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diff --git a/old/65192-0.txt b/old/65192-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index cafa171..0000000 --- a/old/65192-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1946 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of How to live, by Adeline Knapp - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: How to live - A manual of hygiene for use in the schools of the Philippine - islands - -Author: Adeline Knapp - -Release Date: April 29, 2021 [eBook #65192] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team - at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO LIVE *** - - - - - HOW TO LIVE - A MANUAL OF HYGIENE - _FOR USE IN THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS_ - - - BY - - ADELINE KNAPP - - AUTHOR OF “THE STORY OF THE PHILIPPINES” - - ILLUSTRATED - -[Illustration] - - SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY - - NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1902, - BY SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER PAGE - I. THE HUMAN BODY 7 - - II. THE STORY OF WATER 19 - - III. ABOUT FOOD 30 - - IV. ALL AROUND THE HOUSE 44 - - V. OUR OWN SELVES 63 - - VI. PUBLIC HYGIENE 81 - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - PAGE - THE SKULL, CHEST, AND ABDOMEN 8 - - THE CIRCULATION 11 - - THE WRONG WAY TO CARRY A BABY 16 - - GOVERNOR-GENERAL CARRIEDO 19 - - PUMPING STATION, MANILA WATERWORKS 20 - - THE WRONG PLACE FOR A WELL 23 - - A BADLY ARRANGED MARKET 31 - - A MARKET AS IT SHOULD BE 36 - - AN UNHEALTHFUL STREET 46 - - CLOTHES DRYING ON THE GROUND 59 - - THE BEST WAY TO DRY CLOTHES 60 - - THE SKIN MAGNIFIED 66 - - THE EAR 77 - - GATE COVERED WITH UNHEALTHFUL MOLD 84 - - - - - HOW TO LIVE. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - THE HUMAN BODY. - - -In America, where they make the best locomotive engines in the world, -they say that the life of an engine is about twenty years. That is, when -they build an engine, they know about how much work it will have to do -and what usage it is likely to have. They know that the engine is strong -enough to do such work and stand such usage for twenty years. So they -say that the length of the engine’s life is twenty years. - -Now, a man’s body is, in its way, a machine. It is made to do certain -work, and if it has the right sort of care, it ought to be healthy and -do the work required of it, to the end of the man’s life. It is -estimated that the natural life of a man is seventy years. This little -book is intended to tell us how to live and something about caring for -our bodies so that they shall last as long as possible, and be ready and -able to do their work in the world. - -[Illustration: - - THE SKULL, CHEST, AND ABDOMEN. -] - -In a general way, we may compare the human body to three closed boxes, -one above another. These boxes are the skull, the chest, and the -abdomen. Each one has its own special contents, formed to do a special -work for the body. The skull is a hard, bony case made to contain the -brain. This is where the mind lives, and it is part of the work of the -mind to take care of the body and direct its movements. The brain -maintains a sort of telegraph station within itself. Wires, which we -call nerves, branch out from it to all parts of the body, and the brain -is constantly receiving messages over these wires and sending others -telling the muscles what to do. For instance, if the hand comes in -contact with something hot, a message instantly goes to the brain, -telling this fact. The brain sends back word to take the hand away, and -the hand is withdrawn. But all this is done so quickly that the hand -seems to be withdrawn the very instant that it comes in contact with the -fire. The skull is supported by the backbone, which connects it with the -second closed box. - -This second cavity is the chest, which is really a sort of cage formed -by the ribs, the backbone, and the breastbone. In the chest are the -heart and the lungs. The heart is an engine. Put your hand over it and -you can feel the steady throb of its beat, day and night. It is working -all the time, whether you are awake or asleep. The business of the heart -is to send blood to all parts of the body. It does this by driving the -blood through tubes, called arteries and veins, that go all over the -body. The arteries are deep down among the muscles, but some of the -veins are close to the surface. We can see blue veins at the temples and -on the backs of our hands. All the blood goes to every part of the body -once in two minutes. - -The food which a person eats is acted upon by the digestive fluids in -the body and is turned over and dissolved until it becomes fluid itself. -It is then taken up by the blood and carried to different parts of the -body, so that each organ and muscle gets what it needs. We shall learn, -a little later, just how the food gets into the blood. We have seen that -the heart sends the blood out through vessels, which are called -arteries. This blood starts from the heart bright red, full of fresh air -and food for the body. As it goes on its journey, each tissue takes from -it what is needed to keep that part healthy, and at last the blood has -given out all the good things with which it was loaded. It no longer -carries food and fresh air, but is full of the impurities taken in on -its journey. If something were not done to cleanse it, the man would -die. - -[Illustration: - - THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. - - The blood is forced by the heart through the arteries (black lines), - and returns to it through the veins (dotted lines). -] - -The impure blood flows from the arteries into the veins through tiny -canals. The veins are tubes something like the arteries, and they -usually lie beside the arteries. They and the arteries are like the two -tracks of a great railway line, one going from the main station, the -heart, the other coming back. - -But the blood in the veins is not like that in the arteries. Instead of -being bright red, and healthy-looking, it is dark colored. It flows more -slowly, and it is full of impurities which it is carrying away from the -body. The veins carry this blood to the right side of the heart, and the -heart sends it to the lungs. There are many blood vessels in the lungs, -and they are divided into branches running in every direction through -the lung tissue. When we draw in a deep breath, we fill the lungs with -fresh air. This is at once taken up by the impure blood in the branching -blood vessels. The impurities are breathed out with the air that leaves -our lungs, and the blood once more becomes bright red and full of new -life. In this way the blood is purified. Then it is sent back to the -heart, all ready to start out again through the body. The whole journey -is made every two minutes. - -The third box, which we call the abdominal cavity, is separated from the -chest by a broad, thin muscle, the diaphragm. The abdomen has a hard -floor of bone, but the walls are soft, being made up only of the muscles -and the lower ribs. In the abdomen are the stomach and intestines, the -liver, kidneys, and other organs of which we shall learn later. - -Food is carried from the mouth to the stomach by the muscular tube which -passes through the chest just back of the breastbone. This tube is -called the esophagus. With the mouth, the stomach, and the bowels, it -forms what is called the food canal. - -As soon as the food enters the mouth, it begins to turn from solid into -liquid form, so that the blood can take it up. We chew the food, so that -it may become mixed with the saliva in the mouth; then it is swallowed -and goes into the stomach. This is a kind of sack which holds about a -quart. Just as saliva is secreted in the mouth and acts upon the food, -so in the stomach there is a fluid called the gastric juice, which aids -digestion. The gastric juice mixes with the food, dissolves it, and -makes it soft, so that it can pass through the lower opening of the -stomach into the intestines. Here there are other juices which dissolve -still more of the food, until at last it is all liquid and looks like -milk. - -Now it is taken up by the blood through tiny canals that reach down into -the intestines and absorb it. But it is not really a part of the blood -yet. It must be changed still further, so the blood carries it to the -liver. Here it is made a part of the blood, and is able to nourish all -parts of the body. - -All the food that cannot be dissolved is indigestible, and the body must -get rid of it. Some of it passes off as solid matter, by way of the -bowels; some is got rid of through the urine; some goes out with the -breath, as we have seen; and a great deal goes off in the perspiration. -This is why we need to bathe our bodies and to wash our clothing. The -perspiration brings the bad matter to the surface, where it clings to -the skin and the clothing until it is removed by washing. - -But this series of boxes, which we call the head and trunk of the body, -would be very helpless without the legs and arms to carry them about and -to wait upon them. Taken all together, the head, trunk, and limbs form -the body. The framework, which we call the skeleton, is made up of -bones. These bones are like the framework of a house,—they keep the body -upright and support the muscles. In young people the bones are soft and -elastic. A baby often has falls that would break the bones of a grown -person, but the baby’s bones are not broken because they are not yet -hardened. This is an advantage, for children get a great many more falls -than grown people do, and it would be hard for them if the bones were -broken as easily. - -But if children’s bones do not break, they bend, and it is easy for them -to grow into bad shape. If children do not sit up straight they become -round-shouldered, and many children get into the habit of carrying one -shoulder higher than the other. Often, too, they are careless about -walking and sitting properly. - -[Illustration: - - THE WRONG WAY TO CARRY A BABY. -] - -In this country, where nearly all weights are carried on the head, we -rarely see a man who does not carry his head and shoulders well. He -learns in childhood to keep his shoulders even and to hold his head up. -But there is one custom of the country which prevents the people from -walking well. This is the practice of carrying little children on the -hip. It is bad for the children, as it strains the muscles of the lower -part of the back, and bends the soft little bones so that they do not -grow straight as they naturally would. It is bad, too, for the person -who carries the child. The body is thrown to one side, the weight of the -child presses the soft organs of the abdomen downward, and the effect is -often serious. It is very bad indeed for one child to carry another this -way. Babies should be carried in the arms, as European children are. - -When we walk, we should let the weight of the body rest on the soles of -the feet. We should lift the foot free from the ground and carry it -straight forward when we step. Some day, if you will study the -difference between the walk of a good horse and that of a carabao, you -will see how a man should walk. The horse lifts his hind foot, carries -it straight forward, and sets it down almost exactly in the print his -front foot made. The carabao lifts his hind foot, swings it outward in -an awkward curve, brings it back into line, and sets it down in much the -same way as the horse. But he loses a little time swinging it outward, -and he looks very clumsy, as well. - -Now, some people, instead of walking like horses, walk like carabaos. -They scuffle along the street with dragging steps, rolling their hips, -and swinging their feet outward, just as these animals do. They look -lazy and clumsy, and as if they could hardly hold their bodies together. -People should learn to walk well while they are young. - -The bones are covered with muscles, which are what we mean when we say -the _flesh_. There are a great many muscles in the body. They give it -shape and move it about. When we bend an arm or a finger, we do it by -the action of the muscles. The brain tells the muscles how to act, as we -have seen. It sends messages along the nerves, and the muscles obey. We -can make our muscles strong by exercise, but if we do not use them -enough, they will grow weak and soft. - - - QUESTIONS. - - How does the brain send messages to the different parts of the body? - - What does the heart do? - - What does the blood take up from the body? - - How does it get rid of impurities? - - What becomes of food after it is swallowed? - - How are the bones of a child different from those of a grown person? - - How does it hurt the bones to sit or stand badly? - - Why should we sit up straight? - - How ought babies to be carried? - - Why is it hurtful to carry them on the hip? - - What do we call the muscles? - - What are their uses? - - How can we make our muscles strong? - - - - - CHAPTER II. - THE STORY OF WATER. - - -[Illustration: - - GOVERNOR-GENERAL CARRIDEO - - Who gave Manila her waterworks. -] - -Many years ago there was a wise governor-general in the Philippine -Islands, who left a large sum of money to the city of Manila. This money -was to be put out at interest and allowed to increase, and in his will -the governor-general directed that when there should be a large enough -sum, it should be used to build waterworks for the city of Manila. - -[Illustration: - - PUMPING STATION, MANILA WATERWORKS. -] - -The waterworks were not built until a hundred years after the -governor-general died. In 1872 another wise governor-general came to the -islands, and learning of this money which had been left, he at once set -to work to provide the city with a water supply. This was one of the -best things that ever happened to Manila. In the tropics nothing is more -important than pure water. - -There is a great deal of water in the body. In fact, three fourths of -the body is made up of water. It is in the blood, in the muscles, and in -the bones. There is even some water in the enamel of the teeth, which is -the hardest substance in the whole body. The digestive juices, the -saliva, and the different intestinal juices, all help to dissolve some -part of the food which we take. To obtain this power to dissolve the -food, they depend upon water. - -When a man is thirsty, it seems to him that his throat is dry. But -dryness of the throat is only a sign by which the body makes known its -need. Thirst is the cry of the fluids and tissues for water. It means -that some part of the body is suffering for the precious fluid. - -If we look at a drop of water under a microscope, which magnifies it -many times, we shall see in the water a great number of moving specks -which are really little animals. The animals are so small that thousands -of them can live in a single drop of water as happily as they could in a -whole ocean of room. They are called germs. Some of them are wholesome: -they help to keep the water bright and sparkling and sweet, and make it -pleasant to the taste. But some of them are very harmful: they produce -many kinds of disease, most of which cause death. - -It is because of these germs that people, particularly in tropical -countries, have to be so careful about the water they drink. The purest -water that we have is clean rain water. This is the vapor which rises -from the earth and from the surface of the sea. It ascends into the air -until it strikes a current of cold air, when it is turned into moisture -and falls as rain. - -We can catch the rain water in cisterns or other vessels; and this water -we may drink without boiling, if we are careful to keep the cisterns -clean. The cistern, to be perfectly sweet, should be emptied and cleaned -at least once every two weeks. - -[Illustration: - - THE WRONG PLACE FOR A WELL. -] - -In this country nearly all the drinking water comes from wells. Well -water may be very good, but the chances are that it is full of -impurities. The water from the wells is rain water which has soaked into -the earth and has collected in the well. But the earth is always full of -impurities. It is like a great sponge through which the water flows, and -the water is pretty sure to take up some impurities as it sinks through -the earth. - -If a well is near an outhouse or stable, or a place where cattle are -kept, the water that filters through this earth will carry with it germs -from these places. A well should always be on higher ground than any -outbuildings. It should be some distance from the house, and no slops or -anything emptied from the house should be put near it. No drainage of -any kind should run near it. - -In the city of Pittsburg, in the United States, some years ago, there -was an epidemic of typhoid fever. Many thousands of people died, and at -last the legislature of Pennsylvania appointed a committee to -investigate the cause of the epidemic. This committee began to study the -source of the city water supply. They traced it far up the mountains, -many miles away, until they found a certain little stream emptying into -a large river which supplied the city. Living on the banks of this -stream was a family where there was a case of typhoid fever. The slops -from the house had been thrown into the stream and had so poisoned the -water that thousands of people in far-away Pittsburg died of typhoid -fever. - -In Manila there was once a great cholera epidemic, during which more -than thirty thousand Filipinos in the city and province of Manila died; -many Spanish people died also. During the worst of the epidemic the -death rate was at least a thousand every day. But only one Englishman -died, and it is said that his death was due to his own carelessness in -drinking impure water. - -If everybody in the city had boiled and filtered the drinking water, as -the Americans and the English did, nearly all of these thirty thousand -people would have escaped death. - -What has been said of the impurities collected by water passing through -the earth is especially true of the water which supplies Manila. The -ground all about the city has been so long occupied by large numbers of -people, the drainage has been so poor and so many impurities have been -cast out, that the soil for a great distance around the city is a mass -of decay. To stir up the earth, as when digging and laying pipes, makes -the men who do it feverish and often ill, because of the gases rising -from the soil. We may judge from this how bad the water must be that -drains through the earth and is collected in the wells of the city. Even -the water in the Carriedo water pipes cannot be said to be pure. It -comes from a river far from the city. On the banks of this river are -many native villages, and the people throw all sorts of refuse into the -stream. They wash their clothes in it, and bathe themselves, their -horses, and their carabaos there. For this reason the water should be -purified before we drink it. - -When the Americans first came to Manila the city was not kept as clean -as it is now. This is one reason why there were so many deaths in -Manila, and because of the high death rate, the Americans at once set to -work to clean the city. To do this cost the lives of many American -soldiers, who died of fever caused by bad gases from the earth; but -since it was done, the death rate in Manila is less than it ever was -before. - -But even yet the death rate is greater than it would be, if everybody -would be careful about food and drink. The greater number of those who -die are little children. Indeed, one third of all the deaths in Manila -are of children who die of a single complaint. This is the terrible fits -from which we so often see little babies suffering. The fits are caused -by trouble in the stomach and bowels, arising from bad food and drink. -Sometimes the little one dies because it is worn out by the pain it has -suffered. Sometimes the brain is affected by the stomach trouble; but -the true cause of death in every such case is impure water or the wrong -kind of food. Most of the trouble comes from the water which the -children drink. - -Not even a grown person ought to drink water that has not been boiled. -It is not safe, for the germs of many of the tropical diseases are found -in the water. All of these germs are killed by that degree of heat which -we call the boiling point. No less heat than this will kill them. - -It is not enough merely to heat the water; it must really boil for at -least five minutes after it begins to bubble and simmer. It ought then -to be strained through a clean cloth and put at once into a banga or -some other of the jars used to contain water. The jar should be clean, -and should have a cover. If it is hung in a draft of air, the water will -become cool enough to drink. - -The jars used to hold water should be of ware that will “sweat” after -the liquid has been in them for some time. That is, the outside should -be covered with beads of moisture which have crept through the sides. -This sort of jar keeps the water cool and lets the air get to it. Water, -after it has been boiled, is tasteless and flat, and until it again -takes up oxygen from the air, it is not so pleasant to drink, or so -digestible as it was before boiling. - -We have seen how important water is to life, and we cannot have too high -an idea of the importance of its being pure. It is not enough that water -looks clear and sparkling. It may look like crystal and yet be full of -poisonous germs. The only way to be certain that it is pure is to boil -it and then see that no further impurities get into it before it is -used. - - - QUESTIONS. - - What is thirst? - - What is the proportion of water in the body? - - What is the purest sort of water we have? - - How does water become unfit for drinking? - - How may it be purified and made fit to drink? - - How should drinking water be kept? - - - - - CHAPTER III. - ABOUT FOOD. - - -Shall we go to market to-day? Let us go to one of the large new -buildings that the government has put up in Manila, to be used as -markets. They are well fitted for this purpose. They have cement floors, -which can be washed every day, and clean, well-built stalls, where goods -are sold. The floor of a market should be washed often, and every bit of -waste matter should be carried off. If this is not done faithfully, the -food sold there spoils and becomes unfit for use. - -[Illustration: - - A BADLY ARRANGED MARKET. -] - -What quantities of fruit! It would take a long time to count all these -bunches of bananas. The mangoes are in season now, and look very -tempting. It is not well to eat too many of them at the beginning of the -season, however, and we should be sure that those which we do eat are -ripe and sound. Unripe fruit is very hurtful, and so is fruit which is -too ripe, which has begun to decay. Some of these bananas, for instance, -are so black and so soft that no one should think of trying to eat them. -In some countries a merchant who tried to sell such fruit would soon -find himself stopped from selling any fruit at all. The law would not -allow him to offer poison for sale, and decayed fruit is poison. - -We will buy some of these sound, clean-looking bananas, and a few -oranges this morning. We will choose oranges that are of a fine, rich -green, not too hard, but firm and of good weight. Oranges that feel -light in the hand are dry and not wholesome. - -Here are radishes and lettuce, for salad; but if we buy these, we must -be sure that they are well washed in boiled water before we eat them. -There are little creatures, so small that they cannot be seen without a -strong microscope, that live among the lettuce and other green leaves. -These tiny creatures are the cause of the worst form of dysentery. All -sorts of vegetables which we eat raw should be washed clean, and it is -of no use to wash them in unboiled water, as the amœba (which is the -little creature’s name) may be in that, too. - -We need camotes to-day, and here are some fine ones. We will not buy -them, however. Why? Do you not see that some one has been chewing betel -nut, and has spit close beside them, and the camotes are all spattered -with the red stain? - -It is a terrible thing that not even our markets can be kept clean from -this bad habit of so many people. In some parts of the world the man who -spit upon the sidewalk, the floor of a car, or in any public building -would be arrested and taken to prison. This may seem to some a hard -punishment for what many people think is a small offense. We know, -however, that many diseases are caused by this practice, and the man who -willfully does anything which puts his fellows in danger from disease -does as great wrong as he who endangers their lives in any other way. - -Many people have catarrh, bronchitis, and consumption; all such diseases -can be given to others in this way. The air can become poisoned, so that -other people catch the disease. People in older countries have learned -that if sick persons are careless about spitting in public places, they -often endanger the lives of others; so it is quite right to compel all -to stop this bad habit and to punish them if they continue in it. - -Constant spitting is a bad habit in other ways. The saliva is meant to -help digest the food. If one gets into the senseless habit of spitting -all the time, the saliva is wasted and the digestion hurt. Then, too, it -is an uncleanly habit. It makes floors and sidewalks filthy, and people -who have been well brought up always have a feeling of disgust when they -see any one spit in public places. If one must spit, he should do so in -private, where no one need be disgusted by his act. Certainly no one who -has regard for decency would ever spit upon the floor of a market. - -We should make sure that all vegetables which we buy are fresh and in -good condition. Food the least bit decayed should never be eaten. It is -very dangerous in this climate, where people are more likely than in -colder countries to have trouble of the stomach and bowels. Not even -cooking will make decayed vegetables fit to eat. The poison in them -irritates the lining of the food canal and makes us sick. Besides, there -is very little nourishment in poor vegetables; so that if they are -eaten, the blood gets thin and cannot feed the body. - -Now that we have fruit and salad, we will buy some camotes and gabi, and -some squash, here at this stall where everything seems so clean. Some -tomatoes, too, but we will not buy any of the beans to-day; they seem -soft and flabby, and we may be sure that they are not fresh. - -Meat? Yes, by and by; but we shall do better to get that elsewhere. It -is bad for meat to lie in the open air as it does here. Meat should be -killed at least twenty-four hours before it is eaten, and if it is kept -so long, it must be on ice. Otherwise, it spoils in a very few hours. -Meat should never be left where flies can light on it, and you see that -the meat here is covered with flies. - -[Illustration: - - A MARKET AS IT SHOULD BE. -] - -Flies are great carriers of disease, and often take germs from place to -place on their feet. Some of these flies may have just left places where -there is fever or cholera, or smallpox, and they can easily leave the -germs of these diseases on the meat where they next alight. So you see -we should be very careful where we buy meat, and what sort we buy. - -There is plenty of poultry in the market to-day,—chickens, ducks and -pigeons, all alive, and dealers all anxious to sell. If we buy a -chicken, we should get it home as carefully as we can, and it should be -allowed to rest and get over its fright before it is killed. Then it -should be killed as quietly and quickly as possible, as otherwise the -meat will be feverish and bad for food. It should be killed some hours -before it is needed for food, so that the flesh may cool. To kill it -just before cooking, as is almost always done in this country, is a very -bad custom, as flesh so killed is not wholesome. - -Here are the fish stalls; and here are the fish, most of them alive and -flopping about. Fish caught in the river should not be bought unless -they are alive; fresh-water fish spoil so quickly that unless alive when -bought, they are not likely to be fit for food. Deep-sea fish may be -bought dead, and are safe to eat if the gills are bright red and the -scales clean and shiny. If the gills look dull and bluish, we should -never think of buying the fish; for it has been out of the water too -long. Crabs and other shellfish should always be bought alive, unless -they are already cooked and frozen, as we see them in the cold storage -house. Then they must be kept on ice until they are made ready for the -table. But under the very best circumstances shellfish should be -sparingly used in this country, as they are the cause of much trouble of -the digestion. - -We will buy some rice to-day, but we must look at it carefully first. -Good rice is clean and white. It is free from mold, and there should be -no musty smell about it. If it has any such smell, we will not buy it, -for it is unfit for food. It ought not to be fed, even to the chickens. -Moldy and dirty rice is a common cause of the disease called -_beri-beri_, which is so often fatal in tropical countries. - -Many people are not prudent about selecting and cooking their rice. They -are careless and often buy musty rice, nor do they cook it long enough. -They eat it half cooked, and many people like it a little burned. -Prepared this way the rice is hard to digest, and is irritating to the -system and to the food canal. - -A grown man who is well and strong needs a certain amount of food every -day, to keep him in health. The body requires water, fat, sugar, and -albumen, and some mineral salts. Albumen is a substance rich in food for -the body, of which it makes up a large part. The white of egg is almost -pure albumen, and therefore eggs are very good for food. Milk, which is -the only food very young babies should have, contains all the things -which the body needs, and in just the right quantities. It has water, -sugar, fat, albumen, and some mineral matter. Meat has albumen and fat, -but no sugar, and fish is similar to meat in this respect. - -Most of the sugar we take into the body we really eat in the form of -starch, but the saliva in the mouth turns the starch into sugar. The -secretions of the liver do this also. Rice is a starchy food. It -contains a great deal of starch, and before we eat it, it should be well -cooked, so that it is soft enough to be acted upon by the saliva and -turned into sugar; otherwise, the liver has all this work to do. Corn, -potatoes, meal, bread, are all starchy foods, and we get with them -nearly all of the mineral substances needed; but to most of our food we -need to add a little salt. - -Bananas and other fruits, when they are ripe, all have sugar, and in -this country people are fortunate in having the sugar cane to eat. If -one does not eat too much of this, it is pleasant and wholesome, and it -is very good for the teeth; it makes them white and keeps them healthy. - -Besides what he takes in with his solid food, a man should drink three -pints of water a day. If he drinks tea or coffee he will get some water -with these, and so will not need so much, but three pints of liquid are -needed daily to keep the body well. People in this country drink also -the sap of the cocoanut tree and the water contained in the cocoanut -itself. These are both good and wholesome, when fresh. But if they are -not fresh, they can do much harm. Why this is we shall see in another -chapter. - -People who live in the tropics need less fat than those in colder -countries. Away in the frozen north the Esquimaux eat great quantities -of fat meat and oil, and even tallow, from which candles are made. They -need much fat to keep them warm. In the tropics, on the other hand, -people should eat but little fat. Lean meat is good, especially beef, -but pork raised here is very unwholesome. The pigs themselves eat all -manner of unclean things. They are the natural scavengers of the -country, and the food which they eat makes their flesh unfit for us. - -The flesh of the carabao is not so good as beef. It gives really very -little nourishment, and is tough and dry. The mutton which is grown in -these islands is not so good as it might be if more pains were taken. -Sheep ought to be shorn twice a year, not only for the value of the -wool, but because it adds to the comfort of the sheep and makes the -flesh better. Dry and salt meats are of little value here, and they -spoil quickly. - -The fish of the Philippine Islands are rich in albumen, which the body -needs. They should always be fresh, as we have seen, and should always -be eaten hot. Even cooked fish, after it has grown cold, is not good for -food. It is likely to produce skin diseases and certain kinds of -poisoning. Many of the shellfish cause this disease also, particularly -the crabs of these islands. In fact, shellfish should all be used -sparingly, as they are not easy to digest and are often the cause of -diarrhœa and dysentery. - -Babies and very young children ought to be fed carefully in this -country. Yet frequently we see tiny babies eating fish and meat, and -often raw vegetables and green fruit. The stomachs of such little -children are very small and weak. Their natural food is milk, and if we -give them anything else than this, we should choose it very carefully. -It should be the best that we can get, perfectly clean, and easy to -digest. Not until people are more careful about these matters will the -children in the islands have a fair chance to grow up to healthy manhood -and womanhood. - - - QUESTIONS. - - Why is fruit that is too ripe unfit to eat? - - How do we select oranges that are fresh and good? - - Why should we be careful to wash all fruit and vegetables before we - eat them? - - Why is spitting in public places a filthy habit? - - How may it be dangerous to others? - - Why should meat not hang in the open air in tropical countries? - - How do flies carry disease? - - Why is it injurious to eat meat that has just been killed? - - Why is it not a good plan to buy dead fish? - - Why are crabs and shellfish a poor sort of food? - - What does good rice look like? - - What kinds of rice should be avoided? - - What sort of food and drink are best for the tropics? - - How ought babies and young children to be fed? - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - ALL AROUND THE HOUSE. - - -The English people have a saying: “Every man’s house is his castle.” In -his own house a man ought to be safe, if he is to be so anywhere, and -there he ought to feel sure that his family is safe. With his strong -right arm he will keep all enemies away; will fight, if need be, for the -safety of his castle. It would be a very mean man who would not do this. -We should think even a child a coward who did not help to defend his -home. But while we defend the front door, we must not let enemies creep -in at the back. Now, the deadliest enemy of human life in the tropics is -dirt. We have to fight hard against dirt of every sort. Let us see, -to-day, about building a house and keeping our enemy out of it. - -Every country must have its own particular kind of a house. The house -suitable for a cold country would not do at all in the country where we -are now. We do not need walls built so as to keep out cold and winds. We -have no use for fires to fight off frost and chill. But houses in -countries where the winters are cold and snowy must have thick walls; -they must have carpets on the floors and heavy curtains at the windows. -There must be fires in the houses, to keep people warm. If the houses -were not warm, people would suffer from cold and many would die. - -Nevertheless, while they do not need to be built for warmth, our houses -in the tropics ought to be as carefully built as are the homes in winter -lands. That they are not so built is one reason why so many little -children die here,—many more than in America, for instance. - -[Illustration: - - AN UNHEALTHFUL STREET. - - Without pavement or gutters. -] - -First of all, since we are to build a house, we must have a good place -for it. We will not build on low land if we can help it. Neither will we -build near standing water. We see a great many houses upon land that is -almost always wet, but they are very unhealthful for the people who have -to live in them. If our house is to be a healthful place for us, we must -build it on firm land that is well drained. Some day the whole city of -Manila, within the walls, will have to be raised several feet higher -than it is at present, to get it far enough above the low, unhealthful -land it now stands on. The streets must be made wider, too, so that the -sun can shine upon the house walls. The narrow streets are nearly always -damp and unhealthful. Manila will never be a healthy place until these -things are done. - -But outside of the walls, and in the country, we can pick our plots and -prepare our building sites. The fine, beautiful house and the little -nipa cottage can be equal in one respect; that is, both can have clean, -healthful surroundings. - -The living-rooms of houses in this country should never be close to the -ground. The land on which a house stands should be well drained and kept -dry. This, however, is not all that should be done to prepare a building -spot. In tropical countries bad gases rise from the earth at night, and -we should do what we can to prevent these from getting into the house. -The ground where the house is to stand should be dug down at least a -foot and filled in with hard cement. This will keep it dry and prevent -the earth-gases from rising through the floors. Besides this foundation, -the house should have cement gutters running all around it, to carry off -surface water. The foundation walls should rise from the cement bottom -to a height of at least six feet. - -The ground floor may be used as a place to store carriages, furniture, -and other things of that sort; but it is unsafe to keep horses or other -animals there. All the bad odors and gases from these rise, making the -living rooms above unhealthful. - -The first floor of our house,—the floor on which we mean to live, should -be tightly built, so as to keep out all drafts of air, and to leave as -few cracks as possible for insects to crawl through. We shall get fresh -air enough if we have large windows that open freely. - -We are fortunate, in this country, in having the beautiful thin shells -with which our window sashes are filled. These are much better here than -glass would be. They shut out the bright rays of the sun, while they can -be pierced with tiny holes, if need be, to let in air when the window is -closed. Heavy shutters with slats are also good. If we have these in the -house, the windows may be open, even at night, or when it rains. - -The roof of our house is a very important part. Most of the roofs in -this country are of nipa or bamboo. These make a good protection against -the sun’s rays, but they need great care, and should be often renewed, -as the wind tears them so that they become leaky. They catch and hold -the dust, and are always hatching-places for all sorts of insects. The -roof of split bamboo is cheap, beautiful, and easy to make, but it is -also easily blown away by a high wind. If we use it, we must fasten it -with wire to the rafters and walls. - -Wood makes a very bad roofing material. It decays quickly and is a poor -protection against the rain. Then, too, it can hardly be built so that a -great wind will not blow it away. Many roofs are now built of zinc, and -for some reasons this is good material to make them of. If we have a -zinc roof, however, we must build a garret between it and the living -rooms,—a sort of air chamber for the sake of coolness; for when the sun -beats down on the zinc roof, the metal gets very hot. This sort of roof -is useful for catching rain water; after the first rain has washed off -all the dust and dirt, then we may collect the rain water that falls -from the roof into our cisterns, and have a plentiful, pure supply -during the rainy season. - -In early days roofs were covered with half-round red tiles. We see a -great many of them still on old houses, but they are heavy, and -dangerous as well during the typhoons and earthquakes that sometimes -visit us. - -Perhaps the best of all roofs for this climate are the ones covered with -flat, broad pieces of slate, secured by wire or nails to boards and -rafters underneath, but roofs of this sort are expensive. It will -probably be best, therefore, for us to roof our house with zinc. If we -have an airy garret between it and the ceiling of the upper rooms, it -will be quite cool enough. - -The rooms in our house will be very simple. We shall not have any heavy, -stiff carpets on the floors, to catch dust and breed disease. Nor shall -there be moldings or ornamental ledges along the walls, because these -also catch and hold the dust. Our rooms shall be easy to keep clean. -What pictures and ornaments we have on the walls shall be such as can -readily be reached and dusted. A room so decorated that it cannot be -kept free from dust and dirt cannot possibly be beautiful. - -The kitchen of a house anywhere should be clean as can be, but -particularly in this country. It should be on the north side of the -house if possible, for the sake of shade. We will not, however, have -trees growing very near it, even to shade it. They have a saying in the -tropics that “He who grows a tree against his house invites death to his -door.” This means that dampness and shade made by the trees growing too -near the house breed disease and often bring death. So we shall have no -trees nearer our house than twenty feet. - -Nor shall any one be allowed to sleep in our kitchen. It is a very -unhealthful and uncleanly custom to let the servants sleep in the -kitchen. There should be no sleeping in a room where food is prepared. -By morning the air of a sleeping room is always charged with bad matter -given off from the lungs of the sleepers. Sleeping rooms have a chance -for ventilation during the day, and all these vapors are replaced by -pure air. But there is no time in the morning to change the air of the -kitchen. The food must be prepared in the midst of all the bad gases -that have gathered there during the night. - -This brings us to think of what proper sleeping arrangements should be. -Not enough attention is given to the subject in this country. The nights -are so hot that people are careless. Many grown people and nearly all -children sleep on or close to the floor. This custom is a great source -of sickness. If the floor is of bamboo, the bad air from the earth rises -through it at night. There is always a draft across the floor, from -doors and from windows, and from spaces in the floor itself. When we are -asleep the body is relaxed, the pores of the skin are open, and we are -in every way less able to resist chills and the bad effects of impure -air. Sleep is a condition of helplessness, and we should protect -ourselves in it. - -A serious cause of disease, which people are just beginning to -understand, is the mosquito. We have only lately come to know that this -insect is the direct cause of the malaria which is so common, and so -dangerous, here. Malaria is a germ disease. That is, it is a disease -caused by germs which get into the blood. The germ of malaria is a -parasite which lives on the body of the mosquito. We can imagine how -tiny it must be when we know that a great many of them find room to live -on a single mosquito. - -Now, when the mosquito lights on a person and bites him, these germs -often get into the little puncture which the insect makes to draw blood. -In this way they get into the blood of the human being, and there they -increase in numbers very fast. They poison the blood, the person becomes -sick and weak, suffers from headache and other pains, and very often -dies at last of malaria. - -We may learn from these facts how important it is that mosquito nets -should be used in this country. Even if a person sleeps upon the floor, -he should arrange some sort of protection from the mosquitoes. - -Every morning, the floors of our house must be washed with water in -which we have put a little kerosene oil; one or two large spoonfuls of -oil will be enough for a bucket of water. We should see that the washing -is carefully done. This washing with kerosene will help to keep -mosquitoes away. It also tends to drive out ants and other small -insects. Kerosene oil is cleansing, and helps to kill many of the germs -that breed in corners and cracks. If it is poured upon standing water, -it will prevent mosquitoes from breeding there. One ounce of kerosene -will spread out over fifteen square feet of water, and this fact is made -use of in some countries in getting rid of mosquitoes. It may be spread -over the surface of the water in cisterns without imparting any taste to -the water which is drawn from below for drinking purposes. - -Persons who have consumption ought never to sleep in the same room with -others, particularly with children. Consumption is catching. The germs -which cause it are breathed out by the victim, and other people often -inhale them and contract the disease. A consumptive person should never -spit on the floor, and all discharges from the mouth should be -disinfected. - -There are two other places about a house in the tropics where our arch -enemy, dirt, may hide and slay us, if we are not on guard against it. -These are the sinks and the cesspools, which receive waste from the -bathroom, toilet, and such places. No refuse matter ought to be thrown -out about the house, and no dirt should be allowed to gather on the -ground floor or in the court. We cannot be too careful about this; for -if dirt does gather in these places, it is sure to breed disease. - -Decayed vegetables, fruit, and all leavings from the kitchen should be -carried away and burned, or buried, or otherwise disposed of where they -can do no harm. Even the water in which dishes are washed, or in which -we have bathed, should not be poured out on the ground near the house. -It should be carried as far away as possible and emptied in some waste -place. - -There are few sewers in this country. Even those in Manila are scarcely -worthy of the name. Before long, steps will have to be taken to have -them in all cities in the archipelago; for there is great need for them. -The fact that there are no good sewers makes the question of cleanliness -about the house a grave one. If waste from the toilets is carried into -the cesspools, there should be plenty of running water with it for -flushing; it should be carried in pipes to the cesspool, and at least -once a day the water-closet should be flushed with water in which there -is some good disinfectant. If, as is so often the case, the closet is -merely an outhouse over a hole or vault dug in the earth, at least five -liters of a mixture of quicklime and dry earth should be put into the -vault every day. - -Milk of lime is one of the best disinfectants for use in this country. -It is cheap, and it not only disinfects waste matter, but destroys bad -odors. It is powdered quicklime dissolved in water, about one liter of -quicklime to four liters of water. Another very cheap, but reliable, -disinfectant is made by dissolving three drams of mercury bichloride -with three drams of ammonium chloride in a bucket of water. This mixture -can always be kept in the house and a tabo or two of it thrown down the -closet seat whenever the latter is used. It must be kept where little -children cannot meddle with it; but a child need not be very old to be -wise enough to use it when necessary and not to meddle with it. -Children, as well as grown people, should feel in honor bound to take -good care of the house and to fight against dirt and disease when these -attack it. - -The bathroom and water-closet of our house should be kept as clean as -can be. They should be swept and washed every day, and no soiled -clothing or towels should be allowed to lie about. Our enemies, the -mosquitoes, are very fond of hiding about soiled clothing or that which -has been worn and is not soiled enough to be sent to the laundry. - -Soiled garments should be washed as soon as possible after they are -taken off. Right here lurks one of the greatest foes to health in this -country. People are too careless about the way their garments are -washed. The clothes often lie for several days in baskets or bags before -going to the laundry or being washed. This is bad, as germs breed -quickly among them. It is harmful for clothes to be washed in pools or -canals. The water of standing pools or even of the canals in the city -is, more often than not, full of disease germs. - -[Illustration: - - CLOTHES DRYING ON THE GROUND. -] - -To make matters worse, the clothes, when washed, are laid out on the -grass to dry. All sorts of tiny creeping things are here; so that while -the garments look white and clean, they may be full of wriggling life -from the water and from the ground,—creatures too small to be seen -without a microscope, yet the cause, many times, of the unpleasant skin -diseases so common in this climate. - -The laundry work of the family ought to be done at home, and the clothes -should be hung upon lines to dry. In other countries clothes are boiled -after first being washed with soap, but this is not possible here; -probably it never will be possible. Yet clothes can be washed with soap -and water and then leached,—that is, rinsed in lye water. Wood ashes are -easy to get, and lye water—that is, water in which the ashes have been -soaked—will destroy all germs. The clothes rinsed in it are as safe as -those which have been boiled. - -[Illustration: - - THE BEST WAY TO DRY CLOTHES. -] - -Attention to all of these things means work for men and women, and for -the boys and girls who wish to feel that their house is really their -castle which they are defending against unseen foes. These foes are -harder to fight than those who come openly and slay with the sword. They -are more dangerous foes, moreover; for they are about us always, and -must be fought daily. Otherwise, they will rob us of health, of comfort, -of sight; they will make us the victims of disease which is ugly to look -upon and painful to bear. They even take from us life itself, unless we -are constantly on guard to fight their great helper, the dirt, which -gathers about any neglected spot. - - - QUESTIONS. - - What sort of site should be chosen to build a home upon? - - How should the foundation be prepared? - - Why is it unhealthful to live near the ground in the tropics? - - Why is it unwise to keep animals under the houses? - - What is the best sort of roof in this country? - - How should the kitchen be located? - - Why should no one be allowed to sleep in the kitchen? - - Why is it not healthful to sleep on the floor? - - How should the body be protected during sleep? - - How do mosquitoes cause malaria? - - How does the use of kerosene oil keep them away? - - Why should consumptives never sleep in the room with healthy persons? - - How should refuse matter be disposed of? - - What are some of the best cheap disinfectants? - - How should clothes be washed? - - How should they be dried? - - - - - CHAPTER V. - OUR OWN SELVES. - - -A human being is very wonderful. Even the smallest baby is entirely -separate from all the rest of the world. He is a part of the great -whole, but he has his own life and separate being, just as much as the -greatest man in the world. If everybody in the world did just what was -right excepting one man, both that man and the rest of the world would -suffer because of his doing wrong. If all the rest of the world were -healthy and clean and he was not, the cleanliness and health of all the -others would not save him from being dirty and unhealthy. Each one of us -must do all that he can to help the rest of the world to be good and -healthy and clean. Now, the first and greatest thing that any one of us -can do toward this, is to do right and be healthy and clean himself. - -The human being is not only very wonderful, but he lives in a wonderful -body. This body can do much and endure much. It is very perfectly -adapted to its use. If man had not his reason to help him; if he did not -walk upright when all other creatures crawl or go on all fours; if he -did not differ from the lower animals in any other way than by having a -thumb on each hand, he would still be superior to them. All the other -large creatures are stronger than man, but his skillful hands, with -their thumbs, make him master of them. These help him to grasp and to -hold, to make things for his own use. He makes clothing to wear, houses -to shelter himself, and weapons with which to defend himself. - -Hundreds of years ago there lived a great doctor, named Galen. He wrote -one of the first books ever written about the human body, and he has -left it on record that he was obliged to believe that God lives; for -none but divine power could have made so wonderful a thing as the joint -that turns the human hand at the wrist. Yet this joint is only one of -the many wonderful things in the body. - -Now, to each of us is intrusted one of these bodies to take care of, -that it may do our work for us. Our work is not just to live for -ourselves, but to do something useful in the world; to help it all to be -better because we are here. So you see how very much worth while it is -that we should keep these useful bodies of ours as well and strong as we -can. - -Besides the outer garments in which we clothe it, the body has a garment -of its own. This garment is never laid aside; and though it is in -constant use, it never wears out. We call it the _skin_. The skin is -meant to protect the body. Lying close under it are many nerve ends, -delicate blood vessels, oil glands, sweat glands, and other tiny organs -that are too small to be seen without a microscope, but which are needed -to keep the body in good order. In the pictures which are shown on this -page, you will see how these tiny organs look when they are many times -magnified. - -[Illustration: - - THE SKIN MAGNIFIED - - Fig. 1. Surface showing openings of pores. - - Fig. 2. Side view of sweat glands and pores. -] - -Now, like our outer clothing, this garment of the body needs to be kept -very clean. You know that in this country when we take exercise, or, -during the heat of the day, even without our taking exercise, the -surface of the skin gets moist, little drops of water stand on it, and -even run down our faces or make our hands wet. We call this moisture -_perspiration_, and say that we are _sweating_ or _perspiring_ with the -heat. The drops of water come from openings in the skin, which we call -_pores_. These are little tubes connecting with sweat glands below the -skin. You will see in the picture how these sweat glands look, and how -the pores come to the surface. - -The perspiration is not pure, clean water; it contains many impurities -which the lungs, kidneys, and other organs have not cast out from the -body. It is the work of the skin to help carry off these impurities, and -it does this by means of sweat glands and pores. If the perspiration -dries on the skin, the impurities remain; they stop up the pores and -make the body unhealthy. It is to prevent all this that we bathe often. -Bathing keeps the pores of the skin open and the skin itself in a -healthy condition. We use soap because the skin secretes oil as well as -perspiration. This oil is to keep it soft and smooth, but it is needful -that the excess of it should be washed off with soap, in order that the -oil glands may not become clogged. - -We should be very careful not to become chilled when in a perspiration. -We should not plunge into cold water at this time. Neglect of this rule -often causes bowel trouble, and is a great cause of the catarrh and -bronchitis so common among the Filipino people. To keep it perfectly -clean, the body should be washed with soap once a day. Just before noon -is the best time to bathe, or else about four o’clock in the afternoon. -One should never bathe right after eating. If one takes a sponge bath -with water alone, immediately on rising, one feels better all day, but, -in this climate, the bath with soap is needed as well. Babies and very -little children should be bathed with soap and water without being -plunged into the bath. They are delicate, and unable to withstand the -chill that might result. Chills are very dangerous, and a person should -be careful in the rainy season not to get drenched. - -A person who has any kind of skin trouble should be very careful not to -give it to any one else. He owes it to all others to take pains about -this. If he does not, he is not a good citizen. He should be careful not -to use the towels that any one else is likely to use, and his soiled -clothing, when taken off, should be disinfected before being sent to the -laundry. - -The custom of going barefoot is a dangerous one. The sole of the foot is -a very delicate surface; a great many nerves and blood vessels center in -the instep, and any injury to these may produce the disease called -_lockjaw_, which usually results fatally. Even if nothing so serious as -this happens, the foot is often injured by bruising or by other hurts. -The feet are susceptible to chill, especially in the rainy season, when -they should be kept dry and warm. Disease is often taken through the -feet, especially such diseases as the bubonic plague, and the different -kinds of itch which are known in the tropics. Aside from all these -reasons why we should dress the feet, it is an untidy practice to go -barefoot. The low shoes without fastenings, into which so many Filipinos -thrust their feet, give people who wear them an awkward, shuffling walk. -A shoe which fits the foot well and is fastened upon it so that it does -not flap at the heel is the only one that should be worn out-of-doors, -and no shoes should be worn without stockings. - -Every boy or girl who wants to be well must take exercise. If we do not -use our muscles, they become weak and small. The brain suffers as well. -When we exercise we not only strengthen our muscles, but we set the -blood in quicker circulation. The heart must work faster; the lungs must -expand more; the food digests better and the brain is clearer. The best -sort of exercise is useful work out-of-doors or about the house, but -boys and girls need to play as well as work. All games that take them -out-of-doors and make them move about actively are good for them. - -Many Filipino boys and girls do one thing that is very hurtful; that is, -they smoke. The use of tobacco injures growing young people. It stunts -the growth, so that even when grown they are small and weak. Boys who -smoke do not grow so fast or so large as those who do not. Smoking -injures the memory and makes people heavy and stupid; it makes them less -inclined to take exercise, and so the muscles become weak; it hurts the -digestion and makes the stomach weak. Besides these things, it induces -the constant spitting so common in this country; and we have seen how -hurtful this waste of the saliva is. - -Chewing betel nut is even worse than smoking. If all of the betel juice -is not spit out, some of it will be swallowed, and this is very bad -indeed, as the betel acts like a poison on the system. So the betel -chewer must waste all the saliva that comes into his mouth while he is -chewing the nut. More than this, he stains the sidewalks and floors with -the filthy stuff, and makes himself ugly to look at, as well as -offensive to cleanliness. It is to be hoped that the boys and girls who -study this book will never take up such a disgusting habit. - -Still another thing which is very bad for the health in this country is -the use of alcohol. Alcohol is bad for the system; it irritates the -delicate lining of the food canal, and hurts the liver and the kidneys. - -We have said that tuba, the juice from the cocoanut tree, is good and -refreshing to drink when just drawn from the tree; but in a few hours -after it is drawn changes begin to take place in it. The greatest of -these changes we call _fermentation_; it is caused by tiny vegetable -growths, called _ferments_. These are too small to be seen unless -magnified, but they float about in the air. They get into the tuba, and, -because there is something there which they like and thrive upon, they -grow and increase in numbers very fast. They separate the sugar of the -tuba into the parts that make up sugar, and take from it the part which -they like. What is left forms two other things. One is a poisonous gas, -called _carbonic acid_ gas. - -At one stage in the fermenting process, there is a great deal of this -carbonic acid gas in the tuba, and that is what gives it its dreadful -taste when it first begins to _work_ or _ferment_. The other thing found -in the tuba is alcohol. If this were not distilled, the tuba would -simply go on working until all the sugar was gone; then it would be as -sour as vinegar and disagreeable to drink. But distillers heat it until -it boils; the alcohol rises and passes off into a vessel especially -prepared to receive it, and becomes the drink called _bino_. This drink -is really an active poison to most people. If a man drinks much of it he -becomes crazy, his actions are dangerous to society, and at last he has -to be kept in confinement. Often he does terrible mischief under the -influence of bino. - -It is very fortunate for this country that Filipinos know how dangerous -it is to drink this stuff. Still, there are some weak and foolish people -who think that they can stand it, and who drink it until they form a -habit which holds them in bondage. - -None of the alcohol made in this country is refined; therefore it is -full of impurities and very poisonous. Those who know the climate agree -that the less alcohol of any sort one uses here, the better. Those -soldiers and others who let it quite alone are the ones who best -withstand the bad effects of the tropics and keep well and strong. -Alcohol weakens the brain sooner than it does any other part of the -body. A person cannot think clearly when he has had too much; he cannot -walk straight, and often a man does things under its influence which he -never would do if he had not been drinking it. - -There are five different ways in which a person can tell something of -what is going on around him. He can see, he can hear, smell, or touch -some things, and some he can also taste. We call these five faculties of -man the _special senses_. Each of these special senses has its own home -in the body, its own organ to do its work. For instance, the eyes see, -the ears hear, the organs of taste are in the mouth, those of the smell -in the nose, while the sense of touch is everywhere in the body where -there are any nerves. - -In this country the organs of the special senses need great care. There -are a great many blind people here, who have become blind because they -have not understood how to take care of the eyes. The lids and the -eyelashes are meant to protect the eyes and keep out dust, to prevent -insects, etc., from getting into them. - -Nature has taken wonderful pains to protect our eyes, but we must do all -we can to help her. She has prepared a fluid which washes the balls, but -the outside of the eyes as well should be carefully washed once or twice -a day, and wiped dry. We should be very particular to wipe them on a -clean cloth. We should never use a towel that is used by any one who has -any trouble with the eyes or who has any skin disease. The eyes should -never be rubbed with the fingers. When any foreign matters, as specks of -dust, or cinders, get into them, we should go at once to some skillful -physician to have them removed. We should shade the eyes from the direct -rays of the sun. If we walk out in the middle of the day, we should -carry an umbrella or wear a broad hat. We should not strain the eyes, or -use them when they are tired or when the light is bad. - -Alcohol is very bad for the eyes; it makes them weak. The eyes of a hard -drinker become red and watery. Such a person may often become blind. -Tobacco, too, causes dimness of sight, and has been known to produce -blindness. - -Strange as it may seem, the ears are even more delicate than the eyes, -and more readily injured; and when hurt, there is less that science can -do for them. The outer ear only catches sound and turns it inward. The -parts of the ear that really hear are deep in the head, where they can -be well protected. The little canal leading into the ear secretes wax, -which hinders insects from crawling in. Sometimes they do get in, -despite the wax. In some parts of this country, there are leeches that -get into the ear. When they do this they cause great pain and often -produce deafness. We should never try to pick or lift anything of this -sort out of the ear. The best way, when anything alive gets into the -ear, is to pour in a little quantity of oil. This nearly always causes -the creature which has gotten in to back out, in order to escape the -oil. If, instead of coming out, it is drowned, it must be removed by -some skillful physician. - -[Illustration: - - THE EAR. - - Showing the drum and bones. -] - -Nothing should ever be inserted in the ear for the purpose of cleaning -it except the little finger. The ear should be washed very carefully -with soap and water and dried thoroughly. Sometimes, when swimming, -people get water into their ears. They should shake it out at once, or -the ears may ache. Sometimes water that gets in this way causes -inflammation and cold, which hurt the sense of hearing. No one should -ever strike another on the ear, even in play. It is likely to cause -deafness. What is called the _drum_ of the ear is a very delicate -membrane which receives the sound. This is what really hears, and a blow -on the side of the head may rupture this membrane and destroy the -hearing. - -The sense of smell is high up in the nose. It is a very useful sense and -warns us of danger. We can often detect bad air by its odor. We know -whether food is good or whether it is spoiled, by its smell. - -We taste things with the tongue. Substances which do not dissolve in -water have no taste. Even our food would have no taste if it were dry. -The saliva must dissolve it before we can taste it. We can hurt the -sense of taste by eating too fast, or by seasoning our food too strongly -with pepper and other hot spices. Chewing the betel nut helps to destroy -the sense of taste, and so does much use of alcohol. We need the sense -of taste to tell us whether food is good or bad. Food which has a -pleasant taste is more easily digested than that which we do not like. - -The sense of touch tells us whether things are hard or soft; it tells us -when we are hurt. It does this by the feeling which we call pain. If we -did not feel pain when we were being injured, we might be killed before -we could know of our danger and protect ourselves from it. - -So we see how true it is that our bodies are wonderful machines. But -they are something besides machines,—they are houses in which the soul -dwells, and as such they are worthy of great care and honor. We must -keep them clean. It is our duty to feed them right and guard them from -injury. We should be careful, too, never to injure them ourselves by -putting them to uses not clean and pure, or by making them accustomed to -things which are bad for them. When we do any of these things, we hurt -the soul, as well as the body, and bring shame upon ourselves and sorrow -to others. - - - QUESTIONS. - - Why should we try to keep our bodies well and strong? - - What is perspiration? - - Why should we bathe often? - - How should children be bathed? - - When is the best time to bathe? - - Why is it imprudent to go barefoot in the tropics? - - Is smoking hurtful to boys and girls? - - What does it do? - - Why is betel chewing injurious? - - How does alcohol affect those who drink it to excess? - - What is its effect on the mind? On the eyes? - - How do we tell what is going on about us? - - What are the organs of the five senses? - - How can we best take care of our eyes? Of our ears? - - What tells us when we are hurt? - - What is our duty toward our bodies? - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - PUBLIC HYGIENE. - - -One of the great questions in which governments in all countries are -interested is how to keep down the death rate in great cities. In olden -times there were many plagues and epidemics. These often destroyed -thousands of lives. People did not understand why the plagues came; they -used to think them punishments for sin, or sent by some evil spirit out -of hatred to humanity. They did not know how to meet them or how to take -care of those whom the plagues attacked, and so whole cities were -sometimes emptied by disease before which the science of those days was -helpless. - -But now we have come to know that all epidemics have natural causes. An -epidemic is always caused either by bad water or neglected sewers or -poisonous gases arising from long-gathered filth. In Europe and in -America every city has its system or systems of sewers, its boards of -public health and of street cleaning. Great care is taken, and enormous -sums of money are spent, to keep the cities clean, that the people may -be as healthy as possible. - -Manila, the capital city of the Philippines, is one of the largest -cities on the Asiatic coast. It has been, in the past, in very bad -condition because of filth. One of the first things the Americans began -to do when they came here was to try to make the city clean, so that it -would be more healthful. This was a very difficult thing to do, because -of the dirt which had been allowed to gather during many years. It was -also difficult because of the way in which the city of Manila is built. -The ground is low and marshy. Two feet below the surface of the earth -under the city, water is found almost everywhere. This keeps the earth -damp. Those who built houses in the past knew this, so they laid cement -floors in the basements of their buildings. - -But the cement floors were not made as they should have been. Instead of -digging down into the earth and filling in the excavation, builders -spread the cement on the surface of the ground and then built their -walls around this platform. The cement which has been used here is not -the best for such a country as this. It is what is called Roman cement, -very porous, and not hard and solid, as is the Portland cement in use in -America. The walls of the houses, as well as the ground floors, were -very often of this cement. - -If you take a lamp wick and hold one end of it in oil, before long not -only that end but the whole wick is wet with the oil. This is because -the porous fibers of the wick have soaked up the oil. Now, these porous -walls of the houses in Manila take up the moisture from the earth, so -that many of them are completely soaked with water. When this is the -case, mold begins to grow on the walls. It is not unusual to see walls -quite overgrown with green mold and moss that always feels a little damp -to the touch. - -[Illustration: - - GATE COVERED WITH UNHEALTHFUL MOLD. -] - -This growth on the walls is a great hurt to the health of people living -in the houses. It breeds disease, and keeps the moisture in the walls, -so that the houses are damp and unwholesome. It is of no use to shut our -windows at night, for the early morning chill that we hope thus to shut -out is in the walls themselves. It is far better to leave the windows -open, that fresh air may come in and drive out some of the poisonous -vapors that rise from the walls and creep into the house. The walls of -the house should be kept clean of mold. They should be scraped and -whitewashed very often, and the green, unhealthy growth kept down. - -In the cities of Europe and America there are great sewer systems to -take the waste and refuse from the houses and carry it far from the -city. The sewers empty into the sea or into drainage canals, and thence -to points where the sewage can be destroyed so that it will not endanger -life. The city of Manila has some sewers. We can see the openings into -them in the streets. They are small, square openings, covered with -stone. But the sewers that run through the streets empty into the open -moat that surrounds the walled city! It will become necessary, before -many years, to fill this moat, to save the people of Manila from being -killed by the gases that rise from it. - -Damp walls, damp floors, damp rooms close to the ground, make the very -best sort of places for dirt to gather. It is not enough that walls -should be scraped and floors cleaned once in a while; they must be kept -clean all the time. This is why sanitary inspectors go about the city to -examine houses and walls and report on their condition. We should be -glad that they do this; for we know that if they are faithful about it, -the city will be more healthful and many lives will be saved. - -The dirt that gathers in the streets is of many sorts. A great deal is -made by the horses and carabaos, mules and oxen, that draw loads about -the city. The wheels of the vehicles, too, grind the stone pavement to -dust, and this is blown about by the wind. Dead leaves drop from the -trees, choke up the gutters, and, left to themselves, will make sodden -masses of decayed vegetation in corners. Waste paper blows about, and -all sorts of unclean things are thrown into the streets by careless -people. It takes a small army of laborers to keep the streets in order. -They go over the city with brooms, shovels, and dust-boxes, and sweep -and gather up refuse and dirt. They put it into carts and take it away -to where it is loaded upon barges and sent out to sea, or used to fill -in low places where it can do no harm. - -There is a great deal that each of us can do to help keep the streets -clean. No one should ever do anything that is likely to leave any dirt -about them. Banana and orange peel should never be thrown on the -sidewalk. This is not only a dirty and untidy trick, but often a bit of -peel does serious mischief; a person may step upon one, slip, and get a -very dangerous fall. - -School children are the very best sort of helpers to the street-cleaning -department. They can form what are called “Good-Government” clubs or -societies, to help. They can keep a sharp lookout for careless people -who are about to throw paper or fruit parings into the street. When they -see any one doing this, they should not be afraid to remind him that it -is a dangerous and an untidy thing to do. Most great cities now provide -sheet-iron boxes along the sidewalks to receive all these things. We -should have them in Manila. The children could then point them out to -any one who needed to have his attention called to them. If they saw -paper or peelings lying about, the boys might pick them up, if no -street-cleaner were near, and put them into the boxes. We may be sure -that girls and boys who were thus careful, never would do anything -themselves to make the city untidy. They would not throw paper and -peelings about, nor spit upon the sidewalks. Even school children ought -to remember that they are growing up to be citizens. They cannot begin -too young to take pride in their city or town or village and try to make -it one of the best-governed places in the country. They should take -pride in keeping school buildings nice. Even if these buildings are old, -as so many are, at present, in the islands, they can still be kept so -clean that any one entering will know that the pupils are -self-governing, order-loving boys and girls, who will some day be -self-governing and order-loving citizens. - -The elements of good living are, after all, very simple. If we would -live long and keep our bodies in condition to do their work, we must be -clean. We must have clean surroundings; we must drink pure water and eat -clean, wholesome food. We must not eat or drink things that will hurt -us. We must do nothing that will make our bodies less fit -dwelling-places for our souls. We must be honest and kind, ready to help -and to take part in keeping everything about us clean and well ordered. -Thus we shall be useful citizens, each ready to do his own part to make -this world the place it should be. - - - QUESTIONS. - - What are the causes of epidemics? - - Why are damp walls and floors unhealthful? - - Is it best, in this country, to sleep with our windows closed? - - Where should sewers empty? - - Why is the sewer system of Manila a bad one? - - What sort of dirt gathers in the streets? - - How can school children help to keep the city clean? - - What should we all try to do if we would live long? - - Why is it our duty to do these things? - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling. - 2. Archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained as printed. - 3. 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