught when on a visit of -lighthouse inspection during stormy weather.</p> - -<p>Faraday was never ashamed of the circumstance -of his having risen from a humble origin. In his -letters he not unfrequently alludes to things that -remind him of his bookbinding experiences, or of -boyish episodes in his father’s smithy. Yet he had -none of the vulgar pride of ascent which too often -dogs the path of the self-made man. Severe self-discipline -and genuine humility prevented either -undue proclamation or awkward reticence respecting -his early life. His elder brother Robert was a gasfitter.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> -Faraday was not ashamed to help him to -secure work in his trade, nor to give him the benefit -of his scientific aid in perfecting appliances for ventilating -by gas-burners. The following characteristic -story was told by Frank <span class="locked">Barnard:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Robert was throughout life a warm friend and admirer of -his younger brother, and not a whit envious at seeing himself -passed in the social scale by him. One day he was sitting in -the Royal Institution just previous to a lecture by the young -and rising philosopher, when he heard a couple of gentlemen -behind him descanting on the natural gifts and rapid rise of -the lecturer. The brother—perhaps not fully apprehending -the purport of their talk—listened with growing indignation -while one of them dilated on the lowness of Faraday’s origin. -“Why,” said the speaker, “I believe he was a mere shoeblack -at one time.” Robert could endure this no longer; but turning -sharply round he demanded: “Pray, sir, did he ever black -your shoes?” “Oh! dear no, certainly not,” replied the -gentleman, much abashed at the sudden inquisition into the -facts of the case.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">SPIRIT MEDIUMS EXPOSED.</div> - -<p>In 1853 Faraday came before the public in a -novel manner—as the exposer of the then rampant -charlatanry of table-turning and spirit-rapping. The -<i>Athenæum</i> for July 2nd contains a long letter from -him on table-turning. He experimentally investigated -the alleged phenomena as produced by three -skilful mediums in <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">séances</i> at the house of a friend. -His mechanical skill was more than a match, however, -for that of the supposed spirits. When the -observers assembled around the table placed their -hands in the orthodox way upon the table-top, the -table turned, apparently without any effort on the -part of any one of the party. This was eminently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span> -satisfactory for the spirits. But when Faraday -interposed between each hand and the table-top a -simple roller-mechanism which, if any individual in -the circle applied muscular forces tending to turn it, -instantly indicated the fact, the table remained -immovable. Faraday wrote merely describing the -facts, and saying that the test apparatus was now on -public view at 122, Regent Street. He ends <span class="locked">thus:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I must bring this long description to a close. I am a little -ashamed of it, for I think, in the present age, and in this part -of the world, it ought not to have been required. Nevertheless, -I hope it may be useful. There are many whom I do not -expect to convince; but I may be allowed to say that I cannot -undertake to answer such objections as may be made. I state -my own convictions as an experimental philosopher, and find -it no more necessary to enter into controversy on this point -than on any other in science, as the nature of matter, or -inertia, or the magnetisation of light, on which I may differ -from others. The world will decide sooner or later in all such -cases, and I have no doubt very soon and correctly in the -present instance.</p> -</div> - -<p>This exposure excited great interest at the time, -and there was an active correspondence in <i>The Times</i>. -The spiritualists, instead of appreciating the services -to truth rendered by the man of science, railed -bitterly at him. Even the refined and noble spirit of -Mrs. Browning was so dominated by the superstition -of the moment that, as shown by her recently -published letters, she denounced Faraday in singularly -acrimonious terms, and taunted him for shallow -materialism! What Faraday thought of the hubbub -evoked by his action is best learned from a letter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span> -which he addressed three weeks later to his friend -<span class="locked">Schönbein:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I have not been at work except in turning the tables upon -the table-turners, nor should I have done that, but that so -many inquiries poured in upon me, that I thought it better to -stop the inpouring flood by letting all know at once what my -views and thoughts were. What a weak, credulous, incredulous, -unbelieving, superstitious, bold, frightened, what a ridiculous -world ours is, as far as concerns the mind of man. How full -of inconsistencies, contradictions, and absurdities it is. I -declare that, taking the average of many minds that have -recently come before me (and apart from that spirit which -God has placed in each), and accepting for a moment that -average as a standard, I should far prefer the obedience, -affections, and instinct of a dog before it. Do not whisper -this, however, to others. There is One above who worketh in -all things, and who governs even in the midst of that misrule -to which the tendencies and powers of men are so easily -perverted.</p> -</div> - -<p>He declined an invitation in 1855 to see manifestations -by the medium Home, saying that he had -“lost too much time about such matters already.” -Nine years later the Brothers Davenport invited him -to witness their cabinet “manifestations.” Again he -declined, and added: “I will leave the spirits to find -out for themselves how they can move my attention. -I am tired of them.”</p> - -<p>In this year he wrote to <i>The Times</i> respecting the -disgraceful and insanitary condition of the river -Thames. In <i>Punch</i> of the following week appeared a -cartoon representing Faraday presenting his card to -old Father Thames, who rises holding his nose to -avoid the stench.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FAILURE OF MEMORY.</div> - -<p>With increasing age the infirmity of loss of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span> -memory made itself increasingly felt. He alludes -frequently to this in his letters. To one friend who -upbraided him gently for not having replied to a -letter he says: “Do you remember that I forget?” -To another he says he is forgetting how to spell such -words as “withhold” and “successful.” To Matteucci, -in 1849, he bemoans how, after working for six weeks -at certain experiments, he found, on looking back to -his notes, he had ascertained all the same results -eight or nine months before, and had entirely -forgotten them! In the same year he wrote to Dr. -<span class="locked">Percy:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I cannot be on the Committee; I avoid everything of that -kind, that I may keep my stupid head a little clear. As to -being on a Committee and not working, that is worse still.</p> -</div> - -<p>In 1859, in a letter to his niece, Mrs. Deacon, filled -mainly with religious thoughts, he says: “My worldly -faculties are slipping away day by day. Happy is it -for all of us that the true good lies not in them.”</p> - -<p>From the journals of Walter White comes the -following anecdote under date December 22nd, -<span class="locked">1858:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Mr. Faraday called to enquire on the part of Sir Walter -Trevelyan whether a MS. of meteorological observations made -in Greenland would be acceptable. The question answered, I -expressed my pleasure at seeing him looking so well, and -asked him if he were writing a paper for the Royal. He -shook his head. “No: I am too old.” “Too old? Why, age -brings wisdom.” “Yes, but one may overshoot the wisdom.” -“You cannot mean that you have outlived your wisdom?” -“Something like it, for my memory is gone. If I make an -experiment, I forget before twelve hours are over whether the -result was positive or negative; and how can I write a paper<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span> -while that is the case? No, I must content myself with -giving my lectures to children.”</p> -</div> - -<p>From another source we learn of a hitherto unrecorded -incident which happened to Mr. Joseph -Newton, for some time an assistant in the Royal -Mint. While arranging some precious material on -the Royal Institution theatre lecture-table, previous -to a lecture on the Mint and minting operations by -Professor Brande, Mr. Newton noticed an elderly, -spare, and very plainly-dressed individual watching -his movements. Imagining that this person was a -superior messenger of the Institution, Mr. Newton -volunteered some information as to the coinage of -gold. “I suppose,” said the Mint employee, “you -have been some years at the Royal Institution?” -“Well, yes, I have, a good many,” responded the -dilapidated one. “I hope they treat you pretty -liberally—I mean, that they give you a respectable -‘screw,’ for that is the main point.” “Ah! I agree -with you there. I think that the labourer is worthy -of his hire, and I shouldn’t mind being paid a little -better.” Mr. Newton’s surprise, on returning to the -Royal Institution in the evening, to find that the man -whom he had so recently patronised was none other -than the illustrious but modest Michael Faraday can -better be imagined than described.</p> - -<p>A pretty instance, given on the authority of Lady -Pollock, may be recorded of the feeling aroused by -Faraday’s presence when he returned to his accustomed -seat in the lecture-room of the Royal Institution, -after a protracted absence occasioned by <span class="locked">illness:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>As soon as his presence was recognised, the whole audience -rose simultaneously and burst into a spontaneous utterance of -welcome, loud and long. Faraday stood in acknowledgment -of this enthusiastic greeting, with his fine head slightly bent; -and then a certain resemblance to the pictures and busts of -Lord Nelson, which was always observable in his countenance, -was very apparent. His hair had grown white and long, his -face had lengthened, and the agility of his movement was -gone. The eyes no longer flashed with the fire of the soul, but -they still radiated kindly thought; and ineffaceable lines of -intellectual force and energy were stamped upon his face.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">HONOURS OFFERED AND DECLINED.</div> - -<p>In 1857 he was offered the Presidency of the -Royal Society. A painting preserved in the rooms -of the Royal Society records the scene when Lord -Wrottesley, Grove, and Gassiot waited upon him as -a deputation from the Council, to press on him his -acceptance of the highest place which science has to -offer. He hesitated and finally declined, even as he -had declined the suggestion of knighthood years before. -“Tyndall,” he said in private to his successor, “I must -remain plain Michael Faraday to the last; and let me -now tell you, that if I accepted the honour which the -Royal Society desires to confer upon me, I could not -answer for the integrity of my intellect for a single -year.” He also declined the Presidency of the Royal -Institution, which he had served for fifty years. His -one desire was for rest. “The reverent affection of -his friends was,” said Tyndall, “to him infinitely more -precious than all the honours of official life.”</p> - -<p>Allusion has been made to Faraday’s tender and -chivalrous regard for his wife. Extracts from two -letters, written in 1849 and 1863 respectively, must -here suffice to complete the <span class="locked">story:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l2">Birmingham, Dr. Percy’s:</span><br /> -Thursday evening, September 13, 1849. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">My Dearest Wife</span>,—I have just left Dr. Percy’s hospitable -table to write to you, my beloved, telling you how I have been -getting on. I am very well, excepting a little faceache; and -very kindly treated here. They all long most earnestly for -your presence, for both Mrs. and Dr. Percy are anxious you -should come; and this I know, that the things we have seen -would delight you, but then I doubt your powers of running -about as we do; and though I know that if time were given -you could enjoy them, yet to press the matter into a day or -two would be a failure. Besides this, after all, there is no -pleasure like the tranquil pleasures of home, and here—even -here—the moment I leave the table, I wish I were with you <span class="allsmcap">IN -QUIET</span>. Oh! what happiness is ours! My runs into the -world in this way only serve to make me esteem that happiness -the more. I mean to be at home on Saturday night, but it -may be late first, so do not be surprised at that; for if I can, I -should like to go on an excursion to the Dudley caverns, and -that would take the day....</p> - -<p>Write to me, dearest. I shall get your letter on Saturday -morning, or perhaps before.</p> - -<p>Love to father, Margery, and Jenny, and a thousand loves -to yourself, dearest,</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l4">From your affectionate husband,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -5, Claremont Gardens, Glasgow:<br /> -<span class="l2">Monday, August 14, 1863.</span> -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dearest</span>,—Here is the fortnight complete since I left you -and the thoughts of my return to <em>our home</em> crowd in strongly -upon my mind. Not that we are in any way uncared for, or left -by our dear friends, save as I may desire for our own retirement. -Everybody has overflowed with kindness, but you -know their manner, and their desire, by your own experience -with me.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span> -I long to see you, dearest, and to talk over things together, -and call to mind all the kindness I have received. My head is -full, and my heart also, but my recollection rapidly fails, even -as regards the friends that are in the room with me. You will -have to resume your old function of being a pillow to my mind, -and a rest, a happy-making wife.</p> - -<p>My love to my dear Mary. I expect to find you together, -but do not assume to know how things may be.</p> - -<p>Jeannie’s love with mine, and also Charlotte’s, and a great -many others which I cannot call to mind.</p> - -<p>Dearest, I long to see and be with you, whether together or -separate.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l4">Your husband, very affectionate,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday</span> -</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">THE WIFE AND THE QUEEN.</div> - -<p>In 1858 the Queen, at the suggestion of Prince -Albert, who much esteemed and valued Faraday’s -genius, placed at his disposal for life a comfortable -house on the green near Hampton Court. Faraday’s -only hesitation in accepting the offer was a doubt -whether he could afford the needful repairs. On a -hint of this reaching the Queen, she at once directed -that it should be put into thorough repair inside and -out. He still kept his rooms at the Royal Institution, -and continued to live there occasionally.</p> - -<p>With the increasing infirmities of age, his anxieties -for his wife seemed to be the only trouble that marred -the serenity of his thought. Lady Pollock’s narrative -gives the following <span class="locked">particulars:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Sometimes he was depressed by the idea of his wife left -without kin—of the partner of his hopes and cares deprived of -him. She had been the first love of his ardent soul; she was -the last; she had been the brightest dream of his youth, and -she was the dearest comfort of his age; he never ceased for an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span> -instant to feel himself happy with her; and he never for one -hour ceased to care for her happiness. It was no wonder, then, -that he felt anxiety about her. But he would rally from such -a trouble with his great religious trust, and looking at her -with moist eyes, he would say, “I must not be afraid; you -will be cared for, my wife; you will be cared for.”</p> - -<p>There are some who remember how tenderly he used to -lead her to her seat at the Royal Institution when she was -suffering from lameness; how carefully he used to support her; -how watchfully he used to attend all her steps. It did the -heart good to see his devotion, and to think what the man was -and what he had been.</p> -</div> - -<div id="i_258" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 32em;"> - <img src="images/i_258.jpg" width="1514" height="1094" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>—<span class="allsmcap">FARADAY’S HOME AT HAMPTON COURT.</span></div></div> - -<div class="sidenote">CLOSE OF SCIENTIFIC CAREER.</div> - -<p>Gradually his powers waned. He gave his last -juvenile lectures at Christmas, 1860; and in October, -1861, being now seventy years of age, he resigned his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span> -Professorship, while retaining the superintendence of -the laboratory. “Nothing,” he wrote to the managers, -“would make me happier in the things of this life -than to make some scientific discovery or development, -and by that to justify the Board in their desire -to retain me in my position here.” His last research -in the laboratory was made on March 12, 1862. On -June 20th he gave his last Friday night discourse—on -Siemens’s gas furnaces. He had, as his notes show, -already made up his mind to announce his retirement, -and the lecture was a sad and touching occasion, for -the failure of his powers was painfully evident. He -continued for two years longer, and with surprising -activity, to work for Trinity House on the subject of -lighthouse illumination by the electric light. In 1865 -he resigned these duties to Dr. Tyndall. In 1864 he -resigned his eldership in the Sandemanian church. -In March, 1865, he resigned the position of superintendent -of the house and laboratories of the Royal -Institution. He continued to attend the Friday -evening meetings; but his tottering condition of frame -and mind was apparent to all. All through the -winter of 1865 and 1866 he became very feeble. Yet -he took an interest in Mr. Wilde’s description of his -new magneto-electric machine. Almost the last -pleasure he showed on any scientific matter was when -viewing the long spark of a Holtz’s influence machine. -He still enjoyed looking at sunsets and storms. All -through the summer and autumn of 1866 and the -spring of 1867 his physical powers waned. He was faithfully -and lovingly tended by his wife and his devoted -niece, Jane Barnard. He was scarcely able to move,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span> -but his mind “overflowed” with the consciousness -of the affectionate regard of those around him. He -gradually sank into torpor, saying nothing and taking -little notice of anything. Sitting in his chair in his -study, he died peacefully and painlessly on the -26th of August, 1867. On the 30th of August -he was quietly buried in Highgate Cemetery, his -remains being committed to the earth, in accordance -with the custom of the religious body to which -he belonged, in perfect silence. None but personal -friends were present, the funeral being by his own -verbal and written wishes strictly simple and private. -A simple unadorned tombstone marks the last resting-place -of Michael Faraday.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_261" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">VIEWS ON THE PURSUIT OF SCIENCE AND ON -EDUCATION.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Between</span> Faraday and the scientific men of his time -there subsisted many various relations. The influence -which he exerted as a lecturer and as an -experimental investigator was unique; but, apart -from such influences, those relations were mainly -confined to individual friendships. With the organisation -of science he had relatively very little to do. -We have seen how highly he prized the honour of -admission to the Fellowship of the Royal Society; -and it remains to be told of the gratification with -which he accepted the scientific honours which he -received from almost every academy and university -in Europe. Yet he took little part in the work of -scientific societies as such. Four years after his -election as F.R.S. he served on the Council, and he -remained on till 1831. He served again in 1833 and -1835. He was not, however, satisfied with the -management of the Royal Society, nor with the way -in which its Fellowship was at that time bestowed -on men who had no real claims on science, but -were nominated through influence. Echoes of this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span> -discontent are to be found in various pamphlets of the -day by Moll, Babbage, South, and others. Faraday, -who edited Moll’s pamphlet on the “Decline of -Science,” is believed to have had an even larger share -in its production. In 1830 the really scientific men -amongst the Fellows desired to place Sir John -Herschel as President; the less scientific preferred -the Duke of Sussex. Faraday took the unusual step -of speaking on the question, advocating the principle -that eminence in science should be the sole qualification -for the Presidency. At the same meeting -Herschel moved, and Faraday seconded, a plan for -reforming the Council by nominating a list of fifty -Fellows from whose number the Council should be -chosen. They carried their plan, and Faraday’s name -was amongst those so selected to serve. But the -presidential election went in favour of the Duke of -Sussex by 119 to 110 votes. After 1835 Faraday -never served again on the Council. In 1843 he wrote -to <span class="locked">Matteucci:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I think you are aware that I have not attended at the -Royal Society, either meetings or council, for some years. Ill -health is one reason, and another that I do not like the -present constitution of it, and want to restrict it to scientific -men. As these my opinions are not acceptable, I have -withdrawn from any management in it (still sending scientific -communications if I discover anything I think worthy). This, -of course, deprives me of power there.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">REFORM IN THE ROYAL SOCIETY.</div> - -<p>Two months earlier he wrote to Grove, who at -that time was carrying out the long-needed reforms, -sympathising, but declining to <span class="locked">co-operate:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l2">Royal Institution,</span><br /> -December 21, 1842. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">My dear Grove</span>,—... As to the Royal Society, you -know my feeling towards it is for what it has been, and I hope -may be. Its present state is not wholesome. You are aware -that I am not on the council, and have not been for years, and -have been to no meeting there for years; but I do hope for -better times. I do not wonder at your feeling—all I meant to -express was a wish that its circumstances and character -should improve, and that it should again become a desirable -reunion of <em>all</em> really scientific men. It has done much, is -now doing much, in some parts of science, as its magnetic -observations show, and I hope will some day become altogether -healthy.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="l1">Ever, my dear Grove, yours sincerely,</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>Though he continued down to 1860 to send -researches for publication to the Royal Society, he -seldom attended its meetings.<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> He was not even -present in November, 1845, on the occasion of the -reading of his paper on the action of the magnet on -light. In 1857 he declined the Presidency, though -urged by the unanimous wish of the Council, as -narrated on <a href="#Page_225">p. 225</a>.</p> - -<p>Though in the meridian of his active life, he took<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span> -no part in the founding of the British Association -in 1831, but was at the Oxford meeting in 1832, -being one of the four scientific men (<a href="#Page_65">p. 65</a>) selected -to receive the honorary degree of D.C.L. on that -occasion. He also communicated a paper on Electro-chemical -Decomposition to the B.A. meeting at -Cambridge in 1833. He acted as president of the -Chemical Section of the Association in 1837 at -Liverpool, and in 1846 at Southampton; and he -was chosen as vice-president of the Association -itself in the years 1844, at York (<a href="#Page_224">p. 224</a>); 1849, -at Birmingham (<a href="#Page_256">p. 256</a>); and 1853, at Hull. He -delivered evening discourses in 1847, at Oxford, on -Magnetic and Diamagnetic Phenomena; and in 1849, -at Birmingham, on Mr. Gassiot’s Battery. He also -contributed to the proceedings at the meetings at -Ipswich in 1851 and at Liverpool in 1854.</p> - -<p>His comparative aloofness from scientific organisations -arose probably from the exceedingly individual -nature of his own researches—to which allusion -was made on <a href="#Page_242">p. 242</a>—rather than from any lack of -sympathy. He had no jealousy of co-operation in -science. To Tyndall, then at Marburg, he wrote in -1850 rejoicing at the circumstance that the work -on the magnetic properties of crystals was being -taken up by others. “It is wonderful,” he says, -“how much good results from different persons -working at the same matter. Each one gives views -and ideas new to the rest. When science is a -republic, then it gains; and though I am no republican -in other matters, I am in that.” Other -causes there were, doubtless, tending to his isolation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span> -amongst them an old jealousy, now long dead, against -the Royal Institution on the part of some of the -Fellows of the Royal Society. Above all, probably, -was his detestation of controversy.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">PRIORITY IN SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.</div> - -<div class="sidenote">PRIORITY IN PUBLICATION.</div> - -<p>Priority in scientific discovery was a matter which -deeply concerned one whose life was devoted to -scientific pioneering. To any question as to scientific -priority between himself and other workers he -was keenly sensitive. This was, indeed, natural in -one who had voluntarily relinquished fortune, and -retired from lucrative professional work, in the sole -and single aim of advancing natural knowledge. -His single-minded and sensitive nature made him -particularly scrupulous in all such matters, and his -early experiences must have added to the almost -excessive keenness of his perceptions. Having had -in 1823, when still merely assistant to Davy, to bear -the double burden of a serious misunderstanding -with Dr. Wollaston as to the originality of his discovery -of the electro-magnetic rotations, and of a -serious estrangement from his master arising out of -the liquid chlorine discovery—an estrangement which -threatened to cause his election to the Royal Society -to be indefinitely postponed—he was in later life -especially precise in dating and publishing his own -researches. In 1831 there arose, concerning his great -discovery of magneto-electric induction, a curious -misunderstanding. His discovery was, as we have -seen, made in September and October. He collected -his results and arranged them in the splendid memoir—the -first in the series of “Experimental -Researches in Electricity”—which was read at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span> -Royal Society on November 24th. The <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">résumé</i> of -his work, which he wrote five days later to Phillips, is -given on <a href="#letter_114">pages 114–117</a>. A fortnight later he wrote -a shorter and hasty letter in the same way to his -friend, M. Hachette of Paris—a letter which Faraday -subsequently well termed “unfortunate,” in view of -the consequences that followed. M. Hachette, a week -later, communicated Faraday’s letter to the Académie -des Sciences on December 26th. It was published -in <i>Le Temps</i> of December 28th. At that date the -complete memoir read to the Royal Society was not -yet printed or circulated. The consequence was that -two Italian physicists, MM. Nobili and Antinori, -seeing the brief letter, and “considering that the -subject was given to the philosophical world for -general pursuit,” immediately began researches on -magneto-electric induction in ignorance of Faraday’s -full work. Their results they embodied in a paper, -in which they claimed to have “verified, extended, -and, perhaps, rectified the results of the English -philosopher,” accusing him of errors both in experiment -and theory, and even of a breach of good -faith as to what he had said about Arago’s rotations. -This paper they dated January 31st, 1832; but it -was published in the belated number of the <i>Antologia</i> -for November, 1831, where its appearance at an -apparently earlier date than Faraday’s original -paper in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> made many -Continental readers suppose that the researches of -Nobili and Antinori preceded those of Faraday. In -June, 1832, Faraday published in the <i>Philosophical -Magazine</i> a translation of Nobili’s memoir, with his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span> -own annotations; and later in the year he wrote to -Gay Lussac a long letter on the errors of Nobili -and Antinori. He showed how, in spite of his efforts -to clear up the misunderstanding, in spite of his -having sent several months previously to MM. Nobili -and Antinori copies of his original papers, no correction -or retractation had been made by them; and -he concluded by a dignified protest that none might -say he had been too hasty to write that which might -have been avoided. It may be taken that the rule -now recognised as to priority of scientific publication—namely, -that it dates from the day when the discoverer -communicates it formally to any of the -recognised learned societies—was virtually established -by Faraday’s example. It will be remembered that -writing to De la Rive in 1845, to tell him of his -diamagnetic discoveries, he begged him to keep the -matter secret, adding: “I ought (in order to preserve -the respect due to the Royal Society) not to write -a description to any one until the paper has been received -or even read there.” To younger men he inculcated -the necessity of proper and prompt publication -of their researches if they would reap the benefit of -their work. To Sir William Crookes, then a rising -young chemist, he said: “Work, Finish, Publish.” -Writing in 1853 to Professor Matteucci, who had been -annoyed with him for allowing Du Bois Reymond, -with whom Matteucci had had some controversy -about priority, to dedicate his book to him, Faraday -says: “Who has not to put up in his day with -insinuations and misrepresentations in the accounts -of his proceedings given by others, bearing for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span> -time the present injustice, which is often unintentional, -and often originates in hasty temper, and -committing his fame and character to the judgment -of the men of his own and future time?”... -“I see that that moves you which would move me -most—namely, the imputation of a want of good -faith—and I cordially sympathise with any one who -is so charged unjustly. Such cases have seemed to -me almost the only ones for which it is worth while -entering into controversy.”... “These polemics -of the scientific world are very unfortunate things; -they form the great stain to which the beautiful -edifice of scientific truth is subject. <em>Are they -inevitable?</em>”</p> - -<p>Controversy whether in religion or science was to -him alike detestable. He took no part in politics. A -letter to Tyndall (see “Faraday as a Discoverer,” p. 39), -written after the latter had told him of a rather heated -discussion at the British Association meeting in 1855, -speaks of his own efforts at forbearance. He <span class="locked">says:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>These great meetings, of which I think very well altogether, -advance science chiefly by bringing scientific men together and -making them to know and be friends with each other; and I -am sorry when that is not the effect in every part of their -course.... The real truth never fails ultimately to -appear.... It is better to be blind to the results of -partisanship, and quick to see good will. One has more -happiness in oneself in endeavouring to follow the things that -make for peace. You can hardly imagine how often I have -been heated in private when opposed, as I have thought unjustly -and superciliously, and yet I have striven, and succeeded -I hope, in keeping down replies of the like kind. And I know -I have never lost by it.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">HATRED OF CONTROVERSY.</div> - -<p>During the years when he was examining the -apparatus of rival inventors for lighthouse illumination, -he could calmly hear them described as Mr. So-and-So’s -electric lights, all the while knowing that it -was his own discovery of magneto-electric induction -which had made the mechanical production of electric -light possible. Yet he fired up if anyone dared to -revive the priority dispute between Davy and Stephenson -as to the invention of the safety lamp. “Disgraceful -subject,” was his own comment. In his -dispute with Snow Harris as to the design of lightning -rods, in which, as it is now known, Snow Harris was -right; in his dispute with Airy over the curved lines -of force; in his minor difficulties over Hare’s pile and -Becquerel’s magnetic observations, none could either -assert his own position with more simple dignity, nor -admit with greater frankness the rights of his rival.</p> - -<p>To Hare he <span class="locked">wrote:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>You must excuse me, however, for several reasons from -answering it [Hare’s letter] at any length; the first is my -distaste for controversy, which is so great that I would on no -account our correspondence should acquire that character. I -have often seen it do great harm, and yet remember few cases -in natural knowledge where it has helped much either to pull -down error or advance truth. Criticism, on the other hand, is -of much value.</p> -</div> - -<p>When we reflect how large a part of his experimental -researches was devoted to establishing the -relations between the various forces of nature, we -cannot but think that Faraday must have regarded -with somewhat mixed feelings the publication in 1846 -of Sir William Grove’s volume on the Correlation of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span> -Forces. He had, in June, 1834, given a course of -lectures on the mutual relation of chemical and -electrical phenomena, and had dealt therein with the -conversion of chemical and electrical power into heat, -and had speculated on the inclusion of gravitation in -these mutual relations. In 1853 Faraday marked the -old lecture notes of these lectures with his initials, -and endorsed them with the words “Correlation of -Physical Forces.” Probably none rejoiced more than -he that Grove had undertaken the work of popularising -the notion which for a score of years had been familiar -to himself. Yet he was keen to resent an unjust -reflection, as is shown by his letter to Richard Phillips, -republished in Vol. II. of the “Experimental Researches,” -p. 229, respecting Dr. John Davy’s Life of -Sir Humphry.</p> - -<p>Faraday has himself left on record (<a href="#Page_10">p. 10</a>) that when -he wrote to Davy asking to be taken into his employment, -his motive was his desire “to escape from trade, -which I thought vicious and selfish, and to enter into -the service of Science, which, I imagined, made its -pursuers amiable and liberal.” Davy had smiled at -this boyish notion, and had told him that the experience -of a few years would correct his ideas. Years -afterwards he spoke of this matter to Mrs. Andrew -Crosse in an interview which she has <span class="locked">recorded:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>After viewing the ample appliances for experimental -research, and feeling much impressed by the scientific atmosphere -of the place, I turned and said, “Mr. Faraday, you -must be very happy in your position and with your pursuits, -which elevate you entirely out of the meaner aspects and -lower aims of common life.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span></p> - -<p>He shook his head, and with that wonderful mobility -of countenance which was characteristic, his expression of -joyousness changed to one of profound sadness, and he replied: -“When I quitted business and took to science as a career, -I thought I had left behind me all the petty meannesses -and small jealousies which hinder man in his moral progress; -but I found myself raised into another sphere, only to find -poor human nature just the same everywhere—subject to -the same weaknesses and the same self-seeking, however -exalted the intellect.”</p> - -<p>These were his words as well as I can recollect; and, -looking at that good and great man, I thought I had never -seen a countenance which so impressed me with the characteristic -of perfect unworldliness.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">HONOURS AND TITLES.</div> - -<p>Probably few men have ever been recipients of so -many scientific honours as Faraday. Beginning in -the year 1823 with his election as a corresponding -member of the Académie des Sciences of Paris, and as -an honorary member of the Cambridge Philosophical -Society, the list of his diplomas and distinctions—some -ninety-seven in number—ended in 1864 with -his election as Associate of the Royal Academy of -Sciences of Naples. It included honours from almost -every academy and university of Europe. These -honours Faraday valued very highly; and whilst he -consigned his various gold medals to a mere wooden -box, his diplomas were kept with the utmost care in a -special diploma book, in which they were mounted -and indexed. To Mr. Spring Rice, who in 1838 asked -him for a list of his titles, he replied, enclosing the -list, and adding this remark: “One title, namely that -of F.R.S., was sought and paid for; all the rest are -spontaneous offerings of kindness and goodwill from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span> -the bodies named.” Years afterwards he was asked -by Lord Wrottesley to advise the Government as to -how the position of science or of the cultivators of -science in England might be improved. The letter -is so characteristic that it cannot be <span class="locked">spared:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="sigright"> -Royal Institution: March 10, 1854. -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">My Lord</span>,—I feel unfit to give a deliberate opinion on the -course it might be advisable for the Government to pursue if -it were anxious to improve the position of science and its -cultivators in our country. My course of life, and the circumstances -which make it a happy one for me, are not those of -persons who conform to the usages and habits of society. -Through the kindness of all, from my Sovereign downwards, I -have that which supplies all my need; and in respect of -honours, I have, as a scientific man, received from foreign -countries and sovereigns those which, belonging to very limited -and select classes, surpass in my opinion anything that it is in -the power of my own to bestow.</p> - -<p>I cannot say that I have not valued such distinctions; on -the contrary, I esteem them very highly, but I do not think I -have ever worked for or sought after them. Even were such -to be now created here, the time is past when these would -possess any attraction for me....</p> - -<p>Without thinking of the effect it might have upon distinguished -men of science, or upon the minds of those who, -stimulated to exertion, might become distinguished, I do -think that a government should, <em>for its own sake</em>, honour the -men who do honour and service to the country. I refer now -to honours only, not to beneficial rewards. Of such honours, -I think, there are none. Knighthoods and baronetcies are -sometimes conferred with such intentions, but I think them -utterly unfit for that purpose. Instead of conferring distinction, -they confound the man who is one of twenty, or perhaps -fifty, with hundreds of others. They depress rather than -exalt him, for they tend to lower the especial distinction of -mind to the commonplace of society. An intelligent country<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span> -ought to recognise the scientific men amongst its people as a -class. If honours are conferred upon eminence in any class, as -that of the law or the army, they should be in this also. The -aristocracy of the class should have other distinctions than -those of lowly and high-born, rich and poor, yet they should -be such as to be worthy of those whom the sovereign and the -country should delight to honour; and, being rendered very -desirable, and even enviable, in the eyes of the aristocracy by -birth, should be unattainable except to that of science. Thus -much, I think, the Government and the country ought to do, -for their own sake and the good of science, more than for -the sake of the men who might be thought worthy of such -distinction. The latter have attained to their fit place, -whether the community at large recognise it or not....</p> - -<p>I have the honour to be, my lord, your very faithful -servant,</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="smcap">M. Faraday.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">HOW SCIENCE CAN BE HONOURED.</div> - -<p>To Professor Andrews he wrote in 1843 in a -similar <span class="locked">strain:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I have always felt that there is something degrading in -offering rewards for intellectual exertion, and that societies or -academies, or even kings and emperors, should mingle in the -matter does not remove the degradation, for the feeling which -is hurt is a point above their condition, and belongs to the -respect which a man owes to himself.... Still, I think -rewards and honours <em>good</em> if properly distributed; but they -should be given for what a man has done, and not offered for -what he is to do.</p> -</div> - -<p>When a friend wrote to him on hearing a rumour -that he had himself been knighted, his reply, -published years after in the <cite>London Review</cite>, was: “I -am happy that I am not a Sir, and do not intend (if it -depends upon me) to become one. By the Prussian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span> -knighthood<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> I do feel honoured; in the other I -should not.”</p> - -<p>On one occasion he commented rather sarcastically -upon the British Government and its stinginess -as compared with those of all other civilised countries -in its aids to scientific progress. This complaint is -equally justified to-day. To many it may be news -that England pays to its Astronomer Royal—who -must obviously be a person of very high scientific -qualifications—a salary less than those paid to the -five assistant under-secretaries in the Colonial and -Foreign Offices; less than that paid to the sergeants-at-arms -in the Houses of Parliament; less than that -paid to the person appointed Director of Clothing -in the War Office. Enlightened England!</p> - -<p>Faraday did not deem the pursuit of science to be -necessarily incompatible with what he termed “professional -business”—that is, expert work. Until the -day when he abandoned all professional engagements, -so as to devote himself to researches, he had been -receiving a considerable and growing income from -this source. But he objected to the indignities to -which this work exposed him from lawyers, who -would not understand that he took no partisan view. -He could not endure the browbeating of cross-examining -counsel. The late Lord Cardwell was -witness to a gentle but crushing reproof which he -once administered to a barrister who attempted to -bully him. A writer in the <cite>British Quarterly Review</cite><span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span> -attributes to a specific case his determination to -cease expert work.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>He gave evidence once in a judicial case, when the scientific -testimony, starting from given premises, was so diverse that -the presiding judge, in summing up launched something like -a reproach at the scientific witnesses. “Science has not shone -this day,” was his lordship’s remark. From that time forth no -one ever saw Faraday as a scientific witness before a law -tribunal.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">UNIVERSITY DEGREES IN SCIENCE.</div> - -<p>Amongst the honours received by Faraday there -was one of which, in 1838, he said that he felt it -equal to any other he had received—namely, that of -Member of the Senate of the University of London, -to which position he was nominated in 1836 by the -Crown. For twenty-seven years he remained a -senator, and when, in 1859, the project for creating -degrees in science was on foot, he was one of the -committee who drew up a report and scheme of -examination for the Senate. To the Rev. John -Barlow he wrote on this <span class="locked">matter:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The Senate of the University accepted and approved of -the report of the Committee for Scientific Degrees, so that -that will go forward (if the Government approve), and will -come into work next year. It seems to give much satisfaction -to all who have seen it, though the subject is beset with -difficulties; for when the depth and breadth of science came -to be considered, and an estimate was made of how much a -man ought to know to obtain a right to a degree in it, the -amount in words seemed to be so enormous as to make me -hesitate in demanding it from the student; and though in the -D.S. one could divide the matter and claim eminence in one -branch of science, rather than good general knowledge in all, -still in the B.S., which is a progressive degree, a more extended -though a more superficial acquaintance seemed to be required. -In fact, the matter is so new, and there is so little that can<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span> -serve as a previous experience in the founding and arranging -these degrees, that one must leave the whole endeavour to -shape itself as the practice and experience accumulates.</p> -</div> - -<p>When, in 1863, his feebleness impelled him to -resign this position, he wrote to Dr. <span class="locked">Carpenter:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The position of a senator is one that should not be held -by an inactive man to the exclusion of an active one. It has -rejoiced my heart to see the progress of the University, and -of education under its influence and power; and that delight -I hope to have so long as life shall be spared to me.</p> -</div> - -<p>He had little sympathy with either text-book -science or with mere examinations. “I have far -more confidence,” he wrote, “in the one man who -works mentally and bodily at a matter than in the -six who merely talk about it. Nothing is so good -as an experiment which, whilst it sets error right, -gives an absolute advancement in knowledge.” In -another place he wrote:—“Let the imagination go, -guarding it by judgment and principles, but holding -it in and directing it by experiment.” For book-learned -chemistry and mere chemical theory, apart -from experimental facts, he had an undisguised contempt. -Writing to General Portlock on the subject -of chemical education, he stated that he had been -one of the Senate of the University of London -appointed to consider especially the best method of -examination. They had decided on examination by -papers, accompanied by <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">vivâ voce</i>. “We think,” he -added, “that no numerical value can be attached -to the questions, because everything depends on <em>how -they are answered</em>.” Then, referring to the teaching -at Woolwich, he says, “My instructions always have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span> -been to look to the note-books for the result.” -“Lectures alone cannot be expected to give more -than a general idea of this most extensive branch -of science, and it would be too much to expect -that young men who at the utmost hear only fifty -lectures on chemistry should be able to answer with -much effect, in writing, to questions set down on -paper, when we know by experience that daily work -for eight hours in <em>practical laboratories</em> for <em>three -months</em> does not go very far to confer such ability.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SCIENCE AND THE UNIVERSITIES.</div> - -<p>He had, at an earlier date, declined to be appointed -as examiner in the University. He had -previously declined the professorship of chemistry -in University College; and he had also declined -the chemical chair in the University of Edinburgh. -This was not, however, from any want of sympathy -with university work, or failure to appreciate the -ideal of a university as a seat of learning. Writing -to Tyndall, in 1851, about another university—that -at Toronto—he said: “I trust it is a place where -a man of science and a true philosopher is required, -and where, in return, such a man would be nourished -and cherished in proportion to his desire to advance -natural knowledge.”</p> - -<p>At the same time he had an exceeding repugnance -to the custom of expecting candidates for professorial -chairs to produce “testimonials” of their qualifications. -When his intimate friend Richard Phillips -was a candidate for the very chair which Faraday -refused at University College, Faraday declined on -principle to give a testimonial. “I should indeed -have thought,” he added, “his character had been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span> -known to be such that it would rather have been -degraded than established by certificates.”</p> - -<p>Similarly, in 1851, he told Tyndall, then an -applicant for the Chair of Physics at Toronto, that he -had in every case refused for many years past to give -any on the application of candidates. “Nevertheless,” -he added, “I wish to say that when I am asked about -a candidate by those who have the choice or appointment, -I never refuse to answer.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SCIENCE IN EDUCATION.</div> - -<p>On general education, Faraday’s ideas were much -in advance of his time. From the epoch when as a -young man he lectured to the City Philosophical -Society on the means of obtaining knowledge and on -mental inertia, down to the close of his career, he -consistently advocated the cultivation of the experimental -method and the use of science as a means of -training the faculties. A concise account of his views -is to be found in the lecture he gave in 1854 before -the Prince Consort on “Mental Education,” a lecture -which prescribes the self-educating discipline of -scientific study and experiment as a means of correcting -deficiency of judgment. It included a powerful -plea for suspense of judgment and for the cultivation -of the faculty of proportionate judgment. In 1862 -he was examined at some length by the Royal Commissioners -upon Public Schools. With them he -pleaded strongly for the introduction of science into -the school curricula; and when asked at what age it -might be serviceable to introduce science-teaching, -replied: “I think one can hardly tell that until after -experience for some few years. All I can say is this -that at my juvenile lectures at Christmas time I have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span> -never found a child too young to understand intelligently -what I told him; they came to me afterwards -with questions which proved their capability.”</p> - -<p>One passage from the close of a lecture given in -1858 deserves to be recorded for its fine appreciation of -“the kind of education which science offers to <span class="locked">man”:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>It teaches us to be neglectful of nothing, not to despise the -<em>small</em> beginnings—they precede of necessity <em>all great things</em>.... -It teaches a continual comparison of the <em>small and -great</em>, and that under differences almost approaching the -infinite, for the small as often contains the great in principle -as the great does the small; and thus the mind becomes -comprehensive. It teaches to deduce principles carefully, to -hold them firmly, or to suspend the judgment, to discover and -obey <em>law</em>, and by it to be bold in applying to the greatest what -we know of the smallest. It teaches us, first by tutors and -books, to learn that which is already known to others, and -then by the light and methods which belong to science to -learn for ourselves and for others; so making a fruitful return -to man in the future for that which we have obtained from the -men of the past. Bacon in his instruction tells us that the -scientific student ought not to be as the ant, who gathers -merely, nor as the spider who spins from her own bowels, but -rather as the bee who both gathers and produces.</p> - -<p>All this is true of the teaching afforded by any part of -physical science. Electricity is often called wonderful, beautiful; -but it is so only in common with the other forces of nature. -The beauty of electricity or of any other force is not that the -power is mysterious, and unexpected, touching every sense at -unawares in turn, but that it is under <em>law</em>, and that the taught -intellect can even now govern it largely. The human mind is -placed above, and not beneath it, and it is in such a point of -view that the mental education afforded by science is rendered -super-eminent in dignity, in practical application and utility; -for by enabling the mind to apply the natural power through -law, it conveys the gifts of God to man.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">ON MATHEMATICS.</div> - -<p>A peculiar interest attaches to Faraday’s attitude -towards the study of mathematics. He who had -never had any schooling beyond the common school -of his parish had not advanced beyond the simplest -algebra in his mastery over symbolic reasoning. -Several times in his “Experimental Researches” he -deplores what he termed “my imperfect mathematical -knowledge.” Of Poisson’s theory of magnetism -he said: “I am quite unfit to form a judgment.” -Dr. Scoffern repeats a pleasantry of Faraday’s having -on a certain occasion boasted that he had once in the -course of his life performed a mathematical operation—when -he turned the handle of Babbage’s calculating -machine. Certain it is that he went through the -whole of his magnificent researches without once -using even a sine or a cosine, or anything more -recondite than the simple rule-of-three. He expressed -the same kind of regret at his unfamiliarity -with the German language—“the language of science -and knowledge,” as he termed it in writing to Du Bois -Reymond—which prevented him from reading the -works of Professor “Ohms.” Nevertheless he valued -the mathematical powers of others, and counselled -Tyndall to work out his experimental results, “so that -the mathematicians may be able to take it up.” Yet -he never relaxed his preference for proceeding along -the lines of experimental investigation. His curious -phrase (<a href="#Page_239">p. 239</a>) as to his pique respecting mathematics -is very significant, as is also his note of jubilation in -his letter to Phillips (<a href="#Page_117">p. 117</a>) at finding that pure -experiment can successfully rival mathematics in -unravelling the mysteries which had eluded the efforts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span> -of Poisson and Arago. He himself attributed to his -defective memory his want of hold upon symbolic -reasoning. To Tyndall he wrote in 1851, when thanking -him for a copy of one of his scientific <span class="locked">memoirs:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Such papers as yours make me feel more than ever the loss -of memory I have sustained, for there is no reading them, or -at least retaining the argument, under such deficiency.</p> - -<p>Mathematical formulæ more than anything require quickness -and surety in receiving and retaining the true value of -the symbols used; and when one has to look back at every -moment to the beginning of a paper, to see what H or A or B -mean, there is no making way. Still, though I cannot hold -the whole train of reasoning in my mind at once, I am able -fully to appreciate the value of the results you arrive at, and it -appears to me that they are exceedingly well established and -of very great consequence. These elementary laws of action -are of so much consequence in the development of the nature -of a power which, like magnetism, is as yet new to us.</p> -</div> - -<p>Again to Clerk Maxwell, in 1857, he <span class="locked">wrote:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>There is one thing I would be glad to ask you. When a -mathematician engaged in investigating physical actions and -results has arrived at his own conclusions, may they not be -expressed in common language as fully, clearly, and definitely -as in mathematical formulæ? If so, would it not be a great -boon to such as we to express them so—translating them out -of their hieroglyphics that we also might work upon them by -experiment? I think it must be so, because I have always -found that you could convey to me a perfectly clear idea of -your conclusions, which, though they may give me no full -understanding of the steps of your process, gave me the results -neither above nor below the truth, and so clear in character -that I can think and work from them.</p> - -<p>If this be possible, would it not be a good thing if mathematicians, -writing on these subjects, were to give us their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span> -results in this popular useful working state as well as in that -which is their own and proper to them?</p> -</div> - -<p>The achievement of Faraday in finding for the -expression of electromagnetic laws means which, -though not symbolic, were simple, accurate, and in -advance of the mathematics of his time, has been -alluded to on page 217. Liebig, in his discourse on -“Induction and Deduction,” refers to Faraday <span class="locked">thus:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I have heard mathematical physicists deplore that Faraday’s -records of his labours were difficult to read and understand, -that they often resembled rather abstracts from a diary. But -the fault was theirs, not Faraday’s. To physicists who have -approached physics by the road of chemistry, Faraday’s -memoirs sound like an admirably beautiful music.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">MAXWELL AND VON HELMHOLTZ.</div> - -<p>Von Helmholtz, in his Faraday lecture of 1881, -has also touched on this aspect.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Now that the mathematical interpretation of Faraday’s -conceptions regarding the nature of electric and magnetic -forces has been given by Clerk Maxwell, we see how great a -degree of exactness and precision was really hidden behind the -words which to Faraday’s contemporaries appeared either -vague or obscure; and it is in the highest degree astonishing -to see what a large number of general theorems, the methodical -deduction of which requires the highest powers of mathematical -analysis, he found by a kind of intuition, with the -security of instinct, without the help of a single mathematical -formula.</p> -</div> - -<p>Two other passages from Von Helmholtz are -worthy of being <span class="locked">added:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>And now, with a quite wonderful sagacity and intellectual -precision, Faraday performed in his brain the work of a great -mathematician without using a single mathematical formula.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span> -He saw with his mind’s eye that magnetised and dielectric -bodies ought to have a tendency to contract in the direction -of the lines of force, and to dilate in all directions perpendicular -to the former, and that by these systems of tensions -and pressures in the space which surrounds electrified bodies, -magnets, or wires conducting electric currents, all the phenomena -of electrostatic, magnetic, electromagnetic attraction, -repulsion, and induction could be explained, without recurring -at all to forces acting directly at a distance. This was the -part of his path where so few could follow him; perhaps a -Clerk Maxwell, a second man of the same power and independence -of intellect, was needed to reconstruct in the -normal methods of science the great building the plan of -which Faraday had conceived in his mind, and attempted to -make visible to his contemporaries.</p> - -<p>Nobody can deny that this new theory of electricity and -magnetism, originated by Faraday and developed by Maxwell, -is in itself well consistent, in perfect and exact harmony with -all the known facts of experience, and does not contradict any -one of the general axioms of dynamics, which have been -hitherto considered as the fundamental truths of all natural -science, because they have been found valid, without any -exception, in all known processes of nature.</p> -</div> - -<p>And, after dealing with the phenomena discussed -by Faraday, Von Helmholtz adds these pregnant -<span class="locked">words:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Nevertheless, the fundamental conceptions by which -Faraday was led to these much-admired discoveries have -not received an equal amount of consideration. They were -very divergent from the trodden path of scientific theory, and -appeared rather startling to his contemporaries. His principal -aim was to express in his new conceptions only facts, with -the least possible use of hypothetical substances and forces. -This was really an advance in general scientific method, -destined to purify science from the last remnants of metaphysics. -Faraday was not the first, and not the only man,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span> -who had worked in this direction, but perhaps nobody else -at his time did it so radically.</p> -</div> - -<p>Clerk Maxwell said of him:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The way in which Faraday made use of his lines of force -in co-ordinating the phenomena of electric induction shows -him to have been a mathematician of high order, and one -from whom the mathematicians of the future may derive -valuable and fertile methods.</p> -</div> - -<p>It is fitting to include in this review of Faraday’s -place in relation to the mathematical side of physics -some words of Lord Kelvin, taken from his preface -to the English edition of Hertz’s “Electric <span class="locked">Waves”:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Faraday, with his curved lines of electric force, and his -dielectric efficiency of air and of liquid and solid insulators, -resuscitated the idea of a medium through which, and not -only through which but <em>by</em> which, forces of attraction or -repulsion, seemingly acting at a distance, are transmitted.</p> - -<p>The long struggle of the first half of the eighteenth century -was not merely on the question of a medium to serve for -gravific mechanism, but on the correctness of the Newtonian -law of gravitation as a matter of fact, however explained. -The corresponding controversy in the nineteenth century was -very short, and it soon became obvious that Faraday’s idea -of the transmission of electric force by a medium not only did -not violate Coulomb’s law of relation between force and -distance, but that, if real, it must give a thorough explanation -of that law. Nevertheless, after Faraday’s discovery of the -different specific inductive capacities of different insulators, -twenty years passed before it was generally accepted in Continental -Europe. But before his death, in 1867, he had -succeeded in inspiring the rising generation of the scientific -world with something approaching to faith that electric force -is transmitted by a medium called ether, of which, as had -been believed by the whole scientific world for forty years,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span> -light and radiant heat are transverse vibrations. Faraday -himself did not rest with this theory of electricity alone. -The very last time I saw him at work at the Royal Institution -was in an underground cellar, which he had chosen for -freedom from disturbance, and he was arranging experiments -to test the time of propagation of magnetic force from an -electromagnet through a distance of many yards of air to a -fine steel needle, polished to reflect light; but no result came -from those experiments. About the same time, or soon after, -certainly not long before the end of his working time, he was -engaged (I believe at the Shot Tower, near Waterloo Bridge, -on the Surrey side) in efforts to discover relations between -gravity and magnetism, which also led to no result.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">KELVIN’S APPRECIATION.</div> - -<p>Lord Kelvin, who was himself the first to perceive -that Faraday’s ideas were not inconsistent with mathematical -expression, and to direct Clerk Maxwell and -others to this view, had, in 1854, delighted the old -man by bringing mathematical support to the conception -of lines of force. In 1857 he sent to Faraday -a copy of one of his papers, and received in acknowledgment -a letter of warm encouragement, which, -however, does not appear to have been preserved. -Lord Kelvin’s reply is its own best <span class="locked">commentary:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Such expressions from you would be more than a sufficient -reward for anything I could ever contemplate doing in science. -I feel strongly how little I have done to deserve them, but they -will encourage me with a stronger motive than I have ever -had before to go on endeavouring to see in the direction you -have pointed, which I long ago learned to believe is the -direction in which we must look for a deeper insight into -nature.</p> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_286" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">RELIGIOUS VIEWS.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">The</span> name of Glasites or Sandemanians is given to -a small sect of Christians which separated from the -Scottish Presbyterian Church about 1730 under -the leadership of the Rev. John Glas. Most of the -congregations which sprang up in England were -formed in consequence of the dissemination of the -writings and by the preaching of Robert Sandeman, -son-in-law and successor of Glas. Hence the double -name. The Sandemanian Church in London was -constituted about 1760. It still has a chapel in -Barnsbury, though the sect as a whole—never -numerous—has dwindled to a small remnant.<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> The -religious census of 1851 showed but six congregations -in England and six in Scotland. As it never was a -proselytising body, it is probable that it has diminished -since that date. John Glas was deposed in 1728 -by the Presbyterian Courts from his position as -minister in the Scottish Church, because he taught<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span> -that the Church should be governed only by the -doctrines of Christ and His apostles, and not be -subject to any League or Covenant. He held that -the formal establishment by any nation of a professed -religion was the subversion of primitive -Christianity; that Christ did not come to establish -any worldly authority, but to give a hope of eternal -life to His people whom He should choose of His own -sovereign will; that “the Bible,” and it alone, with -nothing added to it nor taken away from it by man, -was the sole and sufficient guide for each individual, -at all times and in all circumstances; that faith in -the divinity and work of Christ is the gift of God, -and that the evidence of this faith is obedience to the -commandment of Christ.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE SANDEMANIAN CREED.</div> - -<p>The tenets of Glas are somewhat obscure and -couched in mystical language. They prescribe a -spiritual union which binds its members into one -body as a Church without its being represented -by any corresponding outward ecclesiastical polity. -He died in 1773. Sandeman, who spent most of -his life in preaching these doctrines, died about the -same time in New England. He caused to be -inscribed on his tomb that “he boldly contended -for the ancient faith that the bare death of Jesus -Christ, without a deed or thought on the part -of man, is sufficient to present the chief of sinners -spotless before God.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A PRIMITIVE CHURCH.</div> - -<p>The Sandemanians try—so far as modern conditions -permit—to live up to the practice of the -Christian Church as it was in the time of the -Apostles. At their chapel they “broke bread”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span> -every Lord’s day in the forenoon, making this a -common meal between the morning and afternoon -services, and taking their places by casting lots. -And weekly, at their simple celebration of the Lord’s -Supper at the close of the afternoon service, before -partaking, they collect money for the support of the -poor and for expenses. In some places they dined -together at one another’s houses instead of at the -chapel. “They esteem the lot as a sacred thing. -The washing of the feet is also retained: not, it would -seem, on any special occasion, but the ablution is -performed ‘whenever it can be an act of kindness to -a brother to do so.’ Another peculiarity of this -religious body is their objection to second marriages.”<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> -Members are received into the Church on the confession -of sin and profession of faith made publicly at -one of the afternoon services. In admitting a new -member they give the kiss of charity. They deem it -wrong to save up money; “the Lord will provide” -being an essential item of faith. Traces of this curious -fatalism may be found in one of Faraday’s letters to -his wife (<a href="#Page_52">p. 52</a>). He seems always to have spent his -surplus income on charity. The Sandemanians have -neither ordained ministers nor paid preachers. In -each congregation, however, there are chosen elders -(presbyters or bishops), of whom there must always be -a plurality, and of whom two at least must be present -at every act of discipline. The elders take it in turns -to preside at the worship, and are elected by the -unanimous choice of the congregation. The sole<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span> -qualification for this office, which is unpaid, is that -earnestness of purpose and sincerity of life which -would have been required in Apostolic times for the -office of bishop or presbyter. No difference of opinion -is tolerated, but is met by excommunication, which -amongst families so connected by marriage produces -much unhappiness, since they hold to the Apostle’s -injunction, “With such an one, no, not to eat.”</p> - -<p>The foregoing summary is needed to enable the -reader to comprehend the relationship of Faraday -to this body. His father and grandfather had belonged -to this sect. In 1763 there was a congregation -at Kirkby Stephen (the home of Faraday’s mother) -numbering about thirty persons; and there appears -to have been a chapel—now used as a barn—in -Clapham. A strong religious feeling had been -dominant in the Faraday family through the preceding -generation. James Faraday, on his removal to -London, there joined the Sandemanian congregation, -which at that time met in a small chapel in St. Paul’s -Alley, Barbican, since pulled down. It had, when -founded in 1762, held its first meetings in the hall of the -Glovers’ Company, and later in Bull and Mouth Street, -till 1778. James Faraday’s wife, mother of Michael -Faraday, never formally joined the Sandemanian -Church, though a regular attendant of the congregation. -Michael Faraday was from a boy brought up -in the practice of attending this simple worship, and -in the atmosphere of this primitive religious faith. -Doubtless such surroundings exercised a moulding -influence on his mind and character. The attitude -of abstinence from attempts to proselytise, on the part<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span> -of the church, finds its reflex in Faraday’s habitual -reticence, towards all save only the most intimate of -friends, on matters of religious faith. “Never once,” -says Professor Tyndall, “during an intimacy of fifteen -years, did he mention religion to me, save when I -drew him on to the subject. He then spoke to me -without hesitation or reluctance; not with any -apparent desire to ‘improve the occasion,’ but to give -me such information as I sought. He believed the -human heart to be swayed by a power to which -science or logic opened no approach; and right or -wrong, this faith, held in perfect tolerance of the faiths -of others, strengthened and beautified his life.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">HIS PROFESSION OF FAITH.</div> - -<p>Of his spiritual history down to the time of his -marriage very little is known, for he made no earlier -profession of faith. It is not to be supposed that he -who was so scrupulous of truth, so single-minded in -every relation of life, would accept the religious belief -of his fathers without satisfying his conscience as to -the rightness of its claims. Yet none of his letters or -writings of that period show any trace<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> of that stress -of soul through which at one time or another every<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span> -sincere and earnest seeker after truth must pass before -he finds anchorage. Certain it is that he clung with -warm attachment to the little self-contained sect -amongst whom he had been brought up. Its influence, -though contracting his activities by precluding all -Christian communion or effort outside their circle, -and cutting him off from so much that other Christian -bodies hold good, fenced him effectually from dreams -of worldliness, and furnished him with that very -detachment which was most essential to his scientific -pursuits. One month after his marriage he made -his confession of sin and profession of faith before the -Sandemanian Church. It was an act of humility the -more striking in that it was done without any consultation -with his wife, to whom he was so closely -attached, and who was already a member of the -congregation. When she asked him why he had not -told her what he was about to do, he replied: “That -is between me and my God.”</p> - -<p>In 1844 he wrote to Lady Lovelace as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>“You speak of religion, and here you will be -sadly disappointed in me. You will perhaps remember -that I guessed, and not very far aside, your -tendency in this respect. Your confidence in me -claims in return mine to you, which indeed I have -no hesitation in giving on fitting occasions, but -these I think are very few, for in my mind religious -conversation is generally in vain. <em>There is -no philosophy in my religion.</em> I am of a very -small and despised sect of Christians, known, if -known at all, as Sandemanians, and our hope is -founded on the faith that is in Christ. But though<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span> -the natural works of God can never by any possibility -come in contradiction with the higher things that -belong to our future existence, and must with -everything concerning Him ever glorify Him, still -I do not think it at all necessary to tie the study -of the natural sciences and religion together, and, -in my intercourse with my fellow creatures, that -which is religious and that which is philosophical -have ever been two distinct things.”</p> - -<p>His own views were stated by himself at the -commencement of a lecture on <em>Mental Education</em> -in <span class="locked">1854:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>High as man is placed above the creatures around him, -there is a higher and far more exalted position within his -view; and the ways are infinite in which he occupies his -thoughts about the fears, or hopes, or expectations of a future -life. I believe that the truth of that future cannot be brought -to his knowledge by any exertion of his mental powers, however -exalted they may be; that it is made known to him by -other teaching than his own, and is received through simple -belief of the testimony given. Let no one suppose for a -moment that the self-education I am about to commend, in -respect of the things of this life, extends to any considerations -of the hope set before us, as if man by reasoning could find -out God. It would be improper here to enter upon this -subject further than to claim an absolute distinction between -religious and ordinary belief. I shall be reproached with the -weakness of refusing to apply those mental operations which -I think good in respect of high things to the very highest. -I am content to bear the reproach.</p> -</div> - -<p>One of his friends wrote: “When he entered -the meeting-house he left his science behind, and -he would listen to the prayer and exhortation of -the most illiterate brother of his sect with an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span> -attention which showed how he loved the word of -truth, from whomsoever it came.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">AS ELDER AND PREACHER.</div> - -<p>“The most remarkable event,” says Dr. Bence -Jones, “of his life in 1840 was his election as an -elder of the Sandemanian Church. During that -period when in London he preached on alternate -Sundays.” This was not an entirely new duty, for -he had been occasionally called upon by the elders, -from the date of his admission in 1821, to exhort -the brethren at the week-day evening meetings, or -to read the Scriptures in the congregation. Bence -Jones says that, though no one could lecture like -Faraday, many might preach with more effect. -The eager and vivacious manner of the lecture-room -was exchanged for a devout earnestness that -was in complete contrast. His addresses have been -described as a patchwork of texts cited rapidly -from the Old and New Testaments; and they were -always extempore, though he prepared careful notes -on a piece of card beforehand. Of these, samples -are given in Bence Jones’s “Life and Letters.” His -first discourse as an elder was on Matt. xi. 28–30, -dilating on Christ’s character and example. “Learn -of Me.” The ground of humility of Christians must -be the infinite distance between them and their -Pattern. He quoted 1 John ii. 6; 1 Peter ii. 21; -Phil. iii. 17; 1 Cor. xi. 1; and 1 Cor. xiv. 1.</p> - -<p>An exceedingly vivid view of Faraday as elder -of the Church was given in 1886<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> by the late Mr. -C. C. Walker, himself at one time a member of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span> -the Sandemanian congregation in London; a congregation, -moreover, which included several persons -of distinction—Cornelius Varley, the engraver, and -George Barnard, the water-colour painter.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>At Faraday’s chapel there was a presiding elder, supported -by the rest of the elders on two rows of seats elevated across -the end of the chapel, one row above the other. The ground -floor was filled with the old-fashioned high pews, and there -was a gallery above on both sides, also with pews. Faraday -sat in a pew on the ground floor, about the middle. -There was a large table on the floor of the chapel in front -of the elders’ seats. The presiding elder usually preached. -Such was the place Faraday worshipped in, situated at the -end of a narrow dirty court, surrounded by squalid houses -of the poorest of the poor, and so little known that although -I knew every street, lane and alley of the whole district, -and this alley itself, at the bottom of which the chapel was, -I never knew of the existence of the meeting-house till I -learned about thirty-five years ago that there was a chapel there -to which the world-renowned Faraday not only went, but where -he preached. This led me to make a search, and to my -great delight, I found it, though with some difficulty. Although -the neighbourhood was uncleanly, not so was the -interior of the chapel, nor the dining room, with its tables -and forms, all of which were spotless.</p> - -<p>Faraday’s father was a blacksmith, and worshipped here. -He brought up his family religiously, and Faraday from -his earliest days attended the chapel. Here he met Miss -Barnard, his future wife. Mr. Barnard was a respectable -“working silversmith,” as manufacturing silversmiths were -then called, to distinguish them from the shopkeepers who -then, as now, called themselves “silversmiths,” though frequently -making none of the goods they sell. His manufactory -was for a time at Amen Court, Paternoster Row; afterwards -it was removed to a large building erected by the firm at -Angel Street, near the General Post Office, and the business -has since been carried on by the sons and grandsons.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">RELIGIOUS SERVICE.</div> - -<p>Mr. Barnard and his family worshipped at the Sandemanian -Chapel. To this chapel Faraday walked every -Sunday morning from his earliest days; he never kept a -carriage, and on religious principles would not hire a cab -or omnibus on the Lord’s day.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a></p> - -<p>The service commenced at eleven in the morning and -lasted till about one, after which the members—“brothers -and sisters,” as they called each other—had their midday -meal “in common” in the room attached to the chapel, -which has already been referred to. The afternoon worship -usually ended about five o’clock, after partaking of the Lord’s -Supper. The services were very much like those of the -Congregationalists, and consisted of extempore prayers, hymns, -reading the Scripture, and a sermon, usually by the presiding -elder. Faraday had been an elder for a great many years, -and for a considerable time was the presiding elder, and -consequently preached; but during this time relinquished -his office. There was one peculiarity in the service; the -Scriptures were not read by the presiding elder, but he -called on one of the members to read; and when Faraday -was there—which he always was when in London—the presiding -elder named “Brother Michael Faraday,” who then -left his pew, passing along the aisle, out of the chapel, up -the stairs at the back, and reappeared behind the presiding -elder’s seat, who had already opened the large Bible in -front of him, and pointed out the chapter to be read. It -was one of the richest treats that it has been my good -fortune to enjoy to hear Faraday read the Bible. The reader -was quite unaware what he was to read until it was selected -and when one chapter of the Old Testament was finished -another would be given, probably from the New Testament. -Usually three chapters were read, and sometimes four, in -succession; but if it had been half a dozen there would -have been no weariness, for the perfection of the reading, -with its clearness of pronunciation, its judicious emphasis,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span> -the rich musical voice, and the perfect charm of the reader, -with his natural reverence, made it a delight to listen. I have -heard most of those who are considered our best readers -in church and chapel, but have never heard a reader that -I considered equal to Faraday.</p> - -<p>At this distance of time his tones are always in my ears.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>I was told by members of the chapel that he was most -assiduous in visiting the poorer brethren and sisters at their -own homes, comforting them in their sorrows and afflictions, -and assisting them from his own purse. Indeed, they said, he -was continually pressed to be the guest of the high and noble -(which we may well believe), but he would, if possible, decline, -preferring to visit some poor sister in trouble, assist her, take -a cup of tea with her, read the Bible and pray. Though so full -of religion, he was never obtrusive with it; it was too sacred a -thing.</p> -</div> - -<p>Tyndall has preserved another vivid reminiscence -of Faraday’s inner life, which he wrote down after one -of the earliest dinners which he had in the Royal -Institution.</p> - -<p>“At two o’clock he came down for me. He, his -niece, and myself formed the party. ‘I never give -dinners,’ he said; ‘I don’t know how to give dinners; -and I never dine out. But I should not like my -friends to attribute this to a wrong cause. I act -thus for the sake of securing time for work, and not -through religious motives as some imagine.’ He said -grace. I am almost ashamed to call his prayer a -‘saying’ of grace. In the language of Scripture, it -might be described as the petition of a son into -whose heart God had sent the Spirit of His Son, and -who with absolute trust asked a blessing from his -Father. We dined on roast beef, Yorkshire pudding,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span> -and potatoes, drank sherry, talked of research and its -requirements, and of his habit of keeping himself free -from the distractions of society. He was bright and -joyful—boylike, in fact, though he is now sixty-two. -His work excites admiration, but contact with him -warms and elevates the heart. Here, surely, is a -strong man. I love strength, but let me not forget -the example of its union with modesty, tenderness, -and sweetness, in the character of Faraday.”</p> - -<p>There is a story told by the Abbé Moigno that -one day at Faraday’s request he introduced him to -Cardinal Wiseman. In the frank interview which -followed, the Cardinal did not hesitate to ask Faraday -whether, in his deepest conviction, he believed all the -Church of Christ, holy, catholic, and apostolic, was -shut up in the little sect in which he was officially an -elder. “Oh, no!” was Faraday’s reply; “but I do -believe from the bottom of my soul that Christ is -with us.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ELDERSHIP INTERRUPTED.</div> - -<p>The course of Faraday’s eldership was, however, -interrupted. It was expected of an elder that he -should attend every Sunday. One Sunday he was -absent. When it was discovered that his absence was -due to his having been “commanded” to dine with -the Queen at Windsor, and that so far from expressing -penitence, he was prepared to defend his action, his -office became vacant. He was even cut off from -ordinary membership. Nevertheless, he continued for -years to attend the meetings just as before. He -would even return from the provincial meetings of -the British Association to London for the Sunday, so -as not to be absent. In 1860 he was received back as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span> -an elder, which office he held again for about three -years and a half, and finally resigned it in 1864.</p> - -<p>It is doubtful whether Faraday ever attempted to -form any connected ideas as to the nature or method -of operation of the Divine government of the physical -world, in which he had such a whole-souled belief. -Newton has left us such an attempt. Kant in his -own way has put forward another. So did Herschel; -and so in our time have the authors of “The Unseen -Universe.” To Faraday all such “natural theology” -would have seemed vain and aimless. It was no part -of the lecturer on natural philosophy to speculate as -to final causes behind the physical laws with which -he dealt. Nor, on the other hand, was it the slightest -use to the Christian to inquire in what way God ruled -the universe: it was enough that He did rule it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">RELIGION AND SCIENCE.</div> - -<p>Faraday’s mental organisation, which made it -possible for him to erect an absolute barrier between -his science and his religion, was an unusual one. The -human mind is seldom built in such rigid compartments -that a man whose whole life is spent in -analysing, testing, and weighing truths in one department -of knowledge, can cut himself off from applying -the same testing and inquiring processes in another -department. The founder of the sect had taught them -that the Bible alone, with nothing added to it or taken -away from it by man, was the only and sufficient guide -for the soul. Apparently Faraday never admitted -the possibility of human flaw in the printing, editing, -translation, collation, or construction of the Bible. -He apparently never even desired to know how it -compared with the oldest manuscripts, or what was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span> -the evidence for the authenticity of the various -versions. Having once accepted the views of his sect -as to the absolute inspiration of the English Bible as -a whole, he permitted no subsequent question to -be raised as to its literal authority. Tyndall once -described this attitude of mind in his own trenchant -way by saying that when Faraday opened the door of -his oratory he closed that of his laboratory. The -saying may seem hard, but it is essentially true. To -few indeed is such a limitation of character possible: -possibly it may be unique. We may reverence the -frank single-minded simplicity of soul which dwelt in -Faraday, and may yet hold that, whatever limitation -was right for him, others would do wrong if they -refused to bring the powers of the mind—God-given -as they believe—to bear upon the discovery of truth -in the region of Biblical research. Yet may none -of them dream of surpassing in transparent honesty -of soul, in genuine Christian humility, in the virtues -of kindness, earnestness, and sympathetic devotion, -the great and good man who denied himself that -freedom.</p> - -<div class="chapter"><div class="footnotes"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> Faraday’s usual place of work at bookbinding was a little room -on the left of the entrance. (<i>See</i> the story of his visit there with -Tyndall in after years, as narrated in Tyndall’s “Faraday,” p. 8.)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> Still preserved in Faraday’s Diploma-book, now in the possession -of the Royal Society.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> An account of this machine will be found in the <cite>Argonaut</cite>, -vol. ii., p. 33.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> “When he [Faraday] was young, poor, and altogether unknown, -Masquerier was kind to him; and now that he is a great man he -does not forget his old friend.”—Diary of H. Crabb Robinson, vol. iii., -p. 375.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> He always sat in the gallery over the clock.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> See Dr. Paris’s “Life of Davy,” vol. ii., p. 2; or Bence Jones’s -“Life and Letters of Faraday,” vol. i., p. 47.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> His duties as laid down by the managers were these:—“To attend -and assist the lecturers and professors in preparing for, and during -lectures. Where any instruments or apparatus may be required, to -attend to their careful removal from the model-room and laboratory -to the lecture-room, and to clean and replace them after being used, -reporting to the managers such accidents as shall require repair, a -constant diary being kept by him for that purpose. That in one day -in each week he be employed in keeping clean the models in the -repository, and that all the instruments in the glass cases be cleaned -and dusted at least once within a month.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> The City Philosophical Society was given up at the time when -Mechanics’ Institutes were started in London, Tatum selling his -apparatus to that established in Fleet Street, the forerunner of the -Birkbeck Institution. Many of the City Society’s members joined -the Society of Arts.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> Two passages may be quoted. “Finally, Sir H. has no valet -except myself ... and ’tis the name more than the thing which -hurts.” “When I return home, I fancy I shall return to my old -profession of bookseller, for books still continue to please me more -than anything else.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> The meeting at which it was actually originated was held under -the presidency of Sir Joseph Banks, P.R.S., nominally as a meeting -for the <em>Assistance of the Poor!</em></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> A writer in the <cite>Quarterly Journal of Science</cite> for 1868, p. 50, says: -“We have reason to know that Davy was slightly annoyed that the -certificate proposing Faraday for election should have originated with -Richard Phillips, and that he should not have been consulted before -that gentleman was allowed to take the matter in hand.” This is -absurd, because the President was by long-standing etiquette debarred -from signing the certificates of any but foreign members, as the -certificate book of the Royal Society attests.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> See <a href="#Page_12">p. 12</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> Liddon’s “Life of E. B. Pusey” (1893), p. 219.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> For this information and many particulars of this transaction I -am indebted to Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> “It was probably in a four-wheeled velocipede that Faraday was -accustomed, some thirty years ago, to work his way up and down the -steep roads near Hampstead and Highgate. This machine appears -to have been of his own construction, and was worked by levers and -a crank axle in the same manner as the rest of the four-wheeled class.”—<cite>The -Velocipede: its past, its present, and its future.</cite> By J. F. B. Firth. -London, 1869.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> Except on nickel and cobalt, which are also para-magnetic metals.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> For a graphic account by Hansteen of the circumstances of -Oersted’s discovery, see Bence Jones’s “Life and Letters of Faraday,” -vol. ii. p. 390.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> “To the effect which takes place in this conductor [or uniting -wire] and in the surrounding space, we shall give the name of the -<em>conflict of electricity</em>.”...</p> - -<p>“From the preceding facts we may likewise collect that this conflict -performs circles; for without this condition, it seems impossible -that the one part of the uniting wire, when placed below the magnetic -pole, should drive it towards the east, and when placed above it -towards the west; for it is the nature of a circle that the motions in -opposite parts should have an opposite direction.”—<span class="smcap">H. C. Oersted</span>, -<cite>Ann. of Phil.</cite>, Oct., 1820, pp. 273–276.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> This is an error due to haste in writing.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> See a paper by the author in the <cite>Philosophical Magazine</cite> for June, -1895, entitled “Note on a Neglected Experiment of Ampère.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> Compare Dumas, “Éloge Historique de Michel Faraday,” p. xxxiii., -who gives the above statement. Arago’s own account to the <cite>Académie</cite> -differs slightly.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> This ring Faraday is represented as holding in his hand in the -beautiful marble statue by Foley which stands in the Entrance Hall -of the Royal Institution. The ring itself is still preserved at the -Royal Institution amongst the Faraday relics. The accompanying -cut (<a href="#i_108">Fig. 4</a>) is facsimiled from Faraday’s own sketch in his laboratory -note-book.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> Now in the possession of the author, to whom it was given by -his kinswoman Lady Wilson, youngest daughter of Richard Phillips.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> The day of the Annual Meeting and election of Council of the -Royal Society.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> This is a slip in the description; the momentary current induced -in the secondary wire on making the current in the primary -is <em>inverse</em>: it is succeeded by a momentary <em>direct</em> current when the -primary current is stopped.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> This doubtless refers to Whewell, of Cambridge, whom he was -in the habit of consulting on questions of nomenclature.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> A man of fashion who had, without any claim to distinction, -wormed himself into scientific society, posed as a savant, and had -delivered a high-flown oration on botany at the Royal Institution.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> The use of this term, as distinguished from production, to distinguish -between the primary generation of a current in a voltaic cell, -a thermopile, or a friction-machine, by chemical or molecular action, -and its indirect production without contact or communication of any -material sort, as by motion of a wire near a magnet or by secondary -influence from a neighbouring primary current while that current is -varying in strength or proximity, is exceedingly significant. Faraday’s -own meaning in adopting it is best grasped by referring to p. 1 -of the “Experimental <span class="locked">Researches”:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“On the <em>Induction</em> of Electric Currents.”... The general term <em>induction</em> -which, as it has been received into scientific language, may also, with propriety, -be used to express the power which electrical currents may possess of inducing any -particular state upon matter in their immediate neighbourhood.... I propose -to call this action of the current from the voltaic battery <em>volta-electric induction</em> ... -but as a distinction in language is still necessary, I propose to call the agency thus -exerted by ordinary magnets <em>magneto-electric or magne-electric</em> induction.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> “Experimental Researches,” i. 25, art. 85. This copper disc is -still preserved at the Royal Institution. It was shown in action by -the author of this work, at a lecture at the Royal Institution delivered -April 11th, 1891. <a href="#i_121">Fig. 6</a> is reproduced in facsimile from Faraday’s -laboratory note-book.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> “Experimental Researches,” i. art. 135.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> <cite>Ib.</cite>, art. 155.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> <cite>Ib.</cite>, art. 158.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> <cite>Ib.</cite>, art. 219.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> “Experimental Researches,” i. art. 220.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> <cite>Ib.</cite>, art. 222.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> <cite>Ib.</cite>, iii. art. 3192.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> “Ann. Chim. Phys.,” li. 76, 1832.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> The great magnet of the Royal Society, which was at this time -lent to Mr. Christie.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> [Original footnote by Faraday.] By magnetic curves, I mean -the lines of magnetic force, however modified by the juxtaposition of -poles, which would be depicted by iron filings; or those to which a -very small magnetic needle would form a tangent.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> The entire uselessness as well as the misleading effects of such -unscientific nomenclature might well be taken to heart by those -electrophysiologists and electrotherapeutists who still indulge in the -jargon of “franklinisation,” “faradisation,” and “galvanisation.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> In modern language this would be called the time-integral of the -discharge. The statement is strictly true if the galvanometer (as was -the case with Faraday’s) is one of relatively long period of oscillation.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> From ἄνω <em>upwards</em> and ὁδός <em>a way</em>; and κατά <em>downwards</em> -and ὁδός <em>a way</em>. The words <em>cathode</em> and <em>cation</em> are now more -usually spelled <em>kathode</em> and <em>kation</em>. Faraday sometimes spelled -the word <em>cathion</em> (Exp. Res. Art. 1351), as did also Whewell -(Hist. of Ind. Sciences, vol. iii. p. 166).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> Literally, <em>the travellers</em>, the things which are going.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="fnanchor">44</a> The term <em>induction</em> appears to have been originally used, in -contradistinction to <em>contact</em> or <em>conduction</em>, to connote those effects -which apparently are in the class of actions at a distance. Thus -we may have induction of a charge by a charge, or of a magnet-pole -by a magnet-pole. To these Faraday had added the induction -of a current by a current, and the induction of a current by a -moving magnet. Amid such varying adaptations of the word <em>induction</em>, -there is much gain in allotting to the electrostatic induction -of charges by charges the distinguishing name of <em>influence</em>, as -suggested by Priestley.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> “Faraday as a Discoverer,” p. 67.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> Newton’s third letter to Bentley.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> Faraday’s definition is:—“By a <em>diamagnetic</em>, I mean a body -through which lines of magnetic force are passing, and which -does not by their action assume the usual magnetic state of iron -or loadstone.” It was thus a term strictly analogous to the term -<em>dielectric</em> used for bodies through which lines of electric force -might pass.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> <i>i.e.</i> Specimen No. 174. Its composition was equal parts by -weight of boracic acid, oxide of lead, and silica.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> Subsequent investigation has reduced this figure to about -186,400 miles per second, or about 30,000,000,000 centimetres per -second.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="fnanchor">50</a> The accompanying diagram (<a href="#i_195">Fig. 20</a>) was not given by Faraday. -It was pencilled by the author more than twenty years ago in -the margin of his copy of Faraday’s “Experimental Researches,” vol. -iii., p. 450, opposite this passage.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> The discourse was to have been delivered by Wheatstone himself, -who, however, at the last moment, overcome by the shyness from -which he suffered to an almost morbid degree, quitted the Institution, -and left the delivery of the discourse to Faraday.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> The italics here are mine. S. P. T.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> It is right to add that what, according to the theory explained -in the text, must be the correct explanation of the peculiar phenomena -of magnetic induction depending on magnecrystallic properties was -clearly stated in the form of a conjecture by Faraday in his twenty-second -series in the following terms: “Or we might suppose that -the crystal is a little more apt for magnetic induction, or a little less -apt for diamagnetic induction, in the direction of the magnecrystallic -axis than in other directions” (Sir William Thomson, <cite>Philosophical -Magazine</cite>, 1851, or “Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism,” p. 476).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> This is exactly Stokes’s theorem of “tubes” of force. S. P. T.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> The italics are mine. S. P. T.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> Once again did Faraday intervene in Royal Society affairs at -the crucial time when Lord Rosse was elected President in 1848. -The following excerpts from the journals of Walter White show the -<span class="locked">cause:—</span></p> - -<p>“November 25th.—There have been many secret conferences this -week—much trimming and time-serving. Alas for human nature!”</p> - -<p>“November 30th.—The eventful day, the ballot begun. Mr. -Faraday made some remarks about the list.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> He was a Chevalier of the Prussian Order of Merit, also Commander -in the Legion of Honour, and Knight Commander of the -Order of St. Maurice and St. Lazarus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> Faraday’s nephew, Frank Barnard, stated in 1871 that the London -congregation included amongst its members not more than twenty men, -mostly quite poor, only seven or eight of them being masters of their -own businesses, and that Faraday was for some time the wealthiest -man of the fraternity.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> C. M. Davies: “Unorthodox London,” page 284.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> A letter from his nephew, Frank Barnard, to Dr. Gladstone says: -“I believe that in his younger days he had his period of hesitation, of -questioning in that great argument. I have heard that, so alive was -he to the necessity of investigating anything that seemed important, -he visited Joanna Southcote, perhaps to learn what that woman’s pretensions -were: I think he was a mere lad at that time. But this -period once passed, he questioned no more, for the more he saw that -Nature was mighty, the more he felt that God was mightier; and to -any cavillings upon the doubts of Colenso or the reality of the Mosaic -cosmogony, I believe he would simply have replied in the apostle’s -words: ‘Is anything too hard for God?’...</p> - -<p>“I once heard him say from the pulpit, ‘I hope none of my hearers -will in these matters listen to the thing called philosophy.’”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> <cite>Manchester Guardian</cite>, November 27.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> [This is not altogether accurate. Certainly in his later life -Faraday used to hire a cab to take him and Mrs. Faraday to the -chapel. S. P. T.]</p> - -</div> -</div></div> - -<div class="chapter"><div class="index"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst none">Abbott, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">letters to, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Acoustical researches, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Action at a distance unthinkable, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Admiralty, Scientific adviser to the, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="ether"></a>Æther, the, Speculations upon, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Airy, Sir George, Dispute with, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aloofness from scientific organisations, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ampère, Andrée Marie:</li> -<li class="isub1">Meeting with, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his researches, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Analyst, Faraday’s professional work as, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Anderson, Sergeant:</li> -<li class="isub1">engaged as assistant, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his implicit obedience, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Andrews, Professor T., Letter to, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Apparatus, Simplicity of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arago, F.:</li> -<li class="isub1">Meeting with, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his notations, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his philosophical reserve, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Armstrong, Lord, on electrification of steam, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Artists amongst acquaintances, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Astley’s Theatre, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Athenæum Club, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Atmospheric magnetism, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Atoms or centres of force, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Autobiographical notes, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">B.</li> - -<li class="indx">Babbage, Charles, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Barnard, Edward, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, Frank, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, George, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, Miss Jane, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, —— Sarah (Mrs. Faraday), <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Becker, Dr., Letter to, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Bence_Jones"></a>Bence Jones’s “Life and Letters of Faraday,” <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Benzol, Discovery of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bidwell, S., magnetic action of light, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Biographies of Faraday (<i>see</i> <a href="#PREFACE"><span class="smcap">Preface</span>)</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boltzmann:</li> -<li class="isub1">on crystalline dielectrics, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the doctrines of Faraday and Maxwell, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bookbinding, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bookselling, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Books by Faraday:</li> -<li class="isub1">“On the Means of Obtaining Knowledge,” <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">“Chemical Manipulations,” <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">“On Alleged Decline of Science in England” (editor), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">“Experimental Researches in Electricity and Magnetism,” <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">“Experimental Researches in Chemistry and Physics,” <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">“On the Prevention of Dry Rot in Timber,” <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">“Chemistry of a Candle,” <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">“The Forces of Nature,” <a href="#Page_234">234</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Boots, a home-made pair of, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brande, W. F., Prof., <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Breakdown in health, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">British Association, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Browning, Mrs. E. B., denounces Faraday, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Burdett-Coutts, Baroness, Letter to, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">C.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cards, Use of, to assist memory, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Charge, electric, Query as to seat of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, The nature of an electric, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Charitable gifts, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chemical researches, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">analysis of caustic lime, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">new chlorine compounds, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">liquefaction of chlorine, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovery of benzol, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sulpho-naphthalic acid, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chemistry, How to examine in, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Children and Faraday, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chlorine, Liquefaction of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Christmas lectures, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> - -<li class="indx">City Philosophical Society, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Clerk_Maxwell"></a>Clerk Maxwell, J.:</li> -<li class="isub1">article on Faraday, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">theory of conduction, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">electromagnetic theory of light, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Faraday’s conception of electric action, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">letter to, on mathematics, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Closing days of Faraday’s life, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Coinage of new words, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Commonplace books, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Conduction, Theory of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Conservation of energy, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Contact theory of cells, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Continent, Visits to, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Controversy, Detestation of, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Convolutions of the forces of nature, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Copper disc experiment, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Criticism, Uses of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crosse, Mrs. A., Reminiscences of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crystallisation in relation to electric properties, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crystals in the magnetic field, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Current, Conception of a, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cutting the magnetic lines, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crookes, Sir W., Advice to, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">D.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dalton, John, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dance, Mr., gives Faraday tickets, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">message to, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Daniell, Prof. J. F., <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Davy, Sir Humphry:</li> -<li class="isub1">lectures of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">note to Faraday, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">engages Faraday, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">travels abroad, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his aristocratic leanings, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">researches on electric arc, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">invention of safety lamp, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">writes to Faraday, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">misunderstanding with, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his jealousy of Faraday, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his electromagnetic discovery, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and the liquefaction of chlorine, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Davy-Faraday laboratory, The, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">De la Rive, Auguste, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">letters to, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— —— ——, Gustave, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">letters to, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> - -<li class="indx">De la Rue, Warren:</li> -<li class="isub1">his lecture, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his eclipse photographs, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diamagnetic, A, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— polarity, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diamagnetism, Discovery of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dielectric medium, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diploma-book, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Discharge, electric, Forms of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— ——, Dark, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Discoveries, Value of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Displacement currents, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Doctrine of conservation of energy, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— of correlation of forces, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— of electrons, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Domestic affairs, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Doubtful knowledge, Aversion for, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dry rot in timber, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Dumas:</li> -<li class="isub1">Reminiscences by, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and Arago’s copper, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovery of oxalamide, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">E.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eddy-currents, Effects due to, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Education, Views on, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Eel, The electric, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electric light for lighthouses, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electrical machine, Faraday’s own, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— ——, The “new,” <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electrochemical laws, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electrodes, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electrolysis, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electrolytes, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electromagnetic rotations discovered, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electromagnetism, Foundations of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electrons, Doctrine of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electrotonic state, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Elocution, Lessons in, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Enthusiasm, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ether, The (<i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#ether">Æther</a></span>)</li> - -<li class="indx">Evolution of electricity from magnetism, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Examinations in chemistry, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Experiment, Love of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— the touchstone of hypothesis, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">versus</i> mathematics, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Experimental researches in electricity and magnetism:</li> -<li class="isub1">the first series, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the last series, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Clerk Maxwell on, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Expert work, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Explosions in the laboratory, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">F.</li> - -<li class="indx">Faraday, James, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Faraday, Michael:</li> -<li class="isub1">born, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">schooling of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">goes as errand boy, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">apprenticed as bookbinder and stationer, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">journeyman bookbinder, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">attends Tatum’s lectures, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">attends Sir H. Davy’s lectures, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">acts as Davy’s amanuensis, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">engaged at Royal Institution, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his foreign tour with Davy, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">visits Paris, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">visits Florence, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">visits Geneva, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">returns to Royal Institution, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lectures at City Philosophical Society, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">loyalty to Davy, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">begins original work, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">falls in love, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his poem to Miss Barnard, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his wedding, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">made superintendent of laboratory, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovers electromagnetic rotations, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">elected F.R.S., <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">made D.C.L. of Oxford, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">awarded Copley Medal, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">declines professorship in London University, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">receives a pension in Civil List, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">appointed adviser to Trinity House, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">appointed elder in Sandemanian church, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovers magneto-electric induction, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovers magneto-optic rotation, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovers diamagnetism, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">readmitted to Sandemanian church, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">exposes spiritualistic phenomena, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">declines Presidency of Royal Society, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">declines presidency of Royal Institution, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">resigns professorship at Royal Institution, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">resigns advisership to Trinity House, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">resigns eldership in Sandemanian church, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">decease and funeral, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, Robert, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, Sarah (Mrs. Faraday), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">letters to, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Faraday’s father, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— mother, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fatalism, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fees for professional work, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Field, The magnetic; first use of this term, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fishes, electrical, Researches on, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fluids, Alleged electric and magnetic, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Foreign travel, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fox, Caroline, Reminiscences of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Fraser’s Magazine</i> and Faraday’s pension, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Fresnel’s announcement, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Friday evenings at the Royal Institution, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fuller, John, founds the Fullerian professorships, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Funeral, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">G.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gases, Liquefaction of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, Magnetic properties of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gassiot, J. P., Reminiscences by, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx">German language, Views on the, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gladstone, Dr. J. Hall, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Glass, Researches on, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Glassites (<i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Sandemanians">Sandemanians</a></span>)</li> - -<li class="indx">Gold, Optical properties of, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gravity in relation to electricity, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, Speculations as to, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grove, Sir Wm., <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gymnotus, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">H.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hachette, Letter to, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hampton Court, House at, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hare, R., Letter to, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Harris"></a>Harris, Sir W. Snow, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Heat, Effect of, on magnetism, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Heavy-glass, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Helmholtz, Prof. H. von, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Henry, Professor Joseph, Reminiscence by, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Herschel, Sir John, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Home life, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Honours awarded to Faraday, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, scientific, Views on, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hypotheses, Free use of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">I.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ice a non-conductor, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, Regelation of, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Identity of electricity from different sources, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Imagination, Use of the, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Incandescent electric lamps, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Income, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Indignation against wrong, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Induced currents, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Induction"></a>Induction (electromagnetic), Discovery of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— (electrostatic), or influence, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, Meaning of the term, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Inductive capacity, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Influence (<i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Induction">Induction</a></span>)</li> - -<li class="indx">Inner conflicts, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iodine, Davy’s experiments on, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ions, Origin of term, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">J.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jenkin, Wm., observes spark at break, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jones (<i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Bence_Jones">Bence Jones</a></span>)</li> - -<li class="indx">Journals of foreign travel, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Juvenile lectures at Royal Institution, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">K.</li> - -<li class="indx">Keble, Rev. J., and the hodge-podge of philosophers, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Kelvin"></a>Kelvin, Lord:</li> -<li class="isub1">theory of electromotive forces, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on theory of magnetic permeability in æolotropic media, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Faraday’s views of electricity, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">letter from, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kerr, Dr. John:</li> -<li class="isub1">electro-optic discovery, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">magneto-optic discovery, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kindliness, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Knighthood no honour, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kundt, Aug., magneto-optic discovery, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">L.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laboratories at Albemarle Street, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lateral effects of current, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lectures at Royal Institution:</li> -<li class="isub1">Davy’s, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Faraday’s first, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Juvenile, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">afternoon, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, Friday night discourses, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Lectures at the London Institution, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— at the British Association, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— at St. George’s Hospital, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— at Woolwich, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lecturing, Views about, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Letters from Faraday to:</li> -<li class="isub1">Abbott, B., <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Andrews, T., <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Barnard, Miss Sarah, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Becker, Dr., <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Burdett-Coutts, Baroness, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Davy, Sir H., <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">De la Rive, A., <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">De la Rive, G., <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Deacon, Mrs., <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Faraday, Mrs., <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Grove, Sir Wm., <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Hare, R., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Lovelace, Lady, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Matteucci, Prof. C., <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Melbourne, Lord, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Moore, Miss, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Murray, Mr. John, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Paris, Dr. J. A., <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Percy, Dr. J., <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Phillips, R., <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Riebau, G., <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Royet, Dr. P., <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Schönbein, Professor, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Deputy-Master of Trinity House, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Tyndall, Prof. J., <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Whewell, Rev. W., <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Young, Dr. T., <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— to Faraday:</li> -<li class="isub1">From Sir H. Davy, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">from Baron Liebig, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">from Sir W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin), <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">from Rev. W. Whewell, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Liebig, J. von, Reminiscences by, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Light, Action of magnetism on, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, Electromagnetic theory of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lighthouses, Scientific work for, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lines of force, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">vibrations of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Liquefaction of gases, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">London University (<i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#University_of_London">University</a></span>)</li> - -<li class="indx">Love of children, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, Poetical diatribe against, and recantation, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lovelace, Lady, Letter to, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Love-letters of Faraday, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">M.</li> - -<li class="indx">Magnecrystallic forces, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Magnetic lines, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Magnetisation by light, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— of light, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Magnetism and cold, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— of gases, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— of rotation, Alleged, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Magneto-electric discovery, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— induction, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— light, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— machines, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Magneto-optical researches, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Magrath, E., <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marcet, Mrs., Conversations on Chemistry, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Masquerier teaches Faraday to draw, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mathematics <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">versus</i> experiment, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, Faraday’s views on, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— and Faraday’s methods, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Matteucci, C., Letters to, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Maxwell (<i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Clerk_Maxwell">Clerk Maxwell</a></span>)</li> - -<li class="indx">Mayo, Herbert, Impromptu by, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Meat-canning processes, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Medium, Action in a, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, The part played by the, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Melbourne, Lord, and Faraday’s pension, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Memory, Troubles of a defective, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mental education, Views on, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Models, Use of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Moigno, Abbé, Reminiscence by, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Moll, G.:</li> -<li class="isub1">his electromagnets, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">pamphlet on “Decline of Science,” <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Moore, Miss, Letter to, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Morichini’s experiments on magnetisation by light, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Murchison, Sir R., Reminiscence by, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Music, Enjoyment of, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">N.</li> - -<li class="indx">Natural theology, Views on, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li> - -<li class="indx">New electrical machine, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Newman, Rev. J. H., and the British Association, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Newton, Mr. Jos., Reminiscence by, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nobili and Antinori, their mistake, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Non-inductive winding, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Notebooks a better test than examinations, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, Faraday’s own, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">O.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oersted’s discovery of electromagnetism, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Optical glass, Research on, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— illusions, Research on, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— relations of electricity, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— —— of magnetism, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Order and method, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Owen, Lady, Reminiscences by, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oxford and the philosophers, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oxygen, Magnetic properties of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">P.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paris, Dr. J. A., Letters to, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Passive state of iron, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Peel, Sir Robert, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pension:</li> -<li class="isub1">declined, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">accepted, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Percy, Dr. John, Letter to, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Permeability, Magnetic, in crystals, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— ——, Research on, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Personal appearance, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Phillips, Richard, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">letters to, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Phosphorescence, Lectures on, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plücker, Julius:</li> -<li class="isub1">on magneto-optic action, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">shows electric discharge, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Poetry by Faraday, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Poisson:</li> -<li class="isub1">on Arago’s rotations, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on magnetic theory, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Polar forces in crystals, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Polemics in science hateful, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Poles are only doors, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Politics, Indifference to, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pollock, Lady, Reminiscences by, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Practical applications of science, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Preaching, Style of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Preservation of Raphael’s cartoons, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Prince Consort, H.R.H. the, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Principle of all dynamo machines, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Priority in discovery, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Professional work for fees, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— —— relinquished, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Professorship of Chemistry at University College, The, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">declined, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Professorships at the Royal Institution, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Proportional judgment advocated, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Public Schools Commission, Evidence given before, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><cite>Punch</cite>, Caricature in, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pusey and science, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Q.</li> - -<li class="indx"><cite>Quarterly Journal of Science</cite>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Queen Victoria, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">R.</li> - -<li class="indx">Radiant matter, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rain torpedo, The, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ray-vibrations, Thoughts on, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Regelation of ice, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reid, Miss, Reminiscences by, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Religious belief, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Religious character, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Remuneration of science, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Repulsions, magnetic, New, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Research, Royal Institution as place for, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— unhampered by other duties, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Researches, Original:</li> -<li class="isub1">the four degrees of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Faraday’s first, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Faraday’s last, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">division into periods, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">summary of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Residences:</li> -<li class="isub1">Weymouth Street, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Royal Institution, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Hampton Court Cottage, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Retardation of discharge, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Riebau, George:</li> -<li class="isub1">Faraday’s employer, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Faraday apprenticed to, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">letters and messages to, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ring, The famous experiment with the, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Robinson, H. Crabb, Reminiscences by, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Röntgen on displacement currents, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rotation of plane of polarisation of light, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rotations, electromagnetic, Discovery of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Royal Institution:</li> -<li class="isub1">foundation of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Davy’s lectures at, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">precarious state of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">laboratories of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lectures at the, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Christmas lectures, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Friday night meetings, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Presidency offered and declined, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Royal Society:</li> -<li class="isub1">first papers read to the, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">candidature for Fellowship in the, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Faraday’s election as Fellow of the, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">committee on optical glass, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Member of Council, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Presidency offered to him, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">dissatisfaction with, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ruhmkorff’s induction-coil, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rumford, Benjamin Count of:</li> -<li class="isub1">founds the Royal Institution, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Faraday dines with, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">S.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sacrifice for Science, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Safety-lamp:</li> -<li class="isub1">Faraday aids Davy to invent the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">controversy about, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Salaries paid to scientific men, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Sandemanians"></a>Sandemanians, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Schönbein, Prof., Letters to, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Science in education, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— teaching, Views on, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scientific societies, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scoffern, Dr., Anecdote by, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Self-induction investigated, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sermons, Faraday’s, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shaftesbury, Earl of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sirium, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">alias</i> Vestium, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sisters, His letters to his, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Smart, B. H., teaches elocution, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Snow-Harris (<i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Harris">Harris</a></span>)</li> - -<li class="indx">Social character, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Society of Arts, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Source of electromotive force in cell, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li class="indx">South, Sir James, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spark from a magnet, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Specific inductive capacity, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spiritualists, Opinion of, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Steel, Research on, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stinginess of British Government towards science, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sturgeon, W.:</li> -<li class="isub1">his invention of the electromagnet, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Arago’s rotations, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Submarine cables, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sunday observance, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">T.</li> - -<li class="indx">Table-turning explained, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tatum’s lectures, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Testimonials of candidates, Repugnance to, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thames impurities, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thomson, Sir W. (<i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Kelvin">Kelvin</a></span>)</li> - -<li class="indx">Thoughts on ray-vibrations, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thunderstorms enjoyed, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Time of propagation of magnetism, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Toronto, what its university might have been, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Torpedo, The, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trinity House, Scientific adviser to, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tubes of force, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Turner, J. W. M., R.A., Advice to, about pigments, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tyndall, Prof.:</li> -<li class="isub1">reminiscences by, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his “Faraday as a Discoverer,” <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">letters to, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">U.</li> - -<li class="indx">Utility of discoveries, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> - -<li class="indx">University College, Professorship in, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="University_of_London"></a>University of London:</li> -<li class="isub1">Senator of, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">degrees in science, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">V.</li> - -<li class="indx">Varley, Cornelius, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Velocipede riding, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vesuvius, Ascents of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vibrations, Thoughts on ray-, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Visits to the sick, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Volta, Count Alessandro, Meeting with, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Volta-electric induction, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Voltameter, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">W.</li> - -<li class="indx">Water, On freezing of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wellington, The Duke of, on practical application of discovery, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wheatstone, Sir Charles:</li> -<li class="isub1">on velocity of discharge, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his electric chronoscope, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Whewell, Rev. W., Correspondence with, about terms, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">White, Walter, Reminiscences by, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> - -<li class="indx">William IV., King, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wiseman, Cardinal, Meeting with, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wollaston, Dr. W. H., Misunderstanding with, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Woolwich Academy lectures, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Working, Method of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Y.</li> - -<li class="indx">Young, Dr. T., Letter from, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Z.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zeeman’s magneto-optic discovery, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> -</ul> -</div></div> - -<p class="p2 center smaller wspace"><span class="smcap">Printed by Cassell & Company, Limited, La Belle Sauvage, London, E.C.</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"><div class="transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>Punctuation, some hyphenation, and spelling were made -consistent when a predominant preference was found -in the original book; otherwise they were not changed. -The original book inconsistently followed “electro” -with a hyphen, and that has not been changed here.</p> - -<p>Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced -quotation marks were remedied when the change was -obvious, and otherwise left unbalanced.</p> - -<p>Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned -between paragraphs and outside quotations. 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