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diff --git a/old/65193-0.txt b/old/65193-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d7a0b9a..0000000 --- a/old/65193-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4903 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Frozen North, by Edith Horton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Frozen North - An Account of Arctic Exploration for Use in Schools - -Author: Edith Horton - -Release Date: April 29, 2021 [eBook #65193] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Donald Cummings and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team - at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive/American - Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FROZEN NORTH *** - - -[Illustration: MAP OF THE NORTH POLAR REGIONS] - - - - - THE - FROZEN NORTH - - AN ACCOUNT OF ARCTIC - EXPLORATION FOR USE IN SCHOOLS - - BY - EDITH HORTON - - - _REVISED EDITION_ - - - D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS - BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO - - - - - COPYRIGHT 1904 AND 1911 - BY D. C. HEATH & COMPANY - - - - -PREFACE - - -While abundant material has been put before children with the purpose -of making them familiar with the history and industrial development -of various parts of the known world, very little has been written to -inform them of the work which is now being done in the comparatively -unknown regions of the north, or of the history of the early -discoveries which have led to it. - -The importance of the present determined search for the North Pole is -admitted by all thoughtful people, and the subject is one which must -increase in interest until the entire North Frigid Zone is correctly -mapped and charted. - -Accounts of the pioneers in this work of discovery, of Franklin and of -Kane, and in our own day of Nansen and Peary, are available only in -such exhaustive works as are unsuitable reading for children, and which -sometimes tax the patience of the adult. Hence the work done by these -intrepid explorers upon the American continent and north of it remains -unstudied and unknown. - -It is hoped that this book may give our young people sufficient -knowledge of the subject to enable them to read farther with -intelligence, and that it may also inspire them with interest in the -many expeditions that are being sent out. - -The descriptions of the strange people who inhabit these cold -countries, their dress, their ways of living, their customs, and their -manners, all interest the child, and meet his natural desire to hear -about other people than those living in the part of the world about him. - -No complete history has been attempted, but rather a series of -sketches which, it is hoped, will enable the reader to appreciate the -achievements of the brave men who have lent and are lending their best -efforts to the task of unlocking and wresting from the Frozen North, -the secrets so necessary for the advancement of science. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - I. INTRODUCTION 1 - II. SIR JOHN FRANKLIN. 1818 9 - III. FRANKLIN’S FIRST LAND JOURNEY. 1819–1821 14 - IV. FRANKLIN’S SECOND LAND JOURNEY. 1825–1827 21 - V. THE _EREBUS_ AND THE _TERROR_. 1845 25 - VI. ELISHA KENT KANE. 1853 32 - VII. WINTER IN RENSSELAER HARBOR. 1853–1854 36 - VIII. THE ESKIMOS. 1854 40 - IX. HUNTING IN THE ICY NORTH 45 - X. HOME AGAIN. 1855 51 - XI. NORDENSKJÖLD AND THE NORTHEAST PASSAGE. 1878–1879 59 - XII. VOYAGE OF THE _JEANNETTE_. 1879–1881 72 - XIII. GREELY IN GRINNELL LAND. 1881–1883 81 - XIV. FARTHEST NORTH OF THE GREELY PARTY. 1882 87 - XV. LIEUTENANT SCHWATKA IN ALASKA. 1883 94 - XVI. NANSEN CROSSES GREENLAND. 1888 104 - XVII. THE VOYAGE OF THE _FRAM_. 1893–1896 122 - XVIII. PEARY CROSSES GREENLAND. 1891–1897 133 - XIX. ANDRÉE’S BALLOON EXPEDITION TO THE POLE. 1897 149 - XX. EXPEDITIONS OF 1902 154 - XXI. DISCOVERY OF THE NORTH POLE BY ROBERT E. PEARY. 1909 158 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Map of the North Polar Regions - - The Aurora Borealis - - Sebastian Cabot - - The Earth on June 21 - - The Earth on December 21 - - Daily Motion of the Heavens as seen at the North Pole - - Daily Motion of the Heavens as seen at the Equator - - The Midnight Sun - - The Change of Seasons - - Sir John Franklin - - Glacier, English Bay, Spitzbergen - - A Ship in the Ice Pack - - Icebergs in the Polar Sea - - A Post of the Hudson Bay Company - - In Winter Quarters - - Relics of the Franklin Expedition - - Elisha Kent Kane - - Fiskernaes, Greenland - - An Eskimo Dog Team - - Eskimos and their Dogs - - Interior of an Eskimo Hut - - A Walrus Hunt - - A Herd of Seals - - Polar Bears - - Traveling over the Ice Hummocks - - Dragging the Boats over the Ice Floes - - Upernavik, Greenland - - A Greenlander in his Kayak - - Samoyed Huts in Summer - - A Samoyed Family in Winter Costume - - The “Vega” firing a Salute at Cape Tcheliuskin, the Most Northern - Point of the Old World - - Tchuktche and Reindeer - - Tchuktche Man and Woman - - Hunting Reindeer - - The “Jeannette” in the Ice Pack - - Bird Cliffs - - Musk Ox - - An Arctic Snowstorm - - Sitka, Alaska, in 1880 - - Crossing the Coast Range - - Tanana Station, River Yukon, in Winter - - The Raft on which a Journey of Thirteen Hundred and Three Miles - was made - - A Man on Ski - - Fridtjof Nansen - - A Herd of Reindeer - - Nansen’s Camp on the Drift Ice - - A Group of Greenland Eskimos - - A View in the Interior of Greenland - - Sledging across Greenland - - Skating off the Coast of Greenland - - The Launching of the “Fram” - - Boat attacked by Walrus - - Nansen and Johansen leaving the “Fram” - - Setting Fox Traps - - Red Cliff House after the Storm - - Godthaab - - The “Tent” Meteorite - - Andrée begins his Journey - - Peary in Arctic Costume - - Moonlight in the Arctic Regions - - Eskimo Dogs - - - - -[Illustration: THE AURORA BOREALIS.] - - - - -THE FROZEN NORTH - - - - -I. INTRODUCTION - - -The north polar regions lie within the Arctic circle, and at their -center is the North Pole. The distance from the circle to the pole is -more than fourteen hundred miles. Intense cold and the hardships of ice -navigation have made the discovery and exploration of this region very -slow and hazardous. - -It is believed that Norsemen from Norway and Sweden, after colonizing -Iceland, made settlements on the Greenland coast and carried their seal -hunting beyond the Arctic circle, far into the polar regions. But in -1347 a plague broke out in Norway, and the people forgot their far-off -colonies. For more than a hundred years after this no attempt was made -to enter the Arctic circle. - -It is a singular fact that the famous voyage of Columbus in 1492, -although made toward the south, should have influenced to some extent -discovery in the north polar regions. After Columbus had really proved -that the earth was round, navigators believed that by sailing westward -far enough they might reach the rich lands of India and Cathay (China). - -The only route then known from Europe to India was through the -Mediterranean Sea. At Constantinople, the cargoes of metals, woods, -and pitch were unloaded and sent on by caravan to the East, while -returning caravans brought silks, dyewoods, spices, perfumes, precious -stones, ivory, and pearls, to be shipped from Constantinople. - -When the Turks, through whose country the merchants passed, began to -realize how valuable the Eastern trade was, they sent bands of robbers -to seize the caravans, making traffic by this route more difficult and -more dangerous as time went on; so that European merchants tried to -find some other way of reaching that part of the world. - -[Illustration: SEBASTIAN CABOT.] - -John and Sebastian Cabot, two English navigators, set out in 1497 to -sail westward, but finding their way blocked by the American continent, -they returned. In 1498 Sebastian Cabot made a second voyage, with -the object of finding a passage north of America which would lead to -the Spice Islands and rich Cathay. In this way the long hunt for the -northwest passage was begun. - -The Cabots did not find the northwest passage; and though many voyages -were made in search of it by other navigators during the fifteenth and -sixteenth centuries, nobody met with success. The severe cold, added to -the difficulties of a voyage through the ice of ages, prevented further -investigation in that direction for some time. - -Meanwhile, the Spanish and the Portuguese had been active in seeking -for southern routes to the East, and had discovered two,――one around -the Cape of Good Hope and one through the Strait of Magellan. They -guarded these waterways jealously, and would not allow the ships of -other nations to pass. Thus they succeeded in controlling all the rich -Eastern trade, and were growing very wealthy and powerful. - -The English and the Dutch, who were also anxious to obtain a share -of the rich commerce with the East, saw the importance of finding a -northern route to India; consequently they experimented by sailing -northeast along the coast of Europe and Asia. The route which they -sought was known as the northeast passage. - -England sent out the first expedition in 1553, but the severity of the -weather prevented the ships from making much progress. Several other -vain attempts were made by the English, and then the Dutch took up the -work; but they failed, too, and for a time the search for northern -passages to the Indies was abandoned. - -[Illustration: THE EARTH ON JUNE 21.] - -The total absence of the sun from the Arctic regions during a large -part of each year makes the climate severe and the country desolate. -Direct sun rays are necessary to insure warmth, and the regions within -the Arctic circle receive at the best only slanting rays. - -[Illustration: THE EARTH ON DECEMBER 21.] - -In the temperate zones the sun is never exactly overhead. For people -who live within the tropics it is overhead twice every year. At all -places along the equator the sun is overhead at noon on the 21st of -March. Each day after, it comes overhead at noon at places farther -north, until the 21st of June, when it is overhead at the tropic -of Cancer. After this the sun appears to turn and go south, and on -September 22 it is again overhead at noon at the equator. The sun then -continues to move southward each day until December 21, when it is -overhead at the tropic of Capricorn. And so it goes back and forth the -year round. - -While the sun is north of the equator, there is constant day somewhere -within the Arctic circle; when the sun is south of the equator, there -is constant night somewhere within the Arctic circle. The farther a -region is from the equator, the longer are the days and nights at -different seasons of the year. At the pole there is a night of six -months and a day of six months. The night is sometimes lighted by the -moon and sometimes by the aurora borealis. - -[Illustration: DAILY MOTION OF THE HEAVENS AS SEEN AT THE NORTH POLE.] - -There are but two seasons in the Arctic regions――a long, cold winter -and a short, dry summer. It is during the summer that the explorers do -their work. Throughout the dark winter they can do nothing. Even in the -summer, navigators meet with many perils, for Arctic navigation is not -an easy matter. Besides the danger that the vessel may be frozen in an -ice pack, or crushed between icebergs, the navigator is often blinded -by fogs and snows, and has to face unknown tides and currents. - -[Illustration: DAILY MOTION OF THE HEAVENS AS SEEN AT THE EQUATOR.] - -The vegetation within the Arctic circle is scanty. During the summer -the bright, warm sun causes the plants to spring up and grow rapidly. -Willows, dwarf birches, and rush grasses are plentiful in some -localities. In southern Greenland, and in some sheltered places along -its western coast, yellow poppies and dandelions grow. Farther north -only mosses and lichens are to be found, and beyond the moss line there -is no trace of vegetation. - -Nevertheless there are plenty of animals in this land of ice and snow. -The polar bear, Arctic fox, blue fox, wolf, ermine, reindeer, and -musk ox are plentiful. Seals and walruses come out of the water upon -the ice, during the summer, to enjoy the sun, and thousands of snow -buntings, auks, and eider ducks visit the shores of the cold seas to -build their nests and catch food. When the summer of three months is -over, nearly all outward signs of animal and vegetable life disappear -and the entire landscape becomes a dreary, white expanse. - -The inhabitants of this cold land are called Eskimos. They find it -hard to get a living, and their dwellings are of the rudest and most -primitive sort. Many of the tribes move from place to place, building -their snow huts wherever game is most plentiful, but never going far -inland, because fish forms a large part of their food. The Eskimos do -not mind the bitter weather. They are quite accustomed to a temperature -of 50° below zero. - -Within the Arctic circle are two principal areas of great cold, one in -North America and one in Siberia. The mildest winters are at Bering -strait and in the Spitzbergen Sea, where there is usually open water. -The former is affected by the warm Japan Current and the latter by the -Gulf Stream. - -We have as yet learned but little about the icy North. Nearly three -million square miles of our earth lie within the Arctic circle and are -unknown to-day. Much more information must be gained before man can -hope to understand the physical laws of this mysterious region. - -[Illustration: THE MIDNIGHT SUN.] - -For a century and a half after the sailing ships of the sixteenth -century had failed to find the northern passages to the East, little -was done in the way of Arctic exploration. The whale and cod fishers -were the only navigators who ventured into the frozen seas. These -fishermen carried on a profitable business in fish and oil. One of -them, a Scotch whaler named William Scoresby, succeeded in driving his -ship as far north as latitude 81° 12ʹ 42ʺ. He spent all the time that -he could spare on this voyage in collecting information about this -unknown part of the earth, and on his return to England, he told such -wonderful stories that the English people became once more interested -in the frozen North. - -Accordingly, in 1815, after England’s wars with the United States and -France were over, the government offered a reward of £20,000 to any one -who would make the northwest passage, and a reward of £5000 to any one -who would reach 89° north latitude. This offer of prize money stirred -the adventurous blood of seafaring men. In 1818 two expeditions were -sent out, and others quickly followed. - -The vast area of unexplored space within the Arctic circle stimulated -men’s imaginations almost as much as the Western world beyond the -Atlantic had done in the days of Columbus. Many a brave sailor was -ready to undertake the difficult work. Famous among those who did -valuable service was Sir John Franklin. - -[Illustration: THE CHANGE OF SEASONS.] - - - - -II. SIR JOHN FRANKLIN - -1818 - - -Sir John Franklin was one of the greatest explorers the world has ever -known. We owe to him most of our knowledge of the northern coast of -America and of the far North. - -[Illustration: SIR JOHN FRANKLIN.] - -Franklin was born in 1786 at Spilsby, a small town in Lincolnshire, -England, about ten miles from the coast. As a boy, he one day visited -the seaside, which so delighted him that he then and there made up his -mind to be a sailor. - -Franklin’s parents wished him to become a clergyman, and in the hope of -curing him of his new passion, they sent him on a trial voyage. This -plan did not succeed, for the young man learned to love the sea so much -that at last the father yielded to his son’s desire, and obtained a -position for him in the Royal Navy. While in the navy, John Franklin -took part in several of the hardest naval battles the English ever -fought. He made a brilliant record as a fearless sailor and a wise and -determined leader. - -After the wars were over, Franklin began the study of science. But land -life was dull for him, and he longed for the dangers and excitement of -the sea. When word came that he had been chosen by the government to go -in search of the North Pole, he was unspeakably happy. Soon two strong -vessels were ready for the voyage. The command of the _Dorothea_ was -given to Captain Buchan, while Franklin, with the rank of lieutenant, -was put in command of the _Trent_. Their orders were to proceed -northward between the islands of Spitzbergen and Greenland, and if -they found the sea free from ice, to push ahead directly for the North -Pole. Should they succeed in finding the pole, they were, if possible, -to return by way of Bering strait, and thus prove the existence of a -northwest passage. - -[Illustration: GLACIER, ENGLISH BAY, SPITZBERGEN.] - -The ships sailed out of the Thames river April 25, 1818. On May 10 they -crossed the Arctic circle, and Franklin beheld for the first time -the grand spectacle of the midnight sun. Shortly after the ships had -crossed the circle, a terrible gale arose. The weather was bitterly -cold, the snow came down fast, blinding the eyes of the sailors, and -ice covered the brigs from bow to stern. Every time the bows came up -out of the water a fresh layer of ice was formed upon them, and the -vessels became so heavy that the sailors were obliged to chop the ice -away with axes. The ropes also were frozen over, and in order to keep -them ready for instant use, the sailors had continually to beat off the -ice with sticks. The ice pack extended on all sides as far as the eye -could reach, and little by little it closed around the ships. - -[Illustration: A SHIP IN THE ICE PACK.] - -Notwithstanding this, they managed to enter a bay on the coast of -Spitzbergen, where Captain Buchan decided to remain until the pack -should break up. Neither officers nor men were idle while at anchor in -this bay. Some surveyed the harbor and made a map of it, while others -measured the depth of the water with instruments which they had brought -for that purpose. The magnetic needle was closely watched, and all its -changes noted. Many went hunting and supplied the crew with meat of the -seal and walrus. Meantime a close watch was kept upon the ice pack. - -Franklin learned to like the rugged Arctic scenery. Close to the shores -of Spitzbergen were long, snow-covered valleys and high mountains, and -between the mountains stood immense glaciers, glistening in the bright -sunlight which had so little power to melt their surfaces. - -One day Buchan and Franklin were in a small boat at the foot of a -glacier. Suddenly they heard a noise like the report of a great cannon, -and looking up, they saw a portion of the glacier sliding down the -mountain side. This great mass of ice made a grinding noise as it went, -and streams of water flowed after it. At length it plunged into the sea -and disappeared from view. The water was greatly disturbed and covered -with foam. In a few moments the huge piece of ice rose to the surface -and surged up to a great height above the sea. Then Franklin and his -companion knew how icebergs are formed. This one was a quarter of a -mile around, and rose sixty feet above the water. It must have weighed -millions of tons. - -[Illustration: ICEBERGS IN THE POLAR SEA.] - -Franklin was now more anxious than ever to get to the pole. He knew -that thousands of years ago a part of America and Europe was covered -with ice just as the Arctic regions now are, and he felt sure that if -he remained long enough in this land he would be able to explain many -things heretofore unknown, in regard to climate, soil, tides, and winds. - -Soon the ships, headed toward the north, put to sea again, but a -furious gale arose, and they were once more caught in the ice pack. -When the wind went down, the _Dorothea_ was so badly damaged as to -be almost unseaworthy, and Captain Buchan decided to turn back. The -_Trent_ also had been injured, but Franklin tried hard to induce -Captain Buchan to allow him to go northward alone. Captain Buchan -refused, and both vessels accordingly returned to England, where they -arrived safely on October 12, 1818. We must not regard this expedition -as a failure, even though the pole remained undiscovered, for Franklin -had gained the experience which later enabled him to accomplish -valuable geographical work in the Arctic regions. - - - - -III. FRANKLIN’S FIRST LAND JOURNEY - -1819–1821 - - -The next year the British government again decided to send two ships -northward. One of these ships was put in command of Lieutenant Parry -and was ordered to Lancaster sound. From this place Parry was told -to sail westward and seek the northwest passage. He did not find the -northwest passage, but he succeeded in sailing inside of the Arctic -circle farther west than any one had gone before. For this achievement -he received a prize of £5000 from the government and on his return to -England was highly honored. - -The other expedition was put in command of Sir John Franklin, who, -together with four companions, was to proceed to Hudson bay on one -of the ships belonging to the Hudson Bay Company. From Hudson bay, -Franklin was to make a land journey by means of sledges and canoes -across the northern part of North America, to the mouth of the -Coppermine river. From this point, he was to turn and follow the coast -of North America east. The latitude and longitude of various places -were to be noted, maps to be drawn, and capes, bays, and rivers located -and surveyed. - -At this time that part of North America which borders on the Arctic -ocean had never been explored. Only two white men, employees of the -Hudson Bay Company, had ever looked upon this ocean from the continent -of North America. The first, Samuel Hearne, traveled northward with -the Indians in 1770, and reached the mouth of a large river which was -named the Coppermine, because the Indians said that large mines of -copper were to be found along its banks. - -The second explorer, Alexander Mackenzie, in 1789 traced to its mouth -the river which now bears his name. With the exception of these two -river mouths, the entire northern coast of North America was unknown. -The map which is to-day covered with names of places, was then a blank. - -This was the region which Franklin was to explore. Many men would dread -such a journey, but Franklin liked it because of the very dangers -involved. Dr. John Richardson, midshipmen Robert Hood and George Back, -and a seaman, John Hepburn, were selected to go with Franklin on this -trip; they were well chosen, for they were worthy companions of the -young leader. On May 23, 1819, he and his men sailed on the _Prince of -Wales_ for the Arctic land. The voyage was long and stormy; several -times it seemed likely that the _Prince of Wales_ would never touch -land again, but at the end of three months she anchored off York -Factory, on the southern shore of Hudson bay, one of the posts built -by the Hudson Bay Company for the purpose of trading in furs with the -Indians. - -The people at York Factory received Franklin and his companions kindly -and helped them all they could. They gave Franklin a boat for his -journey through the lakes and rivers on his way to the sea. The same -sort of boat is still in use in that region and is called a York boat. -It is forty feet in length, narrow, light, and sharp at both ends. -About ten men can manage it. When on lakes or traveling down streams -the men use oars, but when traveling against the current of a river -they run alongshore and drag the boat after them. This long and narrow -boat is well suited for shooting rapids, through which it is guided -by means of long poles. Sometimes the rapids are so swift that they -cannot be navigated, and falls are often encountered. Then the cargoes -are taken out of the boats and carried around the rapids or falls, and -afterward the boats also are carried around. Such a place is called a -portage. - -The officers of the Hudson Bay Company, besides giving Franklin a boat, -sent word to other trading posts throughout the country, to look out -for him and to help him. The party, having secured boats and stores, -started from York Factory to continue their journey. After traveling -seven hundred miles, they reached another post called Cumberland House, -where Franklin expected to find guides and hunters, but every one -refused to undertake a journey so full of peril. - -[Illustration: A POST OF THE HUDSON BAY COMPANY.] - -Franklin, though disappointed, was not discouraged. He left two men at -Cumberland House to wait for supplies and to bring them on. Then, with -Back and Hepburn, he started out with dog sledges for another trading -post on Lake Athabasca. This journey was begun on January 18, 1820, in -the middle of an Arctic winter of prolonged darkness. The suffering -of these three explorers cannot be described. The temperature fell as -low as 38° below zero, blizzards were common, and the party nearly -perished. On some days the mercury froze in the thermometers, and the -tea froze in the tin pots before it could be drunk. - -At Lake Athabasca Franklin was joined by the men he had left at -Cumberland House. They had secured some provisions, and now the entire -party proceeded down the Slave river to Great Slave lake. They reached -Fort Providence, on the northern end of the lake, during the latter -part of July, and in a few days the little company departed in four -canoes, steering northward into a country which had never before been -visited by white men. - -Soon Franklin met seventeen canoes filled with Indians, who had -promised to go part of the way with him and hunt game for his party. -They all proceeded together through a chain of lakes to Winter lake, -where they decided to pass the winter. Here they built a house which -they called Fort Enterprise, and from this place they made short trips -to explore the country northward. One of the exploring parties reached -the source of the Coppermine river. - -At first game was plentiful at Fort Enterprise, but as winter advanced -the reindeer left the place, provisions became scarce, and ammunition -was very low. Back offered to return to Lake Athabasca for supplies, -and Franklin allowed him to go. He left the party in November, and they -did not see him again until March. He had made a journey of eleven -hundred miles on snowshoes, sleeping in the shelter of drifts, wrapped -in a blanket and a deerskin, and had sometimes been forced to go -without food for two or three days. But he had saved the party. - -When spring came, Franklin and his company started northward again -with two large canoes and several sledges. They must have “made a -record” for slow travel, for each man had to carry or drag a load of -one hundred and eighty pounds, probably more than the weight of any one -of them. At the Coppermine they launched their canoes, and were soon -shooting dangerous rapids, and carrying their boats over the portages. -Franklin did not stop to search for copper; he had other aims. - -On July 18, 1821, the party reached the mouth of the Coppermine and -camped on the shore of the Arctic ocean. It was a cold place for a -camp, but the men were so delighted to reach this point that they did -not complain of the temperature. - -Franklin here paid a tribute to famous travelers, and to some of his -old friends, by naming the capes and bays after them. This might be -called a cold compliment, but doubtless the favored ones appreciated it. - -The great ocean must have seemed to these men the end of their journey, -yet it was only the beginning. On July 21 the canoes were launched and -one of the most daring voyages of exploration was begun that has ever -been attempted. Canoes built for use only on lakes and rivers had now -to battle with rough waters filled with ice. For several weeks Franklin -kept on his perilous way eastward, discovering new islands, bays, and -capes. - -As freezing weather had already set in, and the provisions showed signs -of giving out, Franklin decided to return to Fort Enterprise and spend -the winter there, hoping to continue his work along the coast the next -summer. - -He named the place where he decided to return Point Turnagain. The -distance from the Coppermine to Point Turnagain is five hundred and -fifty miles, and all that length of coast was traversed and charted by -Franklin’s company. - -It was decided to go back to Fort Enterprise by way of the Hood river, -because that route was thought easier than the other; it proved to be -more difficult. Much of the journey had to be made on foot over a stony -country. The men were loaded down with boats, tents, and blankets, and, -worst of all, the provisions gave out. All that the adventurers could -find to eat was a kind of lichen, which grew like moss on the rocks. -Often the men were wet to their waists from having to ford streams and -tramp through swamps. - -After a time they became so weak and footsore that they could scarcely -walk, and when at last they reached Fort Enterprise they found it -deserted. The Indians who had promised Franklin to remain and stock the -place with food for him, had abandoned the fort. This was a terrible -blow. Those of the party who were able to walk, started out to search -for the Indians, while the rest remained in the hut, expecting death -every moment. While these men sat waiting, they saw a herd of reindeer -pass close to the hut. Not a man was strong enough to stand and shoot, -and the deer passed undisturbed. At last some Indians arrived. They -brought plenty of venison with them, and they stayed with the white men -and nursed them back to health. - -When the sick men were able to travel, the party started again for -Hudson bay. They succeeded in reaching Moose Deer island, and there, -under the care of the Hudson bay officials, Franklin and his followers -grew well and strong. - -When they came again to York Factory, Franklin and his men had traveled -5550 geographical miles and explored thousands of miles of country -never before visited by civilized men. This journey is one of the -most remarkable in history. Only men of the highest courage and the -strongest determination could have accomplished it. - -When Franklin reached England his countrymen bestowed upon him honors -of all sorts. He was promoted to the rank of captain, and made Fellow -of the Royal Geographical Society. - - - - -IV. FRANKLIN’S SECOND LAND JOURNEY - -1825–1827 - - -After Franklin had been at home about two years, he began to feel -restless and to long for action. About this time the English government -decided to send Parry, for the third time, in search of the northwest -sea passage. - -Franklin advised that another land party be sent at the same time -to the mouth of the Mackenzie. There, he thought, the party should -divide, one branch of it to explore the coast of North America east to -the Coppermine river, the other to go westward to Icy cape. Then the -entire northern coast of North America would have been covered, and -the land party might meet and assist Parry. The government decided to -adopt Franklin’s plan, and when he begged to be allowed to command this -expedition, granted his request, and more than this, permitted him to -make all arrangements for the expedition. He first ordered three boats -to be built which should be suitable for travel on both rivers and -lakes, as well as on the Arctic ocean. They must combine light weight -with great strength. In 1824 Franklin sent these boats, filled with -stores and provisions, to Great Bear lake in charge of the Hudson Bay -Company; and on February 16, 1825, he and his officers sailed. - -They traveled through the United States and Canada to Great Bear lake, -where they halted for a few days for the purpose of bargaining with -the Indians for supplies of food during the winter. Then the party -embarked in canoes and steered for the Mackenzie river. - -As the Mackenzie is broad and smooth and without rapids, they quickly -reached Fort Norman, the most northern Hudson bay post on the river. -It was now early in August, and only a few weeks were left in which to -build winter quarters and to lay in a stock of provisions. A place on -Great Bear lake was chosen for their village, and Lieutenant Back was -given charge of the work of preparation. - -Meanwhile Franklin pushed on to the mouth of the Mackenzie. He wished -to examine the coast so that he might know just what was needed for -travel along that route when spring should come. He found it was an -easy journey in his new boat, and when he came to the sea he saw to his -joy that it was free from ice and full of seals and whales. When he -had made himself acquainted with the character of the coast around the -mouth of the river, he returned to the camp on Great Bear lake. - -He found that during his absence his companions had named the post Fort -Franklin in his honor, and very comfortable arrangements had been made -for the winter. Three houses were ready, one for the officers, one for -the seamen and Indians, and one for supplies. There were now fifty -persons in the party: five officers, nineteen seamen, nine Canadians, -two Eskimos, and the rest Indians, including men, women, and children. -They were a mixed company, truly, but they passed the season pleasantly -together. The officers worked hard collecting important facts about the -water, ice, animals, mosses, weather, and sky. They also took charge of -a school, which Franklin insisted upon maintaining for the Indians and -the Eskimos. Attendance at this school was compulsory, and you may be -sure all the pupils preferred hunting and fishing. The seamen turned -carpenters and built boats. - -No one was sorry when spring came and the journey could be continued. -On June 24, 1826, the company divided into two parties and started down -the Mackenzie river. At the mouth of the river they separated; one -party under command of Franklin proceeded to the west, the other party -under Dr. Richardson, to the east. Each had provisions enough to last -from eighty to one hundred days. - -Franklin and his men soon fell in with an Eskimo tribe numbering about -three hundred. These Eskimos proved themselves such thieves that -it seemed likely that they might presently murder Franklin and his -companions and take all they had. Lieutenant Back ordered the men in -his boat to point their muskets at the Eskimos; whereupon they ran away -and left the white men in peace. - -The journey along the coast was made through blocks of ice, heavy fogs, -and high winds, with a temperature often below freezing. Yet this was -midsummer! - -But the party kept bravely on their way, taking observations of the -sun, watching the magnetic needle of the compass, studying tides, -stones, plants, and animals. Among the greatest hardships that the men -suffered were attacks from swarms of mosquitoes; they dreaded these -more than cold or ice packs. - -After three hundred and seventy-four miles of coast had been explored, -Franklin decided that if he continued the journey, he would not have -enough provisions. They had made half the distance between the mouth of -the Mackenzie river and Icy cape. To the most western point visited, -they gave the name Beechey point. On returning to Fort Franklin they -found that the other party, led by Dr. Richardson, had also made a -successful journey, having explored eight hundred and sixty-three miles -of coast line between the mouth of the Mackenzie and the mouth of the -Coppermine, and traveled nineteen hundred and eighty[1] geographical -miles. - -[1] Franklin’s own book gives 1989 miles. Greely’s Hand Book gives 1709 -miles. - -The success of these two explorations put the company in good spirits, -and the following winter of 1826 was passed pleasantly at Fort -Franklin. Franklin started for home in February, and reached England -September 26, 1827, after an absence of two years and seven months. - -Two months after his arrival he married Jane, daughter of John Griffin, -Esq. This lady, Franklin’s second wife, was a very remarkable woman, of -whom we shall hear more. - -All England was delighted with the results of this second land journey. -Franklin and Richardson together had surveyed 37° of longitude along -the Arctic shore of North America. The coast from the mouth of the -Coppermine westward to Beechey point had been proved to be open for -navigation, while from Beechey point to Icy cape it was undoubtedly -open. - -To complete a northwest passage it was only needful to find a gap -to the eastward, connecting this pathway for ships with the older -discoveries on the Atlantic side. Over one thousand miles of American -coast had been explored, maps and charts had been made, and knowledge -in all branches of science had been increased. - -The honor of knighthood was conferred upon Captain Franklin, who was -afterward to be known as Sir John Franklin. Parry’s expedition in -search of the northwest passage had been unsuccessful. - - - - -V. THE _EREBUS_ AND THE _TERROR_ - -1845 - - -At this time, 1827, England, under the rule of George IV, was occupied -with her own troubles. The disputes between Catholics and Protestants -engaged the attention of the English people so that interest in -exploration waned. After a short rest at home, Sir John Franklin was -sent in command of her Majesty’s ship, _Rainbow_, to the Mediterranean -sea. The Greek war of independence was closing, and Franklin -distinguished himself by the judgment and skill he showed in following -out the work intrusted to him. - -Upon his return to England, Franklin was offered the position of -Governor of Tasmania, which he accepted, remaining there seven years. -When he returned again to England in 1842, he found people once more -interested in the discovery of the northwest passage. It was eighteen -years since Franklin had returned from the icy North, but the northwest -passage had not been found. During those years several expeditions -had been at work in the northern part of North America and along -the northern coast, thus broadening and increasing the geographical -knowledge of the country first entered by Franklin. But the mystery of -the northwest passage still stirred men’s imaginations, and the Royal -Geographical Society decided to send out another expedition in search -of it. The command of this expedition was offered to Sir John Franklin. - -Some people thought that Franklin ought not to go again to the -northern land. These people told him that he had already done enough -for his country, having risked his life three times, and made more -discoveries in that region than any other man. They reminded him that -he was now sixty years of age, and ought to be willing to remain at -home and let a younger man undertake this hard and dangerous journey. - -But Franklin rejoiced at the thought of seeing the far North again. -He declared that he was only fifty-nine years of age, and that the -discovery of the northwest passage was the object nearest his heart. -Two ships, called the _Erebus_ and the _Terror_, were given Franklin -for this voyage. These ships, propelled by steam screws, were the first -vessels of the kind ever used in the Arctic seas. It was thought that -the use of the steam screw instead of the paddle wheel would prove -of great value to navigators in seas where ice packs and heavy gales -were constantly to be feared. Great results, then, were expected from -the expedition fitted out in this improved manner. Franklin himself -took command of the _Erebus_, while Captain Crozier was given command -of the _Terror_. Sufficient provisions were put aboard the vessels to -provide for an absence of three years, and nothing was left undone that -promised to insure the safety and success of the expedition, or to -promote the health and comfort of the explorers. - -The ships sailed from England on May 19, 1845. The men were in good -spirits and hopeful. They sailed north toward Lancaster sound, and on -the 26th of July, 1845, a whaling vessel, called the _Prince of Wales_, -sighted them in Melville bay, stuck fast in the ice. The captain of -the whaler received a visit from some of the exploring party, and was -invited to dine with Franklin, but a breeze sprang up suddenly, and the -ships parted company. - -That was the last time the _Erebus_ and the _Terror_, or any of the men -aboard those vessels, were ever seen. They appeared to have dropped off -the face of the earth. - -When the _Erebus_ and _Terror_ had been absent two years, and no news -of them had been heard, many expeditions were sent out to hunt for -them. Some traces of the ships were discovered, and it is believed that -the vessels sailed northward through Lancaster sound to Beechey island, -where they wintered (1845–1846). On this island were found the graves -of two seamen marked with headboards showing the date of their death. - -[Illustration: IN WINTER QUARTERS.] - -It is thought that when spring came, the ships were released from the -ice and proceeded southward toward King William’s Land. While near to -King William’s Land the vessels were probably again caught in the pack. -The second winter, with its long, dark night, bitter cold, and absence -of proper food, must have been a gloomy one for these poor men. - -If they were still alive when spring came, how they must have hoped -each day for the freeing of the ships! As the days passed and spring -grew to summer, summer to autumn, yet with no prospect of release from -the cruel pack, the situation became hopeless and intolerable. - -All this misery came upon them with greater force because success -was so near. Franklin knew that a distance of but one hundred miles -separated him from the object of his search. Almost within reach of the -goal, here he was, locked in! - -Though the ice did not break up, yet during the spring (May 24, 1847) -Franklin sent a party under the command of Lieutenant Graham Gore to -explore King William’s Land. This party reached Cape Herschel, a point -on the southern coast of King William’s Land, and in the distance saw -the continent of North America. - -A navigable passage was known to exist along the northern coast of -America from Boothia to Bering strait. Franklin himself and Richardson -had discovered and surveyed the greater part of this extent of country. - -Franklin had succeeded in reaching King William’s Land by entering the -Arctic from the Atlantic. Thus the discovery of the northwest passage -was reduced to the finding of a link which should connect these two -known waterways. This link was found by Graham Gore, when from Cape -Herschel he saw the American coast across a narrow channel of water. -So the credit of the discovery of the northwest passage must be given -to Franklin. Had it not been for the fact that his ships were beset in -the ice, Franklin would, without doubt, have sailed in 1846 from the -Atlantic to the Pacific along the northern coast of North America. - -As it was, Lieutenant Gore’s discovery connected the two known -passages and established the fact that an open waterway existed. Gore -wrote a brief record of what his party had accomplished and left it on -the island, where it was found years later by men who were searching -for Franklin; but neither Franklin nor any of his heroic band lived to -tell in person the news of the discovery. - -When Gore returned to the _Erebus_ he found Sir John very ill. He -probably came in time to inform Franklin that the northwest passage had -really been discovered. Let us hope so. Franklin passed peacefully away -June 11, 1847. He had lived a good life and left a glorious name behind -him. - -Captain Crozier of the _Terror_ now took command of the expedition. -The prospect of a third winter in the ice made the bravest of the -men shrink, but it was too late in the season for them to leave the -ships. To do so would have been certain death. It is best not to try to -picture the misery of the third winter. - -In the spring of 1848 there were one hundred and five men still living. -These half-starved creatures decided to leave the ships and travel by -sledges to the North American coast, where they hoped to meet some -Indians who would give them food and guide them to the Hudson Bay -settlements. Their dreadful march has been traced along the western -coast of King William’s Land, and perhaps a few of the party reached -the southern end of that island. - -A number of Eskimos saw and camped with some of them, but would not -remain, fearing that there was not sufficient food for all. There is no -doubt that food gave out entirely, and that the men died of starvation. -Many years later an old Eskimo woman reported having seen a party of -white men traveling to the south. She said, “They fell down and died -as they walked along.” It is inspiring to think of the heroism of -these brave men who discovered the northwest passage. Their patience, -perseverance, and devotion to their work deserve our highest admiration. - -In 1847, when, after two years of waiting, no news of the _Erebus_ -or the _Terror_ came to England, great anxiety was aroused and many -searching expeditions were sent out. Lady Franklin offered a reward -of £2000 to any one who would bring her news of her husband or his -companions. Her courage and her determined efforts to trace the -lost vessels aroused the sympathy of the world. Lady Franklin spent -her entire private means in the search, and it is largely owing -to her efforts that we have any knowledge at all of her husband’s -accomplishment and of his final fate. - -The English government also offered a large reward to any one who -would find the lost ships or crews. In the autumn of 1850 there were -fifteen vessels in the Arctic ocean, hunting for Franklin and his -ships. America joined England in the search, and as a result the Arctic -regions became far better known than ever before. - -Several of these expeditions discovered traces of Franklin. McClintock -found the most important records. He erected on Beechey island a marble -slab which was sent out by Lady Franklin in memory of her husband and -his brave companions. - -[Illustration: RELICS OF THE FRANKLIN EXPEDITION.] - -If you should go to London, you would find in Waterloo Place another -monument erected to the memory of Franklin. There is still another -at his home in Spilsby. Lady Franklin also erected a monument to her -husband in Westminster Abbey. - -Although Sir John Franklin deserves the credit of the discovery of the -northwest passage, the first man who passed through this passage from -the Pacific to the Atlantic was Sir Robert McClure, who made the voyage -in 1854. McClure was sent to search for Franklin, and entered the -Arctic ocean through Bering strait. Being obliged to abandon his ship, -he, together with his crew, crossed the ice of Barrow strait by sledge, -where a relief party met them. This was the first and only expedition -that ever made the northwest passage, which, for purposes of trade, is -useless. - - - - -VI. ELISHA KENT KANE - -1853 - - -One of the most famous efforts to find Sir John Franklin was made by an -American, Mr. Henry Grinnell, of New York City. From his own private -means he furnished ships and most of their equipment for two separate -expeditions. The first Grinnell expedition, under the command of -Lieutenant De Haven, was sent out in 1850. It reached Beechey island -on August 27 of the same year, and assisted in the examination of -Franklin’s winter quarters there, but returned without wintering. - -[Illustration: ELISHA KENT KANE.] - -The second Grinnell expedition went out three years later. This was -commanded by a man who became almost as famous as Sir John Franklin -himself, Elisha Kent Kane. Kane had been with De Haven in 1850, and -thoroughly understood the work of Arctic exploration. He liked the -wild, exciting life, and he had an ardent desire to find the brave men -who had been lost, and to bring them home with him. - -Kane’s plan was to pass up Baffin bay as far north as it was possible -to drive the ship. From that point he intended to proceed by boats or -sledges toward the pole, examining the coast lines along the way for -traces of the lost party. - -The strongly built bark _Advance_ was selected for this journey, and -Kane set sail from New York with seventeen companions, in May, 1853. -After a month the _Advance_ reached Fiskernaes, a town on the Greenland -coast, inhabited chiefly by Eskimos. To these people a ship was a very -unusual sight, and they swarmed upon the rocks to gaze at the strange -newcomers. The Danish official who had charge of the colony welcomed -Kane and his companions hospitably. - -[Illustration: FISKERNAES, GREENLAND.] - -Kane had brought all the dried and salted provisions he could carry, -but he knew that his men would need fresh meat in order to keep well -in this climate. Besides, they had with them about fifty dogs for the -sledge journeys which Kane expected to make when the vessel could -no longer push her way through the ice. But Eskimo dogs have large -appetites and need plenty of fresh meat to keep them strong; a good -Eskimo hunter was needed to supply such food. - -There was a boy about nineteen years of age in the town, named Hans -Christian, who was known to be very skillful in the use of the kayak -and the javelin. Kane called upon Hans to try his skill. Hans threw his -javelin and speared a bird on the wing. Kane said, “That is the man -for me,” and wished to engage him on the spot. But Hans said, “No, not -until you promise to give my mother two barrels of bread and fifty-two -pounds of pork.” Kane agreed, and then Hans went cheerfully on board -the _Advance_, certain that his mother would not suffer during his -absence. - -Kane made one more landing on the Greenland coast, at Sukkertoppen. The -natives of this place collected reindeer skins, and had just sent four -thousand to Denmark. Kane bought a stock of skins for clothing, also a -large supply of sealskins for boots. The party then bade farewell to -the governor of the colony and put out to sea. - -The ship sailed northward for several days. Every day the weather -became colder and the ice thicker. One day a heavy gale arose, and the -ship tossed about so among the icebergs and the floating cakes that -her escape from being crushed was marvelous. Captain Kane, who was -a very ingenious man, devised a method of avoiding this danger from -ice crushing. His plan was to attach the vessel to an iceberg and let -her float after it, for there is always open water around a berg. The -plan sounded very simple, but Kane had not reckoned on the nature of -icebergs. After eight hours of hard work the anchors were fastened, but -before the men had time to breathe freely, a few crackling sounds were -heard and pieces of ice the size of walnuts fell on the deck like hail. -The sailors had just time to cast off from the berg when it fell, with -a crash, into the water around them. - -Not long after this the _Advance_ became so firmly fastened in the ice -that they could not push her in any direction. The party then left the -brig and explored the country around, traveling forty miles, and at -last climbing to the top of an iceberg, a height of eleven hundred feet -above the sea. On every side, as far as the eye could reach from this -great elevation, spread out a solid sea of ice. - -It was now September, and the temperature fell below freezing. It -seemed certain that the _Advance_ could not be freed from the ice until -the next summer, and the explorers accordingly prepared to pass the -winter there. They succeeded in dragging the vessel and wedging it -in between two islands. In this harbor, known as Rensselaer bay, the -stanch little _Advance_ was frozen solidly in, never to be released. - - - - -VII. WINTER IN RENSSELAER HARBOR - -1853–1854 - - -The Arctic winter had set in. By the middle of September the -thermometer had fallen to 14° and the ice was thickening fast. The -long Arctic night was upon the explorers. During that first winter in -Rensselaer harbor, the sun was below the horizon one hundred and twenty -days, and ninety of these days were totally dark; for the remaining -thirty days a faint light like our twilight glimmered during a part of -every twenty-four hours. - -During the time of darkness little exploring can be done. Explorers are -obliged to stay on or near their ship and amuse themselves as best they -may until the sun shines again. - -Can you fancy a night which lasts as long as ninety of our days? Think -of not seeing the sun for more than three months! These men on the -_Advance_ suffered from a cold such as we know nothing about, and were -often hungry too. Many of them became ill. - -Dr. Kane did everything in his power to buoy up their spirits. He was -wise enough to know that, if his men had nothing to do, they would -become homesick and despairing; so he planned work for all. Some made -clothing and boots of the furs and skins they had collected; others -made sledges and rope out of hides, or patched up corners of the brig -with moss to prevent the cold from entering. - -Dr. Kane himself trained the dogs for the sledge journeys. He had -ten beautiful Newfoundland dogs which he harnessed to a low, light -sled called the “Little Willie.” In a short time these gentle, strong, -intelligent animals carried Kane on journeys around the ship with -ease. He drove them two abreast, in teams of four or six, guiding them -entirely by his voice. - -With the Eskimo dogs, Kane was obliged to use other means. Eskimo dogs -are not easily managed. They are near relatives of the wolf, and share -the wolf’s nature. They are driven in teams of ten or twelve, and must -be guided mainly by the whip. Dr. Kane had to use a whip with a lash -six yards long, and a handle only sixteen inches in length. It required -a sort of “sleight of hand” movement to swing this long lash and hit -the right dog with it. Dr. Kane found this driving very lively exercise. - -[Illustration: AN ESKIMO DOG TEAM.] - -Sometimes Kane wanted to travel with a heavier load than the dogs could -draw. For this purpose he used a larger sledge, thirteen feet long and -four feet wide, upon which he could carry fourteen hundred pounds of -baggage. This sledge was called the “Faith,” and nine men were often -harnessed to it. Each man wore a shoulder belt or, as it was called, a -“rue-raddy.” A walrus-skin trace attached this rue-raddy to the sledge. - -In this way heavy loads of provisions were drawn over the ice. Kane -stored these supplies along the route that he intended to take as soon -as the sun should shine again. By thus sending provisions ahead and -burying them, Kane hoped to be able to make the journey without fear of -starving; for his whole party could never have carried enough at once -to last during the time he expected to be gone. - -On long expeditions where the men were obliged to remain away from the -ship all night, each man carried his bed with him. An Arctic bed is a -bag made of fur, into which one crawls, covering up all save one’s nose. - -On one occasion some of the men delayed in returning from their trip, -and it was feared that they were lost. After waiting twenty days for -them to return, Kane harnessed four of his best Newfoundland dogs -to the “Little Willie” and started out to search for his missing -companions. He took but one man with him. The ice was full of cracks -and very dangerous. The dogs galloped swiftly along; whenever they came -to a fissure, over it they leaped and over flew the sledge also, simply -by reason of its rapid movement. At length the party came to a fissure -so wide that the dogs could not leap across it. They were going too -fast to stop or turn aside, and dogs and sledge were thrown into the -water. The two men, who had been running beside the sledge, quickly -cut the harness from the dogs. The faithful animals, freed from the -traces, sprang to the ice, and with their intelligent help the sledge -was dragged out. - -Kane and his companion were wet to the skin with icy cold water, and -the temperature was below zero. What could prevent men and dogs from -freezing? But not a moment was wasted in thinking about what might -happen. They all started on a run for solid ice, and they ran so fast -that by the time a safe place was reached, they were quite warm. -Several days later they came upon the friends they were seeking. The -return to the ship was made more easily, although, while leaping a -fissure, one unlucky man was thrown into the water. The rest pulled him -out, none the worse for his cold bath. - -The men on the _Advance_ were delighted to see Kane and their lost -comrades again. They rejoiced because every one was safe. They had also -another reason for happiness, for the dreary night was passing away, -the twilight was growing longer and brighter, and day――a day as long as -the night――was coming. Soon after this Dr. Kane climbed to the top of a -high hill to see the sun. It was a hard climb, but who would not have -taken it for a first sight of the sun, after a night so long? - -Each day the sun came and stayed longer, and with the sun came warmer -weather. At last the sun rose so high in the heavens that it could not -sink below the horizon at all. Then it shone, not only all day, but -also all night. - - - - -VIII. THE ESKIMOS - -1854 - - -One morning in the spring, the deck watch ran into Dr. Kane’s cabin, -crying, “People hallooing ashore!” Dr. Kane hurried to the deck, and -through the gloom saw strange figures all around the harbor. Though -it was April, the sun had not yet risen high in the sky, and in the -twilight these odd figures seemed to be waving weapons. - -Kane soon found that these people were the native Eskimos, and that -they were tossing their arms wildly about, as if in great excitement. -It is no wonder that they were excited, for they had never seen a white -man before; yet they showed no fear, and one of them came close to Kane. - -This Eskimo was named Metek. He stood a head taller than Dr. Kane, and -was well built and strong, with a dark skin and black, piercing eyes. - -Metek wore booted trousers of white bearskin. At the toe the boot ended -with the claw of the animal. His coat, or jumper, was of white and blue -fox fur, and a hood of the same fur was on his head. Around his neck -was tied a dirty, greasy strip of deerskin. At first the white men -thought this an ornament, Metek was so careful of it. Later, Dr. Kane -found that it was tied closely around his neck to keep out the air. - -When an Eskimo is fully dressed in his furs, and his deerskin is tied -closely around the neck so that no air can enter, he is, as it were, in -a bag of fur. The heat from his body keeps him warm. As long as he is -incased in air-tight clothing, he is safe from the most severe weather. - -All of the Eskimo party were invited to come aboard the _Advance_. They -were large, strong men, and many of them could hunt the white bear and -the walrus single-handed. - -The Eskimos had with them fifty-six fine dogs, tied by deerskin traces -to their sledges, which were made of bone and lashed together by -leather strips. The runners were of polished ivory, from the tusks of -the walrus, and glistened like steel. The Eskimos’ weapons were knives, -which they carried in their boots, and lances, which were lashed on -their sledges. They had no wood for the handles of these weapons, -because no trees grow in this cold country. All of the handles were -made of bone. You would have thought these natives very rude indeed, -could you have seen how they behaved on Dr. Kane’s ship. They opened -all the doors and rummaged around in the dark corners. They opened -boxes, handling everything they saw, and putting all they could inside -their jumpers and boots. In fact, they stole so much that Dr. Kane and -his companions had to follow them continually and take the things out -of their hands. - -[Illustration: ESKIMOS AND THEIR DOGS.] - -At last the Eskimos became tired, and when the white men spread a -buffalo skin on the floor near the fire, they threw themselves upon it. -For supper each man had a large piece of raw walrus meat, from which he -ate until he was tired. Then he went to sleep with the raw meat lying -beside him. When he awoke he would seize his meat, eat more of it, then -drop off to sleep again. Many slept in a sitting position, with their -heads falling forward low on their breasts. - -Dr. Kane made a treaty with these people. He bought all the walrus meat -they had, giving them needles, beads, and old cask staves for it. They -promised to bring Kane more food very soon, and also to lend him their -dogs for his journey to the north. Then Metek said they must go, and -it did not take them long to get ready. They harnessed the dogs to the -sledges quickly, jumped on, cracked their long sealskin whips, and off -they went, dashing over the ice at a speed of twenty miles an hour. - -Some time later Metek again visited Rensselaer Harbor. This time Dr. -Kane decided to go with him to his hut, and bring back a load of walrus -meat. Kane and Metek traveled eight miles by sledge, with Metek’s -excellent team of twelve wild Eskimo dogs. They rode very swiftly over -the ice and snow, until at last Kane saw what looked like two dark -spots on the pure white surface. These spots were the entrances to two -Eskimo huts. - -The Eskimo huts are built of large stones and are heavily sodded with -turf or moss. They are shaped like half of an egg, and the entrance is -a tunnel, through which the dwellers creep on their hands and knees. -The door is a slab of slate or ice. At this time the huts were buried -under the snow. - -The natives rushed out to meet the travelers. They seemed delighted to -see Kane, but the cold soon drove them inside again. Kane and Metek -followed, crawling through a tunnel twelve feet in length, which led -them into the hut of one room about six by fifteen feet. It was crowded -with persons and served for all purposes. The women were cooking large -pieces of walrus meat over small lamps, and men and children were lying -about half-clothed, calling to one another with uncouth sounds. Others -lay stretched upon the floor sleeping. - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF AN ESKIMO HUT. - -From a drawing by Dr. Kane.] - -The thermometer outside registered 30° below zero. Inside the hut the -temperature stood at 90°, nor was there any place for fresh air to -enter. Poor Dr. Kane was obliged to take off all his fur clothes like -the rest. Being very tired, he soon fell asleep, with an Eskimo boy for -a pillow, and a little Eskimo baby under his arm. - -Dr. Kane slept well. When he awoke he was offered some breakfast of -boiled blubber. But, unluckily, he had seen the women cooking this, and -they were so careless and dirty that he could not touch it. Instead he -ate some pieces of frozen liver which he had brought with him. After -breakfast he started on a walrus hunt. - - - - -IX. HUNTING IN THE ICY NORTH - - -The walrus has been called “the lion of the seas.” He is a huge -animal, often eighteen feet in length. His head is square, and his -cheeks and lips are covered with quills like bristles. From his face -also extend the tusks, which on the larger animals are often thirty -inches in length, and are prized as ivory. Altogether the walrus is a -fierce-looking creature, with a tough hide and an ugly temper. - -Like the seal, the walrus has to come to the surface of the water to -breathe. So Dr. Kane and his Eskimo friends tried to find open water, -or, at least, a place where the ice was thin. The walrus has a habit -of bellowing as he lies on the ice, so that hunters are guided by this -strange and terrible sound. Every few minutes the hunters took off -their fur hoods to listen. - -At last a large walrus rose through the ice, breaking it with a loud -crash. Just as the animal rose out of the water, Dr. Kane and the -Eskimos fell at full length, flat on the ice. As soon as the head of -the walrus sank below the water again, the hunters jumped up and ran -toward the hole, where they knew it would soon reappear. Every time the -head of the animal was seen coming to the surface, the hunters would -fall to the ice or hide themselves behind hummocks. In this way――now -running, now hiding――they at last came near enough to the walrus to -throw their harpoon into its body. Tied to the harpoon was a long rope -of walrus hide, which uncoiled rapidly as an Eskimo ran away to solid -ice with one end in his hand. When at a safe distance, he drove a spike -of bone into the ice and fastened the end of the rope to it. - -[Illustration: A WALRUS HUNT.] - -Meanwhile, the powerful walrus had been struggling in the water, -breaking up the ice around with a frightful noise. The Eskimos -tightened the rope whenever they could, and again the walrus rose and -threw his powerful body against the ice, breaking it away; now they had -to work fast. First one, and then another, would seize the spike and -run with it and the rope to a safe place. In this way they tired the -animal out, and were able to give him a second wound. - -During this battle the walrus roared hideously, using his tusks -fiercely. He rushed toward the men and tore away great pieces of ice -with his tusks, but though he received many lance wounds, he never -once showed fear or made any attempt to run away. - -When the great beast was dead, the Eskimos drew it up on the ice, the -flesh was divided, and Dr. Kane packed his share upon his sledge. Then -with his own four dogs he set out to return to the brig. He himself -ran most of the way home, because the dogs had difficulty in drawing -the heavy load. The crew were glad to see Kane once more, and glad, -too, for what he had brought. During the winter fresh meat had been so -scarce that many of the men became sick with the terrible disease which -salt meat produces. - -Toward spring Dr. Kane and Hans went hunting for seals. The seal comes -up under the ice where it is thinnest, and scratches a hole through it -with his sharp claws. Then he hollows out the snow above and makes an -opening just large enough to allow the air to pass through; this is his -breathing hole. It is so small that often one cannot see it, but the -seal makes a blowing noise in breathing, and the hunters have learned -to listen for this sound. - -Kane and Hans often sat many hours on a block of ice beside a hole, -waiting for a seal. When the seal appeared, one of them quickly thrust -a spear into him and usually killed him. Then Hans would fasten a thong -of walrus hide about the neck of the seal and drag him away, across the -ice, to the ship. The meat of the seal is delicious, and great was the -rejoicing among the men when a hunting expedition was successful. - -When the sun begins to shine, the Eskimos hunt in a different way. -They know that the seals like to creep out of the water and lie on the -ice in the sunshine. The hunters take with them a sledge with a white -screen fastened across it, which they push along in front of them, -the screen hiding their bodies from view. A hole in the middle of -the screen gives them a chance to see ahead, and provides an opening -through which they can point a rifle. When the hunter sees in the -distance the bodies of seals lying on the edge of the ice, he pushes -his sledge toward them. So quietly and so steadily does he move, that -the seals do not become alarmed. They lie still, watching the strange -object, until the hunter is near enough to shoot. - -[Illustration: A HERD OF SEALS.] - -When the summer comes it is still easier to hunt seals, for their eyes -are blinded by the bright sun shining on the snow and ice, and the -hunters can often walk within gunshot of them without using the screen. - -Kane’s party had plenty of fresh seal meat to eat in the summer time. -From the fat of each animal they obtained about five gallons of oil, -which they used in their lamps. The fur made warm coats and trousers, -while the hides were used for covering the boats and for whiplashes. -Dr. Kane learned not to waste any part of the seal’s body; even the -bones could be used for hooks and for the handles of tools. - -There is another animal in the cold regions which hunters are eager to -slay. This is the large, fierce polar bear. He has a flat head, a long -neck, and smooth, white fur. He is always found near the sea, where he -pursues seals both in the water and on ice, and preys upon fishes and -birds. - -[Illustration: POLAR BEARS.] - -Kane had many a chase over the ice after the bears. When a bear track -is seen on the ice or snow, the dogs are immediately set upon the -trail. The hunters follow the dogs quickly and silently. When they come -within sight of the bear, the hunter releases the dogs from their -harness, so that they may surround the bear and cut off his retreat. -The dogs are carefully trained not to fight the bear, but to annoy -him. They run around him in circles and prevent him from making his -escape. The bear, when brought to bay, rises on his haunches, seizes -the nearest dog in his teeth and tosses him to one side. The dogs -instinctively relax their muscles in falling, and are seldom hurt; they -usually rise immediately and return to the conflict. In this way the -bear is detained until the hunters arrive. - -Sometimes two hunters engage one animal, striking at him with their -lances. Two men can easily kill a bear. As one man pretends to thrust -his lance into the right side, the animal turns, and tries to protect -himself with his fore paws. Then the other hunter gives him his death -wound in the left side. - -A man must have a great deal of skill and courage to be able to kill a -polar bear single-handed. The single hunter provokes the bear to follow -him by running as if trying to escape. The bear comes down on all four -feet and prepares to pursue the man. With a rapid jump to the right, -the hunter runs back to his first position. The bear turns in the same -way to follow, when the hunter skillfully plunges his lance into the -left side just below the shoulder. Even then the most expert hunter -sometimes has to leave his spear in the animal’s side and run for his -life, though a wound given in that spot is usually fatal. The Eskimos -hold in highest esteem the hunter who can kill a bear single-handed. - -The flesh of the bear is used for food, and the fur for clothing. Dr. -Kane killed so many of these animals that he actually tired of the -sport. - - - - -X. HOME AGAIN - -1855 - - -Dr. Kane and his companions passed two winters in the ice regions, -living in a place farther north than any explorers had ever lived in -before. Few Arctic explorers at that time had passed two winter seasons -in the ice. - -During the cold months the average temperature at Rensselaer harbor -stood at -29°, during the summer months at 33°. When you consider that -the summer was colder than the average winter in the vicinity of New -York City, you will understand in part what were the severities of the -climate that these men endured. The first winter, with the long, dark -night, was dismal and gloomy, and there was a great deal of sickness -and suffering among the men. When summer came, Kane hoped that his ship -might be released from the ice. He waited a long time, but the ice did -not thaw, and again winter came upon them suddenly. It was then too -late for the men to escape to the south; so a second winter was passed -on board the _Advance_. It was a sad time: many of the men died and -many suffered terribly from disease and want of food. - -When the spring of 1855 came, Kane again hoped that the ice around the -brig would thaw and leave her free, for he was a good commander and -could not bear to desert his ship. At last it became certain that the -ice would not break away, and that the _Advance_ could not be released -that spring. - -Then Kane decided to leave the ship and try to reach some settlement -on the Greenland coast. The men promised to follow him and to obey him -in all things. They knew the danger of the journey, but they also knew -that a third winter on the _Advance_ would probably cost them their -lives. At this time the company had provisions enough to last them -thirty-six days. These provisions were packed in small boats, ready to -be dragged over the ice to open water. All the baggage and the articles -necessary for use in cooking, eating, and sleeping, were at last ready -to be placed on the sledges. Four of the men were so ill that they also -had to be carried. - -Each man in the party wore a woolen underdress and an Eskimo suit of -fur. The men’s boots were of their own make, fashioned of canvas and -lined with walrus hide. Inside of these boots each man wore another -pair, made of carpeting which had been taken from the cabin of the -_Advance_. To save themselves from becoming snow-blind, they wore large -goggles, made by cutting a small slit in a piece of wood. Some had -entire masks made of gutta percha. - -It was May when Kane and his companions bade farewell to the brig and -set out to cover the thirteen hundred miles of ice and water which lay -between them and the place where they hoped to find a settlement. Yet -they did not despair. The men who were able to work, dragged sledges -and boats as far as the spot selected for a camp. Here they built a -hut or erected a tent for the sick, making them as comfortable as they -could. Then the workers went back over the same route and brought along -the baggage, which had been left behind because they could not carry it -all at one time. Thus they were obliged to travel back over each day’s -march, and each following day to bring ahead the baggage that could -not be carried the first time. - -[Illustration: TRAVELING OVER THE ICE HUMMOCKS.] - -It was slow progress, but they kept on bravely. Often they were delayed -by heavy snowstorms. As they could not drag the sledges through the -deep drifts, they crept into their tents and slept, waiting for the -storm to pass away. When it became possible for them to travel again, -they started out, plowing their way through the snow, often so tired -that they could hardly lift their feet. Sometimes they journeyed over -thin ice, and many a man fell through and just escaped drowning. - -It was near the middle of June when the party reached the shores of -Baffin bay and began to launch the boats. The launching took a long -time, for the surf beat high along the shore, and great masses of -drifting ice were dashed about. - -A severe gale arose, and the boats were nearly crushed in the ice, but -a day later they succeeded in putting off from the shore. The _Faith_ -led the way, with Captain Kane aboard. Then followed the _Red Eric_, -with most of the provisions, and last of all, the _Hope_. These three -small boats were now embarked on a sea in which the hardiest whaling -vessel might easily founder. - -The party were all hopeful until provisions were exhausted; then -the stoutest hearts failed. Even Kane despaired of ever reaching a -settlement, but he was too brave a leader to allow his men to know -this, and he encouraged them in every way possible. The men grew so -weak from want of food that they were scarcely able to guide the boats. - -The ice had knocked holes in each of the boats, and they had to be -constantly baled to keep them from sinking. When everything looked -darkest, one of the party saw a large seal floating on a piece of ice -a short distance away. The half-starved men became so excited that -they could hardly handle the oars. Every preparation was made to steal -quietly toward the animal, which seemed to be asleep. Stockings were -placed over the oars to deaden the sound, and a man named Peterson, who -was thought to be the best shot of the party, was stationed in the bow -with the rifle. - -Silently the oarsmen guided the boat toward the piece of ice where -the seal was lying. When they were almost within rifle shot, the seal -lifted its head and saw the boat. The men were filled with despair as -they saw the animal move toward the sea as if to plunge in. They all -looked anxiously at Peterson, for their lives depended upon him. Poor -Peterson was trembling with nervousness and weakness. His hands shook, -but with a great effort he steadied himself and fired. Instantly the -seal fell over on its side. - -With shouts of delight the men pushed the boat to the ice, climbed upon -it, and seized the animal. They were half mad with joy, and ran over -the ice, crying and laughing, and waving their knives. Soon every man -was eating raw blubber and licking his bloody fingers with relish. It -was a savage meal, but starved men may be pardoned for being fierce. - -[Illustration: DRAGGING THE BOATS OVER THE ICE FLOES.] - -Other seals were shot, and soon land was sighted. Kane directed the -course of the boats southward along the coast, and a few nights later -the men landed on the rocks for rest and sleep. - -One morning Peterson, in great excitement, awoke Kane and told him -that he had just seen a native in a kayak, searching among the rocks -along the coast for eider down. Peterson knew him, and called to him: -“Don’t you know me? I am Carl Peterson.” “No,” the Eskimo answered; -“Peterson’s wife says he is dead.” Then he paddled away very fast as if -in fear. - -A few days later Kane and his companions were rowing along in their -boats, when the mast of a vessel loomed in the distance before them. -Peterson burst into sobs in his excitement, and in broken English and -Danish exclaimed, “It’s the Upernavik oil boat!” Indeed, it was the -vessel that goes once a year to Upernavik for a supply of blubber -to make oil. Soon the vessel came near enough for the crews to talk -to each other. You may be sure that Captain Kane’s party wanted to -know what had happened during their long absence from home. The first -question Kane asked was whether Franklin had been found. - -The sailors told him that some traces of Franklin had been seen, -but that it was now supposed that he and all of his companions had -perished. This news made Kane very sad, for no one knew better than he -what suffering Franklin and his men must have endured. - -After learning all that these men could tell him, Kane journeyed on. -After another halt for sleep, and another long pull at the oars, the -men heard the welcome sound of barking dogs at the settlement. - -The people of Upernavik were very kind to Kane and his men. They fitted -up a loft for them to sleep in and shared their stores in a liberal -manner. - -[Illustration: UPERNAVIK, GREENLAND.] - -A Danish vessel, starting for home early in September, took Kane and -his party on board, promising to land them at the Shetland islands. On -the 11th the vessel reached Disco, where another steamer was sighted in -the distance. As she drew near Kane’s men saw with joy that she carried -the American flag. The vessel proved to be a relief ship sent out by -the United States to search for Captain Kane. The men, under command of -Lieutenant Hartstene, greeted Kane and his companions with cheers and -took them aboard. The _Faith_, which had done such excellent service, -was taken on board also, and may now be seen at the Brooklyn navy yard. -Though Kane had been compelled to leave the _Advance_ in the ice, -had lost his equipment, and had found no trace of Sir John Franklin, -yet his expedition was by no means a failure. The geographical and -scientific value of the knowledge which he gained during his stay in -the icy North was very great. - -Large tracts of country, before unknown, had been discovered and -surveyed; the coast of Greenland had been explored as far north as -latitude 81°, and the great glacier of Humboldt, with a sea face -forty-five miles in length, discovered. New land to the north of -Humboldt glacier was also discovered and named Washington Land. - -[Illustration: A GREENLANDER IN HIS KAYAK.] - -A great channel to the northwest, free from ice, was supposed to lead -into an open polar sea. The theory of an open polar sea, however, has -not yet been proved. - -Grinnell Land was discovered, and a survey made of the lands bordering -on Smith sound. Valuable facts in relation to the tides, climates, -and plants were compiled, and a study was made of the Eskimos of Smith -sound. Kane received gold medals from the Queen of England, the Royal -Geographical Society of London, the American Congress, and the New York -Legislature. - -But Kane’s health, never of the best, now began to fail. He went to -England, but while there grew rapidly worse. He then sailed for Havana, -hoping that the balmy climate would benefit him; but it was too late -for him to recover his health, and he died at Havana, February 16, -1857. - - - - -XI. NORDENSKJÖLD AND THE NORTHEAST PASSAGE - -1878–1879 - - -The next man to journey into the frozen North was Adolf Erik -Nordenskjöld.[2] He was born in Finland and educated at its university; -but when he was about twenty-two years of age he fell under the -suspicion of the Russian government and was compelled to leave his -native country. Nordenskjöld then took up his residence in Sweden, and -in 1858 began his career as an Arctic explorer by going on a journey to -Spitzbergen. Five voyages in the Arctic regions followed, during one of -which Nordenskjöld visited Greenland and made an inland journey over -the ice. - -[2] Pronounced _Norʹ den sheld_. - -The interior of Greenland is believed to be one vast glacier, moving -slowly to the sea. This movement causes the formation of deep chasms -and clefts which are almost bottomless, and which prevent the traveler -from making rapid progress. - -Notwithstanding the dangers and hardships of the journey, Nordenskjöld -advanced thirty miles over the glacier to a height of twenty-two -hundred feet above the level of the sea. Upon returning to the coast, -he visited Disco Fiord, and then went home to Sweden. - -About the time that Nordenskjöld reached home, the Swedish government -decided to send a sledge expedition from Spitzbergen to the North -Pole. The nation which should first succeed in reaching the pole would -gain the admiration of the civilized world, and Sweden hoped to win -this glory. - -The government began at once to look for a leader for this expedition, -and very naturally selected Nordenskjöld, who had already made Arctic -voyages and had thereby gained experience which made him a valuable -commander. - -The party was sent out in 1872, but did not succeed in advancing far -toward the pole; yet the results of the journey were important, for -the island of Spitzbergen was explored and a good deal of scientific -information was acquired. - -When Professor Nordenskjöld returned from Spitzbergen, he gave his -attention to the northern coast of Asia. Some few whalers had sailed -round Nova Zembla and entered the Kara sea, but the idea prevailed -that this sea was always full of ice and dangerous to navigate. -Nordenskjöld, however, made up his mind to explore the Kara sea and -sail along the coast of Siberia to the mouth of the Yenisei river. - -Supported by Mr. Oscar Dickson of Gothenburg, Nordenskjöld sailed on -the _Proven_. He first visited Nova Zembla, and then, passing through -Jugor strait, entered the Kara sea, which was entirely free from -ice, and reached the Yenisei river without much difficulty. During -this journey, he and his assistants made valuable collections of the -products of the animal, mineral, and vegetable kingdoms. They succeeded -in increasing the number of known insects to be found in Nova Zembla -from seven to one hundred, and in the Kara sea, which had been thought -barren, they found five hundred species of animal life. Upon reaching -the mouth of the Yenisei river, Nordenskjöld sent the _Proven_ home, -while he and a few chosen companions proceeded up the river in a small -boat. - -It was summer time and the tundras were covered with a scanty -vegetation. The tundras are the plains of Russia and Siberia which lie -between the tree limit and the Arctic ocean. Most persons think of them -as entirely barren; in some parts the soil is fertile and would be -suitable for cultivation, if the climate permitted. In the winter they -are frozen, but in the summer they afford pasture to herds of reindeer. - -All Siberia is colder than other places in the same latitude. One of -the best-known cold regions on the earth is in Siberia, in latitude 67° -54ʹ N. Here the average temperature of the winter months is often as -low as -53°, while some days the thermometer falls to -75° and -85° F. - -The tundras are inhabited by a tribe of Siberian Indians called -Samoyeds. These natives travel about during the summer, hunting and -fishing, setting up their skin tents wherever they find game plentiful. -They usually have with them a large number of dogs, which they use for -sledging in winter and drawing boats against the current during the -summer. The dogs run alongshore and drag the boats after them up the -river, very much as mules draw our canal boats. The Samoyeds are small -of stature and very dirty. Their hair is matted and unkempt, and they -wear clothes of skin, with sometimes a bright-colored cotton shirt over -the skin blouse. - -[Illustration: SAMOYED HUTS IN SUMMER.] - -These people worship idols, which look like dolls made of skin, and -which they always carry with them on their travels. Some of these -idols, or gods, have faces of brass or copper, and some carry bows made -of forged iron. The Samoyeds worship by making pilgrimages to certain -spots, where they offer sacrifices and make vows; they eat the flesh of -their victims, and besmear their idols with the blood. At these sacred -places there are piles of bones and skulls of the reindeer, with the -horns. Near by are also found quantities of old iron, and hundreds of -small wooden sticks, carved to look like human faces. - -[Illustration: A SAMOYED FAMILY IN WINTER COSTUME.] - -It was to this Samoyed country that the Russian government used to -send her criminals, and there are many exiles living there now; but -the natives treat them very kindly and never inquire into the cause of -their banishment. - -As Nordenskjöld and his companions traveled on, they saw large masses -of driftwood lying along the shores of the river. This driftwood -is carried by the current out into the Arctic ocean, and is often -picked up by explorers on the North American and Greenland shores, a -fact which seems to prove that the ocean currents carry it across the -polar sea. At length the travelers entered the region from which this -driftwood comes. This is the great forest belt of Siberia, the largest -in the world, extending, with but little interruption, from the Ural -mountains to the Sea of Okhotsk. It consists mainly of enormous pines, -growing thickly, and untouched by the ax of the lumberman. Many trees -are withered with age; others are fallen, and their decayed trunks are -covered with mosses and lichens. The wilderness is so vast that a man -might wander hundreds of miles without meeting a human being. - -Beyond the forest belt lie the fertile plains, which are partly -cultivated and which supply Europe with wheat. Nordenskjöld visited -these plains, or steppes, and then proceeded homeward overland, by way -of St. Petersburg. The next year, 1876, Nordenskjöld made a second -voyage from Sweden to the mouth of the Yenisei river, proving beyond a -doubt that there is a sea route from the Atlantic to the mouth of the -great Siberian river. For this achievement he was regarded by Russia as -a national benefactor and publicly thanked. - -Nordenskjöld hoped that the rich produce of central Asia, the gold, -silver, copper, iron, and coal, the ivory, timber, wheat, and furs, -might now be shipped through the rivers to the Arctic ocean and thence -to Europe. The dangers of navigation through the ice, however, are -so great that it is doubtful whether this route can ever become an -important one for purposes of commerce. - -Nordenskjöld was not yet satisfied with the work he had accomplished -in the Arctic regions. He longed to do what Arctic explorers had been -trying to do for three hundred years; namely, to find a northeast -passage to the Pacific. Supported by King Oscar of Sweden and by Mr. -Oscar Dickson of Gothenburg, Nordenskjöld sailed from Tromsö in his -ship, the _Vega_, July 21, 1878, accompanied by three other vessels. -Two of the vessels left him at the mouth of the Yenisei and proceeded -up that river, while the other, the _Lena_, accompanied the _Vega_ -eastward. The fog caused the sailors more trouble than the ice, but one -day the mist rose, showing a dark ice-free cape. Then Nordenskjöld knew -that he had succeeded in reaching the northernmost point of the Old -World, Cape Tcheliuskin (Chelyuskin). - -More than a century earlier, Lieutenant Tcheliuskin, a Russian officer, -had succeeded in reaching this most northern point of Siberia, -traveling overland by sledge. Many explorers had tried to reach Cape -Tcheliuskin by water, but up to this time all had failed. Nordenskjöld -and his companions were very proud of their success. Flags were -hoisted, salutes fired, and the officers drank toasts in honor of the -occasion. - -[Illustration: THE “VEGA” FIRING A SALUTE AT CAPE TCHELIUSKIN, THE MOST -NORTHERN POINT OF THE OLD WORLD.] - -A heap of stones, called a cairn, was erected on shore as a memorial, -and soon the two vessels started again on their journey eastward. When -the mouth of the Lena river was reached, the ship _Lena_ headed toward -it and, after exploring the river, returned home. - -After parting from the _Lena_, the _Vega_ continued her voyage to the -New Siberian islands and thence along the coast of Asia, nearly to -Bering strait. When within a day’s journey of the strait, the _Vega_ -was beset in the ice; and, much to Nordenskjöld’s regret, he was -obliged to pass the winter at the very entrance to the Pacific ocean. -Had he been a few hours earlier, he might have forced his way through -the ice and completed the northeast passage in 1878. But in that case -we should never have known all the interesting facts which he has told -us about the strange people who inhabit the northeastern peninsula of -Asia. - -These people are a Siberian tribe, called Tchuktches.[3] There are -two divisions of the tribe, the reindeer Tchuktches and the coast -Tchuktches. The former own herds of reindeer, and travel about, -pitching their tents wherever the pasture is good. They also trade in -skins, hides, furs, and whalebones with the most northern Indian tribes -of America and with the Russian fur dealers, often making long journeys -for this purpose. The coast Tchuktches live along the shore, and hunt -and fish for their living. - -[3] Pronounced _Chookʹ chez_. - -The reindeer Tchuktches were encamped near the _Vega’s_ winter -quarters. As soon as these people saw a strange ship anchored off the -coast, they launched a large skin boat very skillfully, and men, women, -and children jumped in and rowed through the thin, newly formed ice to -the vessel. They climbed aboard and seemed as pleased to see the white -men as if they had been old friends. The deck of the _Vega_ became a -reception room, for not a day passed without a visit from the natives. - -[Illustration: TCHUKTCHE AND REINDEER.] - -The Tchuktches are a strong, hardy race, but very lazy. Nothing but -want of food induces them to work. Many are tall, with brown skin and -raven-black hair, and a large nose like that of our North American -Indians. Some have high cheek bones and slanting eyes, like the -Mongolian race. They live in tents, which are made double to insure -warmth during the winter. The inner tent is the sleeping room. The -framework is of wood, and over this are spread thick reindeer skins. -The floor is a walrus skin, and at night extra reindeer skins are -thrown down like a carpet. The inner tent is heated by three train-oil -lamps, which, together with the heat from the bodies of the many human -beings who are packed in this small space, raise the temperature in the -tent to such a degree that even in the most severe weather, the natives -strip off all their clothing. In the winter they live, cook, and work -in the inner tent; the outer tent, used in summer, is built around the -inner tent. The skins of the outer tent are older and thinner than -those of the inner one. - -The Tchuktche women work very hard. They take care of the children, -cook, sew, and keep the tent in order. They receive the game and cut it -up, in winter in the tent and in summer on the beach. They help with -the fishing; they tan the hides and prepare thread from the sinews. -The men provide the food, which they obtain by fishing, hunting, and -trading. But in and around the tent they do nothing but put their -hunting tools in order, or play with the children. - -[Illustration: TCHUKTCHE MAN AND WOMAN.] - -Tchuktche children are healthy and hearty. They often cross from one -tent to another entirely naked, when the weather is bitterly cold. The -children are petted and treated very kindly. The older people never -utter an angry word to them, or punish them. For playthings they have -dolls, bows, and windmills with sails. Tchuktche children are very -well-behaved. A little girl fell down the ship’s stairs head first, and -received so severe a blow that her hearing was nearly destroyed, yet -she scarcely uttered a cry. A small boy of four years once visited the -ship. He was so wrapped up in furs that he looked like a ball and could -hardly move. He fell into a ditch which had been cut in the ice on the -deck, and could not get out. The small Tchuktche did not make a sound, -but waited patiently until some one saw him lying there and rescued -him. - -When the ice became solid, the natives came on their dog sleds from -villages far away. Sometimes they brought skins and whalebones to -exchange for tobacco and brandy, but they obtained very little of the -latter from the men on the _Vega_. As winter advanced, the natives’ -provisions gave out. Then they gathered around the ship at the time -when they knew the crew were at dinner, and begged for food so hard -that one day the cook himself came out with a large kettle full of meat -soup. The Tchuktches seized it like starving animals and bailed it out -with spoons, empty tin cans, and even with their hands. Nordenskjöld -gave them all the food he could spare, but in spite of his kindness the -plump little babies grew thin and hollow-eyed. One day the Tchuktche -hunters killed a polar bear and several seals. Then begging ceased for -a few days, and they rested from hunting and lived on the fat of the -land, without any thought of the future. - -[Illustration: HUNTING REINDEER.] - -A few days later a procession of Tchuktches was again seen, coming in -single file over the ice toward the ship, each man carrying a piece of -ice on his shoulder. This he gave to the cook, begging for something -to eat in return; and you may be sure that all the food that could be -spared was given to these poor people. - -One morning a number of men approached the ship, dragging a dog sledge -on which a man lay so quietly that Nordenskjöld thought he must be -ill or dead. To his surprise, when the sledge reached the side of -the vessel, the man climbed rapidly to the deck and saluted. He then -informed Nordenskjöld in broken Russian that he was the great chief of -the Tchuktches, and, as a mark of his high rank, he had been drawn over -the ice by men instead of dogs. - -This man’s name was Menka. He gave Nordenskjöld two roasts of reindeer -meat, and in return received some tobacco and a woolen shirt. Finding -that Menka was going to a Russian town some distance away, Nordenskjöld -asked him to carry a letter to the Russian authorities there, as he -wanted to let King Oscar know where he was. Menka consented, and -Nordenskjöld wrote the letter and gave it to him. Whether Menka -misunderstood or not, no one knows; but when he reached shore he -assembled the Tchuktches, opened the letter, and, holding it upside -down, gravely read it in his own language to his admiring audience. His -hearers thought him very learned indeed. - -The next day the great chief again visited the _Vega_, but no one -mentioned the letter for fear of hurting his feelings. Menka doubtless -meant no harm. The Tchuktches seem to have been very democratic in -their sentiments; they refused to admit that Menka was their chief, -saying that they were just as good as he was. - -When Christmas came, some of the whites persuaded the Tchuktches to -bring them a load of willows from the valleys in the south. They took -a piece of wood for the stem and, tying on the willow bushes for -branches, called it a Christmas tree, and decorated it with flags, -colored papers, and wax lights. A box of Christmas presents had been -placed on board by their friends at home; this was opened and the -presents distributed. Then the men danced a polka around the tree and -drank the good health of all their friends. - -The spring came slowly, and time dragged, though the men were very busy -collecting specimens and noting the curious changes in the atmosphere -and vegetation. It seemed as if the ice would never break up. On July -18, 1879, Nordenskjöld and his companions sat down to dinner as usual. -During the meal the vessel, which had been motionless for months, moved -slightly. It was a moment of intense excitement, and everybody rushed -on deck. The ice was moving! It did not take long for the engineer to -light the boiler fires, and in two hours the _Vega_ was free and on -her way to Bering strait. There was not much time to say farewell to -the Tchuktches, who gathered on the shore and watched the departure of -their white friends. - -The _Vega_ encountered but little ice, and at 11 o’clock on the morning -of July 20, 1879, she sailed into the middle of the strait that -connects the Arctic and Pacific oceans. Salutes were fired and flags -raised. The northeastern passage was accomplished. In a single voyage -Nordenskjöld had succeeded in doing what Arctic explorers had been -trying to achieve for three hundred years. - -On his way home Nordenskjöld visited Japan. He remained there two -weeks, collecting facts which contributed a great deal to our knowledge -of that country. When Nordenskjöld reached home, King Oscar made him a -baron, and commander of the Order of the North Star. The remainder of -his life was spent in scientific work. In August, 1901, this great man -passed away, leaving behind him a lasting fame. - - - - -XII. VOYAGE OF THE _JEANNETTE_ - -1879–1881 - - -During the same month, July, 1879, that Nordenskjöld completed the -northeast passage by sailing through Bering strait into the Pacific -ocean, an expedition sailed from San Francisco northward through Bering -sea on a voyage of discovery in Arctic regions. - -This expedition was sent out by Mr. James Gordon Bennett, the owner of -the _New York Herald_. Mr. Bennett bought and equipped a vessel, which -he called the _Jeannette_. By special act of Congress, the _Jeannette_ -was conducted by the United States Navy, with the rights and privileges -of a government vessel. - -The command was offered to Lieutenant George W. De Long and he -accepted, after the expedition was made national. De Long, it is said, -believed that an expedition might reach the North Pole by following a -branch of the Japan Current through Bering strait and into the Arctic -ocean, a route which had never been attempted. - -Many explorers who had made trips to the Arctic regions observed that -the ice always drifted toward the southeast, and entered the Atlantic -ocean between the islands of Spitzbergen and Greenland. It was thought -that there must be a strong southeast current to carry this pack of -floating ice always in the same direction. Instead of trying to sail -northward between Spitzbergen and Greenland, where they must meet that -great ice pack, these men said: “Let us enter the Arctic ocean through -Bering strait and sail northward toward the pole. If the ship is caught -in the ice pack, she will drift along with the pack into the Atlantic -ocean. Perhaps the drift will carry the ship across the North Pole.” - -De Long sailed from San Francisco on the _Jeannette_, July 8, 1879. -It was a beautiful sunny day, and many vessels were gathered in San -Francisco bay to attend the departure. Guns were fired, flags waved, -and cheers given with a will for the brave men who were going to risk -their lives in the search for the North Pole. - -The _Jeannette_ sailed away through the Pacific ocean. She crossed -Bering sea in a heavy gale, and passed through Bering strait in safety. -After rounding East cape, the watch in the crow’s nest saw some rude -huts along the beach. They were the homes of the Tchuktches, the -Siberian race which inhabits this peninsula. - -The ice alongshore prevented De Long from landing, and the natives, -seeing this, launched a large skin boat and went out to the ship. The -Indian chief went with them, and they all boarded the _Jeannette_. -These people could furnish very little information, because no one on -board knew their language and they could speak no English. But De Long -learned, by means of signs and motions, that Nordenskjöld, with the -_Vega_, had wintered to the northwest of them, and that a few weeks -before he had passed out through Bering strait. - -The Tchuktches had a delightfully original way of asking for liquor. -They bent their elbows and uttered the word “Schnapps.” But they did -not get anything to drink, and soon returned to the shore. - -The next day some men from the _Jeannette_ succeeded in landing. They -found the Tchuktches living in tents made of skin, and very dirty. -They ate the raw flesh of the walrus and drank the blood. Their chief -wore a red calico gown as a mark of his high rank. It was a cool -garment for so cold a place, but the natives do not feel the cold as -keenly as we should. - -After sailing along the Siberian coast for a short distance, the -_Jeannette_ bade farewell to land and started on her perilous journey. - -In the Arctic regions the ice is divided into what is known as young -ice and the pack. Young ice is that which is forming all the time. -It is thin at first, and vessels can usually cut their way through. -The pack is the old ice which has been formed for many years, and is -composed of large pieces, called floes, which are often thirty or forty -feet thick and extend over a great surface both above and below the -water. - -The floes sometimes close up and float together as a pack, squeezing -in everything between them. Sometimes they separate, leaving channels -of water between. The pack floats with the wind and the current, and -there is little chance of escape from it. If a ship is caught in the -ice pack, it must float with it until a storm or some other change of -weather breaks up the pack. When a ship is strong enough to resist the -pressure of the ice pack, there is some chance of escape in the spring, -but so tremendous is the power of the ice that Arctic voyagers avoid -the pack if possible. - -It seems to have been De Long’s intention deliberately to enter the -pack and drift with it, for when, on September 6, he saw an opening -between the Siberian and the American packs, he slipped in. At first -the _Jeannette_ pushed her way bravely, but after a few hours she was -unable to proceed, and soon she was frozen in solidly. - -[Illustration: THE “JEANNETTE” IN THE ICE PACK.] - -To the southwest lay Herald island, which the men attempted to explore. -Taking a dog sledge, they traveled to within six miles of the beach, -where they found open water, so that they were obliged to return to the -ship without setting foot on land. They found the ship drifting with -the ice, and in danger of being crushed between the huge masses which -surrounded her. Thundering noises from far away could be heard as the -blocks of ice ground and grated together. At times the ice separated -near the ship, leaving it in clear water. Again, the pack closed up -about the stanch little vessel, which was like an eggshell at the mercy -of enormous blocks of floating ice. - -But all this time the _Jeannette_ was drifting, and at length she came -in sight of Wrangel Land. Before De Long lost sight of this land, he -satisfied himself that it was an island, and not a part of Greenland -as some explorers had supposed. - -On November 10 the black Arctic night began, which lasted until January -25. The bitterness of the cold during this long period of darkness is -inconceivable. The surface water was usually at a temperature of 29° -F., the freezing point of salt water. - -Notwithstanding their discomforts, the men followed a regular routine. -At seven o’clock in the morning all on board were called and the fires -were started in the galleys. At nine o’clock the explorers ate their -breakfast. From eleven until one o’clock every man took his gun and -went out on the ice to exercise. At three in the afternoon dinner -was served, and the galley fires were put out in order to save coal. -Between seven and eight o’clock tea was made. The crew lived on pork -and beans, salt beef, and canned goods. Sometimes, when the hunters -were successful, they had the meat of the seal, bear, or walrus. For -amusements there were theatricals and a navigation class. - -For one year and nine months the _Jeannette_ floated in the pack, at -the mercy of wind and tide. The coldest weather came in February, when -the thermometer registered 58° below zero. In spite of the windings -and turnings of their course, the general direction was toward the -northwest. De Long trusted to the strength of his ship to withstand the -pressure of the ice, and float across the pole out into the Atlantic -ocean. At length, on May 17, 1881, land was sighted. It proved to be -an island not indicated on the chart of that region. De Long therefore -claimed it as a discovery, and named it Jeannette island. Another -island was discovered not far away, and called Henrietta. - -A sledge party under Melville was sent out from the ship to explore -this island. The ice over which they traveled consisted of large -blocks that floated rapidly and were constantly changing their -position. Sometimes the men were obliged to jump into the water and -swim from one block to another. The dogs were almost useless; they -refused to jump, and tried to run away. The men pushed them into the -water, and then they had to swim for their lives. This seems cruel -treatment, but Arctic exploration means severe suffering for all who -engage in it, and the help of the dogs was absolutely necessary. - -Henrietta island was rocky and ice-capped, not in itself a very -valuable possession for the United States of America; yet the Stars and -Stripes were set up there, and a square copper case, containing copies -of the _New York Herald_ and a record of the voyage, was placed in a -cairn. Then the sledge party returned to the ship. The _Jeannette_ was -in dire distress, for the ice around her, now rapidly breaking up, was -by turns receding and closing in. Every time it closed in, it pressed -against her sides with tremendous force, so that her timbers fairly -creaked. - -But brave Captain De Long would not leave his ship until he was quite -certain that she was going to sink, and her hold was full of water -before he gave orders to abandon her. Then the crew had to work with -desperate haste to transfer provisions, tents, and boats to a safe -place on the ice. At four o’clock in the morning of June 13, the -_Jeannette_ sank to the bottom of the Arctic ocean. The ice closed over -the place where the little vessel had endured such terrific grinding -for twenty-one months, and only a cabin chair and a few pieces of wood -remained to mark the spot. - -Imagine the condition of the men left on the ice so many miles from -land. But they worked with calm courage to arrange their provisions and -all the articles which were needful for camping on the sledges, and -four days after the _Jeannette_ had sunk, the retreat across the ice -began. - -This march was one of the most difficult ever undertaken. In one day -the travelers could cover a distance of only a mile, or at most a mile -and a half. Thirteen times they were compelled to go over the road, -seven times with loads, six times without, traveling a distance of -twenty-six miles in order to cover an advance of two miles. Many of the -party were taken ill and had to be carried by their companions. - -At the end of the week, De Long found that the ice over which they were -traveling had floated northwest faster than they had traveled south; -consequently the party was twenty-seven miles farther away from the -Siberian coast than when they started. De Long kept this disheartening -fact a secret from his men, lest they should despair. - -On and on they traveled, day after day, until at last a dim line of -land came into view; it proved to be a new island, with rocky shores -and steep sides. It was a difficult task to cross the channel of water -which separated the ice pack from this bleak coast, but Captain De Long -ordered all his men to attempt the crossing. They raised the American -flag and took possession of the island in the name of the President of -the United States. This land De Long called Bennett island. Thousands -of birds were found among the rocks, and the men had a refreshing feast -after their weeks of weary work. The sides of Bennett island were bold -and steep, and landslides occurred several times. - -It was thought best to continue the journey by water. There were three -boats, and a part of the supplies was placed in each boat. De Long -commanded one, Lieutenant Chipps another, and Engineer Melville the -third. When the New Siberian islands came in sight, the voyagers knew -that they were nearing the mouth of the Lena river. This large stream -flows across Siberia into the Arctic ocean. Its banks are usually -occupied by tribes of Indians, who remain there during the summer -season to fish and hunt. It was encouraging to know that land was so -near, and the weary travelers kept bravely on, working with all their -strength to steer through the masses of ice. It seemed as if two new -perils sprang up for every danger escaped. In a heavy gale Lieutenant -Chipps’s boat went down, and De Long and Melville lost sight of each -other. Melville at length succeeded in guiding his boat to the mouth of -the Lena river. - -The country appeared to be deserted, and it seemed probable that they -had escaped from drowning, only to perish from cold and starvation. But -after they had traveled some distance up the river, and were just about -to give up in despair, they met some natives. - -Melville ordered the natives to spread the report of the two missing -boats wherever they went. Two of them were sent with dog teams as a -searching party to the different towns on the delta. After thirteen -days they returned with tidings of the missing crews. They had met two -men of Captain De Long’s party, Noros and Nindemann, who had succeeded -in making their way to a deserted fishing station; but they were in -a pitiable condition. Although a severe storm was raging, Melville -started immediately for this place with his dog team, carrying food -with him. - -He found Noros and Nindemann in a small hut, nearly dead from cold and -hunger. After making them comfortable, and learning from them where -they had left De Long, Melville pushed on. Storms delayed him in his -search, so that when he reached the part of the river where De Long’s -party was last seen, he abandoned all hope of finding any of them -alive, for they had been without provisions two days when Nindemann -left them, and that part of the country was entirely destitute of food. - -Yet Melville continued his search, determined to find the missing men, -alive or dead. After heroic, untiring efforts, he found the dead bodies -of his shipmates. They had perished five months before. - -After attending to the burial of his brave comrades, and rewarding the -natives who had assisted him, Melville set out for home. He arrived -in New York, September 13, 1883, just one year from the day on which -the three boats were separated in the gale. Due credit has been given -Engineer Melville, both at home and abroad, for his promptness and -energy in conducting the search for the lost crew of the _Jeannette_. - -The fate of the _Jeannette_ and her crew often leads people to overlook -the results secured by her voyage. The long drift of twenty-one months -enabled the voyagers of this expedition to acquire considerable -knowledge of the ocean. The ship traveled over a large area, sometimes -moving almost in a circle. The depth of the ocean, the character of -its bed and its drift were determined. Many kinds of animal life were -studied, and two islands were discovered. - - - - -XIII. GREELY IN GRINNELL LAND - -1881–1883 - - -Interest in the Frozen North became so great, that a conference of -nations was held in Hamburg, Germany, in 1879, to discuss plans by -means of which knowledge of that part of the world might be advanced. -Eleven countries were represented, and it was decided to send out -expeditions and establish stations for the purpose of making scientific -observations. Fifteen expeditions were sent out by different countries, -and fourteen stations were established. These stations were known -as the International Circumpolar stations, and their work was to be -coöperative. - -The United States decided to establish two stations, one at Point -Barrow, Alaska, and the other in Lady Franklin bay. The command of -the expedition to Point Barrow was given to Lieutenant Ray. Adolphus -Washington Greely, a lieutenant in the United States Army, was offered -command of the other, and when the enterprise was made national in -1881, he accepted the commission. - -The arrangements necessary for the journey were soon made, and Greely -and his companions sailed on the _Proteus_ to Newfoundland. They left -that island on July 7, 1881, and headed for the north. The _Proteus_ -sailed through Davis strait and Baffin bay, passing the wonderful “bird -cliffs,” which rise perpendicularly for over a thousand feet out of -the sea, and are broken only by narrow ledges. Neither Eskimo nor -animal can reach these rocks, and here, safe from harm, the birds lay -their eggs and hatch out their young by the tens of thousands. Greely’s -men shot many birds and secured hundreds of eggs. - -[Illustration: BIRD CLIFFS.] - -The _Proteus_ passed through Smith sound and Kennedy channel, and -reached Lady Franklin bay in safety. She anchored at last in Discovery -bay, on the coast of Grinnell land, where Greely and his men went -ashore to select a place suitable for a camp, to be named Fort Conger. -Then the _Proteus_ steamed away, leaving a small company of men alone -in the Arctic solitude. But they were too busy to feel lonely, and -began to work hard in order to make a comfortable home for themselves. -The house was built of wood covered with tarred paper, and stations for -the instruments were erected near at hand. - -The cliffs around Discovery harbor rise from a hundred to a thousand -feet in height and nearly surround the bay, which contains about -twenty square miles of ice floe. Game was plentiful. Large flocks of -eider ducks visited an open pool near by, and herds of musk oxen were -to be seen in the distance, grazing quietly. The Arctic summer was -at its height, and the slopes were covered with grasses, mosses, and -buttercups. - -Under the direction of Lieutenant Greely, the men took observations, -explored the country, and built depots. The depots were built at -convenient distances from Fort Conger, and were stored with supplies -of food for the use of exploring parties. At last so much had been -accomplished that Greely thought he might safely leave the camp and try -to reach the interior of Grinnell land. - -With three companions he started from Fort Conger, April 26, 1882, -traveling over ice which was in good condition, so that the party moved -rapidly. Greely found that two openings along the coast, which he -had supposed to be bays, were large fiords. Here he came upon layers -of remarkably clear fresh-water ice. It was deep blue in color and -contrasted beautifully with the opaque white ice of the ocean floes. -Without doubt a river or glacier emptied into the fiord. Magnificent -mountain peaks round about rose to heights of thousands of feet above -the sea level, and through the valleys, which were bare of snow, there -were frequent traces of the musk ox, the fox, and the hare. - -[Illustration: MUSK OX.] - -A sharp turn brought the party to a large icebound lake about five -hundred square miles in area, which Greely named Lake Hazen. To the -north rose ranges of mountains, snow-covered and majestic, known as -the Garfield range; beyond these lay the United States range, also -snow-covered. - -The next day Lake Hazen was crossed and a beautiful glacier discovered. -It was five miles wide, and rose perpendicularly one hundred and -seventy-five feet out of the lake. Greely named it the Henrietta -Nesmith glacier, in honor of his wife. - -The top of this glacier was white, like unpolished marble. Lower down, -the ice shaded into a bluish color, growing more delicate as it reached -the foot, where it became white, with yellow and rose-colored tinges. -There were three deep gullies or channels in the glacier, through -which a torrent had evidently rushed at some time; and, strange as -it may seem, the hills and slopes next it were covered with plants, -lichens, willows, and Arctic poppies. In the valleys there was enough -vegetation to serve as pasture for musk oxen and other animals. The -interior of Grinnell land was a pleasant country, and Greely felt sorry -to leave it and return to the coast. He had discovered and explored a -large tract of land never before visited by civilized men. - -In June, 1882, Greely went again to the interior of Grinnell land. This -time he discovered a number of small lakes, connected by streams with -Lake Hazen. - -He also made the ascent of a mountain forty-five hundred feet in -height. When he had climbed within half a mile of the top he was so -tired that he felt he must give up. To urge himself onward, he kept -throwing his field glasses ahead of him, and crawling on his hands -and knees to the spot where they were. At last he could advance only -fifty steps at a time, but he persevered and reached the top, to which -he gave the name Mount Arthur. It is in all probability the highest -peak in Grinnell land, and from its summit Greely saw the entire -island spread out like a map before him. North of Lake Hazen rose the -snow-clad mountains, extending range beyond range. A like view met his -eye as he surveyed the country to the south, while in the interior he -was gazing upon fertile valleys dotted with lakes, which supported -herds of musk oxen. - -Greely spent only twenty minutes on the top of Mount Arthur. The -temperature was far below zero, and he was in danger of freezing. When -he began to descend, he decided to slide down a precipice a hundred -feet in height, in order to save a long walk around the snowdrifts. -Luckily he landed in the soft snow. At the foot of the mountain Greely -met his companions, and they returned all together to Fort Conger, well -pleased with their journey. - -The next year Lieutenant Lockwood crossed Grinnell land, and on the -western coast discovered a large fiord which he named Greely fiord. -Both north and south of this region were large ice caps, which -constantly discharged glaciers into the lakes and fiords. At Lake -Hazen, as well as at many other places on the island, abandoned Eskimo -huts were found, showing that the Eskimos had at one time occupied the -island; and many relics of these people were collected, among them -a stone lamp, a bone spear-head, and a sledge. But at this time the -island was entirely uninhabited. - - - - -XIV. FARTHEST NORTH OF THE GREELY PARTY - -1882 - - -While Greely was exploring Grinnell land, another party from Fort -Conger, under Lieutenant Lockwood, had forced its way across Robeson -channel to the Greenland coast. Lockwood’s party proceeded northward in -the face of many severe trials. The thermometer registered 81° below -the freezing point; add to this rough ice and severe winds, and we may -faintly imagine the suffering endured. - -During a snowstorm the men were obliged to dig a hole in a snow bank -and crawl into it for protection. But the opening soon filled up with -drifting snow, and the air became so foul that the men were glad to -creep out again. Sometimes the wind blew them over while they were at -work, and once a fierce gust lifted one of the dog sledges, with its -load of two hundred pounds, from the ground. Nevertheless, on April 27, -1882, the party reached Cape Bryant, where they camped and proceeded to -explore the surrounding country. The men of the supporting party, as -had been agreed, turned back at this point and returned to Fort Conger. - -[Illustration: AN ARCTIC SNOWSTORM.] - -Then Lieutenant Lockwood, Sergeant Brainard, and an Eskimo named -Christianson set off to the north to Cape Britannia, taking with them -enough food to last twenty-five days. The ice was in fair condition -for pushing rapidly forward, and they soon reached Cape Britannia, a -towering cliff. The men climbed to the top and gazed around over the -snow-covered mountain peaks. Then they descended and traveled on over -land never before trodden by white men. They crossed Nordenskjöld inlet -and Chipps inlet, and at length reached a new island, which was named -after Lieutenant Lockwood. It lies in latitude 83° 24ʹ north, but four -hundred and fifty miles from the pole, and was at that time, 1882, the -northernmost point yet attained by any nation. - -For three hundred years England had held the honor of penetrating -farthest north. From the time of Henry Hudson, who, in 1607, reached -latitude 81° 30ʹ, the English sailors had succeeded in going nearer to -the pole than the explorers of any other nation. In 1875, an English -Arctic expedition under Captain Nares, reached latitude 83° 20ʹ -north. Now, Lockwood and Brainard had gained for America the glory of -penetrating the farthest north. - -From a height of twenty-six hundred feet these two men saw fields of -ice extending to the north as far as the horizon. To the northeast they -saw Cape Washington, which is twenty-eight miles above Cape Columbia, -the most northern point of Grinnell land. Cape Washington is the -northernmost known limit of Greenland, lying in latitude 83° 38ʹ. After -battling so long with the fierce gales and severe weather, the two men -were so exhausted that they could with difficulty return to the camp. -Shortly after their return it was decided to go back to Fort Conger. -Two of the party were snow-blind and had to be led. The three brave -travelers were greeted with delight by the rest of the party. - -Their success in reaching the highest latitude yet attained was -discussed at every meal. The time passed rapidly at Fort Conger, for -the men were very busy, but presently they became anxious. The visiting -ship which was expected in the summer of 1882, with supplies and -recruits, did not arrive, and Greely prepared to pass a second winter -at Fort Conger. When August, 1883, came and no visiting ship had yet -made its appearance, it is no wonder that the men were disheartened. - -At length, weary of waiting, and certain that it meant death to remain -a third winter at Fort Conger, Greely decided to retreat to the south, -hoping to meet the ship. He expected, at least, to find that provisions -had been placed in depots, for his relief. The little steam launch, the -_Lady Greely_, towed two other small boats through the narrow channels. -Small amounts of food were found in different caches or depots along -the route, though not enough to bring much relief. The party was now -on the verge of starvation. Only after a desperate struggle did they -succeed in reaching Cape Sabine, where they erected stone huts and -prepared to pass the winter as best they might. Some of the party tried -to hunt, but game had disappeared and darkness was close upon them. -Their condition was indeed pitiable; their clothing was in rags, they -had no fuel and but forty days’ rations. - -But the United States had not forgotten the brave men who were risking -their lives to make her name glorious. The _Neptune_, the _Proteus_, -and the _Yantic_ had been sent to relieve Greely during 1882 and 1883. -Every one of these vessels, however, failed to reach him; moreover, -they neglected to deposit supplies where he might have found them. - -In the winter of 1883 and 1884, under the personal direction of -Secretary Chandler, two vessels, the _Thetis_ and the _Bear_, were -bought and equipped for the relief of Greely. The _Thetis_ was -commanded by Commodore W. S. Schley, and sailed from New York on May 1, -1884. On board the _Thetis_ was Chief Engineer Melville, who had made -the heroic search for De Long of the ill-fated _Jeannette_. Melville -himself had urged this relief expedition for Greely, and his energy and -knowledge brought success. - -Congress offered a reward of $25,000 to any vessel not in the navy, -which should first find the missing men, and many a whaler went north -in the attempt to win the prize. These vessels, though unsuccessful in -the search, did some good, for they helped to break a passage through -the ice. - -The men of the _Thetis_, under Commodore Schley, did not delay a -moment, or wait for favorable leads. When they could not advance in any -other way, they tried to blast the ice in front and so force a passage. -They fought the ice as they would fight a foe, never swerving from -their one object――to reach Greely in as short a time as possible. Every -possible effort was made, and by June 6 the _Thetis_ reached Melville -bay. Little by little she forged ahead, and reached the neighborhood of -Smith sound. - -Here all the men who could be spared were sent ashore to search for -records, and at last one of the men came upon a cairn, which he opened. -In it he found a bundle of Greely’s papers, photographs, and records. -The most recent record was dated September, 1883, nine months before. -It stated that the party had gone into camp four and a half miles west -of Cape Sabine. Commodore Schley immediately ordered a party of men to -take the steam cutter and find the camp. The _Thetis_ then blew her -whistles to call the search parties back to the ship. - -The men of Greely’s party in the wretched tent at Camp Clay heard the -whistles and knew that a vessel must be somewhere near, yet they were -too weak to go in search of it, and too hopeless to believe that any -one was near enough to find them. One man did crawl out and try to -raise an oar with three rags on it, as a signal of distress, but the -furious wind tore it down. - -The sharp eyes of the men in the steam cutter saw this man. They ran -the boat inshore and were soon questioning him about his companions. -He told them that they were over the hill, and that seven of them -still lived, among them Lieutenant Greely. The ice pilot jumped out of -the boat and ran to the camp. He was the first of the party to speak -to Lieutenant Greely, as he had been the last to see him when the -_Proteus_ steamed away from Discovery harbor three years before. Greely -directed him to cut the back out of the tent with his pocket knife. -When this was done, Greely on his hands and knees in his sleeping bag -peered out. His hair and beard were long and matted, his face was -covered with soot and dirt, and his eyes glittered with excitement. He -heard with joy that help had arrived and that he and his companions -were saved. In the midst of a terrific wind storm, the surviving men of -Greely’s party were transferred to the _Thetis_ and made comfortable. - -Then came the dreadful work of collecting the bodies of the dead and -carrying them aboard the ships, after which the _Thetis_ and the -_Bear_ set sail from Camp Clay and headed for home. The ship reached -Portsmouth, New Hampshire, August 1, 1884, where Greely and his command -were transferred to the navy yard, while the bodies of the dead were -taken to Governor’s island in New York harbor. - -Thus ended one of the most successful and rapid relief voyages ever -made. Had Commodore Schley been more cautious, not a man of Greely’s -party would have been found alive. But Schley knew that this was a time -for both courage and daring, and neither he nor any of his command -lacked in these qualities. - -Greely and the other survivors of his expedition received a royal -welcome home. The President of the United States thanked them publicly -on behalf of the nation, the Queen of England sent messages of inquiry -and sympathy, and the people of Portsmouth held a grand reception in -their honor. The government sent several large war vessels to the -harbor, and Mr. Chandler, Secretary of the Navy, and other prominent -men came with them. The shores of the river were lined with people and -the harbor was filled with steamers, sailboats, and smaller craft, all -gayly decorated with flags and bunting. Everybody was eager to welcome -the brave men who had risked their lives and suffered so much in -seeking to penetrate still farther into the Frozen North. - -Those members of the expedition who lost their lives in this journey -were not forgotten. A public funeral was held at Governor’s island, and -every respect was paid to the memories of these men. - -The results of Greely’s work in the Arctic regions were many. The -programme for international scientific work had been carried out daily. -All magnetic and climatic changes had been noted. The effect of the -sun’s rays, the earth and ocean currents, the atmosphere, electricity, -ice, and tides had been observed. A study had been made, also, of the -animal and vegetable life of the locality, and of the Eskimos. - -Both this Circumpolar station and the one established at Point Barrow -were abandoned in 1883, but the value of the work accomplished through -them was very great. - - - - -XV. LIEUTENANT SCHWATKA IN ALASKA - -1883 - - -Alaska was purchased by the United States from Russia in 1867. It was -supposed to be a barren region of ice and snow, and many people thought -that the price of $7,200,000 was an amount far in excess of the value -of the land. - -For many years no attempt was made to form a territorial government in -Alaska, and the country remained in charge of the military forces of -the United States. In 1883, Lieutenant Schwatka determined to conduct -an exploring expedition into the interior, for the purpose of gaining -such information of the country and its wild inhabitants as would be -of assistance to the soldiers stationed there. This expedition did -not have the support of Congress and was kept as secret as possible. -Lieutenant Schwatka feared that, if attention were attracted to the -expedition, Congress would forbid its departure. - -All Schwatka’s plans worked well. With six companions he left Portland, -Oregon, at midnight, May 22, and sailed northward, taking the inland -route to Alaska. The inland route consists of a channel which lies -between the coast of Washington and British Columbia and southeastern -Alaska and the line of islands which lie off that coast. - -Sitka, then the capital of Alaska, was reached in a little more than -a week, and two days later the ship dropped anchor in a pretty port -called Pyramid harbor, near the mouth of the Chilkat river. The -villages of the Chilkat Indians, consisting of from fifteen to fifty -houses each, are built along this river. At these villages Lieutenant -Schwatka secured the services of about sixty Indians to go with him on -his journey. - -[Illustration: SITKA, ALASKA, IN 1880.] - -The party started over a good trail and soon reached Haines’s mission -on Chilkoot inlet. Here more Indians were added to the number already -employed, and the tramp began over the mountains to the head waters -of the Yukon. At first the party traveled through a riverlike channel -between high, steep mountains, which were covered nearly to the top -with pine, cedar, and spruce trees. The summits were covered with snow -and ice, which melted and formed cascades and torrents, and rushed -down the slopes, dashing over precipices and flinging spray in all -directions. - -This journey brought them to the mouth of a river called the Dayay, -where they camped. Schwatka now explained his plan to his Indian -guides. He told them that when he should reach the Yukon, he intended -to build a raft and float down the great river to its mouth. The -Indians were astonished at this bold project. They ridiculed the -idea, saying that no raft could make such a journey. There were lakes -to pass through, they said, and miles of raging rapids, which would -twist and tear any raft to pieces. But Schwatka paid no attention to -their opinions. He kept steadily on his way, and the journey continued -pleasant and easy through the Dayay river. - -On June 10, the course lay over the spurs of the mountains, and travel -became difficult. The trail was up and down hill, over huge trunks of -fallen trees, and through boggy swamps. Each man carried one hundred -pounds of luggage on his back, and when he sank into a bog up to his -knees, it was far from easy to get out. - -The snow line reached, the ascent of the pass over the Coast range -was begun. Behind one another, in single file, the men scrambled up -precipices and through valleys. Sometimes they crawled along on their -hands and knees, often using their teeth to grasp a dwarf bush. In -many places a single misstep would have resulted in death, but they -persevered and at length succeeded in crossing the mountains without -accident. - -[Illustration: CROSSING THE COAST RANGE.] - -Most of the Indians left Schwatka at this place and returned to their -homes. Those who were to accompany him down the Yukon river to the -coast camped with the white men, late in the evening, by a small lake -called by Schwatka, Crater lake. It is the source of the great Yukon -river. - -At Lake Lindeman the raft was built, and the stores and provisions -were placed upon it. Then began the longest raft journey ever made for -purposes of exploration. - -Lieutenant Schwatka and his companions propelled the raft, by means of -rowing and sculling, through Lake Lindeman into another lake called -Bennett lake. On the mountains around Bennett lake were beautiful blue -glaciers, and among them shone peaks and ridges of a reddish color. -Schwatka concluded that the red color was due to the presence of -iron in the soil, and he accordingly named the range the Iron-capped -mountains. - -The explorers now traveled through a chain of lakes connected by -streams of water. The last lake led them into the Yukon river, which -flowed rapidly, so that for a while the raft made good time. On July -1, the party came in sight of the upper end of the Grand Cañon of the -Yukon, where the river, which had been about three hundred yards in -width, grew narrower, until it was about thirty yards wide. - -The walls of the cañon are nearly a mile in length and are -perpendicular columns of rock. The center of this cañon expands into a -large basin full of whirlpools and eddies. The waters, white with foam, -tear through this narrow passage of rock at the rate of six or seven -miles an hour, with a roaring that can be heard at a great distance. - -At the northern end of the cañon the rushing river widens again, but -for four miles it seethes, foams, and falls in cascades. The luggage -was sent round by portage, and Schwatka prepared to shoot his raft -through the rapids. Once started, the men could not control or guide -the raft at all, but left it to work its own way. This it did very -successfully, though many times they thought it would surely be dashed -in pieces. - -After the rapids were passed, the men drew the sturdy raft ashore, -and found that it needed but few repairs. While some of the men were -engaged in mending the raft, the others fished. Schwatka found this the -best fishing ground on the entire river; in a short time between four -and five hundred fine grayling were caught with rod and fly. - -The raft was ready for use again by July 5, and on that day Schwatka -and his party started once more down the Yukon, and soon passed through -the last lake they were to encounter. After this the river became wider -and was dotted with islands; then the site of old Fort Selkirk came -into view. - -[Illustration: TANANA STATION, RIVER YUKON, IN WINTER.] - -Fort Selkirk was built in 1850 by the Hudson Bay Trading Company for a -trading post with the Indians. But the Chilkats wanted the furs from -the interior for themselves; so they gathered a war party together, -descended the Yukon river to Fort Selkirk, burned the building, and -carried off the goods. Now all that remains of Fort Selkirk is a group -of three old chimneys. - -Schwatka camped at this spot several days. Near the river bank he came -upon a burial ground of the Ayan Indians, who inhabit this part of the -country. A fence of rough boards, bound together by willows, is built -around each grave. Above the grave there stands a long, light pole -about twenty feet high, with a piece of colored cloth hanging from the -top. Near the grave, but outside the inclosure, stands another pole -of about the same height. To the top of this second pole is fastened -a rude carving of a fish, duck, goose, bear, or some other animal or -bird. - -These poles are called totems. They represent the most clever -workmanship of these Indians, and are collected and sold as curiosities. -Some of the carvings are very old and display remarkable skill. No one -knows exactly what these totem poles mean, as the Indians are unwilling -to talk about them, but they are supposed to indicate in some way the -history of the buried person or of his tribe. The Indians do not make -totem poles any more, but they carefully preserve those which they -already have. - -At Fort Selkirk the Yukon begins to cut through the northern spurs -of the Rocky mountains. This part of the river is known as the Upper -Ramparts, and the scenery along the banks for one hundred miles is -wondrously beautiful. Schwatka and his party left Selkirk July 15, and -traveled through this beautiful country. As they rounded one of the -islands, they saw about two hundred Ayan Indians gathered on the beach -opposite, waiting to receive them. - -The Ayans had heard of the approach of the curious raft with its -white owners, and were anxious to show them some attention. Many of -the Indians ran up and down the bank, shouting, screaming, and waving -their arms wildly. Others in birch-bark canoes surrounded the raft, and -escorted it to shore. When the raft came near the shore, men, women, -and children waded out to their waists in the ice-cold water and helped -to drag it in. Schwatka feared at first that the Indians might do the -party some harm, and ordered his companions to keep their guns near. -But the Indians were very friendly. They began singing and dancing, -while their medicine-man went through the most unheard-of performances. - -The Ayan huts are made of spruce brush. Over the top is thrown a piece -of dirty canvas or a moose or caribou skin, and the huts are built so -low that a man can scarcely stand erect inside. Quantities of salmon -hang from the roof, partly dried, but still undergoing a smoking -process from the dense clouds of smoke that arise from the fire. The -dogs sleep in the house, lying around on the floor. In the winter the -Ayans cover their tents thickly with skins and then bank them about -with snow. - -As the party followed the river from this Indian village, they -found the mountains becoming higher and grander, while――by way of -contrast――the mosquitoes grew more annoying. The whole region swarmed -with them, and the newcomers longed for veils. They were obliged to use -small bushes to brush away the mosquitoes. - -The water of the Yukon became very muddy, so that it was impossible -to fish with a rod and fly. At the Yukon flat lands, reached by our -travelers after three weeks of traveling through this flat region, -the river widened and was filled with low, sandy islands. The fort is -situated on a curve of the river which happens to be almost directly -upon the Arctic circle, and is called the Great Arctic bend. - -Fort Yukon is about one thousand miles from the mouth of the river, -which at this point is seven miles wide. The river steamer, named the -_Yukon_, was moored at the fort, and her cannon greeted the raftsmen. -The settlement consists of a few old houses and the old fort built by -the Hudson Bay Company. The Fort Yukon tribe of Indians live in the -vicinity, but the hunting and fishing are poor, and the tribe is small -and nomadic. - -After the river men had traded with the Indians the steamer proceeded -upstream, while Schwatka and his party started downstream again on the -raft. In a little while the country began to grow hilly once more, -greatly to the delight of the travelers, for the low region had been -unendurably dreary. The hilly region is known as the Lower Ramparts, -and its scenery is much like that of the Upper Ramparts. - -Another trading station was soon reached, where Schwatka saw the -northernmost garden in the United States. This garden, within two days’ -journey of the polar regions, belonged to the white man who was in -charge of the station at that point. In it were growing turnips and -other hardy vegetables, which tasted delicious to the men, who had been -living so long upon canned foods. - -The raft was laid away at this place, after its journey of thirteen -hundred and three miles, and the party embarked on a schooner, hoping -to make better time. But they were forced to work their way down the -river inch by inch, for heavy winds sprang up and more than once -threatened to wreck the schooner. The _Yukon_ at last overtook them, -on her return to the mouth of the river, as Schwatka had expected. - -[Illustration: THE RAFT ON WHICH A JOURNEY OF THIRTEEN HUNDRED AND -THREE MILES WAS MADE.] - -The great delta of the Yukon soon came into view. It consists of many -islands and channels which have never been entirely explored. From the -most northern mouth of the delta to the most southern is a distance of -ninety miles. After the Alphoon, the northernmost mouth, was reached, -a weary time began. The vessel slowly threaded her way through shallow -channels of water and between mud banks, until she crept into the -harbor of the little village of St. Michael on the coast. From this -place Schwatka and his party embarked for San Francisco on the _Leo_, -which had stopped at St. Michael on its way from Point Barrow. - -By this raft journey of Lieutenant Schwatka, the Yukon was navigated -from its source to its mouth, a distance of two thousand and forty-four -miles. - -This river is the fifth in length in the United States, and sends forth -such a volume of water that it freshens Bering sea to a distance of ten -miles. - - - - -XVI. NANSEN CROSSES GREENLAND - -1888 - - -Schwatka had explored the interior of Alaska, but the interior of -Greenland remained as great a mystery as ever. The only man who -had attempted to cross the inland region was Nordenskjöld, who had -penetrated only a few miles. - -In 1888 a young Norwegian named Fridtjof Nansen determined to cross the -ice cap of Greenland. - -Nansen was an expert in the use of the ski. Ski are Norwegian -snowshoes. They consist of long, narrow strips of wood, which are -fastened to the shoes in about the same way in which we fasten skates. -The ski are about eight feet in length and three or four inches in -breadth. In front they are slightly pointed and curved up; often the -back is pointed also. A man who is skillful in the use of ski can -travel over the snow by means of them at a rate of eight or nine miles -an hour. In Norway and in some other cold countries, where the snow -lies deep a larger part of the year, ski are much used for traveling. - -The people of Norway love the sport of ski-löbning. During the long -winter the boys and the girls go to and from school on ski. At recess -they take a run on their ski, and often the teacher goes with them. - -[Illustration: A MAN ON SKI.] - -Nansen learned to use the ski when a boy, and after he was grown up he -took great pleasure in strapping these queer shoes to his feet and -trying to climb the high mountains. - -One day this question came suddenly into Nansen’s mind: Why might not -a party of good ski-löbners cross Greenland from coast to coast? After -thinking the matter over for a time, Nansen concluded that it could be -done. From that moment he devoted all his time and energy to carrying -out his idea. He decided that the best plan would be to start from the -east coast and travel across to the west. The east coast was barren and -uninhabited. Sometimes a few wandering Eskimo tribes found their way -there, but no settlements had been made. On the western coast there -were settlements. - -Nansen knew that if his party landed on the east coast and traveled -west, they would travel toward safety. If this route were reversed, -they would leave comfort and safety behind at every step, and move -continually toward unknown dangers. The men might become discouraged, -give up the expedition, and return to the settlements. So Nansen coolly -made his plans to land on the east coast and cross Greenland to the -west coast. By this arrangement the men would perceive that they must -reach the west coast or die. - -[Illustration: FRIDTJOF NANSEN.] - -The government of Norway would not assist Nansen. His plan was -considered that of a madman. Many people said that he was attempting to -do an impossible thing. Others said, “Of what use is this exploit, even -if he does succeed?” These people did not know that a large portion of -our earth was once ice-covered, as Greenland is to-day. If we would -know the cause of many curious phenomena that now exist in our own -land, we must study Greenland. As Greenland is now, so, probably, was a -large part of the earth during the ice age, thousands of years ago. - -Though Nansen met with discouragements on every side, he continued to -plan for the trip. At length a wealthy Danish gentleman gave him enough -money to equip an expedition. It was not easy for Nansen to find -companions for this journey, but he at length succeeded in securing the -services of three Norwegians and two Lapps. The Norwegians were Otto -Sverdrup, a retired ship captain, Oluf Dietrichson, a lieutenant in the -army, and Kristian Kristiansen Trana, a peasant. The Lapps were named -Balto and Ravna. Balto was a good-looking young man, who spoke a little -English; he was a sea Lapp and lived in a town. Ravna was a mountain -Lapp, forty-five years of age. He was short, and had long, black hair -hanging over his shoulders. Ravna’s home was on the mountains, where he -lived in a skin tent and took care of herds of reindeer. - -[Illustration: A HERD OF REINDEER.] - -Nansen made sure that all these five men were skillful ski-löbners, for -he thought that, when they reached the inland ice of Greenland, the -journey would be rapid and easy on ski. - -Then Nansen arranged with the captain of a sealing vessel to carry -him and his companions to the Arctic ocean. After collecting tents, -clothing, food, sleeping bags, and scientific instruments, the party -proceeded to Iceland, where the captain of the sealing vessel had -promised to call for them. On June 3, 1888, the sealing vessel, -the _Jason_, arrived off the coast of Iceland, and Nansen and his -companions were taken aboard. The _Jason_ headed directly for Denmark -strait, where seals abound, and in a short time the ship was among the -ice floes. Every one on board was watching eagerly for seals, and at -last a large number of the quiet creatures were seen lying like black -dots on the floes. - -On board the _Jason_ there was great excitement. The men flew about, -making sure that rifles were clean and in good order and that cartridge -boxes were filled. Then the hunters rushed to the boats and the capture -began. One hundred and eighty-seven seals were shot that day. The -sealers thought this a small number, but Nansen, who had never hunted -seals before, thought it a very good day’s sport. - -Sealing vessels, in their efforts to make large hauls, usually push -steadily on through the ice, until they are in the midst of crowds of -seals. The force of the ice against the ship is often so great as to -throw the sailors off their feet. When the vessel is well in among the -seals the engines are stopped, and the men are ordered to start out -in the small boats. There are three or four oarsmen with one shooter -in each boat. Away they go in different directions, each boat trying -to secure the greatest number it can carry and to return first to the -ship. The seals lie all around on the edges of the ice floes, and at -first pay no attention to the boats. They lift their heads and see -the boats coming from a long distance away; then, ignorant of their -danger, they lower their heads again and lie quiet. - -As the boats draw nearer, the seals sometimes slide off into the water. -The hunters are quick to see any movement on the part of the seals. As -soon as one moves toward the water, the men in the boat begin to shout -as loudly as they can. The seal is so astonished by the unusual noise -that he lies still awhile to think it over. - -Then the hunter takes aim, and if he shoots the animal through the -head, it drops down on the ice again and dies. The other seals near by -are not disturbed. They seem to think that their companion has gone -quietly to sleep again, and that there can be no danger. Often several -seals are shot in this way before the rest become alarmed. - -Sometimes the shooter misses his mark and wounds the seal instead of -killing him instantly. The wounded seal in his pain splashes around -on the ice and in the water, and the others take fright and plunge -into the sea. A great deal, therefore, depends upon the skill of the -shooters, most of whom are accurate marksmen. - -When several seals have been shot, the men in the boat spring to the -floes where they are lying and skin them. The skinning is done rapidly -with long, sharp knives, and nothing is saved except the skin and the -layer of blubber lying next it. The entire body of the seal is left on -the ice. The Eskimos would think this practice very wasteful, for they -make use of every part of the seal, including the bones. - -As sealers sometimes return from a trip to Denmark strait with five -thousand skins aboard, it is not surprising that seals are becoming -scarce in that locality. - -Nansen was glad when the haul of seals was over and the _Jason_ steamed -away again toward Greenland. Several times the coast had been sighted, -but the ship had never drawn near enough to make it possible to land. -Balto was not very well pleased with his first glimpse of Greenland. -In his account of his voyage, he said that the coast had no beauty nor -charm to the eye, but was dismal and hideous to look upon; that the -mountain peaks were very high and rose like church steeples into the -clouds, which hid the summits. - -But Nansen thought the coast beautiful. The snow-covered peaks -glittered in the sunlight and extended as far as the eye could reach, -while far to the west stretched the vast white plain of inland ice. - -On July 17, 1888, as the _Jason_ was not more than ten or twelve miles -from the coast of Greenland, Nansen made up his mind to leave the ship. -All the baggage was brought on deck, farewells were said, and at seven -o’clock in the evening Nansen and his five companions climbed down the -ship’s ladder and embarked in two boats. The _Jason’s_ guns saluted; -the _Jason’s_ crew cheered. But deep down in their hearts the sailors -believed that Nansen and his men were going to certain death. No -thought of fear, however, disturbed the brave band. With the exception -of Balto and Ravna, they were all delighted to enter upon the perilous -journey. - -At first everything went well. There were channels of water between -the floes, wide enough for the boats to pass through. But soon the ice -began to pack, and the boats had to be pulled up upon the floes and -dragged across to open water. It was hard to keep the light craft from -being crushed between the ice masses. Then the current became so strong -that the men were obliged to draw the boats up on a floe, in order to -escape from it. - -The ice which had collected around them threw the smaller floes upon -the larger ones, making the ice uneven and difficult to traverse. -After working all night, the men crawled into their sleeping bags, and -were soon asleep. - -For several days little progress was made toward land. Then a heavy -swell arose and the breakers dashing over the floe where the tent had -been pitched threatened to wash it away. - -[Illustration: NANSEN’S CAMP ON THE DRIFT ICE.] - -Suddenly the floe split through the middle, and the travelers were -obliged to remove to a larger one and camp again. The tent stood now on -a piece of drifting ice, about ten miles from land, with every prospect -of being carried out to sea, where small boats could not live in the -heavy waves. The outlook was certainly gloomy. - -One morning Nansen missed Balto and Ravna. In searching for them he -lifted the canvas covering of one of the boats, and saw the two Lapps -lying in the bottom of the boat, side by side. Balto was reading to -Ravna from his Lappish New Testament, for both had made up their minds -that they must drown, and were preparing for death. - -That day the ice tilted and rolled like a raft on the angry waves, so -that it was almost impossible to cook the soup for their dinner. The -poor frightened Lapps did not speak a word, but the rest of the men -knew no fear, and laughed and joked as usual. - -When night came, all the men, except Balto and Sverdrup, went to bed in -the tent; Balto preferred to sleep in a boat, and Sverdrup was to keep -watch. - -Slowly and calmly, brave Otto Sverdrup paced up and down the ice. -The floe rocked like a ship at sea, and the heavy waves dashed over -it, threatening to wash away the entire camp. Several times Sverdrup -was obliged to hold the boat in which Balto was sleeping, to keep it -from being swept off the ice. Once it seemed that the tent must be -washed off also, and Sverdrup stepped up to it and unfastened one of -the hooks. He meant to call the men, so that they might get into the -boats, and, if possible, escape with their lives. But Sverdrup paused -a moment. The sea seemed to grow quieter, and a current arose which -quieted the breakers and changed the course of the drifting ice, which, -instead of sailing out to sea, now floated in the opposite direction. - -When Nansen awoke in the morning, he was surprised to find the open sea -far off, and the ice drifting calmly toward the land. All the party -rejoiced that they had remained on the ice, which at one time seemed so -dangerous. Their safety was due to the fearlessness and calm judgment -of Sverdrup. - -The work of launching the boats and dragging them over the ice -continued for a week longer. One morning Nansen was resting quietly in -his tent, when Ravna, who was on watch without, pulled aside the canvas -and peered in. He appeared so excited that Nansen asked him if he could -see land. “Yes, yes,” replied Ravna, “land too near!”――meaning, “land -very near.” Nansen sprang from his sleeping bag and looked out. Land -was very near, and there was open water in front of them. The boats -were quickly launched. After some hours of hard pulling the party found -a harbor and landed. - -The voyagers rejoiced to be on land once more. They walked over the -stones and rocks, and picked moss and a stalk or two of grass. They -had a good dinner to celebrate the landing: biscuit, cheese, and jam -to eat, and hot chocolate to drink. When dinner was over, they started -north again in boats along the coast, for Nansen wished to begin his -journey across Greenland farther to the north than the place where he -had landed. - -The travelers picked their way on along the coast until a great glacier -came in sight, which Nansen knew to be the famous Puisortok. Puisortok -means the place where something shoots up, and the Eskimos regard the -spot with fear. When they pass this dreadful place they will not speak, -laugh, eat, nor smoke. They will not look toward the glacier, or even -mention the name Puisortok. They believe that if they do any of these -things the glacier will become angry and cause their death. - -Balto was one day gazing through the telescope near this place, when -he saw two small black spots in the distance which seemed to be moving -rapidly toward him. As they grew more distinct, he shouted to Nansen -that two men were coming. When they came nearer, the strangers proved -to be two young East Greenland Eskimos traveling through the ice floes -in their kayaks. - -These Eskimos were short in stature and very good-looking. Their -faces were broad and round, and their features regular. Their skin -was chestnut-brown, and their hair long, black, and shiny. One wore a -jacket and breeches of sealskin, with strings of beads in his hair, -while the other wore sealskin trousers and a jacket of blue cotton. -On their heads they wore large flat-brimmed hats, made of blue cotton -stretched across a wooden ring. On the crown was a large red cross. - -[Illustration: A GROUP OF GREENLAND ESKIMOS. - -After photograph by Nansen.] - -The Eskimos showed great astonishment at the boats and other strange -things that they saw, and when Nansen gave them some food, they seemed -much pleased. By gestures they warned Nansen about the dangerous -Puisortok, and then set off northward again in their kayaks. - -Nansen and his men passed Puisortok without any trouble, though they -talked and laughed as usual. They looked at the dreaded glacier, and -admired the beautiful color of the ice, which shaded from blue to a -milky white. Yet old Puisortok showed no signs of anger. Soon the -wayfarers came upon an Eskimo camp. High up among the rocks stood the -skin tents, while the Eskimos themselves were gathered outside, running -about in a highly excited manner, chattering and waving their arms. As -the boats came nearer, the people on the land yelled and shrieked. Some -ran to the shore, and some to high points on rocks, where they could -get a better view of the strangers. - -They welcomed the newcomers with smiles of delight, and helped them -in every possible way. Nansen and his friends were invited into the -Eskimo tents. They remained inside as long as possible, but the filth -soon drove them out. When Nansen and his men went to bed in their own -tent, the Eskimos stood around in crowds, gaping curiously to see them -undress and crawl into their sleeping bags. - -The Eskimos gave the white men pieces of sealskin, and in return their -guests presented them with the empty tin cans in which their meat had -been packed. These gifts pleased the natives very much. They contrived -to make Nansen understand that two tribes, one traveling north and the -other south, had met at this place, and that now they were preparing to -separate and continue their journey. Nansen determined to accompany the -tribe which was going north, because he thought that their knowledge of -the coast might be of assistance to him. - -The accomplished Eskimos were not long in preparing for the journey. -In a twinkling the tents were down and everything was packed. Before -they parted, the members of the different tribes bade one another -good-by, rubbing their noses together, instead of kissing. A few -remained behind the others for a specially tender farewell. They drew -up in a line like soldiers, and brought out snuff horns. One man would -take snuff from a horn, and pass it on to the next. They spent several -hours in this ceremony, each man taking snuff many times. Nansen -thought they would sneeze themselves to death. - -Only the Eskimos who had come from the south had their horns full of -snuff. The tribe from the north was bound for the Danish colonies on -the southern coast, to procure this important article. The journey -takes about two years, one year to reach the Danish colonies, and one -year to return. When the colonies are reached, the Eskimos spend an -hour or two in trading. After they obtain the snuff, they start on -their homeward journey. Their form of snuff is simply tobacco, ground -to a powder between stones. In exchange for the tobacco, the Eskimos -give large, fine bearskins, foxskins, and sealskins. They pay high -prices for articles which cost the white men very little money. - -When the farewell was over, the Eskimos parted, and Nansen tried to -keep the north-bound travelers in sight, but he soon found that he must -depend upon himself and break his own way through the ice. The journey -grew harder and harder, and in camp the travelers were often tormented -by swarms of mosquitoes. Clouds of the small insects swarmed around -them and annoyed the men almost beyond endurance. Any amount of work in -the ice was to be preferred to an attack by mosquitoes. - -The party traveled through the water among huge icebergs; they plodded -wearily over ice hummocks; finally, they drew up their boats for the -last time at a place where Nansen thought they could climb the steep -ascent from the coast, and reach the inland ice. - -The boats were left in a cleft in the rocks, carefully blocked with -stones to keep them steady. Then began the climb up the mountains to -the plateau. The ascent was steep, and the men had hard work to drag up -the sledges. Often one of the climbers would sink into a deep crevasse -and have to be rescued by his companions. - -[Illustration: A VIEW IN THE INTERIOR OF GREENLAND.] - -The crevasses grew deeper and more dangerous as the party advanced, and -soon a rain storm set in, which delayed the travelers three days. While -they were lying in the tents, the men followed the wise example of the -bears and did no work. They ate very little and only once a day, but -slept a great deal. - -When they took up the journey again, they found the ice hard. But a -heavy snowstorm began, and it was difficult to drag the sledges through -the deep drifts. At last, when they reached a point six thousand feet -above the level of the sea, the wind was blowing fiercely and the -temperature stood at zero. - -Nansen decided to rig a sail for the sledges, hoping by this -contrivance to make the wind serve as an aid. Old Ravna was disgusted -with the plan, and Balto, too, thought it absurd to try to sail on the -snow. But Nansen made the sails, and the two Lapps were soon forced to -admit that their use made the load lighter to draw. - -[Illustration: SLEDGING ACROSS GREENLAND.] - -The snow was still very deep, and when, on August 30, it was in -condition for the men to use the ski, they joyfully strapped them on. -In a short time they had attained the plateau, and then for days they -toiled over a flat, wide expanse of snow. The highest elevation which -Nansen reached during this journey was nine thousand two hundred and -seventy-two feet, and the lowest temperature he experienced was 49° -below zero. - -The sledges were heavy, and the Lapps grumbled all the time, Ravna -especially being very low-spirited. One day he said to Nansen: “I am an -old Lapp, and a silly old fool, too. I don’t believe we shall ever get -to the coast.” - -Nansen answered: “That is quite true, Ravna. You are a silly old fool.” - -Ravna’s spirits grew lighter when the party reached the highest part -of the plateau and began to descend, for then they went along swiftly -on their ski, or coasted down the slopes. Sometimes they encountered -crevasses and had to pick their way carefully, and once Nansen fell -into a deep chasm and had to scramble desperately to get out. When -the bare rocks came in view, Ravna was so delighted that he insisted -upon carrying a double load. He said that the mountain grasses and the -reindeer moss reminded him of his own mountains at home. - -At last the travelers reached the sea and encamped in a sheltered -valley. Nansen and Sverdrup built a rude boat and embarked for -Godthaab, the nearest town on the coast, whence they sent back natives -to bring their comrades to town. - -The Greenlanders took the two Lapps for women, because of their long -tunics of reindeer skin. But Ravna and Balto did not resent this -mistake; they were perfectly happy now and at ease. They told the -natives about the wonderful things that they had seen during the -journey over the inland ice. - -Nansen was sadly disappointed when he heard that he could not sail for -home until the spring, for the ship on which he had hoped to sail had -already gone. He sent two swift kayak travelers with letters, to try to -overtake the ship at another town where she was to stop. - -[Illustration: SKATING OFF THE COAST OF GREENLAND.] - -Nansen and his companions spent the winter comfortably at Godthaab. -They found plenty to keep them busy. Nansen learned to use the kayak -skillfully; he hunted and fished, and made two trips upon the inland -ice. - -In the spring, when the ship arrived which was to take them home, all -the party felt sorry to part with the good friends they had made in -Greenland. The farewells over, Nansen was soon homeward bound. On May -30, 1888, the ship entered Christiania fiord. The harbor was filled -with steamers and sailing vessels, all crowded with people, assembled -to greet the man who had succeeded in crossing the inland ice of -Greenland. Flags were waved, bells rung, and cheers were given with a -will, to show the honor which Norway would pay her son, Fridtjof Nansen. - -When Nansen had disembarked and entered a carriage to be driven home, -the people were so excited that they dashed forward, unharnessed the -horses from the carriage, and seizing the pole, drew him in triumph -through the city. - -The scientific and geographical results of this journey of Nansen’s -were very great. Much valuable knowledge was gained concerning the -character of the interior of Greenland. - - - - -XVII. THE VOYAGE OF THE _FRAM_ - -1893–1896 - - -Nansen had not been at home very long before he began making -preparations for a second voyage to the icy North. This time he meant -to find the North Pole if possible. - -Nansen believed the theory that a current in the Arctic ocean passes -over the pole. His plan was to work his way through the ice to the -New Siberia islands, and then allow his vessel to be frozen in the -ice pack. He believed that the vessel would be carried with the drift -across the pole, to the east coast of Greenland. It was a daring plan, -but the people of Norway now believed in Nansen and were willing to -assist him. They gave him an amount equal to $75,600 of our money, so -that he was able to equip his expedition. - -First of all he had a vessel built which would resist ice pressures. -The hull was shaped so that the pressure would raise the vessel up on -the ice, instead of crushing her. This vessel was called the _Fram_, a -Norwegian word which means “onward.” Nansen chose his crew, all natives -of Norway, and made the necessary preparations for the voyage. Enough -provisions were put on board to last five years. Sverdrup, who had been -so brave and helpful during the trip across Greenland, was chosen to -command the _Fram_. - -At last everything was ready, and the day of departure arrived. The -_Fram_ was lying in Christiania harbor when Nansen boarded her (1893). -While they were still sailing along the coast of Norway, a severe storm -arose. The sea broke over the rails of the vessel, and for a while -Nansen feared that the deck cargo would be carried overboard, and that -the _Fram_ would meet with disaster before she reached the ice. But the -storm cleared, the sun shone again, and the men had a last glimpse of -their native land. - -[Illustration: THE LAUNCHING OF THE “FRAM.”] - -Then a dense fog surrounded the vessel, and she headed for the dreaded -Kara sea. The Kara sea was filled with ice, but the _Fram_ behaved -admirably. Nansen said that it was a pleasure to take her into -difficult ice, because she was so strong, and that she turned and -twisted as easily as a ball on a plate. - -The _Fram_ proceeded along the bleak Siberian coast. One morning a -herd of walruses came in sight. Nansen and two companions jumped into -a boat and went after them. One of the men threw a harpoon at the -nearest walrus, but did not hit him. This proceeding so startled the -other walruses that they plunged into the water, but not before Nansen -had shot two of them. They rose again around the boat, bellowing and -roaring, and lashing the sea into a foam. It seemed likely that the -powerful animals would overturn the boat or pierce it with their tusks. -But no accident happened, and Nansen secured several walruses, which -served as food for the crew. - -[Illustration: BOAT ATTACKED BY WALRUS.] - -By September 25, 1893, they had reached the New Siberia islands, where -the _Fram_ was unable to push her way farther, and was soon frozen in -the pack. Now there was nothing to do but to wait. At first the time -passed pleasantly enough. The men amused themselves by playing games, -caring for the dogs, taking observations, and making various kinds of -tools; but soon they had to bestir themselves, for on October 5, the -first severe ice pressure took place. - -Nansen was in the cabin chatting with his companions, when they heard -a terrific noise and felt the ship tremble from bow to stern. Every -one rushed to the deck to see how the _Fram_ would conduct herself. -The noise steadily increased, and the ice cracked on every side. The -sea tossed the floes, which were from ten to fifteen feet thick, one -upon another, until immense piles of ice were heaped around. The _Fram_ -quivered all over and then was lifted gently up. After a few moments -the uproar had ceased, and the ship sank slowly down again into her old -position. Nansen was delighted, because the _Fram_ had behaved during -the nip just as he had hoped. Had she not risen and pushed the floes -down beneath her, she would have been crushed among them. - -The autumn passed away pleasantly. Polar bears were numerous, and the -men enjoyed the sport of hunting them. When Christmas (1893) came, -the day was celebrated by a very good dinner. The men made speeches -and gave one another Christmas gifts. They did not dream that another -Christmas would find them still drifting, with the knowledge that -little headway had been made. - -At last Nansen made up his mind to leave the ship and journey by sledge -with one of his companions toward the North Pole. All the crew set to -work to prepare for this dangerous trip. The dogs were exercised and -trained, sledges and kayaks were built, and provisions weighed out and -packed. The weather was bitterly cold, the wind blew fiercely, and ice -pressures were increasing in number and severity. - -On January 3, 1895, the _Fram_ encountered the most severe pressure -which she had to meet. The accumulated floes formed a ridge of ice -which reached to the ship and was level with the rails. Masses of ice -dashed over the decks, and the crashing and grinding were terrible to -hear. - -Nansen feared that the ship would be crushed, and orders were given to -put everything in a place of safety. But the stanch vessel held her -own, and came out of the pressure safely. When the danger was over, the -_Fram_ was found to be uninjured, but one of her sides was buried in -the ice mound, which reached six feet above the rails. - -About two months later, Nansen set out upon his daring trip toward the -pole. He took Johansen with him, and left the _Fram_, then in latitude -84° north, in command of Otto Sverdrup. The journey northward had to -be made over difficult ice filled with hummocks, and, worse than this, -a southerly drift set in, which carried the whole pack south almost as -fast as they traveled north. Many of the dogs became utterly exhausted -and had to be killed. It made Nansen very sad to be obliged to part -with the faithful animals who had helped him so much. - -[Illustration: NANSEN AND JOHANSEN LEAVING THE “FRAM.”] - -At night Nansen and Johansen were so tired that they often fell asleep -while eating their supper. When they crept into their sleeping bags, -their clothes were sometimes frozen stiff, but the heat of their bodies -in their bags thawed them out. - -Notwithstanding all these hardships, Nansen and his companion succeeded -in reaching 86° 14ʹ north latitude on April 8, 1895. This was the -highest latitude so far reached by any explorer. The North Pole was but -two hundred and sixty-one miles farther north. Nansen knew he could -not reach the pole through such masses of floes and hummocks, and -accordingly he decided to return, changing his course to the south. -The travelers found many channels between the ice floes, which were -difficult to cross. The dogs were now so few in number that the men had -to do dogs’ work, and drag the sledges. The ice became soft, so that -the ski and the sledges sank deep into it. Sometimes the men sank in up -to their armpits. - -Nansen’s report of this journey has led many people to believe that -the warm and the cold ocean currents meet at the pole, and that the -effect of the united currents is to make the ice rotten and dangerous -for travel. Some explorers believe that it is impossible to travel the -last hundred miles of the journey toward the pole by sledge or boat. -They think that the ice is too soft for sledge travel, and too compact -for travel by boat. If this be true, a balloon or airship will have to -be used in order to reach the pole. It is no wonder that Nansen and -Johansen became discouraged. - -By June 30, 1895, the two explorers were certain that they would have -to pass the winter in the ice. Nansen knew that he must secure some -game, for his provisions would not last through the winter; therefore -he and Johansen pushed on south as fast as they could, and at last -shot a seal and a bear. Only two dogs were left, and at length they -too had to be shot. One dog was Nansen’s favorite, and the other was -Johansen’s. Nansen took Johansen’s dog behind a hummock, and Johansen -did the same with Nansen’s. Then both guns were fired together and the -faithful dogs were dead. This was the hardest thing these two men had -to do during the journey. When they met again, they felt so sad that -neither of them could speak. - -One day, while looking through the telescope, Nansen saw land in the -distance. The two men hastened toward it, and for the first time in two -years they felt the naked earth beneath their feet. It was summer, and -seals, birds, and flowers were all about them. In front lay the open -sea, and Nansen thought he might sail on, and perhaps reach home. But -he was disappointed, for after sailing a short distance, he again found -ice and was obliged to return. - -It was now certain that Nansen and Johansen would have to pass the -winter on the island, and they began their preparations for it. They -built a hut of stone, and stretched walrus hides over the roof and -floor. Fortunately game was plenty, so that they shot many seals and -walruses. The blubber of the walrus was a favorite article of diet, -for in cold countries men long for fatty food. It was so cold that -often Nansen and Johansen had to sleep in the same bag in order to keep -warm. Sometimes they drew pieces of blubber out of the lamp and ate -them. These favorite dainties they called biscuit. The walrus hides -attracted the bears and foxes to the hut, so that often during the -winter the men succeeded in securing fresh meat. - -The winter was a long and weary one. Though Christmas, 1895, found -them rather low-spirited, they made up their minds to observe the day. -Their celebration consisted of reversing their shirts, and treating -themselves to bread and chocolate. They broke up their camp in the -spring (May, 1896), and started southward by water. - -During this trip Nansen nearly lost his life. The men left their kayaks -one day fastened to the edge of the ice, while they went to the top -of a hummock to look around. Presently Johansen shouted, “The kayaks -are adrift.” Both men rushed for the water, and Nansen, reaching it -first, jumped in and swam for the boats. The water was terribly cold -and the boats had drifted a long distance, but Nansen knew that the -loss of the boats meant death to him and his companion. He swam as long -as he could, and then lay on his back and floated, to rest. Again he -tried to swim, but his limbs became stiff and numb so that he could -scarcely move them. Feebly he pushed on until he succeeded in grasping -a ski which was lying across the bow, and so drawing the kayak to him. -It was almost more than his chilled and weary body could accomplish -to pull himself into one of the boats and paddle back. Johansen, who -was anxiously watching, expected every moment to see his companion -sink down unconscious. But Nansen’s iron will and strength conquered. -Johansen gave Nansen a warm drink, and put him to bed in his sleeping -bag. - -Two days later Nansen went walrus hunting, and had another narrow -escape. One of the walruses stuck his tusks through the side of the -kayak and nearly upset it, but Nansen struck the walrus with the paddle -until he loosed his hold and swam away. - -Shortly after this adventure, Nansen was one day standing on a hummock, -looking round over the vast desert of snow, ice, and rock. Suddenly -he heard a sound like the bark of a dog, and then something very like -the report of a gun. He shouted to Johansen, who called back that he -heard nothing. Nevertheless, Nansen resolved to go in the direction of -the sound, and find out what it was. Off he started over the hummocks. -After traveling some distance he came upon the footprints of an -animal. It might have been the track of a fox or a wolf, but it looked -strangely like the track of a dog. Then Nansen distinctly heard a dog -barking in the distance. Very soon he heard a human voice also. Wild -with excitement and joy, he mounted a hummock and shouted at the top of -his lungs. - -An answering shout started him off at full speed in the direction from -which it came. Amid a sea of hummocks, Nansen soon saw the figure -of a man, followed by a dog. The two men walked toward each other, -waving their hats. When they met they shook hands, and after they had -exchanged a few words the stranger looked sharply at Nansen, and said, -“Are you not Nansen?” - -“Yes, I am.” - -“By Jove! I am glad to meet you.” - -The two shook hands again and again. The stranger was Jackson, the -English Arctic explorer, and his ship, the _Windward_, was expected -every day. Jackson told Nansen that the land on which he stood was -Franz Josef land. - -Jackson then sent a man to bring Johansen to his camp, and soon both he -and Nansen were enjoying the comforts of civilized life. After fifteen -months of blubber and bear meat, it was a welcome change to eat the -food of white men, to sleep in beds, to read newspapers and books, and -to have a change of clothing. - -It was arranged that Nansen and Johansen should sail with Jackson on -the _Windward_ for Norway. The ship arrived July 26, and August 7, -under a favorable wind, the whole party embarked. - -A pilot boarded the vessel when she reached the coast of Norway, and -when he found that Nansen was a passenger, he was amazed. The pilot -told Nansen that everybody thought him dead, for the _Fram_ had not -been heard from. Nansen assured him that the _Fram_ was safe, for he -felt sure that Sverdrup would bring the vessel home. - -Immediately after landing, Nansen and Johansen went to a telegraph -office, where they sent many dispatches, so that the wonderful news of -their return was soon received over all parts of the civilized world. - -Nansen had succeeded in reaching latitude 86° 14ʹ, farther north than -any other explorer had yet attained, and had returned safely. Millions -of people rejoiced, and Nansen’s name was upon every tongue. - -At Hammerfest, Nansen met his wife and Sir George Baden-Powell, who had -been on the point of sending out an expedition in search of him. But -Nansen’s heart was heavy in the midst of all the rejoicing, for no news -had been heard from the _Fram_, and although he had perfect confidence -in Otto Sverdrup, he began to fear that harm had befallen his brave -comrades. - -One morning he was awakened by Sir Baden-Powell knocking at his door. -“Come down immediately,” said Sir Baden; “a man wishes to see you.” -Nansen hurriedly dressed and ran below. - -There stood the manager of the telegraph office. The manager handed -Nansen a telegram, which he opened with trembling fingers. It read as -follows:―― - - “_Fram_ arrived in good condition. All well on board. Am going - to Tromsö. Welcome home. O. S.” - -Nansen nearly fainted with excitement and relief from his terrible -anxiety. Sir Baden shouted with joy. Johansen smiled until his face -looked like a full moon. As soon as the good news of the _Fram’s_ -return became known, the general rejoicing in Hammerfest spread to all -parts of the world. - -Nansen’s daring expedition to the North had ended successfully, and -without the loss of a single life. Although Nansen had not reached the -pole, he had come within two hundred and sixty-one miles of it. This -was two hundred miles nearer than any previous explorer had penetrated. -The theory of the southeast current was proved to be correct, for the -_Fram_ had drifted into a high latitude, and then out into the Atlantic -between Spitzbergen and Greenland. If the _Fram_ had entered the ice -pack three hundred miles farther east, Nansen believes that she would -have drifted in a course parallel to the one she actually followed. -This course would have carried her over the pole. - - - - -XVIII. PEARY CROSSES GREENLAND - -1891–1897 - - -While Nansen was busily exploring, Robert E. Peary, a civil engineer -in the United States Navy, determined to make an attempt to cross the -inland ice of Greenland. Peary was making his plans for this journey -when the news came that Nansen had succeeded in crossing the ice cap -from the eastern coast of Greenland to the western. - -Upon hearing this, Peary changed his plans and decided to try to reach -the northern point of Greenland overland. This journey would take him -across the inland ice by a route much farther north than that taken by -Nansen. It would also enable Peary to discover whether Greenland was a -continent, as many supposed, or merely an island. - -Funds for the trip were raised by private contribution through the -efforts of Lieutenant Peary’s friends, and on June 6, 1891, the -expedition sailed from Brooklyn on the steamer _Kite_. Peary had -already made one trip to Greenland, and his friends waved their -farewells cheerfully, feeling certain that he would succeed in his -undertaking. - -After a pleasant voyage, the _Kite_ reached Upernavik, where she -anchored. Peary hoped to secure the services of an interpreter at this -place, but he was unable to do so. Soon the party set sail again, -leaving behind them the northernmost town on the globe. The _Kite_ -steamed along for some time without meeting much ice, but when she -entered Melville bay the pack closed round her, and the 4th of July -found the little vessel snugly frozen in. - -Here she remained for a week, during which the average temperature was -about 31° F. On July 11, the ice separated and the ship began to move. -The engines were started in a hurry. After forcing a passage through a -mass of thick ice, the ship was freed and proceeded on her journey. - -While the process of ramming the ice was going on, Mr. Peary met with -an accident. A large cake of ice struck the rudder, tearing the wheel -from the hands of the two men on duty. Peary’s leg was caught between -the iron tiller and the house, and both bones snapped above the ankle. -The ship’s surgeon set the broken leg, and Peary recovered rapidly. He -was, however, unable to use his leg for many weeks. - -Soon the _Kite_ ran into McCormick bay, where a site for a house was -selected. It was now about the middle of July, and the short summer was -at its height. The sun was bright and warm, and the temperature about -like that of an April day in the temperate zone. - -The ice still filled the bay, but narrow streams of water trickled -through in all directions, cutting the ice into great pieces which -rose and fell with the tide. Little brooks ran down the mountains and -through the valleys by the side of great glaciers, while the snowbirds -chirped and twittered, enjoying the brief summer time. - -The country around was bright with flowers. Tracks of reindeer, foxes, -and hares were repeatedly noticed, and seals and walruses abounded, so -that the party had no fear of suffering for want of fresh meat. - -[Illustration: SETTING FOX TRAPS.] - -The wood for the house was taken off the ship. In order to insure -warmth, the walls were made double, with an air space of ten inches -between the outer and inner wall. The house was then covered with -tarred paper, and the inner walls lined with thick, red, Indian -blankets. In addition, a wind-break of stones, turf, empty barrels, and -boxes was built around the house. The dwelling was roofed with canvas, -and in the winter was to be banked with snow. When the little building -was completed, they christened it Red Cliff House, because of the -cliffs of sandstone which rose behind it. - -When the stores were safely stowed away within the outer wall, the -_Kite_ steamed away home, leaving Peary, with his wife and his -assistants, to spend the winter within seven hundred and forty miles of -the North Pole. - -Peary and his party were very comfortable and contented. They enjoyed -the crisp air and the bright sunshine, and they liked to watch the -beautiful blue-green colors in the ice of the glaciers. - -The men hunted, and secured numbers of reindeer skins and furs of all -sorts. They fished, and explored the surrounding islands. While on -these trips they sometimes met Eskimos, who often accompanied them to -Red Cliff House. Some of the Eskimos came with their dog teams, and -Peary was always glad to buy the dogs from them. By November 7 there -were seventeen men, women, and children at the camp, and Peary built a -large snow hut for them to live in. - -Soon the long night began and all hunting came to an end. Then the -members of the party busied themselves preparing for the great journey -over the inland ice which Peary intended to make in the spring. The -reindeer skins were stretched and dried and prepared for clothing by -the Eskimo women. In order to soften the skin so that it could be used -for clothing, the women folded it once with the hair inside. Then they -chewed it all along the edge until the fold was made pliable. Another -fold was then made, and treated in the same manner. This process was -continued until the entire skin had been carefully chewed. It was -then scraped, and if necessary, the work was repeated. It took two of -Peary’s best workers about a day to prepare a large buckskin. The teeth -of the Eskimo women are often worn down nearly to the gums by doing -this work. - -Peary himself cut the patterns of the clothes and sleeping bags, and -the Eskimo women did the sewing. Peary’s men busied themselves in -trying to make sledges lighter and stronger than anything they had yet -found. They fashioned ivory and horn braces for the sledges. Some of -the Eskimo men helped to make ivory rings for the dogs’ harness. The -Eskimo women chewed and sewed, and everybody was busy and happy. - -A large number of Eskimos visited Peary during the winter, some coming -from a distance of two hundred miles. When the white men could not -pronounce the queer names of the Eskimos, they gave them nicknames. A -certain trio were known as the Priest, the Smiler, and the Villain. The -Villain was an entirely harmless Eskimo, whose chief failing was his -huge appetite. - -On Christmas Day, Peary invited his Eskimo friends to dinner. After -his own party had partaken of a remarkably good Christmas feast, a -fine venison stew was prepared for the Eskimos. Dr. Cook, the ship’s -surgeon, saw that the guests were clean, to outward appearance at -least, and a jolly, happy party they were, sitting down at a civilized -dinner table for the first time in their lives. - -The Eskimo men wore sealskin coats and bearskin trousers, while the -ladies appeared in foxskin jackets and trousers. The Villain sat at the -head of the table and served the repast. The Daisy poured tea in Mrs. -Peary’s place, and conducted herself very gracefully. - -Myah, who was called the white man, insisted upon holding both his -knife and spoon in his right hand, and then using his fingers to carry -the food to his mouth. He was rude enough to stand up and try to -harpoon some choice pieces of meat from the stew with his fork. The -Villain reproved him so gravely that he stopped harpooning and turned -his attention to his own plate. It is barely possible that the Villain -was not shocked at the manners of Myah, the white man, but that he -wanted the choice piece of meat himself. - -After the stew they had coffee, candy, and raisins, and then the -Eskimos and the white men played games together. - -Gradually the long night passed away, and at length it was almost time -for the sun to appear. Peary had ordered an igloo to be built on the -ice cap at an elevation of about two thousand and fifty feet, so that -he might use it when he went up to see the sun rise. - -When this igloo was completed, Peary, Dr. Cook, and Astrup started out -one morning, with provisions and sleeping bags, in the hope of catching -a first glimpse of the sun. When they reached the igloo they were very -tired. After supper they took off their fur clothes, crawled into their -sleeping bags, and went to sleep. When Peary awoke, the fine snow was -drifting in his face, and the wind was blowing a terrific gale. The -entrance was blocked with snow, and the three men were buried beneath -the drifts. - -Peary rolled himself out with great difficulty, and succeeded in -finding a shovel. Then he and Dr. Cook pulled Astrup out, and the three -men found themselves on top of the drift under which the snow house was -buried. They were without shelter, two thousand feet above sea level, -while the storm was raging so fiercely that they had to shout to one -another in order to be heard. - -After a while the snow turned to rain, which froze and covered -everything with ice. Their heavy outside clothes were buried in the -snow house, and they were clad only in their under garments. If it had -not been for the sleeping bags, they would have frozen to death, and -even as it was, their condition was serious. But at length the storm -ceased and the half-frozen men succeeded in digging out their garments. -They were obliged to dress in the open air, with the wind blowing and -the thermometer standing at 3° above zero. - -As soon as they were dressed they started for home, and reached Red -Cliff House in safety, warm with exercise. Here, they were informed, -the storm had likewise been terrific. The rain had fallen in torrents, -washing away the snow covering of the house and soaking through the -canvas roof. But Red Cliff House was stanchly built and stood firm. - -[Illustration: RED CLIFF HOUSE AFTER THE STORM.] - -The long Arctic night had passed away with the storm, and the western -sky was aflame with gorgeous colors; brilliant yellow shaded into pale -rose and green. Misty lights of purple and green floated over the ice, -and the storm was forgotten in the beauty of the new day. - -Now that the sun had made its appearance, Peary decided to start on -his white march over the ice cap. On the last day of April three of -the party, accompanied by five Eskimos, left Red Cliff House with two -sledges and twelve dogs. Three days later Peary followed with one -man and a sledge drawn by eight dogs. In a few hours he overtook his -friends and proceeded with them as far as Humboldt glacier, where he -asked for volunteers for the long trip. All of the men were eager to -accompany him, but Astrup was chosen for his companion, and the rest of -the party returned to Red Cliff House. - -Peary and Astrup now began their journey to the northern end of -Greenland. They slept during the day and traveled by night, when the -glare of the sun was less trying to their eyes. Peary himself went -first, leading the way. He was followed by three of his best dogs, -harnessed to a light sledge which carried two hundred pounds. These -dogs had become so fond of Peary that they tried always to keep as near -him as possible. They needed no driving or urging, but followed him -into the most dangerous places. In the rear came Astrup, with ten dogs -attached to the big sledge which carried the bulk of the luggage. - -Peary had thought himself on top of the ice cap at Humboldt glacier, -but he found that he must climb still higher. As he ascended the -weather became colder, and soon snow began to fall. Worse than all, the -large sledge broke down, but Peary and Astrup mended it and kept on -bravely. At last the weather grew so cold that the snow froze hard, and -the two men were able to travel twenty miles a day. - -For weeks Peary and Astrup marched over the great ice, through -snowstorms and furious wind. Whenever fine weather came and the ice -became firm and smooth, they dashed along, forgetting the hardships -they had endured. At length Peary saw land in the distance. Dark brown -and red cliffs, precipices, valleys and mountains, rivers and lakes, -lay stretched out before them. The dogs saw land also, and were as -delighted as the men. - -This land looked near, but it was not easy to reach. Men and dogs -slipped and scrambled down the ice crest, through slush and water, -over sharp rocks, across streams, and through valleys. The sun was very -hot, and all the travelers felt the change from the clear cold air of -the inland ice to the heat of the coast region. - -The dogs especially suffered from the heat, and this discomfort, -together with their need of fresh meat, made some of them ill. Pau, the -leader of the team, seemed very weak, and Peary feared that he would -die. Pau was a very brave dog, who had killed many polar bears. He -must have had some knowledge of magic; at any rate, he was an expert -in slipping his harness. Whenever he wished to, he could slip out and -away on a trip of his own in search of food. When the other dogs saw -Pau free, they tried to break their harness and follow him, often with -success. - -One day Peary saw two black objects on the opposite side of a valley. -At first he thought they were large rocks, but soon he became certain -that they were musk-oxen. Peary patted poor Pau’s head, as if to -tell him that he was going to try to get food for him. Pau seemed to -understand, for his eyes brightened and he wagged his tail. - -Peary took his gun and started off in pursuit of the musk-oxen. At last -he came very near them, but so much depended upon his success that he -was seized with trembling. It required a tremendous effort to point -the gun and pull the trigger. The enormous ox looked up curiously, and -walked toward the man, as if to see what the trouble was. Peary then -took aim, fired, and killed him. The other musk-ox tried to run away, -but Peary shot him also. - -Astrup and the dogs were frantic with delight. Peary patted each dog on -the head when he returned, as if to assure him of the feast he was to -have. Soon the great, shaggy musk-oxen were skinned and prepared for -food, and a huge hind quarter was carried to the dogs. - -The half-starved animals had a royal banquet, and for a while nothing -could be heard but the crunching of bones, and now and then a deep -growl. Pau brightened up and took his place again as leader, seizing -the largest piece of meat without any interference from the other dogs. - -Lion was the beautiful leader of the Cape York team. His thick fur was -snowy white, and his mane long and shaggy. Lion knew as much about ice -travel as Peary himself, and he never got tangled in his traces or -tried to eat his harness. Upon this occasion, however, Lion actually -slipped harness. When Peary called him to have it replaced, Lion obeyed -instantly, crouching obediently at his master’s feet. - -While Peary was caring for the dogs, Astrup had fashioned a fur couch -from the hides of the musk-oxen, and had broiled some delicious musk-ox -steaks. That night men and dogs fell asleep happy and comfortable. - -After climbing over another slope, the company halted on the edge of a -high cliff, the northeastern point of Greenland. Beyond the mainland -they could descry islands in the distance. An icebound channel marked -the northern boundary of Greenland. The large bay spreading out before -them Peary named Independence bay, in honor of the day of discovery, -July 4, 1892. The cliff was called Navy cliff. A cairn was erected upon -Navy cliff, and the stars and stripes was unfurled. - -Peary felt well repaid for his weary march. He had succeeded in -reaching latitude 81° 37ʹ 5ʺ north; he had crossed the great ice cap, -and had proved that Greenland is an island; he had looked out upon the -Arctic ocean from a point of land never before reached by civilized -men; and he had gained a clear idea of the northern coast of Greenland. - -On the return trip Peary reduced the weight of the packs by throwing -away those articles which he did not expect to need again. On the -evening of July 7 the two men began the climb up the slope to the -inland ice. At one time they were eight thousand feet above the level -of the sea. While they were upon a lofty elevation, a severe storm kept -them prisoners in a snowdrift for sixty hours. Peary and Astrup slept -most of the time. When the wind died away and they crept out of the -drift, dogs and sledges had disappeared. These were soon dug out from -the snow, and the journey was resumed. - -About this time Peary discovered, to his alarm, that a quantity of his -canned provisions had spoiled, and there was danger that he might run -short of food. The dogs, too, seemed fagged and low-spirited. They -pulled away in a lifeless manner, with drooping tails and as if they -were utterly discouraged by this endless journey. So many of them -died that only five lived to reach home. When these five dogs at last -scented land, they were filled with new life, and dashed merrily along -down the slope toward McCormick bay. - -One day a number of black spots appeared on the white surface of the -snow. These spots proved to be people from the _Kite_, which had -arrived in the bay and was now waiting to carry Peary and his party -back to the United States. Peary met the new arrivals joyfully, and -soon all were assembled at Red Cliff House. Great was the rejoicing -when Peary told of the success of his journey over the inland ice. - -The results of this great sledge journey of twelve hundred miles across -Greenland were very important. Greenland was proved beyond dispute to -be an island. Smaller islands free from ice had been discovered north -of Greenland. A large part of the inland ice had been traversed and -its character studied. The shores of Inglefield gulf and Whale and -Murchison sounds had been charted. Many glaciers were discovered, -and careful observations made of the climate and tides. Considerable -information had been gained concerning a tribe of Eskimos called the -Arctic Highlanders, heretofore almost unknown. - -In a few weeks preparations began for the return voyage. During the -latter part of the summer, Mr. and Mrs. Peary and their companions -bade farewell to Red Cliff House, and sailed for home on the _Kite_. -Together with the members of the Red Cliff household who embarked on -the _Kite_ were the five faithful dogs that had helped to carry Peary -to Independence bay and back again. Among them were Pau and Lion. - -The _Kite_ stopped at Godthaab on her way southward, and again at -St. John’s, Newfoundland. From St. John’s the vessel was detained by -head winds, but at last the Delaware breakwater was reached. A short -distance below Philadelphia the _Kite_ was met by a tugboat, carrying -a party of Mr. Peary’s friends. They were soon on board the _Kite_, -listening to the wonderful story of the discoveries and adventures of -the Arctic travelers. - -[Illustration: GODTHAAB.] - -In 1893 Peary made another trip to North Greenland, and this time -remained two years and one month. He made a second sledge journey of -twelve hundred miles to Independence bay, and surveyed a large area of -the country around Whale sound. During this trip, he also discovered -the great Cape York meteorites. - -Meteorites are stones, largely composed of iron, which fall to the -earth from the heavens. They are supposed to follow in the train of -meteors, or shooting stars. These pieces of meteoric iron differ from -any kind of rock found upon the earth. They are covered with a thin, -brownish black crust, and look very different from the iron which we -obtain from mines. All meteorites are carefully preserved, placed in -museums, and studied. - -Many Eskimos had already told Peary of the wonderful iron mountain near -Cape York, but up to this time he had been too busy to search for it. -Now he found an Eskimo who promised to conduct him to the spot. This -Eskimo said that he would find three great pieces of iron, the smallest -about the size of a dog. One was near the water, and the other two were -upon the side of the mountain. - -With fresh dogs Peary and the Eskimo were soon galloping over hard ice -toward Cape York. After a long journey the Eskimo conducted Peary to -the great brown mass. - -He told Peary that his people believed that the iron mass had been an -Eskimo woman, who with her dog and her tent was hurled from the sky by -the Evil Spirit. One of the great piles used to look like the figure of -a woman in a sitting position, but the natives had chipped off many -pieces of it and carried them away. They used these pieces of iron for -making knives and for harpoon points. - -One tribe attempted to carry off the entire head. They lashed it to a -sledge and started for home, when suddenly the sea rose with a loud -noise, and the head disappeared into the water, carrying the sledge and -dogs with it. The Eskimos barely escaped with their lives, and since -that time not the smallest fragment of the heavenly woman had been -disturbed. - -Near the great mass of iron, called “the woman,” was another, called -“the dog.” About six miles south of these was the third and largest, -called “the tent.” - -[Illustration: THE “TENT” METEORITE.] - -The coast where these meteorites were found is the bleakest and -most desolate region of the Arctic land. Biting winds blow almost -continuously, and iceberg after iceberg drifts slowly past on its -journey southward. It is almost impossible for a vessel to reach this -coast. - -Notwithstanding the difficulty and danger of the work, Peary succeeded -in bringing all of these meteorites to New York. Those known as “the -woman” and “the dog” reached New York in 1895, and on October 2, 1897, -the _Hope_ deposited the one known as “the tent” at the Brooklyn navy -yard. This weighs ninety tons and is the largest known meteorite in the -world. - -Peary’s two trips across Greenland are classed among the most -brilliant geographical feats of recent years. His efforts extended the -exploration of the east coast of Greenland two degrees. - -In 1899 Peary again visited the Arctic regions. He reached Fort Conger -in March, 1900, and the next month, with his colored servant, Matthew -Henson, and five Eskimos, started to explore the northern coast of -Greenland. He reached Cape Washington, where he erected a cairn, -and then pushing on, he rounded the northern limit of the Greenland -archipelago at latitude 83° 39ʹ north, from which point the coast -extended southward. - -At this place, the most northerly known land in the world, Peary built -a cairn and inclosed records of his trip. He then changed the direction -of his course and turned northward, traveling over sea ice toward the -pole. He proceeded in this direction until he reached latitude 83° 50ʹ -north, where he found it impossible to continue the journey farther. He -therefore returned to the Greenland coast, and made explorations which -enabled him to complete a chart of the northern coast of that island. -Upon the completion of this work he returned to Fort Conger, arriving -there June 10, 1900, without accident or illness. During this trip, the -temperature ranged from 20° above to 35° below zero. - -The winter of 1900 and 1901 was spent at Fort Conger, where game was -plentiful. The men passed most of their time hunting, and succeeded in -slaying nearly two hundred musk-oxen. - -In the spring of 1901 Peary made a second attempt to reach the pole, -this time from the northern point of Grinnell land, using Fort Conger -as a base. But he was again obliged to turn back. Still undismayed, -Peary planned to make another dash for the pole during the spring of -1902. This expedition was also unsuccessful, and Peary returned to the -United States in the fall of 1902, without having discovered the North -Pole. But he accomplished valuable geographical work, and has added -greatly to our knowledge of Greenland and Grinnell land. - -Among the important results of Peary’s work are:―― - -First: The rounding of the northern limit of the Greenland archipelago, -the most northerly known land in the world. - -Second: The attainment of the highest latitude in the Western -Hemisphere, 83° 50ʹ north. - -Third: The discovery of the character of the inland ice. - - - - -XIX. ANDRÉE’S BALLOON EXPEDITION TO THE POLE - -1897 - - -One of the most hazardous attempts to reach the pole was that made by -S. A. Andrée in his balloon. Andrée was born in Sweden in 1854, and -was carefully educated. He became a mechanical engineer, and held an -important position under the Swedish government. - -In 1876 he visited America to attend the Centennial Exposition in -Philadelphia. While crossing the ocean he noted the regularity of the -trade winds, which led him to believe that balloon voyages might be -made across the Atlantic. Some years later Andrée passed a winter in -Spitzbergen, directing experiments and observations in atmospheric -electricity. This scientific work strengthened his belief that a -balloon might be navigated through the air in much the same manner as a -ship through water. - -From this time Andrée studied the construction of balloons with great -care, and in 1895 he astonished the world by making known his plan to -reach the North Pole by means of an air route. He needed the sum of -$36,000 in order to carry out his project. This amount was generously -provided by King Oscar and two citizens of Sweden. - -Then Andrée set about the work of having a balloon constructed which -would suit his purpose. He went to Paris, and secured the services of -the most noted balloon maker in the world. This man built a balloon -for Andrée which was ninety-seven feet high by sixty-seven feet in -diameter. It was made of three thicknesses of silk, and varnished over -twice, inside and out. It was handled by means of valves. The whole -balloon was covered with a network of hemp, ending in forty-eight -suspension ropes, to which the wooden bearing ring was attached. - -The car, shaped like a cylinder and made of wicker, was covered with -tarpaulin, and was intended for rest and sleep. The place for work and -observation was a swinging gallery, which also served for the roof -of the car. In this gallery the scientific instruments were kept. -Andrée took with him thermometers, barometers, cameras, and every sort -of needful apparatus. The car contained a sleeping bag, and stores -of books, maps, toilet articles, arms, and ammunition. The balloon -was built to carry three passengers. While one slept, the other two -expected to remain on the roof, taking observations and guiding the -balloon. - -The bearing ring was the main storeroom. Crosspieces of wood formed -a floor, upon which many necessary articles were packed. Boats, -sledges, sails, ropes, and provisions of all kinds were stored away in -forty-eight large sacks, which were hung to the bearing ring. Andrée -had provisions enough to last for nine months, and everything was -packed so as to occupy as little space as possible. - -Three sails and three guide ropes were arranged to aid in steering the -balloon. The long guide ropes trailed behind the balloon, serving the -purpose of a rudder. The sails caught the wind, increased the speed, -and permitted change of direction. - -In 1896, the balloon and all the supplies were taken to Dane’s island, -near Spitzbergen, but as the desired south wind did not blow, Andrée -returned to Sweden. In May, 1897, Andrée and his companions again went -to Dane’s island. A balloon house was built, engines were set up for -producing hydrogen gas, and in due time the balloon was inflated. By -July 1 everything was ready. - -Andrée and his two companions now waited anxiously for a south wind, -which they believed would blow them to the North Pole. They waited ten -days, until, on the morning of July 11, 1897, a strong, steady wind -from the south was blowing. - -Great was the excitement on Dane’s island when the men began to tear -down the house where the balloon was imprisoned, and attach the car. -At 2.30 P.M., July 11, 1897, Andrée and his two companions, Nils -Strindberg and Knut Fraenkel, jumped into the car, and gave orders to -cut the last ropes. - -[Illustration: ANDRÉE BEGINS HIS JOURNEY.] - -Slowly the immense, airy structure rose to a height of a few hundred -feet, and sailed in a northerly direction out over Dane’s gate. Then -it dropped suddenly, as if it had received a current of air from above, -and almost touched the sea. Andrée threw out some sand bags, when the -balloon rose again to a height of about three thousand feet, and sailed -away in the same northerly direction. About an hour after the start, it -was lost to sight in the clouds. - -Some days later a carrier pigeon was shot in the rigging of an Arctic -schooner off Spitzbergen. The pigeon had a message from Andrée tied -under its wing. The message was dated July 13, and stated that the -balloon sailed one hundred and forty-five geographical miles to the -northward, and then headed east. It had traveled forty-five miles -eastward when the pigeon was sent out. - -From that day to this, no other message has been received from Andrée. -Andrée believed that his balloon would float for six weeks, but the -men who watched the start, said that it lost much gas and much ballast -before it passed out of sight. They thought that it might have floated -about fifteen days. Two thirds of the guide ropes, upon which Andrée -depended for steering, were also lost at starting. At first the balloon -traveled about twenty-five or thirty miles an hour. At this rate of -speed, sailing northward, Andrée should have reached the pole in -less than two days. But every ray of sunshine, every puff of colder -or warmer wind, cause a balloon to rise or fall, and the methods of -guiding and handling the delicate appliance are not yet thoroughly -understood. - -No one knows what happened to the balloon after it rose out of sight of -the men on Dane’s island. For several years Andrée’s friends refused to -believe that he had perished. They thought that he might be wandering -about in the Frozen North in the care of some of the Eskimo tribes. -Many stories have reached us from time to time bearing upon the fate of -Andrée, but upon investigation they have all proved to be false. The -only authentic trace which has been found is a buoy picked up northeast -of Spitzbergen in 1899. This buoy was taken to Sweden, and proved to be -the one which Andrée had taken with him for the purpose of dropping it, -with a letter, in case he crossed the pole. No letter was found, but -an anchor was attached to the buoy. This led to the supposition that -the buoy and anchor were thrown out to lighten the balloon and keep it -afloat a while longer, or else that the balloon had been lost in the -sea and the buoy and anchor had drifted away. - -It is now generally believed that Andrée and his two companions lost -their lives through the descent of the balloon into the ocean. - - - - -XX. EXPEDITIONS OF 1902 - - -During the spring of 1902, several expeditions were at work in the -Northern regions, each hoping to be the first to reach the pole. - -One of the most important was the Ziegler-Baldwin expedition, equipped -by Mr. William Ziegler of New York, and commanded by Mr. Evelyn Briggs -Baldwin. This was the largest and probably the best equipped expedition -sent out. Baldwin had two ships, four hundred Eskimo dogs, and fifteen -Siberian ponies. His flagship, the _America_, was a stoutly built -whaler and carried a cargo of six hundred tons. His other ship, the -_Fridtjof_, carried the scientific instruments. - -Through the generosity of Mr. Ziegler, practically perfect scientific -apparatus accompanied the expedition, and Mr. Baldwin was assisted by -experts in geographical charting, geology, botany, and meteorology. -Both the _America_ and the _Fridtjof_ reached Franz Josef land, but -very little significant work was accomplished. Instead of wintering -in the North as had been planned, Mr. Baldwin returned to Norway. Mr. -Ziegler, however, has not faltered in his determination to find the -pole, and he has sent out another expedition for that purpose which is -now in the North. - -A Russian expedition excited widespread interest. Admiral Marakoff -constructed an ice-breaking steamship, and with it expected to -force his way through the ice to the pole. The steamer is called the -_Ermack_, and is a very powerful ship, able to stand fifteen times the -strain which may safely be brought to bear upon the average steel ship. -In breaking the ice, the _Ermack_ rises upon it and crushes it down. -The forward propeller sucks away the water underneath the ice, and thus -reduces the resistance. - -Admiral Marakoff believed that the ice near the pole was thin, and that -his ship would be able to steam directly to that long-sought-for goal. -But in battling against the wide and heavy ice floes of the Arctic -ocean, the _Ermack_ proved a failure. It is said, however, that she -made five successful trips between Nova Zembla and Franz Josef land. - -Another expedition, the progress of which was watched with interest, -was that of the Duke of Abruzzi, who is cousin to the king of Italy. -He started for the North Pole in the _Stella Polare_, in 1899. In the -spring of 1900, he succeeded in arriving within 239.15 statute miles of -the pole. This record surpassed Nansen’s by twenty-three miles, and is, -therefore, the best yet made. - -It is said that Abruzzi and Nansen will join in command of an -expedition which will start from Franz Josef land. Both men have done -valuable work in the icy North, and important results are expected from -their united efforts. - -Captain Bernier, a French Canadian, planned to enter the Arctic by way -of Bering strait. He expected then to travel over the route taken by -the _Jeannette_. Bernier hoped to be carried near the pole by the ice -drift. When he had reached a suitable place, he intended to leave his -ship and proceed to the pole by means of dog sledges, reindeer sledges, -and boats. The newly invented system of wireless telegraphy was to be -used by Captain Bernier, as a means of communication with his ship. - -Captain Otto Sverdrup, in command of the _Fram_, was already in the -North in 1902. Sverdrup won his spurs, you will remember, while on the -famous Nansen expedition. He was sent out by the Norwegian government -to explore the northern coast of Greenland, and to connect Peary’s work -on the east coast with that of a German expedition on the west coast. - -Robert Stein’s expedition had not the proper equipment to seek the -pole, but was designed for the exploration of Ellesmere land. Stein -returned without accomplishing much valuable work. - -A novel plan has been announced by Dr. Anschutz Kampfe. Dr. Kampfe -proposes to build a submarine boat, and proceed to the pole beneath the -ice. - -For more than three hundred years, men have struggled to reach the -North Pole. They have braved bitter winds and faced starvation and -death, in order to wrest the secrets of nature from the great white -North. - -Since Sir John Franklin’s first trip to the Arctic regions, interest -in the Frozen North has never flagged. Very grave doubts as to the -wisdom of spending so large sums of money and of risking so many human -lives have arisen in the minds of those who have followed the story -of suffering and death. It is natural in this century, when men are -counting the cost of every project, to ask wherein lies the advantage -of exploring the polar country, since the work is in every case so -difficult, so dangerous, and in many cases fatal. But we may feel sure -that the work will never cease until every part of the Frozen North is -known. - -Beyond the additions to our store of meteorological knowledge, and -of botanical and geological facts, there has been a decided addition -to the world’s wealth by Arctic exploration: not in money, but in -character; not in conquest, but in heroism; not in material success, -but in those experiences which make men strong and enduring. The world -is already richer in mines and money than it is in men of courage -and in high acts of duty and bravery. Thrilling deeds, glorious -perseverance, and unwearied patience are the noblest fruits of Arctic -exploration. - - - - -XXI. THE DISCOVERY OF THE NORTH POLE BY ROBERT E. PEARY - -1909 - - -The struggle to reach the North Pole was still waging. Robert E. Peary -was not a man to give up until he had reached the goal. The Peary -Arctic Club again gave him financial assistance, and a vessel was -constructed that could be forced through dense ice. Theodore Roosevelt -was then President of the United States, and Commander Peary called his -ship the _Roosevelt_, because, as he said, the name stood for strength -and determination. - -In June, 1905, he set sail, and reached the north coast of Grant Land, -where he spent the winter, and in the spring he started northward with -sledges and dogs. He made his way to 87° 6ʹ on April 21, 1906. This was -less than two hundred miles from the Pole, and was the best record as -yet. - -Even for the far North that season was unusually severe. Violent winds -and snowstorms separated the explorer from his supply depots, and he -was forced to return, killing his dogs for food on the way. He was not -discouraged, for he felt that every failure gave him more experience, -which would enable him to achieve success some day. - -The Peary Arctic Club again helped him, and Zenas Crane and many other -public-spirited men sent donations of money. The death of Morris K. -Jesup was a severe blow to him. Mr. Jesup had given him much support, -both by his belief in Peary’s ability to reach the Pole, and by -rendering financial aid to the expedition. - -[Illustration: - - Copyright, 1910, by William H. Rau. - -PEARY IN ARCTIC COSTUME.] - -When, through the efforts of General Hubbard, president of the Peary -Arctic Club, the needed money was at last procured, Peary completed his -plans. He believed that in order to reach the Pole he must adopt the -manner of life of the Eskimos. These natives of the Arctic zone know -how to travel over the icy seas with less discomfort and danger than -any other people. - -Peary again, as in his previous expeditions, decided to engage the -hardy Eskimos from Whale Sound, with their dogs, for the mainstay -of his party, and to take with him as few white men as possible. -The expedition was thus mostly made up of natives accustomed to the -difficulties and hardships of Arctic travel. - -Then came the question of selecting the white men who were to accompany -him. The following were chosen: Captain Robert A. Bartlett, as master -of the _Roosevelt_; George A. Wardwell, chief engineer; Dr. J. W. -Goodsell, surgeon; Matthew A. Henson, Peary’s negro assistant, who had -been with him on many Arctic voyages, an excellent dog driver, and able -to manage a sledge nearly as well as the best Eskimo driver; Ross G. -Marvin of Cornell, Donald B. McMillan of Worcester, Mass., and George -Borup of Yale, as assistants. - -On July 6, 1908, the expedition sailed from New York on the -_Roosevelt_, and July 17 from Sydney, Cape Breton. At the start, the -white members of the party numbered twenty-two, and at Etah Peary found -plenty of Eskimos willing to go with him. - -These Eskimos, known as the Whale Sound Eskimos, are the most northerly -race known. They migrate along the coast from Cape York to Etah, and -are remarkable for their strength and endurance. From among them Peary -selected his company; here, also, he procured many fine dogs, without -whose help and service the Pole could not have been reached. - -The _Roosevelt_ steamed northward from Etah, pushing her way through -the ice pack towards Cape Sheridan, on the northern coast of Grant -Land. During the trip the Eskimo men were put to work making sledges -and harness, and the women began to make winter garments for the men. -There was much sewing to be done, for the white men wore in winter just -the same kind of clothing that the Eskimos did. - -McMillan, Borup, and Dr. Goodsell found amusement in watching the women -at their sewing. Sitting on the ground or whatever is nearest, they -take off their footgear and put out one foot. Then holding one end of -the material between their toes, using the foot as a third hand, they -sew the seam away from them, instead of toward them as our women do. It -looked odd enough, but the spectators had to admit that the work was -done well. The Eskimos sewed the furs and skins together so closely and -skillfully that the cold could not creep through. - -These industrious women made stockings and mittens of fur, boots of -skins, trousers of skins of the polar bear, jackets of deer or fox -skin, and hoods of fur, finished around the face with thick rolls of -foxtails. - -All were happy and comfortable for a while, but as they advanced the -ice became thicker and the ship was in great danger. It took all -Peary’s knowledge of the coast, and all Bartlett’s skill in navigation, -to keep the _Roosevelt_ from being crushed in the ice. - -Every person on board, both whites and Eskimos, tied his most necessary -belongings into a bundle and stood ready to jump over the side of the -boat at a moment’s notice in case the ship should be destroyed. But -skill and perseverance conquered, and the _Roosevelt_ reached Cape -Sheridan in safety. - -Here on the shore of the Arctic sea the party wintered, spending their -time in massing supplies at places farther north, where they were -likely to be needed later. Hunting was good, musk oxen, bear, and deer -were plentiful, and large supplies of fresh meat were obtained. The men -of science took tidal and meteorological observations, and a happy and -busy winter was spent. - -On October 12 the party said good-by to the sun; the twilight darkened -and the long Arctic night set in. Peary did not wait for the sun to -return, but as soon as it was light enough to travel he renewed the -journey to the Pole. - -[Illustration: - - From “Fighting the Polar Ice,” copyright by Anthony Fiala. - -MOONLIGHT IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS.] - -On February 15, 1909, the first detachment of the sledge party under -Captain Bartlett left Cape Sheridan for Cape Columbia, the most -northern point of Grant Land. The other detachments followed on -successive days, and on February 22, Peary started the last of all. -From Cape Columbia he planned to travel directly north over the ice of -the Polar sea for a distance of four hundred and thirteen geographical -miles. This would take him to 90° north latitude, _i.e._, to the North -Pole. - -By traveling in detachments a path once opened was kept open. The first -detachment accomplished the difficult work of breaking a way through -the ice, the second detachment found travel easier, and the third found -it still easier. Thus the strength both of the men and the dogs of the -last detachment was saved for the final march. - -The party was to return by the same route as the one they advanced by, -the supporting parties keeping the trail open for the rapid return of -the main party. They were also able to use many of the same igloos -in returning, so that the labor of building them was avoided and the -strength of the men economized. The plan of march resembled that of a -relay race, with which all girls and boys are familiar. - -The entire sledge party on leaving the ship numbered seven whites, -nineteen Eskimos, one hundred and forty dogs, and twenty-eight sledges. -On March 1, 1909, Bartlett’s party left land, setting out over the sea -ice for the north, the distance from the mainland to the Pole being -four hundred and seventy-five statute miles. - -Think of starting on a journey of that length on foot with no certainty -of even necessary food, and over a rough expanse of ice and snow. -These brave men never faltered. As the party drew near the Pole, the -supporting detachments were sent back one after another. The last -detachment sent back was that under Captain Bartlett, who had given -such valuable assistance in leading the pioneer party. - -Peary felt sorry to part with Captain Bob, as he familiarly called -him, and Captain Bob was sorry in his turn to go. He had reached 87° -47ʹ north latitude, and was nearer to the North Pole than any other -explorer had yet been. It had been his ambition to reach 88°, but there -was no time to spare, and though disappointed, he obeyed his commander -cheerfully, like a good soldier. He had surpassed the Italian record by -one degree and a quarter. - -Peary was now left with only five companions,――Matt Henson, his colored -servant, and four Eskimos; he also had forty dogs and five sledges. He -was one hundred and thirty-three nautical miles from the Pole, and he -planned to make five marches of at least twenty-five miles each, and -then cover the remaining distance by pushing on with a light sledge and -a double team of dogs. - -[Illustration: - - From “Fighting the Polar Ice,” copyright by Anthony Fiala. - -ESKIMO DOGS.] - -After a rest and some repairing of the sledges the little party started -northward. The sun shone brightly out of a deep blue sky, and a finer -morning for the journey could not be imagined. Except for some pressure -ridges which were nearly fifty feet in height, the ice was hard and -level. The ridges corresponding to hills on land were not as hard to -pass over as were the leads of water which Peary had met with before -during the journey. - -With weather in their favor the party made great progress. In one march -of twelve hours thirty miles were covered. As they neared the Pole, the -wind grew bitterly cold. Even the Eskimos complained of it, and said -that their noses would freeze. This was unusual, for the nose of an -Eskimo is supposed to be so hardy that no frosty winds could freeze it. -But all soon forgot the cold in their joy in drawing near the Pole. - -On April 6, 1909, at ten A.M. the last march ended, and Peary found by -his observations that he had arrived at 89° 57ʹ north latitude. Here -the party camped, and Peary called the place Camp Morris K. Jesup in -honor of the man who had done so much to further discoveries in the -Arctic regions. - -From Camp Jesup, Peary traveled on about ten miles beyond the Pole, -crossing and recrossing in several directions over a radius of ten -miles. Strange were his feelings when he stood at the place where -north, east, and west were eliminated, and every direction was south. -He was also at a place where there is in the year but one night and one -day, each six months in length. The stars circle round overhead during -the night and the sun during the day. - -As far as the eye could reach was a vast, white expanse of ice. No -living creature was to be seen, no sign of life anywhere, only a great -silence, a great whiteness, and dazzling sunlight. Peary placed the -American flag in the ice. The Eskimos and Henson gave three cheers, and -all shook hands. - -The Eskimos did not understand what made Peary so happy, but they did -know that he had succeeded in reaching a wonderful spot, which he had -searched for during many years. - -Thirty hours were spent at the Pole taking observations and -photographs. The maximum temperature was -12° and the minimum was --30° Fahrenheit. Peary put records of his journey and a piece of the -American flag in a glass bottle, and wedged it in between blocks of -ice and left it. As the ice is constantly shifting and changing its -position, it is hard to tell where this bottle may drift. - -The ice at the Pole was too thick for Peary to measure the depth of the -ocean. But on returning he found a place, five miles from the Pole, -where the ice was thinner. He succeeded in making a hole with a pickax -and dropped his sounding lead. The wire ran out to a depth of fifteen -hundred fathoms (nine thousand feet) without touching bottom. Then the -wire broke, and it and the lead were lost. We do not know how much -deeper the Polar ocean may be. - -The return journey to land was made by forced marches of about -twenty-nine and a half miles a day. This speed was made possible by the -lighter sledge loads, and the fact that they were retracing their steps -over a trail kept partially open by the other detachments. But the -Eskimos said, “The devil is asleep, or we never should have come back -so easily!” Peary knew that they came back easily because of favorable -weather and ice conditions, and because his plans had been wise. - -When the party came in sight of the _Roosevelt_ again, the joy of the -men cannot be described. Captain Bartlett saw them and went out to meet -them. His face was sad, and Peary felt that he was to hear some bad -news. Bartlett then told him of the death of Marvin by drowning while -on his return march. Peary felt keenly the loss of his brave companion -who had accomplished so much valuable work, and who had made himself -respected and loved. - -All the members of the party resumed their duties, and the first was to -reward the faithful Eskimos who had worked and served so well. Peary -gave them hatchets, knives, shot-guns, rifles, and tools of all kinds. -They were much pleased and felt as rich as millionaires. - -As soon as the ice permitted, the _Roosevelt_ left her winter quarters -and sailed southward, stopping at Etah and Cape York, and arriving -at Sydney, Cape Breton, September 21, 1909, where she received an -enthusiastic welcome. - -On September 1, 1909, while Peary and his party were still in the -north, the world was startled by a telegraphic message from a Danish -steamer, saying: “We have on board the American traveler, Dr. Cook, who -reached the North Pole, April 21, 1908.” - -The next morning the _New York Herald_ published an account of the -great discovery cabled by Cook himself. It said that he had reached the -Pole on the date just mentioned, and that “it was a cheerless spot, -an endless field of purple snows.” Two days later Dr. Cook landed at -Copenhagen and was greeted with cheers, and great honors were bestowed -upon him. - -Two days later another telegram was received by the Associated Press of -New York, which read: - - “Stars and stripes nailed to the North Pole. - - “PEARY.” - -There was great excitement all over the civilized world. Messages -continued to arrive from Peary fixing the date of his arrival at the -Pole, April 6, 1909. Cook claimed to have reached the pole a year -earlier, April 21, 1908. Why had he kept silent so long? Discussion -grew, and scientists demanded proof and data from both men. - -The records of Dr. Cook were submitted to the University of Copenhagen, -and their final report was made public December 21, 1910. It declared -that the papers and documents submitted to it by Dr. Cook contained -no observations or explanations to prove that Dr. Cook had reached the -Pole. - -That Peary reached the Pole was never doubted. The National -Geographical Society after careful examination of his records reported -that they were unanimous in the opinion that Commander Peary reached -the North Pole, April 6, 1909. - -The following resolutions were adopted: - - “_Whereas_, Commander Robert E. Peary has reached the North - Pole, the goal sought for centuries, and - - _Whereas_, this is the greatest geographical achievement that - this society can have opportunity to honor, therefore - - _Resolved_, that a special medal be awarded to Commander Peary.” - -Medals and honors were bestowed upon him by many scientific societies -at home and abroad, and he was promoted to the rank of Rear Admiral in -the United States Navy, and given the thanks of Congress. - -The Frozen North has given up its secret. Man’s persistence has -conquered, and 90° north has been attained. - -Rear Admiral Peary and all the brave men, who for nearly four hundred -years struggled to reach the North Pole, will be held in honor by their -countrymen for all time. - - NOTE.――A fathom is six feet; a statute mile 5280 feet; a - geographical mile 6080 feet. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes: - - ――Text in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_). - - ――The Contents listing was changed to reflect the chapter title in - the content where there was a difference. - - ――A List of Illustrations has been provided for the convenience of - the reader. - - ――Printer’s, punctuation and spelling inaccuracies were silently - corrected. - - ――Archaic and variable spelling has been preserved. - - ――Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved. - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FROZEN NORTH *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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