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diff --git a/old/65504-h/65504-h.htm b/old/65504-h/65504-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index dccce24..0000000 --- a/old/65504-h/65504-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2462 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> -<head> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> -<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" /> -<title>The Indians in Wisconsin’s History, by John M. Douglass—a Project Gutenberg eBook</title> -<meta name="author" content="John M. 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} -</style> -</head> -<body> - -<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Indians in Wisconsin's History, by John M. Douglass</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Indians in Wisconsin's History</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: John M. Douglass</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: June 4, 2021 [eBook #65504]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDIANS IN WISCONSIN'S HISTORY ***</div> -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="The Indians in Wisconsin’s History" width="800" height="1220" /> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig1"> -<img src="images/p02.jpg" alt="" width="943" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">INDIAN YOUTH AT “SCHOOL” (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<h1><span class="rubric">THE INDIANS</span> -<br /><span class="smaller">IN WISCONSIN’S HISTORY</span></h1> -<p class="center"><b>BY JOHN M. DOUGLASS</b></p> -<p><span class="smaller">The author, a member of the History Division of the Milwaukee -Public Museum, died January 26, 1951, shortly after completing -the manuscript of this handbook.</span></p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/head.jpg" id="ncfig1" alt="Indian head" width="100" height="149" /> -</div> -<p class="center">POPULAR SCIENCE HANDBOOK SERIES <span class="hst">NO. 6</span></p> -<p class="center smaller">DESIGNED AND PRINTED AT -<br />THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC MUSEUM</p> -<p class="center smaller">PUBLISHED BY ORDER OF -<br />THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES -<br />MAY 1954</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div> -<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">CHAPTER ONE</span> -<br />WISCONSIN’S INDIANS BEFORE THE COMING OF THE WHITE MAN</h2> -<div class="img" id="fig2"> -<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="1114" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">ROACH HEADDRESS (MUSEUM EXHIBIT).</p> -</div> -<p>It is difficult now to realize that Wisconsin, famed as a dairy -state and rich in farm land and thriving communities, was once a -great wilderness. Before the land was cleared for the farmer’s plow -and with its dense forests yet to hear the lumberjack’s axe, the thick -timberland of the north and even the rolling prairies of the central and -southern portions of our state teemed with a great variety of wild life, -including animals no longer occurring in Wisconsin, such as the woodland -caribou, moose, elk, and buffalo or bison, as well as the more familiar -deer, bear, and many smaller varieties.</p> -<p>Before the arrival of the Europeans, this Wisconsin wilderness was the -home of Indians who were wonderfully adapted to a life in the forests. -They depended almost entirely on hunting and the gathering of natural -products for their food, shelter, clothing, tools, and weapons, although -most of them raised some garden crops such as corn, squash, beans, and -possibly tobacco.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div> -<p>Let’s pretend that we can travel backwards in time about 350 years -and visit a typical Indian family of that period. As we arrive on the -scene the tribe is preparing to set up a new camp. The women are busy -unpacking their household gear, including reed mats used to cover the -outer sides of the wigwam. The women themselves have carried the loads -during the journey. This is not done because of any laziness on the part -of the men, a common error of white observers, but simply because the -men need their hands free to ward off a sudden enemy attack, or to kill -any game they might chance upon during the journey.</p> -<p>While the women unpack, the men enter the woods to cut poles for -the framework of the wigwams, and collect birch bark for the roofs. After -the poles are set into the ground to make an oval enclosure, they are bent -and tied together at the top to form a rounded roof. The women then tie -on the reed mats, and roof the hut with the rolls of bark. This is the -typical Wisconsin Indian winter lodge. Although it is the latter part of -March, the weather is still too cold to live comfortably in a summer lodge.</p> -<p>If we lift the bearskin covering the entrance and step into the lodge, -we may see the simple furnishings and personal possessions of the family -we are going to visit. A hole in the middle of the roof serves to carry off -the smoke from the fire burning in the center of the floor. This fire serves -the double purpose of heating the lodge and cooking the family meals. -We find the hut almost too smoky to endure, accustomed as we are to our -modern homes, but our Indian friends seem quite comfortable.</p> -<p>Since our Indian family is fairly large, including the father’s parents -as well as the mother, father, two boys, and two girls, the wigwam is proportionately -large in order to accommodate all of them.</p> -<p>We look about the inside of the lodge and see the sleeping mats and -furs. The family’s spare clothing, breechclouts, shirts, leggings, and moccasins -of tanned deerskin for the men, and skirts, blouses, and moccasins -for the women, are in one corner. The garments are beautifully decorated -with designs grandma embroidered on them with dyed porcupine quills. -The work is quite fine and it takes many hours to do a small portion of the -embroidery. Father is especially fond of his headdress, a roach made of -deer and porcupine hair, and an eagle feather which indicates that he -has killed an enemy in battle.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig3"> -<img src="images/p03a.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="515" /> -<p class="pcap">WIGWAMS, OR WINTER LODGES.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_3">3</div> -<p>As we step outside again and look about, we can see why this particular -spot has been chosen as the campsite. A small lake and several springs -are only a short distance away, but the most important reason for camping -here at this season is a large grove of sugar maple trees immediately -to one side of the camp. March is the proper time to tap the trees for -their sap.</p> -<p>The next two or three weeks are spent tapping the trees, and boiling -the sap down until maple syrup, and finally only maple sugar is left. -This sugar keeps indefinitely and provides a very nourishing as well as a -delicious source of food for the entire family. The children are especially -fond of it.</p> -<p>It is not a case of all work and no play during this period, for the -children, Morning Star, White Fawn, Blackbird, and Little Otter, play -games when their tasks are finished, and gambling games are popular with -the men and women. Here we see mother and some neighbor women -playing the cup and pin game. Each player in turn tosses into the air -small cone-shaped cups made of antler tips or bear-toe bones, and tries -to catch one or more on a bone pin. The men are enthusiastic gamblers, -too, using marked sticks which are thrown and scored somewhat like our -own familiar dice games.</p> -<p>When the sugar making is finished, the tribe breaks camp and travels -by birch-bark canoe to a new location. The canoes are wonderfully light -boats and can be paddled very swiftly. Their light weight makes them -relatively easy to carry or portage from one stream to another. Our canoe -has eyes painted on the bow and stern. The father explains that these eyes -enable the canoe to “see where to go.”</p> -<div class="img" id="fig4"> -<img src="images/p04.jpg" alt="" width="1010" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">INDIAN CHILDREN AT PLAY (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div> -<div class="img" id="fig5"> -<img src="images/p04a.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="604" /> -<p class="pcap">BIRCH-BARK CANOE.</p> -</div> -<p>At the new summer camp we watch our friends build summer lodges. -These are rectangular in shape with inverted-V-shaped roofs much like -our own houses. The entire lodge is covered with strips of elm or -other bark.</p> -<p>As is often the case, the new campsite is near a river, and springs nearby -furnish cool, pure drinking water. There are also open clearings closeby -which will be utilized for gardening. The next few weeks, however, will -be used for making necessary utensils and equipment needed by the tribe.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig6"> -<img src="images/p04b.jpg" alt="" width="1110" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">SUMMER LODGE.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div> -<div class="img" id="fig7"> -<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="904" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">ANCIENT WOODLAND POTTERY VESSEL.</p> -</div> -<p>One day we are interested observers of pottery making. Grandma goes -to a clay bed near the river and selects suitable materials including some -coarse sand for tempering the pottery paste, which is made of both clay -and sand. The paste is worked into long cylinders which are finally coiled -about into the desired shape. After the vessel has assumed final shape -it is paddled with a cord-wrapped tool and allowed to air-dry for several -days, and finally baked in a large outdoor fire. The finished pot can be -used to boil water or cook food, and has the advantage of being easily -replaced in case of breakage.</p> -<p>May soon arrives, and as this is the time to plant corn, our Indian -family selects a suitable clearing for their garden. The men burn out -the underbrush and the women and girls prepare for the planting itself. -Grandma informs us that it is always best to soak the grains in water -several days before seeding. After the seeds have been properly softened, -the women and girls dig holes in the ground, place six or seven grains -of corn in each hole, and then heap up the dirt over the seeds in a little -hillock. Squash and beans are planted in the clearing, too.</p> -<p>One day we are told that the tribe is going to have a game drive, -since considerable meat is needed by the village. We go along into the -forest and watch the men chop down trees with their stone axes. These -are all felled in one direction, the cut incomplete so that the tree is still -attached to the stump, and in two rows so as to leave a gradually narrowing -corridor more than a mile long. The deer are then driven towards the -corridor where men stationed with bows are able to shoot them easily as -they approach the narrow opening between the barriers.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_6">6</div> -<p>A number of the animals are killed in this way and taken back to the -village where their flesh can be preserved by being cut into strips and -smoke-dried. We are all too hungry, however, to wait until we return -to the village before eating. The chief says we can have some boiled -venison stew. We are puzzled at this, for no utensils have been brought -along, but we soon learn how resourceful our Indian friends are.</p> -<p>One of the men obtains some edible roots; another cuts the stomachs -from several of the deer. Each one of the stomachs is cleaned and tied -to form a pouch. The venison, roots, and some wild rice which some -of the men brought along, are placed in the prepared deer stomachs, water -added, and the ingenious “kettles” suspended over a slow fire. In a -relatively short time a delicious stew is set before each of us, served in -birch-bark dishes prepared in a few minutes by another of the hunters.</p> -<p>While we are eating we ask the father of the Indian family we are -visiting how the chief of his tribe obtained his position. We are told -that his ability as a warrior and leader has led to his being chosen war -chief, and his ability as an orator and his power to make people like him -has kept him in authority. He says that in a nearby village the chief is -also a great war leader, but he is not well liked otherwise. For that -reason he sometimes finds it difficult to make his warriors obey him and -he is therefore not nearly as powerful as our leader. We soon realize that -the Indian chiefs depend primarily upon personal prestige and influence -to keep them in power. We are informed, however, that in some other -tribes the chief is always selected from a certain clan.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig8"> -<img src="images/p05a.jpg" alt="" width="809" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">YOUTH FASTING FOR A VISION (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p> -</div> -<p>One morning we witness a curious ceremony. Grandfather offers -Blackbird, the older boy, some charcoal as well as his food. The father -seems very proud when his son rejects the food, applies the charcoal to -his face, and leaves the village to enter the forest alone. Grandfather -<span class="pb" id="Page_7">7</span> -explains that Blackbird, by accepting the charcoal, automatically agreed -to fast alone in the forest for one day. This one-day fast will be good -training for the day when he will feel ready to go on the long fast of four -or five days. Every man has taken this long fast in the hope of seeing a -vision of a guardian spirit who would then be his lifetime protector.</p> -<p>The girls, too, must fast, but in a somewhat different fashion. Soon -Morning Star, the older girl in our friend’s family, will reach womanhood -and be segregated for a number of days in a secluded lodge, and during -this period no men may approach her.</p> -<p>The summer season rapidly nears an end. We have enjoyed ourselves -watching the activities of our friends at work and at play. We have -learned, too, some of the beliefs of our friends. Grandfather has told us -stories about the great white bear with the copper tail who dwells underground -and is the greatest power for evil. He has told the children how -the “Indian Sandman,” a good-natured elf, would put people to sleep at -night by hitting them on the head with a soft war club. We have learned, -too, of the many spirits for good and evil who control the sun, moon, stars, -winds, rain, thunder, and all the other phenomena of nature. One evening -he pointed out the Milky Way and told us that this was the road over -which the dead travelled to the land of the spirits. He also warned us -about entering the woods alone at night because of the evil, living skeleton -which haunts the forest paths seeking unwary men.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig9"> -<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="1222" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">TALES OF THE SPIRIT WORLD (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_8">8</div> -<div class="img" id="fig10"> -<img src="images/p06a.jpg" alt="" width="698" height="1001" /> -<p class="pcap">THE RICE GATHERER.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div> -<p>Autumn, the time for harvesting garden crops as well as various wild -vegetable foods, is a season of hard work for all. Corn is the most important -garden crop, and from time to time we have sampled the ripe -grain. The women have served us some roasted on the cob, or the fresh -kernels ground with a wooden mortar and pestle and served as a sort of -porridge. The ripe corn is now gathered and the ears will be allowed to -dry. The dried kernels can then be ground into a meal, as needed, since -the dry corn will remain edible for a long time.</p> -<p>Wild rice is the most important vegetable food provided for the Indians -by nature. One day, in the middle of September, we all go a short -distance up the river in our canoes and enter a small lake. Here the -wild grain grows in great quantities. The men selected by the chief to -determine when the rice is ready to be gathered have already given us -the signal that the grain is ripe. We learn, however, that one more function -is required before we can proceed with the harvesting of the rice.</p> -<p>The chief medicine man of our village approaches the edge of the -water and blows tobacco smoke towards the heavens as an offering to -his “Grandfather,” the “Master of the Rice.” He then buries a small -portion of tobacco in the ground, and we are ready to proceed.</p> -<p>In each canoe, as the man poles the boat slowly through the rice, the -woman, who sits facing the man, pulls the stalks over the canoe with one -cedar stick, while with another stick she beats the ripe grain into the boat. -When the canoes are full, we head back for camp where the rice is spread -out to dry.</p> -<p>Then the women heat the unhusked kernels in a pot over a slow fire until -all have partially popped open. Next a small pit is dug and a stake set -into the ground beside it. The depression is lined with buckskin and -filled with the parched grain. The father then takes hold of the stake, -steps into the grain-filled pit, and begins treading the grain with his -feet to loosen the husks from the kernels.</p> -<p>The women take the grain from the pit and toss it up and down in -bark winnowing trays. The wind blows away the light chaff as the grain -is tossed into the air, and allows only the kernels to fall back into the tray.</p> -<p>The time soon arrives for our friends to break camp and seek a winter -campsite where the hunting is known to be good. Hunting and fishing -will be the main source of food during the winter season.</p> -<p>At the new campsite, storage pits lined with birch bark are dug in -the ground to be used for storing the nuts, dried berries, dried corn, -and rice that have been gathered and prepared during the Autumn. If -hunting is poor, or if a severe winter threatens famine to the village, -this stored food may be the sole means of preventing starvation.</p> -<p>It is now time for us to leave our Indian friends, but before we go we -learn that the winter season will be spent not only in the pursuits of -fishing through the ice and hunting, but also, in the telling of stories, -singing, and playing many different games. When the snows are deep, the -tribe will don snowshoes for their hunting trips. We will miss seeing -them play snowsnake. In this game the Indians compete with each other -to see who can hurl the wooden “snake” the greatest distance across the -<span class="pb" id="Page_10">10</span> -snow or ice. We are sorry to miss all these things, but the time has come -for us to end our visit.</p> -<p>As we say farewell to our friends from the distant past, we reflect regretfully -that the coming of the white man will change the old ways of -life for these people of the forests, and soon their independence and -freedom will vanish forever. The Indians seem destined to become largely -dependent upon the whites for their livelihood, and even for the few -remnants of land to be left them for their homes.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig11"> -<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="946" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">THRASHING RICE (MUSEUM EXHIBIT).</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_11">11</div> -<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">CHAPTER TWO</span> -<br />WISCONSIN’S INDIANS UNDER FRENCH RULE</h2> -<div class="img" id="fig12"> -<img src="images/p08.jpg" alt="" width="1249" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">THE FUR TRADERS (MUSEUM MURAL BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p> -</div> -<p>Few of us realize that the early history of Wisconsin is as romantic -as any our eastern seaboard states can boast. The area that is -now the State of Wisconsin became the gateway into the Middlewest -and the meeting place for the French and the Indian tribes of what -was then regarded as the West. This early period of French control was -an era in which Jesuit missionaries carried the doctrine of Christianity -from village to village, often visiting tribes that had never before seen -white men. It was a time when the French traders, lured by the love -of adventure and romance as well as the wealth to be obtained in the -fur trade, pushed through the forests and followed strange rivers until -they reached the villages of unknown Wisconsin Indians. It was in these -villages that such traders, including the “noblest” youth of New France, -lived with the Indians, sat in their councils, took part in their war dances, -accompanied their war parties to battle, and often married their women.</p> -<p>It was in this early French Regime that Wisconsin’s Indian tribes -underwent great changes in their manner of life due to contacts with the -white man’s civilization, It was a time of warfare and a struggle for -supremacy in North America between the British and the French, and -<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span> -their Indian allies, with Wisconsin’s tribes espoused to the cause of the -French. It was the heyday of the fur trade with literally millions of -beaver and other skins being taken from Wisconsin to enrich the trader -and obtain white man’s goods for the Indians.</p> -<p>Despite the fact that Wisconsin’s Indians all lived in pretty much the -same manner, most of us are aware that there were different tribes in our -state at various times, and that they spoke different languages in some -instances. If we use a comparison from European languages, we might -better understand the character of these Indian languages. German, -English, and Swedish all originated from the same parent tongue and -belong to the same basic language division. English and Chinese are unrelated -tongues belonging to different basic language stocks. Thus, while -many words are very similar in English and German, in English and -Chinese no apparent similarity exists.</p> -<p>Three basic language divisions, Algonkian, Siouan, and Iroquoian, -were represented by Wisconsin’s Indians. Algonkian was represented by -such tribes as the Menomini, Potawatomi, Chippewa, Mascouten, Sauk, -Fox, Ottawa, and Kickapoo. Relatively late arrivals to Wisconsin (in -the 1800’s), also speaking Algonkian tongues, were the Munsee, Brotherton, -and Stockbridge tribes. The Siouan group included the Winnebago, -and the Santee division of the Dakota Sioux. The Huron and the Oneida -(the latter also arriving in the 1800’s) were Wisconsin representatives of -the Iroquoian language stock. The differences become more apparent -when we realize that languages in the Iroquoian division would be as -different from those in the Algonkian stock as English is from Chinese.</p> -<p>The historic period in Wisconsin began when Jean Nicolet, the first -known white man to visit Wisconsin, landed near what is now Green -Bay, in 1634. Nicolet’s mission was to arrange a peace between the powerful -Winnebago tribe, or Puans, as they were known to the French, and -the Ottawa who were then acting as middlemen between the French -and the Indians of the unknown Middlewest.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig13"> -<img src="images/p08a.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="548" /> -<p class="pcap">THE LANDING OF NICOLET (MUSEUM MURAL BY GEORGE PETER).</p> -</div> -<p>Nicolet’s journey into the Wisconsin wilderness, a mere fourteen years -after the landing of our pilgrim forefathers at Plymouth Rock, was the -beginning of the period of French exploration and rule in Wisconsin -which is as romantic and fascinating a story as any in our country’s -<span class="pb" id="Page_13">13</span> -history. Imagine Nicolet’s emotion as he approached his destination, -a lone white man with seven Indians for companions, in a country -which, as far as was known, had never before been visited by a white -man. He had no idea as to what sort of reception he would receive from -these strange people he was to visit. Their friendliness or enmity would -be determined upon arrival. Fortunately he was hailed as a great visitor, -and feasted and entertained accordingly.</p> -<p>Only three Indian tribes are definitely known to have been residents -of Wisconsin when Nicolet visited here in 1634. These were the Winnebago; -the Menomini, who resided along the shores of the Menominee -River above Green Bay; and the Santee Sioux, whose villages were -scattered along the upper reaches of the Mississippi River in northwestern -Wisconsin and eastern Minnesota.</p> -<p>Documentary evidence strongly suggests that some other tribes, often -mentioned as early residents, as, for example, the Mascouten, did not -arrive until a generation later. Archaeological findings conclusively show -the prehistoric occupation of Wisconsin by the Santee Sioux and the -Winnebago, and support the probability of prehistoric occupation by the -Menomini. Thus Wisconsin was controlled primarily by Siouan speaking -peoples in 1634. The peaceful Menomini were far outnumbered by -their powerful neighbors, the Winnebago, but this situation was soon -to change radically.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig14"> -<img src="images/p09.jpg" alt="" width="1017" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">WINNEBAGO VILLAGE (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div> -<p>Events occurring far to the East, in what is now New York State and -eastern Canada, were to profoundly affect and change the Indian population -of Wisconsin. When the French began permanent settlement -along the St. Lawrence they found the Huron and the Iroquois Confederacy -engaged in a death struggle for supremacy in the area. The -French espoused the cause of the Hurons who quickly became the middlemen -in the fur trade between the French and the western Indians.</p> -<p>The Iroquois, who were farmers and hence controlled less land than -hunting tribes who were their neighbors, soon depleted their land of -fur bearing animals and began to plan acquisition of land held by nearby -tribes. At about this time the Dutch considerately gave the Iroquois -guns, and by this act unleashed what was probably the most potent Indian -military confederacy in North America upon the Hurons, who were -practically exterminated in an amazingly short time. The Erie, Tobacco -Nation, and Neutrals soon suffered the same fate as the Hurons.</p> -<p>The Algonkian tribes, attacked first by the Neutrals and then by -the victorious Iroquois, fled pell-mell into eastern Michigan and the -Sault area. Eventually most of these tribes either went around the southern -or the northern extremity of Lake Michigan to arrive in the relative -security of wilderness Wisconsin.</p> -<p>The exact dates for the arrival of these various dispossessed eastern -tribes are not certain. We do know that they probably came to Wisconsin -sometime after Nicolet’s visit in 1634. The Mascouten, Potawatomi, -Kickapoo, Sauk, and Fox were coming into Wisconsin before 1654. -Some Huron and Ottawa settled here temporarily at this time, but by -1678 were compelled by the Sioux to flee back to the Sault. The Chippewa -stayed around and west of the Straits of Mackinac and actually did not -settle in Wisconsin until about 1670.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig15"> -<img src="images/p09a.jpg" alt="" width="1162" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">SAUK AND FOX INDIANS (FROM MAXIMILIAN).</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div> -<div class="img" id="fig16"> -<img src="images/p10.jpg" alt="" width="1228" height="508" /> -<p class="pcap">CHIPPEWA INDIANS (FROM GEO. CATLIN).</p> -</div> -<p>The Winnebago at first defended themselves vigorously against the -invading refugee tribes; however, this constant warfare greatly reduced -their numerical strength. Further decimated by plagues, probably smallpox -introduced by the whites, and by famine, the Winnebago were compelled -to make peace with the invading Algonkians who eventually settled -in great numbers along the Upper and Lower Fox rivers, the lower -reaches of the Wolf River, and in the vicinity of Green Bay.</p> -<p>Fur trade with the western Indians was successfully blocked by the -rampaging Iroquois for twenty odd years after Nicolet’s voyage of exploration -into the Middlewest, but with the establishment of a brief -peace, the Ottawa, who had assumed the position of middlemen in the -fur trade, sent a large canoe fleet to the western Indians and soon returned -with large quantities of furs which had been accumulated by the -Indians during the Iroquois War.</p> -<p>On the return journey two young Frenchmen, Radisson and Groseilliers, -went into Wisconsin with the Ottawa and became the first known -white traders in the area. Other traders quickly followed their example, -and by 1670, the fur trade in Wisconsin was proceeding at a good pace.</p> -<p>The Indians, even before actually being visited by the whites, had -received European implements by trade with other Indians and soon -learned the superiority of iron knives and axes over those of stone. -The arrival of the white traders with their guns, kettles, cloth, brandy, -and many other trade items was eagerly awaited by the Indians of what -is now Wisconsin.</p> -<p>As early as 1668, Perrot and traders with him had brought furs to -Green Bay (La Baye). Great activity in the fur trade was quick to follow -with the French traders using guns and brandy particularly as an inducement -to increase the tempo of fur trapping by the Indian. The Indian -was as anxious to obtain the white man’s goods as the trader was to -obtain the Indian’s furs. This formed the basis for an understanding -mutually agreeable to Indian and trader alike.</p> -<p>The fur trade, during the French Regime, went through many changes -due to changing circumstances, and the issuing of different regulations -from time to time. The discovery of new western lands and tribes spurred -literally hundreds of Canadian youths to seek these virgin territories and -the riches in furs to be had there. At first traders persuaded the Indians -to make the long trip to Montreal with their furs. The presence of so -<span class="pb" id="Page_16">16</span> -many traders in the forests, however, soon made these long trips unnecessary. -By the time Perrot began trading in Wisconsin the traders were -carrying their goods to the Indians in their own country.</p> -<p>Regulations required that all traders must be licensed, or buy <i>Conges</i> -as they were called. Twenty-five of these were issued each year and permitted -the trader to take a designated load of goods into the interior to be -traded for the Indian’s furs. The presence of great numbers of unlicensed -traders in the woods was responsible for an edict from the king declaring -such illegal traders to be outlaws. The punishment for such activities -was death. These outlaw traders were known as <i>coureurs de bois</i> and were -actually never hampered too much by the stringent laws passed against -them.</p> -<p>During the latter part of the 17th century outposts were built to help -control the trade. Nicolas Perrot built posts at Mt. Trempealeau, at Lake -Pepin, and at the mouth of the Wisconsin River. The Sieur DuLhut -(Duluth) built posts in the Lake Superior region.</p> -<p>Since these terms are often misused, it might be best to briefly describe -the following occupations: A <i>bourgeois</i>, was an owner of goods and a -license; the hired men were called <i>engages</i>; those hired men who only -carried the goods and paddled the canoe for a stipulated daily hire were -called <i>voyageurs</i>. The <i>coureurs de bois</i> and sometimes the <i>voyageurs</i> -were usually the ones who often remained in the forests and “went native.”</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p10a.jpg" id="ncfig2" alt="uncaptioned" width="408" height="500" /> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig17"> -<img src="images/p10b.jpg" alt="" width="539" height="799" /> -<p class="pcap">PIERRE RADDISON (COURTESY OF -WISCONSIN STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY).</p> -</div> -<p>The impact of the white man’s civilization was bound to profoundly -change the life and geography of the Indians, and, particularly in the -early French period, this change was extremely rapid. Three groups were -actively working to institute changes in the Indian pattern of life. These -were the fur trader, whose goods revolutionized the material culture of -the natives, the Jesuit missionaries who hoped to convert the tribes to -<span class="pb" id="Page_17">17</span> -Christianity, and the French government itself, which attempted at various -times to relocate the tribes, form confederacies, and even to “civilize” -them.</p> -<p>The fur trader was the only one of the three groups who really succeeded -in materially changing the Indian’s way of life, although his success was -unintentional. So completely did the materials of the white man replace -those of the Indian that within a few short generations almost no one -knew how to make stone tools and weapons, pottery vessels, bows and -arrows, and many other aboriginal products which were abandoned as -rapidly as superior goods of the whites were made available.</p> -<p>The change in tools and weapons naturally changed the Indians’ pattern -of life in many ways, but the entire economy of the tribes was -affected greatly by the fur trade. The Indian’s need for the white man’s -goods was great and he became more and more dependent upon the -trader. As the tempo of fur trading increased, the Indian began devoting -almost all of his time to hunting and trapping until, in a sense, he became -an employee in a great “fur-trade factory” with the goods he -received from the trader representing his wages. Much of the Indian’s -old life of freedom gradually disappeared, since failure to obtain guns -or powder and bullets meant starvation for the Indian and his family.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig18"> -<img src="images/p11.jpg" alt="" width="345" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">JESUIT MISSIONARY.</p> -</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p11a.jpg" id="ncfig3" alt="uncaptioned" width="600" height="324" /> -</div> -<p>Perhaps the worst effect of the contact between the Europeans and -the Indians was the introduction of brandy, always an effective persuader -<span class="pb" id="Page_18">18</span> -in bargaining, and the introduction of European diseases, particularly -venereal disease and smallpox, the latter in some instances wiping out -entire tribes. The tendency for tribes to congregate around fur-trade -areas at the behest of the traders also had a detrimental effect upon the -Indians. In the Fox River valley and around Green Bay this overpopulation -resulted in famine and the voluntary exodus of some tribes before -1700, among them the Miami and some of the Kickapoo and Mascouten.</p> -<p>It should be noted that the adoption of new materials and living -habits was not entirely one-sided. The white man learned how to use the -Indian’s birch-bark canoe, many of his foods, tobacco, moccasins, snow -shoes, and often buckskin clothing.</p> -<p>Both the Jesuits and the French military deliberately aimed at changing -the Indian’s way of life but their aims were in direct opposition to -one another. The Jesuits were not interested in “civilizing” the Indians. -They desired to see these simple people maintained in their original -ignorance except for their belief in the “One True God,” and such simple -improvements in agriculture and other techniques as would improve their -lot as mission Indians. The Jesuits, not without some justification, regarded -contact between their charges and the French traders and soldiers -as having a demoralizing influence.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig19"> -<img src="images/p11b.jpg" alt="" width="1150" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">MENOMINI INDIAN MEDICINE LODGE CEREMONY (PAINTING BY A. O. -TIEMANN).</p> -</div> -<p>Despite great heroism and prodigious efforts on the part of the missionaries, -permanent effects on the Indians by the Jesuits was to prove -almost negligible. The Wisconsin Indian was highly war-like and found -it difficult to appreciate the humility preached by the missionary. The -<span class="pb" id="Page_19">19</span> -Indian regarded such behavior as effeminate.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig20"> -<img src="images/p12.jpg" alt="" width="752" height="780" /> -<p class="pcap">FATHER JACQUES MARQUETTE -(COURTESY OF MARQUETTE -UNIVERSITY).</p> -</div> -<p>Nevertheless, the story of their efforts to Christianize the tribes, and -the valor of these missionaries in exploring unknown territory, makes a -fascinating story in our state’s history. Not the least among such heroic -deeds was the great voyage of exploration by Father Jacques Marquette -and Louis Joliet. Traveling up the Fox River, crossing over on foot at -what is now Portage, Wisconsin, and proceeding down the Wisconsin -River, the two explorers entered the Mississippi River on the seventeenth -of June, 1673. They explored the great river as far south as the Arkansas -River and then returned, by way of the Illinois River. This great discovery -made known a continuous water route from the Atlantic Ocean -to the Gulf of Mexico, and opened to the French the interior of a vast -continent.</p> -<p>It was the desire to exploit and unify this vast wilderness empire that -led the French leaders to attempt deliberate changes in the Wisconsin -Indian geography and political structure. This was necessary in order -to strengthen the Wisconsin tribes and keep them fighting the Iroquois -who consistently raided the western Indians and the French settlements -along the St. Lawrence.</p> -<p>LaSalle conceived the idea of a great Indian confederacy which, it was -hoped, would be able to successfully oppose the mighty Iroquois, and so -built forts in the Illinois country to help defend the area. The Wisconsin -Mascouten and Kickapoo left this area, partly because of their desire -to join the confederacy and partly because of population pressure in -the Fox River valley.</p> -<p>The year before the Iroquois invasions of 1680, DuLhut helped to -strengthen the French cause by negotiating peace between the Dakota -Sioux and their enemy of long standing, the Chippewa, and also reconciling -the Dakota Sioux and Assiniboine, who had been warring for -thirty years.</p> -<p>Nicolas Perrot probably was the most influential French officer ever to -have worked with the Wisconsin tribes. It was mainly through his constant -efforts that they were kept from going over to the Iroquois when the -tribes felt that the French had abandoned them. Perrot was probably the -only Frenchman to remain consistently on friendly terms with the Foxes, -who eventually were to engage the French in the bloodiest Indian war -<span class="pb" id="Page_20">20</span> -ever to be fought on Wisconsin soil. Perrot constantly travelled from -village to village organizing raids against the Iroquois, raids which -eventually assisted in forcing the Iroquois to sue for peace. The French, -through the efforts of men like LaSalle, Perrot, and DuLhut, had once -again secured a firm hold on the western tribes, but the Iroquois warfare -of the 1680’s had caused a slump in the fur trade. The trade was, -moreover, soon to receive a blow which was to almost completely kill -all official commerce between the Indians and the French for a number -of years. This was the issuance of a royal edict by the French King, May -21, 1696, revoking all fur trade licenses and prohibiting all colonials -from carrying goods to the western country.</p> -<p>There were really two main causes for the issuance of this edict. One -was a slump in the beaver market caused by the great flood of furs into -France and a decline in beaver hat production, due partly to the emigration -of the Huguenots who were the main hat felters; the other cause -for the edict was the anger of the Jesuits, aroused by the sale of brandy -to the Indians by the traders and soldiers.</p> -<p>It was hoped that the Indian tribes would make the journey to Montreal -themselves to trade their furs, but it was soon discovered that most -tribes either would not or could not make such a journey for purposes -of trade. The result, of course, was severe hardship for the Indians of -Wisconsin. Lack of gunpowder and lead restricted their hunting abilities -and made it more difficult for them to defend themselves against the -Iroquois and other hostile tribes. The Indians were becoming increasingly -dependent upon the French to the extent that they had lost much -of the freedom they had enjoyed as a self-sufficient people.</p> -<p>The rapid abandonment of the western posts followed the fur trade -ban. The commanders of these outposts, for the most part, did not consider -it worthwhile to stay on in that capacity if they could not enrich -themselves by means of the Indian trade.</p> -<p>Peace was finally arranged between the Iroquois and the French and -their Indian allies in 1700. The Iroquois had suffered heavily from the -raids by the western Indians. They claimed to have lost more than half -their warriors. With the fear of Iroquois raids ended, the confederacies -of western tribes quickly fell apart, and the latter turned to fighting -among themselves as they had always done in the past.</p> -<p>The French military now decided on a concentration policy. The -western posts were to be restricted to three main centers. These were -to be at Detroit, New Orleans, and near Tonty’s post in the Illinois -country. Fairly large numbers of troops were stationed at these posts -to provide adequate defense, and the western tribes were to be concentrated -in these areas. This would facilitate the fur trade by permitting -the Indians to trap their furs and bring them directly to the trading -centers. The French government also hoped to “civilize” the Indians, -teaching them to farm the land, learn the French language, and eventually -even participate in the colonial economy.</p> -<p>The concentration policy was foredoomed to failure. The Wisconsin -tribes, of whom many were hereditary enemies, only needed a spark to set -them at one another’s throats. This led to trouble at Detroit which -resulted in the bloody Fox Wars, long, costly fighting for the French -which contributed much towards their final downfall in the New World.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div> -<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">CHAPTER THREE</span> -<br />THE FOX WARS AND THE FALL OF NEW FRANCE</h2> -<div class="img" id="fig21"> -<img src="images/p13.jpg" alt="" width="928" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">SAUK AND FOX WARRIORS (FROM MAXIMILIAN).</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div> -<p>Events occurring in Wisconsin during the first half of the -Eighteenth Century were to bode little good for the French, and -were to contribute towards the final downfall of New France -at the hands of the British. For a good share of the years between 1701 -and 1738 the French were to be largely occupied with the attempt to -subjugate the Fox Indians and their allies.</p> -<p>Not only were the expeditions against the Fox to prove costly to -the French, but the enmity of the Fox required shiftings of trade routes. -As an inevitable result, friction between the French and English -traders developed, since the Fox at times blocked both the Fox River -in Wisconsin and the Illinois River to the French traders. The determined -resistance of the Fox also prevented the fruition of French hopes -to dominate the western tribes and influence them to espouse the -French cause. Furthermore, the difficulty experienced by the French -military in conquering a relatively small group of Wisconsin Indians -did little to further French prestige among other western tribes.</p> -<p>The First Fox War was actually the result of the French concentration -policy. Within a few years after the founding of Detroit in 1701 by the -Sieur de Cadillac there were almost 6000 Indians in the vicinity of the -fort. The Fox, meanwhile, determined to prevent the carrying of guns -to their enemy, the Dakota Sioux, were halting French traders attempting -to proceed up the Fox River on their journey to the Sioux country -on the Upper Mississippi. A French fort in the Sioux country was also -abandoned after the loss of several men due to attacks by the Fox.</p> -<p>Cadillac, realizing the need for some measure to bring these warlike -tribesmen under control, in 1710 invited the Fox, along with the other -tribes resident around Green Bay, to come and reside near Detroit. At this -crucial time, when so much depended on the leadership of a Frenchman -experienced in handling the tribes, Cadillac, probably the most capable -Colonial officer of the times, was sent to Louisiana as governor of that -colony. The new commandant at Detroit had none of Cadillac’s ability -with the Indians.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div> -<p>The arrival of the Fox and their allies, the Kickapoo, Sauk, and Mascouten, -was the signal for trouble. These tribesmen were feared as well -as hated by the other Indians about Detroit. After a band of Mascouten -were attacked by the Ottawa near the St. Joseph River, during the winter -of 1711-1712, the Fox, in revenge, immediately attacked the Ottawa and -Huron at the Detroit post.</p> -<p>The Detroit commandant sided with the Ottawa and Huron and permitted -them to seek refuge in the French fort. Shortly after, the Fox -erected a stockade of their own and made preparations for a long fight. -The French and their allies were reinforced by a large band of Illinois, -Missouri, Osage, Potawatomi, and Menomini. This greatly superior force -laid siege to the Fox fort and the latter soon offered to surrender. The -French and their Indian supporters, however, were now determined to -completely exterminate their enemies.</p> -<p>After a siege of nineteen days, the Fox attempted to escape by taking -advantage of cover offered on a dark, rainy night. They were pursued, -overtaken, and the great majority of them were slaughtered. This was a -victory for the French, but a very costly one, for the Fox and their allies -still had a great many warriors in the forests of Wisconsin. These, in retaliation, -began a war of extermination against the allies of the French -who had participated in the Detroit massacre and the hunted tribesmen -soon complained that their people were starving because they dared not -hunt in the forests lest their men be slain by the vengeful Fox.</p> -<p>The summer of 1716 saw the first white army ever to invade the forests -of Wisconsin. The Sieur de Louvigny, in May of that year, left Montreal -with an army of several hundred French and a force of mission Indians -determined to compel the Fox to sue for peace. He arrived in Wisconsin -with his army augmented by western tribesmen, and <i>coureurs de bois</i> who -had been granted pardons for joining the expedition at their own expense. -With this total force amounting to about 800 men, Louvigny besieged -the fortified Fox village, situated near Little Lake Butte des Morts. -While the French kept up a fire with two small cannon and a grenade -mortar, they sank a trench towards the Fox fort determined to mine the -place and blow it up.</p> -<p>The Fox surrendered after three days of fighting and agreed to accept -terms which Louvigny thought very severe, but which his Indian allies -regarded as overmild. The terms included the requirement that the -Fox pay for the costs of the expedition against them by means of furs yet -to be gathered, to give up prisoners taken from the allies of the French, -to furnish a number of hostages to guarantee their future good behavior, -and to cede their territory to the French King.</p> -<p>The peace temporarily halted the bloody warfare of the four preceding -years and permitted the fur trade to be resumed. The concentration -policy had proven to be a failure, and shortly after the death of Louis -XIV, in 1715, the posts were once more occupied and the licensing system -for the fur trade was restored. A fort was built at La Baye (Green Bay) -in 1717, and a post was occupied at Chequamegon Bay to keep the Chippewa -from attacking the Fox and causing a resumption of war, and also -to regulate the fur trade in that area.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_24">24</div> -<div class="img" id="fig22"> -<img src="images/p14.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="336" /> -<p class="pcap">EARLY FORT AT MICHILLIMACKINAC (MUSEUM MURAL BY GEORGE PETER).</p> -</div> -<p>The quite considerable friction between the colonies of Canada and -Louisiana provided the background for the events which led directly to -the Second Fox War. There was considerable argument as to the exact -boundaries of Illinois which now was annexed to Louisiana, although -originally settled by Canadians. The Fox took advantage of these feelings -of hostility by attacking the Illinois in the vicinity of Kaskaskia, even -killing Frenchmen in this area. The Fox claimed the Illinois would not -return Fox prisoners as they had promised according to treaty. The -Canadian governor, Vaudreuil, tended to side with the Fox in the argument.</p> -<p>After the death of Vaudreuil, his temporary successor, Baron de Longueuil -ordered the Sieur de Lignery, commandant at Mackinac, to enforce -a peace between the Fox, Kickapoo, and Mascouten, and their -enemies, the Illinois. The Fox promised to obey this demand, and in -order to ensure their obedience, a new post was built in the Sioux country. -This was rendered necessary by the fact that the Dakota Sioux had now -become allies of the Fox, and the French intended to make sure that -no aid would be coming to the Fox from that warlike tribe. The three -forts in the northwest, at Chequamegon Bay, La Baye, and on the upper -Mississippi in the Sioux country were to be maintained rather steadily -until near the end of the French regime.</p> -<p>Meanwhile the Fox chief Kiala had succeeded in forming an alliance -against the French between the Fox and their long-time allies the Kickapoo -and Mascouten, and a series of other tribes including, in addition -to the nearby Winnebago, such far distant tribes as the Abnaki and -Seneca in the East, and the Dakota Sioux, Missouri, Iowa, and Oto in -the West. Kiala hoped by this means to form a hostile circle about the -French which would end in their complete defeat, a plan similar to that -later attempted by Pontiac, and Tecumseh.</p> -<p>The Marquis de Beauharnois, appointed governor of Canada to replace -Vaudreuil, was determined that the raids on the Illinois and the -French at Kaskaskia must be stopped. A French army once more was -sent against the Fox. This time, headed by the Sieur de Lignery, the -<span class="pb" id="Page_25">25</span> -expedition numbered about four hundred French and approximately -one thousand Indians. Warned by the Potawatomi, the Fox escaped -from their villages and the army arrived at each to find it deserted. At -Little Lake Butte des Morts the soldiers refused to go farther and Lignery -had to be satisfied with the burning of the Fox and Winnebago villages -and their stores of food.</p> -<p>Despite the poor showing of Lignery’s expedition against the Fox, -Kiala’s confederacy began to fall apart. Even their old allies, the Mascouten -and Kickapoo, were persuaded by the French to turn against them, -and the Sioux, closely watched by the French, no longer could give the -Fox refuge in their country. Discouraged by these losses and defeated -by the French under the capable Paul Marin, the Fox decided to flee -to the Iroquois country. The Fox had long been secretly treating with the -English and the Seneca, a member tribe of the Iroquois Confederacy -and hoped to find a friendly reception in their country.</p> -<p>Warned by the Mascouten and Kickapoo regarding the plans of the -Fox, French officers from nearby posts hastily gathered together Indian -allies and prepared to attack their fleeing enemies. The Fox, warned by -their scouts of the force advancing against them, hastily erected a stockade -and prepared to fight for their lives. They managed to fight off the besiegers -for twenty-three days. Then on a stormy night they attempted -flight but were quickly overtaken. Almost all of the band were either -slaughtered or taken as slaves.</p> -<p>After the few survivors of this disaster, seeking refuge in their village -near the mouth of the Wisconsin River, were attacked by Detroit Indians, -Kiala and three other chiefs offered to give themselves up, asking -mercy for themselves and the fifty surviving warriors, supposedly all that -were left of the entire tribe. De Villiers accepted the surrender and -hastened to Montreal with his prisoners. De Villiers was ordered to -return and kill off the rest of the Fox, taking only the women and children -as prisoners. These were to be sold into slavery, like Kiala, who was fated -to end his days as a slave in the West Indies.</p> -<p>De Villiers returned to the Sauk village at Green Bay and demanded -that the Sauk release the remnant of Fox survivors. The Sauk declined -to release warriors with whom they had strong blood ties, and in an -attempt to force an entrance, one of de Villiers’ sons was killed. The -French quickly retaliated and in the exchange of fire de Villiers himself -was killed by a twelve year old boy, who later became renowned as the -Sauk Chief Blackbird. In the battle that followed, the Sieur Duplessis, -the Sieur de Repentigny, and six other Frenchmen quickly met the same -fate. The Sauk and Fox, too, lost heavily and fled to the vicinity of the -present-day city of Menasha. The bloody battle that ensued there, it is -said, accounts for the name Butte des Morts, or Hill of the Dead.</p> -<p>As a result of this battle, the remainder of the Fox and the Sauk amalgamated -and for all practical purposes became one tribe. They fled into -Iowa where they erected a new fort, and gradually their ranks were swelled -by Fox released from captivity by tribes now secretly in sympathy with -the Sauk and Fox. One more expedition was sent against them, led by -the Sieur de Noyelles, but although he followed the Sauk and Fox to the -vicinity of the Des Moines River, they were so well entrenched that it -<span class="pb" id="Page_26">26</span> -was impossible to dislodge them and the expedition returned home without -success. Eventually the Fox Wars were brought to an end through a -policy of conciliation inaugurated in 1740 by Paul Marin, the new -commandant at La Baye. Force had, in the long run, proven a failure -in the campaign to completely subjugate the Fox.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig23"> -<img src="images/p15.jpg" alt="" width="591" height="794" /> -<p class="pcap">SAUK AND FOX CHIEF (FROM GEO. CATLIN).</p> -</div> -<p>Throughout the first half of the Eighteenth Century the French, as -we have seen, had been occupied with more or less constant warfare with -the Fox. This warfare was the dominant note in the history of Wisconsin -for this period, and in general, the role of other Wisconsin tribes during -this era was that of serving as allies either of the French or of the Fox.</p> -<p>The failure of Noyelles’ expedition against the Fox had helped to -lower French prestige among the western tribes, and in 1736 the Sioux, -angered by French friendship for the Chippewa and Cree, murdered a -French officer, a priest, and a party of nineteen <i>voyageurs</i>. From this -<span class="pb" id="Page_27">27</span> -time on the Sioux could no longer be numbered among the allies of the -French. By 1739, the Sioux-Chippewa War flamed into action and the -Sioux were driven westward from the areas in Wisconsin now held by -the Chippewa.</p> -<p>Warfare between the English and the French in America again was -to seriously affect the western tribes. This conflict, lasting from 1744 to -1748, saw the fur trade with the western tribes reach extremely low proportions. -Goods were very scarce due to the loss of French ships at the -hands of British fighting vessels, and this failure to produce sufficient -goods for the Indians, in addition to the already declining prestige of -the French, encouraged some of the western tribes to seek more favorable -relations with the British. Most of the Huron, under Chief Nicolas, began -trading with the British, and many other western tribes exhibited the -same inclination.</p> -<p>The end of the current conflict with the English enabled the French -to regain control of these tribes, but the Miami had moved into Ohio and -established a large village called Pickawillany which became a fairly -permanent camp for a number of English traders. Several expeditions -against this village by the French failed. In 1752, however, Charles de -Langlade, later famed as one of Wisconsin’s pioneer French settlers at -Green Bay, who was part French and part Ottawa and who thus had -tremendous influence among the Indians, led an expedition against Pickawillany -which enjoyed remarkable success. The village was destroyed, -the English traders captured, and the Miami returned to French -allegiance.</p> -<p>For a while France again enjoyed supremacy in the West. In 1755, -Langlade and his contingent of Wisconsin and Mackinac braves participated -in the famous battle culminating in “Braddock’s Defeat”. Chippewa, -Menomini, Potawatomi, and Winnebago were said to be present -at this engagement, and for many years thereafter trophies of this battle -were to be found in Wisconsin Indian lodges. Despite this severe defeat -of the British and American Colonials, the fortunes of the French were -destined to take a turn for the worse. By 1761, Wisconsin was under -British control, and in 1763, France formally surrendered the rest of -her American possessions to England. She had ceded Louisiana to Spain -the year before.</p> -<p>Much had happened to Wisconsin’s Indians during this period, roughly -from 1700 to 1760. The long and bloody Fox Wars had wrought hardship -on the other tribes as well as on the Fox. The Sioux-Chippewa war had -resulted in the Sioux being forced to relinquish most of their Wisconsin -territory to the Chippewa. The Potawatomi Indians, who had fought -<span class="pb" id="Page_28">28</span> -under Langlade and participated in the killing of the unarmed English -and Americans at Fort William Henry, were visited by a grim vengeance -in the form of smallpox, contracted from the English soldiers and brought -back by the tribes to their own country where it raged virtually unchecked. -Great numbers of Indians lost their lives as a result.</p> -<p>Other tribes left Wisconsin, some never to return. The Kickapoo and -Mascouten were now in Illinois and Indiana. The Potawatomi were -below Lake Michigan at St. Joseph. Thus many of the tribes here -when the French traders and missionaries first arrived, no longer were -in the Wisconsin scene. The tribes remaining here were destined to know -new masters, the British, who were to control the fur trade in Wisconsin -until the end of the War of 1812.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p16.jpg" id="ncfig4" alt="uncaptioned" width="500" height="502" /> -</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p16a.jpg" id="ncfig5" alt="uncaptioned" width="800" height="69" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_29">29</div> -<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">CHAPTER FOUR</span> -<br />THE PERIOD OF BRITISH CONTROL</h2> -<div class="img" id="fig24"> -<img src="images/p17.jpg" alt="" width="511" height="778" /> -<p class="pcap">PONTIAC.</p> -</div> -<p>British military control of Wisconsin was ushered in with the -arrival of Ensign James Gorrell at Green Bay on the twelfth of -October, 1761. With the aid of his two non-commissioned officers -and fifteen privates, Gorrell set about to restore the old French fort -which he renamed Fort Edward Augustus, in honor of the Duke of -York. His next task was to win over the French <i>habitants</i> about the fort -and to gain the sympathy of the Indians in the area for the British cause. -Apparently Gorrell was quite successful in both tasks.</p> -<p>The French <i>habitants</i> about the posts taken over by the British found -it rather easy, for the most part, to transfer their allegiance to the British -Crown since they were given the same privileges they enjoyed under -French authority. Moreover, the British traders found it more advantageous -to form partnerships with the more experienced French traders -than to attempt to supersede them.</p> -<p>British success with the Indians varied according to local conditions -at the different forts. The British were not inclined to give presents as -liberally as the French had done, and it was not British policy to fraternize -or intermarry with their savage allies. The feeling of inferiority -<span class="pb" id="Page_30">30</span> -prompted by this treatment caused resentment among many tribes.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig25"> -<img src="images/p17a.jpg" alt="" width="923" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">TRADERS PORTAGING (PAINTING BY T. LINDBERG).</p> -</div> -<p>In central Wisconsin, however, Gorrell’s diplomatic treatment of the -Indians, added to the fact that the Sauk, Fox, Winnebago, and Menomini -held a certain amount of resentment towards the French, swung these -tribes over to the British. The promises of medals and commissions to the -Indian chiefs, and the fact that the British trade goods were cheaper by -far than those offered by the French, also tended to offset the more arrogant -treatment of the tribes by the British.</p> -<p>Gorrell’s success with the Indians of central Wisconsin was very important -to Wisconsin history, for in 1763 the British were compelled to -deal with a widespread Indian uprising largely led by Pontiac, chief of -an Ottawa tribe from around the Straits of Mackinac, and one of the most -able Indian leaders who ever lived. It was Pontiac’s plan to drive all -the British and Colonials into the sea by means of an alliance of Indian -tribes from the Alleghenies to the Mississippi River, and from the Ohio -River to the Great Lakes. Pontiac’s chief claim to greatness lies in his -remarkable feat of keeping a number of tribes together for a seven-month -<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span> -siege of Detroit, a unique event in Indian warfare.</p> -<p>In addition to the attack on Detroit, concerted attacks were made on -other British posts, of which a number fell, including the one at Mackinac. -The failure of the Indians to take Forts Detroit, Pitt, and Niagara -assured defeat for Pontiac’s campaign.</p> -<p>On June 2, 1763, the Chippewa Indians took Fort Mackinac by a -clever subterfuge. They faked a game of LaCrosse in front of the stockade -and pretended accidentally to knock the ball into the fort. As the players -rushed after the ball they seized guns from the watching Indian women -who had concealed the weapons under their blankets. Most of the garrison -was massacred before they had a chance to defend themselves.</p> -<p>The loyalty to the British of Wisconsin’s Sauk, Fox, Winnebago, and -Menomini Indians, and the timely arrival of a delegation of Sioux, sworn -enemies of the Chippewa, probably saved Green Bay from a similar fate.</p> -<p>Etherington hastily summoned Gorrell to his assistance. Gorrell abandoned -Fort Edward Augustus at Green Bay and with the aid of 90 men -of the Sauk, Fox, Menomini, and Winnebago tribes succeeded in obtaining -the prisoners’ release from the Indians. The party then proceeded on to -Montreal. British military occupation of Wisconsin was not resumed -until the War of 1812.</p> -<p>The Pontiac rebellion also served to bring the problems relating to -the Indians home to the British Government and probably helped as an -incentive to the issuance of the Proclamation of 1763. British subjects -were now forbidden to purchase lands west of the Appalachian mountains -without special license. It was hoped that this would prevent further -encroachments by white settlers upon Indian lands. Trade with the -Indians was to be permitted where licenses with the various colonial -governments had been procured. Moreover, since Wisconsin was not included -in the limits of any of the colonies, Wisconsin was left without -any government other than that exercised by the military at Mackinac. -This matter was not rectified until 1774 when the Quebec Act placed -Wisconsin under the authority of the Governor of Canada.</p> -<p>Mackinac became the seat of Wisconsin’s fur trade when the fort was -rebuilt there in 1764. It was the only fort northwest of Detroit with -government officers and Indian agents. By 1767, large numbers of traders -were coming into the Wisconsin area. The Indians by this time were so -dependent on the white trader that any interruption in the supply of -goods flowing to the Indians worked severe hardships upon them.</p> -<p>Wisconsin’s fur trade was still largely controlled by Montreal investors, -mostly British. The actual traders, however, who contacted the Indians -were still primarily Frenchmen, and this was to remain so throughout -Wisconsin’s fur-trade period. Some competition in Wisconsin was given -to the British by Spanish and French traders from Louisiana, which had -become Spanish territory by the peace treaty in 1763. But the British -managed to retain the bulk of the northwest fur trade with the Indians.</p> -<p>Wisconsin’s Indians did not participate strongly in the American Revolution, -but they did take part in some action. Charles de Langlade, half -French, half Ottawa Indian leader who helped the French so efficiently -during the French and Indian War, now espoused the British cause as -ardently as he had the French. Langlade’s tremendous influence over -<span class="pb" id="Page_32">32</span> -the Indians was well known, and the British hoped to persuade him to -obtain Wisconsin Indian help in fighting the Colonists. Langlade did -succeed in leading Chippewa and Ottawa east to help Burgoyne in 1777, -and in 1778 Wisconsin Indians went to Detroit to help General Hamilton. -On the whole, however, Wisconsin’s Indians were too disinterested in -the white man’s war to be enthusiastic about long trips east to aid the -British.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig26"> -<img src="images/p18.jpg" alt="" width="1146" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">MICHILLIMACKINAC, RESTORATION OF LAST FORT.</p> -</div> -<p>The American Revolutionary War hero, Major George Rogers Clark, -whose capture of Vincennes and Kaskaskia, and the French villages of the -Illinois country, provided the basis for United States claims to the -Northwest Territory during the peace negotiations between the British -and the United States, called together a great assembly of Indians at -Cahokia, Illinois, in 1778, and succeeded in obtaining their pledges of -allegiance to the United States. Many Wisconsin Indians attended the -meeting, including the noted Blackbird, chief of a Milwaukee village -composed of Ottawa, Chippewa, and Potawatomi. Blackbird apparently -remained loyal to the American cause. Major Clark’s influence with -the Wisconsin Indians tended to nullify the efforts of Charles Langlade, -and other French officers in the service of England, to mobilize the Wisconsin -Indians against the United States.</p> -<p>In 1780, England utilized some Wisconsin Indians in an attack on the -Spanish with whom she was then at war. Twelve hundred warriors were -assembled at Prairie du Chien, and marched on St. Louis. Aided by the -fact that they had advance knowledge of the enemy movements, that -some of the tribesmen were more or less sympathetic with the American -cause, and that the Indians showed no enthusiasm for attacking in the -face of cannon fire, the Spanish and Americans succeeded in routing the -attackers. After this action Wisconsin’s Indians were not involved in any -important campaigns during the remaining years of the American Revolution.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_33">33</div> -<div class="img" id="fig27"> -<img src="images/p19.jpg" alt="" width="622" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">CHIEF OSHKOSH (PORTRAIT BY S. M. BROOKS, COURTESY OF THE WISCONSIN -STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY).</p> -</div> -<p>British control of Wisconsin’s Indians did not cease with the end of -the Revolutionary War. Despite the British agreement in the Treaty of -Paris, in 1783, to turn over their posts at Niagara, Detroit, and Michillimackinac, -they continued to hold these forts until after the Jay Treaty -of 1794. It was not until October, 1796, that Mackinac, the last post to be -turned over by the British, was officially occupied by American troops. -The British, however, still maintained their control over Wisconsin’s -Indians through the fur trade now operating from posts just across the -Canadian border.</p> -<p>Within a month after the declaration of war against England by the -American Congress in 1812, Mackinac was retaken by the British and -<span class="pb" id="Page_34">34</span> -Menomini and Winnebago Indians from Wisconsin. Among the Menomini -were chiefs Tomah and Oshkosh, the latter destined to become a -famous Menomini leader and friend of the Americans. Within another -month Fort Dearborn (at Chicago) was attacked by Indians and most of -its civilian and military inhabitants massacred. Menomini, Potawatomi, -and Winnebago Indians from Wisconsin took part in this attack.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig28"> -<img src="images/p19a.jpg" alt="" width="596" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">MENOMINI WARRIOR (FROM INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA).</p> -</div> -<p>The Americans were well aware of the strategic importance of Prairie -du Chien in any attempt to control Wisconsin’s Indians. In June, 1814, -Fort Shelby, probably the first building over which an American flag -ever flew in Wisconsin, was erected at this strategic location. Lt. Perkins -and sixty men were left in charge at the fort.</p> -<p>The British quickly determined to drive out the Americans and succeeded -in forcing Perkins to surrender the fort on July 19, 1814. About -500 Indians, mostly Menomini, Chippewa, Winnebago, and Sioux, took -part in the assault on the American post.</p> -<p>The British renamed the post Fort McKay and managed to hold it -against the Americans until, in agreement with the Treaty of Ghent, -they finally abandoned the fort in May, 1815, and British control of Wisconsin’s -Indians was finally at an end. The fate of Wisconsin’s Indians -was now in the hands of the United States Government.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div> -<h2 id="c5"><span class="small">CHAPTER FIVE</span> -<br />THE PERIOD OF AMERICAN SETTLEMENT</h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p20.jpg" id="ncfig6" alt="uncaptioned" width="1136" height="800" /> -</div> -<p>Wisconsin’s Indians, under the French and British had -become increasingly dependent upon the white man. Without -the invaders’ tools, weapons, utensils, and various other things -which the Indian had come to depend upon, he found himself unable to -supply himself with the necessities of life. The French and British traders, -of course, were interested almost exclusively in procuring furs from the -Indians, and as long as the aborigines could obtain furs for them, the -traders would supply their needs.</p> -<p>The Americans, however, were primarily interested in exploiting and -settling the Indians’ land; fur trading was secondary. As they pushed -into the new territory in ever increasing numbers, first to exploit the lead -mines of southwestern Wisconsin, and then to farm the fertile soil, the -Indian was doomed to be relentlessly pushed aside. He had lost his independence. -Now he was to lose his land and the very means of his livelihood.</p> -<p>The arrival of the Americans upon the Wisconsin scene pleased neither -the Indians nor the French traders. Both relied to a great extent on the -fur trade, and they knew that the clearing of land by the settlers would -hasten the end of this activity. Many of the French, too, had Indian blood -and considered their cause as one with the Indians. The United States -<span class="pb" id="Page_36">36</span> -government first showed poor judgment in its attempt to make these -people conform to American standards. For example, the French and Indians -were warned that common-law marriages between the two races -would no longer be tolerated, but must be legalized by either a civil or -church ceremony, and violators would face punishment. Both the French -and Indians bitterly fought what seemed to them oppression, and eventually -later decisions recognized the legality of common-law unions of -earlier regimes.</p> -<p>Wisconsin’s Indian agents were for a time under the authority of two -superintendents of Indian affairs. Lewis Cass, Governor of Michigan -Territory, of which Wisconsin was a part from 1818 to 1836, was in charge -of the Indian agent at Green Bay. The agent at Prairie du Chien worked -under the direction of William Clark who, as Superintendent of St. -Louis from 1807 to 1838, had authority to the source of the Mississippi -River. These agents distributed annuities and payments due the Indians -and attempted to keep white settlers from squatting on Indian land. -The settlers, however, rudely took over Indian land and, in the inevitable -conflict that followed, the militia and army would be called out to protect -the whites. In the ensuing “peace treaty” the Indians would be forced -to cede their lands and move westward.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig29"> -<img src="images/p20a.jpg" alt="" width="1085" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">INVADING SETTLERS (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p> -</div> -<p>Wisconsin’s early territorial period was also the era of the frontier -fort manned by the regular U. S. Army. Since the pay for the ordinary -soldier was very small, the army attracted men who could not succeed -elsewhere, or immigrants who wished to desert at the first opportunity -and travel westward. The officers, however, were of different character -entirely. Educated at West Point, they were by far the most educated -<span class="pb" id="Page_37">37</span> -and cultured men in the frontier settlements. With their wives, they represented -the cream of Wisconsin society of this period.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig30"> -<img src="images/p21.jpg" alt="" width="1149" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">THE ENFORCING OF LEGAL MARRIAGE (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p> -</div> -<p>Wisconsin had three main forts along the Fox-Wisconsin waterway. -Fort Howard was erected at Green Bay in 1816, the same year that Fort -Crawford was established at Prairie du Chien. Fort Winnebago was built -at what is now Portage in 1828, shortly after the Red Bird rebellion. -The United States army did its best to maintain peace between the Indians -and whites, and to protect the Indians from unlicensed traders, and -sometimes legitimate ones, who illegally sold whiskey to them. In their -efforts in this direction they often found themselves in conflict with civil -authorities who sometimes protected the traders apprehended in such -violations.</p> -<p>The fur trade continued in Wisconsin while the population was primarily -Indian, but by 1835 it was no longer of any significance in this -area. Following the War of 1812, the United States Government set up -fur trade “factories” at Prairie du Chien and Green Bay, hoping by this -means to control some of the evils, one of the most vicious of which was -the peddling of whiskey to the Indians. The whiskey was usually diluted -with water, and adulterants such as turpentine, or even corrosive acids, -added to restore the “bite.”</p> -<p>The government entry into the fur trade was unsuccessful. The factors, -as the proprietors of the trade “factories” were called, lacked experience -in dealing with the Indians. They did not give credit advancements -to them as did the other traders, and the American Fur Company -applied pressure on Congress to end this system. Gradually this Company -acquired the fur trade monopoly in this area; Solomon Juneau, -<span class="pb" id="Page_38">38</span> -Milwaukee’s famous founder, was one of the American Fur Company’s -agents in what is now the State of Wisconsin. The gradual decadence of -the fur trade, of course, increased the hardships of Wisconsin tribes.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig31"> -<img src="images/p21b.jpg" alt="" width="862" height="614" /> -<p class="pcap">OLD FORT WINNEBAGO -(COURTESY OF THE -WISCONSIN STATE HISTORICAL -SOCIETY).</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig32"> -<img src="images/p21c.jpg" alt="" width="879" height="589" /> -<p class="pcap">THE SECOND OR -STONE FORT CRAWFORD -(COURTESY OF -THE WISCONSIN STATE -HISTORICAL SOCIETY).</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig33"> -<img src="images/p21e.jpg" alt="" width="903" height="482" /> -<p class="pcap">THE FIRST OR LOG -FORT CRAWFORD -(COURTESY OF THE -WISCONSIN STATE HISTORICAL -SOCIETY).</p> -</div> -<p>As settlers began encroaching on the Indians’ land, conflicts were inevitable. -John C. Calhoun, the Secretary of War in 1825, sponsored a plan -for the removal of eastern tribes across the Mississippi to the western -<span class="pb" id="Page_39">39</span> -plains. It was believed that by furnishing them with equipment for hunting -and farming they could survive readily and would be safe from further -pressure by white homesteaders. No one realized at this time how -soon these western lands would be overrun by the relentless pressure of -the American pioneer. The land purchased from the Indians was to be -made available to American settlers. The lands of certain tribes of Wisconsin -Indians were to be included in this overall plan.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig34"> -<img src="images/p22.jpg" alt="" width="624" height="801" /> -<p class="pcap">SOLOMON JUNEAU, AGED 60.</p> -</div> -<p>Unfortunately for the smooth functioning of this operation, the Indians -did not care to leave the land on which they and their ancestors -had hunted for so long a time, and travel to new hunting grounds. In -many instances they were not removed without a show of force, sometimes -with considerable blood being shed by both whites and Indians.</p> -<p>In 1825, Lewis Cass and William Clark held a conference of Wisconsin -tribes at Prairie du Chien. They hoped to establish definite boundaries -for the holdings of the different tribes in order to eliminate friction -between them. This would also facilitate future land purchases from the -Indians. Roughly these boundaries were recognized: the southwest and -southeast corners of Wisconsin were allotted to the southern Chippewa, -Ottawa, and Potawatomi; the Winnebago held the remainder of southern -Wisconsin; the Menomini kept the northeast part of the state from the -Milwaukee River up; and the Chippewa held all of northern Wisconsin -west of the Menomini. These Indian territories were not to be respected -for very long by white squatters, however, and the Winnebago were to be -among the first to encounter trouble from this source.</p> -<p>The fact that southwestern Wisconsin was very rich in lead was discovered -<span class="pb" id="Page_40">40</span> -quite early in the French regime, and it is probable that the -French taught the Indians how to mine and smelt the ore. By 1811, the -Sauk and Fox are reported to have devoted almost all their attention -to lead mining, only hunting to supply themselves with meat. They exchanged -the metal with Canadian traders for the goods they needed. -Some early American traders who attempted to get in on this trade were -killed by the Indians, who feared that once the Americans learned of -the value of the lead deposits their cupidity would be aroused and the -Indians would lose their land. Later events were to prove the excellence -of this reasoning.</p> -<p>Aroused by the rich deposits, Cornish miners, particularly, began to -arrive in force by 1827. The Indians were rudely expelled from their -diggings and their mines appropriated by armed whites. In the same -year, Red Bird, a young Winnebago chief, killed two settlers and scalped -a baby who, interestingly enough, survived to become the mother of a -large family and live to a ripe old age. Following this attack Red Bird -and his warriors, about forty in number, celebrated the scalp taking with -a drunken carousal at the mouth of the Bad Axe River, about forty miles -north of Prairie du Chien. Two keelboats on their way from Fort Snelling -to St. Louis were fired upon by the drunken Winnebago braves, and -after a battle of about three hours, the keelboats escaped with a loss of -four men dead and several wounded. The Indians were reported to have -suffered losses of seven dead and fourteen wounded.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig35"> -<img src="images/p22a.jpg" alt="" width="1140" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">JUNEAU’S TRADING POST, MILWAUKEE (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_41">41</div> -<div class="img" id="fig36"> -<img src="images/p23.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="962" /> -<p class="pcap">MENOMINI INDIANS -OF THE EARLY 19TH -CENTURY (PORTRAIT -BY S. M. BROOKS).</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig37"> -<img src="images/p23a.jpg" alt="" width="1104" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">THE PIONEERS (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_42">42</div> -<p>United States troops rapidly arrived at the scene, and after fleeing up -the Wisconsin River, Red Bird found himself and his tribe surrounded. -The Americans agreed to forget the matter of the keelboats providing the -murderers of the settlers would give themselves up for trial. On Sept. 3, -1827, Red Bird, rather than engage his people in a hopeless war against -the whites, voluntarily surrendered to Major Whistler at Portage. Arrangements -were made for the Americans to use the lead mines until a treaty -could be arranged, and in July, 1829, another Grand Council was held -at Prairie du Chien. The Winnebago, southern Potawatomi, Chippewa, -and Ottawa agreed to cede their land. The United States Government -now owned the rich lead mining country of southwestern Wisconsin.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig38"> -<img src="images/p23b.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="888" /> -<p class="pcap">WINNEBAGO CHIEF (PORTRAIT BY S. M. BROOKS).</p> -</div> -<p>During this period of American settlement, beginning as early as 1821 -and lasting through 1834, a migration of Indians from New York occurred -which was to add some permanent residents to Wisconsin’s Indian -population. The Oneida and Munsee settled near Green Bay, and the -Stockbridge and Brotherton Indians settled along the eastern shore of -Lake Winnebago. The Menomini ceded 500,000 acres of their land to -these tribes in 1831.</p> -<p>Meanwhile the stage had been set for what was to become the most -famous, and also, perhaps, the most infamous Indian and white conflict -in the Wisconsin area. This was the so-called Black Hawk War, although -it was more of a systematic extermination of Indians by whites, hardly -deserving the term “war.”</p> -<p>Black Hawk was leader of the “British band” of the Sauk with a large -village, said to number about 500 families, situated near the mouth of the -Rock River in Illinois. His people were known as the “British band” -because of their known sympathies with the English, and also since -Black Hawk and his warriors had fought with Tecumseh and the British -against the Americans in the War of 1812.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_43">43</div> -<p>White settlers began squatting on Black Hawk’s land as early as 1823, -despite the fact that according to treaty the Indians were not required to -give up their land until land offices had been set up, an event which had -not occurred. The Indians’ cornfields were fenced in, wigwams were -burned, and the women mistreated. Black Hawk went to the British -agent in Canada, near Detroit. He was advised that the treaties of 1804 -and 1816 were being violated and that he rightfully could resist the -settlers and expect the backing of the United States Government. Black -Hawk returned and warned the settlers that they would be attacked -unless they left at once.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig39"> -<img src="images/p24.jpg" alt="" width="770" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap">I-TWA-KU-AM, MOHICAN LEADER (PORTRAIT BY HAMLIN).</p> -</div> -<p>The alarmed settlers sought help from the Illinois militia which was -rapidly called to arms in 1831. This show of force compelled Black Hawk -to retire to the west side of the Mississippi River with his people, and -<span class="pb" id="Page_44">44</span> -promise not to return without government permission. Chief Keokuk, -head of the combined Sauk and Fox tribes, had already taken all of his -people, except the rebellious Black Hawk and his band, into what is now -Iowa in 1830, realizing the futility of fighting the tremendously superior -white forces.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig40"> -<img src="images/p24a.jpg" alt="" width="841" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">BLACK HAWK (FROM INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA).</p> -</div> -<p>On April 6, 1832, Black Hawk crossed back into Illinois with approximately -1000 of his people, about 400 of whom were warriors. He had been -promised aid by emissaries of the Potawatomi, Winnebago, Ottawa, and -Chippewa, but before a month had passed Black Hawk realized he would -get little aid either from these tribes or from the British in a war against -the settlers. The militia had been called out again in the meantime, and -Black Hawk now only desired to make peace and get his people back to -Iowa. He sent messengers under a white flag to Major Stillman who was -encamped nearby with about 400 volunteers. The white flag was ignored, -and three of the Indians were killed. Black Hawk had only forty warriors -with him at the time, but angered by this treachery, he attacked -Stillman’s men in what he himself called a “suicide charge.”</p> -<p>The tremendously superior force of volunteers, upon seeing Black -Hawk’s charging braves, fled frantically with the first volley fired by the -Indians. As they fled they spread the alarm over most of northern Illinois, -and maintained that Black Hawk had ambushed them with 2000 warriors. -Following this event Black Hawk removed his women and children to the -Lake Koshkonong area in Wisconsin, so that they could forage for desperately -needed food and be relatively safe from attack. Black Hawk -and his warriors spent the following two months attacking settlements -along the Wisconsin-Illinois frontier. Two hundred whites and possibly -as many Indians were killed in these border skirmishes.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_45">45</div> -<p>Black Hawk soon found himself pursued by a greatly superior force of -militia and regular U. S. Army troops. He and his band fled through the -Madison, Wisconsin, area and were overtaken attempting to cross the Wisconsin -River, where the Battle of Wisconsin Heights took place on July -21, 1832. Black Hawk’s braves succeeded in holding back the Americans -while the tribe crossed the river, and the following morning one of his -men made a surrender speech in the Winnebago language. No one in -the American camp understood the plea for surrender terms, since the -Winnebago followers of the Americans were not in their camp at the -time. The Indians were again compelled to flee.</p> -<p>Black Hawk then divided his people into two groups, one of which -obtained rafts and canoes from friendly Winnebago, and proceeded -down the Wisconsin River, hoping to reach the Mississippi River and -cross back to Iowa. Soldiers from Prairie du Chien captured or shot -most of them. Some others were hunted down in the woods by Menomini -Indians led by white officers. As the rest of Black Hawk’s band fled overland -toward the Mississippi River, they were pursued by the combined -forces of General Atkinson, General Henry, and Major Dodd, a total force -of some four thousand men.</p> -<p>When Black Hawk’s band arrived at the Mississippi River, they were -met by the steamboat “Warrior.” Black Hawk again attempted to surrender, -but the “Warrior’s” captain preferred to believe this a trick and -opened fire on the Indians. The infantry then arrived and attacked the -Indians from the rear. Men, women, and children were forced into the -river at bayonet point. Many were drowned as they attempted to swim -the river, and others were picked off by American sharpshooters from -the shore. This was the massacre of the Bad Axe River, which lasted three -hours, and in which 150 Indians were killed and as many more drowned. -A band of Sioux, brought there for the purpose by General Atkinson, -set upon the 300 Indians who reached the other bank and killed about -half of them.</p> -<p>Only about 150 survivors remained of the thousand Indians who had -crossed with Black Hawk into Illinois in April only four months before.</p> -<p>Black Hawk fled to the Winnebago, who later surrendered him to the -Americans. He was then taken on a tour through the eastern states to -impress him with the power of the American Government, and released -in June, 1833. His tribe was given a small reservation in Iowa on the -Des Moines River, where he died October 3, 1838. The treatment of -Black Hawk and his people in the so-called “Black Hawk War” will -always remain a blot on American history and a discredit to the Government.</p> -<p>From the time of the “Black Hawk War” on, Wisconsin Indians were -rapidly deprived of their land. In September, 1832, the Winnebago ceded -the rest of their holdings south and east of the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers. -Upon promise of payment of about one million dollars to the Indians -and their creditors, the southern Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi, in -a treaty at Chicago, Illinois, turned over their holdings in southern Wisconsin -in 1833. The Menomini ceded almost four million acres between -Green Bay and the Wolf River to the United States Government in 1836. -In 1838, the Oneida ceded most of their land in this same area to the -<span class="pb" id="Page_46">46</span> -United States. The Chippewa, Sioux, and Winnebago, in three separate -treaties, ceded the western half of Wisconsin, above the Wisconsin River, -in 1837. With the final cession of some small holdings of the Menomini -in the east central part of the state, in 1848, the United States Government -now had possession of all Indian land in Wisconsin.</p> -<p>The Indians, in most cases, had western lands assigned to them. The -United States army forcibly removed many Winnebago to Nebraska, -some of whom remain there today. Other Winnebago, homesick for -Wisconsin and afraid of the Sioux, gradually wandered back to Wisconsin -where they still are. In 1854 the Menomini were placed on a reservation -on the Upper Wolf River. Shortly after this, they sold two townships -to the Stockbridge Indians. In 1854, also, three large reservations: -Lac Court Oreilles, Lac du Flambeau, and Bad River, were assigned to the -Chippewa.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig41"> -<img src="images/p25.jpg" alt="" width="1157" height="792" /> -<p class="pcap">SURRENDER OF BLACK HAWK (MURAL BY CAL PETERS, VILLA LOUIS, COURTESY -OF THE WISCONSIN STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY).</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_47">47</div> -<h2 id="c6"><span class="small">CHAPTER SIX</span> -<br />WISCONSIN’S INDIANS TODAY</h2> -<div class="img" id="fig42"> -<img src="images/p26.jpg" alt="" width="728" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap">MIXED COSTUME IN FOX CEREMONIAL DANCE.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_48">48</div> -<p>In considering the story of those Indians who were important -in the history of our state, we have seen that from time to time some -tribes have left the Wisconsin scene. We might well wonder what -has been their final fate and where they may be found today. As we remember -the United States Government removal plan, we are not too surprised -to find many of them located at reservations and agencies in our -western United States.</p> -<p>The Sauk and Fox are at agencies in Iowa, Kansas, and Oklahoma. -The Sauk and Fox reservation in Iowa has an Indian population of 473, -and there are 129 Sauk and Fox at the Kansas reservation and an additional -910 at the Sauk and Fox reservation at the Shawnee agency in -Oklahoma.</p> -<p>The Kickapoo have small reservations in Oklahoma and Kansas. The -Indian population at the Kickapoo reservation in Oklahoma numbers -269; and at the Kickapoo reservation in Kansas, 343. In addition, there -are some 350 Kickapoo living in the state of Coahuila, Mexico, having -split off from the Oklahoma band in 1852. Population figures given -here for the Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo are from the estimates of the Office -of Indian Affairs of the United States Department of the Interior for -the year 1940.</p> -<p>The present whereabouts of the Mascoutens presents somewhat of -a mystery. Most students of the subject at present believe that members -of the Prairie Band of the Potawatomi, who also call themselves the -Mascoutens, are the descendents of that tribe, which is so often referred -to in early Wisconsin history. The early Mascoutens were closely related -to the Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo, according to early reports, in language -and culture, and usually were the political allies of these tribes as well. -Some bands of the Prairie Potawatomi are found associated with the -Kickapoo in Oklahoma and Kansas, and also in Mexico.</p> -<p>As for the Santee Sioux, who were in northern Wisconsin even before -the arrival of the white man, it is again difficult to give accurate present -population figures. The term Santee originally designated one band of -Indians, but eventually came to mean all of the forest bands of the -Sioux, of whom, in all probability, many never resided in Wisconsin. -There are, according to the 1940 estimate, 1,197 Sioux living on the Santee -reservation in Nebraska, and there are 585 Sioux in Minnesota who -would be included in the Santee division. If we were to include all tribes -generally classed as Santee Sioux today, expressed in round numbers, 5,000 -would probably be a conservative estimate. However, many of these are -not derived from those bands formerly living in Wisconsin.</p> -<p>Returning to the Wisconsin scene today, we learn from the 1940 estimates -of the Office of Indian Affairs that the present Indian population -in Wisconsin is 13,678. Of this total, 5,605 are Chippewa, residing at the -Bad River, Lac Court Oreilles, Lac du Flambeau, and Red Cliff reservations. -Also included in this figure are the Mole Lake Chippewa and the -St. Croix band.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_49">49</div> -<div class="img" id="fig43"> -<img src="images/p27.jpg" alt="" width="613" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap">FOX INDIAN, IOWA.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_50">50</div> -<div class="img" id="fig44"> -<img src="images/p27a.jpg" alt="" width="1031" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">THE CHIPPEWA STILL PREPARE BUCK-SKIN.</p> -</div> -<p>Included in Wisconsin’s present Indian population are also 2,454 -Menomini, located at their reservation in Shawano County; 460 Stockbridge -and Munses, on their reservation adjoining that of the Menomini; -1,700 Oneida, scattered around the village of Oneida, 10 miles southwest -of Green Bay; 1,498 Winnebago, on public domain land allotments, primarily -in Jackson, Wood, and Shawano counties; and 310 Potawatomi, -in Forest County. While only a small number of Potawatomi have returned -to this state since their removal, over half of the Winnebago are -now back in their Wisconsin homeland. In addition to the Winnebago -who returned to Wisconsin after their removal by the United States Army, -1,268 remained at their reservation in Nebraska. Thus of this reportedly -numerous and powerful tribe first encountered by the French when -Nicolet landed near Green Bay, in 1634, about 2,766 still survive.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_51">51</div> -<div class="img" id="fig45"> -<img src="images/p28.jpg" alt="" width="668" height="700" /> -<p class="pcap">A CHARACTERISTIC WISCONSIN ONEIDA.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig46"> -<img src="images/p28a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="1048" /> -<p class="pcap">ELDERLY -ONEIDA -WOMAN.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_52">52</div> -<div class="img" id="fig47"> -<img src="images/p28c.jpg" alt="" width="496" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap">DECORAH HENRY THUNDER, -WISCONSIN WINNEBAGO.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig48"> -<img src="images/p28d.jpg" alt="" width="547" height="799" /> -<p class="pcap">THE CRADLE-BOARD -BARELY SURVIVED -AMONG THE WISCONSIN -CHIPPEWA.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_53">53</div> -<div class="img" id="fig49"> -<img src="images/p29.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="698" /> -<p class="pcap">YOUNG POTAWATOMI FACES A DIFFICULT WORLD.</p> -</div> -<p>The future status of Wisconsin’s Indians presents a considerable problem -to the United States Government. Their life on reservations is hardly -an easy one for the majority. Even among the Menomini, whose tribal -lumbering industry makes them economically the most prosperous in -the state, the standard of living is not high. Finding a means whereby -they can earn a decent living is probably the greatest difficulty. For the -most part they suffer for lack of adequate clothing and food, particularly -during the winter season. To alleviate the situation, a considerable number -have migrated to the cities to obtain employment, and there are an -estimated one thousand Indians living in Milwaukee, for example, of -which the largest group is Oneida.</p> -<p>So far no satisfactory solution to the problem has been reached, although -some sincere attempts have been made in that direction. The -hope, of course, is that eventually the Indians will be assimilated by the -rest of our population and be able to live normal lives as United States -citizens. Without intelligently directed help this process will take a long -time, and during that period the Indians will continue to suffer.</p> -<p>The Wisconsin Indians of today are acculturated to a greater or lesser -degree: among the Chippewa, Potawatomi, Menomini, and Winnebago -a considerable amount of the traditional culture survives; among the -Stockbridge and Oneida nearly all of the old culture is lost. It is to be -hoped that all of the colorful pattern of Indian culture and tradition is -not lost in the process of assimilation.</p> -<p>One thing is certain, the Indians of Wisconsin, along with most of -those of the entire United States, have suffered much at the hands of the -white man. They deserve constructive help now toward accomplishing the -ultimate adjustment to the final demands made on them by the white -man’s civilization.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_54">54</div> -<div class="img" id="fig50"> -<img src="images/p29a.jpg" alt="" width="652" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">MODERN POTAWATOMI.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig51"> -<img src="images/p29b.jpg" alt="" width="620" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap">YOUNG FOLKS -IN ANCIENT DRESS.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_55">55</div> -<div class="img" id="fig52"> -<img src="images/p30.jpg" alt="" width="960" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">POTAWATOMI TAR-PAPERED SHACK.</p> -</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p30a.jpg" id="ncfig7" alt="uncaptioned" width="330" height="277" /> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig53"> -<img src="images/p30c.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="745" /> -<p class="pcap">CABIN TYPE OF ONEIDA HOUSE.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_56">56</div> -<div class="img" id="fig54"> -<img src="images/p30d.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="730" /> -<p class="pcap">BETTER TYPE OF ONEIDA HOUSE.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig55"> -<img src="images/p30e.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="610" /> -<p class="pcap">MENOMINI SAWMILL AT NEOPIT.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_57">57</div> -<h3 id="c7">LOCATION OF INDIAN TRIBES</h3> -<div class="img" id="fig56"> -<img src="images/p31.jpg" alt="" width="526" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">1634</span></p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>SANTEE SIOUX</dt> -<dt>MENOMINI</dt> -<dt>WINNEBAGO</dt></dl> -<div class="img" id="fig57"> -<img src="images/p31a.jpg" alt="" width="531" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">1634-1673</span></p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>OTTOWA</dt> -<dt>CHIPPEWA</dt> -<dt>SANTEE SIOUX</dt> -<dt>HURON</dt> -<dt>MENOMINI</dt> -<dt>SAUK</dt> -<dt>FOX</dt> -<dt>WINNEBAGO</dt> -<dt>POTAWATOMI</dt> -<dt>MASCOUTEN</dt> -<dt>MIAMI</dt> -<dt>KICKAPOO</dt> -<dt>ILLINOIS</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_58">58</div> -<div class="img" id="fig58"> -<img src="images/p31c.jpg" alt="" width="522" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">1700-1760</span></p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>CHIPPEWA</dt> -<dt>SANTEE SIOUX</dt> -<dt>MENOMINI</dt> -<dt>SAUK</dt> -<dt>FOX</dt> -<dt>WINNEBAGO</dt> -<dt>POTAWATOMI</dt> -<dt>KICKAPOO</dt></dl> -<div class="img" id="fig59"> -<img src="images/p31d.jpg" alt="" width="514" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">TODAY</span></p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dd>RED CLIFF RES.</dd> -<dd>LA POINTE RES.</dd> -<dt>CHIPPEWA</dt> -<dd>LAC DU FLAMBEAU RES.</dd> -<dt>POTAWATOMI</dt> -<dt>ST. CROIX BAND</dt> -<dd>LAC COURT OREILLES RES.</dd> -<dt>MENOMINI</dt> -<dd>STOCKBRIDGE</dd> -<dt>WINNEBAGO</dt> -<dd>ONEIDA</dd></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_59">59</div> -<h3 id="c8">POPULAR MILWAUKEE PUBLIC MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS</h3> -<div class="img" id="fig60"> -<img src="images/p32.jpg" alt="" width="434" height="500" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="rubric ss">PREHISTORIC INDIANS OF WISCONSIN</span></p> -</div> -<p>A well illustrated summary of what is -known about the Indians of Wisconsin previous -to the coming of the white man, -identifying such cultural divisions as the -Old Copper, Woodland, Hopewellian, Upper -Mississippi, and Middle Mississippi, -and discussing their products, ways of living, -history, and health. This instructive -booklet will be of interest to readers of -all ages. -<span class="lr">60 cents</span></p> -<div class="img" id="fig61"> -<img src="images/p32a.jpg" alt="" width="355" height="500" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="rubric ss">FOR BEAUTY’S SAKE</span></p> -</div> -<p>The Indians of the Americas -employed a wide variety -of beauty aids involving tatooing, -nose rings, ear plugs, -lip quills, skull deforming, lip -ornamentation, hair styles, -nose feathers, and head shaving, -all illustrated in this popularly -treated booklet. -<span class="lr">15 cents</span></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_60">60</div> -<div class="img" id="fig62"> -<img src="images/p32c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="598" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="rubric ss">MASKS OF NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS</span></p> -</div> -<p>Contains seventeen illustrations of masks, including illustrations -of the Iroquois false-face, Hopi Katchina, Apache -Devil Dance and other masks, with text telling how they -were made and used. -<span class="lr">15 cents</span></p> -<div class="img" id="fig63"> -<img src="images/p32d.jpg" alt="" width="390" height="500" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="rubric ss">INDIAN CRADLES</span></p> -</div> -<p>People have long been interested -in how the Indians cared -for and protected their babies. -This entertaining and instructive -booklet explains the use and -construction of cradles made by -the Kwakiutl, Hopi, Pomo, -Chippewa, Chinook, Paiute, and -Sioux Indians. Six different cradles -are illustrated showing a -variety of materials and styles, -including the head-deforming -cradle board. -<span class="lr">15 cents</span></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_61">61</div> -<div class="img" id="fig64"> -<img src="images/p33a.jpg" alt="" width="269" height="801" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="rubric ss">SHRUNKEN HEADS</span></p> -</div> -<p>How the Jivaro Indians of Eastern Ecuador -shrunk and preserved human heads has been a -fascinating story which is told in detail in this -generously illustrated, popular booklet. -<span class="lr">15 cents</span></p> -<div class="img" id="fig65"> -<img src="images/p33c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="554" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="rubric ss">WEST AFRICAN ART</span></p> -</div> -<p>A profusely illustrated eighty-four page booklet with popular and -reference value, covering such areas as the British Cameroons, Nigeria, -French Guinea, and the Gold and Ivory coasts. -<span class="lr">75 cents</span></p> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul> -<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li> -<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li> -<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li> -</ul> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDIANS IN WISCONSIN'S HISTORY ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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