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+
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #65505 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/65505)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook of Musical Instruments, by Carl Engel
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: Musical Instruments
-
-Author: Carl Engel
-
-Release Date: June 4, 2021 [eBook #65505]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-Produced by: Carol Brown, Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed
-             Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-             produced from images generously made available by The Internet
-             Archive and the HathiTrust.)
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS ***
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 1.――MUSIC. After an oil painting attributed to
-                 Melozzo da Forlì (1438-1494).
-                 National Gallery.]
-
-
-
-
-BOARD OF EDUCATION, SOUTH KENSINGTON,
-
-VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM.
-
-
-
-
-MUSICAL
-
-INSTRUMENTS
-
-BY
-
-CARL ENGEL
-
-
-_WITH SEVENTY-EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS_
-
-  [Illustration: logo]
-
-REVISED EDITION.
-
-LONDON:
-
-PRINTED FOR HIS MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE,
-
-By WYMAN AND SONS, LIMITED, 109, FETTER LANE, E.C.
-
-
-
-
-And to be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from
-
-WYMAN AND SONS, LIMITED, 109, FETTER LANE, FLEET STREET, E.C. or
-
-OLIVER AND BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT, EDINBURGH; or
-
-E. PONSONBY, 116, GRAFTON STREET, DUBLIN.
-
-1908.
-
-_Price_ 1_s._ 6_d._; _in Cloth_, 2_s._ 3_d._
-
-
-
-
-NOTE.
-
-
-In the preparation of the revised edition of the late Dr. Engel’s
-handbook, first published in 1875, care has been taken to make as few
-alterations as possible and to express no views from which he might
-have dissented.
-
-The greatly enlarged chapter relating to post-mediæval instruments has
-been chiefly compiled from Dr. Engel’s Descriptive Catalogue of the
-musical instruments in the Museum, published in 1874.
-
-The pages relating to the Ancient Egyptians have been revised by Dr.
-W. M. Flinders Petrie, those dealing with the Greeks, Etruscans and
-Romans by Dr. Cecil H. Smith, and the description of Chinese and
-Japanese instruments by Dr. Stephen W. Bushell. The thanks of the
-Board are due to these gentlemen for their valuable co-operation.
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS.
-
-
-                                                    PAGE
-
-NOTE                                                 iii
-
-LIST OF CONTENTS                                       v
-
- “   ”  ILLUSTRATIONS                                vii
-
-CHAPTER I.――Introduction                               1
-
-  “ II.――Pre-Historic Relics and Ancient Egyptian      9
-
-  “ III.――Assyrian and Hebrew                         16
-
-  “ IV.――Greek, Etruscan and Roman                    27
-
-  “ V.――Oriental                                      37
-
-  “ VI.――American Indian                              58
-
-  “ VII.――European Instruments of the Middle Ages     83
-
-  “ VIII.――European Instruments of the Middle Ages    92
-
-  “ IX.――European Instruments of the Middle Ages      99
-
-  “ X.――Post-Mediæval Instruments                    104
-
-APPENDIX                                             135
-
-INDEX                                                139
-
-
-
-
-LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
-
-
-FIG.                                                            PAGE.
-
-   1.――MUSIC, after an oil painting attributed to Melozzo da
-         Forlì (1438-1494)                             _Frontispiece_
-
-   2.――PAINTED WOODEN HARP. Ancient Egyptian. XVIIIth
-         dynasty (B.C. 1450)                        _Facing_       10
-
-   3.――BRONZE AND REED FLUTES. Ancient Egyptian. B.C. 600,
-         or later                                   _Facing_       12
-
-   4.――BRONZE SISTRA. Ancient Egyptian. XXIInd-XXVIth
-         dynasty (B.C. 1000-600)                    _Facing_       14
-
-   5.――SERIES OF BELLS. Ancient Egyptian. Late Period              15
-
-   6.――A MUSE WITH A HARP, AND TWO OTHERS WITH LYRES.
-         From a Greek vase                                         29
-
-   7.――PAIR OF BRONZE FLUTES, with mouthpiece in the form of a
-         bust of a Mænad holding a bunch of grapes.
-         Greek                                      _Facing_       30
-
-   8.――A MUSE PLAYING THE DIAULOS. Greek                           31
-
-   9.――WALL PAINTING of a youth wearing a myrtle wreath and
-         playing on the DOUBLE PIPES. Said to have been found
-         in a columbarium in the Vigna Ammendola on the Appian
-         Way near Rome, about 1823. British Museum  _Facing_       34
-
-  10.――TUBA, CORNU AND LITUUS. Roman                               35
-
-  11.――HSÜAN. Chinese                                              42
-
-  12.――(_a_) CH’IN (a species of Lute). Modern Chinese
-       (_b_) SHÊNG (Mouth Organ). Chinese. 19th century
-       (_c_) YUEH-CH’IN (Moon Guitar). Chinese. 19th century
-                                                    _Facing_       42
-
-  13.――(_a_) KOTO (a species of Lute). Japanese. 19th century
-       (_b_) BIWA (a species of Guitar). Modern Japanese
-       (_c_) SÂMISEN. Japanese                      _Facing_       44
-
-  14.――(_a_) SÂRINDA AND BOW. Indian (Bengal). 19th century
-       (_b_) RUDRA VINA. Southern Indian (Madras). 19th century
-       (_c_) SÂRANGI AND BOW. Southern Indian. 19th century
-                                                    _Facing_       48
-
-  15.――(_a_) KEMÁNGEH OR SITÂRA OR FIDDLE. Persian. About 1800
-       (_b_) NUY (Flute). Persian. 19th century
-       (_c_) SANTIR (Dulcimer) CASE. Persian        _Facing_       54
-
-  16.――POTTERY WHISTLES, with finger-holes. Ancient Mexican        59
-
-  17.――POTTERY FLAGEOLETS, with finger-holes. (_a_) and (_c_)
-         Ancient Mexican; (_b_) from the Island of Sacrificios
-                                                    _Facing_       60
-
-  18.――BONE FLUTES. Ancient Peruvian, (_a_) and (_b_) Truxillo;
-         (_c_) Lima                                 _Facing_       60
-
-  19.――HUAYRA-PUHURA, discovered in a Peruvian tomb                64
-
-  20.――WOODEN TRUMPET. Used by Indians near the Orinoco            65
-
-  21.――JURUPARIS, with and without cover. South American           66
-
-  22.――BOTUTO. Used by Indians near the Orinoco                    68
-
-  23.――CITHARA. From a 9th century MS. formerly in the
-         monastery of St. Blasius in the Black Forest              84
-
-  24.――PSALTERIUM. From a 9th century MS. formerly in the
-         monastery of St. Blasius in the Black Forest              85
-
-  25.――CITHARA. From a 9th century MS. formerly in the monastery
-         of St. Blasius in the Black Forest                        85
-
-  26.――KING PLAYING PSALTERY. After an engraving in N. X.
-         Willemin’s _Monuments Français Inédits_, Vol. I.,
-         pl. 19, taken from _Hortus Deliciarum_, a MS. of the
-         12th century                                              86
-
-  27.――NABLUM. From a 9th century MS. at Angers                    86
-
-  28.――FEMALE PLAYING A SPECIES OF CITOLE. From a 9th
-         century MS. formerly in the monastery of St. Blasius
-         in the Black Forest                                       86
-
-  29.――HARP. From a 9th century MS. formerly in the monastery
-         of St. Blasius in the Black Forest                        87
-
-  30.――CRWTH. Welsh. 18th century                   _Facing_       90
-
-  31.――ORGANISTRUM                                                 93
-
-  32.――SACKBUT                                                     94
-
-  33.――ORGAN. From a 12th century psalter in the library of
-         Trinity College, Cambridge                                95
-
-  34.――ORGAN (Grand Orgue). After an engraving in N. X.
-         Willemin’s _Monuments Français Inédits_                   96
-
-  35.――BAS-RELIEF, representing a group of musicians, formerly
-         at the abbey of St. Georges de Boscherville. Late
-         11th century (?). After an engraving in N. X.
-         Willemin’s _Monuments Français Inédits_    _Facing_       98
-
-  36.――HURDY-GURDY (Vielle). With arms of France and crowned
-         monogram of Henry II. on back and front. About
-         1550                                       _Facing_      100
-
-  37.――TYMPANUM of the Glory Gate of the Cathedral of Santiago
-         de Compostella. Dated 1188. From a plaster cast in
-         the Victoria and Albert Museum             _Facing_      100
-
-  38.――MINSTREL GALLERY, Exeter Cathedral. 14th century.
-         From a plaster cast in the Victoria and Albert
-         Museum                                     _Facing_      102
-
-  39.――LUTE. Italian (Venetian). Beginning of the 17th century
-                                                    _Facing_      104
-
-  40.――ANGEL PLAYING A LUTE. After an oil painting by
-         Ambrogio da Predis. Late 15th century      _Facing_      104
-
-  41.――ARCHLUTE. Inscribed “Rauche in Chandos Street,
-         London, 1762”                              _Facing_      104
-
-  42.――CHITARRONE. Italian. Made by Buchenberg in Rome,
-         anno 1614                                  _Facing_      106
-
-  43.――PANDURINA. French. Second half of 16th century
-                                                    _Facing_      108
-
-  44.――GUITAR. French (?). 17th century             _Facing_      108
-
-  45.――QUINTERNA, OR CHITERNA. German. Dated 1539   _Facing_      108
-
-  46.――CITHER. German. End of 17th century          _Facing_      108
-
-  47.――HARP THEORBO. Made by Harley. English. About 1800
-                                                    _Facing_      110
-
-  48.――HARP VENTURA. English. Early 19th century    _Facing_      110
-
-  49.――BANDURIA. English. Early 19th century        _Facing_      110
-
-  50.――HARP. Old Irish                              _Facing_      110
-
-  51.――HARP. French. About 1770                     _Facing_      112
-
-  52.――VIOLIN. Said to have belonged to James I. English.
-         Early 17th century                         _Facing_      112
-
-  53.――ANGEL PLAYING A VIOL. After an oil painting by
-         Ambrogio da Predis. Late 15th century      _Facing_      104
-
-  54.――VIOLA DA GAMBA. Italian. About 1600          _Facing_      114
-
-  55.――VIOLA DA GAMBA. Italian. 17th century        _Facing_      114
-
-  56.――VIOLA DI BARDONE, OR BARITON, WITH BOW. German.
-         17th century                               _Facing_      114
-
-  57.――VIOLA D’AMORE. Probably English. Late 17th century
-                                                    _Facing_      116
-
-  58.――DOUBLE-BASS, WITH BOW. Known as “The Giant.”
-         Italian. 17th century                      _Facing_      116
-
-  59.――SORDINO, OR POCHETTE. Probably German. Late 17th
-         or early 18th century                      _Facing_      118
-
-  60.――BÛCHE, OR SCHEITHOLZ. Made by Fleurot, of the Val
-         d’Ajol in the Vosges Mountains. Early 19th
-         century                                    _Facing_      118
-
-  61.――VIRGINAL. Formerly belonging to Queen Elizabeth.
-         Italian. Second half of 16th century       _Facing_      118
-
-  62.――VIRGINAL. Flemish. Second half of 16th century
-                                                    _Facing_      118
-
-  63.――SPINET. Made by Annibale dei Rossi of Milan. Italian.
-         Dated 1577                                 _Facing_      120
-
-  64.――SPINET. Signed “Johannes Player fecit” English.
-         About 1700                                 _Facing_      120
-
-  65.――CLAVICHORD. Inscribed “Barthold Fritz fecit, Braunschweig,
-         anno 1751.” German. 18th century           _Facing_      120
-
-  66.――CLAVICEMBALO. Signed “Joanes Antonius Baffo,
-         Venetus.” Italian. Dated 1574              _Facing_      122
-
-  67.――CLAVECIN. Made by Pascal Taskin of Paris. French.
-         Dated 1786                                 _Facing_      124
-
-  68.――ORGAN-HARPSICHORD, OR CLAVIORGANUM. Formerly in
-         the chapel of Ightham Mote, near Sevenoaks, Kent.
-         Probably English                           _Facing_      124
-
-  69.――TRIPLE FLAGEOLET. Italian. About 1820        _Facing_      124
-
-  70.――FLAUTO DOLCE, OR FLUTE. Ivory. Inscribed “Anciuti
-         a Milan, 1740”                             _Facing_      124
-
-  71.――FLAGEOLET. Italian. Middle of 18th century   _Facing_      126
-
-  72.――OBOE. Made by Anciuti of Milan. Formerly in the
-         possession of the composer Rossini. Latter half
-         of 18th century                            _Facing_      126
-
-  73.――BASSOON, species of. English. Late 18th, or early 19th
-         century                                    _Facing_      128
-
-  74.――THE SERPENT. Made by Gerock Wolf, in London.
-         English. Early 19th century                _Facing_      128
-
-  75.――SERINETTE OR BIRD ORGAN. French. Period of Louis XIV.
-                                                    _Facing_      128
-
-  76.――ORGAN (Positive). German. Dated 1627         _Facing_      128
-
-  77.――BAGPIPES. English. 18th century              _Facing_      130
-
-  78.――HANDEL’S HARPSICHORD. Made by Andreas Ruckers, of
-         Antwerp, 1651                              _Facing_      134
-
-
-
-
-MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.
-
-
-
-
-I.
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-
-Music, in however primitive a stage of development it may be with some
-nations, is universally appreciated as one of the Fine Arts. The
-origin of vocal music may have been coeval with that of language; and
-the construction of musical instruments evidently dates with the
-earliest inventions which suggested themselves to human ingenuity.
-There exist even at the present day some savage tribes in Australia
-and South America who, although they have no more than the five first
-numerals in their language and are thereby unable to count the fingers
-of both hands together, nevertheless possess musical instruments of
-their own contrivance, with which they accompany their songs and
-dances.
-
-Wood, metal, and the hide of animals are the most common substances
-used in the construction of musical instruments. In tropical countries
-bamboo or some similar kind of cane and gourds are especially made use
-of for this purpose. The ingenuity of man has contrived to employ in
-producing music, horn, bone, glass, pottery, slabs of sonorous
-stone――in fact, almost all vibrating matter. The strings of
-instruments have been made of the hair of animals, of silk, the
-runners of creeping plants, the fibrous roots of certain trees, of
-cane, catgut (which, absurdly referred to the cat, is from the sheep,
-goat, lamb, camel, and some other animals), metal, etc.
-
-The mode in which individual nations or tribes are in the habit of
-embellishing their musical instruments is sometimes as characteristic
-as it is singular. The negroes in several districts of Western Africa
-affix to their drums human skulls. A war-trumpet of the king of
-Ashantee which was brought to England is surrounded by human jawbones.
-The Maoris in New Zealand carve around the mouth-hole of their
-trumpets a figure intended, it is said, to represent female lips. The
-materials for ornamentation chiefly employed by savages are bright
-colours, beads, shells, grasses, the bark of trees, feathers, stones,
-gilding, pieces of looking-glass inlaid like mosaic, etc. Uncivilised
-nations are sure to consider anything which is bright and glittering
-ornamental, especially if it is also scarce. Captain Tuckey saw in
-Congo a negro instrument which was ornamented with part of the broken
-frame of a looking-glass, to which were affixed in a semicircle a
-number of brass buttons with the head of Louis XVI. on them,――perhaps
-a relic of some French sailor drowned near the coast years ago.
-
-Again, musical instruments are not infrequently formed in the shape of
-certain animals. Thus, a kind of harmonicon of the Chinese represents
-the figure of a crouching tiger. The Burmese possess a stringed
-instrument in the shape of an alligator. Even more grotesque are the
-imitations of various beasts adopted by the Javanese. The natives of
-New Guinea have a singularly shaped drum, terminating in the head of a
-reptile. A wooden rattle like a bird is a favourite instrument of the
-Indians of Nootka Sound. In short, not only the inner construction of
-the instruments and their peculiar quality of sound exhibit in most
-nations certain distinctive characteristics, but it is also in great
-measure true as to their outward appearance.
-
-An arrangement of the various kinds of musical instruments in a
-regular order, beginning with that kind which is the most universally
-known, and progressing gradually to the least usual, gives the
-following results. Instruments of percussion of indefinite
-sonorousness or, in other words, pulsatile instruments which have not
-a sound of a fixed pitch, as the drum, rattle, castanets, etc., are
-most universal. Wind instruments of the flute kind――including pipes,
-whistles, flutes, Pandean pipes, etc.――are also to be found almost
-everywhere.
-
-Much the same is the case with wind instruments of the trumpet kind.
-These are often made of the horns, bones, and tusks of animals;
-frequently of vegetable substances and of metal. Instruments of
-percussion of definite sonorousness are chiefly met with in China,
-Japan, Burmah, Siam, and Java. They not infrequently contain a series
-of tones produced by slabs of wood or metal, which are beaten with a
-sort of hammer, as our harmonicon is played.
-
-Stringed instruments without a finger board, or any similar
-contrivance which enables the performer to produce a number of
-different tones on one string, are generally found among nations whose
-musical accomplishments have emerged from the earliest state of
-infancy. The strings are twanged with the fingers or with a piece of
-wood, horn, metal, or any other suitable substance serving as a
-_plectrum_; or are made to vibrate by being beaten with a hammer, as
-our dulcimer. Stringed instruments provided with a finger-board on
-which different tones are producible on one string by the performer
-shortening it more or less――as on the guitar and violin――are met with
-almost exclusively among nations in a somewhat advanced stage of
-musical progress. Such as are played with a bow are the least common;
-they are, however, known to the Chinese, Japanese, Hindus, Persians,
-Arabs, and a few other nations, besides those of Europe and their
-descendants in other countries.
-
-Wind instruments of the organ kind――_i.e._, such as are constructed of
-a number of tubes which can be sounded together by means of a common
-mouthpiece or some similar contrivance, and upon which therefore
-chords and combinations of chords, or harmony, can be produced――are
-comparatively of rare occurrence. Some interesting specimens of them
-exist in China, Japan, Laos, and Siam.
-
-Besides these various kinds of sound-producing means employed in
-musical performances, a few others less widely diffused could be
-pointed out, which are of a construction not represented in any of our
-well-known European specimens. For instance, some nations have
-peculiar instruments of friction, which can hardly be classed with our
-instruments of percussion. Again, there are contrivances in which a
-number of strings are caused to vibrate by a current of air much as is
-the case with the Æolian harp; which might with equal propriety be
-considered either as stringed instruments or as wind instruments. In
-short, our usual classification of all the various species into three
-distinct divisions, viz., _Stringed Instruments_, _Wind Instruments_,
-and _Instruments of Percussion_, is not tenable if we extend our
-researches over the whole globe.
-
-The collection at South Kensington contains several foreign
-instruments which cannot fail to prove interesting to the musician.
-Recent investigations have more and more elicited the fact that the
-music of every nation exhibits some distinctive characteristics which
-may afford valuable hints to a composer or performer. A familiarity
-with the popular songs of different countries is advisable on account
-of the remarkable originality of the airs; these mostly spring from
-the heart. Hence the natural and true expression, the delightful
-health and vigour by which they are generally distinguished. Our more
-artificial compositions are, on the other hand, not infrequently
-deficient in these charms, because they often emanate from the lingers
-or the pen rather than from the heart. Howbeit, the predominance of
-expressive melody and effective rhythm over harmonious combinations,
-so usual in the popular compositions of various nations, would alone
-suffice to recommend them to the careful attention of our modern
-musicians. The same may be said with regard to the surprising variety
-in construction and in manner of expression prevailing in the popular
-songs and dance-tunes of different countries. Indeed, every nation’s
-musical effusions exhibit a character peculiarly their own, with which
-the musician would find it advantageous to familiarise himself.
-
-Now, it will easily be understood that an acquaintance with the
-musical instruments of a nation conveys a more correct idea than could
-otherwise be obtained of the characteristic features of the nation’s
-musical compositions. Furthermore, in many instances the construction
-of the instruments reveals to us the nature of the musical intervals,
-scales, modulations, and suchlike noteworthy facts. True, inquiries
-like these have hitherto not received from musicians the attention
-which they deserve. The adepts in most other arts are in this respect
-in advance. They are convinced that useful information may be gathered
-by investigating the productions even of uncivilised nations, and by
-thus tracing the gradual progress of an art from its primitive infancy
-to its highest degree of development.
-
-Again, from an examination of the musical instruments of foreign
-nations we may derive valuable hints for the improvement of our own;
-or even for the invention of new. Several principles of construction
-have thus been adopted by us from eastern nations. For instance, the
-_free reed_ used in the harmonium is an importation from China. The
-organ builder Kratzenstein, who lived in St. Petersburg during the
-reign of Catherine II., happened to see the Chinese instrument
-_cheng_, which is of this construction, and it suggested to him, about
-the end of the 18th century, to apply the _free reed_ to certain organ
-stops. At the present day instruments of the harmonium class have
-become such universal favourites in western Europe as almost to
-compete with the pianoforte.
-
-Several other well-authenticated instances could be cited in which one
-instrument has suggested the construction of another of a superior
-kind. The prototype of our pianoforte was evidently the dulcimer,
-known at an early time to the Arabs and Persians, who call it
-_santir_. One of the old names given to the dulcimer by European
-nations is _cimbal_. The Poles at the present day call it _cymbaly_,
-and the Magyars in Hungary _cimbalom_. The _clavicembalo_, the
-predecessor of the pianoforte, was in fact nothing but a _cembalo_
-with a key board attached to it; and some of the old _clavicembali_
-still preserved, exhibit the trapezium shape, the round hole in the
-middle of the sound-board, and other peculiarities of the first
-dulcimer. Again, the gradual development of the dulcimer from a rude
-contrivance, consisting merely of a wooden board across which a few
-strings are stretched, is distinctly traceable by a reference to the
-musical instruments of nations in different stages of civilisation.
-The same is the case with our highly perfected harp, of which curious
-specimens, representing the instrument in its most primitive
-condition, are still to be found among several barbarous tribes. We
-might perhaps infer from its shape that it originally consisted of
-nothing more than an elastic stick bent by a string. The Damaras, a
-native tribe of South-western Africa, actually use their bow
-occasionally as a musical instrument when they are not engaged in war
-or in the chase. They tighten the string nearly in the middle by means
-of a leathern thong, whereby they obtain two distinct sounds, which,
-for want of a sound board, are of course very weak and scarcely
-audible to anyone but the performer. Some neighbouring tribes,
-however, possess a musical instrument very similar in appearance to
-the bow, to which they attach a gourd, hollowed and open at the top,
-which serves as a sound-board. Again, other African tribes have a
-similar instrument, superior in construction only inasmuch as it
-contains more than one string, and is provided with a sound-board
-consisting of a suitable piece of sonorous wood. In short, the more
-improved we find these contrivances the closer they approach our harp.
-And it could be shown, if this were requisite for our present purpose,
-that much the same gradual progress towards perfection, which we
-observe in the African harp, is traceable in the harps of several
-nations in different parts of the world.
-
-Moreover, a collection of musical instruments deserves the attention
-of the ethnologist as much as of the musician. Indeed, this may be
-asserted of national music in general; for it gives us an insight into
-the heart of man, reveals to us the feelings and predilections of
-different races on the globe, and affords us a clue to the natural
-affinity which exists between different families of men. Again, a
-collection must prove interesting in a historical point of view.
-Scholars will find among old instruments specimens which were in
-common use in England at the time of Queen Elizabeth, and which are
-not unfrequently mentioned in the literature of that period. In many
-instances the passages in which allusion is made to them can hardly be
-understood, if we are unacquainted with the shape and construction of
-the instruments. Furthermore, these relics of bygone times bring
-before our eyes the manners and customs of our forefathers, and assist
-us in understanding them correctly.
-
-It will be seen that the modification which our orchestra has
-undergone, in the course of scarcely more than a century, is great
-indeed. Most of the instruments which were highly popular about a
-hundred years ago have either fallen into disuse or are now so much
-altered that they may almost be considered as new inventions. Among
-Asiatic nations, on the other hand, we meet with several instruments
-which have retained unchanged through many centuries their old
-construction and outward appearance. At South Kensington may be seen
-instruments still in use in Egypt and western Asia, precisely like
-specimens represented on monuments dating from a period of three
-thousand years ago. By a reference to the Eastern instruments of the
-present time we obtain therefore a key for investigating the earlier
-Egyptian and Assyrian representations of musical performances; and
-likewise, for appreciating more exactly the biblical records
-respecting the music of the Hebrews. Perhaps these evidences will
-convey to some inquirers a less high opinion than they have hitherto
-entertained, regarding the musical accomplishments of the Hebrew bands
-in the solemn processions of King David or in Solomon’s temple; but
-the opinion will be all the nearer to the truth.
-
-There is another point of interest about such collections, and
-especially that at South Kensington, which must not be left unnoticed.
-Several instruments are remarkable on account of their elegant shape
-and tasteful ornamentation. This is particularly the case with some
-specimens from Asiatic countries. The beautiful designs with which
-they are embellished may afford valuable patterns for study and for
-adoption in works of art.
-
-
-
-
-II.
-
-PRE-HISTORIC RELICS AND ANCIENT EGYPTIAN.
-
-
-A really complete account of all the musical instruments from the
-earliest time known to us would require much more space than can here
-be afforded. We can attempt only a concise historical survey. We
-venture to hope that the illustrations interspersed throughout the
-text will to the intelligent reader elucidate many facts which, for
-the reason stated, are touched upon but cursorily.
-
-
-PRE-HISTORIC RELICS.
-
-A musical relic has been exhumed in the department of Dordogne in
-France, which was constructed in an age when the fauna of France
-included the reindeer, the rhinoceros and the mammoth, the hyæna, the
-bear, and the cave-lion. It is a small bone somewhat less than two
-inches in length, in which is a hole, evidently bored by means of one
-of the little flint knives which men used before acquaintance with the
-employment of metal for tools and weapons.[1] Many of these flints
-were found in the same place with the bones. Only about half a dozen
-of the bones, of which a considerable number have been exhumed,
-possess the artificial hole.
-
-M. Lartet surmises the perforated bone to have been used as a whistle
-in hunting animals. It is the first digital phalanx of a ruminant,
-drilled to a certain depth by a smooth cylindrical bore on its lower
-surface near the expanded upper articulation. On applying it to the
-lower lip and blowing into it a shrill sound is yielded. Three of
-these phalanges are of reindeer, one is of chamois. Again, among the
-relics which have been brought to light from the cave of Lombrive, in
-the department of Ariège, occur several eye-teeth of the dog, which
-have a hole drilled into them near the root. Probably they also yield
-sounds, like those reindeer bones, or like the tube of a key. Another
-whistle――or rather a pipe, for it has three finger-holes by means of
-which different tones could be produced――was found in a burying-place,
-dating from the stone period, in the vicinity of Poitiers in France;
-it is rudely constructed from a fragment of stag’s horn. It is blown
-at the end, like a _flûte à bec_, and the three-finger holes are
-placed equidistantly. Four distinct tones must have been easily
-obtainable on it: the lowest, when all the finger-holes were covered;
-the other three, by opening the finger-holes successively. From the
-character of the stone utensils and weapons discovered with this pipe
-it is conjectured that the burying-place from which it was exhumed
-dates from the latest time of the stone age. Therefore, however old it
-may be, it is a more recent contrivance than the reindeer-bone whistle
-from the cavern of the Dordogne.
-
-
-THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
-
-The most ancient nations historically known possessed musical
-instruments which, though in acoustic construction greatly inferior to
-our own, exhibit a degree of perfection which could have been attained
-only after a long period of cultivation. Many tribes of the present
-day have not yet reached this stage of musical progress.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 2.――PAINTED WOODEN HARP. Ancient Egyptian, XVIIIth
-                 dynasty (B.C. 1450).
-                 British Museum.]
-
-As regards the instruments of the ancient Egyptians we now possess
-perhaps more detailed information than of those appertaining to any
-other nation of antiquity. This information we owe especially to the
-exactness with which the instruments are depicted in sculptures and
-paintings[2]. Whoever has examined these interesting monuments with
-even ordinary care cannot but be convinced that the representations
-which they exhibit are faithful transcripts from life. Moreover, if
-there remained any doubt respecting the accuracy of the representations
-of the musical instruments it might be dispelled by existing evidence.
-Several specimens have been discovered in tombs, preserved in a more
-or less perfect condition.
-
-The Egyptians possessed various kinds of harps, some of which were
-elegantly shaped and tastefully ornamented. The largest were about 6½
-feet high; and the small ones frequently had some sort of stand which
-enabled the performer to play upon the instrument while standing. The
-name of the harp was _bene_. Its frame had no front pillar; the
-tension of the strings therefore cannot have been anything like so
-strong as on our present harp. (Fig. 2.)
-
-The Egyptian harps most remarkable for elegance of form and elaborate
-decoration are the two which were first noticed by Bruce who found
-them painted in fresco on the walls of a sepulchre at Thebes, supposed
-to be the tomb of Rameses III. who reigned about 1170 B.C. Bruce’s
-discovery created a sensation among musicians. The fact that at so
-remote an age the Egyptians should have possessed harps which vie with
-our own in elegance and beauty of form appeared to some so incredible
-that the correctness of Bruce’s representations, as engraved in his
-“Travels,” was greatly doubted. Sketches of the same harps, taken
-subsequently and at different times from the frescoes, have since been
-published, but they differ more or less from each other in appearance
-and in the number of strings. A kind of triangular harp of the
-Egyptians was discovered in a well-preserved condition and is now
-deposited in the Louvre. It has twenty-one strings; a greater number
-than is generally represented on the monuments. All these instruments,
-however much they differed from each other in form, had one
-peculiarity in common, namely the absence of the fore pillar.
-
-The _nefer_, a kind of guitar, was almost identical in construction
-with the Tamboura at the present day in use among several eastern
-nations. It was evidently a great favourite with the ancient
-Egyptians, and occurs in representations of concerts dating earlier
-than from B.C. 1500. The _nefer_ affords the best proof that the
-Egyptians had made considerable progress in music at a very early age;
-since it shows that they understood how to produce on a few strings,
-by means of the finger-board, a greater number of notes than were
-obtainable even on their harps. The instrument had two or four
-strings, was played with a plectrum and appears to have been
-sometimes, if not always, provided with frets. In the British Museum
-is a fragment of a fresco obtained from a tomb at Thebes, on which two
-female performers on the _nefer_ are represented. The painter has
-distinctly indicated the frets.
-
-Small pipes or flutes of the Egyptians have been discovered, made of
-reed, with three, four, five, or more finger-holes. There are some
-interesting examples in the British Museum; one of which has seven
-holes burnt in at the side (Fig. 3). Two straws were found with it of
-nearly the same length as the pipe, which is about one foot long. In
-some other pipes pieces of a kind of thick straw have also been found
-inserted into the tube, obviously serving for a similar purpose as the
-_reed_ in our oboe or clarionet.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 3.――BRONZE AND REED FLUTES. Ancient Egyptian.
-                 B.C. 600 or later.
-                 British Museum.]
-
-The _sebȧ_, a single flute, was of considerable length, and the
-performer appears to have been obliged to extend his arms almost at
-full length in order to reach the furthest finger-hole. As _sebȧ_
-is also the name of the leg-bone (like the Latin _tibia_) it may be
-supposed that the Egyptian flute was originally made of bone. Those,
-however, which have been found are of wood or reed.
-
-A flute-concert is painted on one of the tombs in the pyramids of
-Gizeh and dates, according to Lepsius, from an age earlier than B.C.
-2000. Eight musicians are performing on flutes. Three of them, one
-behind the other, are kneeling and holding their flutes in exactly the
-same manner. Facing these are three others, in a precisely similar
-position. A seventh is sitting on the ground to the left of the six,
-with his back turned towards them, but also in the act of blowing his
-flute, like the others. An eighth is standing at the right side of the
-group with his face turned towards them, holding his flute before him
-with both hands, as if he were going to put it to his mouth, or had
-just left off playing. He is clothed, while the others have only a
-narrow girdle round their loins. Perhaps he is the director of this
-singular band, or the _solo_ performer who is waiting for the
-termination of the _tutti_ before renewing his part of the
-performance. The division of the players into two sets, facing each
-other, suggests the possibility that the instruments were classed
-somewhat like the first and second violins, or the _flauto primo_ and
-_flauto secondo_ of our orchestras. The occasional employment of the
-interval of the third, or the fifth, as accompaniment to the melody,
-is not unusual even with nations less advanced in music than were the
-ancient Egyptians.
-
-The Double-Pipe, called _mam_, appears to have been a very popular
-instrument, if we judge from the frequency of its occurrence in the
-representations of musical performances. Furthermore, the Egyptians
-had, as far as is known to us, two kinds of trumpets; three kinds of
-tambourines, or little hand drums; three kinds of drums, chiefly
-barrel-shaped; and various kinds of gongs, bells, cymbals, and
-castanets. The trumpet appears to have been usually of brass. A
-peculiar wind-instrument, somewhat the shape of a champagne bottle and
-perhaps made of pottery or wood, also occurs in the representations
-transmitted to us.
-
-The Egyptian drum was from two to three feet in length, covered with
-parchment at both ends and braced by cords. The performer carried it
-before him, generally by means of a band over his shoulder, while he
-was heating it with his hands on both ends. Of another kind of drum an
-actual specimen has been found in the excavations made in the year
-1823 at Thebes. It was 1½ feet high and 2 feet broad, and had cords
-for bracing it. A piece of catgut encircled each end of the drum,
-being wound round each cord, by means of which the cords could be
-tightened or slackened at pleasure by pushing the two hands of catgut
-towards or from each other. It was beaten with two drumsticks slightly
-bent. The Egyptians had also straight drumsticks with a handle, and a
-knob at the end. The Berlin museum possesses some of these. The third
-kind of drum was almost identical with the _darabuka_ of the modern
-Egyptians. The Tambourine was either round, like that which is at the
-present time in use in Europe as well as in the east; or it was of an
-oblong square shape, slightly incurved on the four sides.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 4.――BRONZE SISTRA. Ancient Egyptian.
-                 XXIInd-XXVIth dynasty (B.C. 1000-600).
-
-The Sistrum consisted of a frame of bronze into which three or four
-metal bars were loosely inserted, so as to produce a jingling noise
-when the instrument was shaken. (Fig. 4.) The bars were often made in
-the form of snakes, or they terminated in the head of a goose. Not
-unfrequently a few metal rings were strung on the bars, to increase
-the noise. The frame was sometimes ornamented with the figure of a
-cat. The largest sistra which have been found are about eighteen
-inches in length, and the smallest about nine inches. The sistrum was
-principally used by females in religious performances. Its Egyptian
-name was _seshesh_.
-
-The Egyptian cymbals closely resembled our own in shape. There are
-several pairs of them in the British museum. One pair was found in a
-coffin enclosing the mummy of a sacred musician, and is deposited in
-the same case with the mummy and coffin. Among the Egyptian
-antiquities in the British museum are also several small bells of
-bronze (Fig. 5). The largest is 2¼ inches in height, and the smallest
-three-quarters of an inch. Some of them have a hole at the side near
-the top wherein the clapper was fastened.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 5.――SERIES OF BELLS. Ancient Egyptian. Late
-                 Period. The smaller examples were sewn on wearing
-                 apparel.
-                 British Museum.]
-
-
-
-
-III.
-
-ASSYRIAN AND HEBREW.
-
-
-THE ASSYRIANS.
-
-Our acquaintance with the Assyrian instruments has been derived almost
-entirely from the famous bas-reliefs which have been excavated from
-the mounds of Nimroud, Khorsabad, and Kouyunjik (the site of the
-ancient Nineveh), situated near the river Tigris in the vicinity of
-the town of Mosul in Asiatic Turkey.
-
-The Assyrian harp was about four feet high, and appears of larger size
-than it actually was on account of the ornamental appendages which
-were affixed to the lower part of its frame. It must have been but
-light in weight, since we find it not unfrequently represented in the
-hands of persons who are playing upon it while they are dancing. Like
-all the Oriental harps, modern as well as ancient, it was not provided
-with a front pillar. The upper portion of the frame contained the
-sound-holes, somewhat in the shape of an hourglass. Below them were
-the screws, or tuning-pegs, arranged in regular order. The strings
-were perhaps made of silk, like those which the Burmese use at the
-present time on their harps; or they may have been of catgut, which
-was used by the ancient Egyptians.
-
-The largest assemblage of Assyrian musicians which has been discovered
-on any monument consists of eleven performers upon instruments,
-besides a chorus of singers. The first musician――probably the leader
-of the band, as he marches alone at the head of the procession――is
-playing upon a harp. Behind him are two men; one with a dulcimer and
-the other with a double-pipe; then follow two men with harps. Next
-come six female musicians, four of whom are playing upon harps, while
-one is blowing a double-pipe and another is beating a small hand-drum
-covered only at the top. Close behind the instrumental performers are
-the singers, consisting of a chorus of females and children. They are
-clapping their hands in time with the music, and some of the musicians
-are dancing to the measure. One of the female singers is holding her
-hand to her throat in the same manner as the women in Syria, Arabia,
-and Persia are in the habit of doing at the present day when
-producing, on festive occasions, those peculiarly shrill sounds of
-rejoicing which have been repeatedly noticed by travellers.
-
-The dulcimer is in too imperfect a state on the bas-relief to
-familiarize us with its construction. The slab representing the
-procession in which it occurs has been injured; the defect which
-extended over a portion of the dulcimer has been repaired, and it
-cannot be said that in repairing it much musical knowledge has been
-evinced.
-
-The instrument of the Trigonon species was held horizontally, and was
-twanged with a rather long plectrum slightly bent at the end at which
-it was held by the performer. It is of frequent occurrence on the
-bas-reliefs. A number of them appear to have been generally played
-together. At any rate, we find almost invariably on the monuments two
-together, evidently implying “more than one,” “a number.” The left
-hand of the performer seems to have been occupied in checking the
-vibration of the strings when its discontinuance was required. From
-the position of the strings the performer could not have struck them
-as those of the dulcimer are struck. If he did not twang them, he may
-have drawn the plectrum across them. Indeed, for twanging, a short
-plectrum would have been more practical, considering that the strings
-are placed horizontally one above the other at regular distances. It
-is therefore by no means improbable that we have here a rude prototype
-of the violin bow.
-
-The lyre occurs in three different forms, and is held horizontally in
-playing, or at least nearly so. Its front bar was generally either
-oblique or slightly curved. The strings were tied round the bar so as
-to allow of their being pushed upwards or downwards. In the former
-case the tension of the strings increases, and the notes become
-therefore higher; on the other hand, if the strings are pushed lower
-down the pitch of the notes must become deeper. The lyre was played
-with a small plectrum as well as with the fingers.
-
-The Assyrian trumpet was very similar to the Egyptian. Furthermore, we
-meet with three kinds of drums, of which one is especially noteworthy
-on account of its odd shape, somewhat resembling a sugar loaf; with
-the tambourine; with two kinds of cymbals; and with bells, of which a
-considerable number have been found in the mound of Nimroud. These
-bells, which have greatly withstood the devastation of time, are but
-small in size, the largest of them being only 3¼ inches in height and
-2½ inches in diameter. Most of them have a hole at the top, in which
-probably the clapper was fastened. They are made of copper mixed with
-14 per cent. of tin.
-
-Instrumental music was used by the Assyrians and Babylonians in their
-religious observances. This is obvious from the sculptures, and is to
-some extent confirmed by the mode of worship paid by command of king
-Nebuchadnezzar to the golden image; “Then an herald cried aloud, To
-you it is commanded, O people, nations, and languages, that at what
-time ye hear the sound of the cornet, flute, harp, sackbut, psaltery,
-dulcimer, and all kinds of musick, ye fall down and worship the golden
-image that Nebuchadnezzar the king has set up.” The kings appear to
-have maintained at their courts musical bands, whose office it was to
-perform secular music at certain times of the day or on fixed
-occasions. Of king Darius we are told that, when he had cast Daniel
-into the den of lions, he “went to his palace, and passed the night
-fasting, neither were instruments of musick brought before him;” from
-which we may conclude that his band was in the habit of playing before
-him in the evening. A similar custom prevailed also at the court of
-Jerusalem, at least in the time of David and Solomon; both of whom
-appear to have had their royal private bands, besides a large number
-of singers and instrumental performers of sacred music who were
-engaged in the Temple.
-
-
-THE HEBREWS.
-
-As regards the musical instruments of the Hebrews, we are from
-biblical records acquainted with the names of many of them; but
-representations to be trusted are still wanting, and it is chiefly
-from an examination of the ancient Egyptian and Assyrian instruments
-that we can conjecture almost to a certainty their construction and
-capabilities. From various indications, which it would be too
-circumstantial here to point out, we believe the Hebrews to have
-possessed the following instruments:
-
-THE HARP.――There can be no doubt that the Hebrews possessed the harp,
-seeing that it was a common instrument among the Egyptians and
-Assyrians. But it is uncertain which of the Hebrew names of the
-stringed instruments occurring in the Bible really designates the
-harp.
-
-THE DULCIMER.――Some writers on Hebrew music consider the _nevel_ to
-have been a kind of dulcimer; others conjecture the same of the
-_psanterin_ mentioned in the hook of Daniel,――a name which appears to
-be synonymous with the _psalterion_ of the Greeks, and from which also
-the present oriental dulcimer, _santir_, may have been derived. Some
-of the instruments mentioned in the book of Daniel may have been
-synonymous with some which occur in other parts of the Bible under
-Hebrew names; the names given in Daniel being Chaldæan. The _asor_ was
-a ten-stringed instrument played with a plectrum, and is supposed to
-have borne some resemblance to the _nevel_.
-
-THE LYRE.――This instrument is represented on some Hebrew coins
-generally ascribed to Judas Maccabæus, who lived in the second century
-before the Christian era. There are several of them in the British
-Museum; some are of silver, and the others of copper. On three of them
-are lyres with three strings, another has one with five, and another
-one with six strings. The two sides of the frame appear to have been
-made of the horns of animals, or they may have been of wood formed in
-imitation of two horns which originally were used. Lyres thus
-constructed are still found in Abyssinia. The Hebrew square-shaped
-lyre of the time of Simon Maccabæus is probably identical with the
-_psalterion_. The _kinnor_, the favourite instrument of king David,
-was most likely a lyre if not a small triangular harp. The lyre was
-evidently an universally known and favoured instrument among ancient
-eastern nations. Being more simple in construction than most other
-stringed instruments it undoubtedly preceded them in antiquity. The
-_kinnor_ is mentioned in the Bible as the oldest stringed instrument,
-and as the invention of Jubal. Even if the name of one particular
-stringed instrument is here used for stringed instruments in general,
-which may possibly be the case, it is only reasonable to suppose that
-the oldest and most universally known stringed instrument would be
-mentioned as a representative of the whole class rather than any
-other. Besides, the _kinnor_ was a light and easily portable
-instrument; king David, according to the Rabbinic records, used to
-suspend it during the night over his pillow. All its uses mentioned in
-the Bible are especially applicable to the lyre. And the resemblance
-of the word _kinnor_ to _kithara_, _kissar_, and similar names known
-to denote the lyre, also tends to confirm the supposition that it
-refers to this instrument. It is, however, not likely that the
-instruments of the Hebrews――indeed their music altogether――should have
-remained entirely unchanged during a period of many centuries. Some
-modifications were likely to occur even from accidental causes; such,
-for instance, as the influence of neighbouring nations when the
-Hebrews came into closer contact with them. Thus may be explained why
-the accounts of the Hebrew instruments given by Josephus, who lived in
-the first century of the Christian era, are not in exact accordance
-with those in the Bible. The lyres at the time of Simon Maccabæus may
-probably be different from those which were in use about a thousand
-years earlier, or at the time of David and Solomon, when the art of
-music with the Hebrews was at its zenith.
-
-There appears to be a probability that a Hebrew lyre of the time of
-Joseph (about 1700 B.C.) is represented on an ancient Egyptian
-painting[3] discovered in a tomb at Beni Hassan――which is the name of
-certain grottoes on the eastern bank of the Nile. Sir Gardner
-Wilkinson, in his “Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,”
-observes: “If, when we become better acquainted with the
-interpretation of hieroglyphics, the ‘strangers’ at Beni Hassan should
-prove to be the arrival of Jacob’s family in Egypt, we may examine the
-Jewish lyre drawn by an Egyptian artist. That this event took place
-about the period when the inmate of the tomb lived is highly
-probable――at least, if I am correct in considering Usertsen I. to be
-the Pharaoh who was the patron of Joseph; and it remains for us to
-decide whether the disagreement in the number of persons here
-introduced, thirty-seven being written over them in hieroglyphics, is
-a sufficient objection to their identity. It will not be foreign to
-the present subject to introduce those figures, which are curious, if
-only considered as illustrative of ancient customs at that early
-period, and which will be looked upon with unbounded interest should
-they ever be found to refer to the Jews. The first figure is an
-Egyptian scribe, who presents an account of their arrival to a person
-seated, the owner of the tomb, and one of the principal officers of
-the reigning Pharaoh. The next, also an Egyptian, ushers them into his
-presence; and two advance bringing presents, the wild goat or ibex and
-the gazelle, the productions of their country. Four men, carrying bows
-and clubs, follow, leading an ass on which two children are placed in
-panniers, accompanied by a boy and four women; and, last of all,
-another ass laden, and two men――one holding a bow and club, the other
-a lyre, which he plays with the plectrum. All the men have beards,
-contrary to the custom of the Egyptians, but very general in the East
-at that period, and noticed as a peculiarity of foreign uncivilized
-nations throughout their sculptures. The men have sandals, the women a
-sort of boot reaching to the ankle, both which were worn by many
-Asiatic people. The lyre is rude, and differs in form from those
-generally used in Egypt.” In the engraving the lyre-player, another
-man, and some strange animals from this group, are represented.
-
-THE TAMBOURA.――_Minnim_, _machalath_, and _nevel_ are usually supposed
-to be the names of instruments of the lute or guitar kind. _Minnim_,
-however, appears more likely to imply stringed instruments in general
-than any particular instrument.
-
-THE SINGLE PIPE.――_Chalil_ and _nekeb_ were the names of the Hebrew
-pipes or flutes.
-
-THE DOUBLE PIPE.――Probably the _mishrokitha_ mentioned in Daniel. The
-_mishrokitha_ is represented in the drawings of our histories of music
-as a small organ, consisting of seven pipes placed in a box with a
-mouthpiece for blowing. But the shape of the pipes and of the box as
-well as the row of keys for the fingers exhibited in the
-representation of the _mishrokitha_ have too much of the European type
-not to suggest that they are probably a product of the imagination.
-Respecting the illustrations of Hebrew instruments which usually
-accompany historical treatises on music and commentaries on the Bible,
-it ought to be borne in mind that most of them are merely the
-offspring of conjectures founded on some obscure hints in the Bible,
-or vague accounts by the Rabbins.
-
-THE SYRINX OR PANDEAN PIPE.――Probably the _ugab_, which in the English
-authorised version of the Bible is rendered “organ.”
-
-THE BAGPIPE.――The word _sumphonia_, which occurs in the book of
-Daniel, is, by Forkel and others, supposed to denote a bagpipe. It is
-remarkable that at the present day the bagpipe is called by the
-Italian peasantry Zampogna. Another Hebrew instrument, the _magrepha_,
-generally described as an organ, was more likely only a kind of
-bagpipe. The _magrepha_ is not mentioned in the Bible but is described
-in the Talmud. In tract Erachin it is recorded to have been a powerful
-organ which stood in the temple at Jerusalem, and consisted of a case
-or wind-chest, with ten holes, containing ten pipes. Each pipe was
-capable of emitting ten different sounds, by means of finger-holes or
-some similar contrivance: thus one hundred different sounds could be
-produced on this instrument. Further, the _magrepha_ is said to have
-been provided with two pairs of bellows and with ten keys, by means of
-which it was played with the fingers. Its tone was, according to the
-Rabbinic accounts, so loud that it could be heard at an incredibly
-long distance from the temple. Authorities so widely differ that we
-must leave it uncertain whether the much-lauded _magrepha_ was a
-bagpipe, an organ, or a kettle-drum.
-
-THE TRUMPET.――Three kinds are mentioned in the Bible, viz., the
-_keren_, the _shophar_, and the _chatzozerah_. The first two were more
-or less curved and might properly be considered as horns. Most
-commentators are of opinion that the _keren_――made of ram’s horn――was
-almost identical with the _shophar_, the only difference being that
-the latter was more curved than the former. The _shophar_ is
-especially remarkable as being the only Hebrew musical instrument
-which has been preserved to the present day in the religious services
-of the Jews. It is still blown in the synagogue, as in time of old, at
-the Jewish new-year’s festival, according to the command of Moses
-(Numb. xxix. 1). The _chatzozerah_ was a straight trumpet, about two
-feet in length, and was sometimes made of silver. Two of these
-straight trumpets are shown in the famous triumphal procession after
-the fall of Jerusalem on the arch of Titus.
-
-THE DRUM.――There can be no doubt that the Hebrews had several kinds of
-drums. We know, however, only of the _toph_, which appears to have
-been a tambourine or a small hand-drum like the Egyptian darabuka. In
-the English version of the Bible the word is rendered _timbrel_ or
-_tabret_. This instrument was especially used in processions on
-occasions of rejoicing, and also frequently by females. We find it in
-the hands of Miriam, when she was celebrating with the Israelitish
-women in songs of joy the destruction of Pharaoh’s host; and in the
-hands of Jephtha’s daughter, when she went out to welcome her father.
-There exists at the present day in the East a small hand-drum called
-_doff_, _diff_, or _adufe_――a name which appears to be synonymous with
-the Hebrew _toph_.
-
-THE SISTRUM.――Winer, Saalschütz, and several other commentators are of
-opinion that the _menaaneim_, mentioned in 2 Sam. vi. 5, denotes the
-sistrum. In the English Bible the original is translated _cymbals_.
-
-CYMBALS.――The _tzeltzelim_, _metzilloth_, and _metzilthaim_, appear to
-have been cymbals or similar metallic instruments of percussion,
-differing in shape and sound.
-
-BELLS.――The little bells on the vestments of the high-priest were
-called _phaamon_. Small golden bells were attached to the lower part
-of the robes of the high-priest in his sacred ministrations. The Jews
-have, at the present day, in their synagogues small bells fastened to
-the rolls of the Law containing the Pentateuch: a kind of
-ornamentation which is supposed to have been in use from time
-immemorial.
-
-Besides the names of Hebrew instruments already given there occur
-several others in the Old Testament, upon the real meaning of which
-much diversity of opinion prevails. _Jobel_ is by some commentators
-classed with the trumpets, but it is by others believed to designate a
-loud and cheerful blast of the trumpet, used on particular occasions.
-If _Jobel_ (from which _jubilare_ is supposed to be derived) is
-identical with the name _Jubal_, the inventor of musical instruments,
-it would appear that the Hebrews appreciated pre-eminently the
-exhilarating power of music. _Shalisbim_ is supposed to denote a
-triangle. _Nechiloth_, _gittith_, and _machalath_, which occur in the
-headings of some psalms, are also by commentators supposed to be
-musical instruments. _Nechiloth_ is said to have been a flute, and
-_gittith_ and _machalath_ to have been stringed instruments, and
-_machol_ a kind of flute. Again, others maintain that the words denote
-peculiar modes of performance or certain favourite melodies to which
-the psalms were directed to be sung, or chanted. According to the
-records of the Rabbins, the Hebrews in the time of David and Solomon
-possessed thirty-six different musical instruments. In the Bible only
-about half that number are mentioned.
-
-Most nations of antiquity ascribed the invention of their musical
-instruments to their gods, or to certain superhuman beings. The
-Hebrews attributed it to man; Jubal is mentioned in Genesis as “the
-father of all such as handle the harp and organ” (_i.e._, performers
-on stringed instruments and wind instruments). As instruments of
-percussion are almost invariably in use long before people are led to
-construct stringed and wind instruments it might perhaps be surmised
-that Jubal was not regarded as the inventor of all the Hebrew
-instruments, but rather as the first professional cultivator of
-instrumental music.
-
-
-
-
-IV.
-
-GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN.
-
-
-THE GREEKS.
-
-Many musical instruments of the ancient Greeks are known to us by
-name; but respecting their exact construction and capabilities there
-still prevails almost as much diversity of opinion as is the case with
-those of the Hebrews.
-
-It is generally believed that the Greeks derived their musical system
-from the Egyptians. Pythagoras and other philosophers are said to have
-studied music in Egypt. It would, however, appear that the Egyptian
-influence upon Greece, as far as regards this art, has been overrated.
-Not only have the more perfect Egyptian instruments――such as the
-larger harps, the tamboura――never been much in favour with the Greeks,
-but almost all the stringed instruments which the Greeks possessed are
-stated to have been originally derived from Asia. Strabo says: “Those
-who regard the whole of Asia, as far as India, as consecrated to
-Bacchus, point to that country as the origin of a great portion of the
-present music. One author speaks of ‘striking forcibly the Asiatic
-kithara,’ another calls the pipes Berecynthian and Phrygian. Some of
-the instruments also have foreign names, as Nablas, Sambyke, Barbitos,
-Magadis, and many others.”
-
-We know at present little more of these instruments than that they
-were in use in Greece. The Magadis is described as having twenty
-strings. The other three are known to have been stringed instruments.
-But they cannot have been anything like such universal favourites as
-the lyre, because this instrument and perhaps the _trigonon_ are
-almost the only stringed instruments represented in the Greek
-paintings on pottery and other monumental records. If, as might
-perhaps be suggested, their taste for beauty of form induced the
-Greeks to represent the elegant lyre in preference to other stringed
-instruments, we might at least expect to meet with the harp; an
-instrument which equals if it does not surpass the lyre in elegance of
-form.
-
-The representation of a Muse with a harp, depicted on a splendid Greek
-vase now in the Munich Museum (_Mun. Vase Cat. No. 805_), may be noted
-as an exceptional instance. This valuable relic dates from the end of
-the fifth century B.C. The instrument resembles in construction as
-well as in shape the Assyrian harp, and has fifteen strings. The Muse
-is touching them with both hands, using the right hand for the treble
-and the left for the bass. She is seated, holding the instrument in
-her lap. The little tuning-pegs, which in number are not in accordance
-with the strings, are placed on the sound-board at the upper part of
-the frame, exactly as on the Assyrian harp. If we have here the Greek
-harp, it was more likely an importation from Asia than from Egypt. In
-short, as far as can be ascertained, the most complete of the Greek
-instruments appear to be of Asiatic origin. Especially from the
-nations who inhabited Asia Minor the Greeks are stated to have adopted
-several of the most popular. Thus we may read of the short and
-shrill-sounding pipes of the Carians; of the Phrygian pastoral flute;
-of the three-stringed _kithara_ of the Lydians; and so on.
-
-The Greeks had lyres of various kinds, more or less differing in
-construction, form, and size, and distinguished by different names;
-such as _lyra_, _kithara_, _chelys_, _phorminx_, etc. _Lyra_ appears
-to have implied instruments of this class in general, and also the
-lyre with a body oval at the base and held in the arms of the
-performer; while the _kithara_ had a square base and was held against
-the side by a sash around it. The _chelys_ was a small lyre with the
-body made of the shell of a tortoise, or of wood in imitation of the
-tortoise. The _phorminx_ was a large lyre, and, like the _kithara_,
-was used at an early period singly, for accompanying recitations. It
-is recorded that the _kithara_ was employed for solo performances as
-early as B.C. 700.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 6.――A Muse with a HARP, and two others with LYRES.
-                 From a Greek vase in the Munich Museum.]
-
-The design on the Greek vase at Munich (already alluded to) represents
-the nine Muses, of whom three are given in the engraving (Fig. 6),
-viz., one with the harp, and two others with lyres. Some of the lyres
-were provided with a bridge, while others were without it. The largest
-was held probably on or between the knees, or were attached to the
-left arm by means of a band, to enable the performer to use his hands
-without impediment. The strings, made of catgut or sinew, were more
-usually twanged with a _plektron_ than merely with the fingers. The
-_plektron_ was a short stem of ivory or metal pointed at both ends.
-
-A fragment of a Greek lyre which was found in a tomb near Athens is
-deposited in the British Museum. The two pieces constituting its frame
-are of wood. Their length is about 18 inches, and the length of the
-cross-bar at the top is about 9 inches. The instrument is unhappily in
-a condition too dilapidated and imperfect to be of any essential use
-to the musical inquirer.
-
-The _trigonon_ consisted originally of an angular frame, to which the
-strings were affixed. In the course of time a third bar was added to
-resist the tension of the strings, and its triangular frame resembled
-in shape the Greek delta. Subsequently it was still further improved,
-the upper bar of the frame being made slightly curved, whereby the
-instrument obtained greater strength and more elegance of form.
-
-The _magadis_, also called _pektis_, had twenty strings which were
-tuned in octaves, and therefore produced only ten tones. It appears to
-have been some sort of dulcimer, but information respecting its
-construction is still wanting. There appears to have been also a kind
-of bagpipe in use called _magadis_, of which nothing certain is known.
-Possibly, the same name may have been applied to two different
-instruments.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 7.――PAIR OF BRONZE FLUTES, with mouthpiece in
-                 the form of the bust of a Mænad holding a bunch of
-                 grapes. Greek.
-                 British Museum.]
-
-The _barbitos_ was likewise a stringed instrument of this kind. The
-_sambyke_ is traditionally said to have been invented by Ibykos, about
-560 B.C. The _simikon_ had thirty-five strings, and derived its name
-from its inventor, Simos, who lived about 600 B.C. It was perhaps a
-kind of dulcimer. The _nabla_ had ten, or according to Josephus,
-twelve strings, and probably resembled the _nevel_ of the Hebrews, of
-which but little is known with certainty. The _pandoura_ is supposed
-to have been a kind of lute with three strings. Several of the
-instruments just noticed were used in Greece, chiefly by musicians who
-had immigrated from Asia; they can therefore hardly be considered as
-national musical instruments of the Greeks. The _monochord_ had (as
-its name implies) only a single string, and was used as a tuning
-string.
-
-The _aulos_, of which there were many varieties, was a highly popular
-instrument, and differed in construction from the flutes and pipes of
-the ancient Egyptians. Instead of being blown through a hole at the
-side near the top it was held like a flageolet, and a vibrating reed
-was inserted into the mouth-piece, so that it might be more properly
-described as a kind of oboe or clarinet. The Greeks were accustomed to
-designate by the name of _aulos_ all wind instruments of the flute and
-oboe kind, some of which were constructed like the flageolet or like
-our antiquated _flûte à bec_. The single flute was called _monaulos_
-(Fig. 7), and the double one _diaulos_ (Fig. 8). A _diaulos_, which
-was found in a tomb at Athens, is in the British Museum. The wood of
-which it is made seems to be cedar, and the tubes are fifteen inches
-in length. Each tube has a separate mouth-piece and six finger-holes,
-five of which are at the upper side and one is underneath.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 8.――A Muse playing the DIAULOS.]
-
-The _syrinx_, or Pandean pipe, had from three to nine tubes, but seven
-was the usual number. The straight trumpet, _salpinx_, and the curved
-horn, _keras_, made of brass, were used exclusively in war. The small
-hand-drum, called _tympanon_, resembled in shape our tambourine, and
-was covered with parchment at the back as well as at the front. The
-_kymbala_ were made of metal, and resembled our small cymbals. The
-_krotala_ were almost identical with our castanets, and were made of
-wood or metal.
-
-
-THE ETRUSCANS AND ROMANS.
-
-The Romans are recorded to have derived some of their most popular
-instruments originally from the Etruscans, a people which at an early
-period excelled all other Italian nations in the cultivation of the
-arts as well as in social refinement, and which possessed musical
-instruments similar to those of the Greeks. It must, however, be
-remembered that many of the vases and other specimens of art which
-have been found in Etruscan tombs, and on which delineations of lyres
-and other instruments occur, are supposed to be productions of Greek
-artists whose works were obtained from Greece by the Etruscans, or who
-were induced to settle in Etruria.
-
-The flutes of the Etruscans were not unfrequently made of ivory; those
-used in religious sacrifices were of box-wood, of a species of the
-lotus, of ass’ bone, bronze and silver. A bronze flute, somewhat
-resembling our flageolet, has been found in a tomb; likewise a huge
-trumpet of bronze. An Etruscan _cornu_ is deposited in the British
-Museum, and measures about four feet in length.
-
-To the Etruscans is also attributed by some the invention of the
-hydraulic organ. The Greeks possessed a somewhat similar contrivance
-which they called _hydraulis_, _i.e._, water-flute and which probably
-was identical with the _organum_ _hydraulicum_ of the Romans. The
-instrument ought more properly to be regarded as a pneumatic organ,
-for the sound was produced by the current of air through the pipes;
-the water applied serving merely to give the necessary pressure to the
-bellows and to regulate their action. The pipes were probably caused
-to sound by means of stops, perhaps resembling those on our organ,
-which were drawn out or pushed in. The construction was evidently but
-a primitive contrivance, contained in a case which could be carried by
-one or two persons and which was placed on a table. The highest degree
-of perfection which the hydraulic organ obtained with the ancients is
-perhaps shown in a representation on a coin of the Emperor Nero, in
-the British Museum. Only ten pipes are given to it, and there is no
-indication of any keyboard, which would probably have been shown had
-it existed. The man standing at the side and holding a laurel leaf in
-his hand is surmised to represent a victor in the exhibitions of the
-circus or the amphitheatre. The hydraulic organ probably was played on
-such occasions; and the medal containing an impression of it may have
-been bestowed upon the victor.
-
-During the time of the Republic, and especially subsequently under the
-reign of the Emperors, the Romans adopted many new instruments from
-Greece, Egypt, and even from western Asia; without essentially
-improving any of their importations.
-
-Their most favourite stringed instrument was the lyre, of which they
-had various kinds, called, according to their form and arrangement of
-strings, _lyra_, _cithara_, _chelys_, _testudo_, and _fidis_ (or
-_fides_). The name _cornu_ was given to the lyre when the sides of the
-frame terminated at the top in the shape of two horns. The _barbitos_
-was a kind of lyre with a large body, which gave the instrument
-somewhat the shape of the Welsh _crwth_. The _psalterium_ was a kind
-of lyre of an oblong square shape. Like most of the Roman lyres, it
-was played with a rather large plectrum. The _trigonum_ was the same
-as the Greek _trigonon_. It is recorded that a certain musician of the
-name of Alexander Alexandrinus was so admirable a performer upon it
-that when exhibiting his skill in Rome he created the greatest
-_furore_. Less common, and derived from Asia, were the _sambuca_ and
-_nablia_, the exact construction of which is unknown.
-
-The flute, _tibia_, was originally made of the shin bone, and had a
-mouth-hole and four finger-holes. Its shape was retained even when, at
-a later period, it was constructed of other substances than bone. The
-_tibia gingrina_ consisted of a long and thin tube of reed with a
-mouth-hole at the side of one end. The _tibia obliqua_ and _tibia
-vasca_ were provided with mouth-pieces affixed at a right angle to the
-tube; a contrivance somewhat similar to that on our bassoon. The
-_tibia longa_ was especially used in religious worship. The _tibia
-curva_ was curved at its broadest end. The _tibia ligula_ appears to
-have resembled our flageolet. The _calamus_ was nothing more than a
-simple pipe cut off the kind of reed which the ancients used as a pen
-for writing.
-
-The Romans had double flutes as well as single flutes. The double
-flute consisted of two tubes united, either so as to have a
-mouth-piece in common or to have each a separate mouth-piece. If the
-tubes were exactly alike the double flute was called _tibiæ pares_; if
-they were different from each other, _tibiæ impares_. Little plugs, or
-stoppers, were inserted into the finger-holes to regulate the order of
-intervals. The _tibia_ was made in various shapes. The _tibia dextra_
-was usually constructed of the upper and thinner part of a reed; and
-the _tibia sinistra_, of the lower and broader part. The performers
-used also the _capistrum_,――a bandage round the cheeks identical with
-the _phorbeia_ of the Greeks.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 9.――WALL PAINTING of a youth wearing a myrtle
-                 wreath and playing on the Double Pipes. Restored in
-                 places. Said to have been found in a columbarium in
-                 the Vigna Ammendola on the Appian Way near Rome,
-                 about 1823.
-                 British Museum.]
-
-The British Museum contains a wall painting (Fig. 9) representing a
-Roman youth playing the double pipes, which is stated to have been
-disinterred in the year 1823 on the Via Appia. Here the _holmos_ or
-mouth-piece, somewhat resembling the reed of our oboe, is distinctly
-shown. The finger-holes, probably four, are not indicated, although
-they undoubtedly existed on the instrument.
-
-Furthermore, the Romans had two kinds of Pandean pipes viz., the
-_syrinx_ and the _fistula_. The bagpipe, _tibia utricularis_, is said
-to have been a favourite instrument of the Emperor Nero.
-
-The _cornu_ was a large horn of bronze, curved. The performer held it
-under his arm with the broad end upwards over his shoulder. It is
-represented in the engraving (Fig. 10), with the _tuba_ and the
-_lituus_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 10.――TUBA CORNU and LITUUS.]
-
-The _tuba_ was a straight trumpet. Both the _cornu_ and the _tuba_
-were employed in war to convey signals. The same was the case with the
-_buccina_,――originally perhaps a conch shell, and afterwards a simple
-horn of an animal,――and the _lituus_, which was bent at the broad end
-but otherwise straight. The _tympanum_ resembled the tambourine, and
-was beaten like the latter with the hands. Among the Roman instruments
-of percussion the _scabellum_, which consisted of two plates combined
-by means of a sort of hinge, deserves to be noticed; it was fastened
-under the foot and trodden in time, to produce certain rhythmical
-effects in musical performances. The _cymbalum_ consisted of two metal
-plates similar to our cymbals. The _crotala_ and the _crusmata_ were
-kinds of castanets, the former being oblong and of a larger size than
-the latter. The Romans had also a _triangulum_, which resembled the
-triangle occasionally used in our orchestra. The _sistrum_ they
-derived from Egypt with the introduction of the worship of Isis. Metal
-bells, arranged according to a regular order of intervals and placed
-in a frame, were called _tintinnabula_. The _crepitaculum_ appears to
-have been a somewhat similar contrivance on a hoop with a handle.
-
-Through the Greeks and Romans we have the first well-authenticated
-proof of musical instruments having been introduced into Europe from
-Asia. The Romans in their conquests undoubtedly made their musical
-instruments known, to some extent, also in western Europe. But the
-Greeks and Romans are not the only nations which introduced Eastern
-instruments into Europe. The Phœnicians at an early period colonized
-Sardinia, and traces of them are still to be found on that island.
-Among these is a peculiarly constructed double-pipe, called _lionedda_
-or _launedda_. Again, at a much later period the Arabs introduced
-several of their instruments into Spain, from which country they
-became known in France, Germany, and England. Also the crusaders,
-during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, may have helped to
-familiarize the western European nations with instruments of the East.
-
-
-
-
-V.
-
-ORIENTAL.
-
-
-THE CHINESE.
-
-Allowing for any exaggeration as to chronology, natural to the lively
-imagination of Asiatics, there is no reason to doubt that the Chinese
-possessed long before our Christian era musical instruments to which
-they attribute a fabulously high antiquity. There is an ancient
-tradition, according to which they obtained their musical scale from a
-miraculous bird, called _fêng-huang_, which appears to have been a
-sort of phœnix. When Confucius, who lived about B.C. 551-479, happened
-to hear on a certain occasion some Chinese music, he is said to have
-become so greatly enraptured that he could not take any food for three
-months afterwards. The sounds which produced this effect were those of
-K’uei, the Orpheus of the Chinese, whose performance on the
-_ch’ing_――a kind of harmonicon constructed of slabs of sonorous
-stone――would draw wild animals around him and make them subservient to
-his will. As regards the invention of musical instruments the Chinese
-have other traditions. In one of these we are told that the origin of
-some of their most popular instruments dates from the period when
-China was under the dominion of heavenly spirits, called Ch’i. Another
-assigns the invention of several stringed instruments to the great
-Fu-hsi who was the founder of the empire and who lived about B.C.
-3000, which was long after the dominion of the Ch’i, or spirits.
-Again, another tradition holds that the most important instruments and
-systematic arrangements of sounds are an invention of Nü-wa, sister
-and successor of Fu-hsi.
-
-According to their records, the Chinese possessed their much-esteemed
-_ch’ing_ 2200 years before our Christian era, and employed it for
-accompanying songs of praise. It was regarded as a sacred instrument.
-During religious observances at the solemn moment when the _ch’ing_
-was sounded sticks of incense were burnt. It was likewise played
-before the emperor early in the morning when he awoke. The Chinese
-have long since constructed various kinds of the _ch’ing_, by using
-different species of stones. Their most famous stone selected for this
-purpose is called _yü_. _Yü_ includes the two varieties of jade,
-nephrite and jadeite. It is not only very sonorous but also beautiful
-in appearance. It is found in mountain streams and crevices of rocks.
-The largest known specimens measure from two to three feet in
-diameter, but examples of this size rarely occur. The _yü_ is very
-hard and heavy. Some European mineralogists, to whom the missionaries
-transmitted specimens for examination, pronounce it to be a species of
-agate (_ma-nao_). It is found of different colours, and the Chinese
-appear to have preferred in different centuries particular colours for
-the _ch’ing_.
-
-The Chinese consider the _yü_ especially valuable for musical
-purposes, because it always retains exactly the same pitch. All other
-musical instruments, they say, are in this respect doubtful; but the
-tone of the _yü_ is influenced neither by cold nor heat, nor by
-humidity, nor dryness.
-
-The stones used for the _ch’ing_ have been cut from time to time in
-various grotesque shapes. Some represent animals: as, for instance, a
-bat with outstretched wings; or two fishes placed side by side: others
-are in the shape of an ancient Chinese bell. The angular shape appears
-to be the oldest form and is still retained in the ornamental stones
-of the _pien-ch’ing_, which is a more modern instrument than the
-_ch’ing_. The tones of the _pien-ch’ing_ are attuned according to the
-Chinese intervals called _lü_, of which there are twelve in the
-compass of an octave. The same is the case with the other Chinese
-instruments of this class. They vary, however, in pitch. The pitch of
-the _sung-ch’ing_, for instance, is four intervals lower than that of
-the _pien-ch’ing_.
-
-Sonorous stones have always been used by the Chinese also singly, as
-rhythmical instruments. Such a single stone is called _t’ê-ch’ing_.
-
-The ancient Chinese had several kinds of bells, frequently arranged in
-sets so as to constitute a musical scale. The Chinese name for the
-bell is _chung_. At an early period they had a somewhat square-shaped
-bell called _t’ê-chung_. Like other ancient Chinese bells it was made
-of copper alloyed with tin, the proportion being one part of tin to
-six of copper. The _t’ê-chung_, which is also known by the name of
-_piao_, was principally used to indicate the time and divisions in
-musical performances. It had a fixed pitch of sound, and several of
-these bells attuned to a certain order of intervals were not
-unfrequently ranged in a regular succession, thus forming a musical
-instrument which was called _pien-chung_. The musical scale of the
-sixteen bells which the _pien-chung_ contained was the same as that of
-the _ch’ing_ before mentioned.
-
-The _hsüan-chung_ was, according to popular tradition, included with
-the antique instruments at the time of Confucius, and came into
-popular use during the Han dynasty (from B.C. 200 until A.D. 200). It
-was of a peculiar oval shape and had nearly the same quaint
-ornamentation as the _t’ê-chung_; this consisted of symbolical
-figures, in four divisions, each containing nine mammals. The mouth
-was crescent-shaped. Every figure had a deep meaning referring to the
-seasons and to the mysteries of the Buddhist religion. The largest
-_hsüan-chung_ was about twenty inches in length; and, like the
-_t’ê-chung_, was sounded by means of a small wooden mallet with an
-oval knob. None of the bells of this description had a clapper. It
-would, however, appear that the Chinese had at an early period some
-kind of bell provided with a wooden tongue: this was used for military
-purposes as well as for calling the people together when an imperial
-messenger promulgated his sovereign’s commands. An expression of
-Confucius is recorded to the effect that he wished to be “A
-wooden-tongued bell of Heaven,” _i.e._, a herald of heaven to proclaim
-the divine purposes to the multitude.
-
-The _fang-hsiang_ was a kind of wood-harmonicon. It contained sixteen
-wooden slabs of an oblong square shape, suspended in a wooden frame
-elegantly decorated. The slabs were arranged in two tiers, one above
-the other, and were all of equal length and breadth but differed in
-thickness. The _ch’un-tu_ consisted of twelve slips of bamboo, and was
-used for beating time and for rhythmical purposes. The slips being
-banded together at one end could be expanded somewhat like a fan. The
-Chinese state that they used the _ch’un-tu_ for writing upon before
-they invented paper.
-
-The _yü_, likewise an ancient Chinese instrument of percussion and
-still in use, is made of wood in the shape of a crouching tiger. It is
-hollow, and along its back are about twenty small pieces of metal,
-pointed, and in appearance not unlike the teeth of a saw. The
-performer strikes them with a sort of plectrum resembling a brush, or
-with a small stick called _chên_. Occasionally the _yü_ is made with
-pieces of metal shaped like reeds.
-
-The ancient _yü_ was constructed with only six tones which were
-attuned thus――_f_, _g_, _a_, _c_, _d_, _f_. The instrument appears to
-have deteriorated in the course of time; for, although it has
-gradually acquired as many as twenty-seven pieces of metal, it
-evidently serves at the present day more for the production of
-rhythmical noise than for the execution of any melody. The modern _yü_
-is made of a species of wood called _k’iu_ or _ch’iu_; and the tiger
-rests generally on a hollow wooden pedestal about three feet six
-inches long, which serves as a sound-board.
-
-The _chu_, likewise an instrument of percussion, was made of the wood
-of a tree called _ch’iu-mu_, the stem of which resembles that of the
-pine and whose foliage is much like that of the cypress. It was
-constructed of boards about three-quarters of an inch in thickness. In
-the middle of one of the sides was an aperture into which the hand was
-passed for the purpose of holding the handle of a wooden hammer, the
-end of which entered into a hole situated in the bottom of the _chu_.
-The handle was kept in its place by means of a wooden pin, on which it
-moved right and left when the instrument was struck with a hammer. The
-Chinese ascribe to the _chu_ a very high antiquity, as they almost
-invariably do with any of their inventions when the date of its origin
-is unknown to them.
-
-The _po-fu_ was a drum, about one foot four inches in length, and
-seven inches in diameter. It had a parchment at each end, which was
-prepared in a peculiar way by being boiled in water. The _po-fu_ used
-to be partly filled with a preparation made from the husk of rice, in
-order to mellow the sound. The Chinese name for the drum is _ku_.
-
-The _chin-ku_, a large drum fixed on a pedestal which raises it above
-six feet from the ground, is embellished with symbolical designs. A
-similar drum on which natural phenomena are depicted is called
-_lei-ku_; and another of the kind, with figures of certain birds and
-beasts which are regarded as symbols of long life, is called
-_ying-ku_, and also _tsu-ku_.
-
-The flutes, _ti_, _yüeh_, and _ch’ih_ were generally made of bamboo.
-The _kuan-tzŭ_ was a Pandean pipe containing twelve tubes of bamboo.
-The _hsiao_, likewise a Pandean pipe, contained sixteen tubes. The
-_p’ai-hsiao_ differed from the _hsiao_ inasmuch as the tubes were
-inserted into an oddly-shaped case highly ornamented with grotesque
-designs and silken appendages.
-
-The Chinese are known to have constructed at an early period a curious
-wind-instrument, called _hsüan_ (the “Chinese ocarina”) (Fig. 11). It
-was made of baked clay and had five finger-holes, three of which were
-placed on one side and two on the opposite side, as in the cut. Its
-tones were in conformity with the pentatonic scale. The reader
-unacquainted with the pentatonic scale may ascertain its character by
-playing on the pianoforte the scale of C major with the omission of
-_f_ and _b_ (the _fourth_ and _seventh_); or by striking the black
-keys in regular succession from _f_-sharp to the next _f_-sharp above
-or below.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 11.――HSÜAN.]
-
-The _shêng_ (Fig. 12_b_) is one of the oldest instruments of the
-Chinese still in use, and may be regarded as the most ancient species
-of organ with which we are exactly acquainted. Formerly it had either
-thirteen, nineteen, or twenty-four tubes placed in a calabash; and a
-long curved tube served as a mouth-piece. A similarly-constructed
-instrument, though different in outward appearance, is the _ken_ of
-Siam and Burmah. The Siamese call the _ken_ “The Laos organ,” and it
-is principally used by the inhabitants of the Laos states. Moreover,
-there deserves to be noticed another Chinese instrument of this kind,
-simple in construction, which probably represents the _shêng_ in its
-most primitive condition. It is to be found among the Miao-tsze, or
-mountaineers, who are supposed to be the aboriginal inhabitants of
-China. They call it _sang_. This species has no bowl, or air-chest; it
-rather resembles the Panpipe, but is sounded by means of a common
-mouthpiece consisting of a tube, which is placed at a right angle
-across the pipes. The Chinese assert that the _shêng_ was used in
-olden time in the religious rites performed in honour of Confucius.
-Tradescant Lay, in his account of the Chinese, calls it “Jubal’s
-organ,” and remarks, “this seems to be the embryo of our multiform and
-magnificent organ.”
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 12.――_a._ CH’IN (a species of Lute). Modern
-                 Chinese. No. 9-’70. L. 38½ in., W. 8½ in.
-                _b._ SHÊNG (Mouth Organ). Chinese, 19th century.
-                 No. 977-’72. L. 17 in., W. 4¼ in.
-                _c._ YUEH-CH’IN (Moon Guitar). Chinese. 19th Century.
-                 No. 256-’82.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-The ancient stringed instruments, the _ch’in_ (Fig. 12_a_) and _sê_,
-were of the dulcimer kind, they are still in use, and specimens of
-them are in the Museum.
-
-The _yueh-ch’in_ (Fig. 12_c_) is a favourite instrument of the
-Chinese. The Canton pronunciation of _yueh-ch’in_ is _yuet-kum_, and
-this may be the reason why some European travellers in China have
-called the instrument _gut-komm_. The wood of which it is made is
-called by the Chinese _shwan-che_. The strings are twanged with a
-plectrum, or with the nails, which, it will be remembered, are grown
-by the Chinese to an extravagant length.
-
-The Buddhists introduced from Tibet into China their god of music, who
-is represented as a rather jovial-looking man with a moustache and an
-imperial, playing the _p’i-p’a_, a kind of lute with four silken
-strings. Perhaps some interesting information respecting the ancient
-Chinese musical instruments may be gathered from the famous ruins of
-the Buddhist temples _Angcor-Wat_ and _Angcor-Thom_, in Cambodia.
-These splendid ruins are supposed to be above two thousand years old:
-and, at any rate, the circumstance of their age not being known to the
-Cambodians suggests a high antiquity. On the bas-reliefs with which
-the temples were enriched are figured musical instruments, which
-European travellers describe as “flutes, organs, trumpets, and drums,
-resembling those of the Chinese.” Faithful sketches of these
-representations, might, very likely, afford valuable hints to the
-student of musical history.
-
-
-THE JAPANESE.
-
-The Japanese musical instruments are in the main derived from those of
-China, and their names consequently represent the Japanese
-pronunciation of the Chinese sounds.
-
-The _biwa_ (Fig. 13_b_) is almost identical with the Chinese
-_p’i-p’a_. The example illustrated is of wood, lacquered black and
-ornamented with a band of Japanese design in gold lacquer. It has four
-silken strings, and two very small sound holes.
-
-The _samisen_ (the Chinese _san-hsien_ or “three-stringed guitar”) is
-played especially by the Japanese ladies, and is as great a favourite
-with them as the lute was formerly with us. An example in the Museum
-(Fig. 13_c_) has three strings of silk. Both the _biwa_ and the
-_samisen_ are played with a wooden plectrum. The _ko-kiū_ is the
-Japanese violin, and resembles a small _samisen_, but has four
-strings. It is held head upwards and played with a loose-strung bow.
-
-The Japanese have several instruments of the dulcimer class, called
-_koto_ (the Chinese _ch’in_) (Fig. 13_a_). Some species of the _koto_
-are played with _plectra_ affixed to the fingers; and there are
-different successions of intervals adopted in the tuning of the
-several species.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 13.――_a._ KOTO (a species of Lute). Japanese.
-                 19th century. L. 75⅜ in., W. 9½ in. No. 439-’91.
-                _b._ BIWA (a species of Guitar). Modern Japanese.
-                 H. 32½ in., diam. 11 in. No. 838-’6c.
-                _c._ SAMISEN. Japanese. L. 37½ in. No. 229-’82.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-The _ikuta-goto_ is provided with thirteen movable bridges, by means
-of which the pitch of the strings is regulated. The bridges are of
-wood, and about 2½ inches in height. The _ikuta-goto_ is learnt
-chiefly by Japanese ladies moving in the upper circles of society. It
-is a rather expensive instrument, and requires much practice. The
-performer places it on the floor, and, sitting in the usual Japanese
-attitude, bends over it and twangs the strings with her fingers, the
-tips of which are encased in _plectra_, resembling thimbles, which
-terminate in a little projecting piece of ivory in size and form like
-the finger nail.
-
-Of wind instruments the Japanese use three principal kinds:――(1) The
-_fuye_, like our flute, with six or seven finger-holes; (2) the
-_hichiriki_, a reed-flageolet, with seven finger-holes and two
-thumb-holes; (3) the _shakuhachi_, a bamboo pipe 20 inches high.
-
-The _shêng_ (described on p. 42) is also popular in Japan. The
-Japanese name for it is _shō_. The general name in Japanese for the
-drum is _taiko_ (= Chinese _ta ku_, “large drum”). The Japanese have a
-great variety of drums, some of which are used at religious ceremonies
-in the temples. The _shime-daiko_ is a shallow drum hung obliquely
-before the player in a low wooden frame. It is beaten with two plain
-sticks, and is used to accompany singers. The _tsudzumi_ is a small
-hand-drum with hour-glass-shaped body.
-
-The Japanese have different kinds of gongs (_dora_ = Chinese
-_t’ung-lo_, “copper gong”), which are used in the service of the
-temple, in processions, at funerals, and on several other solemn
-occasions. The _dōhachi_ (= Chinese _t’ung po_, “copper bowl”)
-resembles a copper basin. Another consists of two metal basins
-suspended by cords on a frame composed of a pole and two cross-sticks.
-
-The Japanese, as well as the Chinese, possess superbly ornamented
-gongs (_kei_) raised on a stand. Those of the former are perhaps the
-more magnificent.
-
-The Japanese employ large bells (_kane_ or _tsuri-gane_ = Chinese
-_chung_) in their Buddhist worship. There is a famous bell, richly
-decorated, near the Daibutsu at Kiōto, which is struck, at different
-hours of the day, with a heavy wooden mallet; and its sound is said to
-be particularly sonorous, mellow, and far-reaching. Another celebrated
-Japanese bell is placed on a high hill near the town of Nara. It is
-suspended in a wooden shed, close to the Tōdaiji Temple. A thick pole,
-affixed to the rafters, is drawn backwards, and then, by being let
-loose, is made to rebound so as to hit the bell sideways in the usual
-manner. This bell is admired throughout the country, and pictures
-representing it are sold on the spot to the visitors, who have to
-ascend a long flight of narrow steps before they reach its station on
-the summit of the hill. Small bells (_rin_) are used by the Buddhist
-priests in Japan while officiating in the temple, just as is the case
-in China, Thibet and other districts of the Asiatic continent.
-
-
-THE HINDUS.
-
-In the Brahmin mythology of the Hindus the demi-god Nareda is the
-inventor of the _vina_, the principal national instrument of
-Hindustan. His mother, Saraswati, the consort of Brahma, may be
-regarded as the Minerva of the Hindus. She is the goddess of music as
-well as of speech. To her is attributed the invention of the
-systematic arrangement of the sounds into a musical scale. She is
-represented seated on a peacock and playing either on the southern
-_vina_ or the _bîn_, stringed instruments of the lute kind. Brahma
-himself we occasionally find depicted as a vigorous man with four
-handsome heads, beating with his hands upon a small drum; and Vishnu,
-in his incarnation as Krishna, is represented as a beautiful youth
-playing upon a flute. The Hindus construct a peculiar kind of flute,
-the _bansi_, which they consider as the favourite instrument of
-Krishna.
-
-The _sankha_, or conch-shell trumpet of victory, one of the important
-attributes of Vishnu the preserver, and his consort Lakshmi, is
-occasionally represented in the possession of Siva, and other deities.
-Siva the destroyer, and his consort Parvati, also carry the
-_budbudika_, or _damaru_, a rattle-drum shaped like an hour-glass.
-
-It is a suggestive fact that we find among several nations in
-different parts of the world an ancient tradition, according to which
-their most popular stringed instrument was originally derived from the
-water. Thus with Nareda and the _vina_, the latter has also the name
-_kach’-hapi_, signifying a tortoise (_testudo_), whilst _nara_ denotes
-in Sanskrit water, and _narada_, or _nareda_, the giver of water. Like
-Nareda, Nereus and his fifty daughters, the Nereïdes, were much
-renowned for their musical accomplishments; and Hermes (it will be
-remembered) made his lyre, the _chelys_, of a tortoise-shell. The
-Scandinavian god Odin, the originator of magic songs, is mentioned as
-the ruler of the sea, and as such he had the name of _Nikarr_. In the
-depth of the sea he played the harp with his subordinate spirits, who
-occasionally came up to the surface of the water to teach some
-favoured human being their wonderful instrument. Wäinämöinen, the
-divine player on the Finnish _kantele_ (according to the Kalewala, the
-old national epic of the Finns) constructed his instrument of
-fish-bones. The frame he made out of the bones of the pike; and the
-teeth of the pike he used for the tuning-pegs.
-
-Jacob Grimm in his work on German mythology points out an old
-tradition, preserved in Swedish and Scotch national ballads, of a
-skilful harper who constructs his instrument out of the bones of a
-young girl drowned by a wicked woman. Her fingers he uses for the
-tuning screws, and her golden hair for the strings. The harper plays,
-and his music kills the murderess. A similar story is told in the old
-Icelandic national songs; and the same tradition has been preserved in
-the Faroe islands, as well as in Norway and Denmark.
-
-May not the agreeable impression produced by the rhythmical flow of
-the waves and the soothing murmur of running water have led various
-nations, independently of each other, to the widespread conception
-that they obtained their favourite instrument of music from the water?
-Or is the notion traceable to a common source dating from a
-pre-historic age, perhaps from the early period when the Aryan race is
-surmised to have diffused its lore through various countries? Or did
-it originate in the old belief that the world, with all its charms and
-delights, arose from a chaos in which water constituted the
-predominant element?
-
-Howbeit, Nareda, the giver of water, was the offspring of Brahma the
-creator; and Odin had his throne in the skies. Indeed, many of the
-musical water-spirits appear to have been originally considered as
-rain deities. Their music may, therefore, be regarded as derived from
-the clouds rather than from the sea. In short, the traditions
-respecting spirits and water are not in contradiction to the opinion
-of the ancient Hindus that music is of heavenly origin, but rather
-tend to support it.
-
-The earliest musical instruments of the Hindus on record have, almost
-all of them, remained in popular use until the present day scarcely
-altered. Besides these, the Hindus possess several Arabic and Persian
-instruments which are of comparatively modern date in Hindustan:
-evidently having been introduced into that country scarcely 1,000
-years ago, at the time of the Muhammadan irruption. There are several
-treatises on music extant, written in Sanskrit, which contain
-descriptions of the ancient instruments.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 14.――_a._ SÂRINDA AND BOW. Indian (Bengal).
-                 19th century. L. 25 in.; bow 15¾ in. No. 180. 180ᵃ-’82.
-                _b._ RUDRA VINA. Southern Indian (Madras). 19th century.
-                 L. 45 in. No. 02130. I.S.
-                _c._ SÂRANGI AND BOW. Southern Indian. 19th century.
-                 L. 22 in. No. 02118. I.S.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-Of these the Bhârata Nâtya S’astra by Bhârata Muni (period: B.C. 200
-to A.D. 100), and the Sangita Ratnâkara, are probably the oldest and
-most valuable. The latter, according to information supplied by the
-late Major C. R. Day, is an exhaustive work, consisting of seven
-ādhyayas, compiled by Sarnga Deva, son of Sotala Deva, King of
-Karnata, and grandson of Bhaskara, a Kashmirian (period: so far
-undetermined).
-
-The _vina_ is undoubtedly of high antiquity. It has seven wire
-strings, and movable frets which are generally fastened with wax.
-Gourds, often tastefully ornamented, are affixed for the purpose of
-increasing the sonorousness. There are several kinds of the _vina_ in
-different districts.
-
-Concerning the two principal present-day derivations from the ancient
-vina, the following abbreviated descriptions of the _rudra vina_ of
-Southern India and the _bîn_ or _mahati vina_ of Northern India, are
-obtained from “The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India,”
-by the late Major C. R. Day (London, 1891).
-
-The _rudra vina_ (_see_ Fig. 14_b_) is composed of a pear-shaped body
-of thin wood, hollowed out of the solid; wooden belly; four principal
-metal strings passing over twenty-four frets and three shorter wires
-placed at the side of the finger-board; also a single detachable
-_burra_, or hollow gourd, fastened to the under-side of the neck, near
-the head, to increase the volume of sound. In the method of playing it
-differs from that of other Indian musical instruments, the left hand
-being employed to stop the strings on the frets, whilst the fingers,
-or rather the finger-nails, of the right hand are used, without
-plectra, for striking. The _bîn_, or _mahali vina_, differs from the
-_rudra vina_ in shape and in method of playing. Two large
-gourd-resonators replace the wooden body with its small _burra_; the
-side strings are placed two on the left side and one upon the right;
-the frets vary from nineteen to twenty-two in number; and in playing,
-the two first fingers of the right hand are armed with wire plectra.
-
-The _sârangi_, or the common fiddle of Southern India (Fig. 14_c_) has
-a wooden body hollowed out of a single block, a parchment belly, three
-strings of thick gut, and usually fifteen sympathetic strings of wire,
-tuned chromatically. Sometimes a fourth principal string of wire,
-called _luruj_, is added. It is played with a bow, the instrument
-being held vertically, head uppermost; the tone resembling that of the
-viola. The _sârangi_ of Northern India, usually carved with a
-conventional swan-shaped head, has a rounded body, and possesses a
-lesser number of sympathetic wires.
-
-The _sârinda_, or Bengal fiddle (Fig. 14_a_), another of the few bowed
-instruments of India, consists of a hollow wooden body, usually
-decorated with carving, a curious parchment belly covering only the
-lower half of the body, and three strings either of gut or silk.
-
-The Hindus divided their musical scale into several intervals smaller
-than our modern semitones. They adopted twenty-two intervals called
-_s’ruti_ in the compass of an octave, which may therefore be compared
-to our chromatic intervals. As the frets of the _vina_ are movable the
-performer can easily regulate them according to the scale, or mode,
-which he requires for his music.
-
-The harp has long been obsolete. If some Hindu drawings of it can be
-relied upon, it had at an early time a triangular frame and was in
-construction as well as in shape and size almost identical with the
-Assyrian harp.
-
-The Hindus claim to have invented the violin bow. They maintain that
-the _ravanastra_, one of their old instruments played with the bow,
-was invented about 5,000 years ago by Ravana, a mighty king of Ceylon.
-However this may be, there is a great probability that the fiddle-bow
-originated in Hindustan; because Sanskrit scholars inform us that
-there are names for it in works which cannot be less than from 1,500
-to 2,000 years old. The non-occurrence of any instrument played with a
-bow on the monuments of the nations of antiquity is by no means so
-sure a proof as has generally been supposed, that the bow was unknown.
-The fiddle in its primitive condition must have been a poor
-contrivance. It probably was despised by players who could produce
-better tones with greater facility by twanging the strings with their
-fingers, or with a plectrum. Thus it may have remained through many
-centuries without experiencing any material improvement. It must also
-be borne in mind that the monuments transmitted to us chiefly
-represent historical events, religious ceremonies, and royal
-entertainments. On such occasions instruments of a certain kind only
-were used, and these we find represented; while others, which may have
-been even more common, never occur. In 2,000 years’ time people will
-possibly maintain that some highly perfected instrument popular with
-them was entirely unknown to us, because it is at present in so
-primitive a condition that no one hardly notices it.
-
-“What the _ravanastra_, or _râbanastra_, was like is rather doubtful,
-but at the present time there exists in Ceylon a primitive instrument
-played with a bow, called _vinavah_, which has two strings of
-different kinds, one made of a species of flax, and the other of
-horsehair, which is the material also of the string of the bow…. The
-hollow part of this instrument is half a cocoa-nut shell polished,
-covered with the dried skin of a lizard, and perforated below.” (Day,
-p. 102.)
-
-This instrument again is almost identical with the Chinese fiddle
-called _ur-heen_, which also has two strings, and a body consisting of
-a small block of wood, hollowed out and covered with the skin of a
-serpent. The _ur-heen_ has not been mentioned among the most ancient
-instruments of the Chinese, since there is no evidence of its having
-been known in China before the introduction of the Buddhist religion
-into that country. From indications, which to point out would lead too
-far here, it would appear that several instruments found in China
-originated in Hindustan. They seem to have been gradually diffused
-from Hindustan and Thibet, more or less altered in the course of time,
-through the East as far as Japan.
-
-Another curious Hindu instrument, probably of very high antiquity, is
-the _pungi_, or _jinagovi_, also called _toumrie_ and _magoudi_. It
-consists of a gourd or of the _cuddos_ nut, hollowed, into which two
-reed-pipes are inserted. The _pungi_ therefore, somewhat resembles in
-appearance a bagpipe. It is generally used by the _saperá_ or
-snake-charmer, who plays upon it when exhibiting the antics of the
-cobra. The name _magoudi_, given in certain districts to this
-instrument, rather tends to corroborate the opinion of some musical
-historians that the _magadis_ of the ancient Greeks was a sort of
-double-pipe, or bagpipe.
-
-Many instruments of Hindustan are known by different names in
-different districts, and there are many varieties. On the whole, the
-Hindus possess about fifty instruments. To describe them properly
-would fill a volume. Some, which are in the Museum, will be found well
-described and illustrated in the previously mentioned work by the late
-Major C. R. Day, which, in addition to affording much valuable
-information to the student and collector, contains a lengthy
-bibliography of Indian music and musical instruments.
-
-
-THE PERSIANS AND ARABS.
-
-Of the musical instruments of the ancient Persians, before the
-Christian era, scarcely anything is known. It may be surmised that
-they closely resembled those of the Assyrians, and probably also those
-of the Hebrews.
-
-The harp, _chang_, in olden time a favourite instrument of the
-Persians, has gradually fallen into desuetude. A small harp is
-represented in the celebrated sculptures which exist on a stupendous
-rock, called Tak-i-Bostan, in the vicinity of the town of Kermanshah.
-These sculptures are said to have been executed during the lifetime of
-the Persian monarch Chosroes II. (591-628). They form the ornaments of
-two lofty arches, and consist of representations of field sports and
-aquatic amusements. In one of the boats is seated a man in an
-ornamental dress, with a halo round his head, who is receiving an
-arrow from one of his attendants; while a female, who is sitting near
-him, plays on a Trigonon. Towards the top of the bas-relief is
-represented a stage, on which are performers on small straight
-trumpets and little hand drums; six harpers; and four other musicians,
-apparently females――the first of whom plays a flute; the second, a
-sort of Pandean pipe; the third, an instrument which is too much
-defaced to be recognisable; and the fourth, a bagpipe. Two harps of a
-peculiar shape were copied by Sir Gore Ousely from Persian manuscripts
-about four hundred years old, resembling, in the principle on which
-they are constructed, all other oriental harps. There existed
-evidently various kinds of the _chang_. It may be remarked here that
-the instrument _tschenk_ (or _chang_) in use at the present day in
-Persia, is more like a dulcimer than a harp. The Arabs adopted the
-harp from the Persians, and called it _junk_.
-
-The Persians appear to have adopted, at an early period, smaller
-musical intervals than semitones. When the Arabs conquered Persia
-(A.D. 641) the Persians had already attained a higher degree of
-civilisation than their conquerors. The latter found in Persia the
-cultivation of music considerably in advance of their own, and the
-musical instruments superior also. They soon adopted the Persian
-instruments, and there can be no doubt that the musical system
-exhibited by the earliest Arab writers whose works on the theory of
-music have been preserved was based upon an older system of the
-Persians. In these works the octave is divided in seventeen
-_one-third-tones_――intervals which are still made use of in the East.
-Some of the Arabian instruments are constructed so as to enable the
-performer to produce the intervals with exactness. The frets on the
-lute and tamboura, for instance, are regulated with a view to this
-object.
-
-The Arabs had to some extent become acquainted with many of the
-Persian instruments before the time of their conquest of Persia. An
-Arab musician of the name of Nadr Ben el-Hares Ben Kelde is recorded
-as having been sent to the Persian King Chosroes II., in the sixth
-century, for the purpose of learning Persian singing and performing on
-the lute. Through him, it is said, the lute was brought to Mekka. Saib
-Chatir, the son of a Persian, is spoken of as the first performer on
-the lute in Medina, A.D. 682; and of an Arab lutist, Ebn Soreidsch
-from Mekka, A.D. 683, it is especially mentioned that he played in the
-Persian style; evidently the superior one. The lute, _el-ood_, had
-before the tenth century only four strings, or four pairs producing
-four tones, each tone having two strings tuned in unison. About the
-tenth century a string for a fifth tone was added. The strings were
-made of silk neatly twisted. The neck of the instrument was provided
-with frets of string, which were carefully regulated according to the
-system of seventeen intervals in the compass of an octave before
-mentioned. Other favourite stringed instruments were the _tamboura_, a
-kind of lute with a long neck, and the _quanūn_, a kind of dulcimer
-strung with lamb’s gut strings (generally three in unison for each
-tone) and played upon with two little plectra which the performer had
-fastened to his fingers. The _quanūn_ is likewise still in use in
-countries inhabited by Muhammadans. The Persian _santir_, the
-prototype of our dulcimer, is mounted with wire strings and played
-with two slightly curved sticks. The musician depicted in the
-left-hand corner of Fig. 15_c_ is playing a _santir_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 15.――_a._ KEMÁNGEII, SITÂRA OR FIDDLE.
-                 Persian. About 1800. No. 939-’73. L. 36½ in.;
-                 diam. 8 in.
-                _b._ NUY (Flute). Persian. 19th century. L. 17⅜ in.
-                 No. 959-’86.
-                _c._ SANTIR (Dulcimer) CASE. Persian. L. 33 in.;
-                 W. 11½ in. No. 779-’76.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-Al-Farabi, one of the earliest Arabian musical theorists known, who
-lived in the beginning of the tenth century, does not allude to the
-fiddle-bow. This is noteworthy inasmuch as it seems in some measure to
-support the opinion maintained by some historians that the bow
-originated in England or Wales. Unfortunately we possess no exact
-descriptions of the Persian and Arabian instruments between the tenth
-and fourteenth centuries, otherwise we should probably have earlier
-accounts of some instrument of the violin kind in Persia.
-Ash-shakandi, who lived in Spain about A.D. 1200, mentions the
-_rabôb_, which may have been in use for centuries without having been
-thought worthy of notice on account of its rudeness. Persian writers
-of the fourteenth century speak of two instruments of the violin
-class, viz., the _rabôb_ and the _kemángeh_. As regards the
-_kemángeh_, the Arabs themselves assert that they obtained it from
-Persia, and their statement appears all the more worthy of belief from
-the fact that both names, _rabôb_ and _kemángeh_, are originally
-Persian.
-
-The _nuy_, a flute (Fig. 15_b_), and the _surnai_, a species of oboe,
-are still popular in the East.
-
-The _sitâra_ is a Persian three stringed instrument with a wooden body
-and a parchment belly (Fig. 15_a_).
-
-The Arabs must have been indefatigable constructors of musical
-instruments. Kiesewetter gives a list of above two hundred names of
-Arabian instruments, and this does not include many known to us
-through Spanish historians. A careful investigation of the musical
-instruments of the Arabs during their sojourn in Spain is particularly
-interesting to the student of mediæval music, inasmuch as it reveals
-the Eastern origin of many instruments which are generally regarded as
-European inventions. Introduced into Spain by the Saracens and the
-Moors they were gradually diffused towards northern Europe. The
-English, for instance, adopted not only the Moorish dance (morris
-dance) but also the _kuitra_ (gittern), the _el-ood_ (lute), the
-_rabôb_ (rebec), the _naḳḳárah_ (naker), and several others. In
-an old Cornish sacred drama, supposed to date from the fourteenth
-century, we have in an enumeration of musical instruments the
-_nakrys_, designating “kettle-drums.” It must be remembered that the
-Cornish language, which has now become obsolete, was nearly akin to
-the Welsh. Indeed, names of musical instruments derived from the Moors
-in Spain occur in almost every European language.
-
-Not a few fanciful stories are traditionally preserved among the Arabs
-testifying to the wonderful effects they ascribed to the power of
-their instrumental performances. One example will suffice. Al-Farabi
-had acquired his proficiency in Spain, in one of the schools at
-Cordova which flourished as early as towards the end of the ninth
-century, and his reputation became so great that ultimately it
-extended to Asia. The mighty Caliph of Bagdad himself desired to hear
-the celebrated musician, and sent messengers to Spain with
-instructions to offer rich presents to him and to convey him to the
-court. But Al-Farabi feared that if he went he should be retained in
-Asia, and should never again see the home to which he felt deeply
-attached. At last he resolved to disguise himself, and ventured to
-undertake the journey which promised him a rich harvest. Dressed in a
-mean costume, he made his appearance at the court just at the time
-when the caliph was being entertained with his daily concert.
-Al-Farabi, unknown to everyone, was permitted to exhibit his skill on
-the lute. Scarcely had he commenced his performance in a certain
-musical mode when he set all his audience laughing aloud,
-notwithstanding the efforts of the courtiers to suppress so unbecoming
-an exhibition of mirth in the royal presence. In truth, even the
-caliph himself was compelled to burst out into a fit of laughter.
-Presently the performer changed to another mode, and the effect was
-that immediately all his hearers began to sigh, and soon tears of
-sadness replaced the previous tears of mirth. Again he played in
-another mode, which excited his audience to such a rage that they
-would have fought each other if he, seeing the danger, had not
-directly gone over to an appeasing mode. After this wonderful
-exhibition of his skill Al-Farabi concluded in a mode which had the
-effect of making his listeners fall into a profound sleep, during
-which he took his departure.
-
-It will be seen that this incident is almost identical with one
-recorded as having happened about twelve hundred years earlier at the
-court of Alexander the Great, and which forms the subject of Dryden’s
-“Alexander’s Feast.” The distinguished flutist Timotheus successively
-aroused and subdued different passions by changing the musical modes
-during his performance, exactly in the same way as did Al-Farabi.
-
-
-
-
-VI.
-
-AMERICAN INDIAN.
-
-
-If the preserved antiquities of the American Indians, dating from a
-period anterior to our discovery of the western hemisphere, possess an
-extraordinary interest because they afford trustworthy evidence of the
-degree of progress which the aborigines had attained in the
-cultivation of the arts and in their social condition before they came
-in contact with Europeans, it must be admitted that the ancient
-musical instruments of the American Indians are also worthy of
-examination. Several of them are constructed in a manner which, in
-some degree, reveals the characteristics of the musical system
-prevalent among the people who used the instruments. And although most
-of these interesting relics, which have been obtained from tombs and
-other hiding-places, may not be of great antiquity, it has been
-satisfactorily ascertained that they are genuine contrivances of the
-Indians before they were influenced by European civilisation.
-
-Some account of these relics is therefore likely to prove of interest
-also to the ethnologist, especially as several facts may perhaps be
-found of assistance in elucidating the still unsolved problem as to
-the probable original connection of the American with Asiatic races.
-
-Among the instruments of the Aztecs in Mexico and of the Peruvians
-none have been found so frequently, and have been preserved in their
-former condition so unaltered, as pipes and flutes. They are generally
-made of pottery or of bone, substances which are unsuitable for the
-construction of most other instruments, but which are remarkably well
-qualified to withstand the decaying influence of time. There is,
-therefore, no reason to conclude from the frequent occurrence of such
-instruments that they were more common than other kinds of which
-specimens have rarely been discovered.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 16.――POTTERY WHISTLES. Ancient Mexican.
-                 British Museum.]
-
-The Mexicans possessed a small whistle formed of baked clay, a
-considerable number of which have been found. Some specimens (Fig. 16)
-are singularly grotesque in shape, representing caricatures of the
-human face and figure, birds, beasts, and flowers. Some were provided
-at the top with a finger-hole which, when closed, altered the pitch of
-the sound, so that two different tones were producible on the
-instrument. Others had a little ball of baked clay lying loose inside
-the air-chamber. When the instrument was blown the current of air set
-the ball in a vibrating motion, thereby causing a shrill and whirring
-sound. A similar contrivance is sometimes made use of by Englishmen
-for conveying signals. The Mexican whistle most likely served
-principally the same purpose, but it may possibly have been used also
-in musical entertainments. In the Russian horn band each musician is
-restricted to a single tone; and similar combinations of
-performers――only, of course, much more rude――have been witnessed by
-travellers among some tribes in Africa and America.
-
-Rather more complete than the above specimens are some of the whistles
-and small pipes which have been found in graves of the Indians of
-Chiriqui in Central America.
-
-The pipe of the Aztecs, which is called by the Mexican Spaniards
-_pito_, somewhat resembled our flageolet: the material was a reddish
-pottery, and it was provided with four linger holes. Although among
-about half a dozen specimens which the writer has examined some are
-considerably larger than others, they all have, singularly enough, the
-same pitch of sound. The smallest is about six inches in length, and
-the largest about nine inches. Several _pitos_ have been found in a
-remarkably well-preserved condition. They are easy to blow, and their
-order of intervals is in conformity with the pentatonic scale, thus:
-[Music: treble clef, quarter notes A B C# E F#] The usual shape of the
-_pito_ is that here represented (Fig. 17_a_ & _c_). A specimen of a
-less common shape, is given in Fig. 17_b_. They are all in the British
-Museum. Indications suggestive of the popular estimation in which the
-flute (or perhaps, more strictly speaking, the pipe) was held by the
-Aztecs are not wanting. It was played in religious observances, and we
-find it referred to allegorically in orations delivered on solemn
-occasions. For instance, at the religious festival which was held in
-honour of Tezcatlepoca――a divinity depicted as a handsome youth, and
-considered second only to the supreme being――a young man was
-sacrificed who, in preparation for the ceremony, had been instructed
-in the art of playing the flute. Twenty days before his death four
-young girls, named after the principal goddesses, were given to him as
-companions; and when the hour arrived in which he was to be sacrificed
-he observed the established symbolical rite of breaking a flute on
-each of the steps, as he ascended the temple.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 17.――PITOS (flageolets of pottery). _a._ and
-                _c._ Ancient Mexican.
-                _b._ From the Island of Sacrificios.
-                 British Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 18.――BONE FLUTES. Ancient Peruvian.
-                _a._ and _b._ Truxillo. _c._ Lima.
-                 British Museum.]
-
-Again, at the public ceremonies which took place on the accession of a
-prince to the throne the new monarch addressed a prayer to the god, in
-which occurred the following allegorical expression:――“I am thy flute;
-reveal to me thy will; breathe into me thy breath like into a flute,
-as thou hast done to my predecessors on the throne. As thou hast
-opened their eyes, their ears, and their mouth to utter what is good,
-so likewise do to me. I resign myself entirely to thy guidance.”
-Similar sentences occur in the orations addressed to the monarch. In
-reading them one can hardly fail to be reminded of Hamlet’s
-reflections addressed to Guildenstern, when the servile courtier
-expresses his inability to “govern the ventages” of the pipe and to
-make the instrument “discourse most eloquent music,” which the prince
-bids him to do.
-
-M. de Castelnau, in his “Expédition dans l’Amérique,” gives among the
-illustrations of objects discovered in ancient Peruvian tombs a flute
-made of a human bone. It has four finger holes at its upper surface
-and appears to have been blown into at one end. Two bone flutes (Figs.
-18_b_ & _c_), in appearance similar to the engraving given by M. de
-Castelnau, which have been disinterred at Truxillo, are deposited in
-the British Museum. They are about six inches in length, and each is
-provided with five finger holes. One of these has all the holes at its
-upper side, and one of the holes is considerably smaller than the
-rest. The specimen which we illustrate (Fig. 18_a_) is ornamented with
-some simple designs in black.
-
-The other has four holes at its upper side and one underneath, the
-latter being placed near to the end at which the instrument evidently
-was blown. In the aperture of this end some remains of a hardened
-paste, or resinous substance, are still preserved. This substance
-probably was inserted for the purpose of narrowing the end of the
-tube, in order to facilitate the producing of the sounds. The same
-contrivance is still resorted to in the construction of the bone
-flutes by some Indian tribes in Guiana. The bones of slain enemies
-appear to have been considered especially appropriate for such flutes.
-The Araucanians having killed a prisoner, made flutes of his bones,
-and danced and “thundered out their dreadful war songs, accompanied by
-the mournful sounds of these horrid instruments.” Alonso de Ovalle
-says of the Indians in Chili: “Their flutes, which they play upon in
-their dances, are made of the bones of the Spaniards and other enemies
-whom they have overcome in war. This they do by way of triumph and
-glory for their victory. They make them likewise of bones of animals;
-but the warriors dance only to the flutes made of their enemies.” The
-Mexicans and Peruvians obviously possessed a great variety of pipes
-and flutes, some of which are still in use among certain Indian
-tribes. Those which were found in the famous ruins at Palenque are
-deposited in the museum in Mexico. They are:――The _cuyvi_, a pipe on
-which only five tones were producible; the _huayllaca_, a sort of
-flageolet; the _pincullu_, a flute; and the _chayna_, which is
-described as “a flute whose lugubrious and melancholy tones filled the
-heart with indescribable sadness, and brought involuntary tears into
-the eyes.” It was perhaps a kind of oboe.
-
-The Peruvians had the syrinx, which they called _huayra-puhura_. Some
-clue to the proper meaning of this name may perhaps be gathered from
-the word _huayra_, which signifies “air.” The _huayra-puhura_ was made
-of cane, and also of stone. Sometimes an embroidery of needlework was
-attached to it as an ornament. One specimen which has been disinterred
-is adorned with twelve figures precisely resembling Maltese crosses.
-The cross is a figure which may readily be supposed to suggest itself
-very naturally; and it is therefore not so surprising, as it may
-appear at a first glance, that the American Indians used it not
-unfrequently in designs and sculptures before they came in contact
-with Christians.
-
-The British Museum possesses a _huayra-puhura_ consisting of fourteen
-reed pipes of a brownish colour, tied together in two rows by means of
-thread, so as to form a double set of seven reeds. Both sets are
-almost exactly of the same dimensions and are placed side by side. The
-shortest of these reeds measure three inches, and the longest six and
-a half. In one set they are open at the bottom, and in the other they
-are closed. Consequently octaves are produced. The reader is probably
-aware that the closing of a pipe at the end raises its pitch an
-octave. Thus, in our organ, the so-called stopped diapason, a set of
-closed pipes, requires tubes of only half the length of those which
-constitute the open diapason, although both these stops produce tones
-in the same pitch; the only difference between them being the quality
-of sound, which in the former is less bright than in the latter.
-
-The tones yielded by the _huayra-puhura_ in question are as follows:
-[Music: Treble clef, ascending quarter note octaves: A C D E G A
-C] The highest octave is indistinct, owing to some injury done to
-the shortest tubes; but sufficient evidence remains to show that
-the intervals were purposely arranged according to the pentatonic
-scale. This interesting relic was brought to light from a tomb at
-Arica.
-
-Another _huayra-puhura_ (Fig. 19), likewise still yielding sounds, was
-discovered placed over a corpse in a Peruvian tomb, and was procured
-by the French general, Paroissien. This instrument is made of
-soapstone, and contains eight pipes. It now belongs to the Rev. Canon
-J. H. Rawdon.[4] In the Museum may be seen a good plaster cast taken
-from this curious relic. The height is five and three-quarter inches,
-and its width six and a quarter inches. Four of the tubes have small
-lateral finger-holes, which, when closed, lower the pitch a semitone.
-These holes are on the second, fourth, six, and seventh pipe, as shown
-in the engraving. When the holes are open, the tones are: [Music:
-Treble clef, quarter notes F# A C# F♮] and when they are closed:
-[Music: Treble clef, quarter notes F♮ A♭ C♮ E] The other tubes have
-unalterable tones. The following notation exhibits all the tones
-producible on the instrument: [Music: Treble clef, quarter notes E F
-F# G G# A C C# D E F A]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 19.――HUAYRA-PUHURA, discovered in a Peruvian
-                 tomb.
-                 The property of the Rev. Canon Rawdon.]
-
-The musician is likely to speculate what could have induced the
-Peruvians to adopt so strange a series of intervals: it seems rather
-arbitrary than premeditated.
-
-If (and this seems not to be improbable) the Peruvians considered
-those tones which are produced by closing the lateral holes as
-additional intervals only, a variety of scales or kinds of _modes_ may
-have been contrived by the admission of one or other of these tones
-among the essential ones. If we may conjecture from some remarks of
-Garcilasso de la Vega, and other historians, the Peruvians appear to
-have used different orders of intervals for different kinds of tunes,
-in a way similar to what we find to be the case with certain Asiatic
-nations. We are told, for instance, “Each poem, or song, had its
-appropriate tune, and they could not put two different songs to one
-tune; and this was why the enamoured gallant, making music at night on
-his flute, with the tune which belonged to it, told the lady and all
-the world the joy or sorrow of his soul, the favour or ill-will which
-he possessed; so that it might be said that he spoke by the flute.”
-Thus also the Hindus have certain tunes for certain seasons and fixed
-occasions, and likewise a number of different modes or scales used for
-particular kinds of songs.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 20. WOODEN TRUMPET, used by Indians near the
-                 Orinoco.]
-
-Trumpets are often mentioned by writers who have recorded the manners
-and customs of the Indians at the time of the discovery of America.
-There are, however, scarcely any illustrations to be relied on of
-these instruments transmitted to us. The Conch was frequently used as
-a trumpet for conveying signals in war.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 21.――JURUPARIS, with and without cover, used by
-                 Indians on the Rio Haupés.
-                 In the Museum at Kew Gardens.]
-
-Fig. 20 represents a kind of trumpet made of wood, and nearly seven
-feet in length, which Gumilla found among the Indians in the vicinity
-of the Orinoco. It somewhat resembles the _juruparis_ (Fig. 21), a
-mysterious instrument of the Indians on the Rio Haupés, a tributary of
-the Rio Negro, South America. The _juruparis_ is regarded as an object
-of great veneration. Women are never permitted to see it. So stringent
-is this law that any woman obtaining a sight of it is put to
-death――usually by poison. No youths are allowed to see it until they
-have been subjected to a series of initiatory fastings and scourgings.
-The _juruparis_ is usually kept hidden in the bed of some stream, deep
-in the forest; and no one dares to drink out of that sanctified
-stream, or to bathe in its water. At feasts the _juruparis_ is brought
-out during the night, and is blown outside the houses of
-entertainment. The inner portion of the instrument consists of a tube
-made of slips of the Paxiaba palm (_Triartea exorrhiza_). When the
-Indians are about to use the instrument they nearly close the upper
-end of the tube with clay, and also tie above the oblong square hole
-(shown in the engraving) a portion of the leaf of the Uaruma, one of
-the arrow-root family. Round the tube are wrapped long strips of the
-tough bark of the Jébaru (_Parivoa grandiflora_). This covering
-descends in folds below the tube. The length of the instrument is from
-four to five feet. The illustration (Fig. 21), which exhibits the
-_juruparis_ with its cover and without it, has been taken from a
-specimen in the museum at Kew gardens. The mysteries connected with
-this trumpet are evidently founded on an old tradition from
-prehistoric Indian ancestors. _Jurupari_ means “demon”; and with
-several Indian tribes on the Amazon customs and ceremonies still
-prevail in honour of Jurupari.
-
-The Caroados, an Indian tribe in Brazil, have a war trumpet which
-closely resembles the _juruparis_. With this people it is the custom
-for the chief to give on his war trumpet the signal for battle, and to
-continue blowing as long as he wishes the battle to last. The trumpet
-is made of wood, and its sound is described by travellers as very deep
-but rather pleasant. The sound is easily produced, and its continuance
-does not require much exertion; but a peculiar vibration of the lips
-is necessary which requires practice. Another trumpet, the _turé_, is
-common with many Indian tribes on the Amazon who use it chiefly in
-war. It is made of a long and thick bamboo, and there is a split reed
-in the mouthpiece. It therefore partakes rather of the character of an
-oboe or clarinet. Its tone is described as loud and harsh. The _turé_
-is especially used by the sentinels of predatory hordes, who, mounted
-on a lofty tree, give the signal of attack to their comrades.
-
-Again, the aborigines in Mexico had a curious contrivance of this
-kind, the _acocotl_, now more usually called _clarin_. The former word
-is its old Indian name, and the latter appears to have been first
-given to the instrument by the Spaniards. The _acocotl_ consists of a
-very thin tube from eight to ten feet in length, and generally not
-quite straight but with some irregular curves. This tube, which is
-often not thicker than a couple of inches in diameter, terminates at
-one end in a sort of bell, and has at the other end a small mouthpiece
-resembling in shape that of a clarinet. The tube is made of the dry
-stalk of a plant which is common in Mexico, and which likewise the
-Indians call _acocotl_. The most singular characteristic of the
-instrument is that the performer does not blow into it, but inhales
-the air through it; or rather, he produces the sound by sucking the
-mouthpiece. It is said to require strong lungs to perform on the
-_acocotl_ effectively according to Indian notions of taste.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 22.――BOTUTO, used by Indians near the Orinoco.]
-
-The _botuto_, which Gumilla saw used by some tribes near the river
-Orinoco (Fig. 22), was evidently an ancient Indian contrivance, but
-appears to have fallen almost into oblivion during the last two
-centuries. It was made of baked clay and was commonly from three to
-four feet long; but some trumpets of this kind were of enormous size.
-The _botuto_ with two bellies was usually made thicker than that with
-three bellies and emitted a deeper sound, which is described as having
-been really terrific. These trumpets were used on occasions of
-mourning and funeral dances. Alexander von Humboldt saw the _botuto_
-among some Indian tribes near the river Orinoco.
-
-Besides those which have been noticed, other antique wind instruments
-of the Indians are mentioned by historians; but the descriptions given
-of them are too superficial to convey a distinct notion as to their
-form and purport. Several of these barbarous contrivances scarcely
-deserve to be classed with musical instruments. This may, for
-instance, be said of certain musical jars or earthen vessels producing
-sounds, which the Peruvians constructed for their amusement. These
-vessels were made double; and the sounds imitated the cries of animals
-or birds. A similar contrivance of the Indians in Chili, preserved in
-the museum at Santiago, is described by the traveller S. S. Hill as
-follows:――“It consists of two earthen vessels in the form of our
-india-rubber bottles, but somewhat larger, with a flat tube from four
-to six inches in length, uniting their necks near the top and slightly
-curved upwards, and with a small hole on the upper side one third of
-the length of the tube from one side of the necks. To produce the
-sounds the bottles were filled with water and suspended to the bough
-of a tree, or to a beam, by a string attached to the middle of the
-curved tube, and then swung backwards and forwards in such a manner as
-to cause each end to be alternately the highest and lowest, so that
-the water might pass backwards and forwards from one bottle to the
-other through the tube between them. By this means soothing sounds
-were produced which, it is said, were employed to lull to repose the
-drowsy chiefs who usually slept away the hottest hours of the day. In
-the meantime, as the bottles were porous, the water within them
-diminished by evaporation, and the sound died gradually away.”
-
-As regards instruments of percussion, a kind of drum deserves special
-notice on account of the ingenuity evinced in its construction. The
-Mexicans called it _teponaztli_. They generally made it of a single
-block of very hard wood, somewhat oblong square in shape, which they
-hollowed, leaving at each end a solid piece about three or four inches
-in thickness, and at its upper side a kind of sound-board about a
-quarter of an inch in thickness. In this sound-board, if it may be
-called so, they made three incisions; namely, two running parallel
-some distance lengthwise of the drum, and a third running across from
-one of these to the other just in the centre. By this means they
-obtained two vibrating tongues of wood which, when beaten with a
-stick, produced sounds as clearly defined as are those of our kettle
-drums. By making one of the tongues thinner than the other they
-ensured two different sounds, the pitch of which they were enabled to
-regulate by shaving off more or less of the wood. The bottom of the
-drum they cut almost entirely open. The traveller, M. Nebel, was told
-by archæologists in Mexico that these instruments always contained the
-interval of a third, but on examining several specimens which he saw
-in museums he found some in which the two sounds stood towards each
-other in the relation of a fourth; while in others they constituted a
-fifth, in others a sixth, and in some even an octave. This is
-noteworthy in so far as it points to a conformity with our diatonic
-series of intervals, excepting the seventh.
-
-The _teponaztli_ was generally carved with various fanciful and
-ingenious designs. It was beaten with two drumsticks covered at the
-end with an elastic gum, called _ule_, which was obtained from the
-milky juice extracted from the ule-tree. Some of these drums were
-small enough to be carried on a string or strap suspended round the
-neck of the player; others, again, measured upwards of 5 feet in
-length, and their sound was so powerful that it could be heard at a
-distance of three miles. In some rare instances a specimen of the
-_teponaztli_ is still preserved by the Indians in Mexico, especially
-among tribes who have been comparatively but little affected by
-intercourse with their European aggressors. Herr Heller saw such an
-instrument in the hands of the Indians of Huatusco――a village near
-Mirador in the Tierra Templada, or temperate region, occupying the
-slopes of the Cordilleras. Its sound is described as so very loud as
-to be distinctly audible at an incredibly great distance. This
-circumstance, which has been noticed by several travellers, may
-perhaps be owing in some measure to the condition of the atmosphere in
-Mexico.
-
-Instruments of percussion constructed on a principle more or less
-similar to the _teponaztli_ were in use in several other parts of
-America, as well as in Mexico.
-
-The largest kind of Mexican _teponaztli_ appears to have been
-generally of a cylindrical shape. Clavigero gives a drawing of such an
-instrument. Drums, also constructed of skin or parchment in
-combination with wood were not unknown to the Indians. Of this
-description was, for instance, the _huehuetl_ of the Aztecs in Mexico,
-which consisted, according to Clavigero, of a wooden cylinder somewhat
-above 3 feet in height, curiously carved and painted and covered at
-the top with carefully prepared deer-skin. And, what appears the most
-remarkable, the parchment (we are told) could be tightened or
-slackened by means of cords in nearly the same way as with our own
-drum. The _huehuetl_ was not beaten with drumsticks but merely struck
-with the fingers, and much dexterity was required to strike it in the
-proper manner. Oviedo states that the Indians in Cuba had drums which
-were stretched with human skin. And Bernal Diaz relates that when he
-was with Cortés in Mexico they ascended together the _Teocalli_
-(“House of God”), a large temple in which human sacrifices were
-offered by the aborigines; and there the Spanish visitors saw a large
-drum which was made, Diaz tells us, with skins of great serpents. This
-“hellish instrument,” as he calls it, produced, when struck, a doleful
-sound which was so loud that it could be heard at a distance of two
-leagues.
-
-The name of the Peruvian drum was _huanca_; they had also an
-instrument of percussion, called _chhilchiles_, which appears to have
-been a sort of tambourine.
-
-The rattle was likewise popular with the Indians before the discovery
-of America. The Mexicans called it _ajacaxtli_. In construction it was
-similar to the rattle at the present day commonly used by the Indians.
-It was oval or round in shape, and appears to have been usually made
-of a gourd into which holes were pierced, and to which a wooden handle
-was affixed. A number of little pebbles were enclosed in the hollowed
-gourd. They were also made of pottery. The little balls in the
-_ajacaxtli_ of pottery, enclosed as they are, may at a first glance
-appear a puzzle. Probably, when the rattle was being formed they were
-attached to the inside as slightly as possible; and after the clay had
-been baked they were detached by means of an implement passed through
-the holes.
-
-The Tezcucans (or Acolhuans) belonged to the same race as the Aztecs,
-whom they greatly surpassed in knowledge and social refinement.
-Nezahualcoyotl, a wise monarch of the Tezcucans, abhorred human
-sacrifices, and erected a large temple which he dedicated to “The
-unknown god, the cause of causes.” This edifice had a tower nine
-storeys high, on the top of which were placed a number of musical
-instruments of various kinds which were used to summon the worshippers
-to prayer. Respecting these instruments especial mention is made of a
-sonorous metal which was struck with a mallet. This is stated in a
-historical essay written by Ixtlilxochitl, a native of Mexico and of
-royal descent, who lived in the beginning of the seventeenth century,
-and who may be supposed to have been familiar with the musical
-practices of his countrymen. But whether the sonorous metal alluded to
-was a gong or a bell is not clear from the vague record transmitted to
-us. That the bell was known to the Peruvians appears to be no longer
-doubtful, since a small copper specimen has been found in one of the
-old Peruvian tombs. This interesting relic is now deposited in the
-museum at Lima. M. de Castelnau has published a drawing of it. The
-Peruvians called their bells _chanrares_; but it remains questionable
-whether this name did not designate rather the so-called horse bells,
-which were certainly known to the Mexicans, who called them _yotl_. It
-is noteworthy that these _yotl_ are found figured in the
-picture-writings representing the various objects which the Aztecs
-used to pay as tribute to their sovereigns. The collection of Mexican
-antiquities in the British Museum contains a cluster of yotl-bells.
-Being nearly round, they closely resemble the _Schellen_ which the
-Germans are in the habit of affixing to their horses, particularly in
-the winter when they are driving their noiseless sledges.
-
-Again, in South America sonorous stones are not unknown, and were used
-in olden time for musical purposes. The traveller G. T. Vigne saw
-among the Indian antiquities preserved in the town of Cuzco, in Peru,
-“a musical instrument of green sonorous stone, about a foot long, and
-an inch and a half wide, flat-sided, pointed at both ends, and arched
-at the back, where it was about a quarter of an inch thick, whence it
-diminished to an edge, like the blade of a knife…. In the middle of
-the back was a small hole, through which a piece of string was passed;
-and when suspended and struck by any hard substance a singularly
-musical note was produced.” Humboldt mentions the Amazon-stone, which
-on being struck by a hard substance yields a metallic sound. It was
-formerly cut by the American Indians into very thin plates, perforated
-in the centre and suspended by a string. These plates were remarkably
-sonorous. This kind of stone is not, as might be conjectured from its
-name, found exclusively near the Amazon. The name was given to it as
-well as to the river by the first European visitors to America, in
-allusion to the female warriors respecting whom strange stories are
-told. The natives pretending, according to an ancient tradition, that
-the stone came from the country of “Women without husbands,” or “Women
-living alone.”
-
-As regards the ancient stringed instruments of the American Indians
-our information is indeed but scanty. Clavigero says that the Mexicans
-were entirely unacquainted with stringed instruments; a statement the
-correctness of which is questionable, considering the stage of
-civilisation to which these people had attained. At any rate, we
-generally find one or other kind of such instruments with nations
-whose intellectual progress and social condition are decidedly
-inferior. The Aztecs had many claims to the character of a civilised
-community and (as before said) the Tezcucans were even more advanced
-in the cultivation of the arts and sciences than the Aztecs. “The best
-histories,” Prescott observes, “the best poems, the best code of laws,
-the purest dialect, were all allowed to be Tezcucan. The Aztecs
-rivalled their neighbours in splendour of living, and even in the
-magnificence of their structures. They displayed a pomp and
-ostentatious pageantry, truly Asiatic.” Unfortunately historians are
-sometimes not sufficiently discerning in their communications
-respecting musical questions. J. Ranking, in describing the grandeur
-of the establishment maintained by Montezuma, says that during the
-repasts of this monarch “there was music of fiddle, flute,
-snail-shell, a kettle-drum, and other strange instruments.” But as
-this waiter does not indicate the source whence he drew his
-information respecting Montezuma’s orchestra including the fiddle, the
-assertion deserves scarcely a passing notice.
-
-The Peruvians possessed a stringed instrument, called _tinya_, which
-was provided with five or seven strings. To conjecture from the
-unsatisfactory account of it transmitted to us, the _tinya_ appears to
-have been a kind of guitar. Considering the fragility of the materials
-of which such instruments are generally constructed, it is perhaps not
-surprising that we do not meet with any specimens of them in the
-museums of American antiquities.
-
-A few remarks will not be out of place here referring to the musical
-performances of the ancient Indians, since an acquaintance with the
-nature of the performances is likely to afford additional assistance
-in appreciating the characteristics of the instruments. In Peru, where
-the military system was carefully organised, each division of the army
-had its trumpeters, called _cqueppacamayo_, and its drummers, called
-_huancarcamayo_. When the Inca returned with his troops victorious
-from battle his first act was to repair to the temple of the Sun in
-order to offer up thanksgiving; and after the conclusion of this
-ceremony the people celebrated the event with festivities, of which
-music and dancing constituted a principal part. Musical performances
-appear to have been considered indispensable on occasions of public
-celebrations; and frequent mention is made of them by historians who
-have described the festivals annually observed by the Peruvians.
-
-About the month of October the Peruvians celebrated a solemn feast in
-honour of the dead, at which ceremony they executed lugubrious songs
-and plaintive instrumental music. Compositions of a similar character
-were performed on occasion of the decease of a monarch. As soon as it
-was made known to the people that their Inca had been “called home to
-the mansions of his father the sun” they prepared to celebrate his
-obsequies with becoming solemnity. Prescott, in his graphic
-description of these observances, says: “At stated intervals, for a
-year, the people assembled to renew the expressions of their sorrow;
-processions were made displaying the banner of the departed monarch;
-bards and minstrels were appointed to chronicle his achievements, and
-their songs continued to be rehearsed at high festivals in the
-presence of the reigning monarch――thus stimulating the living by the
-glorious example of the dead.” The Peruvians had also particular
-agricultural songs, which they were in the habit of singing while
-engaged in tilling the lands of the Inca; a duty which devolved upon
-the whole nation. The subject of these songs, or rather hymns,
-referred especially to the noble deeds and glorious achievements of
-the Inca and his dynasty. While thus singing, the labourers regulated
-their work to the rhythm of the music, thereby ensuring a pleasant
-excitement and a stimulant in their occupation, like soldiers
-regulating their steps to the music of the military band. These hymns
-pleased the Spanish invaders so greatly that they not only adopted
-several of them but also composed some in a similar form and style.
-This appears, however, to have been the case rather with the poetry
-than with the music.
-
-The name of the Peruvian elegiac songs was _haravi_. Some tunes of
-these songs, pronounced to be genuine specimens, have been published
-in recent works; but their genuineness is questionable. At all events
-they must have been much tampered with, as they exhibit exactly the
-form of the Spanish _bolero_. Even allowing that the melodies of these
-compositions have been derived from Peruvian _harivaris_, it is
-impossible to determine with any degree of certainty how much in them
-has been retained of the original tunes, and how much has been
-supplied besides the harmony, which is entirely an addition of the
-European arranger. The Peruvians had minstrels, called _haravecs_
-(_i.e._, “inventors”), whose occupation it was to compose and to
-recite the _haravis_.
-
-The Mexicans possessed a class of songs which served as a record of
-historical events. Furthermore they had war-songs, love-songs, and
-other secular vocal compositions, as well as sacred chants, in the
-practice of which boys were instructed by the priests in order that
-they might assist in the musical performances of the temple. It
-appertained to the office of the priests to burn incense, and to
-perform music in the temple at stated times of the day. The
-commencement of the religious observances which took place regularly
-at sunrise, at mid-day, at sunset, and at midnight, was announced by
-signals blown on trumpets and pipes. Persons of high position retained
-in their service professional musicians whose duty it was to compose
-ballads, and to perform vocal music with instrumental accompaniment.
-The nobles themselves, and occasionally even the monarch, not
-infrequently delighted in composing ballads and odes.
-
-Especially to be noticed is the institution termed “Council of music,”
-which the wise monarch Nezahualcoyotl founded in Tezcuco. This
-institution was not intended exclusively for promoting the cultivation
-of music; its aim comprised the advancement of various arts, and of
-sciences such as history, astronomy, etc. In fact, it was an academy
-for general education. Probably no better evidence could be cited
-testifying to the remarkable intellectual attainments of the Mexican
-Indians before the discovery of America than this council of music.
-Although in some respects it appears to have resembled the board of
-music of the Chinese, it was planned on a more enlightened and more
-comprehensive principle. The Chinese “board of music,” called _Yoh
-Pu_, is an office connected with the _Li Pu_ or “board of rites,”
-established by the imperial government at Peking. The principal object
-of the board of rites is to regulate the ceremonies on occasions of
-sacrifices offered to the gods; of festivals and certain court
-solemnities; of military reviews; of presentations, congratulations,
-marriages, deaths, burials――in short, concerning almost every possible
-event in social and public life.
-
-The reader is probably aware that in one of the various hypotheses
-which have been advanced respecting the Asiatic origin of the American
-Indians China is assigned to them as their ancient home. Some
-historians suppose them to be emigrants from Mongolia, Thibet, or
-Hindustan; others maintain that they are the offspring of Phœnician
-colonists who settled in Central America. Even more curious are the
-arguments of certain inquirers who have no doubt whatever that the
-ancestors of the American Indians were the lost ten tribes of Israel,
-of whom since about the time of the Babylonian captivity history is
-silent. Whatever may be thought as to which particular one of these
-speculations hits the truth, they certainly have all proved useful, in
-so far as they have made ethnologists more exactly acquainted with the
-habits and predilections of the American aborigines than would
-otherwise have been the case. For, as the advocates of each hypothesis
-have carefully collected and adduced every evidence they were able to
-obtain tending to support their views, the result is that (so to say)
-no stone has been left unturned. Nevertheless, any such hints as
-suggest themselves from an examination of musical instruments have
-hitherto remained unheeded. It may therefore perhaps interest the
-reader to have his attention drawn to a few suggestive similarities
-occurring between instruments of the American Indians and of certain
-nations inhabiting the eastern hemisphere.
-
-We have seen that the Mexican pipe and the Peruvian syrinx were
-purposely constructed so as to produce the intervals of the pentatonic
-scale only. There are some additional indications of this scale having
-been at one time in use with the American Indians. For instance, the
-music of the Peruvian dance _cachua_ is described as having been very
-similar to some Scotch national dances; and the most conspicuous
-characteristics of the Scotch tunes are occasioned by the frequently
-exclusive employment of intervals appertaining to the pentatonic
-scale. We find precisely the same series of intervals adopted on
-certain Chinese instruments, and evidences are not wanting of the
-pentatonic scale having been popular among various races in Asia at a
-remote period. The series of intervals appertaining to the Chiriqui
-pipe, mentioned on p. 60, consisted of a semitone and two whole tones,
-like the _tetrachord_ of the ancient Greeks.
-
-In the Peruvian _huayra-puhura_ made of soapstone some of the pipes
-possess lateral holes. This contrivance, which is rather unusual,
-occurs on the Chinese _shêng_. The _chayna_, mentioned on p. 62, seems
-to have been provided with a reed, like the oboe: and in Hindustan we
-find a species of oboe called _shehna_. The _turé_ of the Indian
-tribes on the Amazon, mentioned on p. 67, reminds us of the trumpets
-_turi_, or _tuturi_, of the Hindus. The name appears to have been
-known also to the Arabs; but there is no indication whatever of its
-having been transmitted to the peninsula by the Moors, and afterwards
-to South America by the Portuguese and Spaniards.
-
-The wooden tongues in the drum _teponaztli_ may be considered as a
-contrivance exclusively of the ancient American Indians. Nevertheless
-a construction nearly akin to it may be observed in certain drums of
-the Tonga and Fiji islanders, and of the natives of some islands in
-Torres Strait. Likewise some negro tribes in Western and Central
-Africa have certain instruments of percussion which are constructed on
-a principle somewhat reminding us of the _teponaztli_. The method of
-bracing the drum by means of cords, as exhibited in the _huehuetl_ of
-the Mexican Indians, is evidently of very high antiquity in the East.
-It was known to the ancient Egyptians.
-
-Rattles, Pandean pipes made of reed, and conch trumpets, are found
-almost all over the world, wherever the materials of which they are
-constructed are easily obtainable. Still, it may be noteworthy that
-the Mexicans employed the conch trumpet in their religious observances
-apparently in much the same way as it is used in the Buddhist worship
-of the Tibetans and Kalmuks.
-
-As regards the sonorous metal in the great temple at Tezcuco some
-inquirers are sure that it was a gong: but it must be borne in mind
-that these inquirers detect everywhere traces proving an invasion of
-the Mongols, which they maintain to have happened about six hundred
-years ago. Had they been acquainted with the little Peruvian bell they
-would have had more tangible musical evidence in support of their
-theory than the supposed gong; for this bell certainly bears a
-suggestive resemblance to the little hand-bell which the Buddhists use
-in their religious ceremonies.
-
-The Peruvians interpolated certain songs, especially those which they
-were in the habit of singing while cultivating the fields, with the
-word _hailli_ which signified “Triumph.” As the subject of these
-compositions was principally the glorification of the Inca, the burden
-_hailli_ is perhaps all the more likely to remind Europeans of the
-Hebrew _hallelujah_. Moreover, Adair, who lived among the Indians of
-North America during a period of about forty years, speaks of some
-other words which he found used as burdens in hymns sung on solemn
-occasions, and which appeared to him to correspond with certain Hebrew
-words of a sacred import.
-
-As regards the musical accomplishments of the Indian tribes at the
-present day they are far below the standard which we have found among
-their ancestors. A period of three hundred years of oppression has
-evidently had the effect of subduing the melodious expressions of
-happiness and contentedness which in former times appear to have been
-quite as prevalent with the Indians as they generally are with
-independent and flourishing nations. The innate talent for music
-evinced by those of the North American Indians who were converted to
-Christianity soon after the emigration of the Puritans to New England
-is very favourably commented on by some old writers. In the year 1661
-John Elliot published a translation of the psalms into Indian verse.
-The singing of these metrical psalms by the Indian converts in their
-places of worship appears to have been actually superior to the sacred
-vocal performances of their Christian brethren from Europe; for we
-find it described by several witnesses as “excellent” and “most
-ravishing.”
-
-In other parts of America the priests from Spain did not neglect to
-turn to account the susceptibility of the Indians for music. Thus, in
-central America the Dominicans composed as early as in the middle of
-the sixteenth century a sacred poem in the Guatemalian dialect
-containing a narrative of the most important events recorded in the
-Bible. This production they sang to the natives, and to enhance the
-effect they accompanied the singing with musical instruments. The
-alluring music soon captivated the heart of a powerful cazique, who
-was thus induced to adopt the doctrines embodied in the composition,
-and to diffuse them among his subjects, who likewise delighted in the
-performances. In Peru a similar experiment, resorted to by the priests
-who accompanied Pizarro’s expedition, proved equally successful. They
-dramatised certain scenes in the life of Christ and represented them
-with music, which so greatly fascinated the Indians that many of them
-readily embraced the new faith. Nor are these entertainments dispensed
-with even at the present day by the Indian Christians, especially in
-the village churches of the Sierra in Peru; and as several religious
-ceremonies have been retained by these people from their heathen
-forefathers, it may be conjectured that their sacred musical
-performances also retain much of their ancient heathen character.
-
-Most of the musical instruments found among the American Indians at
-the present day are evidently genuine old Indian contrivances as they
-existed long before the discovery of America. Take, for example, the
-peculiarly-shaped rattles, drums, flutes, and whistles of the North
-American Indians, of which some specimens in the Museum are described
-in the large catalogue. A few African instruments, introduced by the
-negro slaves, are now occasionally found in the hands of the Indians,
-and have been by some travellers erroneously described as genuine
-Indian inventions. This is the case with the African _marimba_, which
-has become rather popular with the natives of Guatemala in central
-America; but such adaptations are very easily discernible.
-
-
-
-
-VII.
-
-EUROPEAN INSTRUMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
-
-
-Many representations of musical instruments of the middle ages have
-been preserved in manuscripts, as well as in sculptures and paintings
-forming ornamental portions of churches and other buildings. Valuable
-facts and hints are obtainable from these evidences, provided they are
-judiciously selected and carefully examined. The subject is, however,
-so large that only a few observations on the most interesting
-instruments can be offered here. Unfortunately there still prevails
-much uncertainty respecting several of the earliest representations as
-to the precise century from which they date, and there is reason to
-believe that in some instances the archæological zeal of musical
-investigators has assigned a higher antiquity to such discoveries than
-can be satisfactorily proved.
-
-It appears certain that the most ancient European instruments known to
-us were in form and construction more like the Asiatic than was the
-case with later ones. Before a nation has attained to a fairly high
-degree of civilisation its progress in the cultivation of music, as an
-art, is very slow indeed. The instruments found at the present day in
-Asia are scarcely superior to those which were in use among oriental
-nations about three thousand years ago. It is, therefore, perhaps not
-surprising that no material improvement is perceptible in the
-construction of the instruments of European countries during the lapse
-of nearly a thousand years. True, evidences to be relied on referring
-to the first five or six centuries of the Christian era are but
-scanty; although indications are not wanting which may help the
-reflecting musician.
-
-There are some early monuments of Christian art dating from the fourth
-century in which the lyre is represented. In one of them Christ is
-depicted as Apollo touching the lyre. This instrument occurs at an
-early period in western Europe as used in popular pastimes. In an
-Anglo-Saxon manuscript of the ninth century in the British Museum
-(Cleopatra C. VIII.) are the figures of two gleemen, one playing the
-lyre and the other a double-pipe. M. de Coussemaker has published in
-the “Annales Archéologiques” the figure of a crowned personage playing
-the lyre, which he found in a manuscript of the ninth or tenth century
-in the library at Angers. The player twangs the strings with his
-fingers, while the Anglo-Saxon gleeman before mentioned uses a
-plectrum.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 23.――CITHARA. From a 9th century MS. formerly
-                 in the monastery of St. Blasius in the Black Forest.]
-
-_Cithara_ was a name applied to several stringed instruments greatly
-varying in form, power of sound, and compass. The illustration (Fig.
-23) represents a cithara from a manuscript of the ninth century,
-formerly in the library of the great monastery of St. Blasius in the
-Black Forest. When in the year 1768 the monastery was destroyed by
-fire, this valuable book perished in the flames; fortunately the
-celebrated Abbot Gerbert possessed tracings of the illustrations,
-which were saved from destruction. He published them, in the year
-1774, in his work “De cantu et musica sacra.” As the older works on
-music were generally written in Latin we do not learn from them the
-popular names of the instruments; the writers merely adopted such
-Latin names as they thought the most appropriate. Thus, for instance,
-a very simple stringed instrument of a triangular shape, and a
-somewhat similar one of a square shape (Fig. 24), were designated by
-the name of _psalterium_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 24.――PSALTERIUM. From a MS. of the 9th century,
-                 formerly in the monastery of St. Blasius in the
-                 Black Forest.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 25.――CITHARA. From a MS. of the 9th century,
-                 formerly in the monastery of St. Blasius in the Black
-                 Forest.]
-
-The _cithara_ here illustrated (Fig. 25) is evidently an improvement
-upon the triangular psalterium (Fig. 26), because it has a sort of
-small sound-board at the top. Scarcely better, with regard to
-acoustics, appears to have been the instrument designated as _nablum_,
-which is engraved (Fig. 27) from a manuscript of the ninth century at
-Angers.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 26.――KING PLAYING PSALTERY. After an engraving
-                 in N. X. Willemin’s _Monuments Français Inédits_,
-                 Vol. I., pl. 19, taken from _Hortus Deliciarum_, a
-                 MS. of the 12th century.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 27.――NABLUM. From a 9th century MS. at Angers.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 28.――Female playing a species of CITOLE. From a
-                 9th century MS. formerly in the monastery of St.
-                 Blasius, in the Black Forest.]
-
-A small psalterium with strings placed over a sound-board was
-apparently the prototype of the _citole_, a kind of dulcimer which was
-played with the fingers (Fig. 28). The names were not only often
-vaguely applied by the mediæval writers, but they changed also in
-almost every century. The psalterium, or psalterion (Italian
-_salterio_, English _psaltery_), of the fourteenth century and later
-had the trapezium shape of the dulcimer.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 29.――HARP. From a 9th century MS. formerly in
-                 the monastery of St. Blasius in the Black Forest.]
-
-The Anglo-Saxons frequently accompanied their vocal effusions with a
-harp, more or less triangular in shape, an instrument which may be
-considered rather as constituting the transition of the lyre into the
-harp. The harp was especially popular in central and northern Europe,
-and was the favourite instrument of the German and Celtic bards and of
-the Scandinavian skalds. In the next illustration (Fig. 29) from the
-manuscript of the monastery of St. Blasius twelve strings and two
-sound-holes are given to it. A harp similar in form and size, but
-without the front pillar, was known to the ancient Egyptians. Perhaps
-the addition was also non-existent in the earliest specimens
-appertaining to European nations; and a sculptured figure of a small
-harp constructed like the ancient eastern harp has been discovered in
-the old church of Ullard in the county of Kilkenny. This curious
-relic, which is said to date from a period anterior to the year 800,
-is illustrated in Bunting’s “Ancient Music of Ireland.” As Bunting was
-the first who drew attention to this sculpture his account of it may
-interest the reader. “The drawing,” he says, “is taken from one of the
-ornamental compartments of a sculptured cross, at the old church of
-Ullard. From the style of the workmanship, as well as from the worn
-condition of the cross, it seems older than the similar monument at
-Monasterboice which is known to have been set up before the year 830.
-The sculpture is rude; the circular rim which binds the arms of the
-cross together is not pierced in the quadrants, and many of the
-figures originally in relievo are now wholly abraded. It is difficult
-to determine whether the number of strings represented is six or
-seven; but, as has been already remarked, accuracy in this respect
-cannot be expected either in sculptures or in many picturesque
-drawings.” The Finns had a harp (_harpu_, _kantele_) with a similar
-frame, devoid of a front pillar, still in use until the commencement
-of the last century.
-
-One of the most interesting stringed instruments of the middle ages is
-the _rotta_ (German, _Rotte_; English, _rote_). It was sounded by
-twanging the strings, and also by the application of the bow. The
-first method was, of course, the elder one. There can hardly be a
-doubt that when the bow came into use it was applied to certain
-popular instruments which previously had been treated like the
-_cithara_ or the _psalterium_. The Hindus at the present day use their
-_suroda_ sometimes as a lute and sometimes as a fiddle. In some
-measure we do the same with the violin by playing occasionally
-_pizzicato_. The rotta from the manuscript of St. Blasius is called in
-Gerbert’s work _cithara teutonica_, while the harp is called _cithara
-anglica_; from which it would appear that the former was regarded as
-pre-eminently a German instrument. Possibly its name may have been
-originally _chrotta_ and the continental nations may have adopted it
-from the Celtic races of the British isles, dropping the guttural
-sound. This hypothesis is, however, one of those which have been
-advanced by some musical historians without any satisfactory evidence.
-
-In the _rotta_ the ancient Asiatic lyre is easily to be recognized. An
-illumination of king David playing the _rotta_ forms the frontispiece
-of a manuscript of the eighth century preserved in the cathedral
-library of Durham; it is musically interesting inasmuch as it
-represents a _rotta_ of an oblong square shape like that just noticed
-and resembling the Welsh _crwth_. It has only five strings which the
-performer twangs with his fingers. Again, a very interesting
-representation of the Psalmist with a kind of _rotta_ occurs in a
-manuscript of the tenth century, in the British Museum (Vitellius
-F.XI.). The manuscript was much injured by a fire in the year 1731;
-but Professor Westwood has succeeded, with great care, and with the
-aid of a magnifying glass, in making out the lines of the figure. As
-it has been ascertained that the psalter is written in the Irish
-semiuncial character it is highly probable that the kind of _rotta_
-represents the Irish _cionar cruit_, which was played by twanging the
-strings and also by the application of a bow. Unfortunately we possess
-no well-authenticated representation of the Welsh _crwth_ of an early
-period; otherwise we should in all probability find it played with the
-fingers, or with a plectrum. Venantius Fortunatus, an Italian who
-lived in the second half of the sixth century, mentions in a poem the
-“Chrotta Britanna.” He does not, however, allude to the bow, and there
-is no reason to suppose that it existed in England. Howbeit, the Welsh
-_crwth_ (Anglo-Saxon, _crudh_; English, _crowd_) is only known as a
-species of fiddle closely resembling the _rotta_, but having a
-fingerboard in the middle of the open frame and being strung with only
-a few strings; while the _rotta_ had sometimes above twenty strings.
-As it may interest the reader to examine the form of the modern
-_crwth_ we give an illustration of it (Fig. 30). Edward Jones, in his
-“Musical and poetical relicks of the Welsh bards,” records that the
-Welsh had before this kind of _crwth_ a three-stringed one called
-“Crwth Trithant,” which was, he says, “a sort of violin, or more
-properly a rebeck.” The three-stringed _crwth_ was chiefly used by the
-inferior class of bards; and was probably the Moorish fiddle which is
-still the favourite instrument of the itinerant bards of the Bretons
-in France, who call it _rébek_. The Bretons, it will be remembered,
-are close kinsmen of the Welsh.
-
-A player on the _crwth_ or _crowd_ (a crowder) from a bas-relief on
-the under part of the seats of the choir in Worcester cathedral dates
-from the latter part of the fourteenth century.[5] It was probably
-identical with the _rotta_ of the same century on the continent.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 30.――CRWTH. Welsh. 13th century. L. 22 in.,
-                 W. 9½ in. No. 175-’82.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-An interesting drawing of an Anglo-Saxon fiddle――or _fithele_, as it
-was called――is given in a manuscript of the eleventh century in the
-British Museum (Cotton, Tiberius, c. 6). The instrument is of a pear
-shape, with four strings, and the bridge is not indicated. A German
-fiddle of the ninth century, called _lyra_, copied by Gerbert from the
-manuscripts of St. Blasius, has only one string. Other records of the
-employment of the fiddle-bow in Germany in the twelfth and thirteenth
-centuries are not wanting. For instance, in the famous “Nibelungenlied”
-Volker is described as wielding the fiddle-bow not less dexterously
-than the sword. And in “Chronicon picturatum Brunswicense” of the year
-1203, the following miraculous sign is recorded as having occurred in
-the village of Ossemer: “On Wednesday in Whitsunweek, while the parson
-was fiddling to his peasants who were dancing, there came a flash of
-lightning and struck the parson’s arm which held the fiddle-bow, and
-killed twenty-four people on the spot.”
-
-Among the oldest representations of performers on instruments of the
-violin kind found in England those deserve to be noticed which are
-painted on the interior of the roof of Peterborough Cathedral. They
-are said to date from the twelfth century. One of these figures is
-particularly interesting on account of the surprising resemblance
-which his instrument bears to our present violin. Not only the
-incurvations on the sides of the body but also the two sound-holes are
-nearly identical in shape with those made at the present day.
-Respecting the reliance to be placed on such evidence, it is necessary
-to state that the roof, originally constructed between the years 1177
-and 1194, was thoroughly repaired in the year 1835. Although we find
-it asserted that “the greatest care was taken to retain every part, or
-to restore it to its original state, so that the figures, even where
-retouched, are in effect the same as when first painted,” it
-nevertheless remains a debatable question whether the restorers have
-not admitted some slight alterations, and have thereby somewhat
-modernised the appearance of the instruments. A slight touch with the
-brush at the sound-holes, the screws, or the curvatures would suffice
-to produce modifications which might to the artist appear as being
-only a renovation of the original representation, but which to the
-musical investigator greatly impair the value of the evidence.
-Sculptures are, therefore, more to be relied upon in evidence than
-frescoes.
-
-
-
-
-VIII.
-
-EUROPEAN INSTRUMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. (_Continued._)
-
-
-The construction of the _organistrum_ (Fig. 31) requires but little
-explanation. A glance at the finger-board reveals at once that the
-different tones were obtained by raising the keys placed on the neck
-under the strings, and that the keys were raised by means of the
-handles at the side of the neck. Of the two bridges shown on the body,
-the one situated nearest the middle was formed by a wheel in the
-inside, which projected through the sound-board. The wheel which
-slightly touched the strings vibrated them by friction when turned by
-the handle at the end. The order of intervals was _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_,
-_g_, _a_, _b-flat_, _b-natural_, _c_, and were obtainable on the
-highest string. There is reason to suppose that the other two strings
-were generally tuned a fifth and an octave below the highest. The
-_organistrum_ may be regarded as the predecessor of the hurdy-gurdy,
-and was rather a cumbrous contrivance. Two persons seem to have been
-required to sound it, one to turn the handle and the other to manage
-the keys. Thus it is generally represented in mediæval concerts.
-
-The _monochord_ was mounted with a single string stretched over two
-bridges which were fixed on an oblong box. The string could be
-tightened or slackened by means of a turning screw inserted into one
-end of the box. The intervals of the scale were marked on the side,
-and were regulated by a sort of movable bridge placed beneath the
-string when required. As might be expected, the _monochord_ was
-chiefly used by theorists; for any musical performance it was but
-little suitable. About a thousand years ago when this monochord was in
-use the musical scale was diatonic, with the exception of the interval
-of the seventh, which was chromatic inasmuch as both _b-flat_ and
-_b-natural_ formed part of the scale.
-
-This ought to be borne in mind in examining the representations of
-musical instruments transmitted to us from that period.
-
-As regards the wind instruments popular during the Middle Ages, some
-were of quaint form as well as of rude construction.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 31.――ORGANISTRUM.]
-
-The _chorus_, or _choron_, had either one or two tubes. There were
-several varieties of this instrument; sometimes it was constructed
-with a bladder into which the tube is inserted; this kind of _chorus_
-resembled the bagpipe; another kind resembled the _pungi_ of the
-Hindus, mentioned on page 52. The name _chorus_ was also applied to
-certain stringed instruments. One of these had much the form of the
-_cithara_, page 84. It appears, however, probable that _chorus_ or
-_choron_ originally designated a horn (Hebrew, _keren_; Greek,
-_keras_; Latin, _cornu_).
-
-The flutes of the Middle Ages were blown at the end, like the
-flageolet. Of the _syrinx_ there are extant some illustrations of the
-ninth and tenth centuries, which exhibit the instrument with a number
-of tubes tied together, just like the Pandean pipe still in use. In
-one specimen,[6] from a manuscript of the eleventh century, the tubes
-were inserted into a bowl-shaped box. This is probably the _frestele_,
-_fretel_, or _fretian_, which in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
-was in favour with the French ménétriers.
-
-Some large Anglo-Saxon trumpets may be seen in a manuscript of the
-eighth century in the British Museum. The largest kind of trumpet was
-placed on a stand when blown. Of the _oliphant_, or hunting horn, some
-fine specimens are in the Victoria and Albert Museum collection. The
-_sackbut_ (Fig. 32), probably made of metal, could be drawn out to
-alter the pitch of sound. The sackbut of the ninth century had,
-however, a very different shape to that in use about three centuries
-ago, and much more resembled the present _trombone_. The name
-_sackbut_ is supposed to be a corruption of _sambuca_. The French,
-about the fifteenth century, called it _sacqueboute_ and _saquebutte_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 32.――SACKBUT.]
-
-The most important wind instrument――in fact, the king of all the
-musical instruments――is the organ.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 33.――ORGAN. From a 12th century psalter in the
-                 Library of Trinity College, Cambridge.]
-
-The _pneumatic organ_ is sculptured on the base of an obelisk which
-was erected in Constantinople under Theodosius the Great towards the
-end of the fourth century. The bellows were pressed by men standing on
-them. This interesting monument also exhibits performers on the double
-flute. The _hydraulic organ_, which is recorded to have been already
-known about two hundred years before the Christian era, was according
-to some statements occasionally employed in churches during the
-earlier centuries of the Middle Ages. Probably it was more frequently
-heard in secular entertainments, for which it was more suitable; and
-at the beginning of the fourteenth century it appears to have been
-entirely supplanted by the pneumatic organ. The earliest organs had
-only about a dozen pipes. The largest, which were made about nine
-hundred years ago, had only three octaves, in which the chromatic
-intervals did not occur. Some progress in the construction of the
-organ is shewn in a psalter of Eadwine, in the library of Trinity
-College, Cambridge (Fig. 33). The instrument has ten pipes, or perhaps
-fourteen, as four of them appear to be double pipes. It required four
-men exerting all their power to produce the necessary wind, and two
-men to play the instrument. Moreover, both players seem also to be
-busily engaged in directing the blowers about the proper supply of
-wind. Six men and only fourteen pipes!
-
-Another illustration is given of an organ of the 14th century (Fig.
-34).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 34.――ORGAN (Grand Orgue), after an engraving in
-                 N. X. Willemin’s _Monuments Français Inédits_, Vol.
-                 I., pl. 133, taken from a psalter of the 14th
-                 century.]
-
-The pedal is generally believed to have been invented by Bernhard, a
-German, who lived in Venice about the year 1470. There are, however,
-indications extant pointing to an earlier date of its invention.
-Perhaps Bernhard was the first who, by adopting a more practicable
-construction, made the pedal more generally known. On the earliest
-organs the keys of the finger-board were of enormous size, compared
-with those of the present day; so that a finger-board with only nine
-keys had a breadth of from four to five feet. The organist struck the
-keys down with his fist, as is done in playing the _carillon_ still in
-use on the Continent, of which presently some account will be given.
-
-Of the little portable organ, known as the _regal_ or _regals_, often
-tastefully shaped and embellished, some interesting sculptured
-representations are still extant in the old ecclesiastical edifices of
-England and Scotland. There is, for instance, in Beverley Minster a
-figure of a man playing on a single regal, or a regal provided with
-only one set of pipes; and in Melrose Abbey the figure of an angel
-holding in his arms a double regal, the pipes of which are in two
-sets. The regal generally had keys like those of the organ but
-smaller. A painting in the National Gallery, attributed to Melozzo da
-Forlì (1438-1494) contains a regal which has keys of a peculiar shape,
-rather resembling the pistons of certain brass instruments. (Fig. 1,
-_Frontispiece_.) To avoid misapprehension, it is necessary to mention
-that the name _regal_ (or _regals_, _rigols_) was also applied to an
-instrument of percussion with sonorous slabs of wood. This contrivance
-was, in short, a kind of harmonica, resembling in shape as well as in
-the principle of its construction the little glass harmonica, a mere
-toy, in which slips of glass are arranged according to our musical
-scale. In England it appears to have been still known in the beginning
-of the eighteenth century. Grassineau describes the “Rigols” as “a
-kind of musical instrument consisting of several sticks bound
-together, only separated by beads. It makes a tolerable harmony, being
-well struck with a ball at the end of a stick.” In the earlier
-centuries of the Middle Ages there appear to have been some
-instruments of percussion in favour, to which Grassineau’s expression
-“a tolerable harmony” would scarcely have been applicable. Drums, of
-course, were known; and their rhythmical noise must have been soft
-music, compared with the shrill sounds of the _cymbalum_ (a
-contrivance consisting of a number of metal plates suspended on cords,
-so that they would be clashed together simultaneously) or with the
-clangour of the _cymbalum_ constructed with bells instead of plates;
-or with the piercing noise of the _bunibulum_, or _bombulom_; an
-instrument which consisted of an angular frame to which were loosely
-attached metal plates of various shapes and sizes. The lower part of
-the frame constituted the handle; and to produce the noise it
-evidently was shaken somewhat like the sistrum of the ancient
-Egyptians.[7]
-
-The _triangle_ nearly resembled the instrument of this name in use at
-the present day; it was more elegant in shape and had some metal
-ornamentation in the middle.
-
-The _tintinnabulum_ consisted of a number of bells arranged in regular
-order and suspended in a frame.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 35.――BAS RELIEF, representing a group of
-                 Musicians, formerly at the Abbey of St. Georges de
-                 Boscherville. Late 11th century(?). After an
-                 engraving in N.N. Willemin’s _Monuments Français
-                 Inédits_, Vol. I., pl. 52.
-                 Museum of Rouen.]
-
-
-
-
-IX.
-
-EUROPEAN INSTRUMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. (_Continued_).
-
-
-Respecting the orchestras, or musical bands, represented on monuments
-of the Middle Ages, there can hardly be a doubt that the artists who
-sculptured them were not unfrequently led by their imagination rather
-than by an adherence to actual fact. It is, however, not likely that
-they introduced into such representations instruments that were never
-admitted in the orchestras, and which would have appeared
-inappropriate to the contemporaries of the artists. An examination of
-one or two of the orchestras may therefore find a place here,
-especially as they throw some additional light upon the characteristics
-of the instrumental music of mediæval time.
-
-A very interesting group of music performers, dating, it is said, from
-the end of the eleventh century, is preserved in a bas-relief which
-formerly ornamented the abbey of St. Georges de Boscherville and which
-is now removed to the museum of Rouen (Fig. 35). The orchestra
-comprises twelve performers, most of whom wear a crown. The first of
-them plays upon a viol, which he holds between his knees as the
-violoncello is held. His instrument is scarcely as large as the
-smallest viola da gamba. By his side are a royal lady and her
-attendant, the former playing on an _organistrum_ of which the latter
-is turning the wheel. Next to these is represented a performer on a
-_syrinx_; and next to him a performer on a stringed instrument
-resembling a lute, which, however, is too much dilapidated to be
-recognisable. Then we have a musician with a small stringed instrument
-resembling the _nablum_ (_see_ p. 86). The next musician, also
-represented as a royal personage, plays on a small species of harp.
-Then follows a crowned musician playing the _viol_ which he holds in
-almost precisely the same manner as the violin is held. Again,
-another, likewise crowned, plays upon a harp, using with the right
-hand a plectrum and with the left hand merely his fingers. The last
-two performers, apparently a gentleman and a gentlewoman, are engaged
-in striking the _tintinnabulum_――a set of bells in a frame.
-
-In this group of crowned minstrels the sculptor has introduced a
-tumbler standing on his head, perhaps the vocalist of the company, as
-he has no instrument to play upon. Possibly the sculptor desired to
-symbolise the hilarious effects which music is capable of producing,
-as well as its elevating influence upon the devotional feelings.
-
-The two positions in which we find the _viol_ held is worthy of
-notice, inasmuch as it refers the inquirer further back than might be
-expected for the origin of our peculiar method of holding the violin,
-and the violoncello, in playing. There were several kinds of the
-_viol_ in use, differing in size and in compass of sound. The most
-common number of strings was five, and it was tuned in various ways.
-One kind had a string tuned to the note [Music: Bass clef, quarter
-note D] running at the side of the finger-board instead of over it;
-this string was, therefore, only capable of producing a single tone.
-The four other strings were tuned thus: [Music: Bass clef, quarter
-notes G (low) G (high) Treble clef, quarter notes D (low) D (low)] Two
-other species, on which all the strings were placed over the
-finger-board, were tuned: [Music: Bass clef, quarter notes D G (low) G
-(high) Treble clef, quarter notes D (low) G] and: [Music: Bass clef,
-quarter notes G (low) C G (high) Treble clef, quarter notes D (low) G]
-A very beautiful _vielle_ is represented in Fig. 36. It is of French
-workmanship of about 1550, with monograms of Henri II., and is
-preserved in the Museum.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 36.――HURDY-GURDY (Vielle). With arms of France
-                 and crowned monogram of Henry II. on back and front.
-                 Near the handle are monograms of Catherine de
-                 Médicis. About 1550. L. 22½ in., W. 8¼ in. No.
-                 220-’66.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 37.――TYMPANUM of the Glory Gate of the Cathedral
-                 of Santiago de Compostella. Dated 1188.
-                 From a plaster cast in the Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-The contrivance of placing a string or two at the side of the
-finger-board is evidently very old, and was also gradually adopted on
-other instruments of the violin class of a somewhat later period than
-that of the _vielle_; for instance, on the _lira di braccio_ of the
-Italians. It was likewise adopted on the lute, to obtain a fuller
-power in the bass; and hence arose the _theorbo_, the _archlute_, and
-other varieties of the old lute.
-
-A grand assemblage of musical performers is represented on the Portico
-della Gloria of the famous pilgrimage church of Santiago de
-Compostella, in Spain. This triple portal, which is stated by an
-inscription on the lintel to have been executed in the year 1188,
-consists of a large semi-circular arch with a smaller arch on either
-side. The central arch is filled by a tympanum, round which are
-twenty-four life-sized seated figures, in high relief, representing
-the twenty-four elders seen by St. John in the Apocalypse, each with
-an instrument of music. These instruments are carefully represented,
-and are of great interest as showing those in use in Spain about the
-twelfth century. A cast of this sculpture is in the Museum (Fig. 37).
-
-In examining the group of musicians on this sculpture the reader will
-probably recognise several instruments in their hands which are
-identical with those already described in the preceding pages. The
-_organistrum_, played by two persons, is placed in the centre of the
-group, perhaps owing to its being the largest of the instruments
-rather than that it was distinguished by any superiority in sound or
-musical effect. Besides the small harp seen in the hands of the eighth
-and nineteenth musicians (in form nearly identical with the
-Anglo-Saxon harp) we find a small triangular harp, without a
-front-pillar, held on the lap by the fifth and eighteenth musicians.
-The _salterio_ on the lap of the tenth and seventeenth musicians
-resembles the dulcimer, but seems to be played with the fingers
-instead of with hammers. The most interesting instrument in this
-orchestra is the _vihuela_, or Spanish viol, of the twelfth century.
-The first, second, third, sixth, seventh, ninth, twentieth,
-twenty-second, twenty-third, and twenty-fourth musicians are depicted
-with a _vihuela_ which bears a close resemblance to the _rebec_. The
-instrument is represented with three strings, although in one or two
-instances five tuning-pegs are indicated. A large species of _vihuela_
-is given to the eleventh, fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth
-musicians. This instrument differs from the _rebec_ in so far as its
-body is broader and has incurvations at the sides. Also the
-sound-holes are different in form and position. The bow does not occur
-with any of these viols. But, as will be observed, the musicians are
-not represented in the act of playing; they are tuning and preparing
-for the performance, and the second of them is adjusting the bridge of
-his instrument.
-
-The minstrel gallery of Exeter Cathedral (Fig. 38) dates from the
-fourteenth century. The front is divided into twelve niches, each of
-which contains a winged figure or an angel playing on an instrument of
-music. There is a cast also of this famous sculpture at South
-Kensington. The instruments are so much dilapidated that some of them
-cannot be clearly recognised; but, as far as may be ascertained, they
-appear to be as follows:――(1) The _lute_ or possibly _cittern_; (2)
-the _bagpipe_; (3) the _clarion_ or the _shalm_; (4) the _rebec_; (5)
-the _psaltery_ or the _harp_; (6) the _jew’s harp_ (?); (7) the
-_sackbut_ or the _clarion_; (8) the _regals_; (9) the _gittern_, a
-small guitar strung with catgut; (10) the _shalm_ (?); (11) the
-_timbrel_, resembling our present tambourine, with a double row of
-gingles; (12) _cymbals_. Most of these instruments have been already
-noticed in the preceding pages. The _shalm_, or _shawm_, was a pipe
-with a reed in the mouth-hole. The _wait_ was an English wind
-instrument of the same construction. If it differed in any respect
-from the _shalm_, the difference consisted probably in the size only.
-The _wait_ obtained its name from being used principally by watchmen,
-or _waights_, to proclaim the time of night. Such were the poor
-ancestors of our fine oboe and clarinet.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG 38.――MINSTREL GALLERY, Exeter Cathedral. 14th
-                century.
-                From a plaster cast in the Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-
-
-
-X.
-
-POST-MEDIÆVAL INSTRUMENTS.
-
-
-Attention must now be drawn to some instruments which originated
-during the Middle Ages, but which attained their highest popularity at
-a somewhat later period.
-
-About 300 years ago the _lute_ (Fig. 39) was almost as popular as is
-the pianoforte at the present day. Originally it had eight thin catgut
-strings arranged in four pairs, each pair being tuned in unison; so
-that its open strings produced four tones; but in the course of time
-more strings were added. Until the sixteenth century twelve was the
-largest number, or rather, six pairs. Eleven appears for some
-centuries to have been the most usual number of strings; these
-produced six tones, since they were arranged in five pairs and a
-single string. The latter, called the _chanterelle_, was the highest.
-According to Thomas Mace, the English lute in common use during the
-seventeenth century had twenty-four strings, arranged in twelve pairs,
-of which six pairs ran over the finger-board and the other six by the
-side of it. This lute was therefore, more properly speaking, a
-theorbo. The neck of the lute, and also of the theorbo, had frets
-consisting of catgut strings tightly fastened round it at the proper
-distances required for ensuring a chromatic succession of intervals.
-The illustration (Fig. 40) represents a lute-player of the late
-fifteenth century. The order of tones adopted for the open strings
-varied in different centuries and countries; and this was also the
-case with the notation of lute music. The most common practice was to
-write the music on six lines, the upper line representing the first
-string; the second line, the second string, etc., and to mark with
-letters on the lines the frets at which the fingers ought to be
-placed――_a_ indicating the open string, _b_ the first fret, _c_ the
-second fret, and so on.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 39.――LUTE. Italian (Venetian). Beginning of 17th
-                 century. L. 32½ in., W. 12 in. No. 1125-’69.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 40.――Angel playing a Lute, after an oil painting
-                 by Ambrogio da Predis. Late 15th century.
-                 National Gallery.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 41.――ARCHLUTE. Inscribed “Rauche in Chandos
-                 Street, London, 1762.” L. 49½ in., W. 14½ in.
-                 No. 9-’71.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-The lute was made of various sizes, according to the purpose for which
-it was intended in performance. The treble-lute was of the smallest
-dimensions, and the bass-lute of the largest. The _theorbo_, or
-double-necked lute which appears to have come into use during the
-sixteenth century, had in addition to the strings situated over the
-finger-board a number of others running at the left side of the
-finger-board which could not be shortened by the fingers, and which
-produced the bass tones.
-
-The _archlute_ is a large theorbo with a peculiar arrangement of the
-strings (Fig. 41). Several of them were doubled, the additional string
-being tuned an octave higher than the other. The process of tuning
-such instruments was evidently troublesome and tedious. Mattheson, the
-quaint contemporary of Handel, in his “Das Neu-eröffnete Orchestre,”
-Hamburg, 1713, remarks:――“If a lutenist attains the age of eighty, you
-may be sure he has tuned sixty years; and the worst of it is that
-among a hundred players, especially of the amateurs, scarcely two are
-capable of tuning with accuracy. Now there is something amiss with the
-strings; now with the frets; and now again with the screws; so that I
-have been told that in Paris it costs as much money to keep a lute as
-to keep a horse.” Also Mace, an enthusiastic admirer of the lute,
-testifies to the difficulty of keeping the instrument in proper
-condition; for his treatise on the lute and theorbo (contained in
-“Musick’s Monument,” London, 1676) is replete with rules for
-stringing, tuning, cleaning, repairing, etc. And, as regards
-preserving the instrument, he gives the advice――“You shall do well,
-ever when you lay it by in the day-time, to put it into a bed that is
-constantly used, between the rug and blanket.”
-
-The _chitarrone_ is a theorbo with an extraordinarily long neck, by
-which the length of the eight bass strings is considerably increased
-(Fig. 42). The largest instruments of this kind were made some
-centuries ago, in Rome. They were used in the theatre for accompanying
-the voice, before the Clavicembalo, or Harpsichord, was introduced for
-this purpose. The finest instruments of the lute kind were made in
-Italy, especially at Bologna, Rome, Venice, and Padua. Many of the
-manufacturers in Italy were, however, foreigners. Evelyn, in his Diary
-(May 21, 1645), speaking of Bologna, says, “This place has also been
-celebrated for lutes made by the old masters, Mollen [Maler ?], Hans
-Frey, and Nicholas Sconvelt, which were of extraordinary price; the
-workmen were chiefly Germans.” One of the earliest and most celebrated
-of these makers was Lucas Maler (or “Laux Maler” as he inscribed his
-name on his instruments). He lived at Bologna about 1415.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 42.――CHITARRONE. Italian. Made by Buchenberg in
-                 Rome, anno 1614. L. 74 in. No. 190-’82.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-Other celebrated lute-makers[8] were:――
-
-  Ludwig Porgt, Regensburg, 1525.
-  Hanns Gerle, Nuremberg, b. about 1505, d. 1599.
-  Hans Neusedler, Nuremberg, d. 1563.
-  Sebastian Rauser, Verona, working about 1590 to 1605.
-  Mattheus Buchenberg, Rome, working about 1592-1619.
-  Hanns Fichtholdt, Ingoldstadt (?), about 1612; his lutes, the backs
-    of which are made with narrow strips of wood, in the Italian manner,
-    were formerly much prized by connoisseurs.
-  Paolo Belami, Paris, about 1612, probably an Italian. His lutes were
-    highly valued.
-  Joachim Tielke, Hamburg, b. 1641, d. 1719.
-  Antonio Castaro, Rome, about 1615.
-  Christofilo Rochi, Padua, about 1620.
-  Sebastian Rochi, Venice, about 1620.
-  Clays von Pommersbach, Cologne, probably during the sixteenth
-    century.
-  Magnus Tieffenbrucker, Venice, latter half of seventeenth century.
-  Wendelin Tieffenbrucker, Padua, working about 1572-1611, and
-    Leonhard Tieffenbrucker, Padua (?), during the sixteenth century;
-    their lutes were rather flat and long in body.
-  Michael Hartung, Padua, working about 1602 to 1624; he was a pupil
-    of Leonhard Tieffenbrucker.
-  Raphael Mest, Füssen, working about 1610 to 1650; said to have been
-    pupil of Michael Hartung.
-  Johann Christian Hoffmann, Leipzig, working about 1710 to 1750; his
-    lutes were exported to Holland and England.
-  Martin Schott, Prague, latter half of seventeenth century.
-  Sebastian Rauch, Prague, working about 1700 to 1724.
-  Matthias Hummel, Nuremberg, end of seventeenth century.
-  Sebastian Schelle, Nuremberg, working about 1700 to 1745; his lutes
-    were much valued, not only in Germany, but also in other European
-    countries.
-
-There used to be in Italy various kinds of mandolines, of which the
-Milanese and the Neapolitan were the most common. The first-named had
-usually ten strings, constituting five pairs. The Neapolitan
-_mandolino_ had eight strings, constituting four pairs. The strings
-were usually twanged with a quill. Mozart, in his “Don Giovanni,” has
-made use of the Neapolitan _mandolino_ in the serenade; but, as the
-instrument has fallen into disuse, at least in most countries except
-Italy, the part written for it by Mozart is now generally played on
-the violin, _pizzicato_. The _mandolino_ is now often strung with
-catgut strings. It resembles a diminutive lute; but its fingerboard
-has metal frets, and its strings are fastened to little ivory pins at
-the end of the body, instead of being looped through holes in the
-bridge. The convex back of the mandoline is deeper than that of the
-lute. It is one of the handsomest musical instruments.
-
-Besides the mandoline the Italians had various instruments in shape
-resembling the lute. Of this description are, for instance, the
-_mandora_, _mandorina_, and the _pandurina_. The mandoline differs
-from the pandurina chiefly in having a rounder and deeper body, and in
-having the tuning-pegs placed at the back of the head; while the
-_pandurina_ has a sort of scroll, with the tuning-pegs situated
-sideways, similar to the old English cither (Fig. 43). The _mandora_
-had usually for each tone two strings, which were of catgut and wire;
-and there were eight pairs of them. The _mandorina_ had four wire
-strings.
-
-The _guitar_ (Fig. 44) is evidently an importation from the East, but
-it has undergone various modifications since its adoption by European
-nations. It was an instrument of the Moors in Spain, and became known
-in France about the 11th century. The French called it formerly
-_guiterne_, and the English _gittern_, _ghittern_, and _gythorn_. At
-the time of Henry VIII. we find it occasionally called “the Spanish
-viol.” At an early period it probably had the oval shape of the
-_kuitra_, still in use by the Arab musicians in Tunis and Algiers. In
-Spain it had formerly also the name of _vihuela_.
-
-Instruction books for the old Spanish guitar have been written
-by:――Ludovico Milan, Valencia, 1534; Sixtus Kargel, Mayence, 1569;
-Joannes Carolus, Lerida, 1626; Pietro Milioni, Rome, 1638; Lucas Ruiz
-de Ribayaz, Madrid, 1672, etc. The number of guitar manuals published
-during the 18th century is enormous. Germany alone contributed above
-fifty.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 43.――PANDURINA. On the back is carved a group
-                 consisting of Juno, Minerva and Venus. French. Second
-                 half of 16th century. L. 16½ in., W. 4½ in. No.
-                 219-’66.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 44.――GUITAR. French (?). 17th century. L.
-                 40⅜in., W. 11⅞ in. No. 676-’72.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 45.――QUINTERNA, OR CHITERNA. Inscribed “Joachim
-                 Tielke in Hamburg, 1539,” but of later date. L. 25½
-                 in., W. 9⅜ in. No. 1122-’69.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 46.――CITHER. German. End of 17th century. L. 31½
-                 in. No. 219-’82.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-The guitar was a fashionable instrument in England, played by ladies,
-in the time of Charles II. On the Continent it generally had ten
-catgut strings, of which two were always tuned in unison. At the
-present day it has six strings, the two of which are of silk covered
-with silver wire, and the others are of catgut.
-
-A species of guitar is the _quinterna_, or _chiterna_, somewhat
-resembling a violin in shape (Fig. 45). It was used about two
-centuries ago, especially in Italy, by the lower orders of musicians
-and comedians for accompanying their vocal performances. It was played
-with the fingers instead of a plectrum.
-
-The _cithern_, _cittern_, or _cither_ (Fig. 46), which during the
-sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was a popular instrument in
-England, where it was often played in the barbers’ shops, had four
-pairs of wire strings.
-
-Its top generally terminated in a grotesquely-carved human head. The
-cithers made in England during the eighteenth century have generally
-at the top some inlaid ornamentation in ivory, mother-of-pearl, or
-fancy wood.
-
-Although not well suited for the performance of harmonious
-combinations, since its wire strings are twanged with a quill, and
-therefore only such chords can be properly produced as are on strings
-following each other in uninterrupted succession, the cither,
-nevertheless, possesses considerable charms.
-
-There are several conjectures as to the derivation of the German name
-_zither_ or _zitter_. Some suppose it to be from “_zittern_,” on
-account of the peculiarly trembling sound of the instrument. During
-the first centuries of the Christian era the word _cythera_
-(_cithara_) implied almost any stringed instrument, especially if the
-strings were twanged with a plectrum, or with the fingers. It is also
-noteworthy, though perhaps only as a singular coincidence, that the
-Persians and Hindus have a three-stringed species of _zither_, which
-they call _sitar_, from the Persian word _si_, “three,” and _tar_, “a
-string.” The Hindu _sitar_ is, however, now usually mounted with five
-strings.
-
-The _harp-guitar_ and _harp-theorbo_ (Fig. 47) were manufactured in
-England with the intention of improving the sound of the guitar and
-theorbo by adopting for them the body of the harp.
-
-There was also another invention of this kind, called the _harp-lute_.
-
-The _harp-ventura_ (Fig. 48) was invented at the beginning of the last
-century by Signor Angelo Benedetto Ventura, professor of music, and
-teacher of the guitar and harp-lute to the Princess Charlotte of
-Wales. The example given has a back of satin wood, and sides of turtle
-shell; the belly and pillar are painted and gilt. It has nineteen
-catgut strings, six of which are covered with wire.
-
-The _banduria_ (Fig. 49) a lyre-shaped guitar, was often strung with
-wire instead of catgut, and played with a plectrum generally made of
-tortoise-shell. The specimen illustrated is made of various woods, has
-three sound-holes, a machine head, and twelve catgut strings tuned in
-pairs.
-
-The Spanish peasants call their rustic guitar _vihuela_; and it
-appears probable that the “gittrons that are called Spanish vialls,”
-mentioned in the list of musical instruments of Henry VIII. (Harl.
-MSS. 1419, p. 202) were small guitars of this description.
-
-The Irish harp (_clarseth_) illustrated in Fig. 50, belonged formerly
-to a celebrated Irish harper. A similar one, which is in the
-possession of the Marquess of Kildare, bears the date 1671.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 47. HARP THEORBO. Made by Harley. English. About
-                 1800. L. 36 in. No. 250-’82.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 48.――HARP VENTURA. So-called from the inventor,
-                 Signor Ventura. English. Early 19th century. L. 33
-                 in. No. 248-’82.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 49.――BANDURIA. English. Early 19th century. L.
-                 22¼ in. No. 227-’82.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 50.――HARP. Old Irish. H. 52 in., W. 43 in. No.
-                 616-’72.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-Considering the scarcity of the old Irish _clarseth_, mention may be
-made of a fine specimen formerly in the collection of Irish
-antiquities belonging to Thomas Crofton Croker, from which it was
-purchased, in the year 1854, at an auction in London, by Thomas
-Bateman, Esq. It bears on its front the inscription, _Made by John
-Kelly for the Rev. Charles Bunworth Baltdaniel, 1734_. At the
-contentions or meetings of the bards of Ireland, between the years
-1730 and 1750, which were generally held at Bruree, county Limerick,
-the Rev. Charles Bunworth was five times chosen umpire, or president.
-Although this harp is not of high antiquity, it is an interesting
-example of the ancient form and construction, and likewise of the
-ancient manner of ornamenting the instrument. A wood engraving of it,
-from a drawing by Maclise, is given in “A Descriptive Catalogue of the
-Antiquities and Miscellaneous Objects preserved in the Museum of
-Thomas Bateman, at Lomberdale House, Derbyshire,” Bakewell, 1855. An
-account of the Irish harps deposited in the Museum of Dublin is to be
-found in “A Descriptive Catalogue of the Antiquities in the Museum of
-the Royal Irish Academy,” by W. R. Wilde, Dublin, 1863. The
-illustrations of the Irish harp in the works of Bunting and similar
-writers may be supposed to be known to musicians.
-
-The number of strings appears to have been greater on the older
-specimens recorded than on the later ones. Prætorius, in his “Syntagma
-musicum,” etc., vol. ii., Wolfenbüttel, 1619, gives an illustration of
-the Irish harp, in which it is represented with forty-three strings.
-He describes the instrument as having a pleasant resonance, and being
-constructed with a considerable degree of ingenuity. The illustration
-exhibits the same shape, with the fore-bar bent outwards, which is
-shown in the present specimen.
-
-Some harps after the model of the old Irish _clarseth_, which are
-painted and gilt, were made in Dublin in the beginning of the last
-century.
-
-The small harp of the middle ages of Central and Western Europe,
-depicted in old sculptures and paintings, generally exhibits the
-front-bar of its frame somewhat bent outwardly, much as is the case
-with the Irish _clarseth_. Gradually the number of its strings was
-increased; and, likewise the strength of the frame for resisting the
-tension of the strings. The front-bar of our harp is straight, or a
-front-pillar. Until the seventeenth century only the diatonic series
-of intervals was properly obtainable on the instrument. The performer
-had, however, a method of producing occasionally a semitone by
-pressing the finger against the string towards the end, much in the
-same manner in which the Burmese produce chromatic intervals on the
-_soung_. Towards the end of the seventeenth century the Tyrolian harp
-makers adopted little plates with hooks, which could be moved so as to
-press upon the strings, and thereby shorten them, for the production
-of the semitones, more rapidly and unerringly than could be done by
-the fingers. A French harp of the period of Louis XVI. is illustrated
-(Fig. 51). It is carved and gilt in the style of Gouthière, and
-decorated with oak foliage and acorns; at the top of the pillar is a
-figure of a Cupid.
-
-Students who examine the old instruments above described will probably
-wish to know something about their quality of tone. “How do they
-sound? Might they still be made effective in our present state of the
-art?” are questions which naturally occur to the musical inquirer
-having such instruments brought before him. A few words bearing on
-these questions may therefore not be out of place here.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 51.――HARP. French. About 1770. H. 63 in., W. 30
-                 in. No. 4087-’57.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 52.――VIOLIN. Said to have belonged to James I.
-                 English. Early 17th century. L. 23¼ in., W. 8 in. No.
-                 34-’69.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 53.――Angel playing a Viol, after an oil painting
-                 by Ambrogio da Predis. Late 15th century.
-                 National Gallery.]
-
-It is generally and justly admitted that in no other branch of the art
-of music has greater progress been made during the last century than
-in the construction of musical instruments. Nevertheless, there are
-people who think that we have also lost something here which might
-with advantage be restored. Our various instruments by being more and
-more perfected are becoming too much alike in quality of sound, or in
-that character of tone which the French call _timbre_, and the Germans
-_Klangfarbe_, and which professor Tyndall in his lectures on sound has
-translated _clang-tint_. Every musical composer knows how much more
-suitable one _clang-tint_ is for the expression of a certain emotion
-than another. Our old instruments, imperfect though they were in many
-respects, possessed this variety of _clang-tint_ to a high degree.
-Neither were they on this account less capable of expression than the
-modern ones. That no improvement has been made during the last two
-centuries in instruments of the violin class is a well-known fact. As
-to lutes and cithers the collection at South Kensington contains
-specimens so rich and mellow in tone as to cause musicians to regret
-that these instruments have entirely fallen into oblivion.
-
-As regards beauty of appearance our earlier instruments were certainly
-superior to the modern. Indeed, we have now scarcely a musical
-instrument which can be called beautiful. The old lutes, cithers,
-viols, dulcimers, etc., are not only elegant in shape but are also
-often tastefully ornamented with carvings, designs in marquetry, and
-painting.
-
-Of the stringed instruments used in our orchestra, the _violin_ (Fig.
-52) is the one which has been longest preserved entirely unaltered.
-Its name (Italian, _violino_), a diminutive of _viola_, suggests that
-our _tenor_ (_viola di braccio_) is the older instrument of the two.
-The _viol_ (Fig. 53, facing p. 104) in use about three centuries ago,
-was however somewhat different in shape. As the oldest-known
-instruments played with a bow, which in European countries preceded
-the violin, may be mentioned:――The _rebec_, which, it appears, was
-first popular in Spain; the _crwth_ of the Welsh; the _fidla_ of the
-Norwegian, which, in shape somewhat resembled the _crwth_, and which,
-with some slight modifications, is still occasionally to be found in
-Iceland, where it is called _langspiel_; and the _fithele_ of the
-Anglo-Saxons.
-
-Such were the instruments from which our violin has gradually been
-developed, until it attained, in the seventeenth century, that degree
-of perfection which has never since been surpassed. The violin makers
-whose instruments are still most highly valued are:――Antonio Amati,
-whose most flourishing period dates between the years 1592 and 1619;
-Nicolo Amati, the nephew of the preceding, 1662-1692; Giuseppe
-Guarneri, 1690-1707; Antonio Stradivari, 1700-1725; and Jakob Stainer,
-1650-1670. All these celebrated makers, except Jakob Stainer, were
-Italians, living at Cremona. Jakob Stainer (or Jacobus Steiner) was a
-native of Absam, a village near Innsbruck in the Tyrol. Few musical
-instruments have experienced so great an increase in price as the
-violins of these celebrated makers. Stainer used himself to carry his
-violins to the monasteries situated in the neighbourhood of Absam,
-where he lived. He sold them at 40 florins apiece. It was not until
-after his death that his workmanship was duly appreciated.
-
-The _viola da gamba_ (French, _basse de viole_; German, _Kniegeige_)
-derives its name from its being held between the knees of the
-performer (Figs. 54 and 55). It was the predecessor of the
-violoncello, and was made with frets. It was a favourite instrument in
-England at the time of Queen Elizabeth, and even ladies played it
-occasionally. In England it was called _base viol_, and also
-_viol-de-gambo_. Sir Toby Belch, in Shakespeare’s “Twelfth Night,”
-says of Sir Andrew Aguecheek:――
-
-“He plays o’ the viol-de-gamboys, and speaks three or four languages
-word for word without book, and hath all the good gifts of nature.”
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 54.――VIOLA DA GAMBA. Italian. About 1600. H. 48
-                 in., W. 14 in. No. 7360-’61.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 55.――VIOLA DA GAMBA. Italian. 17th century. L.
-                 47¼ in. No. 168-’82.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 56.――VIOLA DI BARDONE, OR BARYTON, WITH BOW.
-                 Inscribed “Jaques Sainprae, à Berlin.” German. 17th
-                 century. L. 54 in., W. 16½ in. No. 1444, 1444ᵃ-’70.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-Among the English public performers on the _viola da gamba_ are
-recorded a Mrs. Sarah Ottey, in the year 1723, and a Miss Ford in
-1760. Carl Friedrich Abel, a German, who lived in London during the
-latter half of the eighteenth century, was the last performer of
-celebrity on this instrument. Johann Sebastian Bach has employed it in
-his admirable “Passionsmusik des Matthæus”; and there are some fine
-“Suites,” still occasionally to be met with, composed for it by M. de
-Caix d’Herveloix, published in the year 1710. The tone of the _viola
-da gamba_ is rather nasal, but sweet and expressive; indeed, it is to
-be regretted that this charming instrument has fallen into disuse.
-There is, however, a _gamba_ stop in the organ, which resembles the
-famous _vox humana_ stop, and which has recently been much favoured by
-organ builders.
-
-The _violoncello_ came into competition with the _viola da gamba_ at
-the beginning of the eighteenth century, and has now entirely
-superseded its predecessor.
-
-A _viola di bardone_ in the Museum (Fig. 56) has a neck of carved and
-pierced box-wood, terminating in a figure of Apollo playing the lyre;
-the principal finger-board is of ivory, engraved and inlaid with ebony
-and tortoiseshell, with figures of Jupiter and Juno, and a lady
-playing a lute; the second finger-board is also of pierced and
-engraved ivory. The instrument has four catgut and fourteen metal
-sympathetic strings, and a double wrest. It was made by Jaques
-Sainprae, of Berlin, and is said to have belonged to Quanz, music
-master of Frederick the Great.
-
-The most accomplished performers on the _viola di bardone_ were Anton
-Lidl of Vienna (to whom is sometimes erroneously ascribed the
-invention of this instrument) and Karl Franz, a musician of the band
-of Prince Esterhazy, about the middle of the 18th century. Lidl played
-on the _viola di bardone_ in concerts in England during the year 1776.
-Joachim Tielke of Hamburg, the manufacturer of a specimen in the
-Museum, was an instrument maker whose lutes were much esteemed on
-account of their fine tone, and their elegant ornamentation. He made
-them of ebony inlaid with ivory, mother-of-pearl, silver, and gold.
-
-Joseph Haydn wrote sixty-three compositions for the _viola di bardone_
-by order of Prince Esterhazy, who was himself a performer on this
-instrument, and who admired it greatly. Its tone is soft and very
-expressive, but rather tremulous; owing to this quality, probably, it
-was also called _viola di fagotto_. It never became very popular,
-since its rather complicated construction offered too many
-difficulties in its treatment. In Germany it was generally called
-_Baryton_.
-
-The _viola d’amore_ (Fig. 57) was often strung entirely with wire. It
-appears to have been a novelty to Evelyn, for he records in his Diary
-of November 20th, 1679, “I dined with Mr. Slingsby, Master of the
-Mint, with my wife, invited to hear music, which was exquisitely
-performed by four of the most renowned masters: Du Prue, a Frenchman,
-on the lute; Signor Bartholomeo, an Italian, on the harpsichord;
-Nicholao, on the violin; but above all, for its sweetness and novelty,
-the _viol d’amore_ of five wire strings played on with a bow, being
-but an ordinary violin played on lyre-way by a German.” Mattheson
-(“Das Neu-Eröffnete Orchestre,” Hamburg, 1713) describes the _viola
-d’amore_ as being mounted with four wire strings, and with one catgut
-string for the highest tone.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 57.――VIOLA D’AMORE. Probably English. Late 17th
-                 century. L. 27½ in. No. 154-’82.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 58.――DOUBLE-BASS, WITH BOW. Known as “The
-                 Giant.” Italian. 17th century. L. 103 in., W. 42 in.
-                 No. 487-’72.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-He praises its sweetness of sound, but does not mention the
-sympathetic strings. The transformation of the wire-strung _viola
-d’amore_ into the so-called psaltery or sultana, which has no
-sympathetic strings, is indicated in the following statement by Sir
-John Graham Dalyell (“Musical Memoirs of Scotland,” Edinburgh, 1849),
-“The instrument was first introduced in public in London during the
-year 1715, when it was heard between the acts of an opera. It was
-known in Scotland in the middle of the century, and a taste for it was
-probably encouraged by the performance of Passerini, an Italian
-resident in Edinburgh, in the year 1752, when it was said to be a new
-instrument called _viole d’amour_. Passerini was manager of the
-Gentleman’s and St. Cecilia Concert, where he and his wife had a
-permanent engagement as skilled musicians. He played solos and
-accompanied singing with the instrument. Perhaps the _viole d’amour_
-underwent several modifications, as its name was changed to
-_psaltery_, in the belief of its being the ancient instrument so
-denominated, which is quite different according to most authorities,
-not belonging to the fidicinal tribe. In 1754 a concert for the new
-instrument called the _psaltery_ was announced for Signor Carusi’s
-benefit concert in Edinburgh, and performed by Pasquali, another
-Italian musician, also resident there. From its soft and simple nature
-it was eulogised in 1762 as unequalled for delicacy and sweetness. I
-knew a lady many years ago in Edinburgh who played melodies with great
-delicacy on this instrument, which was strung with wire, and had frets
-on the finger-board.” From these accounts it would appear that the
-_viola d’amore_ strung entirely with wire was not much used in England
-before the year 1700, although it evidently existed in this country in
-the seventeenth century.
-
-The _double-bass_ (Italian, _contrebasso_, _violone_; French,
-_contrebasse_; German, _grosse Bassgeige_, _Kontrabass_) is either
-four-stringed or three-stringed. A three-stringed example known as
-“The Giant” presented by Dragonetti to the Duke of Leinster, and given
-by the latter to the Museum, is illustrated in Fig. 58.
-
-Dragonetti, the celebrated _virtuoso_ on the double-bass, came to
-England in the year 1794. His favourite instrument, upon which he
-played in public concerts, was a “Gaspar di Salo,” which he obtained
-from the Convent of St. Pietro at Vicenza, and which he never could be
-induced to part with, although £800, it is said, was offered him for
-it by one of his rich and enthusiastic pupils in England. After the
-death of Dragonetti this bass, and another valuable one by
-Stradivarius, were sent back to Italy, he having bequeathed them in
-his will to the town of Venice. Dragonetti died in the year 1846 at
-his house in Leicester Square, at the age of eighty-three. A year
-before his death he was still able to assist in the public
-performances at the Beethoven Festival in Bonn. His friend H. Philipps
-mentions in his “Musical Recollections” that the ends of Dragonetti’s
-fingers had gradually become quite flat and deformed from playing.
-
-Some double-basses of extraordinarily large size are known to have
-been made in England. William Gardiner (“Music and Friends,” London,
-1838, p. 70) mentions such an instrument, made by Martin in Leicester,
-which he saw in the year 1786, and which, if his statement may be
-relied upon, “was of such height that Mr. Martin was obliged to cut a
-hole in the ceiling to let the head through; so that it was tuned by
-going upstairs into the room above.”
-
-A _sordino_ (French, _pochette_; German, _Taschengeige_) is
-illustrated in Fig. 59. About 300 years ago the _sordino_ was kept by
-gentlemen in a case resembling a pen case, which they put in the
-pocket when they went to a singing party; and they used the instrument
-for insuring correct intonation while singing madrigals and catches.
-Kircher, in his “Musurgia Universalis,” Romæ, 1650, calls it
-_linterculus_, no doubt from its resemblance to a small boat.
-
-Fig. 60 represents a _bûche_ (German, _Scheitholz_) made by Fleurot,
-of the Val d’Ajol, in the Vosges Mountains, early in the last century.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 59.――SORDINO, OR POCHETTE. Probably German. Late
-                 17th or early 18th century. L. 17½ in. No. 457-’83.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 60.――BÛCHE, OR SCHEITHOLZ. Made by Fleurot, of
-                 the Val d’Ajol in the Vosges Mountains. Early 19th
-                 century. L. 27½ in. No. 210-’82.
-
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 61.――VIRGINAL. Formerly belonging to Queen
-                 Elizabeth. Italian. Second half of 16th century. H.
-                 8½ in., L. 65 in., D. 23 in. No. 19-’87.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 62.――VIRGINAL. Bears the arms of William, Duke
-                 of Cleves, Berg and Jülich, Count of La Marck and
-                 Ravensberg, and originally also Duke of Guelderland
-                 (b. 1516, d. 1592). Flemish. Second half of 16th
-                 century. H. 16 in., W. 67 in., D. 28 in. No. 447-’96.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-At the present day the people twang the bûche with a quill; but in
-olden time it was played thus:――The performer, having placed the
-instrument on a table, twanged the strings with the thumb of his right
-hand, while he used his left hand in pressing down, by means of a
-little stick, those strings which are placed over the frets, and
-which, being tuned in unison, serve for producing the melody. The
-other strings, tuned a _fifth_ lower, were occasionally struck as an
-accompaniment.
-
-Primitive in construction, and imperfect for our present musical
-performances as the _Scheitholz_ is, it nevertheless is interesting,
-not only on account of its popularity three centuries ago, but also
-because it is the prototype of the horizontal cither, which has come
-somewhat into vogue in the last century.
-
-The most popular instruments played with a bow, in the seventeenth
-century, were the _treble-viol_, the _tenor-viol_, and the
-_bass-viol_. It was usual for viol players to have “a chest of viols,”
-a case containing four or more viols, of different sizes. Thus, Thomas
-Mace in his directions for the use of the viol, “Musick’s Monument”
-1676, remarks, “Your best provision, and most complete, will be a good
-chest of viols, six in number, viz., two basses, two tenors, and two
-trebles, all truly and proportionately suited.” The violist, to be
-properly furnished with his requirements, had therefore to supply
-himself with a larger stock of instruments than the violinist of the
-present day.
-
-The _virginal_ (Figs. 61 and 62) is said to have obtained its name
-from having been intended especially to be played by young ladies. The
-statement of some writers that it was called virginal in compliment to
-Queen Elizabeth, is refuted by the fact of its being mentioned among
-the musical instruments of King Henry VIII., in the beginning of the
-sixteenth century. Probably the name was originally given to it in
-honour of the Virgin Mary, since the _virginal_ was used by the nuns
-for accompanying their hymns addressed to the Holy Virgin. It was made
-of various sizes, but generally small in comparison with our square
-pianoforte. The Italians, about three hundred years ago, constructed a
-small portable instrument of this kind, which they called _ottavino_
-(or _octavina_) because its pitch was an octave higher than that of
-the clavicembalo, or harpsichord.
-
-Queen Elizabeth was a performer on the _virginal_ (_see_ Fig. 61) as
-well as on the lute. Sir James Melville, the Scotch ambassador,
-records in his memoirs an interview with Queen Elizabeth, in the year
-1564, in which he heard her play upon the virginal:――“Then sche asked
-wither the Quen (Mary of Scotland) or sche played best. In that I gaif
-hir the prayse.” During the Shakesperian age a virginal generally
-stood in the barbers’ shops for the amusement of the customers. The
-instrument had evidently retained its popularity at the time of the
-Great Fire of London; for Pepys (Diary, September 2nd, 1666)
-records:――“River full of lighters and boats taking in goods, and good
-goods swimming in the water; and only I observed that hardly one
-lighter or boat in three that had the goods of a house in, but there
-was a pair of virginalls in it.”
-
-The instrument has metal strings, one for each tone, which are twanged
-by means of small portions of quill, attached to slips of wood called
-“jacks,” and provided with thin metal springs. Its construction is
-therefore similar to that of the spinet and harpischord. Crowquills
-were most commonly used in the construction of such instruments; but
-other materials, as for instance leather, whalebone, and even elastic
-strips of metal, were occasionally adopted instead.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 63.――SPINET. Made by Annibale dei Rossi of
-                 Milan. Italian. Dated 1577. H. 11¼ in., L. 58¼ in.,
-                 W. 22¼ in. No. 809-’69.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 64.――SPINET. Signed “Johannes Player fecit.”
-                 English. About 1700. L. 59 in., W. 22½ in. No.
-                 466-’82.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 65.――CLAVICHORD. Inscribed “Barthold Fritz fecit,
-                 Braunschweig, anno 1751.” German. 18th century.
-                 H. 31 in., L. 70½ in., W. 22½ in. No. 339-’82.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-There evidently prevailed, some centuries ago, much vagueness in the
-designation of certain stringed instruments with a key-board. The term
-_clavichord_ seems to have not unfrequently been applied to any
-stringed instrument with a key-board, no matter what its interior
-construction might be. Johann Walther, in his “Musicalisches Lexicon,”
-Leipzig, 1732, describes the _virginal_ (or “Virginale,” as he calls
-it), in these words:-“Ein Clavier vors Frauenzimmer” (_a clavichord
-for ladies_). The following brief explanation of the difference
-between the spinet and the clavichord may therefore be of interest to
-some inquirers.
-
-The _spinet_ (Italian, _spinetta_ or _spinetto_; French, _épinette_)
-is said to have derived its name from the little quill (_spina_) used
-in its mechanism, which is the same as that of the harpsichord and the
-virginal, described before.
-
-The more commonly-known spinet (Figs. 63 and 64) resembles in shape
-the harpsichord and the grand piano. It is, however, smaller than the
-harpsichord, and its key-board is placed in a somewhat oblique
-direction. The tone of the spinet was generally a _fifth_ higher than
-that of the harpsichord.
-
-The _clavichord_ (Italian, _clavicordo_; German, _Clavier_, or
-_Klavier_), differs from the spinet inasmuch as it is of an
-oblong-square shape (Fig. 65), and especially in its being constructed
-with so-called _tangents_, _i.e._, metal pins which press under the
-strings when the keys are struck. The strings are of thin brass wire.
-The oldest specimens of the clavichord still extant are from three to
-four feet in length, and about two feet in width. The lower keys are
-black, and the upper ones are white. There is only a single string for
-each tone and its upper semitone; thus, there is but one string for
-_C_ and _C-sharp_, and likewise for _D_ and _D-sharp_, and so on. The
-semitone is produced by a second tangent, which touches the string at
-a place a little distant from that at which it is touched by the
-tangent producing the whole-tone. On being pressed under the string,
-the tangent divides it into two vibrating parts, one of which is
-considerably longer than the other and gives the sound. The other part
-is too short to be distinctly audible, and therefore does not very
-perceptibly interfere with the clearness of the sound. Moreover, its
-vibration is checked by a strip of cloth interlaced with the strings.
-It will easily be understood that of the two tangents, the one which
-most shortens the sounding part of the string, must produce a tone of
-a higher pitch than the other.
-
-Such was the construction of the _clavichord_ until about the year
-1700, when it was improved in so far as that each key was supplied
-with a separate string. The clavichord is pre-eminently a German
-instrument. Although now almost entirely supplanted by the pianoforte,
-it is still occasionally to be met with in the house of the German
-village schoolmaster and of the country parson. Though but weak in
-sound, it admits of much expression; and most of the German classical
-composers who lived before the invention of the pianoforte preferred
-the clavichord to the harpsichord. In England it has never become
-popular. Considering the simplicity of its construction, it might be
-surmised that the price of a clavichord was generally very moderate.
-In the latter half of the eighteenth century the prices charged for
-such instruments by some of the best manufacturers were as
-follows:――Carl Lemme, in Brunswick, made clavichords of various
-qualities, which fetched from three to twelve Louis d’ors a-piece; he
-also made, for exportation to Batavia, clavichords with a compressed
-sounding-board, invented by his father in the year 1771; Krämer, in
-Göttingen, charged from four to fourteen Louis d’ors, according to
-size and finish; and Wilhelmi, in Cassel, charged from twenty to fifty
-thalers,――from about £3 to £7 10s.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 66.――CLAVICEMBALO. Signed “Joanes Antonius
-                 Baffo, Venetus.” Italian. Dated 1574. H. 9½ in., L.
-                 83 in., W. 36 in. No. 6007-’59.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-The _clavicembalo_ (often designated merely _cembalo_) is called in
-German “Flügel,” on account of its shape somewhat resembling the wing
-of a bird. _Clavicembali_ formerly in use generally had a compass of
-five octaves. The instrument was usually supplied with some stops by
-means of which the quality of sound could in some measure be modified.
-Furthermore, it was frequently made with two keyboards, one for the
-loud and another for the soft tones. The harpsichord made in England
-was precisely of the same construction. In fact, the best harpsichord
-makers in England were emigrants from the continent, and the founders
-of some of the great pianoforte manufactories still flourishing in
-London. Burkhardt Tschudi, for instance, a harpsichord maker from
-Switzerland, was the founder of Broadwood’s celebrated manufactory,
-which dates from the year 1732. Kirkman, a German (who, before he
-established himself in England, wrote his name Kirchmann) sold his
-harpsichords in London, according to the German Musical Almanac for
-the year 1782, at the price of from 60_l._ to 90_l._ apiece. In the
-beginning of the eighteenth century many of the harpsichords made in
-England had, according to Grassineau (Musical Dictionary, London,
-1740), a compass of only four octaves.
-
-However, already as early as in the sixteenth and seventeenth
-centuries, harpsichords or clavicembali, of a superior quality,
-manufactured by Hans Ruckers and his sons Jean and Andreas, were
-imported into England. The instruments of these celebrated Antwerp
-manufacturers were tastefully embellished, and the best Dutch painters
-not infrequently enriched them with devices. The consequence has been
-that after the invention of the pianoforte, many of these old
-harpsichords were taken to pieces in order to preserve the valuable
-panels. The price of a fine harpsichord by Ruckers about 1770, was
-£120.
-
-The old _clavicembalo_ by Antonio Baffo, of Venice (Fig. 66), has
-slips of prepared leather instead of the usual crowquills, which, if
-original, would show that the statement of some writers as to Pascal
-Taskin in Paris being the first to use leather is erroneous. Taskin,
-in constructing in the year 1768 the _Clavecin à peau de buffle_, may
-have revived an old invention, which, however, he seems to have much
-improved. He made a _clavecin_ with three keyboards, two of which were
-connected with actions constructed of crowquills, and the third with
-an action of leather. The modification in quality of sound thereby
-obtained was greatly admired.
-
-The illustration (Fig. 67) represents a clavecin made by Pascal Taskin
-in the year 1786. The case is highly ornamented with Japanese figures
-and gilding.
-
-The invention of the _clavicembalo_ as well as of the _clavicordo_, is
-by some old writers ascribed to Guido Aretinus (or Guido d’Arezzo),
-the famous monk who is recorded to have invented, in the year 1025,
-the Solmisation, and also to have first conceived the idea of
-employing lines and dots in the notation of musical sounds.
-Unauthentic though the tradition may be which assigns to Guido the
-invention of the stringed instruments with a keyboard, it appears very
-probable that some rude kind of clavichord was first constructed about
-his time, or soon after.
-
-The _claviorganum_, or organ-harpsichord, consists of an organ and a
-harpsichord (or a spinet) combined. Either can be played separately or
-with the other together. The separation and the union are effected by
-means of a stop or a pedal. The claviorganum was, some centuries ago,
-not uncommon. It enables the performer to sustain the sound at
-pleasure, which on the harpsichord is as little possible as on the
-pianoforte. A _claviorganum_ from Ightham Mote, near Sevenoaks,
-illustrated in Fig. 68, affords evidence of a higher antiquity of
-instruments of this kind than might perhaps be expected. It bears the
-inscription, _Lodowicus Theewes me fecit_, 1579. There is scarcely
-more remaining of this interesting relic than the outer case; but this
-is so elaborately finished that, if the mechanism was constructed with
-equal care and success, it must have been a superior instrument. The
-maker is unknown in musical history. Perhaps he belonged to the family
-of Treu (also written Trew), musicians of repute in Anspach about the
-year 1600.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 67.――CLAVECIN. Made by Pascal Taskin of Paris.
-                 French. Dated 1786. H. 32¾ in., W. of keyboard, 30
-                 in., L. 72 in. No. 1121-’69.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 68.――ORGAN-HARPSICHORD OR CLAVIORGANUM. Formerly
-                 in the chapel of Ightham Mote, near Sevenoaks, Kent.
-                 Probably English. Harpsichord, H. 9 in., L. 84 in.,
-                 W. 35½ in. Organ case, H. 41 in., L. 91 in., W. 40
-                 in. No. 125 125ᵃ-’90.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 69.――TRIPLE FLAGEOLET. Italian. About 1820.
-                 L. 20½ in. No. 295-’82.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-  
-  [Illustration: FIG. 70.――FLAUTO DOLCE OR FLUTE. Ivory. Inscribed
-                 “Anciuti a Milan, 1740." L. 18½ in. No. 7469-’61.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-  
-The pianoforte, which now has entirely superseded the harpsichord, was
-first constructed at the beginning of the eighteenth century, in Italy
-and Germany. About the year 1767 it was from Germany introduced into
-England; but the English musicians for a considerable period objected
-to it, and preferred to retain the harpsichord.
-
-That there was, in the time of Shakespeare, a species of flageolet,
-called _recorder_, is undoubtedly known to most readers from the stage
-direction in Hamlet: _Re-enter players with recorders_. The recorder
-is also mentioned by Milton, and described by Bacon, who states that
-“the figures of recorders, flutes and pipes are straight; but the
-recorder hath a less bore, and a greater above and below.” An
-illustration of this old instrument, which has now become very scarce,
-is given in “The Genteel Companion; Being exact Directions for the
-Recorder: etc.” London, 1683.
-
-The _flauto dolce_ (French, _flûte douce_, and _flûte à bec_), much in
-use some centuries ago, was made of various lengths (Fig. 70). The
-Germans called it _Pflockflöte_, _i.e._, a flute with a plug in the
-mouth-hole. The most common _flûte à bec_ was made with six
-finger-holes, and its compass embraced somewhat more than two octaves.
-Several of the finger-holes required to be only partly covered in
-order to produce the desired tone. There was often a key on this
-instrument in addition to the finger-holes. This flute was much in
-favour in England; hence it was called in France “Flûte d’Angleterre.”
-It has gradually been supplanted by the “Flûte traversière,” or
-“German Flute.”
-
-The _flageolet_ (Fig. 71), the smallest _flûte à bec_, was formerly
-played in England even by ladies. Pepys, in his Diary (March 1st,
-1666), records:――“Being returned home, I find Greeting, the
-flageolet-master, come, and teaching my wife; and I do think my wife
-will take pleasure in it, and it will be easy for her, and pleasant.”
-
-The flageolet was made of various sizes. Pepys (Diary, January 20th,
-1667) records:――“To Drumbleby’s, the pipemaker, there to advise about
-the making of a flageolet to go low and soft; and he do show me a way
-which do, and also a fashion of having two pipes of the same note
-fastened together, so as I can play on one and then echo it upon the
-other, which is mighty pretty.”
-
-The _double flageolet_ was invented by Bainbridge about the year 1800.
-The _triple flageolet_ (Fig. 69) is less common but equally useless
-for musical performances of the present day. The “Harmonicon,” London,
-1830, records:――“Within these few years Mr. Bainbridge has added a
-bass joint to his double flageolet and the tone resembles the lower
-notes on a German flute. The effect produced by the combination of
-three notes is very good and mellifluous. The bass joint is fixed at
-the back of the double flageolet, and the breath is conveyed by means
-of a tube; and by the introduction of what are termed stop-keys, a
-solo, duet, or trio may be instantaneously performed. The bass notes
-are produced by keys pressed with the thumb of the left hand.” The
-writer remarks that “this instrument being purely English, I consider
-it deserving of being recorded as a very ingenious invention.”
-
-The _hautboy_ or _oboe_ (Fig. 72) came into more general use about the
-year 1720.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 71.――FLAGEOLET. Italian. Middle of 18th century.
-                 L. 20 in., Diam. of mouth, 1⅞ in. No. 1124-’69.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 72.――OBOE. Made by Anciuti of Milan; formerly in
-                 the possession of the composer Rossini. Latter half
-                 of 18th century. L. 21½ in., Diam. of mouth, 2½ in.
-                 No. 1127-69
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-The most noteworthy kinds of the hautboy of the time of Handel and
-Sebastian Bach are,――the _oboe da caccia_, which is identical with the
-_corno inglese_ (_English horn_, _cor anglais_), a large hautboy still
-occasionally employed in the orchestra, and the _oboe d’amore_, or
-_oboe lungo_, whch has fallen into oblivion. The pitch of the _oboe
-d’amore_ was a minor third lower than that of the common hautboy, or
-_oboe piccolo_; and its sound, owing to the narrowness of the bore at
-its further end, was rather weak, but particularly sweet.
-
-The precursor of the hautboy was evidently the _bombardino_, or
-_chalumeau_. The _bombardino_, also called in Italian _bombardo
-piccolo_, was a small _bombardo_, an instrument of the hautboy kind,
-about three centuries ago much in use on the Continent.
-
-The Germans called the _bombardo_ “Pommer,” which appears to be a
-corruption of the Italian name. The _bombardo_ was made of various
-sizes, and with a greater or smaller number of finger-holes and keys.
-That which produced the bass tones was sometimes of an enormous
-length, and was blown through a bent tube, like the bassoon, the
-invention of which it is said to have suggested.
-
-The smallest instrument, called _chalumeau_ (from _calamus_, “a reed”)
-is still occasionally to be found among the peasantry in the Tyrol and
-some other parts of the Continent. The Germans call it _Schalmei_, and
-the Italians _piffero pastorale_. In England it was formerly called
-_shawm_ or _shalm_.
-
-The _clarinet_, likewise an instrument of this class, is said to have
-been invented by Denner, in Nürnberg, about the year 1700. The
-clarinet has only a single vibrating reed in the mouth-piece; the
-hautboy has a double one.
-
-The invention of the _bassoon_ (Italian, _fagotto_; French _basson_;
-German, _Fagott_) is ascribed to Afranio, a canon of Ferrara, who
-constructed the first in the year 1539. The instrument was, however,
-an improved _bombardo_ rather than a new invention. As early as the
-year 1550, the celebrated wind-instrument maker Schnitzer, in
-Nürnberg, manufactured bassoons which were considered as very
-complete. Fig. 73 illustrates a species of bassoon bound with brass
-with brass keys, and complete with mouth-piece and reed.
-
-Various bassoons of small dimensions in use about two centuries ago,
-and earlier (the _dolciano_, _Quartfagott_, _Quintfagott_,
-_tenor-bassoon_, _corthol_, etc.), are now antiquated.
-
-In the list of musical instruments of Sir Thomas Kytson, of Hengrave
-Hall, about the year 1600, recorded in the “History and Antiquities of
-Hengrave, Suffolk,” by John Gage, London, 1822, is mentioned “A
-Curtall,” which was probably the _corthol_ or French _courtaut_, an
-early kind of bassoon, a specimen of which, dating from the fifteenth
-century, is preserved in the Conservatoire de Musique at Paris.
-According to Prætorius (anno 1619) the _fagotto piccolo_, a small
-species of bassoon, was called in England _single corthol_.
-
-The invention of the _serpent_ (Fig. 74) is attributed to Edme
-Guillaume, a canon of Auxerre in France, anno 1590. It was, however,
-no new invention, properly speaking, but merely an improvement upon
-the old _Basszinken_, the management of which was rendered more
-convenient by giving a serpentine winding to the tube. This instrument
-subsequently became rather popular. It was used in military bands and
-in processions until about the middle of the last century. The French
-made use of it also in church to support the voices. Towards the end
-of the eighteenth century it appears to have still been a common
-substitute for the organ in France. Dr. Burney, in his “Journal,”
-London, 1773, states that he frequently met with it in the churches of
-that country, and he expresses a more favourable opinion of its
-suitableness for promoting edification than might have been expected
-from a refined musician:――“It gives the tone in chanting, and plays
-the bass when they sing in parts. It is often ill-played, but if
-judiciously used would have a good effect. It is, however, in general
-overblown, and too powerful for the voices it accompanies; otherwise,
-it mixes with them better than the organ, as it can augment or
-diminish a sound with more delicacy, and is less likely to overpower
-or destroy, by a bad temperament, that perfect one of which the voice
-only is capable.”
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 73.――BASSOON, species of. English. Late 18th or
-                 early 19th century. L. 48¼ in. No. 637-’72.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 74.――THE SERPENT. Made by Gerock Wolf, in
-                 London. English. Early 19th century. L. 28 in. No.
-                 286-’82.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 75.――SERINETTE OR BIRD ORGAN. French. Period of
-                 Louis XIV. H. 8⅛, L. 11⅛ in., W. 9 in. No. 629-’68.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 76.――ORGAN (Positive). Bears the arms of John
-                 George I., Elector of Saxony (b. 1585, d. 1656).
-                 German. Dated 1627. H. 45½ in., W. 27½ in. No. 2-’67.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-The _serinette_, or bird organ (Fig. 75), was formerly used in France
-by ladies to teach airs to little singing birds, especially to a kind
-of siskin or canary, called in French _serin_; hence the name of the
-instrument.
-
-The _organ positive_ (Fig. 76) is distinguished from the _organ
-portative_ in so far that the former was a larger instrument,
-generally placed on a table and blown by an attendant, while the
-latter was carried about by the performer in religious processions and
-on such-like occasions.
-
-In England some rude species of organ is said to have been used in
-public worship as early as about the middle of the seventh century. It
-was, however, on the Continent, principally in Germany, that almost
-all the important improvements originated which gradually brought the
-organ to its present high degree of perfection. Many old organs of
-fine workmanship are still extant in the churches of Germany. During
-the 18th century especially several large organs of deserved celebrity
-were built in that country; suffice it to instance those of the
-brothers Andreas and Gottfried Silbermann. In England the important
-inventions of the continental builders were not readily adopted.
-Recently, however, several huge organs of very fine workmanship have
-been constructed in England, chiefly for use in concert rooms, or
-public halls.
-
-The _regal_, often mentioned in English literature of the time of
-Shakespeare, and earlier (_see also_ p. 96), was a small _organ
-portative_. There was till about the end of the 18th century a “Tuner
-of the Regals,” in the Chapel Royal St. James’s, with a salary of
-56_l._ The name _regal_ is supposed to have been derived from
-_rigabello_, a musical instrument of which scarcely more is known than
-that it was played in the churches of Italy before the introduction of
-the organ.
-
-The expression “a payre of regalls,” used by writers some centuries
-ago, evidently implies only a single instrument. Thus also the
-virginal is not unfrequently mentioned as “a payre of virginalls.”
-Moreover, it appears that the regal was occasionally made with two
-sets of pipes, so as to constitute a double organ of its kind.
-
-In the following lines from Sir W. Leighton’s “Teares or Lamentations
-of a Sorrowful Soule,” London, 1613, this little organ is mentioned in
-combination with other curious instruments now antiquated, most of
-which will be found in the present collection:――
-
-   “Praise him upon the claricoales,
-      The lute and simfonie:
-    With the dulsemers and the regalls,
-      Sweete sittrons melody.”
-
-The _bagpipe_ (Fig. 77) appears to have been from time immemorial a
-special favourite instrument with the Celtic races; but it was perhaps
-quite as much admired by the Slavonic nations. In Poland, and in the
-Ukraine, it used to be made of the whole skin of the goat in which the
-shape of the animal, whenever the bagpipe was expanded with air,
-appeared fully retained exhibiting even the head with the horns; hence
-the bagpipe was called _kosà_, which signifies a goat.
-
-The bagpipe is of high antiquity in Ireland, and is alluded to in
-Irish poetry and prose said to date from the tenth century. A pig
-gravely engaged in playing the bagpipe is represented in an
-illuminated Irish manuscript, of the year 1300.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 77.――BAGPIPES. English. 18th century. L. 30 in.
-                 No. 1197-’03.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-The _bell_ has always been so much in popular favour in England that
-some account of it must not be omitted. Paul Hentzner, a German, who
-visited England in the year 1598, records in his journal: “The people
-are vastly fond of great noises that fill the ear, such as firing of
-cannon, drums, and the ringing of bells; so that in London it is
-common for a number of them that have got a glass in their heads to go
-up into some belfry, and ring the bells for hours together for the
-sake of exercise.” This may be exaggeration,――not unusual with
-travellers. It is, however, a fact that bell-ringing has been a
-favourite amusement with Englishmen for centuries.
-
-The way in which church bells are suspended and fastened, so as to
-permit of their being made to vibrate in the most effective manner
-without damaging by their vibration the building in which they are
-placed, is in some countries very peculiar. The Italian _campanile_,
-or bell tower, is not unfrequently separated from the church itself.
-In Servia the church bells are often hung in a frame-work of timber
-built near the west end of the church. In Zante and other islands of
-Greece the belfry is usually separate from the church. The reason
-assigned by the Greeks for having adopted this plan is that in case of
-an earthquake the bells are likely to fall and, were they placed in a
-tower, would destroy the roof of the church and might cause the
-destruction of the whole building. Also in Russia a special edifice
-for the bells is generally separate from the church. In the Russian
-villages the bells are not unfrequently hung in the branches of an
-oak-tree near the church. In Iceland the bell is usually placed in the
-lych-gate leading to the graveyard.
-
-The idea of forming of a number of bells a musical instrument such as
-the _carillon_ is said by some to have suggested itself first to the
-English and Dutch; but what we have seen in Asiatic countries
-sufficiently refutes this. Moreover, not only the Romans employed
-variously arranged and attuned bells, but also among the Etruscan
-antiquities an instrument has been discovered which is constructed of
-a number of bronze vessels placed in a row on a metal rod. Numerous
-bells, varying in size and tone, have also been found in Etruscan
-tombs. Among the later contrivances of this kind in European countries
-the sets of bells suspended in a wooden frame, which we find in
-mediæval illuminations, deserve notice. In the British Museum is a
-manuscript of the fourteenth century in which King David is depicted
-holding in each hand a hammer with which he strikes upon bells of
-different dimensions, suspended on a wooden stand.
-
-It may be supposed that the device of playing tunes by means of bells
-merely swung by the hand is also of ancient date. In Lancashire each
-of the ringers manages two bells, holding one in either hand. Thus, an
-assemblage of seven ringers insures fourteen different tones; and as
-each ringer may change his two notes by substituting two other Dells
-if required, even compositions with various modulations, and of a
-somewhat intricate character, may be executed,――provided the ringers
-are good timeists; for each has, of course, to take care to fall in
-with his note, just as a member of the Russian horn band contributes
-his single note whenever it occurs.
-
-Peal-ringing is another pastime of the kind which may be regarded as
-pre-eminently national to England. The bells constituting a peal are
-frequently of the number of eight, attuned to the diatonic scale. Also
-peals of ten bells, and even of twelve, are occasionally formed. A
-peculiar feature of peal-ringing is that the bells, which are provided
-with clappers, are generally swung so forcibly as to raise the mouth
-completely upwards. The largest peal, and one of the finest, is at
-Exeter Cathedral: another celebrated one is that of St. Margaret’s,
-Leicester, which consists of ten bells. Peal-ringing is of an early
-date in England; Egelric, abbot of Croyland, is recorded to have cast
-about the year 960 a set of six bells.
-
-The _carillon_ is especially popular in the Netherlands and Belgium,
-but is also found in Germany, Italy, and some other European
-countries. It is generally placed in the church tower, and also
-sometimes in other public edifices. The statement repeated by several
-writers that the first carillon was invented in the year 1481 in the
-town of Alost is not to be trusted, for the town of Bruges claims to
-have possessed similar chimes in the year 1300. There are two kinds of
-carillons in use on the Continent, viz.: clock chimes, which are moved
-by machinery, like a self-acting barrel-organ; and such as are
-provided with a set of keys, by means of which the tunes are played by
-a musician. The carillon in the “Parochial-Kirche” at Berlin, which is
-one of the finest in Germany, contains thirty-seven bells; and is
-provided with a key-board for the hands and with a pedal, which
-together place at the disposal of the performer a compass of rather
-more than three octaves. The keys of the manual are metal rods
-somewhat above a foot in length, and are pressed down with the palms
-of the hand. The keys of the pedal are of wood; the instrument
-requires not only great dexterity, but also a considerable physical
-power. It is astonishing how rapidly passages can be executed upon it
-by the player, who is generally the organist of the church in which he
-acts as _carillonneur_. When engaged in the last-named capacity he
-usually wears leathern gloves to protect his fingers, as they are
-otherwise apt to become ill fit for the more delicate treatment of the
-organ.
-
-The want of a contrivance in the _carillon_ for stopping the vibration
-has the effect of making rapid passages, if heard near, sound as a
-confused noise; only at some distance are they tolerable. It must be
-remembered that the _carillon_ is intended especially to be heard from
-a distance. Successions of tones which form a consonant chord, and
-which have some duration, are evidently the most suitable for this
-instrument.
-
-Indeed, every musical instrument possesses certain characteristics
-which render it especially suitable for the production of some
-particular effects. The invention of a new instrument of music has,
-therefore, not unfrequently led to the adoption of new effects in
-compositions. Take the pianoforte, which was invented in the beginning
-of the eighteenth century, and which has now obtained so great a
-popularity; its characteristics inspired our great composers to the
-invention of effects, or expressions, which cannot be properly
-rendered on any other instrument, however superior in some respects it
-may be to the pianoforte. Thus also the improvements which have been
-made during the present century in the construction of our brass
-instruments, and the invention of several new brass instruments, have
-evidently been not without influence upon the conceptions displayed in
-our modern orchestral works.
-
-Imperfect though this essay may be it will probably have convinced the
-reader that a reference to the history of the music of different
-nations elucidates many facts illustrative of our own musical
-instruments, which to the unprepared observer must appear misty and
-impenetrable. In truth, it is with this study as with any other
-scientific pursuit. The unassisted eye sees only faint nebulæ, where
-with the aid of the telescope bright stars are revealed.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 78.――HANDEL’S HARPSICHORD. Made by Andreas
-                 Ruckers, of Antwerp, 1651. H. 36 in., L. of top 80
-                 in., W. 36 in. No. 1079-’68.
-                 Victoria and Albert Museum.]
-
-
-
-
-APPENDIX.
-
-HANDEL’S HARPSICHORD.
-
-
-The following documentary evidence of this instrument’s authenticity
-as Handel’s harpsichord (Fig. 78) has been transmitted by Messrs.
-Broadwood:――
-
-                              33, Great Pulteney Street, London,
-                                      _November 18th, 1868_.
-
-     Handel’s harpsichord was bought by us of Mr. Hooper, a
-     pianoforte tuner at Winchester, in 1852. He had obtained it
-     from Dr. Chard, the Cathedral organist of that city, who had
-     taken pains to prove it to be the same instrument which
-     Handel had left by will to his friend and amanuensis,
-     Christopher Smith. In Handel’s will, dated June, 1750, was
-     the bequest:――‘I give and bequeath to Christopher Smith my
-     large harpsichord, my little house-organ, my music books,
-     and 500_l._ sterling;’ and in a codicil, dated 6th of
-     August, 1756: ‘I give to Christopher Smith 1,500_l._
-     additional to the legacy already given to him in my will.’
-     Dr. Chard wrote to the Rev. George Coxe, of Twyford (Rector
-     of St. Michael’s, Winchester), to obtain his testimony to
-     the identity of this harpsichord with the ‘_Large
-     Harpsichord_’ of the will. Mr. Coxe was nearly related to
-     Smith, and had frequently heard him play upon it. On the
-     13th of May, 1842, and in the presence of witnesses, Mr.
-     Coxe confirmed this. Dr. Chard states in the document signed
-     by Mr. Coxe, that this harpsichord was left with a large
-     collection of Handel’s MSS. by Christopher Smith to his
-     step-daughter, the Dowager Lady Rivers, who parted with it
-     to Mr. Wickham, a surgeon, who, in his turn, parted with it
-     to the Rev. Mr. Hawtrey, Prebendary of Winchester, after
-     whose death it came into the possession of Dr. Chard.
-
-     This interesting relic of Handel is also worthy of notice
-     from having been one of the best-constructed instruments of
-     the celebrated harpsichord makers, the Ruckers family of
-     Antwerp. It is not remarkable for any beauty of decoration
-     beyond the conventional ornamentation of the period; but the
-     structure shows great skill in the manufacture, and that the
-     harpsichord had become nearly perfected in the middle of the
-     seventeenth century.
-
-     The two key-boards were used for variety of tone. The lower
-     key-board, the _jacks_ of which acted upon two sets of
-     strings in unison, and one set an octave higher, was the
-     louder in tone; the upper key-board, acting on one set of
-     strings only, was the softer. But the lower key-board could
-     be made to act upon one set of strings only, by means of
-     stops drawn out by the hand of the performer. In touching
-     the keys, a distinctive quality of tone may still be
-     recognised, particularly in the higher notes, a reedy but
-     soft and delicate _timbre_ testifying to the former beauty
-     of the instrument. It may be assumed as certain that the
-     keys are not of Handel’s time. We do not know when the
-     present key-boards were put, or by whom, but the style of
-     the white and black keys is undoubtedly modern. Neither can
-     it be doubted that there were originally keys in keeping
-     with the fashion of the harpsichord, which we may suppose to
-     have been worn out, to account for the substitution of those
-     existing. The case of deal, black japanned, the brass
-     hinges, the ornamentation, and the mottoes are original.
-     Inside the top is inscribed:――
-
-                     _Sic transit Gloria Mundi_;
-
-     on the flap or folding of the top――
-
-                         _Musica Donum Dei_;
-
-     and on the slip of wood above the upper keys――
-
-             _Andreas Ruckers me fecit, Antwerpiæ, 1651_.
-
-     There is a date on the sounding-board “1651,” and in the
-     ornamental sound-hole are the initials “A. R.” Among the
-     flowers represented on the sounding-board may be seen a
-     concert of monkeys, one beating time, another playing the
-     viol da gamba, etc. A third motto existed until about
-     fifteen years ago――_Acta Virum Probant_. This was rubbed off
-     by a workman engaged in mending the lock-board (upon which
-     this motto was), which had been split.
-
-     As a musical instrument, this harpsichord has lived its
-     life. It is not now capable of being tuned, and any attempt
-     to improve the accord of it might prove disastrous by the
-     sounding-board giving way altogether. It is, therefore, of
-     consequence to the preservation of the woodwork that tuning
-     should not be attempted.
-
-                                     JOHN BROADWOOD & SONS.
-
-Letter to the Rev. G. Coxe, Twyford, Rector of St. Michael’s,
-Winchester:――
-
-     MY DEAR SIR,――Will you oblige me by certifying (if I am
-     correct) the following:――
-
-     The celebrated Mr. Smith (or Schmidt) was Handel’s private
-     friend, and amanuensis. This said Mr. Smith was presented by
-     Handel with his favourite fine double-keyed harpsichord,
-     made by the best makers of the day, Andreas Ruckers of
-     Antwerpia, 1651. This said instrument you have heard
-     repeatedly Mr. Smith play on. Mr. Smith was father-in-law to
-     you as well as your sister, the late Dowager Lady Rivers;
-     and at his death, the said harpsichord, together with a
-     large collection of Handel’s oratorios, etc., etc., MSS.,
-     came into the hands of the Dowager Lady Rivers. This
-     instrument was parted with to a Mr. Wickham, surgeon, who
-     parted with it to the Rev. W. Hawtrey, Prebendary of
-     Winchester Cathedral, upon the death of whom I purchased it
-     at the sale of his effects; and in my possession it still
-     remains. Is not this the identical instrument now spoken of?
-     Your early answer to these queries, as the only living
-     witness, will oblige.
-
-                             Dear Sir,
-                                  Yours faithfully,
-                                        G. W. CHARD.
-
-     _P.S._――Will you oblige me by certifying on this sheet of
-     paper, and returning it?
-
-                             _Answer._
-
-     I certify that the above statement is correct, as far as my
-     knowledge goes.
-
-                                               GEORGE COXE.
-
-     Twyford, _May 13th, 1842_.
-          Witness to the above signature,
-                                              SUSANNA GREGG.
-                                              JAMES HARRIS.
-
-
-
-
-     [1] Figured and described in Lartet & Christy’s _Reliquiæ
-         Aquitanicæ_, London, 1865-75, Pl. B. v., p. 48.
-
-     [2] The best instance is to be found in Lepsius’
-        _Denkmäler_, III. 106a., where a music-school of the
-         Akhenaten period (about 1400 B.C.) is depicted.
-
-     [3] For coloured plate after this painting see Wilkinson’s
-        _Ancient Egyptians_, Vol. I., Pl. xii. (facing page 480).
-
-     [4] See _Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_,
-         Vol. xx., Part I (1850).
-
-     [5] _See_ E. Aldis, _Carvings and Sculptures of Worcester
-          Cathedral_ (IV).
-
-     [6] _See_ illustration in _Ann. Arch._, IV., p. 37.
-
-     [7] _See_ illustration in _Ann. Arch._, iv., p. 98.
-
-     [8] For a more complete list of lute-makers see Von
-         Lütgendorff, _Die Geigen- und Lautenmacher vom Mittelalter
-         bis zur Gegenwart_, Frankfort, 1904.
-
-
-
-
-  INDEX
-
-  Abyssinian instruments, 20.
-  Acocotl, 67.
-  Adair, quoted, 81.
-  Adufe, 25.
-  Æolian harp, 4.
-  African instruments in America, 82.
-  Ajacaxtli, 72.
-  Al-Farabi, lutist, 55-57.
-  American Indian instruments, 58 _seq._
-  American Indians, metrical psalms of, 81.
-  American Indians, musical performances of, 75.
-  American Indians, North, musical talent of, 81.
-  Anglo-Saxon instruments, 84, 86, 90, 94.
-  Arab instruments, 3, 36, 48, 53 _seq._, 108.
-  Arabs in Spain, 36, 56.
-  Archlute, 101, 105.
-  Ashantee, trumpet from, 2.
-  Ash-shakandi, 55.
-  Asor, 20.
-  Assyrian instruments, 16 _seq._
-  Aulos, 31.
-  Aztecs, instruments of the, 58, 59.
-
-  Bach, 115.
-  Bacon, quoted, 125.
-  Bagpipe, Celtic, 130.
-    ” Greek, 130.
-    ” Hebrew, 23.
-    ” Irish, 130.
-    ” mediæval, 102.
-    ” Persian, 53.
-    ” Polish, 130.
-    ” Roman, 35.
-  Bainbridge, inventor, 126.
-  Banduria, 110.
-  Bansi, 47.
-  Barbitos, 27, 30, 33.
-  Baryton, 116.
-  Bassoon, 127, 128.
-  Bass-viol, 114, 119.
-  Basszinken, 128.
-  Bells, Assyrian, 18.
-    ” Buddhist, 80.
-    ” Chinese, 39, 40.
-    ” Egyptian, 14, 15.
-    ” English, 131.
-    ” Etruscan, 132.
-    ” Hebrew, 25.
-    ” Japanese, 46.
-    ” Mexican, 73.
-    ” Peruvian, 73, 80.
-    ” Roman, 36, 132.
-    ” hanging of, 131.
-    ” ringing of, 131, 132.
-  Bene, 11.
-  Beni Hassan, painting at, 21.
-  Bernhard, inventor of the pedal, 96.
-  Beverley Minster, sculpture at, 97.
-  Bîn, 49.
-  Bird Organ, 129.
-  Biwa, 44.
-  Blasius, St., manuscript at, 89, 90.
-  Bombardino, 127.
-  Bombardo, 127.
-  Bombulom, 97.
-  Bone instruments, 58.
-  Boscherville, St. Georges de, sculpture from, 99.
-  Botuto, 68.
-  Bow, 50, 55, 88, 90, 113, 119.
-  Bridges, movable, 44.
-  Bruce, his discovery of harps on frescoes, 11.
-  Buccina, 35.
-  Bûche, 118, 119.
-  Budbudika, 47.
-  Buddhism, 39, 43, 52.
-  Buddhist Temples, bas-reliefs on, 43, 44.
-  Bunibulum, 97.
-  Bunting, quoted, 88.
-  Burmese instruments, 2, 3, 42.
-  Burney, Dr., quoted, 128.
-
-  Cachua, Peruvian dance, 79.
-  Calamus, 34.
-  Cambodia, temples in, 43.
-  Capistrum, 34.
-  Carians, pipes of the, 28.
-  Carillon, 131, 133.
-  Caroados, trumpet of the, 67.
-  Castanets, Egyptian, 14.
-    ” Greek, 32.
-    ” Roman, 36.
-  Cembalo, 122.
-  Ceylon, instruments of, 51.
-  Chalil, 23.
-  Chalumeau, 127.
-  Chang, 53.
-  Chanrares, 73.
-  Chatzozerah, 24.
-  Chayna, 62, 79.
-  Chelys, 28, 29, 33, 47.
-  Chên, 40.
-  Cheng, 6.
-  Chhilchiles, 72.
-  Ch’ih, 42.
-  Chimes, 133.
-  Ch’in, 43, 44.
-  Chinese “Board of Music,” 78.
-    ” instruments, 2, 3, 4, 6, 37 _seq._, 43.
-  Ch’ing, 37, 38, 39.
-  Chin-ku, 41.
-  Chiriqui Indians, pipe of, 60, 79.
-  Chiterna, 109.
-  Chitarrone, 106.
-  Ch’iu (wood), 41.
-  Ch’un-tu, 40.
-  Chorus, or choron, 93.
-  Chu, 41.
-  Chung, 39.
-  Cionar cruit, 89.
-  Cithara, 33, 84, 85, 94.
-    ” Anglica, 89.
-    ” Teutonica, 89.
-  Cither, 109, 119.
-  Cithern, or cittern, 102, 109.
-  Citole, 86.
-  Cittern, 102, 109.
-  Clarin, 67.
-  Clarinet, 127.
-  Clarion, mediæval, 102.
-  Clarseth, 110-112.
-  Clavecin, 124.
-  Clavicembalo, 6, 122, 124.
-  Clavichords, 121.
-    ” makers of, 122.
-    ” prices of, 122.
-  Clavicordo, 124.
-  Claviorganum, 124.
-  Conch trumpets, Hindu, 47.
-    ”       ” Mexican, 80.
-  Confucius, 37, 39, 40, 43.
-  Congo, instrument of the, 2.
-  Constantinople, obelisk at, 95.
-  Cor anglais, 127.
-  Corno inglese, 127.
-  Cornu, Etruscan, 32.
-    ” Roman, 33, 35.
-  Corthol, 128.
-  Courtaut, 128.
-  “Chronicon picturatum Brunswicense,” quoted, 91.
-  Crotala, 36.
-  Crowd, _see_ Crwth.
-  Crusaders, 36.
-  Crusmata, 36.
-  Crwth, 89, 90, 113.
-  Cuddos nut, instrument made of, 52.
-  “Curtail,” A, 128.
-  Cymbals, Assyrian, 18.
-    ” Egyptian, 14, 15.
-    ” Greek, 32.
-    ” Hebrew, 25.
-    ” mediæval, 103.
-    ” Roman, 36.
-  Cymbalum, 36, 97.
-  Cythera (cithara), 109.
-
-  Dalyell, Sir J. G., quoted, 116.
-  Damaras, 6.
-  Damaru, 47.
-  Darabuka, 14, 24.
-  Darius, 19.
-  David, King, 19.
-  Day, Major C. R., 49, 52.
-  Diaulos, 31.
-  Diff, 25.
-  Doff, 25.
-  Dōhachi, 45.
-  Dolciano, 128.
-  Dora, 45.
-  Dordogne, 9.
-  Double-bass, 117.
-    ” flageolet, 126.
-    ” pipe, in Anglo-Saxon MS., 84.
-  Double-pipe, Egyptian, 13.
-    ”    ” Greek, 31.
-    ”    ” Phœnician, 36.
-    ”    ” Roman 34, 35.
-  Dragonetti, Signor, 117, 118.
-  Drums, American Indian, 82.
-    ” Assyrian, 17, 18.
-    ” Chinese, 41.
-    ” Egyptian, 14.
-    ” Fiji, 80.
-    ” Greek, 32.
-    ” Hebrew, 24.
-    ” Hindu, 47.
-    ” Japanese, 45.
-    ” mediæval, 56, 97.
-    ” Mexican, 70.
-    ” New Guinea, 2.
-    ” Persian, 53.
-    ” Peruvian, 72.
-    ” of Tonga, 80.
-    ” of Torres Strait Islands, 80.
-  Dublin Museum, harps in, 111.
-  Dulcimer, 6.
-    ” Anglo-Saxon, 86.
-    ” Assyrian, 17.
-    ” Greek, 30.
-    ” Hebrew, 19.
-    ” Persian, 54, 55.
-
-  Egyptian instruments, 8, 10 _seq._, 27, 98.
-  Elizabeth, Queen, 119, 120.
-  El-ood, 54, 56.
-  English instruments, 104.
-  Etruscan      ”    , 32 _seq._
-  Europe, introduction of instruments in, 36.
-  European instruments, 83 _seq._
-  Evelyn, quoted, 106, 116.
-  Exeter Cathedral, minstrel gallery in, 102.
-
-  Fagott, 127.
-  Fagotto piccolo, 128.
-  Fang-hsiang, 40.
-  Fiddle, Anglo-Saxon, 90.
-    ” Bengalese, 50.
-    ” Chinese, 51.
-    ” German, 90.
-    ” Hindu and Indian, 50, 88.
-    ” Moorish, 90.
-  Fidis or Fides, 33.
-  Fidla, 113.
-  Finnish instrument, 47, 88.
-  Fistula, 35.
-  Fithele (fiddle), 114.
-  Flageolet, English, 125, 126.
-    ” Japanese, 45.
-  Flauto dolce, 125.
-  Flutes, American Indian, 82.
-    ” Arab, 55.
-    ” Aztec, 60.
-    ” Chinese, 42.
-    ” Egyptian, 12.
-  Flutes, Etruscan, 32.
-    ” German, 126.
-    ” Greek, 31.
-    ” of Guiana Indians, 62.
-    ” Hebrew, 23, 26.
-    ” Hindu, 47.
-    ” Japanese, 45.
-    ” Mexican, 58 _seq._
-    ” Peruvian, 58 _seq._
-    ” Phrygian, 28.
-    ” Roman, 34.
-  Flûte à bec, 125.
-    ” d’Angleterre, 125, 126.
-    ” traversière, 126.
-  Forkel, quoted, 23.
-  Fortunatus, quoted, 89, 90.
-  Franz, Karl, 115.
-  Free reed, 5.
-  French instruments, 112, 125, 126, 128, 129.
-  Frestele, Fretel or Fretiau, 94.
-  Fuye, 45.
-
-  Gage, John, quoted, 128.
-  Gaspard di Salo, 118.
-  Gerbert, Abbot, mentioned, 84, 89, 90.
-  Gittern, 56, 102, 108.
-  Gittith, 25, 26.
-  Gizeh, 13.
-  Gongs, Chinese, 45.
-    ” Egyptian, 14.
-    ” Japanese, 45.
-    ” Mexican, 80.
-    ” Tezcucan, 73.
-  Greek instruments, 27 _seq._
-  Guatemala, instrument of, 82.
-  Guitar, instruction books for, 108, 109.
-  Guitar, Japanese, 44.
-    ” mediæval, 102.
-    ” post-mediæval, 108, 109.
-    ” Spanish, 110.
-  Gut-komm, 43.
-  Gythorn, 108.
-
-  Handel’s harpsichord, 135.
-  Harmonica, 97.
-  Harmonicon, Chinese, 2, 37, 40.
-
-  _Harmonicon, The_, quoted, 126.
-  Harps, Anglo-Saxon, 87.
-    ” Arabian, 53.
-    ” Assyrian, 16, 28.
-    ” Burmese, 16.
-    ” Celtic, 87.
-    ” Egyptian, 11.
-    ” Finnish, 88.
-    ” French, 112.
-    ” German, 87.
-    ” Greek, 28, 29.
-    ” Hebrew, 19.
-    ” Hindu, 50.
-    ” Irish, 88, 110-112.
-    ” mediæval, 89, 100-102.
-    ” Persian, 53.
-    ” Scandinavian, 87.
-  Harp-guitar, 110.
-    ” lute, 110.
-  Harpsichord, 116, 121, 123.
-    ” Handel’s, authenticity of, 135 _seq._
-  Harpsichord-makers, 123, 136.
-  Harp-theorbo, 110.
-  Harpu, 88.
-  Harp-ventura, 110.
-  Hautboy, 126.
-  Haydn, 116.
-  Hebrew instruments, 19 _seq._
-  Hentzner, Paul, quoted, 131.
-  Hichiriki, 45.
-  Hindu instruments, 3, 46, 52, 88, 89, 93.
-  Hindus, musical scale of, 50.
-  Holmos or mouth-piece, 35.
-  Horn, English, 127.
-    ” Greek, 32.
-    ” Hebrew, 24.
-  Hsiao, 42.
-  Hsüan, 42.
-  Hsüan-chung, 39.
-  Huanca, 72.
-  Huayllaca, 62.
-  Huayra-puhura, 63, 79.
-  Huehuetl, 71, 80.
-  Hydraulis, 32.
-
-  Icelandic instrument, 114.
-  Ikuta-goto, 44, 45.
-  Instrument makers, 106, 111, 114-116, 118, 122-126, 128, 129, 136,
-       137.
-  Instruments, decoration of, 2, 8, 11, 16, 39, 41, 42, 109, 112, 113,
-       115, 116, 123, 136.
-  Intervals, diatonic, 112.
-    ” in American Indian instruments, 79.
-  Intervals in Chinese instruments, 39.
-  Intervals in Persian instruments, 53.
-  Irish bards, meetings of, 111.
-    ” instruments, 89.
-  Isis, worship of, 36.
-  Italian instruments, 106-109, 113, 120, 123, 130.
-
-  Japanese instruments, 3, 4, 44 _seq._
-  Jars, musical, 69.
-  Javanese instruments, 2, 3.
-  Jerusalem, Temple of, 19, 23.
-  Jew’s harp, 102.
-  Jinagovi, 52.
-  Jobel, 25.
-  Jones, Edward, quoted, 90.
-  Junk, 53.
-  Juruparis, 66.
-
-  Kach’-hapi, 47.
-  Kalmuks, trumpet of the, 80.
-  Kane, 46.
-  Kantele, 47, 88.
-  Kei, 45.
-  Kemángeh, 55.
-  Ken, 42.
-  Keras, 32.
-  Keren, 24.
-  Keyboards, instruments with, 120-125.
-  Khorsabad, 16.
-  Kinnor, 20.
-  Kiōto, bell at, 46.
-  Kithara, Asiatic, 27.
-    ” Greek, 28, 29.
-  K’iu (wood), 41.
-  Ko-kiū, 44.
-  Kosà, 130.
-  Koto, 44.
-  Kouyunjik, 16.
-  Kratzenstein, 6.
-  Krotala, 32.
-  Ku, 41.
-  Kuan-tzŭ, 42.
-  K’uei, musician, 37.
-  Kuitra, 56, 108.
-  Kymbala, 32.
-
-  Langspiel, 114.
-  Laos, instruments of, 4, 42.
-  Launedda, 36.
-  Lay, T., quoted, 43.
-  Lei-ku, 41.
-  Leighton, Sir W., quoted, 130.
-  Lidl, Anton, 115.
-  Lionedda, 36.
-  Lira di braccio, 101.
-  Lituus, 35.
-  Lombrive, 10.
-  Lute, 104, 105, 116.
-    ” Arab, 54.
-    ” Hindu, 89.
-    ” Japanese, 44.
-    ” mediæval, 102.
-    ” Moorish, 56.
-    ” Tibetan, 43.
-  Lute-makers, principal, 106, 116.
-  Lutists, Arabian, 54, 55, 56.
-  Lydians, Kithara of, 28.
-  Lyra, German, 90.
-    ” Greek, 28.
-    ” Roman, 33.
-  Lyre, 84.
-    ” Assyrian, 18.
-    ” Greek, 27 _seq._
-    ” Hebrew, 20.
-    ” Roman, 33.
-
-  Mace, Thomas, quoted, 104, 105, 119.
-  Machalath, 22, 25, 26.
-  Machol, 26.
-  Magadis, 27, 30, 52.
-  Magoudi, 52.
-  Magrepha, 23, 24.
-  Mam, 13.
-  Mandoline, 107, 108.
-  Mandora, 108.
-  Mandorina, 108.
-  Marimba, 82.
-  Martin, instrument-maker, 118.
-  Mattheson, quoted, 105.
-  Melozzo da Forlì, painting by, 97.
-  Melrose Abbey, sculpture at, 97.
-  Melville, Sir James, quoted, 120.
-  Menaaneim, 25.
-  Metzilloth, 25.
-  Metzilthaim, 25.
-  Mexican instruments, 59, 80 _seq._
-  Miao-tsze, 43.
-  Middle Ages, instruments of the, 83.
-  Minnim, 22, 23.
-  Miriam, 25.
-  Mishrokitha, 23.
-  Monaulos, 31.
-  Monochord, 31, 92.
-  Moorish instruments, 56, 108.
-  Mosul, bas-relief from, 16.
-  Mozart, 107.
-  Munich Museum, vase in, 28.
-  Music, ancient books on, 48, 84.
-    ” supposed origin of, 47.
-
-  Nabla, 30.
-  Nablas, 27.
-  Nablia, 34.
-  Nablum, 86, 100.
-  Naker, 56.
-  Naḳḳárah, 56.
-  Nakrys, 56.
-  Nara, bell near, 46.
-  Nebuchadnezzar, 18.
-  Nechiloth, 25, 26.
-  Nefer, 12.
-  Nekeb, 23.
-  Nevel, 19, 22, 30.
-  New Guinea, instruments of, 2.
-  New Zealand, instruments of, 2.
-  “Nibelungenlied,” The, 90.
-  Nimroud, 16, 18.
-  Nineveh, 16.
-  Nootka Sound, instrument of, 2.
-  Norwegian instruments, 113.
-  Nuy, 55.
-
-  Oboe da caccia, 127.
-    ” d’amore, 127.
-    ” Hindu, 79.
-    ” lungo, 127.
-    ” Persian, 55.
-    ” piccolo, 127.
-  Ocarina, Chinese, 42.
-  Octave, Arabian, 54.
-    ” Chinese, 39.
-  Octavina (Ottavino), 120.
-  Oliphant, 94.
-  Organ, Burmese, 42.
-    ” Chinese, 42.
-    ” English, 129.
-    ” French, 129.
-    ” Gamba stop in, 115.
-    ” German, 129.
-    ” Hebrew, 24.
-    ” hydraulic, 32.
-    ” pneumatic, 94.
-    ” portative, 129, 130.
-    ” positive, 129.
-    ” Siamese, 42.
-  Organ-builders, German, 129.
-  Organ-harpsichord, 124.
-  Organistrum, 92, 99, 101.
-  Orchestras, mediæval, 99.
-  Orpheus, Chinese, 37.
-  Ottavino, or Octavina, 120.
-  Ovalle, Alonso de, quoted, 62.
-
-  P’ai-hsiao, 42.
-  Palenque, instruments from, 62.
-  Pandean pipes, 23, 31, 35, 42, 53, 80.
-  Pandoura, 30.
-  Pandurina, 108.
-  Pasquali, Signor, 117.
-  Passerini, Signor, 117.
-  Pedal, invention of, 96.
-    ” in harpsichord, 124.
-  Pektis, 30.
-  Pepys, quoted, 120, 126.
-  Persian instruments, 3, 48, 52 _seq._
-  Peruvian instruments, 58, 59.
-  Peruvians, songs of the, 80, 81.
-  Phaamon, 25.
-  Phœnicians, 36.
-  Phorbeia, 34.
-  Phorminx, 28, 29.
-  Pianoforte, 123, 125, 134.
-  Piao, 39.
-  Pien-ch’ing, 38, 39.
-  Pien-chung, 39.
-  Piffero pastorale, 127.
-  Pincullu, 62.
-  P’i-p’a, 43, 44.
-  Pipe of the Aztecs, 60.
-    ” Berecynthian, 27.
-    ” Carian, 28.
-    ” of Chiriqui Indians, 60, 79.
-    ” Egyptian, 12.
-    ” Greek, 31.
-    ” Hebrew, 23.
-    ” Japanese, 45.
-    ” Mexican, 58 _seq._
-    ” Peruvian, 58 _seq._
-    ” Phrygian, 27.
-  Pitch of Chinese instruments, 39.
-    ” the oboe, 127.
-    ” the ottavino, 120.
-    ” whistle sounds, 59.
-  Pito, 60.
-  Plectrum, 30, 40, 44, 45, 109, 110.
-  Plektron, _see_ Plectrum.
-  Po-fu, 41.
-  Poitiers, 10.
-  Post-mediæval instruments, 104 _seq._
-  Pottery, instruments of, 58 _seq._
-  Prætorius, quoted, 111.
-  Pre-historic relics, 9.
-  Psalms, musical directions in, 26.
-  Psalterion, 20.
-  Psalterium, 33, 85, 86.
-  Psaltery, 102, 116, 117.
-  Psanterin, 20.
-  Pungi, 52, 93.
-
-  Quanūn, 54, 55.
-  Quartfagott, 128.
-  Quills for twanging strings, 107, 109, 119.
-  Quills in virginal, 120.
-  Quinterna, 109.
-  Quintfagott, 128.
-  Quyvi, 62.
-
-  Rabôb, 55, 56.
-  Ranking, J., quoted, 75.
-  Rattles, 80.
-    ” American Indian, 72, 82.
-    ” Indian, 2.
-  Ravanastra, 50.
-  Rebec, 56, 102, 113.
-  Rébek, 90.
-  Recorder, 125.
-  Regal, or regals, 96, 102, 129.
-  Rigabello, 130.
-  Rin, 46.
-  Roman instruments, 32 _seq._
-  Rote, 88.
-  Rotta, 88, 89.
-
-  Sârangi, 50.
-  Sackbut, 94, 102.
-  Sainprae, Jaques, 115.
-  Salpinx, 32.
-  Salterio, 102.
-  Sambuca, 34, 94.
-  Sambyke, 27, 30.
-  Samisen, 44.
-  Sang, 43.
-  San-hsien, 44.
-  Sankha, 47.
-  Santiago de Compostella, sculpture at, 101.
-  Santir, 6, 20, 55.
-  Sardinia, 36.
-  Sârinda, 50.
-  Scabellum, 35.
-  Scale, Chinese, 37, 39.
-    ” diatonic, 132.
-    ” pentatonic, 42, 79.
-  Scandinavian harp, 87.
-  Schalmei, 127.
-  Scheitholz, 118, 119.
-  Schnitzer, instrument maker, 128.
-  Sê, 43.
-  Sebȧ, 12.
-  Serinette, 129.
-  Serpent, 128.
-  Seshesh, 15.
-  Shakespeare, quoted, 114.
-  Shakuhachi, 45.
-  Shalisbim, 25.
-  Shalm, or shawm, 102, 103, 127.
-  Shehna, 79.
-  Shêng, 42, 43, 45.
-  Shime-daiko, 45.
-  Shō, 45.
-  Shophar, 24.
-  Shwan-che, 43.
-  Siam, instruments used in, 3, 4, 42.
-  Simikon, 30.
-  Sistrum, Egyptian, 14, 98.
-    ” Hebrew, 25.
-    ” Roman, 36.
-  Sitar, 110.
-  Sitâra, 55.
-  Solomon, 19.
-  Sordino, 118.
-  Spain, Arabs in, 36, 56.
-  Spanish instruments, 36, 110.
-  Spinet, 121.
-  Stones, sonorous, 39, 73.
-  Stops of the clavicembalo, 123.
-  Stop in organ-harpsichord, 124.
-  Strabo, quoted, 27.
-  Stradivarius, 118.
-  Strings, catgut, 1, 30, 108-110, 115.
-  Strings, silk, 1, 43, 44, 54, 109.
-  Strings, sympathetic, 115, 116.
-    ” wire, 55, 108-110, 115-117, 120, 121.
-  Sultana, 116.
-  Sumphonia, 23.
-  Sung-ch’ing, 39.
-  Surnai, 55.
-  Suroda, 88, 89.
-  Syrinx, Greek, 31.
-    ” Hebrew, 23.
-    ” mediæval, 94, 99.
-    ” Peruvian, 63.
-    ” Roman, 35.
-
-  Tabret, 24.
-  Taiko, 45.
-  Talmud, The, 23.
-  Tamboura, Arabian, 54.
-    ” Egyptian, 27.
-    ” Hebrew, 22.
-  Tambourine, Assyrian, 18.
-    ” Egyptian, 14.
-    ” Hebrew, 24.
-    ” Peruvian, 72.
-    ” Roman, 35.
-  Tangents in the clavichord, 121.
-  T’ê-ch’ing, 39.
-  T’ê-chung, 39, 40.
-  Tenor (violin), 113.
-  Tenor-bassoon, 128.
-  Tenor-viol, 119.
-  Teponaztli, 70, 80.
-  Testudo, 33.
-  Tezcucans, instruments of the, 73.
-  Thebes, 11, 12, 14.
-  Theorbo, 101, 104, 105.
-  Ti, 42.
-  Tibetan instruments, 43, 80.
-  Tibia, 34.
-    ” curva, 34.
-    ” dextra, 34.
-    ” gingrina, 34.
-    ” ligula, 34.
-    ” longa, 34.
-    ” obliqua, 34.
-    ” sinistra, 34.
-    ” utricularis, 34.
-    ” vasca, 35.
-  Tibiæ impares, 34.
-    ” pares, 34.
-  Timbrel, 24, 102.
-  Timotheus, flutist, 57.
-  Tintinnabula, 36.
-  Tintinnabulum, 100.
-  Tinya, 75.
-  Titus, arch of, 24.
-  Tone of instruments, 112, 113.
-  Toph, 24, 25.
-  Toumrie, 52.
-  Treble-viol, 119.
-  Triangle, Hebrew, 25.
-  Triangle, Roman, 36.
-  Triangulum, 36.
-  Trigonon, 17, 28, 30, 53.
-  Trigonum, 34.
-  Triple Flageolet, 126.
-  Trombone, 94.
-  Trumpets of South American Indians, 65.
-  Trumpets, Anglo-Saxon, 94.
-    ” Ashantee, 2.
-    ” Assyrian, 18.
-    ” of the Caroados, 67.
-    ” Egyptian, 14.
-    ” Greek, 32.
-    ” Hebrew, 24 _seq._
-    ” Hindu, 47, 79.
-    ” of the Kalmuks, 80.
-    ” Mexican, 80.
-    ” New Zealand, 2.
-    ” Persian, 53.
-    ” Thibetan, 80.
-  Tschenk (Chang), 53.
-  Tsu-ku, 41.
-  Tsudzumi, 45.
-  Tsuri-gane, 46.
-  Tuba, 35.
-  Tuckey, Captain, 2.
-  Turé, 67, 79.
-  “Tuner of the Regals,” 130.
-  Tuning of the spinet, 121.
-  Tympanon, 32.
-  Tympanum, 35.
-  Tyrolean harp-makers, 112.
-  Tzeltzelim, 25.
-
-  Ugab, 23.
-  Ur-heen, 51, 52.
-
-  Ventura, Signor, 110.
-  Vielle, 101.
-  Vihuela, 102, 110.
-  Vina, 46, 47, 49.
-    ” mahati, 49.
-    ” rudra, 49.
-  Vinavah, 51.
-  Viol, mediæval, 99, 100.
-    ” post-mediæval, 113, 119.
-    ” Spanish, 102, 118.
-  Viola da gamba, 114, 115.
-    ” d’amore, 116.
-    ” di bardone, 115.
-  Violin, 91, 113, 114, 116.
-    ” Japanese, 44.
-    ” Persian, 55.
-  Violoncello, 114, 115.
-  Virginal, 119-121, 130.
-
-  Wait, the instrument, 103.
-  Walther, quoted, 121.
-  Welsh instruments, 89, 90.
-  Whistles, American Indian, 82.
-    ” Mexican, 59, 60.
-  Wilkinson, Sir G., quoted, 21.
-
-  Ying-ku, 41.
-  Yotl, 73.
-  Yü, 40, 41.
-    ” stone made into the ch’ing, 38.
-  Yüeh, 42.
-  Yüeh-ch’in, 43.
-
-  Zampogna, 23.
-  Zante, belfries in, 131.
-  Zither, or Zitter, 109.
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber’s Note
-
-Words and phrases in italics are surrounded by underscores, _like
-this_. Footnotes were renumbered sequentially and were moved to the
-end of the book, preceding the Index. Dialect, obsolete and
-alternative spellings were left unchanged. Inconsistent hyphenation
-was not changed.  Misspelled words were not changed. Descriptions of
-snippets of music were added to illustrations identified as [Music:].
-
-Obvious printing errors, such as partially printed letters, were
-corrected. Final stops missing at the end of sentences and
-abbreviations were added. Duplicate words and syllables at line
-endings or page breaks were removed. Two unnecessary commas in the
-Index were deleted.
-
-Fig. 53 was moved to appear in numerical sequence;  Figs. 65, 69 and 70,
-referenced in the List of Illustrations, were omitted from the book.
-
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-<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Musical Instruments, by Carl Engel</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
-at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
-are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this eBook.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Musical Instruments</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Carl Engel</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: June 4, 2021 [eBook #65505]</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Carol Brown, Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive and the HathiTrust.)</div>
-
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS ***</div>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-
-<div class="figcenter img100">
- <a name="fig_1" id="fig_1"></a>
- <img src="images/frontis.jpg"
- alt="Illustration: Painting of Music"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.&mdash;Music.</span> After an oil painting attributed to Melozzo da Forlì (1438-1494).<br />
-National Gallery.</p>
-</div>
-
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-<div class="chapter">
-
-<p class="center">BOARD OF EDUCATION, SOUTH KENSINGTON,<br />
-VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM.</p>
-<hr class="short" />
-
-<h1 class="h1head ls">MUSICAL<br />
-INSTRUMENTS</h1>
-
-<p class="p2 center">BY</p>
-
-<h2 class="h2head ls">CARL ENGEL</h2>
-<hr class="short" />
-<p class="center decoration">WITH SEVENTY-EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS</p>
-
-<div class="p2 figcenter">
- <img src="images/logo.jpg"
- width="20%"
- alt="Illustration: Printer logo"
- />
-</div>
-
-<p class="p2 center small">REVISED EDITION.</p>
-
-<p class="center">LONDON:<br />
-PRINTED FOR HIS MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE,<br />
-By <span class="sc">WYMAN and SONS, Limited, 109, Fetter Lane, E.C.</span></p>
-<hr class="short" />
-<p class="small center">And to be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from<br />
-<span class="sc">WYMAN and SONS, Limited, 109, Fetter Lane, Fleet Street, E.C.</span> or<br />
-<span class="sc">OLIVER and BOYD, Tweeddale Court, Edinburgh</span>; or<br />
-E. PONSONBY, <span class="sc">116, Grafton Street, Dublin</span>.</p>
-<hr class="short" />
-<p class="center">1908.</p>
-
-<p class="center"><span class="decoration">Price</span> 1<abbr class="decoration" title="shilling">s.</abbr> 6<abbr class="decoration" title="pence">d.</abbr>;
- <span class="decoration">in Cloth</span>, 2<abbr class="decoration" title="shilling">s.</abbr> 3<abbr class="decoration" title="pence">d.</abbr></p>
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-
-<div class="chapter"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii"></a><span class="pageno">iii</span>
-<h3 class="p4 h3head">NOTE.</h3>
-
-<p class="p2"><span class="sc">In</span> the preparation of the revised edition of the late Dr. Engel’s
-handbook, first published in 1875, care has been taken to make
-as few alterations as possible and to express no views from
-which he might have dissented.</p>
-
-<p>The greatly enlarged chapter relating to post-mediæval
-instruments has been chiefly compiled from Dr. Engel’s
-Descriptive Catalogue of the musical instruments in the
-Museum, published in 1874.</p>
-
-<p>The pages relating to the Ancient Egyptians have been
-revised by Dr. W. M. Flinders Petrie, those dealing with the
-Greeks, Etruscans and Romans by Dr. Cecil H. Smith, and
-the description of Chinese and Japanese instruments by Dr.
-Stephen W. Bushell. The thanks of the Board are due to
-these gentlemen for their valuable co-operation.</p>
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-
-<div class="chapter"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v"></a><span class="pageno">v</span>
-<table summary="">
-<colgroup>
-  <col span="1" style="width: 3em;" />
-  <col span="1" style="width: 2em;" />
-  <col span="1" style="width: 20em;" />
-  <col span="1" style="width: 5em;" />
-</colgroup>
-
-<tr><th colspan="4">CONTENTS.</th></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="4"><hr class="medium" /></td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="4" class="t r p sc">Page</td></tr>
-
-<tr><td colspan="3" class="t l p"><span class="sc">Note</span></td>
-    <td class="t r pl"><a href="#Page_iii">iii</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td colspan="3" class="t l p"><span class="sc">List of Contents</span></td>
-    <td class="t r pl"><a href="#Page_v">v</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td colspan="3" class="t l p">&emsp;”&emsp;”&ensp; <span class="sc">Illustrations</span></td>
-    <td class="t r pl"><a href="#Page_vii">vii</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t l p"><span class="sc">Chapter</span></td>
-    <td class="t r p"><abbr title="One">I.</abbr></td>
-    <td class="t l p">&mdash;Introduction</td>
-    <td class="b r pl"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t c p">”</td>
-    <td class="t r p"><abbr title="Two">II.</abbr></td>
-    <td class="t l p">&mdash;Pre-Historic Relics and Ancient Egyptian</td>
-    <td class="b r pl"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t c p">”</td>
-    <td class="t r p"><abbr title="Three">III.</abbr></td>
-    <td class="t l p">&mdash;Assyrian and Hebrew</td>
-    <td class="b r pl"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t c p">”</td>
-    <td class="t r p"><abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr></td>
-    <td class="t l p">&mdash;Greek, Etruscan and Roman</td>
-    <td class="b r pl"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t c p">”</td>
-    <td class="t r p"><abbr title="Five">V.</abbr></td>
-    <td class="t l p">&mdash;Oriental</td>
-    <td class="b r pl"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t c p">”</td>
-    <td class="t r p"><abbr title="Six">VI.</abbr></td>
-    <td class="t l p">&mdash;American Indian</td>
-    <td class="b r pl"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t c p">”</td>
-    <td class="t r p"><abbr title="Seven">VII.</abbr></td>
-    <td class="t l p">&mdash;European Instruments of the Middle Ages</td>
-    <td class="b r pl"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t c p">”</td>
-    <td class="t r p"><abbr title="Eight">VIII.</abbr></td>
-    <td class="t l p">&mdash;European Instruments of the Middle Ages</td>
-    <td class="b r pl"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t c p">”</td>
-    <td class="t r p"><abbr title="Nine">IX.</abbr></td>
-    <td class="t l p">&mdash;European Instruments of the Middle Ages</td>
-    <td class="b r pl"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t c p">”</td>
-    <td class="t r p"><abbr title="Ten">X.</abbr></td>
-    <td class="t l p">&mdash;Post-Mediæval Instruments</td>
-    <td class="b r pl"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td colspan="3" class="t l p"><span class="sc">Appendix</span></td>
-    <td class="b r pl"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td colspan="3" class="t l p"><span class="sc">Index</span></td>
-    <td class="b r pl"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
-</table>
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-
-<div class="chapter"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii"></a><span class="pageno">vii</span>
-<table summary="">
-<colgroup>
-  <col span="1" style="width: 2em;" />
-  <col span="1" style="width: 20em;" />
-  <col span="1" style="width: 5em;" />
-  <col span="1" style="width: 5em;" />
-</colgroup>
-
-<tr><th colspan="4">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</th></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="4"><hr class="medium" /></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="t l p sc">Fig.</td>
-    <td colspan="3" class="t r p sc">Page.</td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">1.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Music</span>, after an oil painting attributed to Melozzo da
-        Forlì (1438-1494)</td>
-    <td class="b r decoration" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_1">Frontispiece</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">2.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Painted Wooden Harp.</span> Ancient Egyptian. <abbr title="Eighteenth">XVIIIth</abbr>
-        dynasty (<span class="sc lowercase">B.C.</span> 1450)</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_2">10</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">3.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Bronze and Reed Flutes.</span> Ancient Egyptian. <span class="sc lowercase">B.C.</span> 600,
-        or later</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_3">12</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">4.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Bronze Sistra.</span> Ancient Egyptian. <abbr title="Twenty-second to Twenty-sixth">XXIInd-XXVIth</abbr>
-        dynasty (<span class="sc lowercase">B.C.</span> 1000-600)</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_4">14</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">5.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Series of Bells.</span> Ancient Egyptian. Late Period</td>
-    <td class="b r p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_5">15</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">6.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">A Muse with a Harp, and two others with Lyres.</span>
-        From a Greek vase</td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_6">29</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">7.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Pair of Bronze Flutes</span>, with mouthpiece in the form of a
-        bust of a Mænad holding a bunch of grapes. Greek</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_7">30</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">8.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">A Muse Playing the Diaulos.</span> Greek</td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_8">31</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">9.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Wall Painting</span> of a youth wearing a myrtle wreath and
-        playing on the <span class="sc">Double Pipes</span>. Said to have
-        been found in a columbarium in the Vigna Ammendola
-        on the Appian Way near Rome, about 1823.
-        British Museum</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_9">34</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">10.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Tuba, Cornu and Lituus.</span> Roman</td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_10">35</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">11.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Hsüan.</span> Chinese</td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_11">42</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">12.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="lefthang t">(<span class="decoration">a</span>) <span class="sc">Ch’in</span> (a species of Lute). Modern Chinese</td></tr>
-
-<tr><td></td>
-<td class="lefthang t p0">&emsp;(<span class="decoration">b</span>) <span class="sc">Shêng</span> (Mouth Organ). Chinese. 19th century</td></tr>
-<tr><td></td>
-<td class="lefthang t p0">&emsp;(<span class="decoration">c</span>) <span class="sc">Yueh-ch’in</span> (Moon Guitar). Chinese. 19th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_12">42</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">13.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="lefthang t">(<span class="decoration">a</span>) <span class="sc">Koto</span> (a species of Lute). Japanese. 19th century</td></tr>
-<tr><td></td>
-<td class="lefthang t p0">&emsp;(<span class="decoration">b</span>) <span class="sc">Biwa</span> (a species of Guitar). Modern Japanese</td></tr>
-<tr><td></td>
-<td class="lefthang t p0">&emsp;(<span class="decoration">c</span>) <span class="sc">Sâmisen.</span> Japanese</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_13">44</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">14.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="lefthang t">(<span class="decoration">a</span>) <span class="sc">Sârinda and Bow.</span> Indian (Bengal). 19th century</td></tr>
-<tr><td></td>
-<td class="lefthang t p0">&emsp;(<span class="decoration">b</span>) <span class="sc">Rudra Vina.</span> Southern Indian (Madras). 19th
-       century</td></tr>
-<tr><td></td>
-<td class="lefthang t p0">&emsp;(<span class="decoration">c</span>) <span class="sc">Sârangi and Bow.</span> Southern Indian. 19th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_14">48</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">15.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="lefthang t">(<span class="decoration">a</span>) <span class="sc">Kemángeh or Sitâra or Fiddle.</span> Persian. About
-        1800</td></tr>
-<tr><td></td>
-<td class="lefthang t p0">&emsp;(<span class="decoration">b</span>) <span class="sc">Nuy</span> (Flute). Persian. 19th century</td></tr>
-<tr><td></td>
-<td class="lefthang t p0">&emsp;(<span class="decoration">c</span>) <span class="sc">Santir</span> (Dulcimer) <span class="sc">Case</span>. Persian</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_15">54</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">16.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Pottery Whistles</span>, with finger-holes. Ancient Mexican</td>
-    <td class="b r p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_16">59</a>
-    <a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii"></a><span class="pageno">viii</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">17.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Pottery Flageolets</span>, with finger-holes. (<span class="decoration">a</span>) and (<span class="decoration">c</span>)
-        Ancient Mexican; (<span class="decoration">b</span>) from the Island of Sacrificios</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_17">60</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">18.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Bone Flutes.</span> Ancient Peruvian, (<span class="decoration">a</span>) and (<span class="decoration">b</span>) Truxillo;
-(<span class="decoration">c</span>) Lima</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_18">60</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">19.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Huayra-puhura</span>, discovered in a Peruvian tomb</td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_19">64</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">20.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Wooden Trumpet.</span> Used by Indians near the Orinoco</td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_20">65</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">21.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Juruparis</span>, with and without cover. South American</td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_21">66</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">22.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Botuto.</span> Used by Indians near the Orinoco</td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_22">68</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">23.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Cithara.</span> From a 9th century <abbr title="Manuscript">MS.</abbr> formerly in the
-        monastery of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Blasius in the Black Forest</td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_23">84</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">24.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Psalterium.</span> From a 9th century <abbr title="Manuscript">MS.</abbr> formerly in the
-         monastery of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Blasius in the Black Forest</td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_24">85</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">25.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Cithara.</span> From a 9th century <abbr title="Manuscript">MS.</abbr> formerly in the monastery
-        of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Blasius in the Black Forest</td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_25">85</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">26.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">King playing Psaltery.</span> After an engraving in N. X.
-        Willemin’s <span class="decoration">Monuments Français Inédits</span>, <abbr title="Volume One, plate">Vol. I.,
-        pl.</abbr> 19, taken from <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hortus Deliciarum</cite>, a <abbr title="Manuscript">MS.</abbr> of the
-        12th century</td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_26">86</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">27.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Nablum.</span> From a 9th century <abbr title="Manuscript">MS.</abbr> at Angers</td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_27">86</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">28.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Female playing a Species of Citole.</span> From a 9th
-        century <abbr title="Manuscript">MS.</abbr> formerly in the monastery of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr>
-        Blasius in the Black Forest</td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_28">86</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">29.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Harp.</span> From a 9th century <abbr title="Manuscript">MS.</abbr> formerly in the monastery
-        of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Blasius in the Black Forest</td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_28">87</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">30.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Crwth.</span> Welsh. 18th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_30">90</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">31.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Organistrum</span></td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_31">93</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">32.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Sackbut</span></td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_32">94</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">33.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Organ.</span> From a 12th century psalter in the library of
-        Trinity College, Cambridge</td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_33">95</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">34.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Organ</span> (Grand Orgue). After an engraving in N. X.
-        Willemin’s <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Monuments Français Inédits</cite></td>
-    <td class="r b p" colspan="2"><a href="#fig_34">96</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">35.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Bas-relief</span>, representing a group of musicians, formerly
-        at the abbey of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Georges de Boscherville. Late
-        11th century (?). After an engraving in N. X.
-        Willemin’s <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Monuments Français Inédits</cite></td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_35">98</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">36.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Hurdy-Gurdy</span> (Vielle). With arms of France and crowned
-        monogram of Henry <abbr title="Two">II.</abbr> on back and front. About 1550</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_36">100</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">37.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Tympanum</span> of the Glory Gate of the Cathedral of Santiago
-        de Compostella. Dated 1188. From a plaster
-        cast in the Victoria and Albert Museum</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_37">100</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">38.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Minstrel Gallery</span>, Exeter Cathedral. 14th century.
-        From a plaster cast in the Victoria and Albert Museum</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_38">102</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">39.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Lute.</span> Italian (Venetian). Beginning of the 17th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_39">104</a>
-    <a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix"></a><span class="pageno">ix</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">40.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Angel Playing a Lute.</span> After an oil painting by
-        Ambrogio da Predis. Late 15th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_40">104</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">41.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Archlute.</span> Inscribed “Rauche in Chandos Street,
-         London, 1762"</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_41">104</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">42.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Chitarrone.</span> Italian. Made by Buchenberg in Rome,
-        anno 1614</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_42">106</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">43.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Pandurina.</span> French. Second half of 16th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_43">108</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">44.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Guitar.</span> French (?). 17th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_44">108</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">45.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Quinterna, or Chiterna.</span> German. Dated 1539</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_45">108</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">46.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Cither.</span> German. End of 17th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_46">108</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">47.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Harp Theorbo.</span> Made by Harley. English. About
-        1800</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_47">110</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">48.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Harp Ventura.</span> English. Early 19th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_48">110</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">49.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Banduria.</span> English. Early 19th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_49">110</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">50.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Harp.</span> Old Irish</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_50">110</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">51.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Harp.</span> French. About 1770</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_51">112</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">52.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Violin.</span> Said to have belonged to James I. English.
-        Early 17th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_52">112</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">53.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Angel Playing a Viol.</span> After an oil painting by
-        Ambrogio da Predis. Late 15th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_53">104</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">54.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Viola da Gamba.</span> Italian. About 1600</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_54">114</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">55.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Viola da Gamba.</span> Italian. 17th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_55">114</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">56.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Viola di Bardone, or Bariton, with Bow.</span> German.
-        17th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_56">114</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">57.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Viola d’Amore.</span> Probably English. Late 17th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_57">116</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">58.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Double-Bass, with Bow.</span> Known as “The Giant.”
-        Italian. 17th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_58">116</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">59.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Sordino, or Pochette.</span> Probably German. Late 17th
-        or early 18th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_59">118</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">60.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Bûche, or Scheitholz.</span> Made by Fleurot, of the Val
-        d’Ajol in the Vosges Mountains. Early 19th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_60">118</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">61.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Virginal.</span> Formerly belonging to Queen Elizabeth.
-        Italian. Second half of 16th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_61">118</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">62.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Virginal.</span> Flemish. Second half of 16th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_62">118</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">63.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Spinet.</span> Made by Annibale dei Rossi of Milan. Italian.
-        Dated 1577</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_63">120</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">64.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Spinet.</span> Signed “Johannes Player fecit” English.
-        About 1700</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_64">120</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">65.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Clavichord.</span> Inscribed “Barthold Fritz fecit, Braunschweig,
-        anno 1751.” German. 18th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_65">120</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">66.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Clavicembalo.</span> Signed “Joanes Antonius Baffo,
-        Venetus.” Italian. Dated 1574</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_66">122</a>
-    <a name="Page_x" id="Page_x"></a><span class="pageno">x</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">67.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Clavecin.</span> Made by Pascal Taskin of Paris. French.
-        Dated 1786</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_67">124</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">68.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Organ-Harpsichord, or Claviorganum.</span> Formerly in
-        the chapel of Ightham Mote, near Sevenoaks, Kent. Probably English</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_68">124</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">69.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Triple Flageolet.</span> Italian. About 1820</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_69">124</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">70.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Flauto Dolce, or Flute.</span> Ivory. Inscribed “Anciuti
-        a Milan, 1740"</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_70">124</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">71.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Flageolet.</span> Italian. Middle of 18th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_71">126</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">72.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Oboe.</span> Made by Anciuti of Milan. Formerly in the
-        possession of the composer Rossini. Latter half of 18th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_72">126</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">73.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Bassoon</span>, species of. English. Late 18th, or early 19th
-        century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_73">128</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">74.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">The Serpent.</span> Made by Gerock Wolf, in London.
-        English. Early 19th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_74">128</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">75.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Serinette or Bird Organ.</span> French. Period of Louis
-        <abbr title="Fourteen">XIV.</abbr></td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_75">128</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">76.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Organ</span> (Positive). German. Dated 1627</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_76">128</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">77.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Bagpipes.</span> English. 18th century</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_77">130</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="t r p">78.&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="widehang t"><span class="sc">Handel’s Harpsichord.</span> Made by Andreas Ruckers, of
-        Antwerp, 1651</td>
-    <td class="l b pl decoration">Facing</td>
-    <td class="r b p"><a href="#fig_78">134</a></td></tr>
-</table>
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-
-<div class="chapter"> <!--Pg 012--><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a><span class="pageno">1</span>
-
-<h3 class="p4 h3head">MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.</h3>
-
-<h3 class="p4 h3head"><abbr title="One">I.</abbr></h3>
-
-<h4 class="h4head">INTRODUCTION.</h4>
-
-<p class="p2"><span class="sc">Music</span>, in however primitive a stage of development it may
-be with some nations, is universally appreciated as one of the
-Fine Arts. The origin of vocal music may have been coeval
-with that of language; and the construction of musical
-instruments evidently dates with the earliest inventions
-which suggested themselves to human ingenuity. There
-exist even at the present day some savage tribes in Australia
-and South America who, although they have no more than
-the five first numerals in their language and are thereby unable
-to count the fingers of both hands together, nevertheless
-possess musical instruments of their own contrivance, with
-which they accompany their songs and dances.</p>
-
-<p>Wood, metal, and the hide of animals are the most common
-substances used in the construction of musical instruments.
-In tropical countries bamboo or some similar kind of cane
-and gourds are especially made use of for this purpose. The
-ingenuity of man has contrived to employ in producing music,
-horn, bone, glass, pottery, slabs of sonorous stone&mdash;&#8203;in fact,
-almost all vibrating matter. The strings of instruments
-have been made of the hair of animals, of silk, the runners of
-creeping plants, the fibrous roots of certain trees, of cane,
-catgut (which, absurdly referred to the cat, is from the sheep,
-goat, lamb, camel, and some other animals), metal, etc.</p>
-
-<p><!--Pg 013--><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a><span class="pageno">2</span>
-The mode in which individual nations or tribes are in the
-habit of embellishing their musical instruments is sometimes
-as characteristic as it is singular. The negroes in several
-districts of Western Africa affix to their drums human skulls.
-A war-trumpet of the king of Ashantee which was brought
-to England is surrounded by human jawbones. The Maoris
-in New Zealand carve around the mouth-hole of their trumpets
-a figure intended, it is said, to represent female lips. The
-materials for ornamentation chiefly employed by savages
-are bright colours, beads, shells, grasses, the bark of trees,
-feathers, stones, gilding, pieces of looking-glass inlaid like
-mosaic, etc. Uncivilised nations are sure to consider anything
-which is bright and glittering ornamental, especially if it
-is also scarce. Captain Tuckey saw in Congo a negro instrument
-which was ornamented with part of the broken frame
-of a looking-glass, to which were affixed in a semicircle a
-number of brass buttons with the head of Louis <abbr title="Sixteen">XVI.</abbr>. on them,&mdash;&#8203;perhaps
-a relic of some French sailor drowned near the
-coast years ago.</p>
-
-<p>Again, musical instruments are not infrequently formed
-in the shape of certain animals. Thus, a kind of harmonicon
-of the Chinese represents the figure of a crouching tiger.
-The Burmese possess a stringed instrument in the shape of
-an alligator. Even more grotesque are the imitations of
-various beasts adopted by the Javanese. The natives of
-New Guinea have a singularly shaped drum, terminating in
-the head of a reptile. A wooden rattle like a bird is a favourite
-instrument of the Indians of Nootka Sound. In short, not
-only the inner construction of the instruments and their
-peculiar quality of sound exhibit in most nations certain
-distinctive characteristics, but it is also in great measure
-true as to their outward appearance.</p>
-
-<p>An arrangement of the various kinds of musical instruments
-<!--Pg 014--><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a><span class="pageno">3</span>
-in a regular order, beginning with that kind which is
-the most universally known, and progressing gradually to the
-least usual, gives the following results. Instruments of
-percussion of indefinite sonorousness or, in other words,
-pulsatile instruments which have not a sound of a fixed pitch,
-as the drum, rattle, castanets, etc., are most universal. Wind
-instruments of the flute kind&mdash;&#8203;including pipes, whistles, flutes,
-Pandean pipes, etc.&mdash;&#8203;are also to be found almost everywhere.</p>
-
-<p>Much the same is the case with wind instruments of the
-trumpet kind. These are often made of the horns, bones,
-and tusks of animals; frequently of vegetable substances
-and of metal. Instruments of percussion of definite sonorousness
-are chiefly met with in China, Japan, Burmah, Siam,
-and Java. They not infrequently contain a series of tones
-produced by slabs of wood or metal, which are beaten with
-a sort of hammer, as our harmonicon is played.</p>
-
-<p>Stringed instruments without a finger board, or any similar
-contrivance which enables the performer to produce a number
-of different tones on one string, are generally found among
-nations whose musical accomplishments have emerged from
-the earliest state of infancy. The strings are twanged with
-the fingers or with a piece of wood, horn, metal, or any other
-suitable substance serving as a <dfn>plectrum</dfn>; or are made to vibrate
-by being beaten with a hammer, as our dulcimer. Stringed
-instruments provided with a finger-board on which different
-tones are producible on one string by the performer shortening
-it more or less&mdash;&#8203;as on the guitar and violin&mdash;&#8203;are met with
-almost exclusively among nations in a somewhat advanced
-stage of musical progress. Such as are played with a bow
-are the least common; they are, however, known to the
-Chinese, Japanese, Hindus, Persians, Arabs, and a few other
-nations, besides those of Europe and their descendants in
-other countries.</p>
-
-<p><!--Pg 015--><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a><span class="pageno">4</span>
-Wind instruments of the organ kind&mdash;&#8203;<span class="decoration">i.e.</span>, such as are constructed
-of a number of tubes which can be sounded together
-by means of a common mouthpiece or some similar contrivance,
-and upon which therefore chords and combinations
-of chords, or harmony, can be produced&mdash;&#8203;are comparatively
-of rare occurrence. Some interesting specimens of them
-exist in China, Japan, Laos, and Siam.</p>
-
-<p>Besides these various kinds of sound-producing means
-employed in musical performances, a few others less widely
-diffused could be pointed out, which are of a construction not
-represented in any of our well-known European specimens.
-For instance, some nations have peculiar instruments of
-friction, which can hardly be classed with our instruments of
-percussion. Again, there are contrivances in which a number
-of strings are caused to vibrate by a current of air much
-as is the case with the Æolian harp; which might with equal
-propriety be considered either as stringed instruments or
-as wind instruments. In short, our usual classification of
-all the various species into three distinct divisions, <abbr title="namely">viz.</abbr>,
-<dfn>Stringed Instruments</dfn>, <dfn>Wind Instruments</dfn>, and <dfn>Instruments
-of Percussion</dfn>, is not tenable if we extend our researches over
-the whole globe.</p>
-
-<p>The collection at South Kensington contains several foreign
-instruments which cannot fail to prove interesting to the
-musician. Recent investigations have more and more
-elicited the fact that the music of every nation exhibits some
-distinctive characteristics which may afford valuable hints
-to a composer or performer. A familiarity with the popular
-songs of different countries is advisable on account of the
-remarkable originality of the airs; these mostly spring from
-the heart. Hence the natural and true expression, the
-delightful health and vigour by which they are generally
-distinguished. Our more artificial compositions are, on the
-<!--Pg 016--><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a><span class="pageno">5</span>
-other hand, not infrequently deficient in these charms,
-because they often emanate from the lingers or the pen rather
-than from the heart. Howbeit, the predominance of expressive
-melody and effective rhythm over harmonious combinations,
-so usual in the popular compositions of various
-nations, would alone suffice to recommend them to the careful
-attention of our modern musicians. The same may be said
-with regard to the surprising variety in construction and in
-manner of expression prevailing in the popular songs and
-dance-tunes of different countries. Indeed, every nation’s
-musical effusions exhibit a character peculiarly their own,
-with which the musician would find it advantageous to
-familiarise himself.</p>
-
-<p>Now, it will easily be understood that an acquaintance with
-the musical instruments of a nation conveys a more correct
-idea than could otherwise be obtained of the characteristic
-features of the nation’s musical compositions. Furthermore,
-in many instances the construction of the instruments reveals
-to us the nature of the musical intervals, scales, modulations,
-and suchlike noteworthy facts. True, inquiries like these
-have hitherto not received from musicians the attention
-which they deserve. The adepts in most other arts are in this
-respect in advance. They are convinced that useful information
-may be gathered by investigating the productions even
-of uncivilised nations, and by thus tracing the gradual progress
-of an art from its primitive infancy to its highest degree of
-development.</p>
-
-<p>Again, from an examination of the musical instruments of
-foreign nations we may derive valuable hints for the improvement
-of our own; or even for the invention of new. Several
-principles of construction have thus been adopted by us from
-eastern nations. For instance, the <dfn>free reed</dfn> used in the
-harmonium is an importation from China. The organ builder
-<!--Pg 017--><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a><span class="pageno">6</span>
-Kratzenstein, who lived in <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Petersburg during the reign
-of Catherine <abbr title="Two">II.</abbr>, happened to see the Chinese instrument <dfn>cheng</dfn>,
-which is of this construction, and it suggested to him, about
-the end of the 18th century, to apply the <dfn>free reed</dfn> to certain
-organ stops. At the present day instruments of the harmonium
-class have become such universal favourites in
-western Europe as almost to compete with the pianoforte.</p>
-
-<p>Several other well-authenticated instances could be cited
-in which one instrument has suggested the construction of
-another of a superior kind. The prototype of our pianoforte
-was evidently the dulcimer, known at an early time to the
-Arabs and Persians, who call it <dfn>santir</dfn>. One of the old names
-given to the dulcimer by European nations is <dfn>cimbal</dfn>. The
-Poles at the present day call it <dfn>cymbaly</dfn>, and the Magyars in
-Hungary <dfn>cimbalom</dfn>. The <dfn>clavicembalo</dfn>, the predecessor of
-the pianoforte, was in fact nothing but a <dfn>cembalo</dfn> with a
-key board attached to it; and some of the old <dfn>clavicembali</dfn>
-still preserved, exhibit the trapezium shape, the round hole
-in the middle of the sound-board, and other peculiarities of
-the first dulcimer. Again, the gradual development of the
-dulcimer from a rude contrivance, consisting merely of a
-wooden board across which a few strings are stretched, is
-distinctly traceable by a reference to the musical instruments
-of nations in different stages of civilisation. The same is the
-case with our highly perfected harp, of which curious specimens,
-representing the instrument in its most primitive
-condition, are still to be found among several barbarous
-tribes. We might perhaps infer from its shape that it originally
-consisted of nothing more than an elastic stick bent by a
-string. The Damaras, a native tribe of South-western Africa,
-actually use their bow occasionally as a musical instrument
-when they are not engaged in war or in the chase. They
-tighten the string nearly in the middle by means of a leathern
-<!--Pg 018--><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a><span class="pageno">7</span>
-thong, whereby they obtain two distinct sounds, which, for
-want of a sound board, are of course very weak and scarcely
-audible to anyone but the performer. Some neighbouring
-tribes, however, possess a musical instrument very similar in
-appearance to the bow, to which they attach a gourd, hollowed
-and open at the top, which serves as a sound-board. Again,
-other African tribes have a similar instrument, superior
-in construction only inasmuch as it contains more than one
-string, and is provided with a sound-board consisting of a
-suitable piece of sonorous wood. In short, the more improved
-we find these contrivances the closer they approach our harp.
-And it could be shown, if this were requisite for our present
-purpose, that much the same gradual progress towards perfection,
-which we observe in the African harp, is traceable
-in the harps of several nations in different parts of the
-world.</p>
-
-<p>Moreover, a collection of musical instruments deserves the
-attention of the ethnologist as much as of the musician.
-Indeed, this may be asserted of national music in general;
-for it gives us an insight into the heart of man, reveals to us
-the feelings and predilections of different races on the globe,
-and affords us a clue to the natural affinity which exists
-between different families of men. Again, a collection
-must prove interesting in a historical point of view. Scholars
-will find among old instruments specimens which were in
-common use in England at the time of Queen Elizabeth,
-and which are not unfrequently mentioned in the literature
-of that period. In many instances the passages in which
-allusion is made to them can hardly be understood, if we are
-unacquainted with the shape and construction of the instruments.
-Furthermore, these relics of bygone times bring
-before our eyes the manners and customs of our forefathers,
-and assist us in understanding them correctly.</p>
-
-<p><!--Pg 019--><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a><span class="pageno">8</span>
-It will be seen that the modification which our orchestra has
-undergone, in the course of scarcely more than a century, is
-great indeed. Most of the instruments which were highly
-popular about a hundred years ago have either fallen into
-disuse or are now so much altered that they may almost be
-considered as new inventions. Among Asiatic nations, on
-the other hand, we meet with several instruments which have
-retained unchanged through many centuries their old construction
-and outward appearance. At South Kensington
-may be seen instruments still in use in Egypt and western
-Asia, precisely like specimens represented on monuments
-dating from a period of three thousand years ago. By a
-reference to the Eastern instruments of the present time we
-obtain therefore a key for investigating the earlier Egyptian
-and Assyrian representations of musical performances; and
-likewise, for appreciating more exactly the biblical records
-respecting the music of the Hebrews. Perhaps these evidences
-will convey to some inquirers a less high opinion than they
-have hitherto entertained, regarding the musical accomplishments
-of the Hebrew bands in the solemn processions of
-King David or in Solomon’s temple; but the opinion will
-be all the nearer to the truth.</p>
-
-<p>There is another point of interest about such collections,
-and especially that at South Kensington, which must not be
-left unnoticed. Several instruments are remarkable on
-account of their elegant shape and tasteful ornamentation.
-This is particularly the case with some specimens from Asiatic
-countries. The beautiful designs with which they are embellished
-may afford valuable patterns for study and for
-adoption in works of art.</p>
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-
-<div class="chapter"><!--Pg 020--><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a><span class="pageno">9</span>
-<h3 class="p4 h3head"><abbr title="Two">II.</abbr></h3>
-
-<h4 class="h4head">PRE-HISTORIC RELICS AND ANCIENT EGYPTIAN.</h4>
-
-<p class="p2"><span class="sc">A really</span> complete account of all the musical instruments
-from the earliest time known to us would require much more
-space than can here be afforded. We can attempt only
-a concise historical survey. We venture to hope that the
-illustrations interspersed throughout the text will to the
-intelligent reader elucidate many facts which, for the reason
-stated, are touched upon but cursorily.</p>
-
-<p class="p2 center"><span class="sc">Pre-Historic Relics.</span></p>
-
-<p>A musical relic has been exhumed in the department of
-Dordogne in France, which was constructed in an age when
-the fauna of France included the reindeer, the rhinoceros
-and the mammoth, the hyæna, the bear, and the cave-lion.
-It is a small bone somewhat less than two inches in length,
-in which is a hole, evidently bored by means of one of the
-little flint knives which men used before acquaintance with
-the employment of metal for tools and weapons.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_1" id="fnanchor_1"></a><a href="#footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></span>
- Many
-of these flints were found in the same place with the bones.
-Only about half a dozen of the bones, of which a considerable
-number have been exhumed, possess the artificial hole.</p>
-
-<p>M. Lartet surmises the perforated bone to have been used
-as a whistle in hunting animals. It is the first digital phalanx
-of a ruminant, drilled to a certain depth by a smooth cylindrical
-bore on its lower surface near the expanded upper
-articulation. On applying it to the lower lip and blowing
-into it a shrill sound is yielded. Three of these phalanges are
-<!--Pg 021--><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a><span class="pageno">10</span>
-of reindeer, one is of chamois. Again, among the relics
-which have been brought to light from the cave of Lombrive,
-in the department of Ariège, occur several eye-teeth of the
-dog, which have a hole drilled into them near the root. Probably
-they also yield sounds, like those reindeer bones, or
-like the tube of a key. Another whistle&mdash;&#8203;or rather a pipe,
-for it has three finger-holes by means of which different tones
-could be produced&mdash;&#8203;was found in a burying-place, dating
-from the stone period, in the vicinity of Poitiers in France;
-it is rudely constructed from a fragment of stag’s horn. It
-is blown at the end, like a <dfn>flûte à bec</dfn>, and the three-finger holes
-are placed equidistantly. Four distinct tones must have
-been easily obtainable on it: the lowest, when all the finger-holes
-were covered; the other three, by opening the finger-holes
-successively. From the character of the stone utensils
-and weapons discovered with this pipe it is conjectured that
-the burying-place from which it was exhumed dates from
-the latest time of the stone age. Therefore, however old it
-may be, it is a more recent contrivance than the reindeer-bone
-whistle from the cavern of the Dordogne.</p>
-
-<p class="p2 center"><span class="sc">The Ancient Egyptians.</span></p>
-
-<p>The most ancient nations historically known possessed
-musical instruments which, though in acoustic construction
-greatly inferior to our own, exhibit a degree of perfection
-which could have been attained only after a long period of
-cultivation. Many tribes of the present day have not yet
-reached this stage of musical progress.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_2" id="fig_2"></a>
- <img src="images/fig2.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Painted Wooden Harp"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.&mdash;Painted Wooden Harp.</span> Ancient Egyptian, <abbr title="Eighteenth">XVIIIth</abbr> dynasty (<span class="sc">B.C.</span> 1450).<br />
-British Museum.</p>
-</div>
-<!--Pg 024--><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a><span class="pageno">11</span>
-
-<p>As regards the instruments of the ancient Egyptians we
-now possess perhaps more detailed information than of those
-appertaining to any other nation of antiquity. This information
-we owe especially to the exactness with which the instruments
-are depicted in sculptures and paintings<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_2" id="fnanchor_2"></a><a href="#footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></span>
-. Whoever
-has examined these interesting monuments with even ordinary
-care cannot but be convinced that the representations which
-they exhibit are faithful transcripts from life. Moreover, if
-there remained any doubt respecting the accuracy of the
-representations of the musical instruments it might be dispelled
-by existing evidence. Several specimens have been
-discovered in tombs, preserved in a more or less perfect
-condition.</p>
-
-<p>The Egyptians possessed various kinds of harps, some of
-which were elegantly shaped and tastefully ornamented.
-The largest were about 6½ feet high; and the small ones
-frequently had some sort of stand which enabled the performer
-to play upon the instrument while standing. The
-name of the harp was <dfn>bene</dfn>. Its frame had no front pillar;
-the tension of the strings therefore cannot have been anything
-like so strong as on our present harp. (<a href="#fig_2">Fig. 2</a>.)</p>
-
-<p>The Egyptian harps most remarkable for elegance of form
-and elaborate decoration are the two which were first noticed
-by Bruce who found them painted in fresco on the walls of a
-sepulchre at Thebes, supposed to be the tomb of Rameses <abbr title="Three">III.</abbr>
-who reigned about 1170 <span class="sc">B.C.</span> Bruce’s discovery created a
-sensation among musicians. The fact that at so remote an
-age the Egyptians should have possessed harps which vie with
-our own in elegance and beauty of form appeared to some
-so incredible that the correctness of Bruce’s representations,
-as engraved in his “Travels,” was greatly doubted. Sketches
-of the same harps, taken subsequently and at different times
-from the frescoes, have since been published, but they differ
-more or less from each other in appearance and in the number
-of strings. A kind of triangular harp of the Egyptians was
-<!--Pg 025--><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a><span class="pageno">12</span>
-discovered in a well-preserved condition and is now deposited
-in the Louvre. It has twenty-one strings; a greater number
-than is generally represented on the monuments. All these
-instruments, however much they differed from each other in
-form, had one peculiarity in common, namely the absence of
-the fore pillar.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>nefer</dfn>, a kind of guitar, was almost identical in construction
-with the Tamboura at the present day in use among
-several eastern nations. It was evidently a great favourite
-with the ancient Egyptians, and occurs in representations
-of concerts dating earlier than from <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 1500. The
-<dfn>nefer</dfn> affords the best proof that the Egyptians had made
-considerable progress in music at a very early age; since it
-shows that they understood how to produce on a few strings, by
-means of the finger-board, a greater number of notes than were
-obtainable even on their harps. The instrument had two or
-four strings, was played with a plectrum and appears to have
-been sometimes, if not always, provided with frets. In the
-British Museum is a fragment of a fresco obtained from a
-tomb at Thebes, on which two female performers on the <dfn>nefer</dfn>
-are represented. The painter has distinctly indicated the
-frets.</p>
-
-<p>Small pipes or flutes of the Egyptians have been discovered,
-made of reed, with three, four, five, or more finger-holes. There
-are some interesting examples in the British Museum; one of
-which has seven holes burnt in at the side (<a href="#fig_3">Fig. 3</a>). Two
-straws were found with it of nearly the same length as the
-pipe, which is about one foot long. In some other pipes
-pieces of a kind of thick straw have also been found inserted
-into the tube, obviously serving for a similar purpose as the
-<dfn>reed</dfn> in our oboe or clarionet.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_3" id="fig_3"></a>
- <img src="images/fig3.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Bronze and Reed Flutes"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.&mdash;Bronze and Reed Flutes.</span>
-    Ancient Egyptian.<br /><span class="sc">B.C.</span> 600 or later.<br />
-    British Museum.</p>
-</div>
-<!--Pg 028--><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a><span class="pageno">13</span>
-
-<p>The <dfn>sebȧ</dfn>, a single flute, was of considerable length, and the
-performer appears to have been obliged to extend his arms
-almost at full length in order to reach the furthest finger-hole.
-As <dfn>sebȧ</dfn> is also the name of the leg-bone (like the Latin <dfn>tibia</dfn>) it
-may be supposed that the Egyptian flute was originally made
-of bone. Those, however, which have been found are of
-wood or reed.</p>
-
-<p>A flute-concert is painted on one of the tombs in the
-pyramids of Gizeh and dates, according to Lepsius, from an
-age earlier than <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 2000. Eight musicians are performing
-on flutes. Three of them, one behind the other, are
-kneeling and holding their flutes in exactly the same
-manner. Facing these are three others, in a precisely
-similar position. A seventh is sitting on the ground to
-the left of the six, with his back turned towards them, but
-also in the act of blowing his flute, like the others. An
-eighth is standing at the right side of the group with his
-face turned towards them, holding his flute before him with
-both hands, as if he were going to put it to his mouth, or had
-just left off playing. He is clothed, while the others have
-only a narrow girdle round their loins. Perhaps he is the
-director of this singular band, or the <em>solo</em> performer who is
-waiting for the termination of the <dfn>tutti</dfn> before renewing his
-part of the performance. The division of the players into
-two sets, facing each other, suggests the possibility that the
-instruments were classed somewhat like the first and second
-violins, or the <dfn>flauto primo</dfn> and <dfn>flauto secondo</dfn> of our orchestras.
-The occasional employment of the interval of the third, or
-the fifth, as accompaniment to the melody, is not unusual
-even with nations less advanced in music than were the
-ancient Egyptians.</p>
-
-<p>The Double-Pipe, called <dfn>mam</dfn>, appears to have been a
-very popular instrument, if we judge from the frequency of
-its occurrence in the representations of musical performances.
-Furthermore, the Egyptians had, as far as is known to us,
-<!--Pg 029--><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a><span class="pageno">14</span>
-two kinds of trumpets; three kinds of tambourines, or little
-hand drums; three kinds of drums, chiefly barrel-shaped;
-and various kinds of gongs, bells, cymbals, and castanets.
-The trumpet appears to have been usually of brass. A
-peculiar wind-instrument, somewhat the shape of a champagne
-bottle and perhaps made of pottery or wood, also occurs
-in the representations transmitted to us.</p>
-
-<p>The Egyptian drum was from two to three feet in length,
-covered with parchment at both ends and braced by cords.
-The performer carried it before him, generally by means of a
-band over his shoulder, while he was heating it with his hands
-on both ends. Of another kind of drum an actual specimen
-has been found in the excavations made in the year 1823 at
-Thebes. It was 1½ feet high and 2 feet broad, and had cords
-for bracing it. A piece of catgut encircled each end of the
-drum, being wound round each cord, by means of which the
-cords could be tightened or slackened at pleasure by pushing
-the two hands of catgut towards or from each other. It was
-beaten with two drumsticks slightly bent. The Egyptians
-had also straight drumsticks with a handle, and a knob at the
-end. The Berlin museum possesses some of these. The
-third kind of drum was almost identical with the <dfn>darabuka</dfn>
-of the modern Egyptians. The Tambourine was either
-round, like that which is at the present time in use in
-Europe as well as in the east; or it was of an oblong square
-shape, slightly incurved on the four sides.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_4" id="fig_4"></a>
- <img src="images/fig4.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Bronze Sistra"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.&mdash;Bronze Sistra.</span> Ancient Egyptian.<br />
-  <abbr title="Twenty-second to Twenty-sixth">XXIInd-XXVIth</abbr> dynasty (<span class="sc">B.C.</span> 1000-600).<br />
-  British Museum.
-</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 032--><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a><span class="pageno">15</span>
-
-<p>The Sistrum consisted of a frame of bronze into which three
-or four metal bars were loosely inserted, so as to produce a
-jingling noise when the instrument was shaken. (<a href="#fig_4">Fig. 4</a>.)
-The bars were often made in the form of snakes, or they terminated
-in the head of a goose. Not unfrequently a few
-metal rings were strung on the bars, to increase the noise.
-The frame was sometimes ornamented with the figure of a
-cat. The largest sistra which have been found are about
-eighteen inches in length, and the smallest about nine inches.
-The sistrum was principally used by females in religious
-performances. Its Egyptian name was <dfn>seshesh</dfn>.</p>
-
-<p>The Egyptian cymbals closely resembled our own in shape.
-There are several pairs of them in the British museum. One
-pair was found in a coffin enclosing the mummy of a sacred
-musician, and is deposited in the same case with the mummy
-and coffin. Among the Egyptian antiquities in the British
-museum are also several small bells of bronze (<a href="#fig_5">Fig. 5</a>). The
-largest is 2¼ inches in height, and the smallest three-quarters
-of an inch. Some of them have a hole at the side near the
-top wherein the clapper was fastened.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_5" id="fig_5"></a>
- <img src="images/fig5.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Series of Bells"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.&mdash;Series of Bells.</span> Ancient Egyptian. Late Period.<br />
-  The smaller examples were sewn on wearing apparel.<br />
-  British Museum.</p>
-</div>
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-
-<div class="chapter"><!--Pg 033--><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a><span class="pageno">16</span>
-
-<h3 class="p4 h3head"><abbr title="Three">III.</abbr></h3>
-
-<h4 class="h4head">ASSYRIAN AND HEBREW.</h4>
-
-<p class="p2 center"><span class="sc">The Assyrians.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="sc">Our</span> acquaintance with the Assyrian instruments has
-been derived almost entirely from the famous bas-reliefs
-which have been excavated from the mounds of Nimroud,
-Khorsabad, and Kouyunjik (the site of the ancient Nineveh),
-situated near the river Tigris in the vicinity of the town of
-Mosul in Asiatic Turkey.</p>
-
-<p>The Assyrian harp was about four feet high, and appears
-of larger size than it actually was on account of the ornamental
-appendages which were affixed to the lower part of its
-frame. It must have been but light in weight, since we find
-it not unfrequently represented in the hands of persons who
-are playing upon it while they are dancing. Like all the
-Oriental harps, modern as well as ancient, it was not provided
-with a front pillar. The upper portion of the frame
-contained the sound-holes, somewhat in the shape of an hourglass.
-Below them were the screws, or tuning-pegs, arranged
-in regular order. The strings were perhaps made of silk, like
-those which the Burmese use at the present time on their
-harps; or they may have been of catgut, which was used
-by the ancient Egyptians.</p>
-
-<p>The largest assemblage of Assyrian musicians which has been
-discovered on any monument consists of eleven performers
-upon instruments, besides a chorus of singers. The first
-musician&mdash;&#8203;probably the leader of the band, as he marches
-alone at the head of the procession&mdash;&#8203;is playing upon a harp.
-<!--Pg 034--><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a><span class="pageno">17</span>
-Behind him are two men; one with a dulcimer and the other
-with a double-pipe; then follow two men with harps. Next
-come six female musicians, four of whom are playing upon
-harps, while one is blowing a double-pipe and another is
-beating a small hand-drum covered only at the top. Close
-behind the instrumental performers are the singers, consisting
-of a chorus of females and children. They are clapping their
-hands in time with the music, and some of the musicians are
-dancing to the measure. One of the female singers is holding
-her hand to her throat in the same manner as the women
-in Syria, Arabia, and Persia are in the habit of doing at
-the present day when producing, on festive occasions,
-those peculiarly shrill sounds of rejoicing which have been
-repeatedly noticed by travellers.</p>
-
-<p>The dulcimer is in too imperfect a state on the bas-relief
-to familiarize us with its construction. The slab representing
-the procession in which it occurs has been injured; the defect
-which extended over a portion of the dulcimer has been repaired,
-and it cannot be said that in repairing it much musical
-knowledge has been evinced.</p>
-
-<p>The instrument of the Trigonon species was held horizontally,
-and was twanged with a rather long plectrum slightly
-bent at the end at which it was held by the performer. It
-is of frequent occurrence on the bas-reliefs. A number of them
-appear to have been generally played together. At any rate,
-we find almost invariably on the monuments two together,
-evidently implying “more than one,” “a number.” The
-left hand of the performer seems to have been occupied in
-checking the vibration of the strings when its discontinuance
-was required. From the position of the strings the performer
-could not have struck them as those of the dulcimer are struck.
-If he did not twang them, he may have drawn the plectrum
-across them. Indeed, for twanging, a short plectrum would
-<!--Pg 035--><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a><span class="pageno">18</span>
-have been more practical, considering that the strings are
-placed horizontally one above the other at regular distances.
-It is therefore by no means improbable that we have here
-a rude prototype of the violin bow.</p>
-
-<p>The lyre occurs in three different forms, and is held horizontally
-in playing, or at least nearly so. Its front bar was
-generally either oblique or slightly curved. The strings were
-tied round the bar so as to allow of their being pushed upwards
-or downwards. In the former case the tension of the strings
-increases, and the notes become therefore higher; on the
-other hand, if the strings are pushed lower down the pitch
-of the notes must become deeper. The lyre was played with
-a small plectrum as well as with the fingers.</p>
-
-<p>The Assyrian trumpet was very similar to the Egyptian.
-Furthermore, we meet with three kinds of drums, of which
-one is especially noteworthy on account of its odd shape,
-somewhat resembling a sugar loaf; with the tambourine;
-with two kinds of cymbals; and with bells, of which a considerable
-number have been found in the mound of Nimroud.
-These bells, which have greatly withstood the devastation
-of time, are but small in size, the largest of them being only
-3¼ inches in height and 2½ inches in diameter. Most of them
-have a hole at the top, in which probably the clapper was
-fastened. They are made of copper mixed with 14 per cent.
-of tin.</p>
-
-<p>Instrumental music was used by the Assyrians and Babylonians
-in their religious observances. This is obvious from
-the sculptures, and is to some extent confirmed by the mode
-of worship paid by command of king Nebuchadnezzar to
-the golden image; “Then an herald cried aloud, To you it
-is commanded, O people, nations, and languages, that at what
-time ye hear the sound of the cornet, flute, harp, sackbut,
-psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds of musick, ye fall down and
-<!--Pg 036--><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a><span class="pageno">19</span>
-worship the golden image that Nebuchadnezzar the king has
-set up.” The kings appear to have maintained at their courts
-musical bands, whose office it was to perform secular music
-at certain times of the day or on fixed occasions. Of king
-Darius we are told that, when he had cast Daniel into the
-den of lions, he “went to his palace, and passed the night
-fasting, neither were instruments of musick brought before
-him;” from which we may conclude that his band was in
-the habit of playing before him in the evening. A similar
-custom prevailed also at the court of Jerusalem, at least in
-the time of David and Solomon; both of whom appear to have
-had their royal private bands, besides a large number of
-singers and instrumental performers of sacred music who
-were engaged in the Temple.</p>
-
-<p class="p2 center"><span class="sc">The Hebrews.</span></p>
-
-<p>As regards the musical instruments of the Hebrews, we
-are from biblical records acquainted with the names of many
-of them; but representations to be trusted are still wanting,
-and it is chiefly from an examination of the ancient Egyptian
-and Assyrian instruments that we can conjecture almost to a
-certainty their construction and capabilities. From various
-indications, which it would be too circumstantial here to
-point out, we believe the Hebrews to have possessed the
-following instruments:</p>
-
-<p><span class="sc">The Harp.</span>&mdash;There can be no doubt that the Hebrews
-possessed the harp, seeing that it was a common instrument
-among the Egyptians and Assyrians. But it is uncertain
-which of the Hebrew names of the stringed instruments occurring
-in the Bible really designates the harp.</p>
-
-<p><span class="sc">The Dulcimer.</span>&mdash;Some writers on Hebrew music consider
-the <dfn>nevel</dfn> to have been a kind of dulcimer; others conjecture
-<!--Pg 037--><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a><span class="pageno">20</span>
-the same of the <dfn>psanterin</dfn> mentioned in the hook of Daniel,&mdash;&#8203;a
-name which appears to be synonymous with the <dfn>psalterion</dfn>
-of the Greeks, and from which also the present oriental dulcimer,
-<dfn>santir</dfn>, may have been derived. Some of the instruments
-mentioned in the book of Daniel may have been
-synonymous with some which occur in other parts of the
-Bible under Hebrew names; the names given in Daniel being
-Chaldæan. The <dfn>asor</dfn> was a ten-stringed instrument played
-with a plectrum, and is supposed to have borne some resemblance
-to the <dfn>nevel</dfn>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="sc">The Lyre.</span>&mdash;This instrument is represented on some
-Hebrew coins generally ascribed to Judas Maccabæus, who
-lived in the second century before the Christian era. There
-are several of them in the British Museum; some are of
-silver, and the others of copper. On three of them are lyres
-with three strings, another has one with five, and another
-one with six strings. The two sides of the frame appear to
-have been made of the horns of animals, or they may
-have been of wood formed in imitation of two horns which
-originally were used. Lyres thus constructed are still found in
-Abyssinia. The Hebrew square-shaped lyre of the time of
-Simon Maccabæus is probably identical with the <dfn>psalterion</dfn>.
-The <dfn>kinnor</dfn>, the favourite instrument of king David, was most
-likely a lyre if not a small triangular harp. The lyre was
-evidently an universally known and favoured instrument
-among ancient eastern nations. Being more simple in
-construction than most other stringed instruments it undoubtedly
-preceded them in antiquity. The <dfn>kinnor</dfn> is mentioned
-in the Bible as the oldest stringed instrument, and
-as the invention of Jubal. Even if the name of one particular
-stringed instrument is here used for stringed instruments
-in general, which may possibly be the case, it is only reasonable
-to suppose that the oldest and most universally known
-<!--Pg 038--><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a><span class="pageno">21</span>
-stringed instrument would be mentioned as a representative
-of the whole class rather than any other. Besides, the
-<dfn>kinnor</dfn> was a light and easily portable instrument; king
-David, according to the Rabbinic records, used to suspend
-it during the night over his pillow. All its uses mentioned
-in the Bible are especially applicable to the lyre. And the
-resemblance of the word <dfn>kinnor</dfn> to <dfn>kithara</dfn>, <dfn>kissar</dfn>, and similar
-names known to denote the lyre, also tends to confirm the
-supposition that it refers to this instrument. It is, however,
-not likely that the instruments of the Hebrews&mdash;&#8203;indeed
-their music altogether&mdash;&#8203;should have remained entirely
-unchanged during a period of many centuries. Some modifications
-were likely to occur even from accidental causes;
-such, for instance, as the influence of neighbouring nations
-when the Hebrews came into closer contact with them.
-Thus may be explained why the accounts of the Hebrew
-instruments given by Josephus, who lived in the first century
-of the Christian era, are not in exact accordance with those
-in the Bible. The lyres at the time of Simon Maccabæus
-may probably be different from those which were in use about
-a thousand years earlier, or at the time of David and Solomon,
-when the art of music with the Hebrews was at its zenith.</p>
-
-<p>There appears to be a probability that a Hebrew lyre
-of the time of Joseph (about 1700 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>) is represented on an
-ancient Egyptian painting<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_3" id="fnanchor_3"></a><a href="#footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></span>
- discovered in a tomb at Beni
-Hassan&mdash;&#8203;which is the name of certain grottoes on the eastern
-bank of the Nile. Sir Gardner Wilkinson, in his “Manners
-and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,” observes: “If,
-when we become better acquainted with the interpretation
-of hieroglyphics, the ‘strangers’ at Beni Hassan should prove
-to be the arrival of Jacob’s family in Egypt, we may examine
-<!--Pg 039--><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a><span class="pageno">22</span>
-the Jewish lyre drawn by an Egyptian artist. That this
-event took place about the period when the inmate of the
-tomb lived is highly probable&mdash;&#8203;at least, if I am correct in considering
-Usertsen I. to be the Pharaoh who was the patron of
-Joseph; and it remains for us to decide whether the disagreement
-in the number of persons here introduced, thirty-seven
-being written over them in hieroglyphics, is a sufficient
-objection to their identity. It will not be foreign to the
-present subject to introduce those figures, which are curious,
-if only considered as illustrative of ancient customs at that
-early period, and which will be looked upon with unbounded
-interest should they ever be found to refer to the Jews.
-The first figure is an Egyptian scribe, who presents an account
-of their arrival to a person seated, the owner of the tomb,
-and one of the principal officers of the reigning Pharaoh.
-The next, also an Egyptian, ushers them into his presence;
-and two advance bringing presents, the wild goat or ibex
-and the gazelle, the productions of their country. Four men,
-carrying bows and clubs, follow, leading an ass on which
-two children are placed in panniers, accompanied by a boy
-and four women; and, last of all, another ass laden, and
-two men&mdash;&#8203;one holding a bow and club, the other a lyre, which
-he plays with the plectrum. All the men have beards, contrary
-to the custom of the Egyptians, but very general in the East
-at that period, and noticed as a peculiarity of foreign uncivilized
-nations throughout their sculptures. The men have
-sandals, the women a sort of boot reaching to the ankle,
-both which were worn by many Asiatic people. The lyre
-is rude, and differs in form from those generally used in
-Egypt.” In the engraving the lyre-player, another man,
-and some strange animals from this group, are represented.</p>
-
-<p><span class="sc">The Tamboura.</span>&mdash;<dfn>Minnim</dfn>, <dfn>machalath</dfn>, and <dfn>nevel</dfn> are
-usually supposed to be the names of instruments of the lute
-<!--Pg 040--><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a><span class="pageno">23</span>
-or guitar kind. <dfn>Minnim</dfn>, however, appears more likely to
-imply stringed instruments in general than any particular
-instrument.</p>
-
-<p><span class="sc">The Single Pipe.</span>&mdash;<dfn>Chalil</dfn> and <dfn>nekeb</dfn> were the names of the
-Hebrew pipes or flutes.</p>
-
-<p><span class="sc">The Double Pipe.</span>&mdash;Probably the <dfn>mishrokitha</dfn> mentioned
-in Daniel. The <dfn>mishrokitha</dfn> is represented in the drawings of
-our histories of music as a small organ, consisting of seven
-pipes placed in a box with a mouthpiece for blowing. But
-the shape of the pipes and of the box as well as the row of
-keys for the fingers exhibited in the representation of the
-<dfn>mishrokitha</dfn> have too much of the European type not to
-suggest that they are probably a product of the imagination.
-Respecting the illustrations of Hebrew instruments which
-usually accompany historical treatises on music and commentaries
-on the Bible, it ought to be borne in mind that most
-of them are merely the offspring of conjectures founded on
-some obscure hints in the Bible, or vague accounts by the
-Rabbins.</p>
-
-<p><span class="sc">The Syrinx or Pandean Pipe.</span>&mdash;Probably the <dfn>ugab</dfn>,
-which in the English authorised version of the Bible is rendered
-“organ."</p>
-
-<p><span class="sc">The Bagpipe.</span>&mdash;The word <dfn>sumphonia</dfn>, which occurs in the
-book of Daniel, is, by Forkel and others, supposed to denote
-a bagpipe. It is remarkable that at the present day the
-bagpipe is called by the Italian peasantry Zampogna.
-Another Hebrew instrument, the <dfn>magrepha</dfn>, generally described
-as an organ, was more likely only a kind of bagpipe.
-The <dfn>magrepha</dfn> is not mentioned in the Bible but is described
-in the Talmud. In tract Erachin it is recorded to have been
-a powerful organ which stood in the temple at Jerusalem,
-and consisted of a case or wind-chest, with ten holes, containing
-ten pipes. Each pipe was capable of emitting ten
-<!--Pg 041--><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a><span class="pageno">24</span>
-different sounds, by means of finger-holes or some similar
-contrivance: thus one hundred different sounds could be
-produced on this instrument. Further, the <dfn>magrepha</dfn> is
-said to have been provided with two pairs of bellows and
-with ten keys, by means of which it was played with the
-fingers. Its tone was, according to the Rabbinic accounts,
-so loud that it could be heard at an incredibly long distance
-from the temple. Authorities so widely differ that we must
-leave it uncertain whether the much-lauded <dfn>magrepha</dfn> was
-a bagpipe, an organ, or a kettle-drum.</p>
-
-<p><span class="sc">The Trumpet.</span>&mdash;Three kinds are mentioned in the Bible,
-<abbr title="namely">viz.</abbr>, the <dfn>keren</dfn>, the <dfn>shophar</dfn>, and the <dfn>chatzozerah</dfn>. The first
-two were more or less curved and might properly be considered
-as horns. Most commentators are of opinion that
-the <dfn>keren</dfn>&mdash;&#8203;made of ram’s horn&mdash;&#8203;was almost identical with
-the <dfn>shophar</dfn>, the only difference being that the latter was
-more curved than the former. The <dfn>shophar</dfn> is especially
-remarkable as being the only Hebrew musical instrument
-which has been preserved to the present day in the religious
-services of the Jews. It is still blown in the synagogue, as
-in time of old, at the Jewish new-year’s festival, according
-to the command of Moses (<abbr title="Number twenty-nine">Numb. xxix.</abbr> 1). The <dfn>chatzozerah</dfn>
-was a straight trumpet, about two feet in length, and was
-sometimes made of silver. Two of these straight trumpets
-are shown in the famous triumphal procession after the fall
-of Jerusalem on the arch of Titus.</p>
-
-<p><span class="sc">The Drum.</span>&mdash;There can be no doubt that the Hebrews
-had several kinds of drums. We know, however, only of
-the <dfn>toph</dfn>, which appears to have been a tambourine or a small
-hand-drum like the Egyptian darabuka. In the English
-version of the Bible the word is rendered <dfn>timbrel</dfn> or <dfn>tabret</dfn>.
-This instrument was especially used in processions on occasions
-of rejoicing, and also frequently by females. We find
-<!--Pg 042--><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a><span class="pageno">25</span>
-it in the hands of Miriam, when she was celebrating with
-the Israelitish women in songs of joy the destruction of
-Pharaoh’s host; and in the hands of Jephtha’s daughter,
-when she went out to welcome her father. There exists at
-the present day in the East a small hand-drum called <dfn>doff</dfn>,
-<dfn>diff</dfn>, or <dfn>adufe</dfn>&mdash;&#8203;a name which appears to be synonymous
-with the Hebrew <dfn>toph</dfn>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="sc">The Sistrum.</span>&mdash;Winer, Saalschütz, and several other commentators
-are of opinion that the <dfn>menaaneim</dfn>, mentioned in
-2 <abbr title="Samuel six">Sam. vi.</abbr> 5, denotes the sistrum. In the English Bible
-the original is translated <dfn>cymbals</dfn>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="sc">Cymbals.</span>&mdash;The <dfn>tzeltzelim</dfn>, <dfn>metzilloth</dfn>, and <dfn>metzilthaim</dfn>,
-appear to have been cymbals or similar metallic instruments
-of percussion, differing in shape and sound.</p>
-
-<p><span class="sc">Bells.</span>&mdash;The little bells on the vestments of the high-priest
-were called <dfn>phaamon</dfn>. Small golden bells were attached
-to the lower part of the robes of the high-priest in
-his sacred ministrations. The Jews have, at the present
-day, in their synagogues small bells fastened to the rolls of
-the Law containing the Pentateuch: a kind of ornamentation
-which is supposed to have been in use from time
-immemorial.</p>
-
-<p>Besides the names of Hebrew instruments already given
-there occur several others in the Old Testament, upon the
-real meaning of which much diversity of opinion prevails.
-<dfn>Jobel</dfn> is by some commentators classed with the trumpets,
-but it is by others believed to designate a loud and cheerful
-blast of the trumpet, used on particular occasions. If <dfn>Jobel</dfn>
-(from which <dfn>jubilare</dfn> is supposed to be derived) is identical
-with the name <dfn>Jubal</dfn>, the inventor of musical instruments,
-it would appear that the Hebrews appreciated pre-eminently
-the exhilarating power of music. <dfn>Shalisbim</dfn> is supposed to
-denote a triangle. <dfn>Nechiloth</dfn>, <dfn>gittith</dfn>, and <dfn>machalath</dfn>, which
-<!--Pg 043--><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a><span class="pageno">26</span>
-occur in the headings of some psalms, are also by commentators
-supposed to be musical instruments. <dfn>Nechiloth</dfn> is
-said to have been a flute, and <dfn>gittith</dfn> and <dfn>machalath</dfn> to have
-been stringed instruments, and <dfn>machol</dfn> a kind of flute. Again,
-others maintain that the words denote peculiar modes of
-performance or certain favourite melodies to which the psalms
-were directed to be sung, or chanted. According to the
-records of the Rabbins, the Hebrews in the time of David
-and Solomon possessed thirty-six different musical instruments.
-In the Bible only about half that number are
-mentioned.</p>
-
-<p>Most nations of antiquity ascribed the invention of their
-musical instruments to their gods, or to certain superhuman
-beings. The Hebrews attributed it to man; Jubal is mentioned
-in Genesis as “the father of all such as handle the harp
-and organ” (<span class="decoration">i.e.</span>, performers on stringed instruments and
-wind instruments). As instruments of percussion are almost
-invariably in use long before people are led to construct
-stringed and wind instruments it might perhaps be surmised
-that Jubal was not regarded as the inventor of all the
-Hebrew instruments, but rather as the first professional
-cultivator of instrumental music.</p>
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-
-<div class="chapter"><!--Pg 044--><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a><span class="pageno">27</span>
-<h3 class="p4 h3head"><abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr></h3>
-
-<h4 class="h4head">GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN.</h4>
-
-<p class="p2 center"><span class="sc">The Greeks.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="sc">Many</span> musical instruments of the ancient Greeks are known
-to us by name; but respecting their exact construction and
-capabilities there still prevails almost as much diversity of
-opinion as is the case with those of the Hebrews.</p>
-
-<p>It is generally believed that the Greeks derived their musical
-system from the Egyptians. Pythagoras and other philosophers
-are said to have studied music in Egypt. It would,
-however, appear that the Egyptian influence upon Greece, as
-far as regards this art, has been overrated. Not only have the
-more perfect Egyptian instruments&mdash;&#8203;such as the larger harps,
-the tamboura&mdash;&#8203;never been much in favour with the Greeks,
-but almost all the stringed instruments which the Greeks
-possessed are stated to have been originally derived from
-Asia. Strabo says: “Those who regard the whole of Asia, as
-far as India, as consecrated to Bacchus, point to that country
-as the origin of a great portion of the present music. One
-author speaks of ‘striking forcibly the Asiatic kithara,’
-another calls the pipes Berecynthian and Phrygian. Some
-of the instruments also have foreign names, as Nablas,
-Sambyke, Barbitos, Magadis, and many others."</p>
-
-<p>We know at present little more of these instruments than
-that they were in use in Greece. The Magadis is described as
-having twenty strings. The other three are known to have
-been stringed instruments. But they cannot have been anything
-like such universal favourites as the lyre, because this
-<!--Pg 045--><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a><span class="pageno">28</span>
-instrument and perhaps the <dfn>trigonon</dfn> are almost the only
-stringed instruments represented in the Greek paintings on
-pottery and other monumental records. If, as might perhaps
-be suggested, their taste for beauty of form induced the
-Greeks to represent the elegant lyre in preference to other
-stringed instruments, we might at least expect to meet with
-the harp; an instrument which equals if it does not surpass
-the lyre in elegance of form.</p>
-
-<p>The representation of a Muse with a harp, depicted on
-a splendid Greek vase now in the Munich Museum (<cite>Mun.
-Vase <abbr title="Catalogue Number">Cat. <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr></abbr> 805</cite>), may be noted as an exceptional instance.
-This valuable relic dates from the end of the fifth century
-<span class="sc">B.C.</span> The instrument resembles in construction as well as
-in shape the Assyrian harp, and has fifteen strings. The
-Muse is touching them with both hands, using the right hand
-for the treble and the left for the bass. She is seated,
-holding the instrument in her lap. The little tuning-pegs,
-which in number are not in accordance with the strings, are
-placed on the sound-board at the upper part of the frame,
-exactly as on the Assyrian harp. If we have here the Greek
-harp, it was more likely an importation from Asia than from
-Egypt. In short, as far as can be ascertained, the most
-complete of the Greek instruments appear to be of Asiatic
-origin. Especially from the nations who inhabited Asia
-Minor the Greeks are stated to have adopted several of
-the most popular. Thus we may read of the short and
-shrill-sounding pipes of the Carians; of the Phrygian pastoral
-flute; of the three-stringed <dfn>kithara</dfn> of the Lydians; and so on.</p>
-
-<p>The Greeks had lyres of various kinds, more or less differing
-in construction, form, and size, and distinguished by different
-names; such as <dfn>lyra</dfn>, <dfn>kithara</dfn>, <dfn>chelys</dfn>, <dfn>phorminx</dfn>, etc. <dfn>Lyra</dfn>
-appears to have implied instruments of this class in general,
-and also the lyre with a body oval at the base and held in
-<!--Pg 046--><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a><span class="pageno">29</span>
-the arms of the performer; while the <dfn>kithara</dfn> had a square
-base and was held against the side by a sash around it. The
-<dfn>chelys</dfn> was a small lyre with the body made of the shell of a
-tortoise, or of wood in imitation of the tortoise. The <dfn>phorminx</dfn>
-was a large lyre, and, like the <dfn>kithara</dfn>, was used at
-an early period singly, for accompanying recitations. It is
-recorded that the <dfn>kithara</dfn> was employed for solo performances
-as early as <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 700.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_6" id="fig_6"></a>
- <img src="images/fig6.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Muse with a harp"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;A Muse with a <span class="sc">Harp</span>,
-  and two others with <span class="sc">Lyres</span>.<br />
-  From a Greek vase in the Munich Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The design on the Greek vase at Munich (already alluded
-to) represents the nine Muses, of whom three are given in the
-engraving (<a href="#fig_6">Fig. 6</a>), <abbr title="namely">viz.</abbr>, one with the harp, and two others
-with lyres. Some of the lyres were provided with a bridge,
-while others were without it. The largest was held probably
-on or between the knees, or were attached to the left arm by
-means of a band, to enable the performer to use his hands
-<!--Pg 047--><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a><span class="pageno">30</span>
-without impediment. The strings, made of catgut or sinew,
-were more usually twanged with a <dfn>plektron</dfn> than merely with
-the fingers. The <dfn>plektron</dfn> was a short stem of ivory or metal
-pointed at both ends.</p>
-
-<p>A fragment of a Greek lyre which was found in a tomb near
-Athens is deposited in the British Museum. The two pieces
-constituting its frame are of wood. Their length is about
-18 inches, and the length of the cross-bar at the top is
-about 9 inches. The instrument is unhappily in a condition
-too dilapidated and imperfect to be of any essential use to
-the musical inquirer.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>trigonon</dfn> consisted originally of an angular frame, to
-which the strings were affixed. In the course of time a third
-bar was added to resist the tension of the strings, and its triangular
-frame resembled in shape the Greek delta. Subsequently
-it was still further improved, the upper bar of the
-frame being made slightly curved, whereby the instrument
-obtained greater strength and more elegance of form.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>magadis</dfn>, also called <dfn>pektis</dfn>, had twenty strings which
-were tuned in octaves, and therefore produced only ten tones.
-It appears to have been some sort of dulcimer, but information
-respecting its construction is still wanting. There appears to
-have been also a kind of bagpipe in use called <dfn>magadis</dfn>, of which
-nothing certain is known. Possibly, the same name may have
-been applied to two different instruments.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_7" id="fig_7"></a>
- <img src="images/fig7.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Pair of Bronze Flutes"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.&mdash;Pair of Bronze Flutes</span>,
-  with mouthpiece in the form of the bust of a Mænad holding a bunch of grapes. Greek.<br />
-  British Museum.
-</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 050--><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a><span class="pageno">31</span>
-
-<p>The <dfn>barbitos</dfn> was likewise a stringed instrument of this kind.
-The <dfn>sambyke</dfn> is traditionally said to have been invented by
-Ibykos, about 560 <span class="sc">B.C.</span> The <dfn>simikon</dfn> had thirty-five strings,
-and derived its name from its inventor, Simos, who lived about
-600 <span class="sc">B.C.</span> It was perhaps a kind of dulcimer. The <dfn>nabla</dfn> had
-ten, or according to Josephus, twelve strings, and probably
-resembled the <dfn>nevel</dfn> of the Hebrews, of which but little is
-known with certainty. The <dfn>pandoura</dfn> is supposed to have
-been a kind of lute with three strings. Several of the
-instruments just noticed were used in Greece, chiefly by
-musicians who had immigrated from Asia; they can therefore
-hardly be considered as national musical instruments
-of the Greeks. The <dfn>monochord</dfn> had (as its name implies) only a
-single string, and was used as a tuning string.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>aulos</dfn>, of which there were many varieties, was a highly
-popular instrument, and differed in construction from the
-flutes and pipes of the ancient Egyptians. Instead of being
-blown through a hole at the side near the top it was held
-like a flageolet, and a vibrating reed was inserted into the
-mouth-piece, so that it might be more properly described as
-a kind of oboe or clarinet. The Greeks were accustomed to
-designate by the name of <dfn>aulos</dfn> all wind instruments of the
-flute and oboe kind, some of which were constructed like
-the flageolet or like our antiquated
-<dfn>flûte à bec</dfn>. The single
-flute was called <dfn>monaulos</dfn> (Fig.
-7), and the double one <dfn>diaulos</dfn>
-(<a href="#fig_8">Fig. 8</a>). A <dfn>diaulos</dfn>, which was
-found in a tomb at Athens,
-is in the British Museum. The
-wood of which it is made
-seems to be cedar, and the tubes
-are fifteen inches in length.
-Each tube has a separate
-mouth-piece and six finger-holes,
-five of which are at the
-upper side and one is underneath.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_8" id="fig_8"></a>
- <img src="images/fig8.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Muse playing Diaulos"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;A Muse playing the <span class="sc">Diaulos</span>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <dfn>syrinx</dfn>, or Pandean pipe,
-had from three to nine tubes,
-but seven was the usual
-<!--Pg 051--><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a><span class="pageno">32</span>
-number. The straight trumpet, <dfn>salpinx</dfn>, and the curved horn,
-<dfn>keras</dfn>, made of brass, were used exclusively in war. The
-small hand-drum, called <dfn>tympanon</dfn>, resembled in shape our
-tambourine, and was covered with parchment at the back
-as well as at the front. The <dfn>kymbala</dfn> were made of metal,
-and resembled our small cymbals. The <dfn>krotala</dfn> were almost
-identical with our castanets, and were made of wood or
-metal.</p>
-
-<p class="p2 center"><span class="sc">The Etruscans and Romans.</span></p>
-
-<p>The Romans are recorded to have derived some of their most
-popular instruments originally from the Etruscans, a people
-which at an early period excelled all other Italian nations in the
-cultivation of the arts as well as in social refinement, and which
-possessed musical instruments similar to those of the Greeks.
-It must, however, be remembered that many of the vases
-and other specimens of art which have been found in Etruscan
-tombs, and on which delineations of lyres and other instruments
-occur, are supposed to be productions of Greek artists
-whose works were obtained from Greece by the Etruscans,
-or who were induced to settle in Etruria.</p>
-
-<p>The flutes of the Etruscans were not unfrequently made of
-ivory; those used in religious sacrifices were of box-wood, of a
-species of the lotus, of ass’ bone, bronze and silver. A bronze
-flute, somewhat resembling our flageolet, has been found in a
-tomb; likewise a huge trumpet of bronze. An Etruscan <dfn>cornu</dfn>
-is deposited in the British Museum, and measures about four
-feet in length.</p>
-
-<p>To the Etruscans is also attributed by some the invention
-of the hydraulic organ. The Greeks possessed a somewhat
-similar contrivance which they called <dfn>hydraulis</dfn>, <span class="decoration">i.e.</span>, water-flute
-and which probably was identical with the <dfn>organum</dfn>
-<!--Pg 052--><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a><span class="pageno">33</span>
-<dfn>hydraulicum</dfn> of the Romans. The instrument ought more
-properly to be regarded as a pneumatic organ, for the sound
-was produced by the current of air through the pipes; the
-water applied serving merely to give the necessary pressure to
-the bellows and to regulate their action. The pipes were
-probably caused to sound by means of stops, perhaps resembling
-those on our organ, which were drawn out or pushed in.
-The construction was evidently but a primitive contrivance,
-contained in a case which could be carried by one or two
-persons and which was placed on a table. The highest degree
-of perfection which the hydraulic organ obtained with the
-ancients is perhaps shown in a representation on a coin of the
-Emperor Nero, in the British Museum. Only ten pipes are
-given to it, and there is no indication of any keyboard, which
-would probably have been shown had it existed. The man
-standing at the side and holding a laurel leaf in his hand is
-surmised to represent a victor in the exhibitions of the circus
-or the amphitheatre. The hydraulic organ probably was
-played on such occasions; and the medal containing an
-impression of it may have been bestowed upon the victor.</p>
-
-<p>During the time of the Republic, and especially subsequently
-under the reign of the Emperors, the Romans adopted
-many new instruments from Greece, Egypt, and even from
-western Asia; without essentially improving any of their
-importations.</p>
-
-<p>Their most favourite stringed instrument was the lyre, of
-which they had various kinds, called, according to their form
-and arrangement of strings, <dfn>lyra</dfn>, <dfn>cithara</dfn>, <dfn>chelys</dfn>, <dfn>testudo</dfn>, and
-<dfn>fidis</dfn> (or <dfn>fides</dfn>). The name <dfn>cornu</dfn> was given to the lyre when
-the sides of the frame terminated at the top in the shape
-of two horns. The <dfn>barbitos</dfn> was a kind of lyre with a large
-body, which gave the instrument somewhat the shape of the
-Welsh <dfn>crwth</dfn>. The <dfn>psalterium</dfn> was a kind of lyre of an oblong
-<!--Pg 053--><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a><span class="pageno">34</span>
-square shape. Like most of the Roman lyres, it was played
-with a rather large plectrum. The <dfn>trigonum</dfn> was the same as
-the Greek <dfn>trigonon</dfn>. It is recorded that a certain musician of
-the name of Alexander Alexandrinus was so admirable a performer
-upon it that when exhibiting his skill in Rome he
-created the greatest <dfn>furore</dfn>. Less common, and derived from
-Asia, were the <dfn>sambuca</dfn> and <dfn>nablia</dfn>, the exact construction
-of which is unknown.</p>
-
-<p>The flute, <dfn>tibia</dfn>, was originally made of the shin bone, and
-had a mouth-hole and four finger-holes. Its shape was
-retained even when, at a later period, it was constructed of
-other substances than bone. The <dfn>tibia gingrina</dfn> consisted
-of a long and thin tube of reed with a mouth-hole at the side
-of one end. The <dfn>tibia obliqua</dfn> and <dfn>tibia vasca</dfn> were provided
-with mouth-pieces affixed at a right angle to the tube; a
-contrivance somewhat similar to that on our bassoon. The
-<dfn>tibia longa</dfn> was especially used in religious worship. The
-<dfn>tibia curva</dfn> was curved at its broadest end. The <dfn>tibia ligula</dfn>
-appears to have resembled our flageolet. The <dfn>calamus</dfn> was
-nothing more than a simple pipe cut off the kind of reed which
-the ancients used as a pen for writing.</p>
-
-<p>The Romans had double flutes as well as single flutes. The
-double flute consisted of two tubes united, either so as to have
-a mouth-piece in common or to have each a separate mouth-piece.
-If the tubes were exactly alike the double flute was
-called <dfn>tibiæ pares</dfn>; if they were different from each other,
-<dfn>tibiæ impares</dfn>. Little plugs, or stoppers, were inserted into
-the finger-holes to regulate the order of intervals. The <dfn>tibia</dfn>
-was made in various shapes. The <dfn>tibia dextra</dfn> was usually
-constructed of the upper and thinner part of a reed; and the
-<dfn>tibia sinistra</dfn>, of the lower and broader part. The performers
-used also the <dfn>capistrum</dfn>,&mdash;&#8203;a bandage round the cheeks identical
-with the <dfn>phorbeia</dfn> of the Greeks.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_9" id="fig_9"></a>
- <img src="images/fig9.jpg"
- width="500"
- alt="Illustration: Wall Painting"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.&mdash;Wall Painting</span> of a youth wearing a myrtle wreath and playing on the Double Pipes.
-Restored in places. Said to have been found in a columbarium in the Vigna Ammendola
-on the Appian Way near Rome, about 1823.<br />
-British Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 056--><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a><span class="pageno">35</span>
-
-<p>The British Museum contains a wall painting (<a href="#fig_9">Fig. 9</a>) representing
-a Roman youth playing the double pipes, which is
-stated to have been disinterred in the year 1823 on the Via
-Appia. Here the <dfn>holmos</dfn> or mouth-piece, somewhat resembling
-the reed of our oboe, is distinctly shown. The finger-holes,
-probably four, are not indicated, although they undoubtedly
-existed on the instrument.</p>
-
-<p>Furthermore, the Romans had two kinds of Pandean pipes
-<abbr title="namely">viz.</abbr>, the <dfn>syrinx</dfn> and the <dfn>fistula</dfn>. The bagpipe, <dfn>tibia utricularis</dfn>,
-is said to have been a favourite instrument of the Emperor
-Nero.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>cornu</dfn> was a large horn of bronze, curved. The performer
-held it under his arm with the broad end upwards
-over his shoulder. It is represented in the engraving (<a href="#fig_10">Fig.
-10</a>), with the <dfn>tuba</dfn>
-and the <dfn>lituus</dfn>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_10" id="fig_10"></a>
- <img src="images/fig10.jpg"
- width="300"
- alt="Illustration: Tuba Cornu and Lituus"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.&mdash;Tuba Cornu</span> and <span class="sc">Lituus</span>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <dfn>tuba</dfn> was a
-straight trumpet.
-Both the <dfn>cornu</dfn> and
-the <dfn>tuba</dfn> were employed
-in war to convey
-signals. The
-same was the case
-with the <dfn>buccina</dfn>,&mdash;&#8203;originally
-perhaps a
-conch shell, and
-afterwards a simple
-horn of an animal,&mdash;&#8203;and
-the <dfn>lituus</dfn>,
-which was bent at the broad end but otherwise straight. The
-<dfn>tympanum</dfn> resembled the tambourine, and was beaten like
-the latter with the hands. Among the Roman instruments of
-percussion the <dfn>scabellum</dfn>, which consisted of two plates combined
-<!--Pg 057--><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a><span class="pageno">36</span>
-by means of a sort of hinge, deserves to be noticed;
-it was fastened under the foot and trodden in time, to produce
-certain rhythmical effects in musical performances. The
-<dfn>cymbalum</dfn> consisted of two metal plates similar to our
-cymbals. The <dfn>crotala</dfn> and the <dfn>crusmata</dfn> were kinds of castanets,
-the former being oblong and of a larger size than the
-latter. The Romans had also a <dfn>triangulum</dfn>, which resembled
-the triangle occasionally used in our orchestra. The <dfn>sistrum</dfn>
-they derived from Egypt with the introduction of the worship
-of Isis. Metal bells, arranged according to a regular order
-of intervals and placed in a frame, were called <dfn>tintinnabula</dfn>.
-The <dfn>crepitaculum</dfn> appears to have been a somewhat similar
-contrivance on a hoop with a handle.</p>
-
-<p>Through the Greeks and Romans we have the first well-authenticated
-proof of musical instruments having been
-introduced into Europe from Asia. The Romans in their
-conquests undoubtedly made their musical instruments
-known, to some extent, also in western Europe. But the
-Greeks and Romans are not the only nations which introduced
-Eastern instruments into Europe. The Phœnicians at
-an early period colonized Sardinia, and traces of them are
-still to be found on that island. Among these is a peculiarly
-constructed double-pipe, called <dfn>lionedda</dfn> or <dfn>launedda</dfn>. Again,
-at a much later period the Arabs introduced several of their
-instruments into Spain, from which country they became
-known in France, Germany, and England. Also the
-crusaders, during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, may have
-helped to familiarize the western European nations with
-instruments of the East.</p>
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-
-<div class="chapter"><!--Pg 058--><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a><span class="pageno">37</span>
-<h3 class="p4 h3head"><abbr title="Five">V.</abbr></h3>
-
-<h4 class="h4head">ORIENTAL.</h4>
-
-<p class="p2 center"><span class="sc">The Chinese.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="sc">Allowing</span> for any exaggeration as to chronology, natural
-to the lively imagination of Asiatics, there is no reason to
-doubt that the Chinese possessed long before our Christian
-era musical instruments to which they attribute a fabulously
-high antiquity. There is an ancient tradition, according
-to which they obtained their musical scale from a miraculous
-bird, called <dfn>fêng-huang</dfn>, which appears to have been a sort of
-phœnix. When Confucius, who lived about <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 551-479,
-happened to hear on a certain occasion some Chinese music,
-he is said to have become so greatly enraptured that he could
-not take any food for three months afterwards. The sounds
-which produced this effect were those of K’uei, the Orpheus
-of the Chinese, whose performance on the <dfn>ch’ing</dfn>&mdash;&#8203;a kind of
-harmonicon constructed of slabs of sonorous stone&mdash;&#8203;would
-draw wild animals around him and make them subservient
-to his will. As regards the invention of musical instruments
-the Chinese have other traditions. In one of these we are
-told that the origin of some of their most popular instruments
-dates from the period when China was under the dominion
-of heavenly spirits, called Ch’i. Another assigns the invention
-of several stringed instruments to the great Fu-hsi who
-was the founder of the empire and who lived about <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 3000,
-which was long after the dominion of the Ch’i, or spirits.
-Again, another tradition holds that the most important
-instruments and systematic arrangements of sounds are an
-invention of Nü-wa, sister and successor of Fu-hsi.</p>
-
-<p><!--Pg 059--><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a><span class="pageno">38</span>
-According to their records, the Chinese possessed their
-much-esteemed <dfn>ch’ing</dfn> 2200 years before our Christian era, and
-employed it for accompanying songs of praise. It was regarded
-as a sacred instrument. During religious observances
-at the solemn moment when the <dfn>ch’ing</dfn> was sounded sticks of
-incense were burnt. It was likewise played before the emperor
-early in the morning when he awoke. The Chinese
-have long since constructed various kinds of the <dfn>ch’ing</dfn>,
-by using different species of stones. Their most famous
-stone selected for this purpose is called <dfn>yü</dfn>. <dfn>Yü</dfn> includes
-the two varieties of jade, nephrite and jadeite. It is not
-only very sonorous but also beautiful in appearance. It
-is found in mountain streams and crevices of rocks.
-The largest known specimens measure from two to three
-feet in diameter, but examples of this size rarely occur. The
-<dfn>yü</dfn> is very hard and heavy. Some European mineralogists,
-to whom the missionaries transmitted specimens for examination,
-pronounce it to be a species of agate (<dfn>ma-nao</dfn>).
-It is found of different colours, and the Chinese appear to
-have preferred in different centuries particular colours for
-the <dfn>ch’ing</dfn>.</p>
-
-<p>The Chinese consider the <dfn>yü</dfn> especially valuable for musical
-purposes, because it always retains exactly the same pitch.
-All other musical instruments, they say, are in this respect
-doubtful; but the tone of the <dfn>yü</dfn> is influenced neither by
-cold nor heat, nor by humidity, nor dryness.</p>
-
-<p>The stones used for the <dfn>ch’ing</dfn> have been cut from time to
-time in various grotesque shapes. Some represent animals:
-as, for instance, a bat with outstretched wings; or two
-fishes placed side by side: others are in the shape of an
-ancient Chinese bell. The angular shape appears to be the
-oldest form and is still retained in the ornamental stones of
-the <dfn>pien-ch’ing</dfn>, which is a more modern instrument than the
-<!--Pg 060--><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a><span class="pageno">39</span>
-<dfn>ch’ing</dfn>. The tones of the <dfn>pien-ch’ing</dfn> are attuned according
-to the Chinese intervals called <dfn>lü</dfn>, of which there are twelve
-in the compass of an octave. The same is the case with
-the other Chinese instruments of this class. They vary,
-however, in pitch. The pitch of the <dfn>sung-ch’ing</dfn>, for instance,
-is four intervals lower than that of the <dfn>pien-ch’ing</dfn>.</p>
-
-<p>Sonorous stones have always been used by the Chinese
-also singly, as rhythmical instruments. Such a single stone is
-called <dfn>t’ê-ch’ing</dfn>.</p>
-
-<p>The ancient Chinese had several kinds of bells, frequently
-arranged in sets so as to constitute a musical scale. The
-Chinese name for the bell is <dfn>chung</dfn>. At an early period they
-had a somewhat square-shaped bell called <dfn>t’ê-chung</dfn>. Like
-other ancient Chinese bells it was made of copper alloyed with
-tin, the proportion being one part of tin to six of copper.
-The <dfn>t’ê-chung</dfn>, which is also known by the name of <dfn>piao</dfn>, was
-principally used to indicate the time and divisions in musical
-performances. It had a fixed pitch of sound, and several of
-these bells attuned to a certain order of intervals were not
-unfrequently ranged in a regular succession, thus forming a
-musical instrument which was called <dfn>pien-chung</dfn>. The
-musical scale of the sixteen bells which the <dfn>pien-chung</dfn> contained
-was the same as that of the <dfn>ch’ing</dfn> before mentioned.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>hsüan-chung</dfn> was, according to popular tradition,
-included with the antique instruments at the time of Confucius,
-and came into popular use during the Han dynasty
-(from <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 200 until <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 200). It was of a peculiar oval
-shape and had nearly the same quaint ornamentation as the
-<dfn>t’ê-chung</dfn>; this consisted of symbolical figures, in four divisions,
-each containing nine mammals. The mouth was
-crescent-shaped. Every figure had a deep meaning referring
-to the seasons and to the mysteries of the Buddhist religion.
-The largest <dfn>hsüan-chung</dfn> was about twenty inches in length;
-<!--Pg 061--><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a><span class="pageno">40</span>
-and, like the <dfn>t’ê-chung</dfn>, was sounded by means of a small
-wooden mallet with an oval knob. None of the bells of this
-description had a clapper. It would, however, appear that
-the Chinese had at an early period some kind of bell provided
-with a wooden tongue: this was used for military purposes
-as well as for calling the people together when an imperial
-messenger promulgated his sovereign’s commands. An
-expression of Confucius is recorded to the effect that he
-wished to be “A wooden-tongued bell of Heaven,” <span class="decoration">i.e.</span>, a
-herald of heaven to proclaim the divine purposes to the
-multitude.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>fang-hsiang</dfn> was a kind of wood-harmonicon. It contained
-sixteen wooden slabs of an oblong square shape, suspended
-in a wooden frame elegantly decorated. The slabs
-were arranged in two tiers, one above the other, and were all
-of equal length and breadth but differed in thickness. The
-<dfn>ch’un-tu</dfn> consisted of twelve slips of bamboo, and was
-used for beating time and for rhythmical purposes. The
-slips being banded together at one end could be expanded
-somewhat like a fan. The Chinese state that they used the
-<dfn>ch’un-tu</dfn> for writing upon before they invented paper.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>yü</dfn>, likewise an ancient Chinese instrument of percussion
-and still in use, is made of wood in the shape of a
-crouching tiger. It is hollow, and along its back are about
-twenty small pieces of metal, pointed, and in appearance not
-unlike the teeth of a saw. The performer strikes them with
-a sort of plectrum resembling a brush, or with a small stick
-called <dfn>chên</dfn>. Occasionally the <dfn>yü</dfn> is made with pieces of
-metal shaped like reeds.</p>
-
-<p>The ancient <dfn>yü</dfn> was constructed with only six tones which
-were attuned thus&mdash;&#8203;<span class="decoration">f</span>, <span class="decoration">g</span>, <span class="decoration">a</span>, <span class="decoration">c</span>, <span class="decoration">d</span>, <span class="decoration">f</span>. The instrument appears
-to have deteriorated in the course of time; for, although
-it has gradually acquired as many as twenty-seven pieces
-<!--Pg 062--><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a><span class="pageno">41</span>
-of metal, it evidently serves at the present day more for
-the production of rhythmical noise than for the execution of
-any melody. The modern <dfn>yü</dfn> is made of a species of wood
-called <dfn>k’iu</dfn> or <dfn>ch’iu</dfn>; and the tiger rests generally on a hollow
-wooden pedestal about three feet six inches long, which
-serves as a sound-board.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>chu</dfn>, likewise an instrument of percussion, was made
-of the wood of a tree called <dfn>ch’iu-mu</dfn>, the stem of which
-resembles that of the pine and whose foliage is much like that
-of the cypress. It was constructed of boards about three-quarters
-of an inch in thickness. In the middle of one of the
-sides was an aperture into which the hand was passed for
-the purpose of holding the handle of a wooden hammer, the
-end of which entered into a hole situated in the bottom of
-the <dfn>chu</dfn>. The handle was kept in its place by means of a
-wooden pin, on which it moved right and left when the instrument
-was struck with a hammer. The Chinese ascribe to
-the <dfn>chu</dfn> a very high antiquity, as they almost invariably
-do with any of their inventions when the date of its origin
-is unknown to them.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>po-fu</dfn> was a drum, about one foot four inches in length,
-and seven inches in diameter. It had a parchment at each
-end, which was prepared in a peculiar way by being boiled
-in water. The <dfn>po-fu</dfn> used to be partly filled with a preparation
-made from the husk of rice, in order to mellow the sound.
-The Chinese name for the drum is <dfn>ku</dfn>.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>chin-ku</dfn>, a large drum fixed on a pedestal which
-raises it above six feet from the ground, is embellished
-with symbolical designs. A similar drum on which natural
-phenomena are depicted is called <dfn>lei-ku</dfn>; and another of
-the kind, with figures of certain birds and beasts which are
-regarded as symbols of long life, is called <dfn>ying-ku</dfn>, and
-also <dfn>tsu-ku</dfn>.</p>
-
-<p><!--Pg 063--><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a><span class="pageno">42</span>
-The flutes, <dfn>ti</dfn>, <dfn>yüeh</dfn>, and <dfn>ch’ih</dfn> were generally made of bamboo.
-The <dfn>kuan-tzŭ</dfn> was a Pandean pipe containing twelve tubes of
-bamboo. The <dfn>hsiao</dfn>, likewise a Pandean pipe, contained
-sixteen tubes. The <dfn>p’ai-hsiao</dfn> differed from the <dfn>hsiao</dfn> inasmuch
-as the tubes were inserted into an oddly-shaped case highly
-ornamented with grotesque designs and silken appendages.</p>
-
-<p>The Chinese are known to have constructed at an early
-period a curious wind-instrument, called <dfn>hsüan</dfn> (the “Chinese
-ocarina") (<a href="#fig_11">Fig. 11</a>). It
-was made of baked clay
-and had five finger-holes,
-three of which were
-placed on one side and
-two on the opposite side,
-as in the cut. Its tones
-were in conformity with
-the pentatonic scale.
-The reader unacquainted with the pentatonic scale may
-ascertain its character by playing on the pianoforte the scale
-of C major with the omission of <span class="decoration">f</span> and <span class="decoration">b</span> (the <span class="decoration">fourth</span> and <span class="decoration">seventh</span>);
-or by striking the black keys in regular succession from
-<span class="decoration">f</span>-sharp to the next <span class="decoration">f</span>-sharp above or below.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_11" id="fig_11"></a>
- <img src="images/fig11.jpg"
- width="50%"
- alt="Illustration: Hsüan"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.&mdash;Hsüan.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <dfn>shêng</dfn> (<a href="#fig_12">Fig. 12<span class="decoration">b</span></a>) is one of the oldest instruments of
-the Chinese still in use, and may be regarded as the most
-ancient species of organ with which we are exactly acquainted.
-Formerly it had either thirteen, nineteen, or twenty-four
-tubes placed in a calabash; and a long curved tube
-served as a mouth-piece. A similarly-constructed instrument,
-though different in outward appearance, is the
-<dfn>ken</dfn> of Siam and Burmah. The Siamese call the <dfn>ken</dfn>
-“The Laos organ,” and it is principally used by the inhabitants
-of the Laos states. Moreover, there deserves to be
-noticed another Chinese instrument of this kind, simple in
-construction, which probably represents the <dfn>shêng</dfn> in its most
-primitive condition. It is to be found among the Miao-tsze,
-or mountaineers, who are supposed to be the aboriginal inhabitants
-of China. They call it <dfn>sang</dfn>. This species has no
-bowl, or air-chest; it rather resembles the Panpipe, but is
-sounded by means of a common mouthpiece consisting of a
-tube, which is placed at a right angle across the pipes. The
-Chinese assert that the <dfn>shêng</dfn> was used in olden time in the
-religious rites performed in honour of Confucius. Tradescant
-Lay, in his account of the Chinese, calls it “Jubal’s organ,”
-and remarks, “this seems to be the embryo of our multiform
-and magnificent organ."</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_12" id="fig_12"></a>
- <img src="images/fig12.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Lute, mouth organ, and guitar"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;<span class="decoration">a.</span> <span class="sc">Ch’in</span> (a species of Lute). Modern Chinese.<br /><abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 9-’70. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 38½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 8½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr><br />
-          <span class="decoration">b.</span> <span class="sc">Shêng</span> (Mouth Organ). Chinese, 19th century. <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 977-’72.<br /><abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 17 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 4¼ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr><br />
-          <span class="decoration">c.</span> <span class="sc">Yueh-ch’in</span> (Moon Guitar). Chinese. 19th Century.<br /><abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 256-’82.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 066--><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a><span class="pageno">43</span>
-
-<p>The ancient stringed instruments, the <dfn>ch’in</dfn> (<a href="#fig_12">Fig. 12<span class="decoration">a</span></a>) and <dfn>sê</dfn>,
-were of the dulcimer kind, they are still in use, and specimens
-of them are in the Museum.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>yueh-ch’in</dfn> (<a href="#fig_12">Fig. 12<span class="decoration">c</span></a>) is a favourite instrument of the
-Chinese. The Canton pronunciation of <dfn>yueh-ch’in</dfn> is <dfn>yuet-kum</dfn>,
-and this may be the reason why some European travellers
-in China have called the instrument <dfn>gut-komm</dfn>. The wood of
-which it is made is called by the Chinese <dfn>shwan-che</dfn>. The
-strings are twanged with a plectrum, or with the nails, which,
-it will be remembered, are grown by the Chinese to an extravagant
-length.</p>
-
-<p>The Buddhists introduced from Tibet into China their god
-of music, who is represented as a rather jovial-looking man
-with a moustache and an imperial, playing the <dfn>p’i-p’a</dfn>, a kind
-of lute with four silken strings. Perhaps some interesting
-information respecting the ancient Chinese musical instruments
-may be gathered from the famous ruins of the Buddhist
-temples <dfn>Angcor-Wat</dfn> and <dfn>Angcor-Thom</dfn>, in Cambodia. These
-splendid ruins are supposed to be above two thousand years
-old: and, at any rate, the circumstance of their age not being
-known to the Cambodians suggests a high antiquity. On
-<!--Pg 067--><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a><span class="pageno">44</span>
-the bas-reliefs with which the temples were enriched are
-figured musical instruments, which European travellers
-describe as “flutes, organs, trumpets, and drums, resembling
-those of the Chinese.” Faithful sketches of these representations,
-might, very likely, afford valuable hints to the student
-of musical history.</p>
-
-<p class="p2 center"><span class="sc">The Japanese.</span></p>
-
-<p>The Japanese musical instruments are in the main derived
-from those of China, and their names consequently represent
-the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese sounds.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>biwa</dfn> (<a href="#fig_13">Fig. 13<span class="decoration">b</span></a>) is almost identical with the Chinese
-<dfn>p’i-p’a</dfn>. The example illustrated is of wood, lacquered
-black and ornamented with a band of Japanese design in
-gold lacquer. It has four silken strings, and two very
-small sound holes.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>samisen</dfn> (the Chinese <dfn>san-hsien</dfn> or “three-stringed
-guitar") is played especially by the Japanese ladies, and
-is as great a favourite with them as the lute was formerly
-with us. An example in the Museum (<a href="#fig_13">Fig. 13<span class="decoration">c</span></a>) has three
-strings of silk. Both the <dfn>biwa</dfn> and the <dfn>samisen</dfn> are played
-with a wooden plectrum. The <dfn>ko-kiū</dfn> is the Japanese violin,
-and resembles a small <dfn>samisen</dfn>, but has four strings. It is
-held head upwards and played with a loose-strung bow.</p>
-
-<p>The Japanese have several instruments of the dulcimer
-class, called <dfn>koto</dfn> (the Chinese <dfn>ch’in</dfn>) (<a href="#fig_13">Fig. 13<span class="decoration">a</span></a>). Some species
-of the <dfn>koto</dfn> are played with <dfn>plectra</dfn> affixed to the fingers;
-and there are different successions of intervals adopted in
-the tuning of the several species.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_13" id="fig_13"></a>
- <img src="images/fig13.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Title or description"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.&mdash;<span class="decoration">a.</span> <span class="sc">Koto</span> (a species of Lute). Japanese. 19th century.<br />
-<abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 75⅜ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 9½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 439-’91.<br />
-<span class="decoration">b.</span> <span class="sc">Biwa</span> (a species of Guitar).<br />Modern Japanese.<br />H. 32½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>,
-<abbr title="diameter">diam.</abbr> 11 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 838-’6c.<br />
-<span class="decoration">c.</span> <span class="sc">Samisen.</span> Japanese.<br /><abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 37½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 229-’82.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 070--><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a><span class="pageno">45</span>
-
-<p>The <dfn>ikuta-goto</dfn> is provided with thirteen movable bridges,
-by means of which the pitch of the strings is regulated. The
-bridges are of wood, and about 2½ inches in height. The
-<dfn>ikuta-goto</dfn> is learnt chiefly by Japanese ladies moving in the
-upper circles of society. It is a rather expensive instrument,
-and requires much practice. The performer places it on the
-floor, and, sitting in the usual Japanese attitude, bends
-over it and twangs the strings with her fingers, the tips of
-which are encased in <dfn>plectra</dfn>, resembling thimbles, which
-terminate in a little projecting piece of ivory in size and
-form like the finger nail.</p>
-
-<p>Of wind instruments the Japanese use three principal
-kinds:&mdash;&#8203;(1) The <dfn>fuye</dfn>, like our flute, with six or seven finger-holes;
-(2) the <dfn>hichiriki</dfn>, a reed-flageolet, with seven finger-holes
-and two thumb-holes; (3) the <dfn>shakuhachi</dfn>, a bamboo
-pipe 20 inches high.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>shêng</dfn> (described on <a href="#Page_42">p. 42</a>) is also popular in Japan.
-The Japanese name for it is <dfn>shō</dfn>. The general name in
-Japanese for the drum is <dfn>taiko</dfn> (= Chinese <dfn>ta ku</dfn>, “large
-drum"). The Japanese have a great variety of drums,
-some of which are used at religious ceremonies in the
-temples. The <dfn>shime-daiko</dfn> is a shallow drum hung obliquely
-before the player in a low wooden frame. It is beaten
-with two plain sticks, and is used to accompany singers.
-The <dfn>tsudzumi</dfn> is a small hand-drum with hour-glass-shaped
-body.</p>
-
-<p>The Japanese have different kinds of gongs (<dfn>dora</dfn> = Chinese
-<dfn>t’ung-lo</dfn>, “copper gong"), which are used in the service
-of the temple, in processions, at funerals, and on several
-other solemn occasions. The <dfn>dōhachi</dfn> (= Chinese <dfn>t’ung
-po</dfn>, “copper bowl") resembles a copper basin. Another
-consists of two metal basins suspended by cords on a frame
-composed of a pole and two cross-sticks.</p>
-
-<p>The Japanese, as well as the Chinese, possess superbly
-ornamented gongs (<dfn>kei</dfn>) raised on a stand. Those of the
-former are perhaps the more magnificent.</p>
-
-<p><!--Pg 071--><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a><span class="pageno">46</span>
-The Japanese employ large bells (<dfn>kane</dfn> or <dfn>tsuri-gane</dfn> =
-Chinese <dfn>chung</dfn>) in their Buddhist worship. There is a famous
-bell, richly decorated, near the Daibutsu at Kiōto, which is
-struck, at different hours of the day, with a heavy wooden
-mallet; and its sound is said to be particularly sonorous,
-mellow, and far-reaching. Another celebrated Japanese bell
-is placed on a high hill near the town of Nara. It is suspended
-in a wooden shed, close to the Tōdaiji Temple. A thick pole,
-affixed to the rafters, is drawn backwards, and then, by being
-let loose, is made to rebound so as to hit the bell sideways in
-the usual manner. This bell is admired throughout the
-country, and pictures representing it are sold on the spot
-to the visitors, who have to ascend a long flight of narrow
-steps before they reach its station on the summit of the
-hill. Small bells (<dfn>rin</dfn>) are used by the Buddhist priests in
-Japan while officiating in the temple, just as is the case in
-China, Thibet and other districts of the Asiatic continent.</p>
-
-<p class="p2 center"><span class="sc">The Hindus.</span></p>
-
-<p>In the Brahmin mythology of the Hindus the demi-god
-Nareda is the inventor of the <dfn>vina</dfn>, the principal national
-instrument of Hindustan. His mother, Saraswati, the consort
-of Brahma, may be regarded as the Minerva of the Hindus.
-She is the goddess of music as well as of speech. To her is
-attributed the invention of the systematic arrangement
-of the sounds into a musical scale. She is represented seated
-on a peacock and playing either on the southern <dfn>vina</dfn> or the
-<dfn>bîn</dfn>, stringed instruments of the lute kind. Brahma himself
-we occasionally find depicted as a vigorous man with four
-handsome heads, beating with his hands upon a small drum;
-and Vishnu, in his incarnation as Krishna, is represented
-as a beautiful youth playing upon a flute. The Hindus
-<!--Pg 072--><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a><span class="pageno">47</span>
-construct a peculiar kind of flute, the <dfn>bansi</dfn>, which they
-consider as the favourite instrument of Krishna.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>sankha</dfn>, or conch-shell trumpet of victory, one of the
-important attributes of Vishnu the preserver, and his consort
-Lakshmi, is occasionally represented in the possession of
-Siva, and other deities. Siva the destroyer, and his consort
-Parvati, also carry the <dfn>budbudika</dfn>, or <dfn>damaru</dfn>, a rattle-drum
-shaped like an hour-glass.</p>
-
-<p>It is a suggestive fact that we find among several nations
-in different parts of the world an ancient tradition, according
-to which their most popular stringed instrument was originally
-derived from the water. Thus with Nareda and the <dfn>vina</dfn>,
-the latter has also the name <dfn>kach’-hapi</dfn>, signifying a tortoise
-(<dfn>testudo</dfn>), whilst <dfn>nara</dfn> denotes in Sanskrit water, and <dfn>narada</dfn>,
-or <dfn>nareda</dfn>, the giver of water. Like Nareda, Nereus and his
-fifty daughters, the Nereïdes, were much renowned for their
-musical accomplishments; and Hermes (it will be remembered)
-made his lyre, the <dfn>chelys</dfn>, of a tortoise-shell. The Scandinavian
-god Odin, the originator of magic songs, is mentioned
-as the ruler of the sea, and as such he had the name of <dfn>Nikarr</dfn>.
-In the depth of the sea he played the harp with his subordinate
-spirits, who occasionally came up to the surface of the water
-to teach some favoured human being their wonderful instrument.
-Wäinämöinen, the divine player on the Finnish
-<dfn>kantele</dfn> (according to the Kalewala, the old national epic
-of the Finns) constructed his instrument of fish-bones. The
-frame he made out of the bones of the pike; and the teeth of
-the pike he used for the tuning-pegs.</p>
-
-<p>Jacob Grimm in his work on German mythology points out
-an old tradition, preserved in Swedish and Scotch national
-ballads, of a skilful harper who constructs his instrument
-out of the bones of a young girl drowned by a wicked woman.
-Her fingers he uses for the tuning screws, and her golden
-<!--Pg 073--><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a><span class="pageno">48</span>
-hair for the strings. The harper plays, and his music kills
-the murderess. A similar story is told in the old Icelandic
-national songs; and the same tradition has been preserved
-in the Faroe islands, as well as in Norway and Denmark.</p>
-
-<p>May not the agreeable impression produced by the rhythmical
-flow of the waves and the soothing murmur of running
-water have led various nations, independently of each other,
-to the widespread conception that they obtained their favourite
-instrument of music from the water? Or is the notion
-traceable to a common source dating from a pre-historic age,
-perhaps from the early period when the Aryan race is surmised
-to have diffused its lore through various countries? Or did it
-originate in the old belief that the world, with all its charms
-and delights, arose from a chaos in which water constituted
-the predominant element?</p>
-
-<p>Howbeit, Nareda, the giver of water, was the offspring of
-Brahma the creator; and Odin had his throne in the skies.
-Indeed, many of the musical water-spirits appear to have
-been originally considered as rain deities. Their music may,
-therefore, be regarded as derived from the clouds rather than
-from the sea. In short, the traditions respecting spirits and
-water are not in contradiction to the opinion of the ancient
-Hindus that music is of heavenly origin, but rather tend to
-support it.</p>
-
-<p>The earliest musical instruments of the Hindus on record
-have, almost all of them, remained in popular use until the
-present day scarcely altered. Besides these, the Hindus
-possess several Arabic and Persian instruments which are of
-comparatively modern date in Hindustan: evidently having
-been introduced into that country scarcely 1,000 years ago, at
-the time of the Muhammadan irruption. There are several
-treatises on music extant, written in Sanskrit, which contain
-descriptions of the ancient instruments.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img80">
- <a name="fig_14" id="fig_14"></a>
- <img src="images/fig14.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Title or description"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;<span class="decoration">a.</span> <span class="sc">Sârinda and Bow.</span> Indian (Bengal). 19th century.<br />
-  <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 25 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>; bow 15¾ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>
-<abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 180. 180ᵃ-’82.<br />
-<span class="decoration">b.</span> <span class="sc">Rudra Vina.</span> Southern Indian (Madras).<br />19th century. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 45 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>
-<abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 02130. I.S.<br />
-<span class="decoration">c.</span> <span class="sc">Sârangi and Bow.</span> Southern Indian.<br />19th century. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 22 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>
-<abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 02118. I.S.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 076--><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a><span class="pageno">49</span>
-
-<p>Of these the Bhârata Nâtya S’astra by Bhârata Muni
-(period: <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 200 to <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 100), and the Sangita Ratnâkara,
-are probably the oldest and most valuable. The latter,
-according to information supplied by the late Major C. R.
-Day, is an exhaustive work, consisting of seven ādhyayas,
-compiled by Sarnga Deva, son of Sotala Deva, King of
-Karnata, and grandson of Bhaskara, a Kashmirian (period:
-so far undetermined).</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>vina</dfn> is undoubtedly of high antiquity. It has seven
-wire strings, and movable frets which are generally fastened
-with wax. Gourds, often tastefully ornamented, are affixed
-for the purpose of increasing the sonorousness. There are
-several kinds of the <dfn>vina</dfn> in different districts.</p>
-
-<p>Concerning the two principal present-day derivations from
-the ancient vina, the following abbreviated descriptions of the
-<dfn>rudra vina</dfn> of Southern India and the <dfn>bîn</dfn> or <dfn>mahati vina</dfn> of
-Northern India, are obtained from “The Music and Musical
-Instruments of Southern India,” by the late Major C. R. Day
-(London, 1891).</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>rudra vina</dfn> (<span class="decoration">see</span> <a href="#fig_14">Fig. 14<span class="decoration">b</span></a>) is composed of a pear-shaped
-body of thin wood, hollowed out of the solid; wooden belly;
-four principal metal strings passing over twenty-four frets
-and three shorter wires placed at the side of the finger-board;
-also a single detachable <dfn>burra</dfn>, or hollow gourd, fastened to the
-under-side of the neck, near the head, to increase the volume
-of sound. In the method of playing it differs from that of
-other Indian musical instruments, the left hand being employed
-to stop the strings on the frets, whilst the fingers,
-or rather the finger-nails, of the right hand are used, without
-plectra, for striking. The <dfn>bîn</dfn>, or <dfn>mahali vina</dfn>, differs from
-the <dfn>rudra vina</dfn> in shape and in method of playing. Two
-large gourd-resonators replace the wooden body with its
-small <dfn>burra</dfn>; the side strings are placed two on the left
-<!--Pg 077--><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a><span class="pageno">50</span>
-side and one upon the right; the frets vary from nineteen
-to twenty-two in number; and in playing, the two first fingers
-of the right hand are armed with wire plectra.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>sârangi</dfn>, or the common fiddle of Southern India
-(<a href="#fig_14">Fig. 14<span class="decoration">c</span></a>) has a wooden body hollowed out of a single block,
-a parchment belly, three strings of thick gut, and usually
-fifteen sympathetic strings of wire, tuned chromatically.
-Sometimes a fourth principal string of wire, called <dfn>luruj</dfn>, is
-added. It is played with a bow, the instrument being held
-vertically, head uppermost; the tone resembling that of the
-viola. The <dfn>sârangi</dfn> of Northern India, usually carved with a
-conventional swan-shaped head, has a rounded body, and
-possesses a lesser number of sympathetic wires.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>sârinda</dfn>, or Bengal fiddle (<a href="#fig_14">Fig. 14<span class="decoration">a</span></a>), another of the few
-bowed instruments of India, consists of a hollow wooden body,
-usually decorated with carving, a curious parchment belly
-covering only the lower half of the body, and three strings
-either of gut or silk.</p>
-
-<p>The Hindus divided their musical scale into several intervals
-smaller than our modern semitones. They adopted twenty-two
-intervals called <dfn>s’ruti</dfn> in the compass of an octave, which
-may therefore be compared to our chromatic intervals. As
-the frets of the <dfn>vina</dfn> are movable the performer can easily
-regulate them according to the scale, or mode, which he
-requires for his music.</p>
-
-<p>The harp has long been obsolete. If some Hindu drawings
-of it can be relied upon, it had at an early time a triangular
-frame and was in construction as well as in shape and size
-almost identical with the Assyrian harp.</p>
-
-<p>The Hindus claim to have invented the violin bow. They
-maintain that the <dfn>ravanastra</dfn>, one of their old instruments
-played with the bow, was invented about 5,000 years ago by
-Ravana, a mighty king of Ceylon. However this may be,
-<!--Pg 078--><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a><span class="pageno">51</span>
-there is a great probability that the fiddle-bow originated in
-Hindustan; because Sanskrit scholars inform us that there
-are names for it in works which cannot be less than from
-1,500 to 2,000 years old. The non-occurrence of any instrument
-played with a bow on the monuments of the nations of
-antiquity is by no means so sure a proof as has generally
-been supposed, that the bow was unknown. The fiddle in its
-primitive condition must have been a poor contrivance.
-It probably was despised by players who could produce better
-tones with greater facility by twanging the strings with their
-fingers, or with a plectrum. Thus it may have remained
-through many centuries without experiencing any material
-improvement. It must also be borne in mind that the monuments
-transmitted to us chiefly represent historical events,
-religious ceremonies, and royal entertainments. On such
-occasions instruments of a certain kind only were used, and
-these we find represented; while others, which may have been
-even more common, never occur. In 2,000 years’ time
-people will possibly maintain that some highly perfected
-instrument popular with them was entirely unknown to us,
-because it is at present in so primitive a condition that no one
-hardly notices it.</p>
-
-<p>"What the <dfn>ravanastra</dfn>, or <dfn>râbanastra</dfn>, was like is rather
-doubtful, but at the present time there exists in Ceylon a
-primitive instrument played with a bow, called <dfn>vinavah</dfn>, which
-has two strings of different kinds, one made of a species
-of flax, and the other of horsehair, which is the material also
-of the string of the bow…. The hollow part of this instrument
-is half a cocoa-nut shell polished, covered with the
-dried skin of a lizard, and perforated below.” (Day, <abbr title="page">p.</abbr> 102.)</p>
-
-<p>This instrument again is almost identical with the Chinese
-fiddle called <dfn>ur-heen</dfn>, which also has two strings, and a body
-consisting of a small block of wood, hollowed out and covered
-<!--Pg 079--><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a><span class="pageno">52</span>
-with the skin of a serpent. The <dfn>ur-heen</dfn> has not been mentioned
-among the most ancient instruments of the Chinese, since
-there is no evidence of its having been known in China before
-the introduction of the Buddhist religion into that country.
-From indications, which to point out would lead too far here,
-it would appear that several instruments found in China
-originated in Hindustan. They seem to have been gradually
-diffused from Hindustan and Thibet, more or less altered
-in the course of time, through the East as far as Japan.</p>
-
-<p>Another curious Hindu instrument, probably of very high
-antiquity, is the <dfn>pungi</dfn>, or <dfn>jinagovi</dfn>, also called <dfn>toumrie</dfn> and
-<dfn>magoudi</dfn>. It consists of a gourd or of the <dfn>cuddos</dfn> nut,
-hollowed, into which two reed-pipes are inserted. The <dfn>pungi</dfn>
-therefore, somewhat resembles in appearance a bagpipe.
-It is generally used by the <dfn>saperá</dfn> or snake-charmer, who
-plays upon it when exhibiting the antics of the cobra. The
-name <dfn>magoudi</dfn>, given in certain districts to this instrument,
-rather tends to corroborate the opinion of some musical
-historians that the <dfn>magadis</dfn> of the ancient Greeks was a sort
-of double-pipe, or bagpipe.</p>
-
-<p>Many instruments of Hindustan are known by different
-names in different districts, and there are many varieties.
-On the whole, the Hindus possess about fifty instruments.
-To describe them properly would fill a volume. Some,
-which are in the Museum, will be found well described and
-illustrated in the previously mentioned work by the late
-Major C. R. Day, which, in addition to affording much valuable
-information to the student and collector, contains a lengthy
-bibliography of Indian music and musical instruments.</p>
-
-<p class="p2 center"><span class="sc">The Persians and Arabs.</span></p>
-
-<p>Of the musical instruments of the ancient Persians, before
-the Christian era, scarcely anything is known. It may be
-<!--Pg 080--><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a><span class="pageno">53</span>
-surmised that they closely resembled those of the Assyrians,
-and probably also those of the Hebrews.</p>
-
-<p>The harp, <dfn>chang</dfn>, in olden time a favourite instrument of the
-Persians, has gradually fallen into desuetude. A small harp
-is represented in the celebrated sculptures which exist on
-a stupendous rock, called Tak-i-Bostan, in the vicinity of the
-town of Kermanshah. These sculptures are said to have
-been executed during the lifetime of the Persian monarch
-Chosroes <abbr title="Two">II.</abbr> (591-628). They form the ornaments of two
-lofty arches, and consist of representations of field sports
-and aquatic amusements. In one of the boats is seated
-a man in an ornamental dress, with a halo round his head,
-who is receiving an arrow from one of his attendants;
-while a female, who is sitting near him, plays on a Trigonon.
-Towards the top of the bas-relief is represented a stage, on
-which are performers on small straight trumpets and little
-hand drums; six harpers; and four other musicians, apparently
-females&mdash;&#8203;the first of whom plays a flute; the second,
-a sort of Pandean pipe; the third, an instrument which is too
-much defaced to be recognisable; and the fourth, a bagpipe.
-Two harps of a peculiar shape were copied by Sir Gore Ousely
-from Persian manuscripts about four hundred years old,
-resembling, in the principle on which they are constructed,
-all other oriental harps. There existed evidently various
-kinds of the <dfn>chang</dfn>. It may be remarked here that the instrument
-<dfn>tschenk</dfn> (or <dfn>chang</dfn>) in use at the present day in Persia,
-is more like a dulcimer than a harp. The Arabs adopted
-the harp from the Persians, and called it <dfn>junk</dfn>.</p>
-
-<p>The Persians appear to have adopted, at an early period,
-smaller musical intervals than semitones. When the Arabs
-conquered Persia (<span class="sc">A.D.</span> 641) the Persians had already attained
-a higher degree of civilisation than their conquerors. The
-latter found in Persia the cultivation of music considerably
-<!--Pg 081--><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a><span class="pageno">54</span>
-in advance of their own, and the musical instruments superior
-also. They soon adopted the Persian instruments, and
-there can be no doubt that the musical system exhibited by
-the earliest Arab writers whose works on the theory of music
-have been preserved was based upon an older system of the
-Persians. In these works the octave is divided in seventeen
-<dfn>one-third-tones</dfn>&mdash;&#8203;intervals which are still made use of in the
-East. Some of the Arabian instruments are constructed
-so as to enable the performer to produce the intervals with
-exactness. The frets on the lute and tamboura, for instance,
-are regulated with a view to this object.</p>
-
-<p>The Arabs had to some extent become acquainted with
-many of the Persian instruments before the time of their
-conquest of Persia. An Arab musician of the name of Nadr
-Ben el-Hares Ben Kelde is recorded as having been sent to
-the Persian King Chosroes <abbr title="Two">II.</abbr>, in the sixth century, for
-the purpose of learning Persian singing and performing on
-the lute. Through him, it is said, the lute was brought to
-Mekka. Saib Chatir, the son of a Persian, is spoken of as
-the first performer on the lute in Medina, <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 682; and of an
-Arab lutist, Ebn Soreidsch from Mekka, <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 683, it is especially
-mentioned that he played in the Persian style; evidently
-the superior one. The lute, <dfn>el-ood</dfn>, had before the tenth
-century only four strings, or four pairs producing four tones,
-each tone having two strings tuned in unison. About the
-tenth century a string for a fifth tone was added. The strings
-were made of silk neatly twisted. The neck of the instrument
-was provided with frets of string, which were carefully regulated
-according to the system of seventeen intervals in the
-compass of an octave before mentioned. Other favourite
-stringed instruments were the <dfn>tamboura</dfn>, a kind of lute with
-a long neck, and the <dfn>quanūn</dfn>, a kind of dulcimer strung with
-lamb’s gut strings (generally three in unison for each tone)
-and played upon with two little plectra which the performer
-had fastened to his fingers. The <dfn>quanūn</dfn> is likewise still in
-use in countries inhabited by Muhammadans. The Persian
-<dfn>santir</dfn>, the prototype of our dulcimer, is mounted with wire
-strings and played with two slightly curved sticks. The
-musician depicted in the left-hand corner of <a href="#fig_15">Fig. 15<span class="decoration">c</span></a> is
-playing a <dfn>santir</dfn>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img80">
- <a name="fig_15" id="fig_15"></a>
- <img src="images/fig15.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: various fiddles"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.&mdash;<span class="decoration">a.</span> <span class="sc">Kemángeii</span>, <span class="sc">Sitâra</span> or <span class="sc">Fiddle</span>. Persian. About 1800. <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 939-’73.<br />
-<abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 36½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>; diam. 8 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr><br />
-<span class="decoration">b.</span> <span class="sc">Nuy</span> (Flute). Persian. 19th century.<br /><abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 17⅜ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 959-’86.<br />
-<span class="decoration">c.</span> <span class="sc">Santir</span> (Dulcimer) <span class="sc">Case</span>. Persian.<br /><abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 33 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>; <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 11½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 779-’76.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 084--><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a><span class="pageno">55</span>
-
-<p>Al-Farabi, one of the earliest Arabian musical theorists
-known, who lived in the beginning of the tenth century, does
-not allude to the fiddle-bow. This is noteworthy inasmuch as
-it seems in some measure to support the opinion maintained
-by some historians that the bow originated in England or
-Wales. Unfortunately we possess no exact descriptions of
-the Persian and Arabian instruments between the tenth and
-fourteenth centuries, otherwise we should probably have
-earlier accounts of some instrument of the violin kind in
-Persia. Ash-shakandi, who lived in Spain about <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 1200,
-mentions the <dfn>rabôb</dfn>, which may have been in use for centuries
-without having been thought worthy of notice on account
-of its rudeness. Persian writers of the fourteenth century
-speak of two instruments of the violin class, <abbr title="namely">viz.</abbr>, the <dfn>rabôb</dfn>
-and the <dfn>kemángeh</dfn>. As regards the <dfn>kemángeh</dfn>, the Arabs themselves
-assert that they obtained it from Persia, and their
-statement appears all the more worthy of belief from the fact
-that both names, <dfn>rabôb</dfn> and <dfn>kemángeh</dfn>, are originally Persian.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>nuy</dfn>, a flute (<a href="#fig_15">Fig. 15<span class="decoration">b</span></a>), and the <dfn>surnai</dfn>, a species of
-oboe, are still popular in the East.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>sitâra</dfn> is a Persian three stringed instrument with a
-wooden body and a parchment belly (<a href="#fig_15">Fig. 15<span class="decoration">a</span></a>).</p>
-
-<p>The Arabs must have been indefatigable constructors
-of musical instruments. Kiesewetter gives a list of above
-two hundred names of Arabian instruments, and this does
-not include many known to us through Spanish historians.
-<!--Pg 085--><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a><span class="pageno">56</span>
-A careful investigation of the musical instruments of the
-Arabs during their sojourn in Spain is particularly interesting
-to the student of mediæval music, inasmuch as it reveals the
-Eastern origin of many instruments which are generally
-regarded as European inventions. Introduced into Spain
-by the Saracens and the Moors they were gradually diffused
-towards northern Europe. The English, for instance,
-adopted not only the Moorish dance (morris dance) but also
-the <dfn>kuitra</dfn> (gittern), the <dfn>el-ood</dfn> (lute), the <dfn>rabôb</dfn> (rebec), the
-<dfn>naḳḳárah</dfn> (naker), and several others. In an old Cornish
-sacred drama, supposed to date from the fourteenth century,
-we have in an enumeration of musical instruments the <dfn>nakrys</dfn>,
-designating “kettle-drums.” It must be remembered that
-the Cornish language, which has now become obsolete, was
-nearly akin to the Welsh. Indeed, names of musical instruments
-derived from the Moors in Spain occur in almost
-every European language.</p>
-
-<p>Not a few fanciful stories are traditionally preserved
-among the Arabs testifying to the wonderful effects they
-ascribed to the power of their instrumental performances.
-One example will suffice. Al-Farabi had acquired his proficiency
-in Spain, in one of the schools at Cordova which
-flourished as early as towards the end of the ninth century,
-and his reputation became so great that ultimately it extended
-to Asia. The mighty Caliph of Bagdad himself
-desired to hear the celebrated musician, and sent messengers
-to Spain with instructions to offer rich presents to him and
-to convey him to the court. But Al-Farabi feared that if
-he went he should be retained in Asia, and should never
-again see the home to which he felt deeply attached. At
-last he resolved to disguise himself, and ventured to undertake
-the journey which promised him a rich harvest. Dressed
-in a mean costume, he made his appearance at the court
-<!--Pg 086--><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a><span class="pageno">57</span>
-just at the time when the caliph was being entertained with
-his daily concert. Al-Farabi, unknown to everyone, was
-permitted to exhibit his skill on the lute. Scarcely had he
-commenced his performance in a certain musical mode
-when he set all his audience laughing aloud, notwithstanding
-the efforts of the courtiers to suppress so unbecoming an
-exhibition of mirth in the royal presence. In truth, even
-the caliph himself was compelled to burst out into a fit of
-laughter. Presently the performer changed to another
-mode, and the effect was that immediately all his hearers
-began to sigh, and soon tears of sadness replaced the previous
-tears of mirth. Again he played in another mode, which
-excited his audience to such a rage that they would have
-fought each other if he, seeing the danger, had not directly
-gone over to an appeasing mode. After this wonderful
-exhibition of his skill Al-Farabi concluded in a mode which
-had the effect of making his listeners fall into a profound
-sleep, during which he took his departure.</p>
-
-<p>It will be seen that this incident is almost identical with
-one recorded as having happened about twelve hundred
-years earlier at the court of Alexander the Great, and which
-forms the subject of Dryden’s “Alexander’s Feast.” The
-distinguished flutist Timotheus successively aroused and
-subdued different passions by changing the musical modes
-during his performance, exactly in the same way as did
-Al-Farabi.</p>
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-
-<div class="chapter"><!--Pg 087--><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a><span class="pageno">58</span>
-<h3 class="p4 h3head"><abbr title="Six">VI.</abbr></h3>
-
-<h4 class="h4head">AMERICAN INDIAN.</h4>
-
-<p class="p2"><span class="sc">If</span> the preserved antiquities of the American Indians,
-dating from a period anterior to our discovery of the western
-hemisphere, possess an extraordinary interest because
-they afford trustworthy evidence of the degree of progress
-which the aborigines had attained in the cultivation of the
-arts and in their social condition before they came in contact
-with Europeans, it must be admitted that the ancient musical
-instruments of the American Indians are also worthy of
-examination. Several of them are constructed in a manner
-which, in some degree, reveals the characteristics of the
-musical system prevalent among the people who used the
-instruments. And although most of these interesting relics,
-which have been obtained from tombs and other hiding-places,
-may not be of great antiquity, it has been satisfactorily
-ascertained that they are genuine contrivances of the Indians
-before they were influenced by European civilisation.</p>
-
-<p>Some account of these relics is therefore likely to prove of
-interest also to the ethnologist, especially as several facts may
-perhaps be found of assistance in elucidating the still unsolved
-problem as to the probable original connection of the
-American with Asiatic races.</p>
-
-<p>Among the instruments of the Aztecs in Mexico and of the
-Peruvians none have been found so frequently, and have
-been preserved in their former condition so unaltered, as
-pipes and flutes. They are generally made of pottery or of
-bone, substances which are unsuitable for the construction
-<!--Pg 088--><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a><span class="pageno">59</span>
-of most other instruments, but which are remarkably well
-qualified to withstand the decaying influence of time. There
-is, therefore, no reason to conclude from the frequent occurrence
-of such instruments that they were more common
-than other kinds of which specimens have rarely been
-discovered.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_16" id="fig_16"></a>
- <img src="images/fig16.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Pottery Whistles"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.&mdash;<span class="sc">Pottery Whistles.</span> Ancient Mexican. British Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Mexicans possessed a small whistle formed of baked
-clay, a considerable number of which have been found.
-Some specimens (<a href="#fig_16">Fig. 16</a>) are singularly grotesque in shape,
-representing caricatures of the human face and figure, birds,
-beasts, and flowers. Some were provided at the top with a
-finger-hole which, when closed, altered the pitch of the
-sound, so that two different tones were producible on the
-instrument. Others had a little ball of baked clay lying
-loose inside the air-chamber. When the instrument was
-blown the current of air set the ball in a vibrating motion,
-<!--Pg 089--><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a><span class="pageno">60</span>
-thereby causing a shrill and whirring sound. A similar
-contrivance is sometimes made use of by Englishmen for
-conveying signals. The Mexican whistle most likely served
-principally the same purpose, but it may possibly have been
-used also in musical entertainments. In the Russian horn
-band each musician is restricted to a single tone; and similar
-combinations of performers&mdash;&#8203;only, of course, much more
-rude&mdash;&#8203;have been witnessed by travellers among some tribes
-in Africa and America.</p>
-
-<p>Rather more complete than the above specimens are some
-of the whistles and small pipes which have been found in
-graves of the Indians of Chiriqui in Central America.</p>
-
-<p>The pipe of the Aztecs, which is called by the Mexican
-Spaniards <dfn>pito</dfn>, somewhat resembled our flageolet: the
-material was a reddish pottery, and it was provided with
-four linger holes. Although among about half a dozen specimens
-which the writer has examined some are considerably
-larger than others, they all have, singularly enough, the same
-pitch of sound. The smallest is about six inches in length,
-and the largest about nine inches. Several <dfn>pitos</dfn> have been
-found in a remarkably well-preserved condition. They are
-easy to blow, and their order of intervals is in conformity
-with the pentatonic scale, thus: <sub><img src="images/m060.jpg" width="20%" alt="music snippet" /></sub> The
-usual shape of the <dfn>pito</dfn> is that here represented (<a href="#fig_17">Fig. 17<span class="decoration">a</span> &amp; <span class="decoration">c</span></a>).
-A specimen of a less common shape, is given in <a href="#fig_17">Fig. 17<span class="decoration">b</span></a>.
-They are all in the British Museum. Indications suggestive
-of the popular estimation in which the flute (or perhaps,
-more strictly speaking, the pipe) was held by the Aztecs are
-not wanting. It was played in religious observances, and we
-find it referred to allegorically in orations delivered on solemn
-occasions. For instance, at the religious festival which was
-held in honour of Tezcatlepoca&mdash;&#8203;a divinity depicted as a
-handsome youth, and considered second only to the supreme
-being&mdash;&#8203;a young man was sacrificed who, in preparation for the
-ceremony, had been instructed in the art of playing the flute.
-Twenty days before his death four young girls, named after
-the principal goddesses, were given to him as companions;
-and when the hour arrived in which he was to be sacrificed he
-observed the established symbolical rite of breaking a flute
-on each of the steps, as he ascended the temple.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_17" id="fig_17"></a>
- <img src="images/fig17.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Pitos"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.&mdash;<span class="sc">Pitos</span> (flageolets of pottery).<br />
- <span class="decoration">a.</span> and <span class="decoration">c.</span> Ancient Mexican.<br />
-<span class="decoration">b.</span> From the Island of Sacrificios.<br />
-British Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_18" id="fig_18"></a>
- <img src="images/fig18.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Bone flutes"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bone Flutes.</span> Ancient Peruvian.<br />
-<span class="decoration">a.</span> and <span class="decoration">b.</span> Truxillo. <span class="decoration">c.</span> Lima.<br />
-British Museum.
-</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 092--><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a><span class="pageno">61</span>
-
-<p>Again, at the public ceremonies which took place on the
-accession of a prince to the throne the new monarch addressed
-a prayer to the god, in which occurred the following allegorical
-expression:&mdash;&#8203;"I am thy flute; reveal to me thy will;
-breathe into me thy breath like into a flute, as thou hast
-done to my predecessors on the throne. As thou hast opened
-their eyes, their ears, and their mouth to utter what is good,
-so likewise do to me. I resign myself entirely to thy guidance.”
-Similar sentences occur in the orations addressed to the
-monarch. In reading them one can hardly fail to be reminded
-of Hamlet’s reflections addressed to Guildenstern,
-when the servile courtier expresses his inability to “govern
-the ventages” of the pipe and to make the instrument
-“discourse most eloquent music,” which the prince bids
-him to do.</p>
-
-<p>M. de Castelnau, in his “Expédition dans l’Amérique,”
-gives among the illustrations of objects discovered in ancient
-Peruvian tombs a flute made of a human bone. It has four
-finger holes at its upper surface and appears to have been blown
-into at one end. Two bone flutes (<a href="#fig_18">Figs. 18<span class="decoration">b</span> &amp; <span class="decoration">c</span></a>), in appearance
-similar to the engraving given by M. de Castelnau, which
-have been disinterred at Truxillo, are deposited in the British
-Museum. They are about six inches in length, and each
-is provided with five finger holes. One of these has all the
-<!--Pg 093--><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a><span class="pageno">62</span>
-holes at its upper side, and one of the holes is considerably
-smaller than the rest. The specimen which we illustrate
-(<a href="#fig_18">Fig. 18<span class="decoration">a</span></a>) is ornamented with some simple designs in black.</p>
-
-<p>The other has four holes at its upper side and one underneath,
-the latter being placed near to the end at which the
-instrument evidently was blown. In the aperture of this
-end some remains of a hardened paste, or resinous substance,
-are still preserved. This substance probably was inserted
-for the purpose of narrowing the end of the tube, in order
-to facilitate the producing of the sounds. The same contrivance
-is still resorted to in the construction of the bone
-flutes by some Indian tribes in Guiana. The bones of slain
-enemies appear to have been considered especially appropriate
-for such flutes. The Araucanians having killed a prisoner,
-made flutes of his bones, and danced and “thundered out
-their dreadful war songs, accompanied by the mournful
-sounds of these horrid instruments.” Alonso de Ovalle says
-of the Indians in Chili: “Their flutes, which they play
-upon in their dances, are made of the bones of the Spaniards
-and other enemies whom they have overcome in war. This
-they do by way of triumph and glory for their victory. They
-make them likewise of bones of animals; but the warriors
-dance only to the flutes made of their enemies.” The
-Mexicans and Peruvians obviously possessed a great variety
-of pipes and flutes, some of which are still in use among
-certain Indian tribes. Those which were found in the famous
-ruins at Palenque are deposited in the museum in Mexico.
-They are:&mdash;&#8203;The <dfn>cuyvi</dfn>, a pipe on which only five tones were
-producible; the <dfn>huayllaca</dfn>, a sort of flageolet; the <dfn>pincullu</dfn>,
-a flute; and the <dfn>chayna</dfn>, which is described as “a flute
-whose lugubrious and melancholy tones filled the heart
-with indescribable sadness, and brought involuntary tears
-into the eyes.” It was perhaps a kind of oboe.</p>
-
-<p><!--Pg 094--><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a><span class="pageno">63</span>
-The Peruvians had the syrinx, which they called <dfn>huayra-puhura</dfn>.
-Some clue to the proper meaning of this name
-may perhaps be gathered from the word <dfn>huayra</dfn>, which
-signifies “air.” The <dfn>huayra-puhura</dfn> was made of cane, and
-also of stone. Sometimes an embroidery of needlework
-was attached to it as an ornament. One specimen which
-has been disinterred is adorned with twelve figures precisely
-resembling Maltese crosses. The cross is a figure which
-may readily be supposed to suggest itself very naturally;
-and it is therefore not so surprising, as it may appear at a
-first glance, that the American Indians used it not unfrequently
-in designs and sculptures before they came in
-contact with Christians.</p>
-
-<p>The British Museum possesses a <dfn>huayra-puhura</dfn> consisting
-of fourteen reed pipes of a brownish colour, tied together in
-two rows by means of thread, so as to form a double set of
-seven reeds. Both sets are almost exactly of the same dimensions
-and are placed side by side. The shortest of these
-reeds measure three inches, and the longest six and a half.
-In one set they are open at the bottom, and in the other they
-are closed. Consequently octaves are produced. The reader
-is probably aware that the closing of a pipe at the end raises
-its pitch an octave. Thus, in our organ, the so-called stopped
-diapason, a set of closed pipes, requires tubes of only half the
-length of those which constitute the open diapason, although
-both these stops produce tones in the same pitch; the only
-difference between them being the quality of sound, which
-in the former is less bright than in the latter.</p>
-
-<p>The tones yielded by the <dfn>huayra-puhura</dfn> in question are as
-follows: <sub><img src="images/m063.jpg" width="20%" alt="music snippet" /></sub> The highest octave is
-indistinct, owing to some injury done to the shortest tubes;
-<!--Pg 095--><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a><span class="pageno">64</span>
-but sufficient evidence remains to show that the intervals
-were purposely arranged according to the pentatonic scale.
-This interesting relic was brought to light from a tomb at Arica.</p>
-
-<p>Another <dfn>huayra-puhura</dfn> (<a href="#fig_19">Fig. 19</a>), likewise still yielding
-sounds, was discovered placed over a corpse in a Peruvian
-tomb, and was procured by the French general, Paroissien.
-This instrument is made of soapstone, and contains eight
-pipes. It now belongs to the <abbr title="Reverend">Rev.</abbr> Canon J. H. Rawdon.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_4" id="fnanchor_4"></a><a href="#footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></span>
-
-In the Museum may
-be seen a good plaster
-cast taken from this
-curious relic. The height
-is five and three-quarter
-inches, and its width
-six and a quarter
-inches. Four of the
-tubes have small lateral
-finger-holes, which, when
-closed, lower the pitch
-a semitone. These holes
-are on the second, fourth, six, and seventh pipe, as
-shown in the engraving. When the holes are open, the
-tones are: <sub><img src="images/m064a.jpg" width="20%" alt="music snippet" /></sub> and when they are closed:
-<sub><img src="images/m064b.jpg" width="20%" alt="music snippet" /></sub> The other tubes have unalterable tones.
-The following notation exhibits all the tones producible on
-the instrument: <sub><img src="images/m064c.jpg" width="40%" alt="music snippet" /></sub></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_19" id="fig_19"></a>
- <img src="images/fig19.jpg"
- width="50%"
- alt="Illustration: Huayra-puhura"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.&mdash;<span class="sc">Huayra-puhura</span>,<br />discovered
-in a Peruvian tomb.<br />
-The property of the <abbr title="Reverend">Rev.</abbr> Canon Rawdon.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The musician is likely to speculate what could have induced
-<!--Pg 096--><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a><span class="pageno">65</span>
-the Peruvians to adopt so strange a series of intervals: it
-seems rather arbitrary than premeditated.</p>
-
-<p>If (and this seems not to be improbable) the Peruvians considered
-those tones which are produced by closing the lateral
-holes as additional intervals only, a variety of scales or kinds
-of <dfn>modes</dfn> may have been contrived by the admission of one
-or other of these tones among the essential
-ones. If we may conjecture from some
-remarks of Garcilasso de la Vega, and
-other historians, the Peruvians appear to
-have used different orders of intervals
-for different kinds of tunes, in a way
-similar to what we find to be the case
-with certain Asiatic nations. We are
-told, for instance, “Each poem, or song,
-had its appropriate tune, and they could
-not put two different songs to one tune;
-and this was why the enamoured gallant,
-making music at night on his flute, with
-the tune which belonged to it, told the
-lady and all the world the joy or sorrow
-of his soul, the favour or ill-will which he
-possessed; so that it might be said that
-he spoke by the flute.” Thus also the
-Hindus have certain tunes for certain
-seasons and fixed occasions, and likewise
-a number of different modes or scales
-used for particular kinds of songs.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_20" id="fig_20"></a>
- <img src="images/fig20.jpg"
- width="30%"
- alt="Illustration: Title or description"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>
-<span class="sc">Wooden Trumpet</span>, used by
-Indians near the Orinoco.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Trumpets are often mentioned by
-writers who have recorded the manners
-and customs of the Indians at the time
-of the discovery of America. There are,
-however, scarcely any illustrations to be
-<!--Pg 097--><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a><span class="pageno">66</span>
-relied on of these instruments transmitted to us. The Conch
-was frequently used as a trumpet for conveying signals in
-war.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_21" id="fig_21"></a>
- <img src="images/fig21.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Juruparis"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;<span class="sc">Juruparis</span>, with and without cover, used by Indians on the Rio Haupés.<br />
-In the Museum at Kew Gardens.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><a href="#fig_20">Fig. 20</a> represents a kind of trumpet made of wood, and
-nearly seven feet in length, which Gumilla found among
-the Indians in the vicinity of the Orinoco. It somewhat
-resembles the <dfn>juruparis</dfn> (<a href="#fig_21">Fig. 21</a>), a mysterious instrument of
-the Indians on the Rio Haupés, a tributary of the Rio Negro,
-South America. The <dfn>juruparis</dfn> is regarded as an object of
-great veneration. Women are never permitted to see it.
-So stringent is this law that any woman obtaining a sight of
-it is put to death&mdash;&#8203;usually by poison. No youths are allowed
-to see it until they have been subjected to a series of initiatory
-fastings and scourgings. The <dfn>juruparis</dfn> is usually kept hidden
-in the bed of some stream, deep in the forest; and no one
-dares to drink out of that sanctified stream, or to bathe in its
-water. At feasts the <dfn>juruparis</dfn> is brought out during the
-night, and is blown outside the houses of entertainment.
-The inner portion of the instrument consists of a tube made
-of slips of the Paxiaba palm (<dfn>Triartea exorrhiza</dfn>). When the
-Indians are about to use the instrument they nearly close the
-upper end of the tube with clay, and also tie above the oblong
-<!--Pg 098--><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a><span class="pageno">67</span>
-square hole (shown in the engraving) a portion of the leaf of
-the Uaruma, one of the arrow-root family. Round the tube
-are wrapped long strips of the tough bark of the Jébaru (<dfn>Parivoa
-grandiflora</dfn>). This covering descends in folds below the
-tube. The length of the instrument is from four to five feet.
-The illustration (<a href="#fig_21">Fig. 21</a>), which exhibits the <dfn>juruparis</dfn> with
-its cover and without it, has been taken from a specimen in
-the museum at Kew gardens. The mysteries connected with
-this trumpet are evidently founded on an old tradition from
-prehistoric Indian ancestors. <dfn>Jurupari</dfn> means “demon";
-and with several Indian tribes on the Amazon customs and
-ceremonies still prevail in honour of Jurupari.</p>
-
-<p>The Caroados, an Indian tribe in Brazil, have a war trumpet
-which closely resembles the <dfn>juruparis</dfn>. With this people it is
-the custom for the chief to give on his war trumpet the signal
-for battle, and to continue blowing as long as he wishes the
-battle to last. The trumpet is made of wood, and its sound is
-described by travellers as very deep but rather pleasant.
-The sound is easily produced, and its continuance does not
-require much exertion; but a peculiar vibration of the lips is
-necessary which requires practice. Another trumpet, the
-<dfn>turé</dfn>, is common with many Indian tribes on the Amazon
-who use it chiefly in war. It is made of a long and thick
-bamboo, and there is a split reed in the mouthpiece. It
-therefore partakes rather of the character of an oboe or
-clarinet. Its tone is described as loud and harsh. The
-<dfn>turé</dfn> is especially used by the sentinels of predatory hordes,
-who, mounted on a lofty tree, give the signal of attack to their
-comrades.</p>
-
-<p>Again, the aborigines in Mexico had a curious contrivance of
-this kind, the <dfn>acocotl</dfn>, now more usually called <dfn>clarin</dfn>. The
-former word is its old Indian name, and the latter appears to
-have been first given to the instrument by the Spaniards. The
-<!--Pg 099--><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a><span class="pageno">68</span>
-<dfn>acocotl</dfn> consists of a very thin tube from eight to ten feet in
-length, and generally not quite straight but with some irregular
-curves. This tube, which is often not thicker than a couple of
-inches in diameter, terminates at one end in a sort of bell, and
-has at the other end a small mouthpiece resembling in shape
-that of a clarinet. The tube is made of the dry stalk of a
-plant which is common in Mexico, and which likewise the
-Indians call <dfn>acocotl</dfn>. The most singular characteristic of the
-instrument is that the performer does not blow into it, but
-inhales the air through it; or rather, he produces the sound by
-sucking the mouthpiece. It is said to require strong lungs to
-perform on the <dfn>acocotl</dfn> effectively according to Indian notions
-of taste.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_22" id="fig_22"></a>
- <img src="images/fig22.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Botuto"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;<span class="sc">Botuto</span>, used by Indians near the Orinoco.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <dfn>botuto</dfn>, which Gumilla saw used by some tribes near the
-<!--Pg 100--><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a><span class="pageno">69</span>
-river Orinoco (<a href="#fig_22">Fig. 22</a>), was evidently an ancient Indian
-contrivance, but appears to have fallen almost into oblivion
-during the last two centuries. It was made of baked clay
-and was commonly from three to four feet long; but some
-trumpets of this kind were of enormous size. The <dfn>botuto</dfn> with
-two bellies was usually made thicker than that with three
-bellies and emitted a deeper sound, which is described as
-having been really terrific. These trumpets were used on
-occasions of mourning and funeral dances. Alexander von
-Humboldt saw the <dfn>botuto</dfn> among some Indian tribes near the
-river Orinoco.</p>
-
-<p>Besides those which have been noticed, other antique wind
-instruments of the Indians are mentioned by historians; but
-the descriptions given of them are too superficial to convey a
-distinct notion as to their form and purport. Several of these
-barbarous contrivances scarcely deserve to be classed with
-musical instruments. This may, for instance, be said of certain
-musical jars or earthen vessels producing sounds, which the
-Peruvians constructed for their amusement. These vessels
-were made double; and the sounds imitated the cries of
-animals or birds. A similar contrivance of the Indians in
-Chili, preserved in the museum at Santiago, is described by
-the traveller S. S. Hill as follows:&mdash;&#8203;"It consists of two
-earthen vessels in the form of our india-rubber bottles, but
-somewhat larger, with a flat tube from four to six inches in
-length, uniting their necks near the top and slightly curved
-upwards, and with a small hole on the upper side one third of
-the length of the tube from one side of the necks. To produce
-the sounds the bottles were filled with water and suspended
-to the bough of a tree, or to a beam, by a string attached to the
-middle of the curved tube, and then swung backwards and
-forwards in such a manner as to cause each end to be alternately
-the highest and lowest, so that the water might pass backwards
-<!--Pg 101--><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a><span class="pageno">70</span>
-and forwards from one bottle to the other through the tube
-between them. By this means soothing sounds were produced
-which, it is said, were employed to lull to repose the drowsy
-chiefs who usually slept away the hottest hours of the day.
-In the meantime, as the bottles were porous, the water within
-them diminished by evaporation, and the sound died gradually
-away."</p>
-
-<p>As regards instruments of percussion, a kind of drum deserves
-special notice on account of the ingenuity evinced in its construction.
-The Mexicans called it <dfn>teponaztli</dfn>. They generally
-made it of a single block of very hard wood, somewhat oblong
-square in shape, which they hollowed, leaving at each end a
-solid piece about three or four inches in thickness, and at its
-upper side a kind of sound-board about a quarter of an inch
-in thickness. In this sound-board, if it may be called so, they
-made three incisions; namely, two running parallel some distance
-lengthwise of the drum, and a third running across from
-one of these to the other just in the centre. By this means they
-obtained two vibrating tongues of wood which, when beaten
-with a stick, produced sounds as clearly defined as are those
-of our kettle drums. By making one of the tongues thinner
-than the other they ensured two different sounds, the pitch of
-which they were enabled to regulate by shaving off more or
-less of the wood. The bottom of the drum they cut almost
-entirely open. The traveller, M. Nebel, was told by archæologists
-in Mexico that these instruments always contained the
-interval of a third, but on examining several specimens which
-he saw in museums he found some in which the two sounds
-stood towards each other in the relation of a fourth; while
-in others they constituted a fifth, in others a sixth, and in some
-even an octave. This is noteworthy in so far as it points to a
-conformity with our diatonic series of intervals, excepting the
-seventh.</p>
-<!--Pg 102--><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a><span class="pageno">71</span>
-
-<p>The <dfn>teponaztli</dfn> was generally carved with various fanciful
-and ingenious designs. It was beaten with two drumsticks
-covered at the end with an elastic gum, called <dfn>ule</dfn>, which
-was obtained from the milky juice extracted from the
-ule-tree. Some of these drums were small enough to be
-carried on a string or strap suspended round the neck of
-the player; others, again, measured upwards of 5 feet in
-length, and their sound was so powerful that it could be heard
-at a distance of three miles. In some rare instances a specimen
-of the <dfn>teponaztli</dfn> is still preserved by the Indians in
-Mexico, especially among tribes who have been comparatively
-but little affected by intercourse with their European aggressors.
-Herr Heller saw such an instrument in the hands
-of the Indians of Huatusco&mdash;&#8203;a village near Mirador in the
-Tierra Templada, or temperate region, occupying the slopes
-of the Cordilleras. Its sound is described as so very loud as
-to be distinctly audible at an incredibly great distance. This
-circumstance, which has been noticed by several travellers,
-may perhaps be owing in some measure to the condition of
-the atmosphere in Mexico.</p>
-
-<p>Instruments of percussion constructed on a principle more
-or less similar to the <dfn>teponaztli</dfn> were in use in several other
-parts of America, as well as in Mexico.</p>
-
-<p>The largest kind of Mexican <dfn>teponaztli</dfn> appears to have been
-generally of a cylindrical shape. Clavigero gives a drawing of
-such an instrument. Drums, also constructed of skin or parchment
-in combination with wood were not unknown to the
-Indians. Of this description was, for instance, the <dfn>huehuetl</dfn>
-of the Aztecs in Mexico, which consisted, according to Clavigero,
-of a wooden cylinder somewhat above 3 feet in height,
-curiously carved and painted and covered at the top with
-carefully prepared deer-skin. And, what appears the most
-remarkable, the parchment (we are told) could be tightened
-<!--Pg 103--><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a><span class="pageno">72</span>
-or slackened by means of cords in nearly the same way as with
-our own drum. The <dfn>huehuetl</dfn> was not beaten with drumsticks
-but merely struck with the fingers, and much dexterity
-was required to strike it in the proper manner. Oviedo
-states that the Indians in Cuba had drums which were
-stretched with human skin. And Bernal Diaz relates that
-when he was with Cortés in Mexico they ascended together the
-<dfn>Teocalli</dfn> ("House of God"), a large temple in which human
-sacrifices were offered by the aborigines; and there the
-Spanish visitors saw a large drum which was made, Diaz
-tells us, with skins of great serpents. This “hellish instrument,”
-as he calls it, produced, when struck, a doleful sound
-which was so loud that it could be heard at a distance of
-two leagues.</p>
-
-<p>The name of the Peruvian drum was <dfn>huanca</dfn>; they had
-also an instrument of percussion, called <dfn>chhilchiles</dfn>, which
-appears to have been a sort of tambourine.</p>
-
-<p>The rattle was likewise popular with the Indians before
-the discovery of America. The Mexicans called it <dfn>ajacaxtli</dfn>.
-In construction it was similar to the rattle at the present
-day commonly used by the Indians. It was oval or round
-in shape, and appears to have been usually made of a gourd
-into which holes were pierced, and to which a wooden handle
-was affixed. A number of little pebbles were enclosed in the
-hollowed gourd. They were also made of pottery. The
-little balls in the <dfn>ajacaxtli</dfn> of pottery, enclosed as they are,
-may at a first glance appear a puzzle. Probably, when the
-rattle was being formed they were attached to the inside
-as slightly as possible; and after the clay had been baked
-they were detached by means of an implement passed through
-the holes.</p>
-
-<p>The Tezcucans (or Acolhuans) belonged to the same race as
-the Aztecs, whom they greatly surpassed in knowledge and
-<!--Pg 104--><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a><span class="pageno">73</span>
-social refinement. Nezahualcoyotl, a wise monarch of the
-Tezcucans, abhorred human sacrifices, and erected a large
-temple which he dedicated to “The unknown god, the cause
-of causes.” This edifice had a tower nine storeys high, on the
-top of which were placed a number of musical instruments of
-various kinds which were used to summon the worshippers
-to prayer. Respecting these instruments especial mention is
-made of a sonorous metal which was struck with a mallet. This
-is stated in a historical essay written by Ixtlilxochitl, a native
-of Mexico and of royal descent, who lived in the beginning
-of the seventeenth century, and who may be supposed to have
-been familiar with the musical practices of his countrymen.
-But whether the sonorous metal alluded to was a gong or a
-bell is not clear from the vague record transmitted to us.
-That the bell was known to the Peruvians appears to be no
-longer doubtful, since a small copper specimen has been found
-in one of the old Peruvian tombs. This interesting relic
-is now deposited in the museum at Lima. M. de Castelnau has
-published a drawing of it. The Peruvians called their bells
-<dfn>chanrares</dfn>; but it remains questionable whether this name
-did not designate rather the so-called horse bells, which were
-certainly known to the Mexicans, who called them <dfn>yotl</dfn>. It
-is noteworthy that these <dfn>yotl</dfn> are found figured in the picture-writings
-representing the various objects which the Aztecs
-used to pay as tribute to their sovereigns. The collection
-of Mexican antiquities in the British Museum contains a
-cluster of yotl-bells. Being nearly round, they closely resemble
-the <dfn>Schellen</dfn> which the Germans are in the habit of
-affixing to their horses, particularly in the winter when they
-are driving their noiseless sledges.</p>
-
-<p>Again, in South America sonorous stones are not unknown,
-and were used in olden time for musical purposes. The traveller
-G. T. Vigne saw among the Indian antiquities preserved
-<!--Pg 105--><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a><span class="pageno">74</span>
-in the town of Cuzco, in Peru, “a musical instrument of
-green sonorous stone, about a foot long, and an inch and a half
-wide, flat-sided, pointed at both ends, and arched at the back,
-where it was about a quarter of an inch thick, whence it
-diminished to an edge, like the blade of a knife…. In the
-middle of the back was a small hole, through which a piece of
-string was passed; and when suspended and struck by any
-hard substance a singularly musical note was produced.” Humboldt
-mentions the Amazon-stone, which on being struck by a
-hard substance yields a metallic sound. It was formerly cut
-by the American Indians into very thin plates, perforated in
-the centre and suspended by a string. These plates were
-remarkably sonorous. This kind of stone is not, as might
-be conjectured from its name, found exclusively near the
-Amazon. The name was given to it as well as to the river by
-the first European visitors to America, in allusion to the
-female warriors respecting whom strange stories are told.
-The natives pretending, according to an ancient tradition,
-that the stone came from the country of “Women without
-husbands,” or “Women living alone."</p>
-
-<p>As regards the ancient stringed instruments of the American
-Indians our information is indeed but scanty. Clavigero says
-that the Mexicans were entirely unacquainted with stringed
-instruments; a statement the correctness of which is questionable,
-considering the stage of civilisation to which these
-people had attained. At any rate, we generally find one or
-other kind of such instruments with nations whose intellectual
-progress and social condition are decidedly inferior. The
-Aztecs had many claims to the character of a civilised community
-and (as before said) the Tezcucans were even more
-advanced in the cultivation of the arts and sciences than the
-Aztecs. “The best histories,” Prescott observes, “the best
-poems, the best code of laws, the purest dialect, were all
-<!--Pg 106--><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a><span class="pageno">75</span>
-allowed to be Tezcucan. The Aztecs rivalled their neighbours
-in splendour of living, and even in the magnificence of their
-structures. They displayed a pomp and ostentatious
-pageantry, truly Asiatic.” Unfortunately historians are
-sometimes not sufficiently discerning in their communications
-respecting musical questions. J. Ranking, in describing the
-grandeur of the establishment maintained by Montezuma, says
-that during the repasts of this monarch “there was music of
-fiddle, flute, snail-shell, a kettle-drum, and other strange
-instruments.” But as this waiter does not indicate the source
-whence he drew his information respecting Montezuma’s
-orchestra including the fiddle, the assertion deserves scarcely a
-passing notice.</p>
-
-<p>The Peruvians possessed a stringed instrument, called <dfn>tinya</dfn>,
-which was provided with five or seven strings. To conjecture
-from the unsatisfactory account of it transmitted to us, the
-<dfn>tinya</dfn> appears to have been a kind of guitar. Considering the
-fragility of the materials of which such instruments are generally
-constructed, it is perhaps not surprising that we do not
-meet with any specimens of them in the museums of American
-antiquities.</p>
-
-<p>A few remarks will not be out of place here referring to
-the musical performances of the ancient Indians, since an
-acquaintance with the nature of the performances is likely to
-afford additional assistance in appreciating the characteristics
-of the instruments. In Peru, where the military system was
-carefully organised, each division of the army had its trumpeters,
-called <dfn>cqueppacamayo</dfn>, and its drummers, called
-<dfn>huancarcamayo</dfn>. When the Inca returned with his troops
-victorious from battle his first act was to repair to the temple
-of the Sun in order to offer up thanksgiving; and after the
-conclusion of this ceremony the people celebrated the event
-with festivities, of which music and dancing constituted a
-<!--Pg 107--><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a><span class="pageno">76</span>
-principal part. Musical performances appear to have been
-considered indispensable on occasions of public celebrations;
-and frequent mention is made of them by historians who have
-described the festivals annually observed by the Peruvians.</p>
-
-<p>About the month of October the Peruvians celebrated a
-solemn feast in honour of the dead, at which ceremony they
-executed lugubrious songs and plaintive instrumental music.
-Compositions of a similar character were performed on occasion
-of the decease of a monarch. As soon as it was made known
-to the people that their Inca had been “called home to the
-mansions of his father the sun” they prepared to celebrate
-his obsequies with becoming solemnity. Prescott, in his
-graphic description of these observances, says: “At stated
-intervals, for a year, the people assembled to renew the expressions
-of their sorrow; processions were made displaying
-the banner of the departed monarch; bards and minstrels
-were appointed to chronicle his achievements, and their songs
-continued to be rehearsed at high festivals in the presence
-of the reigning monarch&mdash;&#8203;thus stimulating the living by the
-glorious example of the dead.” The Peruvians had also
-particular agricultural songs, which they were in the habit of
-singing while engaged in tilling the lands of the Inca; a duty
-which devolved upon the whole nation. The subject of these
-songs, or rather hymns, referred especially to the noble deeds
-and glorious achievements of the Inca and his dynasty.
-While thus singing, the labourers regulated their work to the
-rhythm of the music, thereby ensuring a pleasant excitement
-and a stimulant in their occupation, like soldiers regulating
-their steps to the music of the military band. These hymns
-pleased the Spanish invaders so greatly that they not only
-adopted several of them but also composed some in a similar
-form and style. This appears, however, to have been the case
-rather with the poetry than with the music.</p>
-
-<p><!--Pg 108--><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a><span class="pageno">77</span>
-The name of the Peruvian elegiac songs was <dfn>haravi</dfn>. Some
-tunes of these songs, pronounced to be genuine specimens,
-have been published in recent works; but their genuineness
-is questionable. At all events they must have been much
-tampered with, as they exhibit exactly the form of the Spanish
-<dfn>bolero</dfn>. Even allowing that the melodies of these compositions
-have been derived from Peruvian <dfn>harivaris</dfn>, it is impossible to
-determine with any degree of certainty how much in them
-has been retained of the original tunes, and how much has
-been supplied besides the harmony, which is entirely an addition
-of the European arranger. The Peruvians had minstrels,
-called <dfn>haravecs</dfn> (<span class="decoration">i.e.</span>, “inventors"), whose occupation it was to
-compose and to recite the <dfn>haravis</dfn>.</p>
-
-<p>The Mexicans possessed a class of songs which served as a
-record of historical events. Furthermore they had war-songs,
-love-songs, and other secular vocal compositions, as well as
-sacred chants, in the practice of which boys were instructed
-by the priests in order that they might assist in the musical
-performances of the temple. It appertained to the office of
-the priests to burn incense, and to perform music in the temple
-at stated times of the day. The commencement of the
-religious observances which took place regularly at sunrise, at
-mid-day, at sunset, and at midnight, was announced by signals
-blown on trumpets and pipes. Persons of high position retained
-in their service professional musicians whose duty it was
-to compose ballads, and to perform vocal music with instrumental
-accompaniment. The nobles themselves, and occasionally
-even the monarch, not infrequently delighted in
-composing ballads and odes.</p>
-
-<p>Especially to be noticed is the institution termed “Council
-of music,” which the wise monarch Nezahualcoyotl founded in
-Tezcuco. This institution was not intended exclusively for
-promoting the cultivation of music; its aim comprised the
-<!--Pg 109--><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a><span class="pageno">78</span>
-advancement of various arts, and of sciences such as history,
-astronomy, etc. In fact, it was an academy for general
-education. Probably no better evidence could be cited
-testifying to the remarkable intellectual attainments of the
-Mexican Indians before the discovery of America than this
-council of music. Although in some respects it appears to
-have resembled the board of music of the Chinese, it was
-planned on a more enlightened and more comprehensive
-principle. The Chinese “board of music,” called <dfn>Yoh Pu</dfn>, is
-an office connected with the <dfn>Li Pu</dfn> or “board of rites,”
-established by the imperial government at Peking. The
-principal object of the board of rites is to regulate the ceremonies
-on occasions of sacrifices offered to the gods; of
-festivals and certain court solemnities; of military reviews;
-of presentations, congratulations, marriages, deaths, burials&mdash;&#8203;in
-short, concerning almost every possible event in social
-and public life.</p>
-
-<p>The reader is probably aware that in one of the various
-hypotheses which have been advanced respecting the Asiatic
-origin of the American Indians China is assigned to them as
-their ancient home. Some historians suppose them to be
-emigrants from Mongolia, Thibet, or Hindustan; others
-maintain that they are the offspring of Phœnician colonists
-who settled in Central America. Even more curious are the
-arguments of certain inquirers who have no doubt whatever
-that the ancestors of the American Indians were the lost ten
-tribes of Israel, of whom since about the time of the Babylonian
-captivity history is silent. Whatever may be thought as to
-which particular one of these speculations hits the truth,
-they certainly have all proved useful, in so far as they have
-made ethnologists more exactly acquainted with the habits
-and predilections of the American aborigines than would
-otherwise have been the case. For, as the advocates of each
-<!--Pg 110--><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a><span class="pageno">79</span>
-hypothesis have carefully collected and adduced every evidence
-they were able to obtain tending to support their views, the
-result is that (so to say) no stone has been left unturned.
-Nevertheless, any such hints as suggest themselves from an
-examination of musical instruments have hitherto remained
-unheeded. It may therefore perhaps interest the reader
-to have his attention drawn to a few suggestive similarities
-occurring between instruments of the American Indians and
-of certain nations inhabiting the eastern hemisphere.</p>
-
-<p>We have seen that the Mexican pipe and the Peruvian
-syrinx were purposely constructed so as to produce the
-intervals of the pentatonic scale only. There are some additional
-indications of this scale having been at one time in
-use with the American Indians. For instance, the music
-of the Peruvian dance <dfn>cachua</dfn> is described as having been
-very similar to some Scotch national dances; and the most
-conspicuous characteristics of the Scotch tunes are occasioned
-by the frequently exclusive employment of intervals appertaining
-to the pentatonic scale. We find precisely the same
-series of intervals adopted on certain Chinese instruments,
-and evidences are not wanting of the pentatonic scale having
-been popular among various races in Asia at a remote period.
-The series of intervals appertaining to the Chiriqui pipe,
-mentioned on <a href="#Page_60">p. 60</a>, consisted of a semitone and two whole
-tones, like the <dfn>tetrachord</dfn> of the ancient Greeks.</p>
-
-<p>In the Peruvian <dfn>huayra-puhura</dfn> made of soapstone some of the
-pipes possess lateral holes. This contrivance, which is rather
-unusual, occurs on the Chinese <dfn>shêng</dfn>. The <dfn>chayna</dfn>, mentioned
-on <a href="#Page_62">p. 62</a>, seems to have been provided with a reed, like the
-oboe: and in Hindustan we find a species of oboe called
-<dfn>shehna</dfn>. The <dfn>turé</dfn> of the Indian tribes on the Amazon, mentioned
-on <a href="#Page_67">p. 67</a>, reminds us of the trumpets <dfn>turi</dfn>, or <dfn>tuturi</dfn>, of
-the Hindus. The name appears to have been known also to
-<!--Pg 111--><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a><span class="pageno">80</span>
-the Arabs; but there is no indication whatever of its having
-been transmitted to the peninsula by the Moors, and afterwards
-to South America by the Portuguese and Spaniards.</p>
-
-<p>The wooden tongues in the drum <dfn>teponaztli</dfn> may be considered
-as a contrivance exclusively of the ancient American
-Indians. Nevertheless a construction nearly akin to it may
-be observed in certain drums of the Tonga and Fiji islanders,
-and of the natives of some islands in Torres Strait. Likewise
-some negro tribes in Western and Central Africa have certain
-instruments of percussion which are constructed on a principle
-somewhat reminding us of the <dfn>teponaztli</dfn>. The method of
-bracing the drum by means of cords, as exhibited in the
-<dfn>huehuetl</dfn> of the Mexican Indians, is evidently of very high
-antiquity in the East. It was known to the ancient Egyptians.</p>
-
-<p>Rattles, Pandean pipes made of reed, and conch trumpets,
-are found almost all over the world, wherever the materials of
-which they are constructed are easily obtainable. Still,
-it may be noteworthy that the Mexicans employed the conch
-trumpet in their religious observances apparently in much
-the same way as it is used in the Buddhist worship of the
-Tibetans and Kalmuks.</p>
-
-<p>As regards the sonorous metal in the great temple at Tezcuco
-some inquirers are sure that it was a gong: but it must be
-borne in mind that these inquirers detect everywhere traces
-proving an invasion of the Mongols, which they maintain to
-have happened about six hundred years ago. Had they
-been acquainted with the little Peruvian bell they would
-have had more tangible musical evidence in support of their
-theory than the supposed gong; for this bell certainly bears
-a suggestive resemblance to the little hand-bell which the
-Buddhists use in their religious ceremonies.</p>
-
-<p>The Peruvians interpolated certain songs, especially those
-which they were in the habit of singing while cultivating
-<!--Pg 112--><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a><span class="pageno">81</span>
-the fields, with the word <dfn>hailli</dfn> which signified “Triumph.”
-As the subject of these compositions was principally the
-glorification of the Inca, the burden <dfn>hailli</dfn> is perhaps all the
-more likely to remind Europeans of the Hebrew <dfn>hallelujah</dfn>.
-Moreover, Adair, who lived among the Indians of North
-America during a period of about forty years, speaks of some
-other words which he found used as burdens in hymns sung
-on solemn occasions, and which appeared to him to correspond
-with certain Hebrew words of a sacred import.</p>
-
-<p>As regards the musical accomplishments of the Indian
-tribes at the present day they are far below the standard
-which we have found among their ancestors. A period of
-three hundred years of oppression has evidently had the
-effect of subduing the melodious expressions of happiness
-and contentedness which in former times appear to have been
-quite as prevalent with the Indians as they generally are
-with independent and flourishing nations. The innate talent
-for music evinced by those of the North American Indians who
-were converted to Christianity soon after the emigration of the
-Puritans to New England is very favourably commented on
-by some old writers. In the year 1661 John Elliot published
-a translation of the psalms into Indian verse. The singing
-of these metrical psalms by the Indian converts in their
-places of worship appears to have been actually superior to
-the sacred vocal performances of their Christian brethren
-from Europe; for we find it described by several witnesses as
-“excellent” and “most ravishing.</p>
-
-<p>In other parts of America the priests from Spain did
-not neglect to turn to account the susceptibility of the
-Indians for music. Thus, in central America the Dominicans
-composed as early as in the middle of the sixteenth century a
-sacred poem in the Guatemalian dialect containing a narrative
-of the most important events recorded in the Bible. This
-<!--Pg 113--><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a><span class="pageno">82</span>
-production they sang to the natives, and to enhance the effect
-they accompanied the singing with musical instruments. The
-alluring music soon captivated the heart of a powerful cazique,
-who was thus induced to adopt the doctrines embodied in
-the composition, and to diffuse them among his subjects,
-who likewise delighted in the performances. In Peru a
-similar experiment, resorted to by the priests who accompanied
-Pizarro’s expedition, proved equally successful. They
-dramatised certain scenes in the life of Christ and represented
-them with music, which so greatly fascinated the Indians
-that many of them readily embraced the new faith. Nor
-are these entertainments dispensed with even at the present
-day by the Indian Christians, especially in the village churches
-of the Sierra in Peru; and as several religious ceremonies
-have been retained by these people from their heathen forefathers,
-it may be conjectured that their sacred musical
-performances also retain much of their ancient heathen
-character.</p>
-
-<p>Most of the musical instruments found among the American
-Indians at the present day are evidently genuine old Indian
-contrivances as they existed long before the discovery of
-America. Take, for example, the peculiarly-shaped rattles,
-drums, flutes, and whistles of the North American Indians, of
-which some specimens in the Museum are described in the
-large catalogue. A few African instruments, introduced by
-the negro slaves, are now occasionally found in the hands
-of the Indians, and have been by some travellers erroneously
-described as genuine Indian inventions. This is the case
-with the African <dfn>marimba</dfn>, which has become rather popular
-with the natives of Guatemala in central America; but
-such adaptations are very easily discernible.</p>
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-
-<div class="chapter"><!--Pg 114--><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a><span class="pageno">83</span>
-<h3 class="p4 h3head"><abbr title="Seven">VII.</abbr></h3>
-
-<h4 class="h4head">EUROPEAN INSTRUMENTS OF THE MIDDLE
-AGES.</h4>
-
-<p class="p2"><span class="sc">Many</span> representations of musical instruments of the middle
-ages have been preserved in manuscripts, as well as in sculptures
-and paintings forming ornamental portions of churches
-and other buildings. Valuable facts and hints are obtainable
-from these evidences, provided they are judiciously selected
-and carefully examined. The subject is, however, so large
-that only a few observations on the most interesting instruments
-can be offered here. Unfortunately there still prevails
-much uncertainty respecting several of the earliest representations
-as to the precise century from which they date,
-and there is reason to believe that in some instances the
-archæological zeal of musical investigators has assigned a
-higher antiquity to such discoveries than can be satisfactorily
-proved.</p>
-
-<p>It appears certain that the most ancient European instruments
-known to us were in form and construction more
-like the Asiatic than was the case with later ones. Before
-a nation has attained to a fairly high degree of civilisation
-its progress in the cultivation of music, as an art, is very slow
-indeed. The instruments found at the present day in Asia
-are scarcely superior to those which were in use among oriental
-nations about three thousand years ago. It is, therefore,
-perhaps not surprising that no material improvement is perceptible
-in the construction of the instruments of European
-countries during the lapse of nearly a thousand years. True,
-<!--Pg 115--><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a><span class="pageno">84</span>
-evidences to be relied on referring to the first five or six centuries
-of the Christian era are but scanty; although indications
-are not wanting which may help the reflecting musician.</p>
-
-<p>There are some early monuments of Christian art dating
-from the fourth century in which the lyre is represented. In
-one of them Christ is depicted as Apollo touching the lyre.
-This instrument occurs at an early period in western Europe
-as used in popular pastimes. In an Anglo-Saxon manuscript
-of the ninth century in the British Museum (Cleopatra C. <abbr title="Eight">VIII.</abbr>)
-are the figures of two gleemen, one playing the lyre and the
-other a double-pipe. M. de Coussemaker has published in
-the “Annales Archéologiques” the figure of a crowned
-personage playing the lyre, which he found in a manuscript
-of the ninth or tenth century in the library at Angers. The
-player twangs the strings with his fingers, while the Anglo-Saxon
-gleeman before mentioned uses a plectrum.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_23" id="fig_23"></a>
- <img src="images/fig23.jpg"
- width="50%"
- alt="Illustration: Cithara"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;<span class="sc">Cithara.</span> From a 9th century <abbr title="Manuscript">MS.</abbr>
-formerly in the monastery of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Blasius<br />
-in the Black Forest.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><dfn>Cithara</dfn> was a name applied to several stringed instruments
-greatly varying in form, power of sound, and compass. The
-illustration (<a href="#fig_23">Fig. 23</a>) represents a cithara from a manuscript
-of the ninth century,
-formerly in the library
-of the great monastery
-of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Blasius in the
-Black Forest. When in
-the year 1768 the monastery
-was destroyed by
-fire, this valuable book
-perished in the flames; fortunately the celebrated Abbot
-Gerbert possessed tracings of the illustrations, which were
-saved from destruction. He published them, in the year 1774,
-in his work “De cantu et musica sacra.” As the older works
-on music were generally written in Latin we do not learn
-from them the popular names of the instruments; the writers
-<!--Pg 116--><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a><span class="pageno">85</span>
-merely adopted such
-Latin names as they
-thought the most appropriate.
-Thus, for
-instance, a very
-simple stringed instrument
-of a triangular
-shape, and a somewhat
-similar one of
-a square shape (Fig.
-24), were designated
-by the name of
-<dfn>psalterium</dfn>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_24" id="fig_24"></a>
- <img src="images/fig24.jpg"
- width="50%"
- alt="Illustration: Psalterium"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;<span class="sc">Psalterium.</span> From a <abbr title="Manuscript">MS.</abbr> of the 9th century,
-formerly in the monastery of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Blasius in the
-Black Forest.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_25" id="fig_25"></a>
- <img src="images/fig25.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Cithara"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;<span class="sc">Cithara.</span> From a <abbr title="Manuscript">MS.</abbr> of the 9th century, formerly in the monastery of
-<abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Blasius in the Black Forest.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <dfn>cithara</dfn> here
-illustrated (<a href="#fig_25">Fig. 25</a>) is
-evidently an improvement
-<!--Pg 117--><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a><span class="pageno">86</span>
-upon the triangular psalterium (<a href="#fig_26">Fig. 26</a>), because it has a
-sort of small sound-board at the top. Scarcely better, with
-regard to acoustics, appears to have been the instrument
-designated as <dfn>nablum</dfn>, which is engraved (<a href="#fig_27">Fig. 27</a>) from a
-manuscript of the ninth century at Angers.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_26" id="fig_26"></a>
- <img src="images/fig26.jpg"
- width="50%"
- alt="Illustration: King Playing Psaltery"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span>&mdash;<span class="sc">King Playing Psaltery.</span> After
-an engraving in N. X. Willemin’s <dfn>Monuments
-Français Inédits</dfn>, <abbr title="Volume One, plate">Vol. I., pl.</abbr> 19, taken
-from <dfn>Hortus Deliciarum</dfn>, a <abbr title="Manuscript">MS.</abbr> of the
-12th century.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_27" id="fig_27"></a>
- <img src="images/fig27.jpg"
- width="50%"
- alt="Illustration: Nablum"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span>&mdash;<span class="sc">Nablum.</span> From a 9th century <abbr title="Manuscript">MS.</abbr> at
-Angers.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_28" id="fig_28"></a>
- <img src="images/fig28.jpg"
- width="50%"
- alt="Illustration: Woman playing a Citole"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 28.</span>&mdash;Female playing a species
-of <span class="sc">Citole</span>. From a 9th century
-<abbr title="Manuscript">MS.</abbr> formerly in the monastery of
-<abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Blasius, in the Black Forest.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A small psalterium
-with strings placed
-over a sound-board
-was apparently the
-prototype of the <dfn>citole</dfn>,
-a kind of dulcimer
-which was played
-with the fingers
-(<a href="#fig_28">Fig. 28</a>). The names
-were not only often vaguely applied by the mediæval writers,
-but they changed also in almost every century. The psalterium,
-or psalterion (Italian <dfn>salterio</dfn>, English <dfn>psaltery</dfn>), of the
-fourteenth century and later had the trapezium shape of the
-dulcimer.</p>
-<!--Pg 118--><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a><span class="pageno">87</span>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_29" id="fig_29"></a>
- <img src="images/fig29.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Harp"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 29.&mdash;Harp.</span> From a 9th century <abbr title="Manuscript">MS.</abbr> formerly in the monastery of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Blasius
-in the Black Forest.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Anglo-Saxons frequently accompanied their vocal
-effusions with a harp, more or less triangular in shape, an
-instrument which may be considered rather as constituting
-the transition of the lyre into the harp. The harp was
-especially popular in central and northern Europe, and
-was the favourite instrument of the German and Celtic
-bards and of the Scandinavian skalds. In the next illustration
-(<a href="#fig_29">Fig. 29</a>) from the manuscript of the monastery
-of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Blasius twelve strings and two sound-holes are given
-to it. A harp similar in form and size, but without the
-<!--Pg 119--><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a><span class="pageno">88</span>
-front pillar, was known to the ancient Egyptians. Perhaps
-the addition was also non-existent in the earliest specimens
-appertaining to European nations; and a sculptured figure
-of a small harp constructed like the ancient eastern harp has
-been discovered in the old church of Ullard in the county
-of Kilkenny. This curious relic, which is said to date from
-a period anterior to the year 800, is illustrated in Bunting’s
-“Ancient Music of Ireland.” As Bunting was the first who
-drew attention to this sculpture his account of it may interest
-the reader. “The drawing,” he says, “is taken from one of
-the ornamental compartments of a sculptured cross, at the
-old church of Ullard. From the style of the workmanship,
-as well as from the worn condition of the cross, it seems older
-than the similar monument at Monasterboice which is known
-to have been set up before the year 830. The sculpture is
-rude; the circular rim which binds the arms of the cross
-together is not pierced in the quadrants, and many of the
-figures originally in relievo are now wholly abraded. It is
-difficult to determine whether the number of strings represented
-is six or seven; but, as has been already remarked,
-accuracy in this respect cannot be expected either in sculptures
-or in many picturesque drawings.” The Finns had a
-harp (<dfn>harpu</dfn>, <dfn>kantele</dfn>) with a similar frame, devoid of a front
-pillar, still in use until the commencement of the last century.</p>
-
-<p>One of the most interesting stringed instruments of the
-middle ages is the <dfn>rotta</dfn> (German, <dfn>Rotte</dfn>; English, <dfn>rote</dfn>). It
-was sounded by twanging the strings, and also by the application
-of the bow. The first method was, of course, the elder
-one. There can hardly be a doubt that when the bow came
-into use it was applied to certain popular instruments which
-previously had been treated like the <dfn>cithara</dfn> or the <dfn>psalterium</dfn>.
-The Hindus at the present day use their <dfn>suroda</dfn> sometimes as
-a lute and sometimes as a fiddle. In some measure we do the
-<!--Pg 120--><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a><span class="pageno">89</span>
-same with the violin by playing occasionally <dfn>pizzicato</dfn>. The
-rotta from the manuscript of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Blasius is called in Gerbert’s
-work <dfn>cithara teutonica</dfn>, while the harp is called <dfn>cithara
-anglica</dfn>; from which it would appear that the former was
-regarded as pre-eminently a German instrument. Possibly
-its name may have been originally <dfn>chrotta</dfn> and the continental
-nations may have adopted it from the Celtic races of the
-British isles, dropping the guttural sound. This hypothesis
-is, however, one of those which have been advanced by
-some musical historians without any satisfactory evidence.</p>
-
-<p>In the <dfn>rotta</dfn> the ancient Asiatic lyre is easily to be recognized.
-An illumination of king David playing the <dfn>rotta</dfn> forms
-the frontispiece of a manuscript of the eighth century preserved
-in the cathedral library of Durham; it is musically
-interesting inasmuch as it represents a <dfn>rotta</dfn> of an oblong
-square shape like that just noticed and resembling the Welsh
-<dfn>crwth</dfn>. It has only five strings which the performer twangs
-with his fingers. Again, a very interesting representation
-of the Psalmist with a kind of <dfn>rotta</dfn> occurs in a
-manuscript of the tenth century, in the British Museum
-(Vitellius F.<abbr title="eleven">XI.</abbr>). The manuscript was much injured by
-a fire in the year 1731; but Professor Westwood has succeeded,
-with great care, and with the aid of a magnifying
-glass, in making out the lines of the figure. As it has been
-ascertained that the psalter is written in the Irish semiuncial
-character it is highly probable that the kind of <dfn>rotta</dfn> represents
-the Irish <dfn>cionar cruit</dfn>, which was played by twanging the
-strings and also by the application of a bow. Unfortunately
-we possess no well-authenticated representation of the Welsh
-<dfn>crwth</dfn> of an early period; otherwise we should in all probability
-find it played with the fingers, or with a plectrum. Venantius
-Fortunatus, an Italian who lived in the second half of the
-sixth century, mentions in a poem the “Chrotta Britanna.”
-<!--Pg 121--><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a><span class="pageno">90</span>
-He does not, however, allude to the bow, and there is no
-reason to suppose that it existed in England. Howbeit,
-the Welsh <dfn>crwth</dfn> (Anglo-Saxon, <dfn>crudh</dfn>; English, <dfn>crowd</dfn>) is only
-known as a species of fiddle closely resembling the <dfn>rotta</dfn>, but
-having a fingerboard in the middle of the open frame and
-being strung with only a few strings; while the <dfn>rotta</dfn> had
-sometimes above twenty strings. As it may interest the
-reader to examine the form of the modern <dfn>crwth</dfn> we give an
-illustration of it (<a href="#fig_30">Fig. 30</a>). Edward Jones, in his “Musical
-and poetical relicks of the Welsh bards,” records that the
-Welsh had before this kind of <dfn>crwth</dfn> a three-stringed one called
-“Crwth Trithant,” which was, he says, “a sort of violin, or
-more properly a rebeck.” The three-stringed <dfn>crwth</dfn> was chiefly
-used by the inferior class of bards; and was probably the
-Moorish fiddle which is still the favourite instrument of the
-itinerant bards of the Bretons in France, who call it <dfn>rébek</dfn>. The
-Bretons, it will be remembered, are close kinsmen of the Welsh.</p>
-
-<p>A player on the <dfn>crwth</dfn> or <dfn>crowd</dfn> (a crowder) from a bas-relief
-on the under part of the seats of the choir in Worcester
-cathedral dates from the latter part of the fourteenth century.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_5" id="fnanchor_5"></a><a href="#footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></span>
-
-It was probably identical with the <dfn>rotta</dfn> of the same century
-on the continent.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_30" id="fig_30"></a>
- <img src="images/fig30.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Crwth"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 30.&mdash;Crwth.</span> Welsh. 13th century.<br /><abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 22 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 9½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>
-<abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 175-’82.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 124--><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a><span class="pageno">91</span>
-
-<p>An interesting drawing of an Anglo-Saxon fiddle&mdash;&#8203;or
-<dfn>fithele</dfn>, as it was called&mdash;&#8203;is given in a manuscript of the
-eleventh century in the British Museum (Cotton, Tiberius,
-c. 6). The instrument is of a pear shape, with four strings,
-and the bridge is not indicated. A German fiddle of the
-ninth century, called <dfn>lyra</dfn>, copied by Gerbert from the manuscripts
-of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Blasius, has only one string. Other records of
-the employment of the fiddle-bow in Germany in the twelfth
-and thirteenth centuries are not wanting. For instance, in
-the famous “Nibelungenlied” Volker is described as wielding
-the fiddle-bow not less dexterously than the sword. And in
-“Chronicon picturatum Brunswicense” of the year 1203,
-the following miraculous sign is recorded as having occurred
-in the village of Ossemer: “On Wednesday in Whitsunweek,
-while the parson was fiddling to his peasants who were
-dancing, there came a flash of lightning and struck the parson’s
-arm which held the fiddle-bow, and killed twenty-four
-people on the spot."</p>
-
-<p>Among the oldest representations of performers on instruments
-of the violin kind found in England those deserve to
-be noticed which are painted on the interior of the roof of
-Peterborough Cathedral. They are said to date from the
-twelfth century. One of these figures is particularly interesting
-on account of the surprising resemblance which his
-instrument bears to our present violin. Not only the incurvations
-on the sides of the body but also the two sound-holes
-are nearly identical in shape with those made at the present
-day. Respecting the reliance to be placed on such evidence,
-it is necessary to state that the roof, originally constructed
-between the years 1177 and 1194, was thoroughly repaired
-in the year 1835. Although we find it asserted that “the
-greatest care was taken to retain every part, or to restore it
-to its original state, so that the figures, even where retouched,
-are in effect the same as when first painted,” it nevertheless
-remains a debatable question whether the restorers have not
-admitted some slight alterations, and have thereby somewhat
-modernised the appearance of the instruments. A
-slight touch with the brush at the sound-holes, the screws,
-or the curvatures would suffice to produce modifications
-which might to the artist appear as being only a renovation
-of the original representation, but which to the musical investigator
-greatly impair the value of the evidence. Sculptures are,
-therefore, more to be relied upon in evidence than frescoes.</p>
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-
-<div class="chapter"><!--Pg 125--><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a><span class="pageno">92</span>
-<h3 class="p4 h3head"><abbr title="Eight">VIII.</abbr></h3>
-
-<h4 class="h4head">EUROPEAN INSTRUMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.</h4>
-<p class="p0 center">(<span class="decoration">Continued.</span>)</p>
-
-<p class="p2"><span class="sc">The</span> construction of the <dfn>organistrum</dfn> (<a href="#fig_31">Fig. 31</a>) requires but
-little explanation. A glance at the finger-board reveals at once
-that the different tones were obtained by raising the keys
-placed on the neck under the strings, and that the keys were
-raised by means of the handles at the side of the neck. Of
-the two bridges shown on the body, the one situated nearest
-the middle was formed by a wheel in the inside, which projected
-through the sound-board. The wheel which slightly
-touched the strings vibrated them by friction when turned
-by the handle at the end. The order of intervals was <span class="decoration">c</span>, <span class="decoration">d</span>, <span class="decoration">e</span>,
-<span class="decoration">f, g, a, b-flat, b-natural, c</span>, and were obtainable on the highest
-string. There is reason to suppose that the other two strings
-were generally tuned a fifth and an octave below the highest.
-The <dfn>organistrum</dfn> may be regarded as the predecessor of the
-hurdy-gurdy, and was rather a cumbrous contrivance. Two
-persons seem to have been required to sound it, one to turn
-the handle and the other to manage the keys. Thus it is generally
-represented in mediæval concerts.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>monochord</dfn> was mounted with a single string stretched
-over two bridges which were fixed on an oblong box. The
-string could be tightened or slackened by means of a turning
-screw inserted into one end of the box. The intervals of the
-scale were marked on the side, and were regulated by a sort
-of movable bridge placed beneath the string when required.
-As might be expected, the <dfn>monochord</dfn> was chiefly used by
-theorists; for any musical performance it was but little
-<!--Pg 126--><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a><span class="pageno">93</span>
-suitable. About a thousand
-years ago when this monochord
-was in use the musical
-scale was diatonic, with the
-exception of the interval of
-the seventh, which was chromatic
-inasmuch as both <span class="decoration">b-flat</span>
-and <span class="decoration">b-natural</span> formed part of
-the scale.</p>
-
-<p>This ought to be borne
-in mind in examining the
-representations of musical
-instruments transmitted to
-us from that period.</p>
-
-<p>As regards the wind instruments
-popular during the
-Middle Ages, some were of
-quaint form as well as of rude
-construction.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_31" id="fig_31"></a>
- <img src="images/fig31.jpg"
- width="50%"
- alt="Illustration: Organistrum"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.&mdash;Organistrum.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <dfn>chorus</dfn>, or <dfn>choron</dfn>, had
-either one or two tubes. There
-were several varieties of this
-instrument; sometimes it was
-constructed with a bladder
-into which the tube is inserted;
-this kind of <dfn>chorus</dfn>
-resembled the bagpipe;
-another kind resembled the
-<dfn>pungi</dfn> of the Hindus, mentioned
-on page 52. The name
-<dfn>chorus</dfn> was also applied to
-certain stringed instruments.
-One of these had much the
-<!--Pg 127--><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a><span class="pageno">94</span>
-form of the <dfn>cithara</dfn>, page 84. It appears, however, probable
-that <dfn>chorus</dfn> or <dfn>choron</dfn> originally designated a horn (Hebrew,
-<dfn>keren</dfn>; Greek, <dfn>keras</dfn>; Latin, <dfn>cornu</dfn>).</p>
-
-<p>The flutes of the Middle Ages were blown at the end, like the
-flageolet. Of the <dfn>syrinx</dfn> there are extant some illustrations of
-the ninth and tenth centuries, which exhibit the instrument
-with a number of tubes tied together, just like the Pandean
-pipe still in use. In one specimen,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_6" id="fnanchor_6"></a><a href="#footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></span>
- from a manuscript of the
-eleventh century, the tubes were inserted into a bowl-shaped
-box. This is probably the <dfn>frestele</dfn>, <dfn>fretel</dfn>, or <dfn>fretian</dfn>, which in
-the twelfth and thirteenth centuries was in favour with the
-French ménétriers.</p>
-
-<p>Some large Anglo-Saxon trumpets may be seen in a manuscript
-of the eighth century in the British Museum. The
-largest kind of trumpet was placed on a stand when blown. Of
-the <dfn>oliphant</dfn>, or hunting horn, some fine specimens are in the
-Victoria and Albert Museum collection. The <dfn>sackbut</dfn> (Fig.
-32), probably made of
-metal, could be drawn
-out to alter the pitch
-of sound. The sackbut
-of the ninth century
-had, however, a very
-different shape to that
-in use about three
-centuries ago, and much more resembled the present <dfn>trombone</dfn>.
-The name <dfn>sackbut</dfn> is supposed to be a corruption of <dfn>sambuca</dfn>.
-The French, about the fifteenth century, called it <dfn>sacqueboute</dfn>
-and <dfn>saquebutte</dfn>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_32" id="fig_32"></a>
- <img src="images/fig32.jpg"
- width="50%"
- alt="Illustration: Sackbut"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.&mdash;Sackbut.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The most important wind instrument&mdash;&#8203;in fact, the king of all
-the musical instruments&mdash;&#8203;is the organ.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_33" id="fig_33"></a>
- <img src="images/fig33.jpg"
- width="85%"
- alt="Illustration: Organ"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 33.&mdash;Organ.</span> From a
- 12th century psalter in the Library of Trinity College, Cambridge.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <dfn>pneumatic organ</dfn> is sculptured on the base of an obelisk
-<span class="sc">Fig. 33.&mdash;Organ.</span> From a 12th century psalter in the Library of Trinity College, Cambridge.]
-<!--Pg 128--><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a><span class="pageno">95</span>
-which was erected in Constantinople under Theodosius the Great
-towards the end of the fourth century. The bellows were
-pressed by men standing on them. This interesting monument
-also exhibits performers on the double flute. The
-<dfn>hydraulic organ</dfn>, which is recorded to have been already known
-about two hundred years before the Christian era, was according
-to some statements occasionally employed in churches during
-the earlier centuries of the Middle Ages. Probably it was more
-frequently heard in secular entertainments, for which it was
-more suitable; and at the beginning of the fourteenth century
-it appears to have been entirely supplanted by the pneumatic
-organ. The earliest organs had only about a dozen pipes.
-The largest, which were made about nine hundred years ago,
-had only three octaves, in which the chromatic intervals did
-not occur. Some progress in the construction of the organ is
-shewn in a psalter of Eadwine, in the library of Trinity College,
-Cambridge (<a href="#fig_33">Fig. 33</a>). The instrument has ten pipes, or perhaps
-fourteen, as four of them appear to be double pipes.
-<!--Pg 129--><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a><span class="pageno">96</span>
-It required four men exerting all their power to produce
-the necessary wind, and two men to play the instrument.
-Moreover, both players seem also to be busily engaged in
-directing the blowers about the proper supply of wind.
-Six men and only fourteen pipes!</p>
-
-<p>Another illustration
-is given of an
-organ of the 14th
-century (<a href="#fig_34">Fig. 34</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_34" id="fig_34"></a>
- <img src="images/fig34.jpg"
- width="75%"
- alt="Illustration: Organ"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 34.&mdash;Organ</span> (Grand Orgue), after an engraving in N. X.
-Willemin’s <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Monuments Français Inédits</cite>, <abbr title="Volume One, plate">Vol. I., pl.</abbr> 133,
-taken from a psalter of the 14th century.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The pedal is
-generally believed
-to have been invented
-by Bernhard,
-a German,
-who lived in Venice
-about the year
-1470. There are,
-however, indications
-extant pointing
-to an earlier
-date of its invention. Perhaps Bernhard was the first who, by
-adopting a more practicable construction, made the pedal
-more generally known. On the earliest organs the keys of the
-finger-board were of enormous size, compared with those
-of the present day; so that a finger-board with only nine keys
-had a breadth of from four to five feet. The organist struck
-the keys down with his fist, as is done in playing the <dfn>carillon</dfn>
-still in use on the Continent, of which presently some account
-will be given.</p>
-
-<p>Of the little portable organ, known as the <dfn>regal</dfn> or <dfn>regals</dfn>,
-often tastefully shaped and embellished, some interesting
-sculptured representations are still extant in the old ecclesiastical
-edifices of England and Scotland. There is, for instance,
-<!--Pg 130--><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a><span class="pageno">97</span>
-in Beverley Minster a figure of a man playing on a single regal,
-or a regal provided with only one set of pipes; and in Melrose
-Abbey the figure of an angel holding in his arms a double regal,
-the pipes of which are in two sets. The regal generally had
-keys like those of the organ but smaller. A painting in the
-National Gallery, attributed to Melozzo da Forlì (1438-1494)
-contains a regal which has keys of a peculiar shape, rather
-resembling the pistons of certain brass instruments. (<a href="#fig_1">Fig. 1</a>,
-<span class="decoration">Frontispiece</span>.) To avoid misapprehension, it is necessary to
-mention that the name <dfn>regal</dfn> (or <dfn>regals</dfn>, <dfn>rigols</dfn>) was also applied
-to an instrument of percussion with sonorous slabs of wood.
-This contrivance was, in short, a kind of harmonica, resembling
-in shape as well as in the principle of its construction the little
-glass harmonica, a mere toy, in which slips of glass are arranged
-according to our musical scale. In England it appears
-to have been still known in the beginning of the eighteenth
-century. Grassineau describes the “Rigols” as “a kind of
-musical instrument consisting of several sticks bound together,
-only separated by beads. It makes a tolerable harmony,
-being well struck with a ball at the end of a stick.” In the
-earlier centuries of the Middle Ages there appear to have been
-some instruments of percussion in favour, to which Grassineau’s
-expression “a tolerable harmony” would scarcely
-have been applicable. Drums, of course, were known; and
-their rhythmical noise must have been soft music, compared
-with the shrill sounds of the <dfn>cymbalum</dfn> (a contrivance consisting
-of a number of metal plates suspended on cords, so that
-they would be clashed together simultaneously) or with the
-clangour of the <dfn>cymbalum</dfn> constructed with bells instead of
-plates; or with the piercing noise of the <dfn>bunibulum</dfn>, or <dfn>bombulom</dfn>;
-an instrument which consisted of an angular frame
-to which were loosely attached metal plates of various shapes
-and sizes. The lower part of the frame constituted the
-<!--Pg 131--><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"></a><span class="pageno">98</span>
-handle; and to produce the noise it evidently was shaken
-somewhat like the sistrum of the ancient Egyptians.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_7" id="fnanchor_7"></a><a href="#footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></span>
-</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>triangle</dfn> nearly resembled the instrument of this name
-in use at the present day; it was more elegant in shape and
-had some metal ornamentation in the middle.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>tintinnabulum</dfn> consisted of a number of bells arranged
-in regular order and suspended in a frame.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_35" id="fig_35"></a>
- <img src="images/fig35.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Bas relief"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 35.&mdash;Bas relief</span>, representing a group of Musicians, formerly at the Abbey of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Georges de Boscherville. Late 11th
-century(?). After an engraving in N.N. Willemin’s <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Monuments Français Inédits</cite>, <abbr title="Volume One, plate">Vol. I., pl.</abbr> 52.<br />
-Museum of Rouen.</p>
-</div>
-
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-
-<div class="chapter"><!--Pg 134--><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a><span class="pageno">99</span>
-<h3 class="p4 h3head"><abbr title="Nine">IX.</abbr></h3>
-
-<h4 class="h4head">EUROPEAN INSTRUMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.</h4>
-<p class="center">(<span class="decoration">Continued</span>).</p>
-
-<p class="p2"><span class="sc">Respecting</span> the orchestras, or musical bands, represented
-on monuments of the Middle Ages, there can hardly be a doubt
-that the artists who sculptured them were not unfrequently led
-by their imagination rather than by an adherence to actual
-fact. It is, however, not likely that they introduced into such
-representations instruments that were never admitted in the
-orchestras, and which would have appeared inappropriate to
-the contemporaries of the artists. An examination of one
-or two of the orchestras may therefore find a place here,
-especially as they throw some additional light upon the characteristics
-of the instrumental music of mediæval time.</p>
-
-<p>A very interesting group of music performers, dating, it is
-said, from the end of the eleventh century, is preserved in a
-bas-relief which formerly ornamented the abbey of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Georges
-de Boscherville and which is now removed to the museum
-of Rouen (<a href="#fig_35">Fig. 35</a>). The orchestra comprises twelve performers,
-most of whom wear a crown. The first of them
-plays upon a viol, which he holds between his knees as
-the violoncello is held. His instrument is scarcely as large as
-the smallest viola da gamba. By his side are a royal lady and
-her attendant, the former playing on an <dfn>organistrum</dfn> of which
-the latter is turning the wheel. Next to these is represented
-a performer on a <dfn>syrinx</dfn>; and next to him a performer on a
-stringed instrument resembling a lute, which, however, is too
-much dilapidated to be recognisable. Then we have a musician
-<!--Pg 135--><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a><span class="pageno">100</span>
-with a small stringed instrument resembling the <dfn>nablum</dfn> (<span class="decoration">see</span>
-<a href="#Page_86">p. 86</a>). The next musician, also represented as a royal personage,
-plays on a small species of harp. Then follows a
-crowned musician playing the <dfn>viol</dfn> which he holds in almost
-precisely the same manner as the violin is held. Again,
-another, likewise crowned, plays upon a harp, using with the
-right hand a plectrum and with the left hand merely his
-fingers. The last two performers, apparently a gentleman and
-a gentlewoman, are engaged in striking the <dfn>tintinnabulum</dfn>&mdash;&#8203;a
-set of bells in a frame.</p>
-
-<p>In this group of crowned minstrels the sculptor has introduced
-a tumbler standing on his head, perhaps the vocalist
-of the company, as he has no instrument to play upon. Possibly
-the sculptor desired to symbolise the hilarious effects
-which music is capable of producing, as well as its elevating
-influence upon the devotional feelings.</p>
-
-<p>The two positions in which we find the <dfn>viol</dfn> held is worthy
-of notice, inasmuch as it refers the inquirer further back than
-might be expected for the origin of our peculiar method of
-holding the violin, and the violoncello, in playing. There
-were several kinds of the <dfn>viol</dfn> in use, differing in size and in
-compass of sound. The most common number of strings
-was five, and it was tuned in various ways. One kind had
-a string tuned to the note <sub><img src="images/m100a.jpg" width="15%" alt="music snippet" /></sub> running at the side
-of the finger-board instead of over it; this string was,
-therefore, only capable of producing a single tone. The four
-other strings were tuned thus: <sub><img src="images/m100b.jpg" width="25%" alt="music snippet" /></sub> Two
-other species, on which all the strings were placed over the
-finger-board, were tuned: <sub><img src="images/m100c.jpg" width="25%" alt="music snippet" /></sub> and:
-<sub><img src="images/m101.jpg" width="25%" alt="music snippet" /></sub> A very beautiful <dfn>vielle</dfn> is represented
-in <a href="#fig_36">Fig. 36</a>. It is of French workmanship of about
-1550, with monograms of Henri <abbr title="Two">II.</abbr>, and is preserved in the
-Museum.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_36" id="fig_36"></a>
- <img src="images/fig36.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Hurdy-Gurdy"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 36.&mdash;Hurdy-Gurdy</span> (Vielle). With arms of France and crowned
-monogram of Henry <abbr title="Two">II.</abbr> on back and front. Near the handle are monograms
-of Catherine de Médicis. About 1550. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 22½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 8¼ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>
-<abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 220-’66.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_37" id="fig_37"></a>
- <img src="images/fig37.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Tympanum"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 37.&mdash;Tympanum</span> of the Glory Gate of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostella. Dated 1188.<br />
-From a plaster cast in the Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 140--><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a><span class="pageno">101</span>
-
-<p>The contrivance of placing a string or two at the side of the
-finger-board is evidently very old, and was also gradually
-adopted on other instruments of the violin class of a somewhat
-later period than that of the <dfn>vielle</dfn>; for instance, on the <dfn>lira
-di braccio</dfn> of the Italians. It was likewise adopted on the lute,
-to obtain a fuller power in the bass; and hence arose the
-<dfn>theorbo</dfn>, the <dfn>archlute</dfn>, and other varieties of the old lute.</p>
-
-<p>A grand assemblage of musical performers is represented on
-the Portico della Gloria of the famous pilgrimage church of
-Santiago de Compostella, in Spain. This triple portal, which
-is stated by an inscription on the lintel to have been executed
-in the year 1188, consists of a large semi-circular arch with a
-smaller arch on either side. The central arch is filled by a
-tympanum, round which are twenty-four life-sized seated
-figures, in high relief, representing the twenty-four elders seen
-by <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> John in the Apocalypse, each with an instrument of
-music. These instruments are carefully represented, and are
-of great interest as showing those in use in Spain about the
-twelfth century. A cast of this sculpture is in the Museum
-(<a href="#fig_37">Fig. 37</a>).</p>
-
-<p>In examining the group of musicians on this sculpture the
-reader will probably recognise several instruments in their
-hands which are identical with those already described in the
-preceding pages. The <dfn>organistrum</dfn>, played by two persons, is
-placed in the centre of the group, perhaps owing to its being the
-largest of the instruments rather than that it was distinguished
-by any superiority in sound or musical effect. Besides the
-small harp seen in the hands of the eighth and nineteenth
-<!--Pg 141--><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"></a><span class="pageno">102</span>
-musicians (in form nearly identical with the Anglo-Saxon
-harp) we find a small triangular harp, without a front-pillar,
-held on the lap by the fifth and eighteenth musicians. The
-<dfn>salterio</dfn> on the lap of the tenth and seventeenth musicians
-resembles the dulcimer, but seems to be played with the
-fingers instead of with hammers. The most interesting instrument
-in this orchestra is the <dfn>vihuela</dfn>, or Spanish viol, of the
-twelfth century. The first, second, third, sixth, seventh,
-ninth, twentieth, twenty-second, twenty-third, and twenty-fourth
-musicians are depicted with a <dfn>vihuela</dfn> which bears a
-close resemblance to the <dfn>rebec</dfn>. The instrument is represented
-with three strings, although in one or two instances five tuning-pegs
-are indicated. A large species of <dfn>vihuela</dfn> is given to the
-eleventh, fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth musicians.
-This instrument differs from the <dfn>rebec</dfn> in so far as its body is
-broader and has incurvations at the sides. Also the sound-holes
-are different in form and position. The bow does not
-occur with any of these viols. But, as will be observed, the
-musicians are not represented in the act of playing; they are
-tuning and preparing for the performance, and the second of
-them is adjusting the bridge of his instrument.</p>
-
-<p>The minstrel gallery of Exeter Cathedral (<a href="#fig_38">Fig. 38</a>) dates
-from the fourteenth century. The front is divided into twelve
-niches, each of which contains a winged figure or an angel
-playing on an instrument of music. There is a cast also of
-this famous sculpture at South Kensington. The instruments
-are so much dilapidated that some of them cannot be
-clearly recognised; but, as far as may be ascertained, they
-appear to be as follows:&mdash;&#8203;(1) The <dfn>lute</dfn> or possibly <dfn>cittern</dfn>;
-(2) the <dfn>bagpipe</dfn>; (3) the <dfn>clarion</dfn> or the <dfn>shalm</dfn>; (4) the <dfn>rebec</dfn>;
-(5) the <dfn>psaltery</dfn> or the <dfn>harp</dfn>; (6) the <dfn>jew’s harp</dfn> (?); (7) the
-<dfn>sackbut</dfn> or the <dfn>clarion</dfn>; (8) the <dfn>regals</dfn>; (9) the <dfn>gittern</dfn>, a small
-guitar strung with catgut; (10) the <dfn>shalm</dfn> (?); (11) the <dfn>timbrel</dfn>,
-<!--Pg 144--><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"></a><span class="pageno">103</span>
-resembling our present tambourine, with a double row of
-gingles; (12) <dfn>cymbals</dfn>. Most of these instruments have been
-already noticed in the preceding pages. The <dfn>shalm</dfn>, or <dfn>shawm</dfn>,
-was a pipe with a reed in the mouth-hole. The <dfn>wait</dfn> was an
-English wind instrument of the same construction. If it
-differed in any respect from the <dfn>shalm</dfn>, the difference consisted
-probably in the size only. The <dfn>wait</dfn> obtained its name
-from being used principally by watchmen, or <dfn>waights</dfn>, to
-proclaim the time of night. Such were the poor ancestors of
-our fine oboe and clarinet.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_38" id="fig_38"></a>
- <img src="images/fig38.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Minstrel Gallery"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig 38.&mdash;Minstrel Gallery</span>, Exeter Cathedral. 14th century.<br />
-From a plaster cast in the Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-
-<div class="chapter"><!--Pg 145--><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104"></a><span class="pageno">104</span>
-<h3 class="p4 h3head"><abbr title="Ten">X.</abbr></h3>
-
-<h4 class="h4head">POST-MEDIÆVAL INSTRUMENTS.</h4>
-
-<p class="p2"><span class="sc">Attention</span> must now be drawn to some instruments which
-originated during the Middle Ages, but which attained their
-highest popularity at a somewhat later period.</p>
-
-<p>About 300 years ago the <dfn>lute</dfn> (<a href="#fig_39">Fig. 39</a>) was almost as popular
-as is the pianoforte at the present day. Originally it had
-eight thin catgut strings arranged in four pairs, each pair
-being tuned in unison; so that its open strings produced four
-tones; but in the course of time more strings were added.
-Until the sixteenth century twelve was the largest number, or
-rather, six pairs. Eleven appears for some centuries to have
-been the most usual number of strings; these produced six
-tones, since they were arranged in five pairs and a single
-string. The latter, called the <dfn>chanterelle</dfn>, was the highest.
-According to Thomas Mace, the English lute in common use
-during the seventeenth century had twenty-four strings,
-arranged in twelve pairs, of which six pairs ran over the
-finger-board and the other six by the side of it. This lute
-was therefore, more properly speaking, a theorbo. The neck
-of the lute, and also of the theorbo, had frets consisting of
-catgut strings tightly fastened round it at the proper distances
-required for ensuring a chromatic succession of intervals.
-The illustration (<a href="#fig_40">Fig. 40</a>) represents a lute-player of the late
-fifteenth century. The order of tones adopted for the open
-strings varied in different centuries and countries; and this
-was also the case with the notation of lute music. The most
-common practice was to write the music on six lines, the
-upper line representing the first string; the second line, the
-second string, etc., and to mark with letters on the lines the
-frets at which the fingers ought to be placed&mdash;&#8203;<span class="decoration">a</span> indicating
-the open string, <span class="decoration">b</span> the first fret, <span class="decoration">c</span> the second fret, and so on.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_39" id="fig_39"></a>
- <img src="images/fig39.jpg"
- width="50%"
- alt="Illustration: Italian Lute"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 39.&mdash;Lute.</span> Italian (Venetian). Beginning of 17th
-century.<br />
-<abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 32½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 12 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 1125-’69.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_40" id="fig_40"></a>
- <img src="images/fig40.jpg"
- width="50%"
- alt="Illustration: Angel playing a Lute"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 40.</span>&mdash;Angel playing a Lute, after
-an oil painting by Ambrogio da Predis.
-Late 15th century.<br />
-National Gallery.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_41" id="fig_41"></a>
- <img src="images/fig41.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Archlute"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 41.&mdash;Archlute.</span> Inscribed “Rauche in Chandos
-Street, London, 1762.”<br />
-<abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 49½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 14½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>
-<abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 9-’71.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 152--><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a><span class="pageno">105</span>
-
-<p>The lute was made of various sizes, according to the purpose
-for which it was intended in performance. The treble-lute
-was of the smallest dimensions, and the bass-lute of the largest.
-The <dfn>theorbo</dfn>, or double-necked lute which appears to have
-come into use during the sixteenth century, had in addition
-to the strings situated over the finger-board a number of others
-running at the left side of the finger-board which could not
-be shortened by the fingers, and which produced the bass tones.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>archlute</dfn> is a large theorbo with a peculiar arrangement
-of the strings (<a href="#fig_41">Fig. 41</a>). Several of them were doubled, the
-additional string being tuned an octave higher than the other.
-The process of tuning such instruments was evidently troublesome
-and tedious. Mattheson, the quaint contemporary of
-Handel, in his “Das Neu-eröffnete Orchestre,” Hamburg, 1713,
-remarks:&mdash;&#8203;"If a lutenist attains the age of eighty, you may
-be sure he has tuned sixty years; and the worst of it is that
-among a hundred players, especially of the amateurs, scarcely
-two are capable of tuning with accuracy. Now there is
-something amiss with the strings; now with the frets; and
-now again with the screws; so that I have been told that in
-Paris it costs as much money to keep a lute as to keep a
-horse.” Also Mace, an enthusiastic admirer of the lute,
-testifies to the difficulty of keeping the instrument in proper
-condition; for his treatise on the lute and theorbo (contained
-in “Musick’s Monument,” London, 1676) is replete with
-rules for stringing, tuning, cleaning, repairing, etc. And, as
-regards preserving the instrument, he gives the advice&mdash;&#8203;"You
-shall do well, ever when you lay it by in the day-time,
-to put it into a bed that is constantly used, between the rug
-and blanket.”
-<!--Pg 153--><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a><span class="pageno">106</span></p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>chitarrone</dfn> is a theorbo with an extraordinarily long
-neck, by which the length of the eight bass strings is considerably
-increased (<a href="#fig_42">Fig. 42</a>). The largest instruments of this kind
-were made some centuries ago, in Rome. They were used in
-the theatre for accompanying the voice, before the Clavicembalo,
-or Harpsichord, was introduced for this purpose. The
-finest instruments of the lute kind were made in Italy, especially
-at Bologna, Rome, Venice, and Padua. Many of the
-manufacturers in Italy were, however, foreigners. Evelyn,
-in his Diary (May 21, 1645), speaking of Bologna, says,
-“This place has also been celebrated for lutes made by the
-old masters, Mollen [Maler ?], Hans Frey, and Nicholas
-Sconvelt, which were of extraordinary price; the workmen
-were chiefly Germans.” One of the earliest and most celebrated
-of these makers was Lucas Maler (or “Laux Maler”
-as he inscribed his name on his instruments). He lived at
-Bologna about 1415.
-<!--Pg 154--></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_42" id="fig_42"></a>
- <img src="images/fig42.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Title or description"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 42.&mdash;Chitarrone.</span> Italian. Made by
-Buchenberg in Rome, anno 1614.<br />
-<abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 74 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>
-<abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 190-’82.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Other celebrated lute-makers<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_8" id="fnanchor_8"></a><a href="#footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></span>
- were:<span class="lock">&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Ludwig Porgt, Regensburg, 1525.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Hanns Gerle, Nuremberg, <abbr title="born">b.</abbr> about 1505, <abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 1599.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Hans Neusedler, Nuremberg, <abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 1563.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Sebastian Rauser, Verona, working about 1590 to 1605.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Mattheus Buchenberg, Rome, working about 1592-1619.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Hanns Fichtholdt, Ingoldstadt (?), about 1612; his lutes,
-the backs of which are made with narrow strips of
-wood, in the Italian manner, were formerly much
-prized by connoisseurs.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Paolo Belami, Paris, about 1612, probably an Italian.
-His lutes were highly valued.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Joachim Tielke, Hamburg, <abbr title="born">b.</abbr> 1641, <abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 1719.</p>
-<!--Pg 156--><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a><span class="pageno">107</span>
-
-<p class="hanging">Antonio Castaro, Rome, about 1615.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Christofilo Rochi, Padua, about 1620.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Sebastian Rochi, Venice, about 1620.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Clays von Pommersbach, Cologne, probably during the
-sixteenth century.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Magnus Tieffenbrucker, Venice, latter half of seventeenth
-century.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Wendelin Tieffenbrucker, Padua, working about 1572-1611,
-and Leonhard Tieffenbrucker, Padua (?), during
-the sixteenth century; their lutes were rather flat and
-long in body.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Michael Hartung, Padua, working about 1602 to 1624;
-he was a pupil of Leonhard Tieffenbrucker.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Raphael Mest, Füssen, working about 1610 to 1650; said
-to have been pupil of Michael Hartung.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Johann Christian Hoffmann, Leipzig, working about 1710
-to 1750; his lutes were exported to Holland and
-England.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Martin Schott, Prague, latter half of seventeenth century.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Sebastian Rauch, Prague, working about 1700 to 1724.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Matthias Hummel, Nuremberg, end of seventeenth
-century.</p>
-
-<p class="hanging">Sebastian Schelle, Nuremberg, working about 1700 to
-1745; his lutes were much valued, not only in Germany,
-but also in other European countries.</p>
-
-<p>There used to be in Italy various kinds of mandolines, of
-which the Milanese and the Neapolitan were the most
-common. The first-named had usually ten strings, constituting
-five pairs. The Neapolitan <dfn>mandolino</dfn> had eight
-strings, constituting four pairs. The strings were usually
-twanged with a quill. Mozart, in his “Don Giovanni,” has
-made use of the Neapolitan <dfn>mandolino</dfn> in the serenade; but,
-as the instrument has fallen into disuse, at least in most
-<!--Pg 157--><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"></a><span class="pageno">108</span>
-countries except Italy, the part written for it by Mozart is
-now generally played on the violin, <dfn>pizzicato</dfn>. The <dfn>mandolino</dfn>
-is now often strung with catgut strings. It resembles a
-diminutive lute; but its fingerboard has metal frets, and its
-strings are fastened to little ivory pins at the end of the
-body, instead of being looped through holes in the bridge.
-The convex back of the mandoline is deeper than that of
-the lute. It is one of the handsomest musical instruments.</p>
-
-<p>Besides the mandoline the Italians had various instruments
-in shape resembling the lute. Of this description are, for
-instance, the <dfn>mandora</dfn>, <dfn>mandorina</dfn>, and the <dfn>pandurina</dfn>. The
-mandoline differs from the pandurina chiefly in having a
-rounder and deeper body, and in having the tuning-pegs
-placed at the back of the head; while the <dfn>pandurina</dfn> has a
-sort of scroll, with the tuning-pegs situated sideways, similar
-to the old English cither (<a href="#fig_43">Fig. 43</a>). The <dfn>mandora</dfn> had usually for
-each tone two strings, which were of catgut and wire; and there
-were eight pairs of them. The <dfn>mandorina</dfn> had four wire strings.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>guitar</dfn> (<a href="#fig_44">Fig. 44</a>) is evidently an importation from the East,
-but it has undergone various modifications since its adoption
-by European nations. It was an instrument of the Moors in
-Spain, and became known in France about the 11th century.
-The French called it formerly <dfn>guiterne</dfn>, and the English
-<dfn>gittern</dfn>, <dfn>ghittern</dfn>, and <dfn>gythorn</dfn>. At the time of Henry <abbr title="Eight">VIII.</abbr>
-we find it occasionally called “the Spanish viol.” At an
-early period it probably had the oval shape of the <dfn>kuitra</dfn>, still
-in use by the Arab musicians in Tunis and Algiers. In Spain
-it had formerly also the name of <dfn>vihuela</dfn>.</p>
-
-<p>Instruction books for the old Spanish guitar have been
-written by:&mdash;&#8203;Ludovico Milan, Valencia, 1534; Sixtus
-Kargel, Mayence, 1569; Joannes Carolus, Lerida, 1626;
-Pietro Milioni, Rome, 1638; Lucas Ruiz de Ribayaz, Madrid,
-1672, etc. The number of guitar manuals published during
-the 18th century is enormous. Germany alone contributed
-above fifty.
-<!--Pg 158--></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_43" id="fig_43"></a>
- <img src="images/fig43.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Pandurina"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.&mdash;Pandurina.</span> On the back is carved a
-group consisting of Juno, Minerva and Venus.
-French. Second half of 16th century. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 16½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>,
-W. 4½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 219-’66.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_44" id="fig_44"></a>
- <img src="images/fig44.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Guitar"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 44.&mdash;Guitar.</span> French (?). 17th century. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 40⅜in., W.
-11⅞ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 676-’72.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_45" id="fig_45"></a>
- <img src="images/fig45.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Quinterna"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 45.&mdash;Quinterna, or Chiterna.</span> Inscribed “Joachim Tielke
-in Hamburg, 1539,” but of later date.
-<abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 25½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 9⅜ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 1122-’69.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_46" id="fig_46"></a>
- <img src="images/fig46.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Cither"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 46.&mdash;Cither.</span> German. End of 17th century. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 31½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>
-<abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 219-’82.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 166--><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a><span class="pageno">109</span>
-
-<p>The guitar was a fashionable instrument in England, played
-by ladies, in the time of Charles <abbr title="Two">II.</abbr> On the Continent it
-generally had ten catgut strings, of which two were always
-tuned in unison. At the present day it has six strings, the
-two of which are of silk covered with silver wire, and the
-others are of catgut.</p>
-
-<p>A species of guitar is the <dfn>quinterna</dfn>, or <dfn>chiterna</dfn>, somewhat
-resembling a violin in shape (<a href="#fig_45">Fig. 45</a>). It was used about two
-centuries ago, especially in Italy, by the lower orders of
-musicians and comedians for accompanying their vocal
-performances. It was played with the fingers instead of a
-plectrum.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>cithern</dfn>, <dfn>cittern</dfn>, or <dfn>cither</dfn> (<a href="#fig_46">Fig. 46</a>), which during the
-sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was a popular instrument
-in England, where it was often played in the barbers’ shops,
-had four pairs of wire strings.</p>
-
-<p>Its top generally terminated in a grotesquely-carved human
-head. The cithers made in England during the eighteenth
-century have generally at the top some inlaid ornamentation
-in ivory, mother-of-pearl, or fancy wood.</p>
-
-<p>Although not well suited for the performance of harmonious
-combinations, since its wire strings are twanged with a quill,
-and therefore only such chords can be properly produced as
-are on strings following each other in uninterrupted succession,
-the cither, nevertheless, possesses considerable charms.</p>
-
-<p>There are several conjectures as to the derivation of the
-German name <dfn>zither</dfn> or <dfn>zitter</dfn>. Some suppose it to be from
-“<dfn>zittern</dfn>,” on account of the peculiarly trembling sound of the
-instrument. During the first centuries of the Christian era
-the word <dfn>cythera</dfn> (<dfn>cithara</dfn>) implied almost any stringed instrument,
-especially if the strings were twanged with a plectrum,
-<!--Pg 167--><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a><span class="pageno">110</span>
-or with the fingers. It is also noteworthy, though perhaps only
-as a singular coincidence, that the Persians and Hindus have
-a three-stringed species of <dfn>zither</dfn>, which they call <dfn>sitar</dfn>, from the
-Persian word <dfn>si</dfn>, “three,” and <dfn>tar</dfn>, “a string.” The Hindu
-<dfn>sitar</dfn> is, however, now usually mounted with five strings.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>harp-guitar</dfn> and <dfn>harp-theorbo</dfn> (<a href="#fig_47">Fig. 47</a>) were manufactured
-in England with the intention of improving the
-sound of the guitar and theorbo by adopting for them the
-body of the harp.</p>
-
-<p>There was also another invention of this kind, called the
-<dfn>harp-lute</dfn>.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>harp-ventura</dfn> (<a href="#fig_48">Fig. 48</a>) was invented at the beginning of
-the last century by Signor Angelo Benedetto Ventura, professor
-of music, and teacher of the guitar and harp-lute to
-the Princess Charlotte of Wales. The example given has a
-back of satin wood, and sides of turtle shell; the belly and
-pillar are painted and gilt. It has nineteen catgut strings,
-six of which are covered with wire.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>banduria</dfn> (<a href="#fig_49">Fig. 49</a>) a lyre-shaped guitar, was often
-strung with wire instead of catgut, and played with a plectrum
-generally made of tortoise-shell. The specimen illustrated is
-made of various woods, has three sound-holes, a machine
-head, and twelve catgut strings tuned in pairs.</p>
-
-<p>The Spanish peasants call their rustic guitar <dfn>vihuela</dfn>;
-and it appears probable that the “gittrons that are called
-Spanish vialls,” mentioned in the list of musical instruments
-of Henry <abbr title="Eight">VIII.</abbr> (Harl. <abbr title="Manuscripts">MSS.</abbr> 1419, p. 202) were small guitars
-of this description.</p>
-
-<p>The Irish harp (<dfn>clarseth</dfn>) illustrated in <a href="#fig_50">Fig. 50</a>, belonged
-formerly to a celebrated Irish harper. A similar one, which is in
-the possession of the Marquess of Kildare, bears the date 1671.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_47" id="fig_47"></a>
- <img src="images/fig47.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Harp Theorbo"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 47. Harp Theorbo.</span> Made by Harley. English. About 1800.
-<abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 36 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 250-’82.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_48" id="fig_48"></a>
- <img src="images/fig48.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Harp Ventura"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 48.&mdash;Harp Ventura.</span> So-called from the inventor, Signor Ventura.
-English. Early 19th century. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 33 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 248-’82.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_49" id="fig_49"></a>
- <img src="images/fig49.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Banduria"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 49.&mdash;Banduria.</span> English. Early 19th century. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 22¼ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 227-’82.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_50" id="fig_50"></a>
- <img src="images/fig50.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Old Irish Harp"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 50.&mdash;Harp.</span> Old Irish. H. 52 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 43 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 616-’72.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 176--><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a><span class="pageno">111</span>
-
-<p>Considering the scarcity of the old Irish <dfn>clarseth</dfn>, mention
-may be made of a fine specimen formerly in the collection of
-Irish antiquities belonging to Thomas Crofton Croker, from
-which it was purchased, in the year 1854, at an auction in
-London, by Thomas Bateman, Esq. It bears on its front the
-inscription, <cite>Made by John Kelly for the <abbr title="Reverend">Rev.</abbr> Charles Bunworth
-Baltdaniel, 1734</cite>. At the contentions or meetings of the
-bards of Ireland, between the years 1730 and 1750, which were
-generally held at Bruree, county Limerick, the <abbr title="Reverend">Rev.</abbr> Charles
-Bunworth was five times chosen umpire, or president. Although
-this harp is not of high antiquity, it is an interesting
-example of the ancient form and construction, and likewise of
-the ancient manner of ornamenting the instrument. A wood
-engraving of it, from a drawing by Maclise, is given in “A
-Descriptive Catalogue of the Antiquities and Miscellaneous
-Objects preserved in the Museum of Thomas Bateman, at
-Lomberdale House, Derbyshire,” Bakewell, 1855. An account
-of the Irish harps deposited in the Museum of Dublin is
-to be found in “A Descriptive Catalogue of the Antiquities in
-the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy,” by W. R. Wilde,
-Dublin, 1863. The illustrations of the Irish harp in the works
-of Bunting and similar writers may be supposed to be known
-to musicians.</p>
-
-<p>The number of strings appears to have been greater on the
-older specimens recorded than on the later ones. Prætorius,
-in his “Syntagma musicum,” etc., <abbr title="volume two">vol. ii.</abbr>, Wolfenbüttel,
-1619, gives an illustration of the Irish harp, in which it is
-represented with forty-three strings. He describes the
-instrument as having a pleasant resonance, and being constructed
-with a considerable degree of ingenuity. The
-illustration exhibits the same shape, with the fore-bar bent
-outwards, which is shown in the present specimen.</p>
-
-<p>Some harps after the model of the old Irish <dfn>clarseth</dfn>, which
-are painted and gilt, were made in Dublin in the beginning of
-the last century.</p>
-
-<p><!--Pg 177--><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a><span class="pageno">112</span>
-The small harp of the middle ages of Central and Western
-Europe, depicted in old sculptures and paintings, generally
-exhibits the front-bar of its frame somewhat bent outwardly,
-much as is the case with the Irish <dfn>clarseth</dfn>. Gradually the
-number of its strings was increased; and, likewise the strength
-of the frame for resisting the tension of the strings. The
-front-bar of our harp is straight, or a front-pillar. Until the
-seventeenth century only the diatonic series of intervals was
-properly obtainable on the instrument. The performer had,
-however, a method of producing occasionally a semitone by
-pressing the finger against the string towards the end, much in
-the same manner in which the Burmese produce chromatic
-intervals on the <dfn>soung</dfn>. Towards the end of the seventeenth
-century the Tyrolian harp makers adopted little plates with
-hooks, which could be moved so as to press upon the strings,
-and thereby shorten them, for the production of the semitones,
-more rapidly and unerringly than could be done by the fingers.
-A French harp of the period of Louis <abbr title="Sixteen">XVI.</abbr>. is illustrated
-(<a href="#fig_51">Fig. 51</a>). It is carved and gilt in the style of Gouthière,
-and decorated with oak foliage and acorns; at the top of
-the pillar is a figure of a Cupid.</p>
-
-<p>Students who examine the old instruments above described
-will probably wish to know something about their quality
-of tone. “How do they sound? Might they still be made
-effective in our present state of the art?” are questions which
-naturally occur to the musical inquirer having such instruments
-brought before him. A few words bearing on these
-questions may therefore not be out of place here.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_51" id="fig_51"></a>
- <img src="images/fig51.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Harp, French"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 51.&mdash;Harp.</span> French. About 1770.<br />
- H. 63 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 30 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 4087-’57.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_52" id="fig_52"></a>
- <img src="images/fig52.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Violin of James I"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 52.&mdash;Violin.</span> Said to have belonged to James <abbr title="One">I.</abbr>
-English. Early 17th century. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 23¼ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 8 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>
-<abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 34-’69.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_53" id="fig_53"></a>
- <img src="images/fig53.jpg"
- width="50%"
- alt="Illustration: Angel playing a Viol"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 53.</span>&mdash;Angel playing a Viol, after an oil
-painting by Ambrogio da Predis. Late
-15th century.<br />
-National Gallery.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 182--><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"></a><span class="pageno">113</span>
-
-<p>It is generally and justly admitted that in no other branch
-of the art of music has greater progress been made during the
-last century than in the construction of musical instruments.
-Nevertheless, there are people who think that we have also
-lost something here which might with advantage be restored.
-Our various instruments by being more and more perfected
-are becoming too much alike in quality of sound, or in that
-character of tone which the French call <dfn>timbre</dfn>, and the
-Germans <dfn>Klangfarbe</dfn>, and which professor Tyndall in his
-lectures on sound has translated <dfn>clang-tint</dfn>. Every
-musical composer knows how much more suitable one <dfn>clang-tint</dfn>
-is for the expression of a certain emotion than another.
-Our old instruments, imperfect though they were in many
-respects, possessed this variety of <dfn>clang-tint</dfn> to a high degree.
-Neither were they on this account less capable of expression
-than the modern ones. That no improvement has been made
-during the last two centuries in instruments of the violin
-class is a well-known fact. As to lutes and cithers the collection
-at South Kensington contains specimens so rich and
-mellow in tone as to cause musicians to regret that these
-instruments have entirely fallen into oblivion.</p>
-
-<p>As regards beauty of appearance our earlier instruments
-were certainly superior to the modern. Indeed, we have now
-scarcely a musical instrument which can be called beautiful.
-The old lutes, cithers, viols, dulcimers, etc., are not only
-elegant in shape but are also often tastefully ornamented
-with carvings, designs in marquetry, and painting.</p>
-
-<p>Of the stringed instruments used in our orchestra, the
-<dfn>violin</dfn> (<a href="#fig_52">Fig. 52</a>) is the one which has been longest preserved
-entirely unaltered. Its name (Italian, <dfn>violino</dfn>), a diminutive
-of <dfn>viola</dfn>, suggests that our <dfn>tenor</dfn> (<dfn>viola di braccio</dfn>) is the older instrument
-of the two. The <dfn>viol</dfn> (<a href="#fig_53">Fig. 53</a>, facing p. 104) in use about
-three centuries ago, was however somewhat different in shape.
-As the oldest-known instruments played with a bow, which in
-European countries preceded the violin, may be mentioned:&mdash;&#8203;The
-<dfn>rebec</dfn>, which, it appears, was first popular in Spain;
-the <dfn>crwth</dfn> of the Welsh; the <dfn>fidla</dfn> of the Norwegian, which, in
-<!--Pg 183--><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114"></a><span class="pageno">114</span>
-shape somewhat resembled the <dfn>crwth</dfn>, and which, with some
-slight modifications, is still occasionally to be found in Iceland,
-where it is called <dfn>langspiel</dfn>; and the <dfn>fithele</dfn> of the Anglo-Saxons.</p>
-
-<p>Such were the instruments from which our violin has
-gradually been developed, until it attained, in the seventeenth
-century, that degree of perfection which has never since been
-surpassed. The violin makers whose instruments are still
-most highly valued are:&mdash;&#8203;Antonio Amati, whose most
-flourishing period dates between the years 1592 and 1619;
-Nicolo Amati, the nephew of the preceding, 1662-1692;
-Giuseppe Guarneri, 1690-1707; Antonio Stradivari, 1700-1725;
-and Jakob Stainer, 1650-1670. All these celebrated
-makers, except Jakob Stainer, were Italians, living at
-Cremona. Jakob Stainer (or Jacobus Steiner) was a native
-of Absam, a village near Innsbruck in the Tyrol. Few
-musical instruments have experienced so great an increase
-in price as the violins of these celebrated makers. Stainer
-used himself to carry his violins to the monasteries situated
-in the neighbourhood of Absam, where he lived. He sold
-them at 40 florins apiece. It was not until after his death that
-his workmanship was duly appreciated.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>viola da gamba</dfn> (French, <dfn>basse de viole</dfn>; German, <dfn>Kniegeige</dfn>)
-derives its name from its being held between the knees
-of the performer (<a href="#fig_54">Figs. 54</a> and <a href="#fig_55">55</a>). It was the predecessor
-of the violoncello, and was made with frets. It was a favourite
-instrument in England at the time of Queen Elizabeth, and
-even ladies played it occasionally. In England it was called
-<dfn>base viol</dfn>, and also <dfn>viol-de-gambo</dfn>. Sir Toby Belch, in Shakespeare’s
-“Twelfth Night,” says of Sir Andrew Aguecheek:<span class="lock">&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p>"He plays o’ the viol-de-gamboys, and speaks three or
-four languages word for word without book, and hath all
-the good gifts of nature."</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_54" id="fig_54"></a>
- <img src="images/fig54.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Viola da Gamba"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 54.&mdash;Viola da Gamba.</span> Italian. About 1600.
-H. 48 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 14 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 7360-’61.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_55" id="fig_55"></a>
- <img src="images/fig55.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Viola da Gamba, Italian"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 55.&mdash;Viola da Gamba.</span> Italian. 17th century. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 47¼ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>
-<abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 168-’82.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_56" id="fig_56"></a>
- <img src="images/fig56.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Viola Di Bardone"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 56.&mdash;Viola Di Bardone, or Baryton, With Bow.</span>
-Inscribed “Jaques Sainprae, à Berlin.” German.
-17th century. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 54 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 16½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 1444, 1444ᵃ-’70.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 190--><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"></a><span class="pageno">115</span>
-
-<p>Among the English public performers on the <dfn>viola da
-gamba</dfn> are recorded a Mrs. Sarah Ottey, in the year 1723,
-and a Miss Ford in 1760. Carl Friedrich Abel, a German,
-who lived in London during the latter half of the eighteenth
-century, was the last performer of celebrity on this instrument.
-Johann Sebastian Bach has employed it in his
-admirable “Passionsmusik des Matthæus"; and there are
-some fine “Suites,” still occasionally to be met with, composed
-for it by M. de Caix d’Herveloix, published in the year 1710.
-The tone of the <dfn>viola da gamba</dfn> is rather nasal, but sweet and
-expressive; indeed, it is to be regretted that this charming
-instrument has fallen into disuse. There is, however, a
-<dfn>gamba</dfn> stop in the organ, which resembles the famous <dfn>vox
-humana</dfn> stop, and which has recently been much favoured
-by organ builders.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>violoncello</dfn> came into competition with the <dfn>viola da
-gamba</dfn> at the beginning of the eighteenth century, and has
-now entirely superseded its predecessor.</p>
-
-<p>A <dfn>viola di bardone</dfn> in the Museum (<a href="#fig_56">Fig. 56</a>) has a neck of
-carved and pierced box-wood, terminating in a figure of
-Apollo playing the lyre; the principal finger-board is of ivory,
-engraved and inlaid with ebony and tortoiseshell, with figures
-of Jupiter and Juno, and a lady playing a lute; the second
-finger-board is also of pierced and engraved ivory. The
-instrument has four catgut and fourteen metal sympathetic
-strings, and a double wrest. It was made by Jaques Sainprae,
-of Berlin, and is said to have belonged to Quanz, music master
-of Frederick the Great.</p>
-
-<p>The most accomplished performers on the <dfn>viola di bardone</dfn>
-were Anton Lidl of Vienna (to whom is sometimes erroneously
-ascribed the invention of this instrument) and Karl Franz, a
-musician of the band of Prince Esterhazy, about the middle
-of the 18th century. Lidl played on the <dfn>viola di bardone</dfn> in
-<!--Pg 191--><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a><span class="pageno">116</span>
-concerts in England during the year 1776. Joachim Tielke
-of Hamburg, the manufacturer of a specimen in the Museum,
-was an instrument maker whose lutes were much esteemed
-on account of their fine tone, and their elegant ornamentation.
-He made them of ebony inlaid with ivory, mother-of-pearl,
-silver, and gold.</p>
-
-<p>Joseph Haydn wrote sixty-three compositions for the
-<dfn>viola di bardone</dfn> by order of Prince Esterhazy, who was himself
-a performer on this instrument, and who admired it greatly.
-Its tone is soft and very expressive, but rather tremulous;
-owing to this quality, probably, it was also called <dfn>viola di
-fagotto</dfn>. It never became very popular, since its rather
-complicated construction offered too many difficulties in its
-treatment. In Germany it was generally called <dfn>Baryton</dfn>.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>viola d’amore</dfn> (<a href="#fig_57">Fig. 57</a>) was often strung entirely with
-wire. It appears to have been a novelty to Evelyn, for he
-records in his Diary of November 20th, 1679, “I dined
-with Mr. Slingsby, Master of the Mint, with my wife, invited
-to hear music, which was exquisitely performed by four of the
-most renowned masters: Du Prue, a Frenchman, on the lute;
-Signor Bartholomeo, an Italian, on the harpsichord; Nicholao,
-on the violin; but above all, for its sweetness and novelty,
-the <dfn>viol d’amore</dfn> of five wire strings played on with a bow,
-being but an ordinary violin played on lyre-way by a German.”
-Mattheson ("Das Neu-Eröffnete Orchestre,” Hamburg,
-1713) describes the <dfn>viola d’amore</dfn> as being mounted with four
-wire strings, and with one catgut string for the highest tone.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_57" id="fig_57"></a>
- <img src="images/fig57.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Viola d’Amore"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 57.&mdash;Viola d’Amore.</span> Probably English. Late 17th
-century.<br />
-<abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 27½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 154-’82.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_58" id="fig_58"></a>
- <img src="images/fig58.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Double-Bass"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 58.&mdash;Double-Bass, with Bow.</span> Known as “The Giant.” Italian. 17th century.
-<abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 103 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 42 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 487-’72.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 196--><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a><span class="pageno">117</span>
-
-<p>He praises its sweetness of sound, but does not mention the
-sympathetic strings. The transformation of the wire-strung
-<dfn>viola d’amore</dfn> into the so-called psaltery or sultana, which has
-no sympathetic strings, is indicated in the following statement
-by Sir John Graham Dalyell ("Musical Memoirs of Scotland,”
-Edinburgh, 1849), “The instrument was first introduced in
-public in London during the year 1715, when it was heard
-between the acts of an opera. It was known in Scotland
-in the middle of the century, and a taste for it was probably
-encouraged by the performance of Passerini, an Italian
-resident in Edinburgh, in the year 1752, when it was said
-to be a new instrument called <dfn>viole d’amour</dfn>. Passerini was
-manager of the Gentleman’s and <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Cecilia Concert, where
-he and his wife had a permanent engagement as skilled
-musicians. He played solos and accompanied singing with
-the instrument. Perhaps the <dfn>viole d’amour</dfn> underwent
-several modifications, as its name was changed to <dfn>psaltery</dfn>,
-in the belief of its being the ancient instrument so denominated,
-which is quite different according to most authorities, not
-belonging to the fidicinal tribe. In 1754 a concert for the new
-instrument called the <dfn>psaltery</dfn> was announced for Signor
-Carusi’s benefit concert in Edinburgh, and performed by
-Pasquali, another Italian musician, also resident there.
-From its soft and simple nature it was eulogised in 1762 as
-unequalled for delicacy and sweetness. I knew a lady many
-years ago in Edinburgh who played melodies with great
-delicacy on this instrument, which was strung with wire, and
-had frets on the finger-board.” From these accounts it would
-appear that the <dfn>viola d’amore</dfn> strung entirely with wire was
-not much used in England before the year 1700, although
-it evidently existed in this country in the seventeenth century.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>double-bass</dfn> (Italian, <dfn>contrebasso</dfn>, <dfn>violone</dfn>; French,
-<dfn>contrebasse</dfn>; German, <dfn>grosse Bassgeige</dfn>, <dfn>Kontrabass</dfn>) is either
-four-stringed or three-stringed. A three-stringed example
-known as “The Giant” presented by Dragonetti to the
-Duke of Leinster, and given by the latter to the Museum,
-is illustrated in <a href="#fig_58">Fig. 58</a>.</p>
-
-<p>Dragonetti, the celebrated <dfn>virtuoso</dfn> on the double-bass,
-came to England in the year 1794. His favourite instrument,
-<!--Pg 197--><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a><span class="pageno">118</span>
-upon which he played in public concerts, was a “Gaspar
-di Salo,” which he obtained from the Convent of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Pietro at
-Vicenza, and which he never could be induced to part with,
-although £800, it is said, was offered him for it by one of
-his rich and enthusiastic pupils in England. After the death
-of Dragonetti this bass, and another valuable one by Stradivarius,
-were sent back to Italy, he having bequeathed them
-in his will to the town of Venice. Dragonetti died in the
-year 1846 at his house in Leicester Square, at the age of
-eighty-three. A year before his death he was still able to
-assist in the public performances at the Beethoven Festival in
-Bonn. His friend H. Philipps mentions in his “Musical
-Recollections” that the ends of Dragonetti’s fingers had
-gradually become quite flat and deformed from playing.</p>
-
-<p>Some double-basses of extraordinarily large size are known
-to have been made in England. William Gardiner ("Music
-and Friends,” London, 1838, p. 70) mentions such an instrument,
-made by Martin in Leicester, which he saw in the year
-1786, and which, if his statement may be relied upon, “was of
-such height that Mr. Martin was obliged to cut a hole in the
-ceiling to let the head through; so that it was tuned by going
-upstairs into the room above."</p>
-
-<p>A <dfn>sordino</dfn> (French, <dfn>pochette</dfn>; German, <dfn>Taschengeige</dfn>) is
-illustrated in <a href="#fig_59">Fig. 59</a>. About 300 years ago the <dfn>sordino</dfn> was
-kept by gentlemen in a case resembling a pen case, which
-they put in the pocket when they went to a singing party; and
-they used the instrument for insuring correct intonation while
-singing madrigals and catches. Kircher, in his “Musurgia
-Universalis,” Romæ, 1650, calls it <dfn>linterculus</dfn>, no doubt from
-its resemblance to a small boat.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#fig_60">Fig. 60</a> represents a <dfn>bûche</dfn> (German, <dfn>Scheitholz</dfn>) made by
-Fleurot, of the Val d’Ajol, in the Vosges Mountains, early in
-the last century.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_59" id="fig_59"></a>
- <img src="images/fig59.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Sordino"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 59.&mdash;Sordino, or Pochette.</span> Probably German. Late 17th or early 18th century. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 17½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>
-<abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 457-’83.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_60" id="fig_60"></a>
- <img src="images/fig60.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Bûche"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 60.&mdash;Bûche, or Scheitholz.</span> Made by Fleurot, of the Val d’Ajol in the Vosges Mountains.
-Early 19th century. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 27½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 210-’82.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_61" id="fig_61"></a>
- <img src="images/fig61.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Virginal"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 61.&mdash;Virginal.</span> Formerly belonging to Queen Elizabeth. Italian. Second half of 16th century. H. 8½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 65 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, D. 23 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>
-<abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 19-’87.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_62" id="fig_62"></a>
- <img src="images/fig62.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Title or description"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 62.&mdash;Virginal.</span> Bears the arms of William, Duke of Cleves, Berg and Jülich, Count of La Marck and Ravensberg, and originally also
-Duke of Guelderland (<abbr title="born">b.</abbr> 1516, <abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 1592). Flemish. Second half of 16th century. H. 16 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 67 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, D. 28 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 447-’96.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 204--><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a><span class="pageno">119</span>
-
-<p>At the present day the people twang the bûche with a
-quill; but in olden time it was played thus:&mdash;&#8203;The performer,
-having placed the instrument on a table, twanged the strings
-with the thumb of his right hand, while he used his left hand
-in pressing down, by means of a little stick, those strings
-which are placed over the frets, and which, being tuned in
-unison, serve for producing the melody. The other strings,
-tuned a <dfn>fifth</dfn> lower, were occasionally struck as an accompaniment.</p>
-
-<p>Primitive in construction, and imperfect for our present
-musical performances as the <dfn>Scheitholz</dfn> is, it nevertheless is
-interesting, not only on account of its popularity three centuries
-ago, but also because it is the prototype of the horizontal
-cither, which has come somewhat into vogue in the last
-century.</p>
-
-<p>The most popular instruments played with a bow, in the
-seventeenth century, were the <dfn>treble-viol</dfn>, the <dfn>tenor-viol</dfn>, and
-the <dfn>bass-viol</dfn>. It was usual for viol players to have “a chest
-of viols,” a case containing four or more viols, of different
-sizes. Thus, Thomas Mace in his directions for the use of
-the viol, “Musick’s Monument” 1676, remarks, “Your best
-provision, and most complete, will be a good chest of viols,
-six in number, <abbr title="namely">viz.</abbr>, two basses, two tenors, and two trebles,
-all truly and proportionately suited.” The violist, to be
-properly furnished with his requirements, had therefore to
-supply himself with a larger stock of instruments than the
-violinist of the present day.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>virginal</dfn> (<a href="#fig_61">Figs. 61</a> and <a href="#fig_62">62</a>) is said to have obtained
-its name from having been intended especially to be
-played by young ladies. The statement of some writers
-that it was called virginal in compliment to Queen Elizabeth,
-is refuted by the fact of its being mentioned among
-the musical instruments of King Henry <abbr title="Eight">VIII.</abbr>, in the
-<!--Pg 205--><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120"></a><span class="pageno">120</span>
-beginning of the sixteenth century. Probably the name
-was originally given to it in honour of the Virgin Mary,
-since the <dfn>virginal</dfn> was used by the nuns for accompanying
-their hymns addressed to the Holy Virgin. It was made
-of various sizes, but generally small in comparison with our
-square pianoforte. The Italians, about three hundred years
-ago, constructed a small portable instrument of this kind,
-which they called <dfn>ottavino</dfn> (or <dfn>octavina</dfn>) because its pitch was
-an octave higher than that of the clavicembalo, or harpsichord.</p>
-
-<p>Queen Elizabeth was a performer on the <dfn>virginal</dfn> (<span class="decoration">see</span> <a href="#fig_61">Fig. 61</a>)
-as well as on the lute. Sir James Melville, the Scotch ambassador,
-records in his memoirs an interview with Queen Elizabeth,
-in the year 1564, in which he heard her play upon the virginal:&mdash;&#8203;"Then
-sche asked wither the Quen (Mary of Scotland)
-or sche played best. In that I gaif hir the prayse.” During
-the Shakesperian age a virginal generally stood in the barbers’
-shops for the amusement of the customers. The instrument
-had evidently retained its popularity at the time of the Great
-Fire of London; for Pepys (Diary, September 2nd, 1666)
-records:&mdash;&#8203;"River full of lighters and boats taking in goods,
-and good goods swimming in the water; and only I observed
-that hardly one lighter or boat in three that had the goods
-of a house in, but there was a pair of virginalls in it."</p>
-
-<p>The instrument has metal strings, one for each tone, which
-are twanged by means of small portions of quill, attached to
-slips of wood called “jacks,” and provided with thin metal
-springs. Its construction is therefore similar to that of the
-spinet and harpischord. Crowquills were most commonly
-used in the construction of such instruments; but other
-materials, as for instance leather, whalebone, and even elastic
-strips of metal, were occasionally adopted instead.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_63" id="fig_63"></a>
- <img src="images/fig63.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Spinet"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 63.&mdash;Spinet.</span> Made by Annibale dei Rossi of Milan. Italian. Dated 1577. H. 11¼ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 58¼ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 22¼ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 809-’69.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_64" id="fig_64"></a>
- <img src="images/fig64.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Spinet, English"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 64.&mdash;Spinet.</span> Signed “Johannes Player fecit.” English. About 1700. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 59 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 22½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 466-’82.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_65" id="fig_65"></a>
- <img src="images/fig65.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Clavichord"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 65.&mdash;<span
- class="sc">Clavichord.</span> Inscribed “Barthold Fritz fecit,
- Braunschweig, anno 1751.” German. 18th century. <abbr
- title="Height">H.</abbr> 31 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>,
- <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 70½ <abbr
- title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 22½
- <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr>
- 339-’82.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 210--><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a><span class="pageno">121</span>
-
-<p>There evidently prevailed, some centuries ago, much vagueness
-in the designation of certain stringed instruments with a
-key-board. The term <dfn>clavichord</dfn> seems to have not unfrequently
-been applied to any stringed instrument with a key-board,
-no matter what its interior construction might be.
-Johann Walther, in his “Musicalisches Lexicon,” Leipzig,
-1732, describes the <dfn>virginal</dfn> (or “Virginale,” as he calls it),
-in these words:-"Ein Clavier vors Frauenzimmer” (<dfn>a
-clavichord for ladies</dfn>). The following brief explanation of the
-difference between the spinet and the clavichord may therefore
-be of interest to some inquirers.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>spinet</dfn> (Italian, <dfn>spinetta</dfn> or <dfn>spinetto</dfn>; French, <dfn>épinette</dfn>) is
-said to have derived its name from the little quill (<dfn>spina</dfn>) used
-in its mechanism, which is the same as that of the harpsichord
-and the virginal, described before.</p>
-
-<p>The more commonly-known spinet (<a href="#fig_63">Figs. 63</a> and <a href="#fig_64">64</a>)
-resembles in shape the harpsichord and the grand piano.
-It is, however, smaller than the harpsichord, and its key-board
-is placed in a somewhat oblique direction. The tone
-of the spinet was generally a <dfn>fifth</dfn> higher than that of the
-harpsichord.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>clavichord</dfn> (Italian, <dfn>clavicordo</dfn>; German, <dfn>Clavier</dfn>, or
-<dfn>Klavier</dfn>), differs from the spinet inasmuch as it is of an oblong-square
-shape (<a href="#fig_65">Fig. 65</a>), and especially in its being constructed
-with so-called <dfn>tangents</dfn>, <span class="decoration">i.e.</span>, metal pins which press under the
-strings when the keys are struck. The strings are of thin brass
-wire. The oldest specimens of the clavichord still extant are
-from three to four feet in length, and about two feet in width.
-The lower keys are black, and the upper ones are white.
-There is only a single string for each tone and its upper semitone;
-thus, there is but one string for <span class="decoration">C</span> and <dfn>C-sharp</dfn>, and
-likewise for <span class="decoration">D</span> and <dfn>D-sharp</dfn>, and so on. The semitone is produced
-by a second tangent, which touches the string at a
-place a little distant from that at which it is touched by the
-tangent producing the whole-tone. On being pressed under
-<!--Pg 211--><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122"></a><span class="pageno">122</span>
-the string, the tangent divides it into two vibrating parts,
-one of which is considerably longer than the other and gives
-the sound. The other part is too short to be distinctly
-audible, and therefore does not very perceptibly interfere
-with the clearness of the sound. Moreover, its vibration
-is checked by a strip of cloth interlaced with the strings. It
-will easily be understood that of the two tangents, the one
-which most shortens the sounding part of the string, must
-produce a tone of a higher pitch than the other.</p>
-
-<p>Such was the construction of the <dfn>clavichord</dfn> until about the
-year 1700, when it was improved in so far as that each key
-was supplied with a separate string. The clavichord is pre-eminently
-a German instrument. Although now almost entirely
-supplanted by the pianoforte, it is still occasionally to be met
-with in the house of the German village schoolmaster and of
-the country parson. Though but weak in sound, it admits
-of much expression; and most of the German classical composers
-who lived before the invention of the pianoforte preferred
-the clavichord to the harpsichord. In England it has never
-become popular. Considering the simplicity of its construction,
-it might be surmised that the price of a clavichord
-was generally very moderate. In the latter half of the
-eighteenth century the prices charged for such instruments by
-some of the best manufacturers were as follows:&mdash;&#8203;Carl Lemme,
-in Brunswick, made clavichords of various qualities, which
-fetched from three to twelve Louis d’ors a-piece; he also made,
-for exportation to Batavia, clavichords with a compressed
-sounding-board, invented by his father in the year 1771;
-Krämer, in Göttingen, charged from four to fourteen Louis
-d’ors, according to size and finish; and Wilhelmi, in Cassel,
-charged from twenty to fifty thalers,&mdash;&#8203;from about £3 to £7 10s.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_66" id="fig_66"></a>
- <img src="images/fig66.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Clavicembalo"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 66.&mdash;Clavicembalo.</span> Signed “Joanes Antonius Baffo, Venetus.” Italian. Dated 1574. H. 9½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 83 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 36 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 6007-’59.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 214--><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a><span class="pageno">123</span>
-
-<p>The <dfn>clavicembalo</dfn> (often designated merely <dfn>cembalo</dfn>) is called
-in German “Flügel,” on account of its shape somewhat
-resembling the wing of a bird. <dfn>Clavicembali</dfn> formerly in use
-generally had a compass of five octaves. The instrument
-was usually supplied with some stops by means of which
-the quality of sound could in some measure be modified.
-Furthermore, it was frequently made with two keyboards,
-one for the loud and another for the soft tones. The harpsichord
-made in England was precisely of the same construction.
-In fact, the best harpsichord makers in England were emigrants
-from the continent, and the founders of some of the great
-pianoforte manufactories still flourishing in London. Burkhardt
-Tschudi, for instance, a harpsichord maker from Switzerland,
-was the founder of Broadwood’s celebrated manufactory,
-which dates from the year 1732. Kirkman, a German (who,
-before he established himself in England, wrote his name
-Kirchmann) sold his harpsichords in London, according
-to the German Musical Almanac for the year 1782, at the
-price of from 60<abbr title="pounds" class="decoration">l.</abbr> to 90<abbr title="pounds" class="decoration">l.</abbr> apiece. In the beginning of the
-eighteenth century many of the harpsichords made in England
-had, according to Grassineau (Musical Dictionary, London,
-1740), a compass of only four octaves.</p>
-
-<p>However, already as early as in the sixteenth and seventeenth
-centuries, harpsichords or clavicembali, of a superior
-quality, manufactured by Hans Ruckers and his sons Jean
-and Andreas, were imported into England. The instruments
-of these celebrated Antwerp manufacturers were tastefully
-embellished, and the best Dutch painters not infrequently
-enriched them with devices. The consequence has been
-that after the invention of the pianoforte, many of these
-old harpsichords were taken to pieces in order to preserve the
-valuable panels. The price of a fine harpsichord by Ruckers
-about 1770, was £120.</p>
-
-<p>The old <dfn>clavicembalo</dfn> by Antonio Baffo, of Venice (<a href="#fig_66">Fig. 66</a>),
-has slips of prepared leather instead of the usual crowquills,
-<!--Pg 215--><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a><span class="pageno">124</span>
-which, if original, would show that the statement of some
-writers as to Pascal Taskin in Paris being the first to use
-leather is erroneous. Taskin, in constructing in the year
-1768 the <dfn>Clavecin à peau de buffle</dfn>, may have revived an old
-invention, which, however, he seems to have much improved.
-He made a <dfn>clavecin</dfn> with three keyboards, two of which were
-connected with actions constructed of crowquills, and the
-third with an action of leather. The modification in quality
-of sound thereby obtained was greatly admired.</p>
-
-<p>The illustration (<a href="#fig_67">Fig. 67</a>) represents a clavecin made by
-Pascal Taskin in the year 1786. The case is highly ornamented
-with Japanese figures and gilding.</p>
-
-<p>The invention of the <dfn>clavicembalo</dfn> as well as of the <dfn>clavicordo</dfn>,
-is by some old writers ascribed to Guido Aretinus (or Guido
-d’Arezzo), the famous monk who is recorded to have invented,
-in the year 1025, the Solmisation, and also to have first
-conceived the idea of employing lines and dots in the notation
-of musical sounds. Unauthentic though the tradition may
-be which assigns to Guido the invention of the stringed
-instruments with a keyboard, it appears very probable that
-some rude kind of clavichord was first constructed about
-his time, or soon after.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>claviorganum</dfn>, or organ-harpsichord, consists of an
-organ and a harpsichord (or a spinet) combined. Either can
-be played separately or with the other together. The separation
-and the union are effected by means of a stop or a pedal.
-The claviorganum was, some centuries ago, not uncommon.
-It enables the performer to sustain the sound at pleasure,
-which on the harpsichord is as little possible as on the pianoforte.
-A <dfn>claviorganum</dfn> from Ightham Mote, near Sevenoaks,
-illustrated in <a href="#fig_68">Fig. 68</a>, affords evidence of a higher antiquity
-of instruments of this kind than might perhaps be expected.
-It bears the inscription, <dfn>Lodowicus Theewes me fecit</dfn>, 1579.
-There is scarcely more remaining of this interesting relic than
-the outer case; but this is so elaborately finished that, if
-the mechanism was constructed with equal care and success,
-it must have been a superior instrument. The maker is
-unknown in musical history. Perhaps he belonged to the
-family of Treu (also written Trew), musicians of repute in
-Anspach about the year 1600.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_67" id="fig_67"></a>
- <img src="images/fig67.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Clavecin"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 67.&mdash;Clavecin.</span> Made by Pascal Taskin of Paris. French. Dated 1786. H. 32¾ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> of keyboard, 30 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 72 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 1121-’69.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_68" id="fig_68"></a>
- <img src="images/fig68.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Organ-Harpsichord"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 68.&mdash;Organ-Harpsichord or Claviorganum.</span> Formerly in the chapel of Ightham Mote, near Sevenoaks, Kent. Probably English.
-Harpsichord, H. 9 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 84 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 35½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> Organ case, H. 41 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 91 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 40 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 125 125ᵃ-’90.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 220--><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a><span class="pageno">125</span>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_69" id="fig_69"></a>
- <img src="images/fig69.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Triple Flageolet"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 69.&mdash;Triple Flageolet.</span>  Italian. About 1820. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 20½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 295-’82.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_70" id="fig_70"></a>
- <img src="images/fig70.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Flauto Dolce"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 70.&mdash;<span class="sc">Flauto Dolce, or Flute.</span> Ivory. Inscribed “Anciuti
- a Milan, 1740."<br />
- <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 18½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 7469-’61.<br />
- Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The pianoforte, which now has entirely superseded the
-harpsichord, was first constructed at the beginning of the
-eighteenth century, in Italy and Germany. About the
-year 1767 it was from Germany introduced into England;
-but the English musicians for a considerable period objected
-to it, and preferred to retain the harpsichord.</p>
-
-<p>That there was, in the time of Shakespeare, a species of
-flageolet, called <dfn>recorder</dfn>, is undoubtedly known to most
-readers from the stage direction in Hamlet: <span class="decoration">Re-enter players
-with recorders</span>. The recorder is also mentioned by Milton, and
-described by Bacon, who states that “the figures of recorders,
-flutes and pipes are straight; but the recorder hath a less
-bore, and a greater above and below.” An illustration of
-this old instrument, which has now become very scarce, is
-given in “The Genteel Companion; Being exact Directions
-for the Recorder: etc.” London, 1683.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>flauto dolce</dfn> (French, <dfn>flûte douce</dfn>, and <dfn>flûte à bec</dfn>), much
-in use some centuries ago, was made of various lengths (Fig.
-70). The Germans called it <dfn>Pflockflöte</dfn>, <span class="decoration">i.e.</span>, a flute with a
-plug in the mouth-hole. The most common <dfn>flûte à bec</dfn> was
-made with six finger-holes, and its compass embraced somewhat
-more than two octaves. Several of the finger-holes
-required to be only partly covered in order to produce the
-desired tone. There was often a key on this instrument
-in addition to the finger-holes. This flute was much in
-favour in England; hence it was called in France “Flûte
-<!--Pg 221--><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126"></a><span class="pageno">126</span>
-d’Angleterre.” It has gradually been supplanted by the
-“Flûte traversière,” or “German Flute."</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>flageolet</dfn> (<a href="#fig_71">Fig. 71</a>), the smallest <dfn>flûte à bec</dfn>, was formerly
-played in England even by ladies. Pepys, in his Diary (March
-1st, 1666), records:&mdash;&#8203;"Being returned home, I find Greeting,
-the flageolet-master, come, and teaching my wife; and I do
-think my wife will take pleasure in it, and it will be easy for
-her, and pleasant."</p>
-
-<p>The flageolet was made of various sizes. Pepys (Diary,
-January 20th, 1667) records:&mdash;&#8203;"To Drumbleby’s, the pipemaker,
-there to advise about the making of a flageolet to go
-low and soft; and he do show me a way which do, and
-also a fashion of having two pipes of the same note fastened
-together, so as I can play on one and then echo it upon the
-other, which is mighty pretty."</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>double flageolet</dfn> was invented by Bainbridge about the
-year 1800. The <dfn>triple flageolet</dfn> (<a href="#fig_69">Fig. 69</a>) is less common but
-equally useless for musical performances of the present day.
-The “Harmonicon,” London, 1830, records:&mdash;&#8203;"Within these
-few years Mr. Bainbridge has added a bass joint to his double
-flageolet and the tone resembles the lower notes on a German
-flute. The effect produced by the combination of three notes
-is very good and mellifluous. The bass joint is fixed at the
-back of the double flageolet, and the breath is conveyed by
-means of a tube; and by the introduction of what are termed
-stop-keys, a solo, duet, or trio may be instantaneously performed.
-The bass notes are produced by keys pressed with
-the thumb of the left hand.” The writer remarks that “this
-instrument being purely English, I consider it deserving of
-being recorded as a very ingenious invention."</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>hautboy</dfn> or <dfn>oboe</dfn> (<a href="#fig_72">Fig. 72</a>) came into more general
-use about the year 1720.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_71" id="fig_71"></a>
- <img src="images/fig71.jpg"
- width="50%"
- alt="Illustration: Flageolet"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 71.&mdash;Flageolet.</span>
-Italian. Middle of 18th century.
-<abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 20 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Diameter">Diam.</abbr> of mouth, 1⅞ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>
-<abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 1124-’69.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_72" id="fig_72"></a>
- <img src="images/fig72.jpg"
- width="50%"
- alt="Illustration: Rossini's Oboe"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 72.&mdash;Oboe.</span> Made by Anciuti
-of Milan; formerly in the possession
-of the composer Rossini. Latter
-half of 18th century. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 21½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>,
-<abbr title="Diameter">Diam.</abbr> of mouth, 2½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 1127-69<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-<!--Pg 224--><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a><span class="pageno">127</span>
-
-<p>The most noteworthy kinds of the hautboy of the time of
-Handel and Sebastian Bach are,&mdash;&#8203;the <dfn>oboe da caccia</dfn>, which is
-identical with the <dfn>corno inglese</dfn> (<dfn>English horn</dfn>, <dfn>cor anglais</dfn>), a
-large hautboy still occasionally employed in the orchestra,
-and the <dfn>oboe d’amore</dfn>, or <dfn>oboe lungo</dfn>, whch has fallen into
-oblivion. The pitch of the <dfn>oboe d’amore</dfn> was a minor third
-lower than that of the common hautboy, or <dfn>oboe piccolo</dfn>;
-and its sound, owing to the narrowness of the bore at its further
-end, was rather weak, but particularly sweet.</p>
-
-<p>The precursor of the hautboy was evidently the <dfn>bombardino</dfn>,
-or <dfn>chalumeau</dfn>. The <dfn>bombardino</dfn>, also called in Italian
-<dfn>bombardo piccolo</dfn>, was a small <dfn>bombardo</dfn>, an instrument of the
-hautboy kind, about three centuries ago much in use on the
-Continent.</p>
-
-<p>The Germans called the <dfn>bombardo</dfn> “Pommer,” which
-appears to be a corruption of the Italian name. The <dfn>bombardo</dfn>
-was made of various sizes, and with a greater or smaller
-number of finger-holes and keys. That which produced the
-bass tones was sometimes of an enormous length, and was
-blown through a bent tube, like the bassoon, the invention
-of which it is said to have suggested.</p>
-
-<p>The smallest instrument, called <dfn>chalumeau</dfn> (from <dfn>calamus</dfn>,
-“a reed") is still occasionally to be found among the peasantry
-in the Tyrol and some other parts of the Continent.
-The Germans call it <dfn>Schalmei</dfn>, and the Italians <dfn>piffero pastorale</dfn>.
-In England it was formerly called <dfn>shawm</dfn> or <dfn>shalm</dfn>.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>clarinet</dfn>, likewise an instrument of this class, is said to
-have been invented by Denner, in Nürnberg, about the year
-1700. The clarinet has only a single vibrating reed in the
-mouth-piece; the hautboy has a double one.</p>
-
-<p>The invention of the <dfn>bassoon</dfn> (Italian, <dfn>fagotto</dfn>; French
-<dfn>basson</dfn>; German, <dfn>Fagott</dfn>) is ascribed to Afranio, a canon of
-Ferrara, who constructed the first in the year 1539. The
-instrument was, however, an improved <dfn>bombardo</dfn> rather than
-<!--Pg 225--><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a><span class="pageno">128</span>
-a new invention. As early as the year 1550, the celebrated
-wind-instrument maker Schnitzer, in Nürnberg, manufactured
-bassoons which were considered as very complete. <a href="#fig_73">Fig. 73</a>
-illustrates a species of bassoon bound with brass with brass
-keys, and complete with mouth-piece and reed.</p>
-
-<p>Various bassoons of small dimensions in use about two
-centuries ago, and earlier (the <dfn>dolciano</dfn>, <dfn>Quartfagott</dfn>, <dfn>Quintfagott</dfn>,
-<dfn>tenor-bassoon</dfn>, <dfn>corthol</dfn>, etc.), are now antiquated.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_73" id="fig_73"></a>
- <img src="images/fig73.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Bassoon"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 73.&mdash;Bassoon</span>, species of. English. Late 18th or early 19th century.
-<abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 48¼ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 637-’72.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the list of musical instruments of Sir Thomas Kytson,
-of Hengrave Hall, about the year 1600, recorded in the “History
-and Antiquities of Hengrave, Suffolk,” by John Gage,
-London, 1822, is mentioned “A Curtall,” which was probably
-the <dfn>corthol</dfn> or French <dfn>courtaut</dfn>, an early kind of bassoon, a specimen
-of which, dating from the fifteenth century, is preserved
-in the Conservatoire de Musique at Paris. According to
-Prætorius (anno 1619) the <dfn>fagotto piccolo</dfn>, a small species of
-bassoon, was called in England <dfn>single corthol</dfn>.</p>
-
-<p>The invention of the <dfn>serpent</dfn> (<a href="#fig_74">Fig. 74</a>) is attributed to Edme
-Guillaume, a canon of Auxerre in France, anno 1590. It was,
-however, no new invention, properly speaking, but merely
-an improvement upon the old <dfn>Basszinken</dfn>, the management
-of which was rendered more convenient by giving a serpentine
-winding to the tube. This instrument subsequently became
-rather popular. It was used in military bands and in processions
-until about the middle of the last century. The
-French made use of it also in church to support the voices.
-Towards the end of the eighteenth century it appears to have
-still been a common substitute for the organ in France.
-Dr. Burney, in his “Journal,” London, 1773, states that he
-frequently met with it in the churches of that country, and he
-expresses a more favourable opinion of its suitableness for
-promoting edification than might have been expected from a
-refined musician:&mdash;&#8203;"It gives the tone in chanting, and plays
-the bass when they sing in parts. It is often ill-played, but
-if judiciously used would have a good effect. It is, however,
-in general overblown, and too powerful for the voices it
-accompanies; otherwise, it mixes with them better than the
-organ, as it can augment or diminish a sound with more delicacy,
-and is less likely to overpower or destroy, by a bad
-temperament, that perfect one of which the voice only is
-capable."</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter img60">
- <a name="fig_74" id="fig_74"></a>
- <img src="images/fig74.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Serpent"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 74.&mdash;The Serpent.</span> Made by Gerock Wolf, in London. English. Early 19th century. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 28 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>
-<abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 286-’82.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_75" id="fig_75"></a>
- <img src="images/fig75.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Serinette"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 75.&mdash;Serinette or Bird Organ.</span> French. Period of Louis <abbr title="Fourteen">XIV.</abbr> <abbr title="Height">H.</abbr> 8⅛, <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 11⅛ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 9 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>
-<abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 629-’68.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_76" id="fig_76"></a>
- <img src="images/fig76.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Organ"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 76.&mdash;Organ</span> (Positive). Bears the arms of John George I., Elector of Saxony (<abbr title="born">b.</abbr> 1585, <abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 1656). German.
-Dated 1627.<br />
- H. 45½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 27½ <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 2-’67.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 234--><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a><span class="pageno">129</span>
-
-<p>The <dfn>serinette</dfn>, or bird organ (<a href="#fig_75">Fig. 75</a>), was formerly used in
-France by ladies to teach airs to little singing birds, especially
-to a kind of siskin or canary, called in French <dfn>serin</dfn>; hence the
-name of the instrument.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>organ positive</dfn> (<a href="#fig_76">Fig. 76</a>) is distinguished from the <dfn>organ
-portative</dfn> in so far that the former was a larger instrument,
-generally placed on a table and blown by an attendant,
-while the latter was carried about by the performer in religious
-processions and on such-like occasions.</p>
-
-<p>In England some rude species of organ is said to have been
-used in public worship as early as about the middle of the
-seventh century. It was, however, on the Continent, principally
-in Germany, that almost all the important improvements
-originated which gradually brought the organ to its
-present high degree of perfection. Many old organs of fine workmanship
-are still extant in the churches of Germany. During
-the 18th century especially several large organs of deserved
-celebrity were built in that country; suffice it to instance
-those of the brothers Andreas and Gottfried Silbermann. In
-England the important inventions of the continental builders
-were not readily adopted. Recently, however, several huge
-organs of very fine workmanship have been constructed in
-England, chiefly for use in concert rooms, or public halls.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>regal</dfn>, often mentioned in English literature of the
-time of Shakespeare, and earlier (<dfn>see also</dfn> <a href="#Page_96">p. 96</a>), was a small
-<!--Pg 235--><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a><span class="pageno">130</span>
-<dfn>organ portative</dfn>. There was till about the end of the 18th
-century a “Tuner of the Regals,” in the Chapel Royal <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr>
-James’s, with a salary of 56<abbr title="pounds" class="decoration">l.</abbr> The name <dfn>regal</dfn> is supposed
-to have been derived from <dfn>rigabello</dfn>, a musical instrument
-of which scarcely more is known than that it was played
-in the churches of Italy before the introduction of the
-organ.</p>
-
-<p>The expression “a payre of regalls,” used by writers some
-centuries ago, evidently implies only a single instrument.
-Thus also the virginal is not unfrequently mentioned as “a
-payre of virginalls.” Moreover, it appears that the regal
-was occasionally made with two sets of pipes, so as to constitute
-a double organ of its kind.</p>
-
-<p>In the following lines from Sir W. Leighton’s “Teares or
-Lamentations of a Sorrowful Soule,” London, 1613, this little
-organ is mentioned in combination with other curious instruments
-now antiquated, most of which will be found in the
-present collection:<span class="lock">&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<div class="poem-container">
- <div class="poem">
-  <div class="i0a">"Praise him upon the claricoales,</div>
-  <div class="i2">The lute and simfonie:</div>
-  <div class="i0">With the dulsemers and the regalls,</div>
-  <div class="i2">Sweete sittrons melody."</div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <dfn>bagpipe</dfn> (<a href="#fig_77">Fig. 77</a>) appears to have been from time
-immemorial a special favourite instrument with the Celtic
-races; but it was perhaps quite as much admired by the
-Slavonic nations. In Poland, and in the Ukraine, it used to be
-made of the whole skin of the goat in which the shape of the
-animal, whenever the bagpipe was expanded with air, appeared
-fully retained exhibiting even the head with the horns; hence
-the bagpipe was called <dfn>kosà</dfn>, which signifies a goat.</p>
-
-<p>The bagpipe is of high antiquity in Ireland, and is alluded to
-in Irish poetry and prose said to date from the tenth century.
-A pig gravely engaged in playing the bagpipe is represented in
-an illuminated Irish manuscript, of the year 1300.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_77" id="fig_77"></a>
- <img src="images/fig77.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Bagpipes"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 77.&mdash;Bagpipes.</span> English. 18th century. <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> 30 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 1197-’03.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!--Pg 238--><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"></a><span class="pageno">131</span>
-
-<p>The <dfn>bell</dfn> has always been so much in popular favour in
-England that some account of it must not be omitted. Paul
-Hentzner, a German, who visited England in the year 1598,
-records in his journal: “The people are vastly fond of great
-noises that fill the ear, such as firing of cannon, drums, and the
-ringing of bells; so that in London it is common for a number
-of them that have got a glass in their heads to go up into some
-belfry, and ring the bells for hours together for the sake of
-exercise.” This may be exaggeration,&mdash;&#8203;not unusual with
-travellers. It is, however, a fact that bell-ringing has been a
-favourite amusement with Englishmen for centuries.</p>
-
-<p>The way in which church bells are suspended and fastened,
-so as to permit of their being made to vibrate in the most
-effective manner without damaging by their vibration the
-building in which they are placed, is in some countries very
-peculiar. The Italian <dfn>campanile</dfn>, or bell tower, is not unfrequently
-separated from the church itself. In Servia the
-church bells are often hung in a frame-work of timber built
-near the west end of the church. In Zante and other islands of
-Greece the belfry is usually separate from the church. The
-reason assigned by the Greeks for having adopted this plan is
-that in case of an earthquake the bells are likely to fall and,
-were they placed in a tower, would destroy the roof of the
-church and might cause the destruction of the whole building.
-Also in Russia a special edifice for the bells is generally separate
-from the church. In the Russian villages the bells are not
-unfrequently hung in the branches of an oak-tree near the
-church. In Iceland the bell is usually placed in the lych-gate
-leading to the graveyard.</p>
-
-<p>The idea of forming of a number of bells a musical instrument
-such as the <dfn>carillon</dfn> is said by some to have suggested
-itself first to the English and Dutch; but what we have seen in
-Asiatic countries sufficiently refutes this. Moreover, not only
-<!--Pg 239--><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a><span class="pageno">132</span>
-the Romans employed variously arranged and attuned bells,
-but also among the Etruscan antiquities an instrument has
-been discovered which is constructed of a number of bronze
-vessels placed in a row on a metal rod. Numerous bells,
-varying in size and tone, have also been found in Etruscan
-tombs. Among the later contrivances of this kind in European
-countries the sets of bells suspended in a wooden frame,
-which we find in mediæval illuminations, deserve notice. In
-the British Museum is a manuscript of the fourteenth century
-in which King David is depicted holding in each hand a hammer
-with which he strikes upon bells of different dimensions,
-suspended on a wooden stand.</p>
-
-<p>It may be supposed that the device of playing tunes by means
-of bells merely swung by the hand is also of ancient date. In
-Lancashire each of the ringers manages two bells, holding one
-in either hand. Thus, an assemblage of seven ringers insures
-fourteen different tones; and as each ringer may change his
-two notes by substituting two other Dells if required, even
-compositions with various modulations, and of a somewhat
-intricate character, may be executed,&mdash;&#8203;provided the ringers
-are good timeists; for each has, of course, to take care to fall in
-with his note, just as a member of the Russian horn band
-contributes his single note whenever it occurs.</p>
-
-<p>Peal-ringing is another pastime of the kind which may be
-regarded as pre-eminently national to England. The bells
-constituting a peal are frequently of the number of eight,
-attuned to the diatonic scale. Also peals of ten bells, and
-even of twelve, are occasionally formed. A peculiar feature
-of peal-ringing is that the bells, which are provided with
-clappers, are generally swung so forcibly as to raise the
-mouth completely upwards. The largest peal, and one of
-the finest, is at Exeter Cathedral: another celebrated one
-is that of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Margaret’s, Leicester, which consists of ten
-<!--Pg 240--><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133"></a><span class="pageno">133</span>
-bells. Peal-ringing is of an early date in England; Egelric,
-abbot of Croyland, is recorded to have cast about the year 960
-a set of six bells.</p>
-
-<p>The <dfn>carillon</dfn> is especially popular in the Netherlands and
-Belgium, but is also found in Germany, Italy, and some
-other European countries. It is generally placed in the
-church tower, and also sometimes in other public edifices. The
-statement repeated by several writers that the first carillon
-was invented in the year 1481 in the town of Alost is not
-to be trusted, for the town of Bruges claims to have possessed
-similar chimes in the year 1300. There are two kinds of
-carillons in use on the Continent, <abbr title="namely">viz.</abbr>: clock chimes, which
-are moved by machinery, like a self-acting barrel-organ;
-and such as are provided with a set of keys, by means of
-which the tunes are played by a musician. The carillon in
-the “Parochial-Kirche” at Berlin, which is one of the finest
-in Germany, contains thirty-seven bells; and is provided
-with a key-board for the hands and with a pedal, which
-together place at the disposal of the performer a compass of
-rather more than three octaves. The keys of the manual are
-metal rods somewhat above a foot in length, and are pressed
-down with the palms of the hand. The keys of the pedal are
-of wood; the instrument requires not only great dexterity,
-but also a considerable physical power. It is astonishing
-how rapidly passages can be executed upon it by the player,
-who is generally the organist of the church in which he acts
-as <dfn>carillonneur</dfn>. When engaged in the last-named capacity
-he usually wears leathern gloves to protect his fingers, as
-they are otherwise apt to become ill fit for the more delicate
-treatment of the organ.</p>
-
-<p>The want of a contrivance in the <dfn>carillon</dfn> for stopping the
-vibration has the effect of making rapid passages, if heard
-near, sound as a confused noise; only at some distance are
-<!--Pg 241--><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a><span class="pageno">134</span>
-they tolerable. It must be remembered that the <dfn>carillon</dfn>
-is intended especially to be heard from a distance. Successions
-of tones which form a consonant chord, and which
-have some duration, are evidently the most suitable for this
-instrument.</p>
-
-<p>Indeed, every musical instrument possesses certain characteristics
-which render it especially suitable for the production
-of some particular effects. The invention of a new instrument
-of music has, therefore, not unfrequently led to the
-adoption of new effects in compositions. Take the pianoforte,
-which was invented in the beginning of the eighteenth
-century, and which has now obtained so great a popularity;
-its characteristics inspired our great composers to the invention
-of effects, or expressions, which cannot be properly
-rendered on any other instrument, however superior in some
-respects it may be to the pianoforte. Thus also the improvements
-which have been made during the present century
-in the construction of our brass instruments, and the invention
-of several new brass instruments, have evidently
-been not without influence upon the conceptions displayed in
-our modern orchestral works.</p>
-
-<p>Imperfect though this essay may be it will probably have
-convinced the reader that a reference to the history of the
-music of different nations elucidates many facts illustrative
-of our own musical instruments, which to the unprepared
-observer must appear misty and impenetrable. In truth,
-it is with this study as with any other scientific pursuit.
-The unassisted eye sees only faint nebulæ, where with the aid
-of the telescope bright stars are revealed.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a name="fig_78" id="fig_78"></a>
- <img src="images/fig78.jpg"
- width="100%"
- alt="Illustration: Handel’s Harpsichord"
- />
- <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 78.&mdash;Handel’s Harpsichord.</span> Made by Andreas Ruckers, of Antwerp, 1651. H. 36 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Length">L.</abbr> of top 80 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr>, <abbr title="Width">W.</abbr> 36 <abbr title="inches">in.</abbr> <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 1079-’68.<br />
-Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
-</div>
-
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-
-<div class="chapter"><!--Pg 244--><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a><span class="pageno">135</span>
-
-<h3 class="p4 h3head">APPENDIX.</h3>
-
-<h4 class="h4head"><span class="sc">Handel’s Harpsichord.</span></h4>
-
-<p class="p2">The following documentary evidence of this instrument’s
-authenticity as Handel’s harpsichord (<a href="#fig_78">Fig. 78</a>) has been transmitted
-by Messrs. Broadwood:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p class="sigright">33, Great Pulteney Street, London,<br />
-<span class="decoration r3">November 18th, 1868.</span></p>
-
-<p class="blockquote">Handel’s harpsichord was bought by us of Mr. Hooper, a
-pianoforte tuner at Winchester, in 1852. He had obtained it
-from Dr. Chard, the Cathedral organist of that city, who had
-taken pains to prove it to be the same instrument which
-Handel had left by will to his friend and amanuensis, Christopher
-Smith. In Handel’s will, dated June, 1750, was the
-bequest:&mdash;&#8203;‘I give and bequeath to Christopher Smith my
-large harpsichord, my little house-organ, my music books,
-and 500<abbr title="pounds" class="decoration">l.</abbr> sterling;’ and in a codicil, dated 6th of August,
-1756: ‘I give to Christopher Smith 1,500<abbr title="pounds" class="decoration">l.</abbr> additional to the
-legacy already given to him in my will.’ Dr. Chard wrote to
-the <abbr title="Reverend">Rev.</abbr> George Coxe, of Twyford (Rector of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Michael’s,
-Winchester), to obtain his testimony to the identity of this
-harpsichord with the ‘<dfn>Large Harpsichord</dfn>’ of the will. Mr.
-Coxe was nearly related to Smith, and had frequently heard
-him play upon it. On the 13th of May, 1842, and in the
-presence of witnesses, Mr. Coxe confirmed this. Dr. Chard
-states in the document signed by Mr. Coxe, that this harpsichord
-was left with a large collection of Handel’s <abbr title="Manuscripts">MSS.</abbr> by
-Christopher Smith to his step-daughter, the Dowager Lady
-Rivers, who parted with it to Mr. Wickham, a surgeon, who,
-in his turn, parted with it to the <abbr title="Reverend">Rev.</abbr> Mr. Hawtrey, Prebendary
-of Winchester, after whose death it came into the possession
-of Dr. Chard.</p>
-<!--Pg 245--><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a><span class="pageno">136</span>
-
-<p class="blockquote">This interesting relic of Handel is also worthy of notice
-from having been one of the best-constructed instruments of
-the celebrated harpsichord makers, the Ruckers family of
-Antwerp. It is not remarkable for any beauty of decoration
-beyond the conventional ornamentation of the period; but
-the structure shows great skill in the manufacture, and that
-the harpsichord had become nearly perfected in the middle
-of the seventeenth century.</p>
-
-<p class="blockquote">The two key-boards were used for variety of tone. The
-lower key-board, the <dfn>jacks</dfn> of which acted upon two sets of
-strings in unison, and one set an octave higher, was the louder
-in tone; the upper key-board, acting on one set of strings
-only, was the softer. But the lower key-board could be made
-to act upon one set of strings only, by means of stops drawn
-out by the hand of the performer. In touching the keys, a
-distinctive quality of tone may still be recognised, particularly
-in the higher notes, a reedy but soft and delicate <dfn>timbre</dfn> testifying
-to the former beauty of the instrument. It may be
-assumed as certain that the keys are not of Handel’s time.
-We do not know when the present key-boards were put, or
-by whom, but the style of the white and black keys is undoubtedly
-modern. Neither can it be doubted that there
-were originally keys in keeping with the fashion of the harpsichord,
-which we may suppose to have been worn out, to
-account for the substitution of those existing. The case of
-deal, black japanned, the brass hinges, the ornamentation,
-and the mottoes are original. Inside the top is inscribed:<span class="lock">&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p class="center"><cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sic transit Gloria Mundi</cite>;</p>
-
-<p class="blockquote unindent">on the flap or folding of the top<span class="lock">&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p class="center"><cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Musica Donum Dei</cite>;</p>
-
-<p class="blockquote unindent">and on the slip of wood above the upper keys<span class="lock">&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p class="center"><cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Andreas Ruckers me fecit, Antwerpiæ, 1651</cite>.</p>
-
-<p class="blockquote">There is a date on the sounding-board “1651,” and in the
-<!--Pg 246--><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a><span class="pageno">137</span>
-ornamental sound-hole are the initials “A. R.” Among the
-flowers represented on the sounding-board may be seen a
-concert of monkeys, one beating time, another playing the
-viol da gamba, etc. A third motto existed until about fifteen
-years ago&mdash;&#8203;<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acta Virum Probant</cite>. This was rubbed off by a
-workman engaged in mending the lock-board (upon which
-this motto was), which had been split.</p>
-
-<p class="blockquote">As a musical instrument, this harpsichord has lived its life.
-It is not now capable of being tuned, and any attempt to
-improve the accord of it might prove disastrous by the
-sounding-board giving way altogether. It is, therefore, of
-consequence to the preservation of the woodwork that tuning
-should not be attempted.</p>
-
-<p class="sigright"><span class="sc">John Broadwood &amp; Sons.</span></p>
-
-<p class="p2">Letter to the <abbr title="Reverend">Rev.</abbr> G. Coxe, Twyford, Rector of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Michael’s,
-Winchester:--</p>
-
-<p class="blockquote"><span class="sc">My Dear Sir</span>,&mdash;Will you oblige me by certifying (if I am
-correct) the following:<span class="lock">&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p class="blockquote">The celebrated Mr. Smith (or Schmidt) was Handel’s
-private friend, and amanuensis. This said Mr. Smith was
-presented by Handel with his favourite fine double-keyed
-harpsichord, made by the best makers of the day, Andreas
-Ruckers of Antwerpia, 1651. This said instrument you
-have heard repeatedly Mr. Smith play on. Mr. Smith was
-father-in-law to you as well as your sister, the late Dowager
-Lady Rivers; and at his death, the said harpsichord, together
-with a large collection of Handel’s oratorios, etc., etc., <abbr title="Manuscripts">MSS.</abbr>,
-came into the hands of the Dowager Lady Rivers. This instrument
-was parted with to a Mr. Wickham, surgeon, who
-parted with it to the <abbr title="Reverend">Rev.</abbr> W. Hawtrey, Prebendary of Winchester
-Cathedral, upon the death of whom I purchased it at
-the sale of his effects; and in my possession it still remains.
-<!--Pg 247--><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a><span class="pageno">138</span>
-Is not this the identical instrument now spoken of? Your
-early answer to these queries, as the only living witness, will
-oblige.</p>
-
-<p class="sigright"><span class="r6">Dear Sir,</span><br />
-<span class="r2">Yours faithfully,</span><br />
-<span class="sc">G. W. Chard</span>.</p>
-
-<p class="blockquote"><span class="decoration">P.S.</span>&mdash;Will you oblige me by certifying on this sheet of
-paper, and returning it?</p>
-
-<p class="center"><span class="decoration">Answer.</span></p>
-
-<p class="blockquote">I certify that the above statement is correct, as far as my
-knowledge goes.</p>
-
-<p class="sigright"><span class="sc">George Coxe.</span></p>
-
-<p class="blockquote">Twyford, <span class="decoration">May 13th, 1842</span>.</p>
-
-<p class="p0 indent1">Witness to the above signature,</p>
-
-<p class="p0 indent2"><span class="sc">Susanna Gregg.</span></p>
-<p class="p0 indent2"><span class="sc">James Harris.</span></p>
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="p4 footnote"> <a name="footnote_1" id="footnote_1"></a>
-<a href="#fnanchor_1"><span class="muchsmaller">[1]</span></a>
- Figured and described in Lartet &amp; Christy’s <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ</cite>,
-London, 1865-75, <abbr title="Plate B five, page">Pl. B. v., p.</abbr> 48.</p>
-
-<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_2" id="footnote_2"></a>
-<a href="#fnanchor_2"><span class="muchsmaller">[2]</span></a>
- The best instance is to be found in Lepsius’ <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Denkmäler</cite>, <abbr title="Three">III.</abbr> 106a.,
-where a music-school of the Akhenaten period (about 1400 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>) is
-depicted.</p>
-
-<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_3" id="footnote_3"></a>
-<a href="#fnanchor_3"><span class="muchsmaller">[3]</span></a>
- For coloured plate after this painting see Wilkinson’s <cite>Ancient
-Egyptians</cite>, <abbr title="Volume One, Plate Twelve">Vol. I., Pl. xii.</abbr> (facing page 480).</p>
-
-<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_4" id="footnote_4"></a>
-<a href="#fnanchor_4"><span class="muchsmaller">[4]</span></a>
- See <cite>Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh</cite>, <abbr title="Volume Twenty">Vol. xx.</abbr>,
-Part <abbr title="One">I</abbr> (1850).</p>
-
-<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_5" id="footnote_5"></a>
-<a href="#fnanchor_5"><span class="muchsmaller">[5]</span></a>
- <span class="decoration">See</span> E. Aldis, <cite>Carvings and Sculptures of Worcester Cathedral</cite> (<abbr title="Four">IV</abbr>).</p>
-
-<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_6" id="footnote_6"></a>
-<a href="#fnanchor_6"><span class="muchsmaller">[6]</span></a>
- <span class="decoration">See</span> illustration in <cite>Ann. Arch.</cite>, <abbr title="Four, page">IV., p.</abbr> 37.</p>
-
-<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_7" id="footnote_7"></a>
-<a href="#fnanchor_7"><span class="muchsmaller">[7]</span></a>
- <span class="decoration">See</span> illustration in <cite>Ann. Arch.</cite>, <abbr title="Four, page">iv., p.</abbr> 98.</p>
-
-<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_8" id="footnote_8"></a>
-<a href="#fnanchor_8"><span class="muchsmaller">[8]</span></a>
- For a more complete list of lute-makers see Von Lütgendorff, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die
-Geigen- und Lautenmacher vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart</cite>, Frankfort,
-1904.</p>
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-
-<div class="chapter"><!--Pg 248--><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a><span class="pageno">139</span>
-<h3 class="h3head">INDEX</h3>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Abyssinian instruments, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-<li>Acocotl, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-<li>Adair, quoted, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-<li>Adufe, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-<li>Æolian harp, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-<li>African instruments in America, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-<li>Ajacaxtli, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-<li>Al-Farabi, lutist, <a href="#Page_55">55-57</a>.</li>
-<li>American Indian instruments, <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li>American Indians, metrical psalms of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-<li>American Indians, musical performances of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-<li>American Indians, North, musical talent of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-<li>Anglo-Saxon instruments, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-<li>Arab instruments, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-<li>Arabs in Spain, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-<li>Archlute, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
-<li>Ashantee, trumpet from, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-<li>Ash-shakandi, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-<li>Asor, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-<li>Assyrian instruments, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li>Aulos, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-<li>Aztecs, instruments of the, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Bach, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
-<li>Bacon, quoted, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-<li>Bagpipe, Celtic, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Greek, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hebrew, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Irish, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; mediæval, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Persian, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Polish, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Roman, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-<li>Bainbridge, inventor, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-<li>Banduria, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-<li>Bansi, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-<li>Barbitos, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-<li>Baryton, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-<li>Bassoon, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-<li>Bass-viol, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-<li>Basszinken, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-<li>Bells, Assyrian, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Buddhist, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Chinese, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Egyptian, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; English, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Etruscan, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hebrew, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Japanese, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Mexican, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Peruvian, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Roman, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; hanging of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; ringing of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-<li>Bene, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-<li>Beni Hassan, painting at, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-<li>Bernhard, inventor of the pedal, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-<li>Beverley Minster, sculpture at, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-<li>Bîn, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
-<li>Bird Organ, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-<li>Biwa, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-<li>Blasius, St., manuscript at, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-<li>Bombardino, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-<li>Bombardo, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-<li>Bombulom, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-<li>Bone instruments, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-<li>Boscherville, St. Georges de, sculpture from, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-<li>Botuto, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
-<li>Bow, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-<li>Bridges, movable, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-<li>Bruce, his discovery of harps on frescoes, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-<li>Buccina, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-<li>Bûche, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-<li>Budbudika, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-<li>Buddhism, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-<li>Buddhist Temples, bas-reliefs on, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-<li>Bunibulum, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-<li>Bunting, quoted, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-<li>Burmese instruments, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
-<li>Burney, Dr., quoted, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Cachua, Peruvian dance, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
-<li>Calamus, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-<li>Cambodia, temples in, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-<li>Capistrum, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-<li>Carians, pipes of the, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-<li>Carillon, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-<li>Caroados, trumpet of the, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-<li>Castanets, Egyptian, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Greek, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Roman, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-<li>Cembalo, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-<li>Ceylon, instruments of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-<li>Chalil, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-<li>Chalumeau, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-<li>Chang, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-<li>Chanrares, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
-<li>Chatzozerah, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-<li>Chayna, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
-<li>Chelys, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-<li>Chên, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-<li>Cheng, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
-<li>Chhilchiles, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-<li>Ch’ih, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
-<li>Chimes, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-<li>Ch’in, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-<li>Chinese “Board of Music,” <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; instruments, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-<li>Ch’ing, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-<li>Chin-ku, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-<li>Chiriqui Indians, pipe of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
-<li>Chiterna, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-<li>Chitarrone, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
-<li>Ch’iu (wood), <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-<li>Ch’un-tu, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-<li>Chorus, or choron, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
-<li>Chu, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-<li>Chung, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-<li>Cionar cruit, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-<li>Cithara, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Anglica, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Teutonica, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-<li>Cither, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-<li>Cithern, or cittern, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-<li>Citole, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
-<li>Cittern, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-<li>Clarin, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-<li>Clarinet, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-<li>Clarion, mediæval, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-<li>Clarseth, <a href="#Page_110">110-112</a>.</li>
-<li>Clavecin, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-<li>Clavicembalo, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-<li>Clavichords, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; makers of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; prices of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-<li>Clavicordo, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-<li>Claviorganum, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-<li>Conch trumpets, Hindu, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; ” &emsp; Mexican, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-<li>Confucius, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-<li>Congo, instrument of the, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-<li>Constantinople, obelisk at, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
-<li>Cor anglais, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-<li>Corno inglese, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-<li>Cornu, Etruscan, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Roman, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-<li>Corthol, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-<li>Courtaut, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-<li>“Chronicon picturatum Brunswicense,” quoted, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-<li>Crotala, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-<li>Crowd, <span class="decoration">see</span> Crwth.</li>
-<li>Crusaders, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-<li>Crusmata, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-<li>Crwth, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-<li>Cuddos nut, instrument made of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-<li>”Curtail,” A, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-<li>Cymbals, Assyrian, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Egyptian, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Greek, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hebrew, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; mediæval, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Roman, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-<li>Cymbalum, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-<li>Cythera (cithara), <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Dalyell, Sir J. G., quoted, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-<li>Damaras, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
-<li>Damaru, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-<li>Darabuka, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-<li>Darius, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-<li>David, King, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-<li>Day, Major C. R., <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-<li>Diaulos, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-<li>Diff, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-<li>Doff, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-<li>Dōhachi, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-<li>Dolciano, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-<li>Dora, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-<li>Dordogne, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-<li>Double-bass, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; flageolet, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; pipe, in Anglo-Saxon <abbr title="Manuscript">MS.</abbr>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-<li>Double-pipe, Egyptian, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; ” &emsp; Greek, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; ” &emsp; Phœnician, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; ” &emsp; Roman <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-<li>Dragonetti, Signor, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
-<li>Drums, American Indian, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Assyrian, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Chinese, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Egyptian, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Fiji, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Greek, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hebrew, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hindu, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Japanese, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; mediæval, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Mexican, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; New Guinea, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Persian, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Peruvian, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; of Tonga, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; of Torres Strait Islands, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-<li>Dublin Museum, harps in, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
-<li>Dulcimer, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Assyrian, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Greek, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hebrew, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Persian, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Egyptian instruments, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
-<li>Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-<li>El-ood, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-<li>English instruments, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-<li>Etruscan &emsp;” &emsp;, <a href="#Page_32">32</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li>Europe, introduction of instruments in, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-<li>European instruments, <a href="#Page_83">83</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li>Evelyn, quoted, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-<li>Exeter Cathedral, minstrel gallery in, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Fagott, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-<li>Fagotto piccolo, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-<li>Fang-hsiang, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-<li>Fiddle, Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Bengalese, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Chinese, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; German, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hindu and Indian, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Moorish, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-<li>Fidis or Fides, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-<li>Fidla, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-<li>Finnish instrument, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-<li>Fistula, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-<li>Fithele (fiddle), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
-<li>Flageolet, English, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Japanese, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-<li>Flauto dolce, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-<li>Flutes, American Indian, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Arab, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Aztec, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Chinese, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Egyptian, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-<li>Flutes, Etruscan, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; German, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Greek, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; of Guiana Indians, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hebrew, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hindu, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Japanese, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Mexican, <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Peruvian, <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Phrygian, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Roman, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-<li>Flûte à bec, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; d’Angleterre, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; traversière, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-<li>Forkel, quoted, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-<li>Fortunatus, quoted, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-<li>Franz, Karl, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
-<li>Free reed, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-<li>French instruments, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-<li>Frestele, Fretel or Fretiau, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-<li>Fuye, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Gage, John, quoted, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-<li>Gaspard di Salo, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
-<li>Gerbert, Abbot, mentioned, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-<li>Gittern, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-<li>Gittith, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-<li>Gizeh, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-<li>Gongs, Chinese, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Egyptian, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Japanese, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Mexican, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Tezcucan, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
-<li>Greek instruments, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li>Guatemala, instrument of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-<li>Guitar, instruction books for, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-<li>Guitar, Japanese, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; mediæval, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; post-mediæval, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Spanish, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-<li>Gut-komm, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-<li>Gythorn, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Handel’s harpsichord, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-<li>Harmonica, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-<li>Harmonicon, Chinese, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-<li><cite>Harmonicon, The</cite>, quoted, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-<li>Harps, Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Arabian, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Assyrian, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Burmese, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Celtic, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Egyptian, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Finnish, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; French, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; German, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Greek, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hebrew, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hindu, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Irish, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110-112</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; mediæval, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100-102</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Persian, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Scandinavian, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-<li>Harp-guitar, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; lute, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-<li>Harpsichord, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Handel’s, authenticity of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li>Harpsichord-makers, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-<li>Harp-theorbo, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-<li>Harpu, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-<li>Harp-ventura, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-<li>Hautboy, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-<li>Haydn, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-<li>Hebrew instruments, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li>Hentzner, Paul, quoted, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-<li>Hichiriki, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-<li>Hindu instruments, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
-<li>Hindus, musical scale of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
-<li>Holmos or mouth-piece, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-<li>Horn, English, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Greek, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hebrew, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-<li>Hsiao, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
-<li>Hsüan, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
-<li>Hsüan-chung, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-<li>Huanca, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-<li>Huayllaca, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-<li>Huayra-puhura, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
-<li>Huehuetl, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-<li>Hydraulis, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Icelandic instrument, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
-<li>Ikuta-goto, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-<li>Instrument makers, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114-116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122-126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-<li>Instruments, decoration of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-<li>Intervals, diatonic, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; in American Indian instruments, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
-<li>Intervals in Chinese instruments, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-<li>Intervals in Persian instruments, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-<li>Irish bards, meetings of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; instruments, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-<li>Isis, worship of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-<li>Italian instruments, <a href="#Page_106">106-109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Japanese instruments, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li>Jars, musical, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
-<li>Javanese instruments, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
-<li>Jerusalem, Temple of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-<li>Jew’s harp, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-<li>Jinagovi, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-<li>Jobel, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-<li>Jones, Edward, quoted, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-<li>Junk, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-<li>Juruparis, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Kach’-hapi, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-<li>Kalmuks, trumpet of the, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-<li>Kane, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
-<li>Kantele, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-<li>Kei, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-<li>Kemángeh, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-<li>Ken, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
-<li>Keras, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-<li>Keren, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-<li>Keyboards, instruments with, <a href="#Page_120">120-125</a>.</li>
-<li>Khorsabad, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-<li>Kinnor, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-<li>Kiōto, bell at, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
-<li>Kithara, Asiatic, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Greek, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-<li>K’iu (wood), <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-<li>Ko-kiū, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-<li>Kosà, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-<li>Koto, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-<li>Kouyunjik, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-<li>Kratzenstein, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
-<li>Krotala, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-<li>Ku, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-<li>Kuan-tzŭ, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
-<li>K’uei, musician, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
-<li>Kuitra, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-<li>Kymbala, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Langspiel, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
-<li>Laos, instruments of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
-<li>Launedda, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-<li>Lay, T., quoted, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-<li>Lei-ku, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-<li>Leighton, Sir W., quoted, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-<li>Lidl, Anton, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
-<li>Lionedda, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-<li>Lira di braccio, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
-<li>Lituus, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-<li>Lombrive, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-<li>Lute, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Arab, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hindu, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Japanese, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; mediæval, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Moorish, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Tibetan, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-<li>Lute-makers, principal, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-<li>Lutists, Arabian, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-<li>Lydians, Kithara of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-<li>Lyra, German, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Greek, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Roman, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-<li>Lyre, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Assyrian, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Greek, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hebrew, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Roman, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Mace, Thomas, quoted, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-<li>Machalath, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-<li>Machol, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-<li>Magadis, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-<li>Magoudi, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-<li>Magrepha, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-<li>Mam, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-<li>Mandoline, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-<li>Mandora, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-<li>Mandorina, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-<li>Marimba, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-<li>Martin, instrument-maker, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
-<li>Mattheson, quoted, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
-<li>Melozzo da Forlì, painting by, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-<li>Melrose Abbey, sculpture at, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-<li>Melville, Sir James, quoted, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-<li>Menaaneim, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-<li>Metzilloth, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-<li>Metzilthaim, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-<li>Mexican instruments, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li>Miao-tsze, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-<li>Middle Ages, instruments of the, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-<li>Minnim, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-<li>Miriam, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-<li>Mishrokitha, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-<li>Monaulos, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-<li>Monochord, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
-<li>Moorish instruments, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-<li>Mosul, bas-relief from, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-<li>Mozart, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-<li>Munich Museum, vase in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-<li>Music, ancient books on, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; supposed origin of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Nabla, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
-<li>Nablas, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-<li>Nablia, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-<li>Nablum, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-<li>Naker, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-<li>Naḳḳárah, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-<li>Nakrys, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-<li>Nara, bell near, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
-<li>Nebuchadnezzar, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-<li>Nechiloth, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-<li>Nefer, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-<li>Nekeb, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-<li>Nevel, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
-<li>New Guinea, instruments of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-<li>New Zealand, instruments of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-<li>“Nibelungenlied,” The, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-<li>Nimroud, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-<li>Nineveh, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-<li>Nootka Sound, instrument of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-<li>Norwegian instruments, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-<li>Nuy, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Oboe da caccia, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; d’amore, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hindu, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; lungo, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Persian, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; piccolo, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-<li>Ocarina, Chinese, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
-<li>Octave, Arabian, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Chinese, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-<li>Octavina (Ottavino), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-<li>Oliphant, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-<li>Organ, Burmese, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Chinese, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; English, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; French, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Gamba stop in, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; German, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hebrew, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; hydraulic, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; pneumatic, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; portative, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; positive, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Siamese, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
-<li>Organ-builders, German, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-<li>Organ-harpsichord, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-<li>Organistrum, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
-<li>Orchestras, mediæval, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-<li>Orpheus, Chinese, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
-<li>Ottavino, or Octavina, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-<li>Ovalle, Alonso de, quoted, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>P’ai-hsiao, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
-<li>Palenque, instruments from, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-<li>Pandean pipes, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-<li>Pandoura, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
-<li>Pandurina, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-<li>Pasquali, Signor, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
-<li>Passerini, Signor, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
-<li>Pedal, invention of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; in harpsichord, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-<li>Pektis, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
-<li>Pepys, quoted, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-<li>Persian instruments, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li>Peruvian instruments, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-<li>Peruvians, songs of the, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-<li>Phaamon, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-<li>Phœnicians, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-<li>Phorbeia, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-<li>Phorminx, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-<li>Pianoforte, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-<li>Piao, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-<li>Pien-ch’ing, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-<li>Pien-chung, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-<li>Piffero pastorale, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-<li>Pincullu, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-<li>P’i-p’a, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-<li>Pipe of the Aztecs, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Berecynthian, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Carian, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; of Chiriqui Indians, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Egyptian, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Greek, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hebrew, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Japanese, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Mexican, <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Peruvian, <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Phrygian, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-<li>Pitch of Chinese instruments, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; the oboe, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; the ottavino, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; whistle sounds, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-<li>Pito, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-<li>Plectrum, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-<li>Plektron, <span class="decoration">see</span> Plectrum.</li>
-<li>Po-fu, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-<li>Poitiers, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-<li>Post-mediæval instruments, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li>Pottery, instruments of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li>Prætorius, quoted, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
-<li>Pre-historic relics, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-<li>Psalms, musical directions in, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-<li>Psalterion, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-<li>Psalterium, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
-<li>Psaltery, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
-<li>Psanterin, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-<li>Pungi, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Quanūn, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-<li>Quartfagott, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-<li>Quills for twanging strings, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-<li>Quills in virginal, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-<li>Quinterna, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-<li>Quintfagott, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-<li>Quyvi, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Rabôb, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-<li>Ranking, J., quoted, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-<li>Rattles, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; American Indian, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Indian, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-<li>Ravanastra, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
-<li>Rebec, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-<li>Rébek, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-<li>Recorder, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-<li>Regal, or regals, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-<li>Rigabello, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-<li>Rin, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
-<li>Roman instruments, <a href="#Page_32">32</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li>Rote, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-<li>Rotta, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Sârangi, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
-<li>Sackbut, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-<li>Sainprae, Jaques, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
-<li>Salpinx, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-<li>Salterio, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-<li>Sambuca, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-<li>Sambyke, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
-<li>Samisen, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-<li>Sang, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-<li>San-hsien, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-<li>Sankha, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-<li>Santiago de Compostella, sculpture at, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
-<li>Santir, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-<li>Sardinia, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-<li>Sârinda, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
-<li>Scabellum, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-<li>Scale, Chinese, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; diatonic, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; pentatonic, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
-<li>Scandinavian harp, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-<li>Schalmei, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-<li>Scheitholz, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-<li>Schnitzer, instrument maker, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-<li>Sê, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-<li>Sebȧ, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-<li>Serinette, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-<li>Serpent, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-<li>Seshesh, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-<li>Shakespeare, quoted, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
-<li>Shakuhachi, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-<li>Shalisbim, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-<li>Shalm, or shawm, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-<li>Shehna, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
-<li>Shêng, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-<li>Shime-daiko, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-<li>Shō, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-<li>Shophar, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-<li>Shwan-che, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-<li>Siam, instruments used in, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
-<li>Simikon, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
-<li>Sistrum, Egyptian, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hebrew, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Roman, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-<li>Sitar, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-<li>Sitâra, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-<li>Solomon, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-<li>Sordino, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
-<li>Spain, Arabs in, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-<li>Spanish instruments, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-<li>Spinet, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-<li>Stones, sonorous, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
-<li>Stops of the clavicembalo, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
-<li>Stop in organ-harpsichord, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-<li>Strabo, quoted, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-<li>Stradivarius, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
-<li>Strings, catgut, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108-110</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
-<li>Strings, silk, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-<li>Strings, sympathetic, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; wire, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108-110</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115-117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-<li>Sultana, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-<li>Sumphonia, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-<li>Sung-ch’ing, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-<li>Surnai, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-<li>Suroda, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-<li>Syrinx, Greek, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hebrew, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; mediæval, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Peruvian, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Roman, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Tabret, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-<li>Taiko, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-<li>Talmud, The, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-<li>Tamboura, Arabian, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Egyptian, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hebrew, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-<li>Tambourine, Assyrian, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Egyptian, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hebrew, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Peruvian, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Roman, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-<li>Tangents in the clavichord, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-<li>T’ê-ch’ing, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-<li>T’ê-chung, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-<li>Tenor (violin), <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-<li>Tenor-bassoon, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-<li>Tenor-viol, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-<li>Teponaztli, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-<li>Testudo, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-<li>Tezcucans, instruments of the, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
-<li>Thebes, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-<li>Theorbo, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
-<li>Ti, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
-<li>Tibetan instruments, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-<li>Tibia, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; curva, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; dextra, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; gingrina, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; ligula, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; longa, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; obliqua, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; sinistra, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; utricularis, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; vasca, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-<li>Tibiæ impares, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; pares, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-<li>Timbrel, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-<li>Timotheus, flutist, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
-<li>Tintinnabula, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-<li>Tintinnabulum, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-<li>Tinya, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-<li>Titus, arch of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-<li>Tone of instruments, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-<li>Toph, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-<li>Toumrie, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-<li>Treble-viol, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-<li>Triangle, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-<li>Triangle, Roman, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-<li>Triangulum, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-<li>Trigonon, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-<li>Trigonum, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-<li>Triple Flageolet, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-<li>Trombone, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-<li>Trumpets of South American Indians, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
-<li>Trumpets, Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Ashantee, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Assyrian, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; of the Caroados, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Egyptian, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Greek, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hebrew, <a href="#Page_24">24</a> <span class="decoration">seq.</span></li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Hindu, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; of the Kalmuks, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Mexican, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; New Zealand, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Persian, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Thibetan, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-<li>Tschenk (Chang), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-<li>Tsu-ku, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-<li>Tsudzumi, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-<li>Tsuri-gane, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
-<li>Tuba, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-<li>Tuckey, Captain, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-<li>Turé, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
-<li>“Tuner of the Regals,” <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-<li>Tuning of the spinet, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-<li>Tympanon, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-<li>Tympanum, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-<li>Tyrolean harp-makers, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
-<li>Tzeltzelim, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Ugab, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-<li>Ur-heen, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Ventura, Signor, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-<li>Vielle, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
-<li>Vihuela, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-<li>Vina, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; mahati, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; rudra, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
-<li>Vinavah, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-<li>Viol, mediæval, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; post-mediæval, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Spanish, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
-<li>Viola da gamba, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; d’amore, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; di bardone, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
-<li>Violin, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Japanese, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Persian, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-<li>Violoncello, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
-<li>Virginal, <a href="#Page_119">119-121</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Wait, the instrument, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-<li>Walther, quoted, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-<li>Welsh instruments, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-<li>Whistles, American Indian, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; Mexican, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-<li>Wilkinson, Sir G., quoted, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Ying-ku, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-<li>Yotl, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
-<li>Yü, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-<li> &emsp;” &emsp; stone made into the ch’ing, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-<li>Yüeh, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
-<li>Yüeh-ch’in, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-<li>Zampogna, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-<li>Zante, belfries in, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-<li>Zither, or Zitter, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h4 class="h4head">Transcriber’s Note</h4>
-
-<p>Footnotes were renumbered sequentially and were moved to the
-end of the book, preceding the Index. Dialect, obsolete and
-alternative spellings were left unchanged. Inconsistent hyphenation
-was not changed. Misspelled words were not changed.</p>
-
-<p>Obvious printing errors, such as partially printed letters, were
-corrected. Final stops missing at the end of sentences and
-abbreviations were added. Duplicate words and syllables at line
-endings or page breaks were removed. Two unnecessary commas in the
-Index were deleted.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#fig_53">Fig. 53</a> was moved to appear in numerical sequence.</p>
-
-</div><!--end chapter-->
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS ***</div>
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