diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 4 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/65110-0.txt | 13369 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/65110-0.zip | bin | 318554 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/65110-h.zip | bin | 650049 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/65110-h/65110-h.htm | 15483 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/65110-h/images/eminent02_italy_cover.jpg | bin | 277113 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/65110-h/images/figure01.jpg | bin | 39059 -> 0 bytes |
9 files changed, 17 insertions, 28852 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cbfa0c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #65110 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/65110) diff --git a/old/65110-0.txt b/old/65110-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c12909d..0000000 --- a/old/65110-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13369 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Eminent literary and scientific men of -Italy, Spain, and Portugal Vol. 2 (of 3), by James Montgomery - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Eminent literary and scientific men of Italy, Spain, and - Portugal Vol. 2 (of 3) - -Author: James Montgomery - Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley - -Editor: Dionysius Lardner - -Release Date: April 19, 2021 [eBook #65110] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Laura Natal Rodrigues at Free Literature (Images generously - made available by The Internet Archive.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMINENT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC -MEN OF ITALY, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL VOL. 2 (OF 3) *** - -THE - -CABINET CYCLOPÆDIA. - - - -CONDUCTED BY THE - -REV. DIONYSIUS LARDNER, LL.D. F.R.S. L. & E. - -M.R.I.A. F.R.A.S. F.L.S. F.Z.S. Hon. F.C.P.S. &c. &c. - - - -ASSISTED BY - -EMINENT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC MEN. - - - - -EMINENT -LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC MEN -OF ITALY, SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. - - - -VOL. II. - - - -LONDON: - -PRINTED FOR - -LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, GREEN, & LONGMAN, - -PATERNOSTER-ROW; - -AND JOHN TAYLOR, - -UPPER GOWER STREET. - -1835. - - - - -CONTENTS -GALILEO -GUICCIARDINI -VITTORIA COLONNA -GUARINI -TASSO -CHIABRERA -TASSONI -MARINI -FILICAJA -METASTASIO -GOLDONI -ALFIERI -MONTI -UGO FOSCOLO - - - - -LIVES - -OF - -EMINENT - -LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC MEN. - - - - -GALILEO - -1564-1642. - - -The history of the life and labours of Galileo is pregnant with a -peculiar interest to the general reader, as well as to the philosopher. -His brilliant discoveries, the man of science regards as his peculiar -property; the means by which they were made, and the developement of his -intellectual character, belong to the logician and to the philosopher; -but the triumphs and the reverses of his eventful life must be claimed -for our common nature, as a source of more than ordinary instruction. - -The lengthened career which Providence assigned to Galileo was filled up -throughout its rugged outline with events even of dramatic interest. But -though it was emblazoned with achievements of transcendent magnitude, -yet his finest discoveries were the derision of his contemporaries, and -were even denounced as crimes which merited the vengeance of Heaven. -Though he was the idol of his friends, and the favoured companion of -princes, yet he afterwards became the victim of persecution, and spent -some of his last hours within the walls of a prison; and though the -Almighty granted him, as it were, a new sight to descry unknown worlds -in the obscurity of space, yet the eyes which were allowed to witness -such wonders, were themselves doomed to be closed in darkness. - -Such were the lights and shadows in which history delineates - - -"The starry Galileo with his woes."[1] - - -But, however powerful be their contrasts, they are not unusual in their -proportions. The balance which has been struck between his days of good -and evil, is that which regulates the lot of man, whether we study it in -the despotic sway of the autocrat, in the peaceful enquiries of the -philosopher, or in the humbler toils of ordinary life. - -Galileo Galilei was born at Pisa, on the 15th of February, 1564, and was -the eldest of a family of three sons and three daughters. Under the name -of Bonajuti, his noble ancestors had filled high offices at Florence; -but about the middle of the 14th century they seem to have abandoned -this surname for that of Galileo. Vincenzo Galilei, our author's father, -was himself a philosopher of no mean powers; and though his talents seem -to have been applied only in the composition of treatises on the theory -and practice of music, yet he appears to have anticipated even his son -in a just estimate of the philosophy of the age, and in a distinct -perception of the true method of investigating truth.[2] - -The early years of Galileo were, like those of almost all great -experimental philosophers, spent in the construction of instruments and -pieces of machinery, which were calculated chiefly to amuse himself and -his school-fellows. This occupation of his hands, however, did not -interfere with his regular studies; and though, from the straitened -circumstances of his father, he was educated under considerable -disadvantages, yet he acquired the elements of classical literature, and -was initiated into all the learning of the times. Music, drawing, and -painting were the occupations of his leisure hours; and such was his -proficiency in these arts, that he was reckoned a skilful performer on -several musical instruments, especially the lute; and his knowledge of -pictures was held in great esteem by some of the best artists of his -day. - -Galileo seems to have been desirous, of following the profession of a -painter: but his father had observed decided indications of early -genius; and, though by no means able to afford it, he resolved to send -him to the university to pursue the study of medicine. He accordingly -enrolled himself as a scholar in arts at the university of Pisa, on the -5th of November, 1581, and pursued his medical studies under the -celebrated botanist Andrew Cæsalpinus, who filled the chair of medicine -from 1567 to 1592. - -In order to study the principles of music and drawing, Galileo found it -necessary to acquire some knowledge of geometry. His father seems to -have foreseen the consequences of following this new pursuit, and though -he did not prohibit him from reading Euclid under Ostilio Ricci, one of -the professors at Pisa, yet he watched his progress with the utmost -jealousy, and had resolved that it should not interfere with his medical -studies. The demonstrations, however, of the Greek mathematician had too -many charms for the ardent mind of Galileo. His whole attention was -engrossed with the new truths which burst upon his understanding; and -after many fruitless attempts to check his ardour and direct his -thoughts to professional objects, his father was obliged to surrender -his parental control, and allow the fullest scope to the genius of his -son. - -From the elementary works of geometry, Galileo passed to the writings of -Archimedes; and while he was studying the hydrostatical treatise[3] of -the Syracusan philosopher, he wrote his essay on the hydrostatical -balance[4], in which he describes the construction of the instrument, -and the method by which Archimedes detected the fraud committed by the -jeweller in the composition of Hiero's crown. This work gained for its -author the esteem of Guido Ubaldi, who had distinguished himself by his -mechanical and mathematical acquirements, and who engaged his young -friend to investigate the subject of the centre of gravity in solid -bodies. The treatise on this subject, which Galileo presented to his -patron, was the source of his future success. - -Through the cardinal del Monte, the brother-in-law of Ubaldi, the -reigning duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand de' Medici, was made acquainted with -the merits of our young philosopher; and, in 1589, he was appointed -lecturer on mathematics at Pisa. By the drudgery of private teaching he -was obliged to add to the small salary of sixty crowns which was -attached to the office. - -With this moderate Competency, Galileo commenced his philosophical -career. At the early age of eighteen, when he had entered the -university, he displayed his innate antipathy to the Aristotelian -philosophy. This feeling was strengthened by his earliest inquiries; and -upon his establishment at Pisa, he seems to have regarded the doctrines -of Aristotle as the intellectual prey which, in his chace of glory, he -was destined to pursue. Nizzoli, who flourished near the beginning of -the sixteenth century, and Giordano Bruno, who was burned at Rome in -1600, led the way in this daring pursuit; but it was reserved for -Galileo to track the Thracian boar through its native thickets, and, at -the risk of his own life, to strangle it in its den. - -With the resolution of submitting every opinion to the test of -experiment, Galileo's first inquiries at Pisa were directed to the -mechanical doctrines of Aristotle. Their incorrectness and absurdity -soon became apparent; and with a zeal, perhaps, bordering on -indiscretion, he denounced them to his pupils with an ardour of manner -and of expression proportioned to his own conviction of the truth. The -detection of long-established errors is apt to inspire the young -philosopher with an exultation which reason condemns. The feeling of -triumph is apt to clothe itself in the language of asperity; and the -abettor, of erroneous opinions is treated as a species of enemy to -science. Like the soldier who fleshes his first spear in battle, the -philosopher is apt to leave the stain of cruelty upon his early -achievements. It is only from age and experience, indeed, that we can -expect the discretion of valour, whether it is called forth in -controversy or in battle. Galileo seems to have waged this stern warfare -against the followers of Aristotle; and such was the exasperation which -was excited by his reiterated and successful attacks, that he was -assailed, during the rest of his life, with a degree of rancour which -seldom originates in a mere difference of opinion. Forgetting that all -knowledge is progressive, and that the errors of one generation call -forth the comments, and are replaced by the discoveries, of the next, -Galileo did not anticipate that his own speculations and incompleted -labours might one day provoke unmitigated censure; and he therefore -failed in making allowance for the prejudices and ignorance of his -opponents. He who enjoys the proud lot of taking a position in advance -of his age, need not wonder that his less gifted contemporaries are left -behind. Men are not necessarily obstinate because they cleave to deeply -rooted and venerable errors, nor are they absolutely stupid when they -are long in understanding and embracing newly discovered truths. - -It was one of the axioms of the Aristotelian mechanics, that the heavier -of two falling bodies would reach the ground sooner than the other, and -that their velocities would be proportional to their weights. Galileo -attacked the arguments by which this opinion was supported; and when he -found his reasoning ineffectual, he appealed to direct experiment. He -maintained, that all bodies would fall through the same height in the -same time, if they were not unequally retarded by the resistance of the -air: and though he performed the same experiment with the most -satisfactory results, by letting heavy bodies fall from the leaning -tower of Pisa; yet the Aristotelians, who with their own eyes saw the -unequal weights strike the ground at the same instant, ascribed the -effect to some unknown cause, and preferred the decision of their master -to that of nature herself. - -Galileo could not brook this opposition to his discoveries; and the -Aristotelians could not tolerate the rebukes of their young instructor. -The two parties were, consequently, marshalled in hostile array; when, -fortunately for both, an event occurred, which placed them beyond the -reach of danger. Don Giovanni de' Medici, a natural son of Cosmo, had -proposed a method of clearing out the harbour of Leghorn. Galileo, whose -opinion was requested, gave such an unfavourable report upon it, that -the disappointed inventor directed against him all the force of his -malice. It was an easy task to concentrate the malignity of his enemies -at Pisa; and so effectually was this accomplished, that Galileo resolved -to accept another professorship, to which he had been previously -invited. - -The chair of mathematics in the university of Padua having been vacant -for five years, the republic of Venice had resolved to fill it up; and, -on the recommendation of Guido Ubaldi, Galileo was appointed to it, in -1592, for a period of six years. - -In 1591, Galileo lost his father, who died at an advanced age, and -devolved upon his eldest son the support of the family. This event, -probably, increased his anxiety to better his situation, and must have -added to his other inducements to quit Pisa. In September, 1592, he -removed to Padua, where he had a salary of only 180 florins, and where -he was obliged to add to his income by the labours of tuition. -Notwithstanding this fruitless occupation of his time, he appears to -have found leisure for composing several of his works, and completing -various inventions, which will be afterwards described. His manuscripts -were circulated privately among his friends and pupils; but some of them -strayed beyond this sacred limit, and found their way into the hands of -persons who did not scruple to claim and publish, as their own, the -discoveries and inventions which they contained. - -It is not easy to ascertain the exact time when Galileo became a convert -to the doctrines of Copernicus, or the particular circumstances under -which he was led to adopt them. It is stated by Gerard Voss, that a -public lecture of Mæstlin, the instructor of Kepler, was the means of -making Galileo acquainted with the true system of the universe. This -assertion, however, is by no means probable; and it has been ably shown, -by the latest biographer of Galileo[5], that, in his dialogues on the -Copernican system, our author gives the true account of his own -conversion. This passage is so interesting, that we shall give it -entire. - -"I cannot omit this opportunity of relating to you what happened to -myself at the time when this opinion (the Copernican system) began to be -discursed. I was then a very young man, and had scarcely finished my -course of philosophy, which other occupations obliged me to leave off, -when there arrived in this country, from Rostoch, a foreigner, whose -name, I believe, was Christian Vurstisius (Wurteisen), a follower of -Copernicus. This person delivered, on this subject, two or three -lectures in a certain academy, and to a crowded audience. Believing that -several were attracted more by the novelty of the subject than by any -other cause, and being firmly persuaded that this opinion was a piece of -solemn folly, I was unwilling to be present. Upon interrogating, -however, some of those who were there, I found that they all made it a -subject of merriment, with the exception of one, who assured me that it -was not a thing wholly ridiculous. As I considered this individual to be -both prudent and circumspect, I repented that I had not attended the -lectures; and, whenever I met any of the followers of Copernicus, I -began to inquire if they had always been of the same opinion. I found -that there was not one of them who did not declare that he had long -maintained the very opposite opinions, and had not gone over to the new -doctrines till he was driven by the force of argument. I next examined -them one by one, to see if they were masters of the arguments on the -opposite side; and such was the readiness of their answers, that I was -satisfied they had not taken up this opinion from ignorance or vanity. -On the other hand, whenever I interrogated the Peripatetics and the -Ptolemeans (and, out of curiosity, I have interrogated not a a few), -respecting their perusal of Copernicus's work, I perceived that there -were few who had seen the book, and not one who understood it. Nor have -I omitted to enquire among the followers of the Peripatetic doctrines, -if any of them had ever stood on the opposite side; and the result was, -that there was not one. Considering, then, that nobody followed the -Copernican doctrine, who had not previously held the contrary opinion, -and who was not well acquainted with the arguments of Aristotle and -Ptolemy; while, on the other hand, nobody followed Ptolemy and -Aristotle, who had before adhered to Copernicus, and had gone over from -him into the camp of Aristotle; weighing, I say, these things, I began -to believe that, if any one who rejects an opinion which he has imbibed -with his milk, and which has been embraced by an infinite number, shall -take up an opinion held only by a few, condemned by all the schools, and -really regarded as a great paradox, it cannot be doubted that he must -have been induced, not to say driven, to embrace it by the most cogent -arguments. On this account, I have become very curious to penetrate to -the very bottom of the subject."[6] - -It appears, on the testimony of Galileo himself, that he taught the -Ptolemaic system, out of compliance with the popular feeling, after he -had convinced himself of the truth of the Copernican doctrines. In the -treatise on the sphere, indeed, which bears his name[7], and which must -have been written soon after he went to Padua, and subsequently to 1592, -the stability of the earth, and the motion of the sun, are supported by -the very arguments which Galileo afterwards ridiculed; but we have no -means of determining whether or not he had then adopted the true system -of the universe. Although he might have taught the Ptolemaic system in -his lectures, after he had convinced himself of its falsehood; yet it is -not likely that he would go so far as to publish to the worlds as true, -the very doctrines which he despised. In a letter to Kepler, dated in -1597, he distinctly states that he _had, many years ago, adopted the -opinions of Copernicus; but that he had not yet dared to publish his -arguments in favour of them, and his refutation of the opposite -opinions._ These facts would leave us to place Galileo's conversion -somewhere between 1593 and 1597; although _many_ years cannot be said to -have elapsed between these two dates. - -At this early period of Galileo's life, in the year 1593, he met with an -accident; which had nearly proved fatal. A party at Padua; of which he -was one, were enjoying; at an open window; a current of air, which was -artificially cooled by a fall of water. Galileo unfortunately fell -asleep under its influence; and so powerful was its effect upon his -robust constitution; that he contracted a severe chronic disorder, -accompanied with acute pains in his body, and loss of sleep and -appetite, which attacked him at intervals during the rest of his life. -Others of the party suffered still more severely, and perished by their -own rashness. - -Galileo's reputation was now widely extended over Europe; and the -archduke Ferdinand (afterwards emperor of Germany), the landgrave of -Hesse, and the princes of Alsace and Mantua honoured his lectures with -their presence. Prince Gustavus of Sweden also received instructions -from him in mathematics, during his sojourn in Italy; and it has been -supposed that this was the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus. - -When Galileo had completed the first period of his engagement at Padua, -he was re-elected for other six years, with an increased salary of 320 -florins. This liberal addition to his income is ascribed by Fabbroni to -the malice of one of his enemies, who informed the senate that Galileo -was living in illicit intercourse with Marina Gamba. Without inquiring -into the truth of the accusation, the senate is said to have replied, -that if "he had a family to support, he had the more need of an -increased salary." It is more likely that the liberality of the republic -had been called forth by the high reputation of their professor, and -that the terms of their reply were intended only to rebuke the malignity -of the informer. The mode of expression would seem to indicate that one -or more of Galileo's children had been born previous to his re-election -in 1598; but as this is scarcely consistent with other facts, we are -disposed to doubt the authenticity of Fabbroni's anecdote. - -The new star, which attracted the notice of astronomers in 1604, excited -the particular attention of Galileo. The observations which he made upon -it, and the speculations which they suggested, formed the subject of -three lectures, the beginning of the first of which only has reached our -times. From the absence of parallax, he proved that the common -hypothesis of its being a meteor was erroneous, and that, like the fixed -stars, it was situated far beyond the bounds of our own system. The -popularity of the subject attracted crowds to his lecture-room; and -Galileo had the boldness to reproach his hearers for taking so deep an -interest in a temporary phenomenon, while they passed unnoticed the -wonders of creation which were daily presented to their view. - -In the year 1606, Galileo was again appointed to the professorship at -Padua, with an augmented stipend of 520 florins. His popularity had now -risen so high, that his audience could not be accommodated in his -lecture-room; and even when he had assembled them in the school of -medicine, which contained 1000 persons, he was frequently obliged to -adjourn to the open air. - -Among the variety of pursuits which occupied his attention, was the -examination of the properties of the loadstone. In 1607, he commenced -his experiments; but, with the exception of a method of arming -loadstones, which; according to the report of Sir Kenelm Digby, enabled -them to carry twice as much weight as others, he does not seem to have -made any additions to our knowledge of magnetism. He appears to have -studied with care the admirable work of our countryman; Dr. Gilbert; "De -Magnete," which was published in 1600; and he recognised; in the -experiments and reasonings of the English philosopher; the principles of -that method of investigating truth which he had himself adopted. Gilbert -died in 1603; in the 63d year of his age, and probably never read the -fine compliment which was paid to him by the Italian philosopher:--"I -extremely praise, admire, and envy this author." - -In the preceding pages we have brought down the history of Galileo's -labours to that auspicious year in which he first directed the telescope -to the heavens. No sooner was that noble instrument placed in his hands, -than Providence released him from his professional toils, and supplied -him with the fullest leisure and the amplest means for pursuing and -completing the grandest discoveries. - -Although he had quitted the service and the domains of his munificent -patron; the grand duke of Tuscany, yet he maintained his connection with -the family, by visiting Florence during his academic vacations, and -giving mathematical instruction to the younger branches of that -distinguished house. Cosmo, who had been one of his pupils, now -succeeded his father Ferdinand; and having his mind early imbued with a -love of knowledge, which had become hereditary in his family, he felt -that the residence of Galileo within his dominions--and still more his -introduction into his household--would do honour to their common -country, and reflect a lustre upon his own name. In the year 1609, -accordingly, Cosmo made proposals to Galileo to return to his original -situation at Pisa. These overtures were gratefully received; and in the -arrangements which Galileo on this occasion suggested, as well as in the -manner in which they were urged, we obtain some insight into his temper -and character. He informs the correspondent through whom Cosmo's offer -was conveyed, that his salary of 520 florins at Padua would be increased -to as many crowns at his re-election; and that he could enlarge his -income to any extent he pleased, by giving private lectures, and -receiving pupils. His public duties, he stated, occupied him only sixty -half-hours in the year; but his studies suffered such interruptions from -the domestic pupils and private lectures, that his most ardent wish was -to be relieved from them, in order that he might have sufficient rest -and leisure, before the close of his life, to finish and publish those -great works which he had in hand. In the event, therefore, of his -returning to Pisa, he hoped that it would be the first object of his -serene highness to give him leisure to complete his works without the -drudgery of lecturing. He expresses his anxiety to gain his bread by his -writings, and he promises to dedicate them to his serene master. He -enumerates, among these books, two on the system of the universe; three -on local motion; three books of mechanics; two on the demonstration of -principles, and one of problems; besides treatises on sound and speech, -on light and colours, on the tides, on the composition of continuous -quantity, on the motions of animals, and on the military art. On the -subject of his salary, he makes the following curious observations:-- - -"I say nothing," says he, "on the amount of my salary; being convinced -that, as I am to live upon it, the graciousness of his highness would -not deprive me of any of those comforts, of which, however, I feel the -want of less than many others; and, therefore, I say nothing more on the -subject. Finally, on the title and profession of my service, I should -wish that, to the title of mathematician, his highness would add that of -philosopher, as I profess to have studied a greater number of years in -philosophy, than months in pure mathematics; and how I have profited by -it, and if I can or ought to deserve this title, I may let their -highnesses see, as often as it shall please them to give me an -opportunity of discussing such subjects in their presence with those who -are most esteemed in this knowledge." - -During the progress of this negotiation, Galileo went to Venice, on a -visit to a friend, in the month of April or May, 1609. Here he learned, -from common rumour, that a Dutchman, of the name of Jansen, had -presented to prince Maurice of Nassau an optical instrument, which -possessed the singular property of causing distant objects to appear -nearer and larger to the observer. A few days afterwards, the truth of -this report was confirmed by a letter which he received from James -Badovere at Paris, and he immediately applied himself to the -consideration of the subject. On the first night after his return to -Padua, he found, in the doctrines of refraction, the principle which he -sought. He placed at the ends of a leaden tube two spectacle glasses, -both of which were plain on one side, while one of them had its other -side convex, and the other its second side concave, and having applied -his eye to the concave glass, he saw objects pretty large and pretty -near him. This little instrument, which magnified only three times, he -carried in triumph to Venice, where it excited the most intense -interest. Crowds of the principal citizens flocked to his house to see -the magical toy; and after nearly a month had been spent in gratifying -this epidemical curiosity, Galileo was led to understand from Leonardo -Deodati, the doge of Venice, that the senate would be highly gratified -by obtaining possession of so extraordinary an instrument. Galileo -instantly complied with the wishes of his patrons, who acknowledged the -present by a mandate conferring upon him for life his professorship at -Padua, and generously raising his salary from 520 to 1000 florins. - -Although we cannot doubt the veracity of Galileo, when he affirms that -he had never seen any of the Dutch telescopes, yet it is expressly -stated by Fuccarius, that one of these instruments had at this time been -brought to Florence. In a letter from Lorenzo Pignoria to Paolo Gualdo, -dated from Padua, on the 31st of August, 1609, it is expressly said, -that, at the re-election of the professors, Galileo had contrived to -obtain 1000 florins for life, which was alleged to be on account of an -eye-glass like the one which was sent from Flanders to the Cardinal -Borghese. - -In a memoir so brief and general as the present, it would be out of -place to discuss the history of this extraordinary invention. We have no -hesitation in asserting that a method of magnifying distant objects was -known to Baptista Porta and others; but it seems to be equally certain -that an _instrument_ for producing these effects was first constructed -in Holland, and that it was from that kingdom that Galileo derived the -knowledge of its existence. In considering the contending claims, which -have been urged with all the ardour and partiality of national feeling, -it has been generally overlooked, _that a single convex lens_, whose -focal length exceeds the distance at which we examine minute objects, -performs the part of a telescope, when an eye, placed behind it, sees -distinctly the inverted image which it forms. A lens, twenty feet in -focal length, will in this manner magnify twenty times; and it was by -the same principle that Sir William Herschel discovered a new satellite -of Saturn, by using only the mirror of his forty-feet telescope. The -instrument presented to prince Maurice, and which the marquis Spinola -found in the Dutch optician's shop, performing the part of a -philosophical toy, by exhibiting a magnified and inverted image of a -distant weathercock, must have been a single lens such as we have -mentioned, or an astronomical telescope consisting of two convex lenses. -Upon either of these suppositions, it differed entirely from that which -Galileo constructed; and the Italian philosopher will be justly entitled -to the honour of having invented that form of the telescope which still -bears his name. - -The interest which the exhibition of the telescope excited at Venice did -not soon subside: Serturi describes it as amounting almost to phrensy. -When he himself had succeeded in making one of these instruments, he -ascended the tower of St. Mark, where he might use it without -molestation. He was recognised, however, by a crowd in the street; and -such was the eagerness of their curiosity, that they took possession of -the wondrous tube, and detained the impatient philosopher for several -hours, till they had successively witnessed its effects. Desirous of -obtaining the same gratification for their friends, they endeavoured to -learn the name of the inn at which he lodged; but Serturi fortunately -overheard their inquiries, and quitted Venice early next morning, in -order to avoid a second visitation of this new school of philosophers. -The opticians speedily availed themselves of this new instrument. -Galileo's tube,--or the double eye-glass, as it was then called, for -Demisiano had not yet given it the appellation of a _telescope_,--was -manufactured in great quantities, and in a very superior manner. The -instruments were purchased merely as philosophical toys, and were -carried by travellers into every corner of Europe. - -The art of grinding and polishing lenses was at this time very -imperfect. Galileo, and those whom he instructed, were alone capable of -making tolerable instruments. It appears, from the testimony of Gassendi -and Gærtner, that, in 1634, a good telescope could not be procured in -Paris, Venice, or Amsterdam; and that, even in 1637, there was not one -in Holland which could show Jupiter's disc well defined. - -After Galileo had completed his first instrument, which magnified only -_three_ times, he executed a larger and more accurate one, with a power -of about eight. "At length," as he himself remarks, "sparing neither -labour nor expense," he constructed an instrument so excellent, that it -magnified more than thirty times. - -The first celestial object to which Galileo applied his telescope was -the moon, which, to use his own words, appeared as near as if it had -been distant only two semidiameters of the earth. He then directed it to -the planets and the fixed stars, which he frequently observed with -"incredible satisfaction."[8] - -The observations which he made upon the moon possessed a high degree of -interest. The general resemblance of its surface to that of our own -globe naturally fixed his attention; and he was soon able to trace, in -almost every part of the lunar disc, ranges of mountains, deep hollows, -and other inequalities, which reflected from their summits the rays of -the rising sun, while the intervening hollows were still buried in -darkness. The dark and luminous spaces he regarded as indicating seas -and continents, which reflected, in different degrees, the incident -light of the sun; and he ascribed the phosphorescence, as it has been -improperly called, or the secondary light, which is seen on the dark -limb of the moon in her first and last quarters, to the reflection of -the sun's light from the earth. - -These discoveries were ill received by the followers of Aristotle. -According to their preconceived opinions, the moon was perfectly -spherical, and perfectly smooth; to cover it with mountains, and to -scoop it out into valleys, was an act of impiety which defaced the -regular forms which nature herself had imprinted. It was in vain that -Galileo appealed to the evidence of observation, and to the actual -surface of our own globe. The very irregularities on the moon were, in -his opinion, the proof of divine wisdom: and had its surface been -perfectly smooth, it would have been "but a vast unblessed desert, void -of animals, of plants, of cities, and of men; the abode of silence and -inaction; senseless, lifeless, soulless, and stripped of all those -ornaments which now render it so various and so beautiful." - -In examining the fixed stars, and comparing them with the planets, -Galileo discovered a remarkable difference in the appearance of their -discs. All the planets appeared with round globular discs like the moon; -whereas the fixed stars never exhibited any disc at all, but resembled -lucid points sending forth twinkling rays. Stars of all magnitudes he -found to have the same appearance; those of the fifth and sixth -magnitude having the same character when seen through a telescope, as -Sirius, the largest of the stars, when seen by the naked eye. Upon -directing his telescope to nebulæ and clusters of stars, he was -delighted to find that they consisted of great numbers of stars which -could not be recognised by unassisted vision. He counted no fewer than -_forty_ in the cluster called the _Pleiades_, or _Seven Stars_; and he -has given us drawings of this constellation, as well as of the belt and -sword of Orion, and of the nebula of Præsepe. In the great nebula of -the Milky Way, he descried crowds of minute stars; and he concluded that -this singular portion derived its whiteness from still smaller stars, -which his telescope was unable to separate. - -Important and interesting as these discoveries were, they were thrown -into the shade by those to which he was led during an accurate -examination of the planets with a more powerful telescope. On the 7th of -January, 1610, at one o'clock in the morning, when he directed this -telescope to Jupiter, he observed three stars near the body of the -planet; two being to the east and one to the west of him. They were all -in a straight line, and parallel to the ecliptic, and appeared brighter -than other stars of the same magnitude. Believing them to be fixed -stars, he paid no great attention to their distances from Jupiter and -from one another. On the 8th of January, however, when, from some cause -or other[9], he had been led to observe the stars again, he found a very -different arrangement of them: all the three were on the west side of -Jupiter, _nearer one another than before_, and almost at equal -distances. Though he had not turned his attention to the extraordinary -fact of the mutual approach of the stars, yet he began to consider how -Jupiter could be found to the east of the three stars, when only the day -before he had been to the west of two of them. The only explanation -which he could give of this fact was, that the motion of Jupiter was -_direct_ contrary to astronomical calculations; and that he had got -before these two stars by his own motion. - -In this dilemma between the testimony of his senses and the results of -calculation, he waited for the following night with the utmost anxiety: -but his hopes were disappointed; for the heavens were wholly veiled in -clouds. On the tenth, two only of the stars appeared, and both on the -east of the planet. As it was obviously impossible that Jupiter could -have advanced from west to east on the 8th of January, and from east to -west on the 10th, Galileo was forced to conclude that the phenomenon -which he had observed, arose from the motion of the stars, and he set -himself to observe diligently their change of place. On the 11th, there -were still only two stars; and both to the east of Jupiter; but the more -eastern star was now _twice as large as the other one_, though on the -preceding night they had been perfectly equal. This fact threw a new -light upon Galileo's difficulties, and he immediately drew the -conclusion, which he considered to be indubitable--"that there were in -the heavens three stars which revolved round Jupiter, in the same manner -as Venus and Mercury revolve round the sun." On the 12th of January, he -again observed them in new positions, and of different magnitudes; and, -on the 13th, he discovered a fourth star, which completed the four -secondary planets with which Jupiter is surrounded. - -Galileo continued his observations on these bodies every clear night -till the 22d of March, and studied their motions in reference to fixed -stars that were at the same time within the field of his telescope. -Having thus clearly established that the four new stars were satellites -or moons, which revolved round Jupiter in the same manner as the moon -revolves round our own globe, he drew up an account of his discovery, in -which he gave to the four new bodies the names of the _Medicean Stars_, -in honour of his patron, Cosmo de' Medici, grand duke of Tuscany. This -work, under the title of "Nuncius Sidereus," or the "Sidereal -Messenger," was dedicated to the same prince; and the dedication bears -the date of the 4th of March, only two days after he concluded his -observations. - -The importance of this great discovery was instantly felt by the enemies -as well as by the friends of the Copernican system. The planets had -hitherto been distinguished from the fixed stars only by their relative -change of place; but the telescope proved them to be bodies so near to -our own globe as to exhibit well-defined discs; while the fixed stars -retained, even when magnified, the minuteness of remote and lucid -points. The system of Jupiter, illuminated by four moons performing -their revolutions in different and regular periods, exhibited to our -proud reason the comparative insignificance of the globe we inhabit, and -proclaimed in impressive language that globe was not the centre of -the universe. - -The reception which these discoveries met with from Kepler is highly -interesting, and characteristic of the genius of that great man. He was -one day sitting idle, and thinking of Galileo, when his friend -Wachenfels stopped his carriage at his door, to communicate to him the -intelligence. "Such a fit of wonder," says he, "seized me at a report -which seemed to be so very absurd, and I was thrown into such agitation -at seeing an old dispute between us decided in this way, that between -his joy, my colouring, and the laughter of both, confounded as we were -by such a novelty, we were hardly capable, he of speaking, or I of -listening. On our parting, I immediately began to think how there could -be any addition to the number of the planets, without overturning my -'Cosmographic Mystery,' according to which Euclid's five regular solids -do not allow more than six planets round the sun. * * * I am so far from -disbelieving the existence of the four circumjovial planets, that I long -for a telescope, to anticipate you, if possible, in discovering _two_ -round Mars, as the proportion seems to require, _six_ or _eight_ round -Saturn, and perhaps one each round Mercury and Venus." - -In a very different spirit did the Aristotelians receive the "Sidereal -Messenger" of Galileo. The principal professor of philosophy at Padua -resisted Galileo's repeated and urgent entreaties to look at the moon -and planets through his telescope; and he even laboured to convince the -grand duke that the satellites of Jupiter could not possibly exist. -Sizzi, an astronomer of Florence, maintained, that as there were only -_seven_ apertures in the head--_two_ eyes, _two_ ears, _two_ nostrils, -and _one_ mouth--and as there were only _seven_ metals, and _seven_ days -in the week, so there could be only _seven_ planets. He seems, however, -to have admitted the visibility of the four satellites through the -telescope; but he argues, that as they are invisible to the naked eye, -they can exercise no influence on the earth; and being useless, they do -not therefore exist. - -A _protégé_ of Kepler's, of the name of Horky, wrote a volume against -Galileo's discovery, after having declared, "that he would never concede -his four new planets to that Italian from Padua, even if he should die -for it." This resolute Aristotelian was at no loss for arguments. He -asserted that he had examined the heavens _through Galileo's own glass_, -and that no such thing as a satellite existed round Jupiter. He -affirmed, that he did not more surely know that he had a soul in his -body, than that reflected rays are the sole cause of Galileo's erroneous -observations; and that the only use of the new planets was to gratify -Galileo's thirst for gold, and afford himself a subject of discussion. - -When Horky first presented himself to Kepler, after the publication of -this work, the opinion of his patron was announced to him by a burst of -indignation which overwhelmed the astonished author. Horky supplicated -mercy for his offence; and, as Kepler himself informed Galileo, he took -him again into favour, on the condition that Kepler was to show him -Jupiter's satellites; and that Horky was not only to see them, but to -admit their existence. - -When the spirit of philosophy had thus left the individuals who bore her -sacred name, it was fortunate for science that it found a refuge in the -minds of princes. Notwithstanding the reiterated logic of his -philosophical professor at Padua, Cosmo de' Medici preferred the -testimony of his senses to the syllogisms of his instructor. He observed -the new planets several times, along with Galileo, at Pisa; and when he -parted with him, he gave him a present worth more than 1000 florins, and -concluded that liberal arrangement to which we have already referred. - -As philosopher and principal mathematician to the grand duke of Tuscany, -Galileo now took up his residence at Florence, with a salary of 1000 -florins. No official duties, excepting that of lecturing occasionally to -sovereign princes, were attached to this appointment; and it was -expressly stipulated that he should enjoy the most perfect leisure to -complete his treatises on the constitution of the universe, on -mechanics, and on local motion. The resignation of his professorship at -Padua, which necessarily followed his new appointment, created much -dissatisfaction in that university: but though many of his former -friends refused at first to hold any communication with him, this -feeling gradually subsided; and the Venetian senate at last appreciated -the views, as well as the powerful motives, which induced a stranger to -accept of promotion in his native land. - -While Galileo was enjoying the reward and the fame of his great -discovery, a new species of enmity was roused against them. Simon Mayer, -an astronomer of no character, pretended that he had discovered the -satellites of Jupiter before Galileo, and that his first observation was -made on the 29th of December, 1609. Other astronomers announced the -discovery of new satellites: Scheiner reckoned five, Rheita nine, and -others found even so many as twelve: these satellites, however, were -found to be only fixed stars. The names of _Vladislavian, Agrippine, -Uranodavian_, and _Ferdinandotertian_, which were hastily given to these -common telescopic stars, soon disappeared from the page of science, and -even the splendid telescopes of modern times have not been able to add -another gem to the diadem of Jupiter. - -A modern astronomer of no mean celebrity has, even in the present day, -endeavoured to rob Galileo of this staple article of his reputation. -From a careless examination of the papers of our celebrated countryman, -Thomas Harriot, which baron Zach had made in 1784, at Petworth, the seat -of lord Egremont, this astronomer has asserted[10] that Harriot first -observed the satellites of Jupiter on the 16th of January, 1610; and -continued his observations till the 25th of February, 1612. Baron Zach -adds the following extraordinary conclusion:--"Galileo pretends to have -discovered them on the 7th of January, 1610; so that it is not -improbable that Harriot was likewise the first discoverer of these -attendants of Jupiter." In a communication which I received from Dr. -Robertson, of Oxford, in 1822[11], he informed me that he had examined a -class of Harriot's papers, entitled, "De Jovialibus Planetis;" and that -it appears, from two pages of these papers, _that Harriot first observed -Jupiter's satellites on the 17th of October_, 1610. These observations -are accompanied with rough drawings of the positions of the satellites, -and rough calculations of their periodical revolutions. My friend, -professor Rigaud[12], who has very recently examined the Harriot MSS., -has confirmed the accuracy of Dr. Robertson's observations, and has thus -restored to Galileo the honour of being the first and the sole -discoverer of these secondary planets. - -The great success which attended the first telescopic observations of -Galileo, induced him to apply his best instruments to the other planets -of our system. The attempts which had been made to deprive him of the -honour of some of his discoveries, combined, probably, with a desire to -repeat his observations with better telescopes, led him to announce his -discoveries under the veil of an enigma; and to invite astronomers to -declare, within a given time, if they had observed any new phenomena in -the heavens. - -Before the close of 1610, Galileo excited the curiosity of astronomers, -by the publication of his first enigma. Kepler and others tried in vain -to decipher it; but in consequence of the emperor Rodolph requesting a -solution of the puzzle, Galileo sent him the following clue:-- - - -"Altissimam planetam tergeminam observavi." - -I have observed that the most remote planet is triple. - - -In explaining more fully the nature of his observation, Galileo remarked -that Saturn was not a single star, but three together, nearly touching -one another: he described them as having no relative motion, and as -having the form of three o's, namely, oOo, the central one being larger -than those on each side of it. - -Although Galileo had announced that nothing new appeared in the other -planets, yet he soon communicated to the world another discovery of no -slight interest. The enigmatical letters in which it was concealed, -formed the following sentence:-- - - -"Cynthia figuras æmulatur mater Amorum." - -Venus rivals the phases of the moon. - - -Hitherto, Galileo had observed Venus when her disc was largely -illuminated; but having directed his telescope to her when she was not -far removed from the sun, he saw her in the form of a crescent, -resembling exactly the moon at the same elongation from the sun. He -continued to observe her night after night, during the whole time that -she could be seen in the course of her revolution round the sun, and he -found that she exhibited the very same phases which resulted from her -motion round that luminary. - -Galileo had long contemplated a visit to the metropolis of Italy, and he -accordingly carried his intentions into effect in the early part of the -year 1611. Here he was received with that distinction which was due to -his great talents and his extended reputation. Princes, cardinals, and -prelates hastened to do him honour; and even those who discredited his -discoveries, and dreaded their results, vied with the true friends of -science in their anxiety to see the first wonder of the age. - -In order to show the new celestial phenomena to his friends at Rome, -Galileo took with him his best telescope; and as he had discovered the -spots on the sun's surface in the month of March, 1611, he had the -gratification of exhibiting this new wonder to his admiring disciples. -He accordingly erected his telescope in the Quirinal garden, belonging -to cardinal Bandini; and in April, 1611, he exhibited them to his -friends in many of their most interesting variations. From their change -of position on the sun's disc, Galileo at first inferred, either that -the sun revolved about an axis; or that other planets, like Venus and -Mercury, revolved so near the sun as to appear like black spots when -they were opposite to his disc. Upon continuing his observations, -however, he saw reason to abandon this last opinion. He found, that the -spots must be in contact with the surface of the sun; that their figures -were irregular; that they had different degrees of darkness; that one -spot would often divide itself into three or four; that three or four -spots would often unite themselves into one; and that all the spots -revolved regularly with the sun, which appeared to complete its -revolution in about twenty-eight days. - -Previous to the invention of the telescope, spots had been more than -once seen on the sun's disc with the unassisted eye. But even if these -were of the same character as those which Galileo and others observed, -we cannot consider them as anticipations of their discovery by the -telescope. As the telescope was now in the possession of several -astronomers, Galileo began to have many rivals in discovery; and it is -now placed beyond the reach of doubt, that he was not the first -discoverer of the solar spots. From the communication which I received -from the late Dr. Robertson, of Oxford[13], it appears that Thomas -Harriot had discovered the solar spots on or before the 8th of December, -1610. His manuscripts, in lord Egremont's possession, incontestably -prove that his regular observations on the spots commenced on the 8th of -December, 1610,--at least three months before Galileo discovered them; -and that they were continued till the 18th of January, 1613. The -observations which he has recorded are 199 in number; and the accounts -of them are accompanied with rough drawings representing the number, -position, and magnitude of the spots.[14] - -Another candidate for the honour of discovering the spots of the sun, -was John Fabricius, who undoubtedly saw them previous to June, 1611. The -dedication of the work[15] in which he has recorded his observation, -bears the date of the 13th of June, 1611; and it is obvious, from the -work itself, that he had seen the spots during the year 1610: but as -there is no proof that he saw them before the 8th of December, 1610, and -as it is probable that Harriot had seen them before that date, we are -compelled to assign the priority of the discovery to our distinguished -countryman. - -The claim of Scheiner, professor of mathematics at Ingolstadt, is more -intimately connected with the history of Galileo. This learned -astronomer having, early in 1611, turned his telescope to the sun, -necessarily discovered the spots which at that time covered his disc. -Light flying clouds happened, at the time, to weaken the intensity of -his light, so that he was able to show the spots to his pupils. These -observations were not published till January, 1612; and they appeared in -the form of three letters, addressed to Mark Velser, one of the -magistrates of Augsburg, under the signature of _Apelles post Tabulam_. -Scheiner, who, many years afterwards, published an elaborate work on the -subject, adopted the same idea which had at first occurred to -Galileo,--that the spots were the dark sides of planets revolving round -and near the sun.[16] - -On the publication of Scheiner's letters Velser transmitted a copy of -them to his friend Galileo, with the request that he would favour him -with his opinion of the new phenomena. After some delay, Galileo -addressed three letters to Velser, in which he combated the opinions of -Scheiner on the cause of the spots. These letters were dated the 4th of -May, 1612; but though the controversy was carried on in the language of -mutual respect and esteem, it put an end to the friendship which had -existed between the two astronomers. In these letters, Galileo showed -that the spots often dispersed like vapours or clouds; that they -sometimes had a duration of only one or two days, and at other times of -thirty or forty days; that they contracted in their breadth when they -approached the sun's limb, without any diminution of their length; that -they describe circles parallel to each other; that the monthly rotation -of the sun again brings the same spots into view; and that they are -seldom seen at a greater distance than 30° from the sun's equator. -Galileo, likewise, discovered on the sun's disc _faculœ_, or _luculi_, -as they were called, which differ in no respect from the common ones but -in their being brighter than the rest of the sun's surface.[17] - -In the last of the letters which our author addressed to Velser, and -which was written in December, 1612, he recurs to his former discovery -of the elongated shape, or rather the triple structure, of Saturn. The -singular figure which he had observed in this planet had entirely -disappeared; and he evidently announces the fact to Velser, lest it -should be used by his enemies to discredit the accuracy of his -observations. "Looking on Saturn," says he, "within these few days, I -found it solitary, without the assistance of its accustomed stars, and, -in short, perfectly round and defined like Jupiter; and such it still -remains. Now, what can be said of so strange a metamorphosis? Are the -two smaller stars consumed like the spots on the sun? Have they suddenly -vanished and fled? or has Saturn devoured his own children? or was the -appearance indeed fraud and illusion, with which the glasses have for so -long a time mocked me, and so many others who have often observed with -me? Now, perhaps, the time is come to revive the withering hopes of -those who, guided by more profound contemplations, have followed all the -fallacies of the new observations, and recognised their impossibilities. -I cannot resolve what to say in a chance so strange, so new, and so -unexpected; the shortness of the time, the unexampled occurrence, the -weakness of my intellect, and the terror of being mistaken, have greatly -confounded me." Although Galileo struggled to obtain a solution of this -mystery, yet he had not the good fortune of succeeding. He imagined that -the two smaller stars would reappear, in consequence of the supposed -revolution of the planet round its axis; but the discovery of the ring -of Saturn, and of the obliquity of its plane to the ecliptic, was -necessary to explain the phenomena which were so perplexing to our -author. - -The ill health to which Galileo was occasionally subject, and the belief -that the air of Florence was prejudicial to his complaints, induced him -to spend much of his time at Selve, the villa of his friend Salviati. -This eminent individual had ever been the warmest friend of Galileo, and -seems to have delighted in drawing round him the scientific genius of -the age. He was a member of the celebrated Lyncæan Society, founded by -Prince Frederigo Cesi; and though he is not known as the author of any -important discovery, yet he has earned, by his liberality to science, a -glorious name, which will be indissolubly united with the immortal -destiny of Galileo. - -The subject of floating bridges having been discussed at one of the -scientific parties which had assembled at the house of Salviati, a -difference of opinion arose respecting the influence of the shape of -bodies on their disposition to float or to sink in a fluid. Contrary to -the general opinion, Galileo undertook to prove that it depended on -other causes: and he was thus led to compose his discourse on floating -bodies[18], which was published in 1612, and dedicated to Cosmo de' -Medici. This work contains many ingenious experiments, and much acute -reasoning in support of the true principles of hydrostatics; and it is -now chiefly remarkable as a specimen of the sagacity and intellectual -power of its author. Like all his other works, it encountered the most -violent opposition; and Galileo was more than once summoned into the -field to repel the aggressions of his ignorant and presumptuous -opponents. The first attack upon it was made by Ptolemy Nozzolini, in a -letter to Marzemedici, archbishop of Florence[19]; and to this Galileo -replied in a letter addressed to his antagonist.[20] A more elaborate -examination of it was published by Lodovico delle Colombe, and another -by M. Vincenzo di Grazia. To these attacks, a minute and overwhelming -answer was printed in the name of Benedetti Castelli, the friend and -pupil of Galileo; but it was discovered, some years after Galileo's -death, that he was himself the author of this work.[21] - -The current of Galileo's life had hitherto flowed in a smooth and -unobstructed channel. He had now attained the highest objects of earthly -ambition. His discoveries had placed him at the head of the great men of -his age; he possessed a professional income far beyond his wants, and -even beyond his anticipations; and, what is still dearer to a -philosopher, he enjoyed the most perfect leisure for carrying on and -completing his discoveries. The opposition which these discoveries -encountered, was to him more a subject for triumph than for sorrow. -Prejudice and ignorance were his only enemies; and if they succeeded for -a while in harassing his march, it was only to give him occasion for -fresh achievements. He who contends for truths which he has himself been -permitted to discover, may well sustain the conflict in which -presumption and error are destined to fall. The public tribunal may -neither be sufficiently pure nor enlightened to decide upon the issue; -but he can appeal to posterity, and reckon with confidence on "its sure -decree." - -The ardour of Galileo's mind, the keenness of his temper, his clear -perception of truth, and his inextinguishable love of it, combined to -exasperate and prolong the hostility of his enemies. When argument -failed to enlighten their judgment, and reason to remove their -prejudices, he wielded against them his powerful weapons of ridicule and -sarcasm; and in this unrelenting warfare, he seems to have forgotten -that Providence had withheld from his enemies those very gifts which he -had so liberally received. He who is allowed to take the start of his -species, and to penetrate the veil which conceals from common minds the -mysteries of nature, must not expect that the world will be patiently -dragged at the chariot wheels of his philosophy. Mind has its inertia, -as well as matter; and its progress to truth can only be insured by the -gradual and patient removal of the obstructions which surround it. - -The boldness--may we not say the recklessness?--with which Galileo -insisted upon making proselytes of his enemies, produced the very -opposite effect. Errors thus assailed, entrenched themselves in general -feelings, and were embalmed in the virulence of the passions. The -various classes of his opponents marshalled themselves for their mutual -defence. The Aristotelian professors, the temporising Jesuits, the -political churchmen, and that timid but respectable body who at all -times dread innovation, whether it be in religion or in science, entered -into an alliance against the philosophical tyrant who threatened them -with the penalties of knowledge. - -The party of Galileo, though weak in numbers, was not without power and -influence. He had trained around him a devoted band, who idolised his -genius and supported his views. His pupils had been appointed to several -of the principal professorships in Italy. The enemies of religion were -on this occasion united with the Christian philosopher; and there were, -even in these days, many princes and nobles who had felt the -inconvenience of ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and who secretly abetted -Galileo in his crusade against established errors. - -Although these two parties had been long dreading each other's power, -and reconnoitring each other's position, yet we cannot exactly determine -which of them hoisted the first signal for war. The church party, -particularly its high dignitaries, were certainly disposed to rest on -the defensive. Flanked on one side by the logic of the schools, and on -the other by the popular interpretation of Scripture, and backed by the -strong arm of the civil power, they were not disposed to interfere with -the prosecution of science, however much they may have dreaded its -influence. The philosophers, on the contrary, united the zeal of -innovators with the firmness of purpose which truth alone can inspire. -Victorious in every contest, they were flushed with success, and they -panted for a struggle in which they knew they must triumph. - -In this state of warlike preparation Galileo addressed a letter, in -1613, to his friend and pupil, the abbé Castelli, the object of which -was to prove that the Scriptures were not intended to teach us science -and philosophy. Hence he inferred, that the language employed in the -sacred volume in reference to such subjects should be interpreted only -in its common acceptation; and that it was in reality as difficult to -reconcile the Ptolemaic as the Copernican system to the expressions -which occur in the Bible. - -A demonstration was about this time made by the opposite party, in the -person of Caccini, a Dominican friar, who made a personal attack upon -Galileo from the pulpit. This violent ecclesiastic ridiculed the -astronomer and his followers, by addressing them in the sacred language -of Scripture; "Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye here looking up into -heaven?" But this species of warfare was disapproved of even by the -church; and Luigi Maraffi, the general of the Dominicans, not only -apologised to Galileo, who had transmitted to him a formal complaint -against Caccini, but expressed the acuteness of his own feelings on -being implicated in the "brutal conduct of thirty or forty thousand -monks." - -From the character of Caccini, and the part which he afterwards played -in the persecution of Galileo, we can scarcely avoid the opinion that -his attack from the pulpit was intended as a snare for the unwary -philosopher. It roused Galileo from his wonted caution; and stimulated, -no doubt, by the nature of the answer which he received from Maraffi, he -published a longer letter of seventy pages, defending and illustrating -his former views respecting the influence of scriptural language on the -two contending systems. As if to give the impress of royal authority to -this new appeal, he addressed it to Christian, grand-duchess of Tuscany, -the mother of Cosmo; and in this form it seems to have excited a new -interest, as if it had expressed the opinion of the grand-ducal family. -These external circumstances gave additional weight to the powerful and -unanswerable reasoning which this letter contains; and it was scarcely -possible that any man, possessed of a sound mind, and willing to learn -the truth, should refuse his assent to the judicious views of our -author. He expresses his belief that the Scriptures were given to -instruct mankind respecting their salvation, and that the faculties of -our minds were given us for the purpose of investigating the phenomena -of nature. He considers Scripture and nature as proceeding from the same -divine author, and, therefore, incapable of speaking a different -language; and he points out the absurdity of supposing that professors -of astronomy will shut their eyes to the phenomena which they discover -in the heavens, or will refuse to believe those deductions of reason -which appeal to their judgment with all the power of demonstration. He -supports these views by quotations from the ancient fathers; and he -refers to the dedication of Copernicus's own work to the Roman pontiff, -Paul III., as a proof that the pope himself did not regard the new -system of the world as hostile to the sacred writings. Copernicus, on -the contrary, tells his holiness, that the reason of inscribing to him -his new system was, that the authority of the pontiff might put to -silence the calumnies of some individuals, who attacked it by arguments -drawn from passages of Scripture twisted for their own purpose. - -It was in vain to meet such arguments by any other weapons than those of -the civil power. His enemies saw that they must either crush the -dangerous innovation, or allow it the fullest scope; and they determined -upon an appeal to the inquisition. Lorini, a monk of the Dominican -order, had already denounced to this body Galileo's letter to Castelli; -and Caccini, bribed by the mastership of the convent of St. Mary of -Minerva, was invited to settle at Rome for the purpose of embodying the -evidence against Galileo. - -Though these plans had been carried on in secret, yet Galileo's -suspicions were excited; and he obtained leave from Cosmo to go to Rome -about the end of 1615.[22] Here he was lodged in the palace of the grand -duke's ambassador, and kept up a constant correspondence with the family -of his patron at Florence; but, in the midst of this external splendour, -he was summoned before the inquisition to answer for the heretical -doctrines which he had published. He was charged with maintaining the -motion of the earth, and the stability of the sun, with teaching this -doctrine to his pupils, with corresponding on the subject with several -German mathematicians, and with having published it, and attempted to -reconcile it to Scripture, in his letters to Mark Velser in 1612. The -inquisition assembled to consider these charges on the 25th of February, -1615; and it was decreed that Galileo should be enjoined by cardinal -Bellarmine to renounce the obnoxious doctrines, and to pledge himself -that he would neither teach, defend, nor publish them in future. In the -event of his refusing to acquiesce in this sentence, it was decreed that -he should be thrown into prison. Galileo did not hesitate to yield to -this injunction. On the day following, the 26th of February, he appeared -before cardinal Bellarmine, to renounce his heretical opinions; and, -having declared that he abandoned the doctrine of the earth's motion, -and would neither defend nor teach it, in his conversation or in his -writings, he was dismissed the court. - -Having thus disposed of Galileo, the inquisition conceived the design of -condemning the whole system of Copernicus as heretical. Galileo, with -more hardihood than prudence, remained at Rome for the purpose of giving -his assistance in frustrating this plan; but there is reason to think -that he injured by his presence the very cause which he meant to -support. The inquisition had determined to put down the new opinions; -and they now inserted among the prohibited books Galileo's letters to -Castelli and the grand duchess, Kepler's epitome of the Copernican -theory, and Copernicus's own work on the revolutions of the heavenly -bodies. - -Notwithstanding these proceedings, Galileo had an audience of the pope, -Paul V., in March, 1616. He was received very graciously, and spent -nearly an hour with his holiness. When they were about to part, the pope -assured Galileo, that the congregation were not disposed to receive upon -light grounds any calumnies which might be propagated by his enemies, -and that, as long as he occupied the papal chair, he might consider -himself as safe. - -These assurances were no doubt founded on the belief that Galileo would -adhere to his pledges; but so bold and inconsiderate was he in the -expression of his opinions, that even in Rome he was continually engaged -in controversial discussions. The following very interesting account of -these disputes is given by Querenghi, in a letter to the cardinal -D'Este:-- - -"Your eminence would be delighted with Galileo if you heard him holding -forth, as he often does, in the midst of fifteen or twenty, all -violently attacking him, sometimes in one house, sometimes in another. -But he is armed after such fashion that he laughs all of them to -scorn,--and even if the novelty of his opinions prevents entire -persuasion, at least he convicts of emptiness most of the arguments with -which his adversaries endeavour to overwhelm him. He was particularly -admirable on Monday last in the house of signor Frederico Ghisilieri; -and what especially pleased me was, that before replying to the contrary -arguments, he amplified and enforced them with new grounds of great -plausibility, so as to leave his adversaries in a more ridiculous -plight, when he afterwards overturned them all." - -The discovery of Jupiter's satellites suggested to Galileo a new method -of finding the longitude at sea. Philip III. had encouraged astronomers -to direct their attention to this problem, by offering a reward for its -solution; and in those days, when new discoveries in science were -sometimes rejected as injurious to mankind, it was no common event to -see a powerful sovereign courting the assistance of astronomers in -promoting the commercial interests of his empire. Galileo seems to have -regarded the solution of this problem as an object worthy of his -ambition; and he no doubt anticipated the triumph which he would obtain -over his enemies, if the Medicean stars, which they had treated with -such contempt, could be made subservient to the great interests of -mankind. During his residence at Rome in 1615 and 1616, Galileo had -communicated his views on this subject to the comte di Lemos, the -viceroy of Naples, who had presided over the council of the Spanish -Indies. This nobleman advised him to apply to the Spanish minister, the -duke of Lerma; and, through the influence of the grand duke Cosmo, his -ambassador at the court of Madrid was engaged to manage the affair. The -anxiety of Galileo on this subject was singularly great. He assured the -Tuscan ambassador that, in order to accomplish this object, "he was -ready to leave all his comforts, his country, his friends, and his -family, to cross over into Spain, and to stay as long as he might be -wanted at Seville or at Lisbon, or wherever it might be convenient to -communicate a knowledge of his method." The enthusiasm of Galileo seems -to have increased the lethargy of the Spanish court; and though the -negotiations were occasionally revived for ten or twelve years, yet no -steps were taken to bring them to a close. This strange procrastination -has been generally ascribed to jealousy or indifference on the part of -Spain; but Nelli, one of Galileo's biographers, declares, on the -authority of Florentine records, that Cosmo had privately requested from -the government the privilege of sending annually t to the Spanish Indies -two Leghorn merchantmen free of duty, as a compensation for the loss of -Galileo! - -The failure of this negotiation must have been a source of extreme -mortification to the high spirit and sanguine temperament of Galileo. He -had calculated, however, too securely on his means of putting the new -method to a successful trial. The great imperfection of the time-keepers -of that day, and the want of proper telescopes, would have baffled him -in all his efforts, and he would have been subject to a more serious -mortification from the failure and rejection of his plan, than that -which he actually experienced from the avarice of his patron, or the -indifference of Spain. Even in the present day, no telescope has been -invented which is capable of observing at sea the eclipses of Jupiter's -satellites; and though this method of finding the longitude has great -advantages on shore, yet it has been completely abandoned at sea, and -superseded by easier and more correct methods. - -In the year 1618, when no fewer than three comets visited our system, -and attracted the attention of all the astronomers of Europe, Galileo -was unfortunately confined to his bed by a severe illness; but, though -he was unable to make a single observation upon these remarkable bodies, -he contrived to involve himself in the controversies which they -occasioned. Marco Guiducci, an astronomer of Florence, and a friend of -Galileo's, had delivered a discourse on comets before the Florentine -Academy, which was published in 1619.[23] The heads of this discourse -were supposed to have been communicated to him by Galileo, and this -seems to have been universally admitted during the controversy to which -it gave rise. The opinion maintained in this treatise, that comets are -nothing but meteors which occasionally appear in our atmosphere, like -halos and rainbows, savours so little of the sagacity of Galileo that we -should be disposed to question its paternity. His inability to partake -in the general interest which these three comets excited, and to employ -his powerful telescope in observing their phenomena and their movements, -might have had some slight share in the formation of an opinion which -deprived them of their importance as celestial bodies. But, however this -may have been, the treatise of Guiducci afforded a favourable point of -attack to Galileo's enemies, and the dangerous task was entrusted to -Oratio Grassi, a learned Jesuit, who, in a work entitled _The -Astronomical and Philosophical Balance_, criticised the discourse on -comets, under the feigned name of Lotario Sarsi. - -Galileo replied to this attack in a volume entitled _Il Saggiatore_, or -_The Assayer_, which, owing to the state of his health, was not -published till the autumn of 1623.[24] This work was written in the form -of a letter to Virginio Cæsarini, a member of the Lyncæan Academy, and -master of the chamber to Urban VIII.[25], who had just ascended the -pontifical throne. It has been long celebrated among literary men for -the beauty of its language, though it is doubtless one of the least -important of Galileo's writings. - -The succession of the cardinal Maffeo Barberini to the papal throne, -under the name of Urban VIII., was hailed by Galileo and his friends as -an event favourable to the promotion of science. Urban had not only been -the personal friend of Galileo and of prince Cesi, the founder of the -Lyncæan Academy, but had been intimately connected with that able and -liberal association; and it was, therefore, deemed prudent to secure his -favour and attachment. If Paul III. had, nearly a century before, -patronised Copernicus, and accepted of the dedication of his great work, -it was not unreasonable to expect that, in more enlightened times, -another pontiff might exhibit the same liberality to science. - -The plan of securing to Galileo the patronage of Urban VIII. seems to -have been devised by prince Cesi. Although Galileo had not been able for -some years to travel, excepting in a fitter, yet he was urged by the -prince to perform a journey to Rome, for the express purpose of -congratulating his friend upon his elevation to the papal chair. This -request was made in October, 1623; and, though Galileo's health was not -such as to authorise him to undergo so much fatigue, yet he felt the -importance of the advice; and, after visiting Cesi at Acqua Sparta, he -arrived at Rome in the spring of 1624. The reception which he here -experienced far exceeded his most sanguine expectations. During the two -months which he spent in the capital he was permitted to have no fewer -than six long and gratifying audiences of the pope. The kindness of his -holiness was of the most marked description. He not only loaded Galileo -with presents[26], and promised him a pension for his son Vincenzo, but -he wrote a letter to Ferdinand, who had just succeeded Cosmo as grand -duke of Tuscany, recommending Galileo to his particular patronage. "For -we find in him," says he, "not only literary distinction, but the love of -piety; and he is strong in those qualities by which pontifical good-will -is easily obtained. And now, when he has been brought to this city to -congratulate us on our elevation, we have very lovingly embraced him; -nor can we suffer him to return to the country whither your liberality -recalls him, without an ample provision of pontifical love. And that you -may know how dear he is to us, we have willed to give him this -honourable testimonial of virtue and piety. And we further signify, that -every benefit which you shall confer upon him, imitating or even -surpassing your father's liberality, will conduce to our gratification." - -Not content with thus securing the friendship of the pope, Galileo -endeavoured to bespeak the good-will of the cardinals towards the -Copernican system. He had, accordingly, many interviews with several of -these dignitaries; and he was assured, by cardinal Hohenzoller, that in -a representation which he had made to the pope on the subject of -Copernicus, he stated to his holiness, "that as all the heretics -considered that system as undoubted, it would be necessary to be very -circumspect in coming to any resolution on the subject." To this remark -his holiness replied,--"that the church had not condemned this system; -and that it should not be condemned as heretical, but only as rash;" and -he added, "that there was no fear of any person undertaking to prove -that it must necessarily be true." - -The recent appointment of the abbé Castelli, the friend and pupil of -Galileo, to be mathematician to the pope, was an event of a most -gratifying nature; and when we recollect that it was to Castelli that he -addressed the famous letter which was pronounced heretical by the -inquisition, we must regard it also as an event indicative of à new and -favourable feeling towards the friends of science. The opinions of -Urban, indeed, had suffered no change. He was one of the few cardinals -who had opposed the inquisitorial decree of 1616, and his subsequent -demeanour was in every respect conformable to the liberality of his -early views. The sincerity of his conduct was still further evinced by -the grant of a pension of one hundred crowns to Galileo, a few years -after his visit to Rome; but there is reason to think that this -allowance was not regularly paid. - -The death of Cosmo, whose liberality had given him both affluence and -leisure, threatened Galileo with pecuniary difficulties. He had been -involved in a "great load of debt," owing to the circumstances of his -brother's family; and, in order to relieve himself, he had requested -Castelli to dispose of the pension of his son Vincenzo: but he was now -alarmed at the prospect of losing his salary as an extraordinary -professor at Pisa. The great youth of Ferdinand, who was scarcely of -age, induced Galileo's enemies, in 1629, to raise doubts respecting the -payment of a salary to a professor who neither resided nor lectured in -the university; but the question was decided in his favour, and we have -no doubt that the decision was facilitated by the friendly -recommendation of the pope, to which we have already referred. - -Although Galileo had made a narrow escape from the grasp of the -inquisition, yet he was never sufficiently sensible of the lenity which -he experienced. When he left Rome in 1616, under the solemn pledge of -never again teaching the obnoxious doctrine, it was with an hostility -against the church, suppressed but deeply cherished; and his resolution -to propagate the heresy seems to have been coeval with the vow by which -he renounced it. In the year 1618, when he communicated his theory of -the tides to the archduke Leopold, he alludes in the most sarcastic -manner to the conduct of the church. The same hostile tone, more or -less, pervaded all his writings, and, while he laboured to sharpen the -edge of his satire, he endeavoured to guard himself against its effects, -by an affectation of the humblest deference to the decisions of -theology. Had Galileo stood alone, his devotion to science might have -withdrawn him from so hopeless a contest; but he was spurred on by the -violence of a party. The Lyncæan Academy never scrupled to summon him -from his researches. They placed him in the forlorn hope of their -combat, and he at last fell a victim to the rashness of his adventure. - -But, whatever allowance we may make for the ardour of Galileo's temper, -and the peculiarity of his position; and however we may justify and even -approve of his past conduct, his visit to Urban VIII., in 1624, placed -him in a new relation to the church, which demanded on his part a new -and corresponding demeanour. The noble and generous reception which he -met with from Urban, and the liberal declaration of cardinal Hohenzoller -on the subject of the Copernican system, should have been regarded as -expressions of regret for the past, and offers of conciliation for the -future. Thus honoured by the head of the church, and befriended by its -dignitaries, Galileo must have felt himself secure against the indignity -of its lesser functionaries, and in the possession of the fullest -licence to prosecute his researches and publish his discoveries, -provided he avoided that dogma of the church which, even in the present -day, it has not ventured to renounce. But Galileo was bound to the -Romish hierarchy by even stronger ties. His son and himself were -pensioners of the church, and, having accepted of its alms, they owed to -it, at least, a decent and respectful allegiance. The pension thus given -by Urban was not a remuneration which sovereigns sometimes award to the -services of their subjects. Galileo was a foreigner at Rome. The -sovereign of the papal state owed him no obligation; and hence we must -regard the pension of Galileo as a donation from the Roman pontiff to -science itself, and as a declaration to the Christian world, that -religion was not jealous of philosophy, and that the church of Rome was -willing to respect and foster even the genius of its enemies. - -Galileo viewed all these circumstances in a different light. He resolved -to compose a work in which the Copernican system should be demonstrated; -but he had not the courage to do this in a direct and open manner. He -adopted the plan of discussing the subject in a dialogue between three -speakers, in the hope of eluding by this artifice the censure of the -church. This work was completed in 1630, but, owing to some difficulties -in obtaining a licence to print it, it was not published till 1632. - -In obtaining this licence, Galileo exhibited considerable address, and -his memory has not escaped from the imputation of having acted unfairly, -and of having involved his personal friends in the consequences of his -imprudence. - -The situation of master of the palace was, fortunately for Galileo's -designs, filled by Nicolo Riccardi, a friend and pupil of his own. This -officer was a sort of censor of new publications, and when he was -applied to on the subject of printing his work, Galileo soon found that -attempts had previously been made to thwart his views. He instantly set -off for Rome, and had an interview with his friend, who was in every -respect anxious to oblige him. Riccardi examined the manuscript, pointed -out some incautious expressions which he considered it necessary to -erase, and returned it with his written approbation, on the -understanding that the alterations he suggested would be made. Dreading -to remain in Rome during the unhealthy season, which was fast -approaching, Galileo returned to Florence, with the intention of -completing the index and dedication, and of sending the MS. to Rome, to -be printed under the care of prince Cesi. The death of that -distinguished individual, in August 1630, frustrated Galileo's plan, and -he applied for leave to have the book printed in Florence. Riccardi was -at first desirous to examine the MS. again, but after inspecting only -the beginning and the end of it, he gave Galileo leave to print it -wherever he chose, providing it bore the licence of the -inquisitor-general of Florence, and one or two other persons whom he -named. Having overcome all these difficulties, Galileo's work was -published in 1632, under the title of "The System of the World of -Galileo Galilei, &c., in which, in four dialogues concerning the two -principal systems of the World,--the Ptolemaic and the Copernican,--he -discusses, indeterminately and firmly, the arguments proposed on both -sides." It is dedicated to Ferdinand, grand duke of Tuscany, and is -prefaced by an "Address to the prudent reader," which is itself -characterised by the utmost imprudence. He refers to the decree of the -inquisition in the most insulting and ironical language. He attributes -it to passion and to ignorance, not by direct assertion, but by -insinuations ascribed to others; and he announces his intention to -defend the Copernican system, as a pure mathematical hypothesis, and not -as an opinion, having an advantage over that of the stability of the -earth absolutely. The dialogue is conducted by three persons, Salviati, -Sagredo, and Simplicio. Salviati, who is the true philosopher in the -dialogue, was the real name of a nobleman whom we have already had -occasion to mention. Sagredo, the name of another noble friend of -Galileo's, performs a secondary part under Salviati. He proposes doubts, -suggests difficulties, and enlivens the gravity of the dialogue with his -wit and pleasantry. Simplicio is a resolute follower of Ptolemy and -Aristotle, and with a proper degree of candour and modesty, he brings -forward all the common arguments in favour of the Ptolemaic system. -Between the wit of Sagredo, and the powerful philosophy of Salviati, the -peripatetic sage is baffled in every discussion; and there can be no -doubt that Galileo aimed a more fatal blow at the Ptolemaic system by -this mode of discussing it, than if he had endeavoured to overturn it by -direct arguments. - -The influence of this work on the public mind was such as might have -been anticipated. The obnoxious doctrines which it upheld were eagerly -received, and widely disseminated; and the church of Rome became -sensible of the shock which was thus given to its intellectual -supremacy. Pope Urban VIII., attached though he had been to Galileo, -never once hesitated respecting the line of conduct which he felt -himself bound to pursue. His mind was, nevertheless, agitated with -conflicting sentiments. He entertained a sincere affection for science -and literature, and yet he was placed in the position of their enemy. He -had been the personal friend of Galileo, and yet his duty compelled him -to become his accuser. Embarrassing as these feelings were, other -considerations contributed to soothe him. He had, in his capacity of a -cardinal, opposed the first persecution of Galileo. He had, since his -elevation to the pontificate, traced an open path for the march of -Galileo's discoveries; and he had finally endeavoured to bind the -recusant philosopher by the chains of kindness and gratitude. All these -means, however, had proved abortive, and he was now called upon to -support the doctrine which he had subscribed, and administer the law of -which he was the guardian. - -It has been supposed, without any satisfactory evidence, that Urban may -have been influenced by less creditable motives. Salviati and Sagredo -being well-known personages, it was inferred, that Simplicio must also -have a representative. The enemies of Galileo are said to have convinced -his holiness that Simplicio was intended as a portraiture of himself; -and this opinion received some probability from the fact, that the -peripatetic disputant had employed many of the arguments which Urban had -himself used in his discussions with Galileo. The latest biographer of -Galileo[27] regards this motive as necessary to account for "the -otherwise inexplicable change which took place in the conduct of Urban -to his old friend;"--but we cannot admit for a moment the truth, of this -supposition. The church had been placed in hostility to a powerful and -liberal party, which was adverse to its interests. The dogmas of the -Catholic faith had been brought into direct collision with the -deductions of science. The leader of the philosophic band had broken the -most solemn armistice with the inquisition: he had renounced the ties of -gratitude which bound him to the pontiff; and Urban was thus compelled -to intrench himself in a position to which he had been driven by his -opponents. - -The design of summoning Galileo before the inquisition, seems to have -been formed almost immediately after the publication of his book; for -even in August, 1632, the preliminary proceedings had reached the ears -of the grand duke Ferdinand. The Tuscan ambassador at Rome was speedily -acquainted with the dissatisfaction which his sovereign felt at these -proceedings; and he was instructed to forward to Florence a written -statement of the charges against Galileo, in order to enable him to -prepare for his defence. Although this request was denied, Ferdinand -again interposed; and transmitted a letter to his ambassador, -recommending the admission of Campanella and Castelli into the -congregation of ecclesiastics by which Galileo was to be judged. -Circumstances, however, rendered it prudent to withhold this letter. -Castelli was sent away from Rome, and Scipio Chiaramonte, a bigotted -ecclesiastic, was summoned from Pisa to complete the number of the -judges. - -It appears from a despatch of the Tuscan minister, that Ferdinand was -enraged at the transaction; and he instructed his ambassador, Niccolini, -to make the strongest representations to the pope. Niccolini had several -interviews with his holiness; but all his expostulations were fruitless. -He found Urban highly incensed against Galileo; and his holiness begged -Niccolini to advise the archduke not to interfere any farther, as he -would not "get through it with honour." On the 15th of September the -pope caused it to be intimated to Niccolini, as a mark of his especial -esteem for the grand duke, that he was obliged to refer the work to the -inquisition; but both the prince and his ambassador were declared liable -to the usual censures if they divulged the secret. - -From the measures which this tribunal had formerly pursued, it was not -difficult to foresee the result of their present deliberations. They -summoned Galileo to appear before them at Rome, to answer in person the -charges under which he lay. The Tuscan ambassador expostulated warmly -with the court of Rome on the inhumanity of this proceeding. He urged -his advanced age, his infirm health, the discomforts of the journey, and -the miseries of the quarantine[28], as motives for reconsidering their -decision: but the pope was inexorable; and though it was agreed to relax -the quarantine as much as possible in his favour, yet it was declared -indispensable that he should appear in person before the inquisition. - -Worn out with age and infirmities, and exhausted with the fatigues of -his journey, Galileo arrived at Rome on the 14th of February, 1633. The -Tuscan ambassador announced his arrival in an official form to the -commissary of the holy office, and Galileo awaited in calm dignity the -approach of his trial. Among those who proffered their advice in this -distressing emergency, we must enumerate the cardinal Barberino, the -pope's nephew, who, though he may have felt the necessity of an -interference on the part of the church, was yet desirous that it should -be effected with the least injury to Galileo and to science. He -accordingly visited Galileo, and advised him to remain as much at home -as possible, to keep aloof from general society, and to see only his -most intimate friends. The same advice was given from different -quarters; and Galileo felt its propriety, and remained in strict -seclusion in the palace of the Tuscan ambassador. - -During the whole of the trial which now commenced, Galileo was treated -with the most marked indulgence. Abhorring, as we must do, the -principles and practice of this odious tribunal, and reprobating its -interference with the cautious deductions of science, we must yet admit -that, on this occasion, its deliberations were not dictated by passion, -nor its power directed by vengeance. Though placed at their -judgment-seat as a heretic, Galileo stood there with the recognised -attributes of a sage; and though an offender against the laws of which -they were the guardian, yet the highest respect was yielded to his -genius, and the kindest commiseration to his infirmities. - -In the beginning of April, when his examination in person was to -commence, it became necessary that he should be removed to the holy -office; but instead of committing him, as was the practice, to solitary -confinement, he was provided with apartments in the house of the fiscal -of the inquisition. His table was provided by the Tuscan ambassador, and -his servant was allowed to attend him at his pleasure, and to sleep in -an adjoining apartment. Even this nominal confinement, however, -Galileo's high spirit was unable to brook. An attack of the disease to -which he was constitutionally subject contributed to fret and irritate -him, and he became impatient for a release from his anxiety as well as -from his bondage. Cardinal Barberino seems to have received notice of -the state of Galileo's feelings; and with a magnanimity which posterity -will ever honour, he liberated Galileo on his own responsibility; and in -ten days after his first examination, and on the last day of April, he -was restored to the hospitable roof of the Tuscan ambassador. - -Though this favour was granted on the condition of his remaining in -strict seclusion, Galileo recovered his health, and to a certain degree -his usual hilarity, amid the kind attentions of Niccolini and his -family; and when the want of exercise had begun to produce symptoms of -indisposition, Niccolini obtained for him leave to go into the public -gardens in a half-closed carriage. - -After the inquisition had examined Galileo personally, they allowed him -a reasonable time for preparing his defence. He felt the difficulty of -adducing any thing like a plausible justification of his conduct; and he -resorted to an ingenious, though a shallow artifice, which was regarded -by the court as an aggravation of the crime. After his first appearance -before the inquisition in 1616, he was publicly and falsely charged by -his enemies with having then abjured his opinions; and he was taunted as -a criminal who had been actually punished for his offences. As a -refutation of these calumnies. Cardinal Bellarmine had given him a -certificate in his own handwriting, declaring that he neither abjured -his opinions, nor suffered punishment for them; and that the doctrine of -the earth's motion, and the sun's stability, was only denounced to him -as contrary to scripture, and as one which could not be defended. To -this certificate the cardinal did not add, because he was not called -upon to do it, that Galileo was enjoined not _to teach in any manner_ -the doctrine thus denounced; and Galileo ingeniously avails himself of -this supposed omission, to account for his having, in the lapse of -fourteen or sixteen years, forgotten the injunction. He assigned the -same excuse for his having omitted to mention this injunction to -Riccardi, and to the inquisitor-general at Florence, when he obtained -the licence to print his dialogues. The court held the production of -this certificate to be at once a proof and an aggravation of his -offence; because the certificate itself declared that the obnoxious -doctrines had been pronounced contrary to the Holy Scriptures. - -Having duly weighed the confessions and excuses of their prisoner, and -considered the general merits of the case, the inquisition came to an -agreement upon the sentence which they were to pronounce, and appointed -the 22d of June as the day on which it was to be delivered. Two days -previous to this, Galileo was summoned to appear at the holy office; and -on the morning of the 21st, he obeyed the summons. On the 22d of June he -was clothed in a penitential dress, and conducted to the convent of -Minerva, where the inquisition was assembled to give judgment. A long -and elaborate sentence was pronounced, detailing the former proceedings -of the inquisition, and specifying the offences which he had committed -in teaching heretical doctrines, in violating his former pledges, and in -obtaining by improper means a licence for the printing of his Dialogues. -After an invocation of the name of our Saviour, and of the Holy Virgin, -Galileo is declared to have brought himself under strong suspicions of -heresy, and to have incurred all the censures and penalties which are -enjoined against delinquents of this kind; but from all these -consequences he is to be held absolved, provided that with a sincere -heart, and a faith unfeigned, he abjures and curses the heresies he has -cherished, as well as every other heresy against the Catholic church. In -order that his offence might not go altogether unpunished, that he might -be more cautious in future, and be a warning to others to abstain from -similar delinquencies, it was also decreed that his Dialogues should be -prohibited by public edict; that he himself should be condemned to the -prison of the inquisition during their pleasure, and that during the -next three years he should recite once a week the seven penitential -psalms. - -The ceremony of Galileo's abjuration was one of exciting interest, and -of awful formality. Clothed in the sackcloth of a repentant criminal, -the venerable sage fell upon his knees before the assembled cardinals; -and laying his hands upon the Holy Evangelists, he invoked the divine -aid in abjuring and detesting, and vowing never again to teach, the -doctrine of the earth's motion, and of the sun's stability. He pledged -himself that he would never again, either in words or in writing, -propagate such heresies; and he swore that he would fulfil and observe -the penances which had been inflicted upon him.[29] At the conclusion of -this ceremony, in which he recited his abjuration word for word, and -then signed it, he was conveyed, in conformity with his sentence, to the -prison of the inquisition. - -The account which we have now given of the trial and the sentence of -Galileo, is pregnant with the deepest interest and instruction. Human -nature is here drawn in its darkest colouring; and in surveying the -melancholy picture, it is difficult to decide whether religion or -philosophy has been most degraded. While we witness the presumptuous -priest pronouncing infallible the decrees of his own erring judgment, we -see the high-minded philosopher abjuring the eternal and immutable -truths which he had himself the glory of establishing. In the ignorance -and prejudices of the age,--in a too literal interpretation of the -language of Scripture,--in a mistaken respect for the errors that had -become venerable from their antiquity,--and in the peculiar position -which Galileo had taken among the avowed enemies of the church, we may -find the elements of an apology, however poor it may he, for the conduct -of the inquisition. But what excuse can we devise for the humiliating -confession and abjuration of Galileo? Why did this master-spirit of the -age--this high-priest of the stars--this representative of science--this -hoary sage, whose career of glory was near its consummation,--why did he -reject the crown of martyrdom which he had himself coveted, and which, -plaited with immortal laurels, was about to descend upon his head? If, -in place of disavowing the laws of nature, and surrendering in his own -person the intellectual dignity of his species, he had boldly owned the -truth of his opinions, and confided his character to posterity, and his -cause to an all-ruling Providence, he would have strung up the -hair-suspended sabre, and disarmed for ever the hostility which -threatened to overwhelm him. The philosopher, however, was supported -only by philosophy; and in the love of truth he found a miserable -substitute for the hopes of the martyr. Galileo cowered under the fear -of man, and his submission was the salvation of the church. The sword of -the inquisition descended on his prostrate neck; and though its stroke -was not physical, yet it fell with a moral influence fatal to the -character of its victim, and to the dignity of science. - -In studying with attention this portion of scientific history, the -reader will not fail to perceive that the church of Rome was driven into -a dilemma from which the submission and abjuration of Galileo could -alone extricate it. He who confesses a crime and denounces its atrocity, -not only sanctions but inflicts the punishment which is annexed to it. -If Galileo had declared his innocence, and avowed his sentiments; and if -he had appealed to the past conduct of the church itself, to the -acknowledged opinions of its dignitaries, and even to the acts of its -pontiffs, he would have at once confounded his accusers, and escaped -from their toils. After Copernicus, himself a catholic priest, had -_openly_ maintained the motion of the earth, and the stability of the -sun: after he had dedicated the work which advocated these opinions to -pope Paul III., on the express ground that the _authority of the -pontiff_ might silence the calumnies of those who attacked these -opinions by arguments drawn from Scripture: after the cardinal Schonherg -and the bishop of Culm had urged Copernicus to publish the new -doctrines; and after the bishop of Ermeland had erected a monument to -commemorate his great discoveries; how could the church of Rome have -appealed to its pontifical decrees as the ground of persecuting and -punishing Galileo? Even in later times, the same doctrines had been -propagated with entire toleration; nay, in the very year of Galileo's -first persecution, Paul Anthony Foscarinus, a learned Carmelite monk, -wrote a pamphlet, in which he illustrates and defends the mobility of -the earth, and endeavours to reconcile to this new doctrine the passages -of Scripture which had been employed to subvert it. This very singular -production was dated from the Carmelite convent at Naples; was dedicated -to the very reverend Sebastian Fantoni, general of the Carmelite order; -and, sanctioned by the ecclesiastical authorities, it was published at -Florence, three years before the second persecution of Galileo. - -By these acts, tolerated for more than a century, the decrees of the -pontiffs against the doctrine of the earth's motion were virtually -repealed; and Galileo might have pleaded them with success in arrest of -judgment. Unfortunately, however, for himself and for science, he acted -otherwise. By admitting their authority, he revived in fresh force these -obsolete and obnoxious enactments; and, by yielding to their power, he -riveted for another century the almost broken chains of spiritual -despotism. - -Pope Urban VII. did not fail to observe the full extent of his triumph; -and he exhibited the utmost sagacity in the means which he employed to -secure it. While he endeavoured to overawe the enemies of the church by -the formal promulgation of Galileo's sentence and abjuration, and by -punishing the officials who had assisted in obtaining the licence to -print his work, he treated Galileo with the utmost lenity, and yielded -to every request that was made to diminish, and almost to suspend, the -constraint under which he lay. The sentence of abjuration was ordered to -be publicly read at several universities. At Florence the ceremonial was -performed in the church of Santa Croce, and the friends and disciples of -Galileo were especially summoned to witness the public degradation of -their master. The inquisitor at Florence was ordered to be reprimanded -for his conduct; and Riccardi, the master of the sacred palace, and -Ciampoli, the secretary of pope Urban himself, were dismissed from their -situations. - -Galileo had remained only four days in the prison of the inquisition, -when, on the application of Niccolini, the Tuscan ambassador, he was -allowed to reside with him in his palace. As Florence still suffered -under the contagious disease which we have already mentioned, it was -proposed that Sienna should be the place of Galileo's confinement, and -that his residence should be in one of the convents of that city. -Niccolini, however, recommended the palace of the archbishop Piccolomoni -as a more suitable residence; and though the archbishop was one of -Galileo's best friends, the pope agreed to the arrangement, and in the -beginning of July Galileo quitted Rome for Sienna. - -After having spent nearly six months under the hospitable roof of his -friend, with no other restraint than that of being confined to the -limits of the palace, Galileo was permitted to return to his villa near -Florence under the same restrictions; and as the contagious disease had -disappeared in Tuscany, he was able in the month of December to re-enter -his own house at Arcetri, where he spent the remainder of his days. - -Although Galileo had now the happiness of rejoining his family under -their paternal roof, yet, like all sublunary blessings, it was but of -short duration. His favourite daughter Maria, who along with her sister -had joined the convent of St. Matthew in the neighbourhood of Arcetri, -had looked forward to the arrival of her father with the most -affectionate anticipation: she hoped that her filial devotion might form -some compensation for the malignity of his enemies; and she eagerly -assumed the labour of reciting weekly the seven penitentiary psalms -which formed part of her father's sentence. These sacred duties, -however, were destined to terminate almost at the moment they were -begun. She was seized with a fatal illness in the same month in which -she rejoined her parent, and before the month of April she was no more. -This heavy blow, so suddenly struck, overwhelmed Galileo in the deepest -agony. Owing to the decline of his health, and the recurrence of his old -complaints, he was unable to oppose to this mental suffering the -constitutional energy of his mind. The bulwarks of his heart broke down, -and a flood of grief desolated his manly and powerful mind. He felt, as -he expressed it, that he was incessantly called by his daughter,--his -pulse intermitted,--his heart was agitated with unceasing -palpitations,--his appetite entirely left him, and he considered his -dissolution so near at hand, that he would not permit his son Vicenzo to -set out upon a journey which he had contemplated. - -From this state of melancholy and indisposition, Galileo slowly, though -partially, recovered; and, with the view of obtaining medical -assistance, he requested leave to go to Florence. His enemies, however, -refused this application, and he was given to understand that any -additional importunities would be visited with a more vigilant -surveillance. He remained, therefore, five years at Arcetri, from 1634 -to 1638, without any remission of his confinement, and pursuing his -studies under the influence of a continued and general indisposition. - -There is no reason to think that Galileo or his friends renewed their -application to the church of Rome; but, in 1638, the pope transmitted, -through the inquisitor Fariano, his permission that he might remove to -Florence for the recovery of his health, on the condition that he should -present himself at the office of the inquisitor to learn the terms upon -which this indulgence was granted. Galileo accepted of the kindness thus -unexpectedly proffered; but the conditions upon which it was given were -more severe than he expected: he was prohibited from leaving his house, -or admitting his friends; and so sternly was this system pursued, that -he required a special order for attending mass during Passion week. - -The severity of this order was keenly felt by Galileo. While he remained -at Arcetri, his seclusion from the world would have been an object of -choice, if it had not been the decree of a tribunal; but to be debarred -from the conversation of his friends in Florence,--in that city where -his genius had been idolised, and where his fame had become immortal, -was an aggravation of punishment which he was unable to bear. With his -accustomed kindness, the grand duke made a strong representation on the -subject to his ambassador at the court of Rome. He stated that, from his -great age and infirmities, Galileo's career was near its close; that he -possessed many valuable ideas, which the world might lose if they were -not matured and conveyed to his friends; and that Galileo was anxious to -make these communications to father Castelli, who was then a stipendiary -of the court of Rome. The grand duke commanded his ambassador to see -Castelli on the subject; to urge him to obtain leave from the pope to -spend a few months in Florence, and to supply him with money, and every -thing that was necessary for his journey. Influenced by this kind and -liberal message. Castelli obtained an audience of the pope, and -requested leave to pay a visit to Florence. Urban instantly suspected -the object of his journey; and, upon Castelli's acknowledging that he -could not possibly refrain from seeing Galileo, he received permission -to visit him in the company of an officer of the inquisition. Castelli -accordingly went to Florence; and, a few months afterwards, Galileo was -ordered to return to Arcetri. - -During Galileo's confinement at Sienna and Arcetri, between 1633 and -1636, his time was principally occupied in the composition of his -"Dialogues on Local Motion." This remarkable work, which was considered -by its author as the best of his productions, was printed by Louis -Elzevir, at Amsterdam, and dedicated to the count de Noailles, the -French ambassador at Rome. Various attempts to have it printed in -Germany had failed; and, in order to save himself from the malignity of -his enemies, he was obliged to pretend that the edition published in -Holland had been printed from a MS. entrusted to the French ambassador. - -Although Galileo had for a long time abandoned his astronomical studies, -yet his attention was directed, about the year 1636, to a curious -appearance in the lunar disc, which is known by the name of the moons -libration. When we examine with a telescope the outline of the moon, we -observe that certain parts of her disc, which are seen at one time, are -invisible at another. This change or libration is of four different -kinds; viz. the diurnal libration, the libration in longitude, the -libration in latitude, and the spheroidal libration. Galileo discovered -the first of these kinds of libration, and appears to have had some -knowledge of the second; but the third was discovered by Hevelius, and -the fourth by Lagrange.[30] - -This curious discovery was the result of the last telescopic -observations of Galileo. Although his right eye had for some years lost -its power, yet his general vision was sufficiently perfect to enable him -to carry on his usual researches. In 1636, however, this affection of -his eye became more serious; and, in 1637, his left eye was attacked -with the same disease. His medical friends at first supposed that -cataracts were formed in the crystalline lens, and anticipated a cure -from the operation of couching. These hopes were fallacious. The disease -turned out to be in the cornea, and every attempt to restore its -transparency was fruitless. In a few months the white cloud covered the -whole aperture of the pupil, and Galileo became totally blind. This -sudden and unexpected calamity had almost overwhelmed Galileo and his -friends. In writing to a correspondent he exclaims, "Alas! your dear -friend and servant has become totally and irreparably blind. These -heavens, this earth, this universe, which by wonderful observation I had -enlarged a thousand times beyond the belief of past ages, are henceforth -shrunk into the narrow space which I myself occupy. So it pleases God; -it shall, therefore, please me also." His friend, father Castelli, -deplores the calamity in the same tone of pathetic sublimity:--"The -noblest eye," says he, "which nature ever made, is darkened; an eye so -privileged, and gifted with such rare powers, that it may truly be said -to have seen more than the eyes of all that are gone, and to have opened -the eyes of all that are to come." - -Although Galileo had been thwarted in his attempt to introduce into the -Spanish marine his new method of finding the longitude at sea, yet he -never lost sight of an object to which he attached the highest -importance. As the formation of correct tables of the motion of -Jupiter's satellites was a necessary preliminary to its introduction, he -had occupied himself for twenty-four years in observations for this -purpose, and he had made considerable progress in this laborious task. -After the publication of his "Dialogues on Motion," in 1636, he renewed -his attempts to bring his method into actual use. For this purpose he -addressed himself to Lorenzo Real, who had been the Dutch -governor-general in India, and offered the free use of his method to the -states-general of Holland.[31] The Dutch government received this -proposal with an anxious desire to have it carried into effect. At the -instigation of Constantine Huygens, the father of the illustrious -Huygens, and the secretary to the prince of Orange, they appointed -commissioners to communicate with Galileo; and while they transmitted -him a gold chain as a mark of their esteem, they at the same time -assured him, that if his plan should prove successful it should not pass -unrewarded. The commissioners entered into an active correspondence with -Galileo, and had even appointed one of their number to communicate -personally with him in Italy. Lest this, however, should excite the -jealousy of the court of Rome, Galileo objected to the arrangement, so -that the negotiation was carried on solely by correspondence. - -It was at this time that Galileo was struck with blindness. His friend -and pupil, Renieri, undertook, in this emergency, to arrange and -complete his observations and calculations; but before he had made much -progress in the arduous task, each of the four commissioners died in -succession, and it was with great difficulty that Constantine Huygens -succeeded in renewing the scheme. It was again obstructed, however, by -the death of Galileo; and when Renieri was about to publish, by the -order of the grand duke, the "Ephemeris," and "Tables of the Jovian -Planets," he was attacked with a mortal disease, and the manuscripts of -Galileo, which he was on the eve of publishing, were never more heard -of. By such a series of misfortunes were the plans of Galileo and of the -states-general completely overthrown. It is some consolation, however, -to know that neither science nor navigation suffered any severe loss. -Notwithstanding the perfection of our present tables of Jupiter's -satellites, and of the astronomical instruments by which their eclipses -may be observed, the method of Galileo is still impracticable at sea. - -In consequence of the strict seclusion to which Galileo had been -subjected, he was in the practice of dating his letters from his prison -at Arcetri: but after he had lost the use of his eyes, the Inquisition -seems to have relaxed its severity, and to have allowed him the freest -intercourse with his friends. The grand duke of Tuscany paid him -frequent visits; and among the celebrated strangers who came from -distant lands to see the ornament of Italy, were Gassendi, Deodati, and -our illustrious countryman Milton. During the last three years of his -life, his eminent pupil Viviani formed one of his family; and in -October, 1611, the celebrated Torricelli, another of his pupils, was -admitted to the same distinction. - -Though the powerful mind of Galileo still retained its vigour, yet his -debilitated frame was exhausted with mental labour. He often complained -that his head was too busy for his body; and the continuity of his -studies was frequently broken with attacks of hypochondria, want of -sleep, and acute rheumatic pains. Along with these calamities, he was -afflicted with another still more severe--with deafness almost total; -but though he was now excluded from all communication with the external -world, yet his mind still grappled with the material universe, and while -he was studying the force of percussion, and preparing for a -continuation of his "Dialogues on Motion," he was attacked with fever -and palpitation of the heart, which, after continuing two months, -terminated fatally on the 8th of January, 1642, in the 78th year of his -age. - -Having died in the character of a prisoner of the Inquisition, this -odious tribunal disputed his right of making a will, and of being buried -in consecrated ground. These objections, however, were withdrawn; but -though a large sum was subscribed for erecting a monument to him in the -church of Santa Croce, in Florence, the pope would not permit the design -to be carried into execution. His sacred remains were, therefore, -deposited in an obscure corner of the church, and remained for more than -thirty years unmarked with any monumental tablet. The following epitaph, -given without any remark in the Leyden edition of his Dialogues, is, we -presume, the one which was inscribed on a tablet in the church of Santa -Croce:-- - - -GALILÆO GALILÆI FIORENTINO, -Philosopho et Geometræ vere lynceo, -Natura Œdipo, -Mirabilium semper inventorum machinatori, -Qui inconcessa adhuc mortalibus gloria -Cælorum provincias auxit -Et universo dedit incrementum: -Non enim vitreos spherarum orbes -Fragilesque stellas conflavit: -Sed æterna mundi corpore -Mediceæ beneficentiae dedicavit, -Cujus inextincta gloriæ cupiditas -Ut oculos nationum -Sæculorumque omnium -Videre doceret, -Proprios impendit oculos. -Cum jam nil amplius haberet natura -Quod ipse videret. -Cujus inventa vix intra rerum limites comprehensa -Firmamentum ipsum non solum continet, -Sed etiam recipit. -Qui relictis tot scientiarum monumentis -Plura secum tulit, quam reliquit. -Gravi enim -Sed nondum affecta senectute, -Novis contemplationibus -Majorem gloriam affectans -Inexplebilem sapientiæ animam -Immaturo nobis obi tu -Exhalavit -Anno Domini -MCXLII. -Ætatis suæ -LXXVIII. - - -At his death, in 1703, Viviani purchased his property, with the charge -of erecting a monument over Galileo's remains and his own. This design -was not carried into effect till 1737, at the expense of the family of -Nelli, when both their bodies were disinterred, and removed to the site -of the splendid monument which now covers them. This monument contains -the bust of Galileo, with figures of Geometry and Astronomy. It was -designed by Giulio Foggini. Galileo's bust was executed by Giovanni -Battista Foggini; the figure of Astronomy by Vincenzio Foggini, his son; -and that of Geometry by Girolamo Ticciati. - -Galileo's house at Arcetri still remains. In 1821 it belonged to one -Signor Alimari, having been preserved in the state in which it was left -by Galileo; it stands very near the convent of St. Matthew, and about a -mile to the S. E. of Florence. An inscription by Nelli, over the door of -the house, still remains. - -The character of Galileo, whether we view him as a member of the social -circle, or as a man of science, presents many interesting and -instructive points of contemplation. Unfortunate, and to a certain -extent immoral, in his domestic relations, he did not derive from that -hallowed source all the enjoyments which it generally yields; and it was -owing to this cause, perhaps, that he was more fond of society than -might have been expected from his studious habits. His habitual -cheerfulness and gaiety, and his affability and frankness of manner, -rendered him an universal favourite among his friends. Without any of -the pedantry of exclusive talent, and without any of that ostentation -which often marks the man of limited though profound acquirements, -Galileo never conversed upon scientific or philosophical subjects except -among those who were capable of understanding them. The extent of his -general information, indeed, his great literary knowledge, but, above -all, his retentive memory, stored with the legends and the poetry of -ancient times, saved him from the necessity of drawing upon his own -peculiar studies for the topics of his conversation. - -Galileo was not less distinguished for his hospitality and benevolence; -he was liberal to the poor, and generous in the aid which he -administered to men of genius and talent, who often found a comfortable -asylum under his roof. In his domestic economy he was frugal without -being parsimonious. His hospitable board was ever ready for the -reception of his friends; and, though he was himself abstemious in his -diet, he seems to have been a lover of good wines, of which he received -always the choicest varieties out of the grand duke's cellar. This -peculiar taste, together with his attachment to a country life, rendered -him fond of agricultural pursuits, and induced him to devote his leisure -hours to the cultivation of his vineyards. - -In his personal appearance Galileo was about the middle size, and of a -square-built, but well-proportioned, frame. His complexion was fair, his -eyes penetrating, and his hair of a reddish hue. His expression was -cheerful and animated, and though his temper was easily ruffled, yet the -excitement was transient, and the cause of it speedily forgotten. - -One of the most prominent traits in the character of Galileo was his -invincible love of truth, and his abhorrence of that spiritual despotism -which had so long brooded over Europe. His views, however, were too -liberal, and too far in advance of the age which he adorned; and however -much we may admire the noble spirit which he evinced, and the personal -sacrifices which he made, in his struggle for truth, we must yet lament -the hotness of his zeal and the temerity of his onset. In his contest -with the church of Rome, he fell under her victorious banner; and though -his cause was that of truth, and hers that of superstition, yet the -sympathy of Europe was not roused by his misfortunes. Under the -sagacious and peaceful sway of Copernicus, astronomy had effected a -glorious triumph over the dogmas of the church; but under the bold and -uncompromising sceptre of Galileo all her conquests were irrecoverably -lost. - -The scientific character of Galileo, and his method of investigating -truth, demand our warmest admiration. The number and ingenuity of his -inventions; the brilliant discoveries which he made in the heavens, and -the depth and beauty of his researches respecting the laws of motion, -have gained him the admiration of every succeeding age, and have placed -him next to Newton in the lists of original and inventive genius. To -this high rank he was doubtless elevated by the inductive processes -which he followed in all his inquiries. Under the sure guidance of -observation and experiment, he advanced to general laws; and if Bacon -had never lived, the student of nature would have found, in the writings -and labours of Galileo, not only the boasted principles of the inductive -philosophy, but also their practical application to the highest efforts -of invention and discovery. - - -[Footnote 1: Childe Harold, canto IV. stanza LIV.] - -[Footnote 2: Life of Galileo, Library of Useful Knowledge, p. 1.] - -[Footnote 3: De Insidentibus in Fluido.] - -[Footnote 4: Opere di Galileo. Milano, 1810, vol. IV. p. 248.] - -[Footnote 5: Life of Galileo, in Library of Useful Knowledge, p. 9.] - -[Footnote 6: Systema Cosmicum, Dial. II. p. 121.] - -[Footnote 7: The authenticity of this work has been doubted. It was -printed at Rome, in 1656, from a MS. in the library of Somasohi, at -Venice. See Opere di Galileo, tom. VII. p. 427.] - -[Footnote 8: Incredibili animi jucunditate.--_Sid._] - -[Footnote 9: Nescio quo fato ductus.] - -[Footnote 10: Berlin Ephemeris, 1788.] - -[Footnote 11: Edin. Phil. Journ. vol. VI. p. 313.] - -[Footnote 12: Life and Correspondence of Dr. Bradley. Oxford, 1832, p. -523.] - -[Footnote 13: See page 22.] - -[Footnote 14: Edin. Phil. Journ. 1822, vol. VI. p. 317.] - -[Footnote 15: Joh. Fabricii Phrysii de Maculis in Sole observatis, et -apparente earum cum Sole conversione, Narratio. Wittemb. 1611.] - -[Footnote 16: It does not appear from the history of solar observations, -at what time, and by whom, coloured glasses were first introduced for -permitting the eye to look at the sun with impunity. Fabricius was -obviously quite ignorant of the use of coloured glasses. He observed the -sun when he was in the horizon, and when his brilliancy was impaired by -the interposition of thin clouds and floating vapours; and he advises -those who may repeat his observations, to admit at first to the eye a -small portion of the sun's light, till it is gradually accustomed to its -full splendour. When the sun's altitude became considerable, Fabricius -gave up his observations; which he often continued so long, that he was -scarcely able, for two days together, to see objects with their usual -distinctness. - -Scheiner, in his "Apelles post Tabulanti," describes four different ways -of viewing the spots: one of which is by the _interposition of blue or -green glasses._ His first method was to observe the sun near the -horizon; the second was to view him through a transparent cloud; the -third was to look at him through his telescope with a blue or a green -glass of a proper thickness, and plane on both sides, or to use a thin -blue glass when the sun was covered with a thin vapour or cloud; and the -fourth method was to begin and observe the sun at his margin, till the -eye gradually reached the middle of his disc.] - -[Footnote 17: See Istoria e Demostrazioni, intorna alle macchie solari. -_Roma_, 1613. See Opere di Galileo, vol. V. p. 131-293.] - -[Footnote 18: Discorso intorno alle cose che stanno in sa l'acqua, o che -in quella si muovono. Opere di Galileo, vol. II. pp. 165-311.] - -[Footnote 19: Opere di Galileo, vol. II. pp. 355-367.] - -[Footnote 20: Ibid. 367-390.] - -[Footnote 21: These three treatises occupy the whole of the third volume -of the Opere di Galileo.] - -[Footnote 22: It is said that Galileo was cited to appear at Rome on -this occasion; and the opinion is not without foundation.] - -[Footnote 23: Printed in the Opere di Galileo, vol. VI. pp. 117-191.] - -[Footnote 24: Printed in the Opere di Galileo, vol. VI. pp. 191-571.] - -[Footnote 25: This work is said to have been dedicated to Urban VIII. -himself (Lib. U. Knowledge, Life of Galileo, chap, VII.), but there is -no dedication prefixed to the edition we have referred to; and it is, -besides, unusual to dedicate a volume to any person when that volume has -the form of a letter to another.] - -[Footnote 26: A fine painting in gold, and a silver medal, and "a good -quantity of agnus dei."] - -[Footnote 27: Library of Useful Knowledge, Life of Galileo, chap. VIII.] - -[Footnote 28: The communication between Florence and Rome was at this -time interrupted by a contagious disease which had broken out in -Tuscany.] - -[Footnote 29: It has been said, but upon what authority we cannot find, -that when Galileo rose from his knees, he stamped on the ground, and -said in a whisper to one of his friends, "_E pur si muove._" "It does -move, though."--Life of Galileo, Lib. Use. Knowledge, part II. p. 63.] - -[Footnote 30: These phenomena are explained in the volume on -"Astronomy."] - -[Footnote 31: It is a curious fact, that Morin had about this time -proposed to determine the longitude by the moon's distance from a fixed -star, and that the commissioners assembled in Paris to examine it, -requested Galileo's opinion of its value and practicability. Galileo's -opinion was highly unfavourable. He saw clearly, and explained -distinctly, the objection to Morin's method, arising from the -imperfection of the lunar tables, and the inadequacy of astronomical -instruments; but he seemed not to be conscious that the very same -objections applied, with even greater force, to his own method, which -has since been supplanted by that of the French savant. See life of -Galileo, Library of Useful Knowledge, p. 94.] - - - - -GUICCIARDINI - -1482-1540. - - -Guicciardini was the contemporary and intimate friend of Machiavelli, -but their several careers bore small similitude; for worldly prosperity -attended the first, while the other was depressed by neglect and penury; -and while his intellect struggled with these chains, the nobler parts of -his disposition yielded to them. Machiavelli was a republican in -principle, of humble for tunes, and dependent on his friends for their -favour and encouragement. Guicciardini was a courtier; he was the -servant of a prince, not of a state; in birth and position in life he -had the advantage of his friend; and these combining circumstances -rendered him more confident in himself, while at the same time it -inspired him with an avowed dislike for popular governments. - -The Guicciardini formed one of the noblest families of Florence: it was -of ancient origin, and possessed several magnificent mansions in -Florence. One of the streets is named de' Guicciardini, from containing -a palace belonging to them; and they had large possessions in the Val di -Pesa. - -Francesco, the subject of this memoir, was the son of Piero de' -Guicciardini, a celebrated advocate, and at one time commissary-general -to the Florentine army. Francesco was one of eight children. His mother -was Simona, daughter of the cavaliere Bongiani Gianfigliazzi, a noble -Florentine. He was born on the 6th of March, 1482.[32] He was educated -with care by the best masters, and taught Greek and Latin. He applied -himself, as he grew up, to the study of logic and of civil law, as he -was destined for the robe. He was sent to Ferrara by his father, not -merely for the sake of attending the teachers there, but that his parent -might have a place of refuge, where to send his property, in the event -of civil disturbance or external attack upon Florence. Large sums of -money were remitted to him, and he boasts of the trustworthiness of his -conduct on this occasion, despite his extreme youth. It was in agitation -at one time to make him a priest, as, through the interest of an uncle, -who was rich in benefices, a prosperous career was opened to him in the -church. He was himself inclined towards the clerical profession, as one -full of honour and dignity; but his father decided against it, and -resolved that none of his five sons should enter the priesthood; partly -induced by the notion that the papal power was on the decline, and -partly from a conscientious feeling of the impropriety of adopting the -sacred calling, merely for the sake of temporal advantages. Instead, -therefore, of assuming the sacerdotal garb, Francesco took a doctor's -degree in law, and at an early age was appointed by the government to -read the Institute in the university of Florence. He married the -following year. His wife was Maria, daughter of Alamanno di Averardo -Salviati, one of the first men of the city. Several law offices were -bestowed on him, and he prides himself at this success in early life. -But he felt himself still more honoured, when he was sent by the -republic as ambassador to Ferdinand, king of Aragon. Italy was then the -arena on which the adverse powers of France, Germany, and Spain -contended for mastery. Florence adhered to the French party, but the -timid gonfaloniere Soderini, desirous of currying favour on all sides, -thought it right to preserve a good understanding with Ferdinand. -Francesco, feeling his inexperience, shrunk from the responsibility of -this mission, and did not accept it, till his father added his commands -to those of the state. - -He remained two years at Burgos, in attendance on the Spanish court, -conducting himself in such a way as to acquire the esteem of Ferdinand, -who presented him with a number of silver vessels of great value on his -departure. This was no good school for the acquirement of political -integrity. The Italians were proverbially treacherous, but Ferdinand -emulated them in the arts of deception. It is related of this monarch, -that when he heard that Louis XII. complained of having been twice -deceived by him, he exclaimed, "The fool lies, I have tricked him above -ten times." - -Meanwhile the aspect of affairs changed at Florence. The French were -driven from Italy, and the republic paid the penalty of the weak and -disarmed neutrality which it had preserved, by being forced by the -allied armies to receive back the exiled Medici. The consequence of this -return was a change of government, from that of a free state, to -subjection to the will of a single family. Guicciardini acted with a -prudence that acquired for him the favour of the new rulers; and, on his -return from Spain, was received with every suitable mark of distinction. -His joy, however, on returning to his native town, was clouded by the -recent death of his father. - -On the event of the visit of Leo X. to Florence, attended by a numerous -retinue of cardinals, Guicciardini, who had lately filled the office of -magistrate, was sent, with others, to receive the pope at Cortona. Leo -was so struck by him, that the next day he named him his consistorial -advocate, of his own accord, without solicitation: nor did his patronage -stop here; he soon after took him entirely into his service, and finding -that his prudence and sagacity were equal to the good opinion he had -formed of him, he made him governor of Reggio and Modena. He acquitted -himself with great credit in this high office. Having been educated for -the robe, instead of the career of arms, the enemies of the pope -cherished the notion, that he might be surprised and frightened in his -government; but his firmness and judgment disconcerted all their -stratagems. - -When Leo X. died, the merits of Guicciardini became yet more -conspicuous. The papal power was very infirmly established in Lombardy, -and the duke of Ferrara, who claimed Modena and Reggio as his own, was -on the alert to take advantage of the interval of weakness caused by a -delay in the election of a new pope; but Guicciardini foiled him in all -his attempts. His most memorable action on this occasion was his defence -of Parma. He relates it with conscious pride in his history. He had been -sent by cardinal Julius de' Medici to defend Parma from an attack made -by the French. Guicciardini's chief difficulty was, to inspire the -citizens with resolution and martial enthusiasm. He convoked them -together, distributed pikes among them, and causing the defenceless part -of the town, on one side of the river, to be abandoned, made strenuous -efforts to intrench the other. The enemy entered the deserted portion, -and the people were eager to surrender. Guicciardini pointed out to them -the fact, that the hostile forces were unprovided with artillery, and so -succeeded in inspiring them with some degree of resolution: he led the -attack himself, and the success that attended their sortie increasing -their courage, the enemy was driven, off and the siege raised. Federigo -da Bozzole, who commanded the attack, had made sure of success, and -declared that he had been deceived in nothing during the expedition, -except in the notion that a governor, who was not a soldier, and who had -newly come to the city, should carry on the defence at his own peril, -when he might have saved himself without dishonour. - -When cardinal Julius became pope, under the name of Clement VII., he -showed his approbation of Guicciardini, by naming him president of -Romagna, with greater powers than had been enjoyed by any predecessor in -that office: thus, a large portion of Italy north of the Apennines was -under his rule. It was a situation of honour, but attended with an equal -portion of difficulty and labour, from the unsettled state of the -country. Prudence and firmness, and even severity, were the -characteristics of Guicciardini's administration; he was unrelenting -towards criminals, but at the same time became very popular, in Modena -especially, by the attention he paid to the comfort and pleasures of the -people, and the embellishments he bestowed on the city. - -At this time the French were again, after the battle of Pavia, driven -from Italy, and Clement VII., afraid of the overweening power of Charles -V., formed a league against him. The duke of Urbino was chief over the -army of the league, and Guicciardini was named lieutenant-general of the -pontifical army in the ecclesiastical states. The choice that had been -made of the duke of Urbino, as chief leader, was injudicious. He had -been driven from his states by Leo X.; Lorenzo de' Medici had been -gifted with his duchy, and he naturally was inimical to his rival's -family. His irresolute, shuffling conduct during the disastrous advance -of the constable Bourbon on Rome, was doubtless a principal cause of the -sack of that city. Guicciardini, as general of the papal army, exerted -himself in vain to induce him to more energetic measures: instead of -throwing himself before the advancing army of the imperialists, he -slowly followed it. When Bourbon was in the neighbourhood of Arezzo, the -duke of Urbino entered Florence. - -The power of the Medici was odious in that city. A formidable party, -whose watchword was liberty, regarded with triumph the dangers to which -Clement VII. was exposed. A number of the younger nobility among them -took occasion of the alarm excited, to seize on the palace of -government. The duke of Urbino prepared to attack it, but first sent -Federigo da Bozzole to treat with the party who held it. Full of -enthusiasm and courage, the young men refused all terms, and Bozzole -left them, enraged at their obstinacy and their personal ill-treatment -of himself. Guicciardini perceived the dangers that threatened his -country. It was an easy task for the duke of Urbino to attack the palace -of government, to destroy it and all those within; but an act of -violence and bloodshed was to be avoided. Guicciardini hastened forward -to meet Bozzole as he left the palace, and represented to him briefly -how displeasing such a contest would be to the pope, and how detrimental -to the confederates; and how much better it would be to calm, instead of -exasperating, the mind of the duke of Urbino. Bozzole yielded, and gave -hope to the duke that quiet might be restored without recourse being had -to arms; pacific means were in consequence resorted to, and the -insurgents induced to quit the palace. Guicciardini relates this -circumstance and his interference with pride, in the belief that he had -done his country as well as the pope good service, but he adds, that he -got no thanks from either side; the Medici party accusing him of -preferring the lives and safety of the citizens to the firm -establishment of that family; while the other party declared that he had -exaggerated their difficulties, and caused them needlessly to yield -their advantages. - -It had been well for the fame of Guicciardini, if he had submitted to -the blame of his contemporaries, and secured the approbation of -posterity, by adhering to a line of conduct so impartial and patriotic. -Although the fall of the Medici was suspended for a short time on this -occasion, the taking of Rome decided their expulsion. When the duke of -Urbino went southward to deliver the pope, besieged in the Castel Sant' -Angelo, the Florentines seized the opportunity to drive out the Medici, -and to restore the freedom of their government. The wars carried on by -Clement VII. had weighed heavily on the republic, since he drew from it -his chief resources; the people were thus exasperated against his rule, -and now that they possessed the power, displayed their hatred of his -family by many acts of outrage. To have served them was to share their -disgrace, and the odium with which they were regarded. It has been -related how Machiavelli, republican as he was, and personally attached -to many of the leaders of the popular party, was unable to overcome the -prejudice excited by his having entered the service of the Medici. -Guicciardini was visited by more open marks of the dislike of the new -leaders; and he was the more angry because he had displayed a wish to -join them. He neither loved nor esteemed Clement; whom he represents as -timid; avaricious, and ungracious. He regarded his imprisonment by the -imperialists with very lukewarm interest, and even raised soldiers for -the defence of Florence: but these demonstrations did not avail to -acquire for him the confidence of his countrymen, and he was forced to -fly the town during a popular tumult. Hence seems to spring his hatred -of free institutions, and his subsequent conduct in aiding in the -destruction of the liberties of his country. From this time he entered -with all the zeal of personal resentment into the cause of the Medici. -His name has thus received a taint never to be effaced. He became the -abettor of tyrants, the oppressor of his fellow citizens; and that -equity and firmness which he before exercised; by establishing order in -the districts over which he presided, were changed to the persecution of -the martyrs of liberty.[33] It is impossible to slur over this portion -of his life as he does himself. For it is remarkable that the only -events recorded in his history, which are narrated in a slovenly and -confused manner, are those in which he took a principal share,--the -second restoration of the Medici, and the final overthrow of the -liberties of Florence. - -When a reconciliation had been patched up between Charles V. and Clement -VII., the force of their united arms was turned against Florence. The -republic was headed by gallant spirits, who, seeing their last hope of -freedom in a successful resistance, exerted every nerve to defend -themselves. They were willing to suffer any extremity, rather than -submit to a slavery which must crush for ever the proud independence and -free institutions of their native city. Guicciardini had been named by -the pope, governor of Bologna, and took no part in the war against his -country; but he is accused of participating in the iniquitous -proceedings which followed the surrender of the city. The pope acted -with the utmost treachery. He granted generous terms; but when in -possession, held a mock assembly of the people, keeping off, by means of -the troops he introduced, all the citizens, except those prepared to -receive law at his hands. He thus, as it were, obtained a legal decree, -which changed the form of government, and denounced its late leaders. -Executions and confiscations became the order of the day; the chief -power was placed in the hands of Vettori, Guicciardini, and two others, -and their conduct entailed on them the execration of their fellow -citizens. - -So zealous did Guicciardini show himself, that the pope entrusted him -with the office of reforming and restricting the list of candidates, who -were selected to be members of government, and he displayed his prudence -and sagacity for the reigning family at the expense of the lives and -liberties of the most virtuous among his fellow citizens. Under his -auspices, the office of gonfaloniere, which had subsisted for 250 years, -was abolished, and Alessandro de' Medici was named duke, which title was -to descend in perpetuity to his successors. This miserable man was the -son of a negro woman, and regarded as the offspring of Lorenzo, the son -of Piero de' Medici: but it was more probable that he owed his existence -to Clement VII.; at least the latter claimed the honour of paternity. -His disgraceful birth stamped him with contempt; his profligacy and -cruelty acquired the hatred of the people over whom he ruled. - -Guicciardini endeavoured to restrain him in the indulgence of his vices, -but without avail. He was now wholly devoted to his service. When -Clement VII. died, his successor wished him to continue governor of -Bologna, but he refused. While the see was vacant, he had yielded to the -entreaties of the senators, and remained to prevent popular -disturbances. They promised him every assistance to maintain his -authority; but his enemies took occasion to display their disrespect. -Geronimo Pepoli, and others, who some years before had retired from -Bologna in distaste, took this occasion to return, accompanied by armed -followers and public bandits. Guicciardini's haughty spirit was in arms -against the insult. Among the followers of Pepoli were two outlaws under -sentence of death; these he caused to be seized, led to prison, and put -to death. Pepoli manifested the utmost indignation, and was only -restrained by the authority of the senators from giving public token of -his resentment. When the new pope was elected, and another governor -appointed, Guicciardini prepared to quit the city. Pepoli threatened to -attack him on his departure; but he, undismayed, set out at noon-day, -accompanied only by a few attendants on horseback. His road led him past -the palace of the Pepoli, nor would he diverge from it on this account, -but passed under their windows with a firm and intrepid countenance, and -was permitted to pursue his way unmolested. - -He soon after displayed this energy and firmness of character in a very -bad cause. The Florentines, unable any longer to endure the tyranny and -vices of duke Alexander, appealed to Charles V., whom they regarded as -lord paramount of their state. The emperor summoned Alexander to Naples, -where he then was, to answer the charges made against him. He obeyed: -but the emperor was so incensed that he began to fear the result, and -was on the point of retreating, had not Guicciardini exhorted him to -remain. He drew up a defence for him, and by a judicious distribution of -bribes, succeeded in obtaining his acquittal; and Florence was again -subjected to his yoke. - -Two years after, Alexander was murdered by Lorenzino de' Medici, who -considered that he had a better right to be considered the head of the -family. But this act, undertaken without the participation of any -accomplice, was not followed by the results that might have been -anticipated. Lorenzino, frightened by his very success, fled the city, -and his cousin Cosmo was raised to the supreme power, and afterwards -named grand duke of Tuscany. Guicciardini assisted materially in his -elevation, and hoped to be real chief of the state, while the other held -the nominal rank. But Cosmo was of a crafty, cold, and ungrateful -disposition, and treated his benefactor with such neglect, that he -withdrew himself from public life, and retired to his country seat at -Montici, in the neighbourhood of Florence. - -From this time he occupied himself wholly in the composition of his -history. It is a fine monument of his genius and industry. It commences -with the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII., and goes down to the -exaltation of Cosmo. The fault attributed to him as an author is -prolixity, and to this he must plead guilty. He dwells with the most -tiresome and earnest minuteness on the most trivial incidents; and the -taking of an insignificant castle, followed by no important results, is -attended by the same diffuseness and exactitude of detail as events of -the greatest magnitude. But no historian surpasses Guicciardini when the -subject is worthy of his pen. His animated descriptions of battles, the -chances of war, and conduct of princes and leaders; his delineations of -character, and masterly views of the course of events, all claim the -highest admiration. The orations, which he intersperses, have been -cavilled at, but they are eloquent, full of dignified exhortation, or -sagacious reasoning. His account of the rise and formation of the -temporal power of the popes excited great censure in catholic countries; -and throughout he is accused of showing himself the enemy of the Roman -church. It is true, that the pages of no other historian afford such -convincing proofs of the pernicious effects resulting from the union of -spiritual supremacy and temporal possessions. His powerful character of -the infamous pope Borgia; his description of the fiery vehemence of -Julius II.; his unveiling of the faults of Leo X., and the exposure he -makes of the mistakes and weakness of Clement VII., present the very men -and times to our eyes, and form as it were a school in which to study -the philosophy of history. We perceive no partiality till the last few -pages, which record the downfall of the republic of Florence. His -language is, in the eyes of Italian critics, nearly pure; it is -forcible, without being concise; and the clearness and majesty of the -expressions in his best passages carry the reader along with him. - -Guicciardini was solicited by pope Paul III. to leave his retreat, and -to enter again on public life, but he refused. The disappointment of his -ambitious views on the exaltation of Cosmo, and the duke's ingratitude, -struck him to the heart. He did not live to complete his history, and -died on the 27th of May, 1540, in the fifty-eighth year of his age. He -expressly ordered that his funeral should be unattended by any pomp; and -his directions were so strictly followed, that for some time no stone -even commemorated the spot of his sepulture. - -Little is known of his private life. His letters have all perished, -except a few addressed to Machiavelli. They are lively in their style, -and very friendly. He had no son, and seven daughters, and wrote to the -secretary to ask his advice in settling them in marriage. Machiavelli -advised his applying to the pope for a dowry; counselling him by all -means to marry the eldest well, as the others would follow her example; -and he quotes a passage from Dante, referring to a duke of Provence, -"who had three daughters and each a queen. And the cause of this thing, -was Romeo, a poor wandering man," who had advised the duke to be -unsparing in his dowry to his eldest daughter, so to command a splendid -alliance, as the best means to advance her sisters also. He gave her -half his duchy, and she married the king of France. Guicciardini in -reply says, "You have set me on ransacking Romagna for a copy of Dante, -and at last I have found one." But he was too high-spirited to apply for -a gift from the pope. - -Guicciardini was tall and of commanding aspect; rather squarely made, -and not handsome; but robust, and with an animated, intelligent -countenance. He was ambitious, and even haughty, so that he could endure -neither contradiction nor advice. Prudence, industry, sagacity, and a -penetrating understanding, recommended him to his employers; and he was -frequently entrusted with carrying on and correcting the correspondence -of the pope and other princes. - -The last six books of his history are considered unfinished. No portion -of it was published till some years after his death, and then the -passages considered injurious to papacy were omitted. A complete edition -was first printed at Basle; but, even in this, the objectionable -passages appeared under the disguise of Latin. His first idea had been -to write only memoirs of his own life; and it was by the advice of -Nardi, it is said, that he enlarged his plan into a history of Italy -during his own times. - - -[Footnote 32: It was a habit among the Florentines to keep memoranda of -the principal events of their lives, which they called Ricordi. The date -of the birth of Guicciardini has been disputed, but it is ascertained -from a MS. book of his ricordi, or records, which Manni cites. He thus -writes concerning himself:--"I record that I, Francesco di Piero -Guicciardini, now doctor of civil and canon law, was born on the 6th -March, 1482, at ten o'clock. I was baptised Francesco, from Francesco de -Nerli, my maternal grandfather, and Tommaso, out of respect for St. -Thomas Aquinas, on whose festival I was born. Messer Marsiglio Ficino -held me at the baptismal font, who was the greatest platonic philosopher -then existing in the world, and by Giovanni Canacci and Piero del Nero, -both philosophers also."] - -[Footnote 33: See a clever pamphlet, entitled "Saggio sulla Vita e sulle -Opere di Francesco Guicciardini," by Rosini, a professor of the -University of Pisa.] - - - - -VITTORIA COLONNA - -1490-1547. - - -It would be giving a very faint idea of the state of Italian literature, -or even of the lives led by the learned men of those times, if all -mention were omitted of the women who distinguished themselves in -literature. No slur was cast by the Italians on feminine -accomplishments. Where abstruse learning was a fashion among men, they -were glad to find in their friends of the other sex, minds educated to -share their pursuits and applaud their success. In those days learning -was a sort of wealth; men got as much as they could, and women, of -course, were led to acquire a portion of such a valuable possession. - -The list of women who aspired to literary fame in Italy is very long. -Even in Petrarch's time, the daughter of a professor of Bologna, gave -lectures in the university behind a veil, which has been supposed was -used to hide her beauty, and which at least is a beautiful trait of -modesty, where a young girl was willing to impart her knowledge to the -studious, but shrunk from meeting the public gaze. The mother of Lorenzo -de' Medici is celebrated for her sacred poems, and her patronage of -literature. Ippolita Sforza, daughter of the duke Francesco, and married -to Alfonso II., king of Naples, was learned in Greek and many other -languages. A manuscript copy of a translation of Tully's _de Senectute_ -is preserved of hers at Rome, and marked as having been written in her -youth; and two of her Latin orations are to be seen in the Ambrosian -Library at Milan. Alessandra Scala, to whom Politian was attached, wrote -Greek verses, which have been printed, appended to the Latin poetry of -her learned lover. There was an Isotta of Padua, whose letters are -models of elegance, and who composed various poems of merit. The noble -house of Este boasted of a learned princess. Bianca d'Este has been -celebrated by one of the Strozzi in Latin verses; he speaks of her Greek -and Latin compositions with great praise. Damigella Torcila, we are -told, was numbered among the most distinguished women of her time. She -was profoundly versed in the learned languages, particularly in Greek; -she was an admirable musician, and as beautiful as she was wise. -Cassandra Fedele, however, excelled all her sex in her acquirements. She -was of a noble family, originally of Milan; born at Venice in 1465: she -was, by her father's desire, instructed in all the abstruse -studies--Greek, Latin, philosophy, and music--with such success, that -even in girlhood she was the admiration of all the learned men of the -age. There is a letter from Politian to her, which praises her Latin -letters, not only for their cleverness and elegance of style, but "for -the girlish and maiden simplicity" which adorned them. "I have read -also," he says, "your learned and eloquent oration, which is harmonious, -dignified, and full of talent. I am told that you are versed in -philosophy and dialectics, that you entangle others by the most serious -difficulties, and make all plain yourself with admirable ease; and while -every one loads you with praise, you are gentle and humble." This kind -of knowledge would not suit these days: but those were times when men -tried to puzzle themselves by scholastic learning, and when the noble -Pico della Mirandola took pleasure in disputing on nine hundred -questions. Isabella of Spain, Louis XII. of France, and pope Leo X. all -warmly solicited Cassandra to take up her abode at their several courts. -She showed willingness to accept the queen's invitation; but the -Venetian republic set so high a value upon her, that they would not -permit her to leave their state. She married Mapelli, a physician, who -was sent to Candia by the republic, and Cassandra accompanied him. She -became a widow late in life, and lived to extreme old age. She was -elected when ninety years old to be the superior of a religious house in -Venice; and died at the age of one hundred and two. - -This list might easily be much enlarged; but we have no space for -further dilation; and therefore turn from names less illustrious, to -Vittoria Colonna, the woman of all others who conferred, by her virtues, -talents, and beauty, honour on her sex. - -Vittoria Colonna was the daughter of Fabrizio Colonna, grand constable -of the kingdom of Naples, and of Anna di Montefeltro, daughter of -Frederic duke of Urbino. She was born at Marino, a castle belonging to -her family, about the year 1490. At the infantine age of four she was -betrothed to Ferdinando Francesco d'Avolos, marquess of Pescara, who -was not older than his baby bride. She was educated with the most -sedulous care, and was sought in marriage by various princes--but that -fidelity of disposition which was her beautiful characteristic through -life, prevented her from breaking her contract with her young lover. -They were married at the age of seventeen. He competed with her in -talents and accomplishments. They loved each other with the utmost -tenderness, and lived for four years succeeding to their marriage, in -solitude, in the island of Ischia, where Pescara had a palace. - -But this happiness was of short duration; at the time when Julius II. -leagued all Italy against Louis XII., the marquess of Pescara joined the -army of the emperor. Vittoria was full of chivalric feelings; her -enthusiasm, as well as her tenderness, were gratified by the occupation -of embroidering banners for her hero, who, at the early age of -one-and-twenty, was made general of cavalry at the battle of Ravenna. -That disastrous day was adverse to him. He was taken prisoner and sent -to Milan, where he remained a year, and wrote a dialogue on love, -addressed to his wife, in a dedication in which he laments that he can -no longer visit her as he was used, whenever the duties of his station -permitted his absence. As a kind of answer to this testimony of his -affection, Vittoria designed an emblem--Cupid within a circle, formed -by a serpent, with the motto "_Quem peperit virtus, prudentia servet -amorem_"--"May prudence preserve the love, which originated in virtue." - -After the French were driven from Italy, that unhappy country enjoyed a -short interval of peace, interrupted by the invasion of Francis I. -Pescara was present at the battle of Pavia, and distinguished himself by -his intrepidity, and mainly contributed to the success of the emperor's -arms. He was not rewarded as he deserved, and the opposite or French -party thought that his consequent discontent afforded an opening for a -reconciliation with them. Geronimo Morone was employed by them to seduce -him from his fidelity to Charles V. He was offered the kingdom of Naples -as a reward, and every argument was used that might have most -weight;--the honour he would acquire by driving the barbarous nations -from Italy, and the favours which the pope and other princes would -shower upon him. These were, however, but specious reasonings. Pescara -lent too ready an ear to them; but Vittoria at once detected their -fallacy, and the disgrace that would befall her husband if he abandoned -his imperial master. She wrote him a letter full of earnest persuasion -to refuse the dazzling offers of Morone. She spoke of the glory acquired -by fidelity and unblemished honour, as far outweighing any that a crown -could bestow, saying, that for herself, she desired to be called the -wife, not of a king, but of that great and glorious soldier, whose -valour and generosity of soul had vanquished the greatest kings. -Pescara's conduct on this occasion is wholly unworthy of the precepts of -his admirable wife. He continued faithful to the emperor, but acted the -base part of a spy and informer: by his means Morone's designs were -betrayed, and he was thrown into prison. There is no doubt that the -high-minded Vittoria continued to the last entirely ignorant of this -ignoble action; and praised her husband for having listened to her -exhortations, and rejected a crown. - -But while the marquess was acting so as to cast an eternal stigma on his -honour, death was at hand to terminate every ambitious project. His many -wounds, and the fatigues he had endured during the long wars, had so -shaken his health, that neither his good constitution nor the skill of -physicians were any longer able to afford relief. While preparing to -die, he desired to take leave of his wife, and sent for her to join him -at Milan; but when he found that he should not survive long enough to -see her, he sent for his cousin, the marchese del Vasto, and recommended -Vittoria to him with the warmest affection. Vittoria, on hearing of her -husband's illness, had left Naples to join him. She passed through Rome, -where she was received with the greatest honours, but on arriving at -Viterbo, she received intelligence of Pescara's death: her grief caused -her to forget her religious resignation and fortitude; its excess -overwhelmed her with tears and the bitterest anguish. - -From that time this illustrious lady never ceased to spend every faculty -of her soul in lamenting her lost husband. They had been married -seventeen years, but had no child; she gave herself up entirely to -sorrow; and her faithful heart, incapable of a second attachment to -replace one which had begun with her life, cherished only the image of -her past happiness, and the hope of its renewal in another life. Her -active mind could not repose tranquilly on its misery; she continued to -cultivate it, so to render it more worthy of Pescara, and she exercised -and amused it by the many sonnets she wrote in his honour. An Italian -author has named her second only to Petrarch. Her verses are full of -tenderness, of absorbing passion, of truth and life. They fail in poetic -fancy; and yet, so much does the reader sympathise in the intense and -fond sorrows of this extraordinary woman, that none can criticise, while -all are touched by her laments. The best poem in her volume has been -attributed to Ariosto, I do not know on what authority; but if written -by her, has that elegance of style and concentration of expression, -which characterises true poetry. It begins with the affecting -exclamation, "I am indeed her you loved! Behold how bitter and eating -grief has changed me!--Scarcely could you recognise me by my voice. On -your departure, that charm which you called beauty, and of which I was -proud, since it was dear to you, left my cheeks, my eyes, my hair!--Yet, -ah! how can I live, when I remember that the impious tomb and envious -dust contaminates and destroys thy dear and beautiful limbs!" These -verses may in their original be very justly compared in pathos and grace -to Petrarch:-- - - -Io sono, io son ben dessa! or vedi come -M' ha cangiata il dolor fiero ed atroce -Ch' a fatica la voce -Può di me dar la conoscenza vera. -Lassa! ch' al tuo partir partì veloce -Dalle guancie, dagli occhi, e dalle chiome -Questa a cui davi come -Tu di beltade, ed io n' andava altera, -Che me 'l credea, perchè in tal pregio t' era. -* * * * * -Com' è ch' io viva, quando mi rimembra, -Ch' empio sepolcro, e invidiosa polve -Contamina e dissolve -La delicate alabastrine membra? - - -For seven years she gave up her whole heart to sorrow. Her relations, -thinking her too young at the age of thirty-five to continue unmarried, -pressed her to accept one of the many offers of marriage which she -received. But, wedded as all her thoughts had been since her earliest -infancy to one object, she felt unconquerably averse to any second -nuptials. She lived in retirement either at Ischia or Naples, dedicating -herself wholly to memory. Her active mind, refusing to find comfort in -any sublunary blessing, had recourse to religion for consolation. She -now employed herself in writing sacred poetry, and her enthusiastic -disposition led her to project a pilgrimage to Jerusalem; but the -marchese del Vasto opposed her putting it into execution. - -She now left Naples on a tour to the north of Italy, and visited Lucca -and Ferrara. She afterwards took up her residence at Rome, and became -the intimate friend of the cardinals Bembo, Contarini, and Pole, and -various distinguished prelates. A love of yet greater retirement induced -her a few years after to retreat to a convent at Orvieto; from whence -she removed, after a short time, to the convent of Santa Caterina, at -Viterbo. Our countryman, cardinal Pole, resided in this town, and an -intimate friendship subsisted between him and Vittoria. There is a -resemblance in their characters that renders this intercourse -interesting; they were both singleminded, enthusiastic, and noble. -Vittoria added feminine tenderness to these qualities, while religious -fervour formed a bond of sympathy between them. The companions of -cardinal Pole were Flaminio and Pietro Carnescecchi: the latter having -afterwards become a protestant, doubts have been raised concerning the -orthodoxy of Vittoria; but there is every evidence that she never fell -off from her adherence to the catholic church. - -A short time before her death she returned to Rome, and took up her -abode in the Palazzo Cesarini; where she died, in the year 1547, at the -age of fifty-seven. During her last moments her attached friend, Michael -Angelo, stood beside her. He was considerably her junior, and looked up -to her as something superior to human nature, and entitled to his most -fervent admiration. He has written many sonnets in her praise; and there -is extant a letter, in which he states how he stood beside her lifeless -remains, and kissed her cold hand, lamenting afterwards that the -overwhelming grief and awe of the moment, had prevented him from -pressing her lips for the first and last time. - -This almost divine woman was held by her contemporaries in enthusiastic -veneration. Her name is always accompanied by glowing praises and -expressions of heartfelt respect. Ariosto joined with all Italy in -celebrating her virtues and talents, and has addressed several stanzas -to her in his Orlando Furioso. - - - - -GUARINI - -1537-1612. - - -Battista Guarani was descended from a family illustrious for its -literary merits. One of his ancestors, known as Guarino of Verona, was -conspicuous among the restorers of learning of the fifteenth century; -and his descendants emulated his labours. Battista was born at Ferrara, -in 1537. His mother was Orsolina, the daughter of count Baldassare -Machiavelli. We are nearly in ignorance with regard to any of the -circumstances of the early youth of Guarini. He studied at Pisa and -Padua, and visited Rome while very young. On his return to Ferrara, he -gave lectures on Aristotle in the university. He was made professor of -belles lettres, and was already known to his friends as a poet. He -married young, Taddea Bendedei, of a noble Ferrarese family. - -But Guarini was not contented with a life of literary labour, and -preferred the distinction of a court to poetic fame. There is a letter -of his, dated 1565, which gives token that he had already made the -paltry ambition of serving a prince the aim of his life. This letter is -written to a friend at Pisa, who had asked his advice on the subject of -whether he should enter on the service of his sovereign. Guarini -establishes the doctrine, that in private life a man is as far from -tranquillity as in public; he is equally pursued by envy and pride, -without the compensation he might find in courtly favour. In his own -person he acted on these ideas, and reaped the usual harvest of -disappointment and mortification. His wishes were, however, at first -gratified. He was sent, by the duke Alfonso, to Venice, about this very -time, to congratulate the new doge, Pietro Loredano; and, his oration -being printed, he acquired a reputation for talent and learning. He was -for some time resident at Turin, as ambassador to Emanuel Philibert, -duke of Savoy. In 1573, he was sent to Rome, to pay homage to Gregory -XIII., who had succeeded to Pius V. He arrived in the evening, after a -hasty journey, and passed the night in composing his speech, which he -delivered the next morning in consistory. Two years afterwards, the duke -sent him to Poland, to congratulate Henry of Valois on his accession to -the throne. On his return, he was named counsellor and secretary of -state. After an interval, he was a second time sent to Poland, on a -mission of the highest importance. Henry of Valois succeeded to the -crown of France, and Alfonso was desirous of being chosen in his room to -the Polish throne. Guarini was sent to negotiate his election. He felt -the weight and responsibility of his errand fall heavily on him. His -letter to his wife during the journey has been several times quoted, but -it is too interesting to be omitted here. It is dated from Warsaw, -November 25. 1575, and is as follows:-- - -"This which you read is my letter and not my letter; it is mine, for I -dictate it,--it is not mine, because I do not write it. But you must not -so much grieve that I have not a hand to write with, as rejoice that I -have a tongue to recount that which, from vain compassion or negligence, -another might conceal. I know you must have been complaining of my -dilatoriness in writing, but I shall find no difficulty in excusing -myself, since the cause has been worse than the effect; and, instead of -lamenting my silence, you may thank God that you at last hear from me. I -set out, as you know, more in the fashion of a courier than an -ambassador; and it would have been well if my body alone had laboured, -while my mind reposed. But the hand used by day to whip on my horses, -was put to service at night in turning over papers. Thus, formerly, I -arrived at Rome in the evening by post, and the next day presented -myself at the consistory. Nature gave way under the double fatigue of -body and mind, especially as I travelled by the road that passes through -Saravalle and Ampez, which is inexpressibly disagreeable and -incommodious, as well from the rudeness of the inhabitants as the state -of the country; the want of horses, scarcity of provisions, and, in -short, of every necessary of life; so that, on my arrival at Hala, I -fell ill of a fever, in spite of which I hurried on to Vienna. I leave -you to imagine what I suffered from fever, weariness, and thirst: unable -to procure remedies or medical treatment; cast upon bad lodgings, bad -food, and into beds that smothered me with their feathers; devoid of all -those conveniences and comforts which are necessary to the sick. My -malady increased, and my strength grew less; and every thing, except -wine, became distasteful to me, so that I had small hopes of life, and -turned with disgust even from the few days I expected to live. While I -navigated the Danube, we were nearly overwhelmed by a rapid and -dangerous stream, and should not have escaped had not the sailors made -use of the assistance of the strong and active men of the country, who -are accustomed to contend with this danger, being always on the spot to -give aid, and who, by force of oars, stemmed the torrent. But for their -help no vessel could escape wreck; and the place is worthy of the -infamous reputation it has gained, and the name of the Pass of Death, -which is bestowed on it. The boldest travellers fear the passage, and -disembark, and proceed by land, till the boat has got beyond the danger, -for it is really frightful; but I was so ill, that I had lost all sense -of peril, and remained on board with the brave boatmen,--I will not say -whether from stupidity or intrepidity,--yet I may say that I was -intrepid, since I felt no fear when but two steps from certain death. - -"I arrived at last at Vienna, where a physician, without considering the -symptoms of my illness, gave me a medicine that poisoned me, and my -malady grew worse. You will all say that I ought to have stopped short, -and taken care of my life: my common sense, my sufferings, the failure -of strength, and a natural wish to live, love for my fellow creatures -and my family, suggested the same counsel; but my honour forced me to -proceed, and obliged me, since I was at the head of this embassy, and as -the whole weight of so important a negotiation rested on me, to prefer -the interests of my prince to my own safety; and I acted so that I might -testify to all Poland my fidelity to my sovereign by my death, rather -than, by preserving my life, give room to the suspicion that I feigned -an illness so to break my promises, the fulfilment of which was expected -with anxiety; which false notion among those selfish and distrustful men -would at once have discredited our negotiation, and deprived our prince -of the crown which we are endeavouring to place on his head. - -"It is impossible to form an idea of what I suffered during a journey of -more than 600 miles, from Vienna to Warsaw; dragged and torn along, -rather than conveyed, by my incommodious carriage. I do not know how I -survived: beset by continual fever, without rest, or food, or remedies; -enduring excessive cold and infinite inconveniences, while I passed -through an uninhabited country, where I often found it better to remain -for the night in my uncomfortable carriage, than to expose myself to the -stench of the inns or, rather, stables, where the dog, the cat, the -fowls, the geese, the pigs, the calves, and sometimes squalling -children, kept me awake all night. The difficulties of the journey were -increased also by the robbers, who, during this interregnum, infest the -country, robbing whatever they can; so that it was impossible to proceed -without a strong escort; and, although I took infinite pains to avoid -them, I had twice nearly fallen into their hands, escaping rather -through Divine Providence than human foresight. I arrived at last at -Warsaw, a great deal more dead than alive; nor have I gained any relief -to my sufferings by being here, except that I am no longer in movement, -nor dragged along by my carriage; for the rest, I enjoy no repose, -either night or day. My fever is now my least evil; the objects by which -I am surrounded are worse: the place, the season, the food, the drink, -the medicines, the physicians, the servants, the inquietude of my mind, -and other troubles, are greater ills than the fever, which would soon -quit me but for these annoyances. Indeed, I have not yet discovered -whether my sleepless nights arise from illness, or the constant noise -around me. Imagine a whole nation assembled in a little village, and I -lodged in the middle of it. There is no spot above, below, to the right -nor to the left,--there is no room by day or by night, that is not full -of noise and disturbance. No particular time is set apart for business -here; they are always at work, because they are always drinking, and -without wine all transactions grow cold. When business is ended visits -begin, and when these are over, drums, trumpets, cannons, shouts, cries, -quarrels, and every other species of tumult, fill up the interval till I -am distracted. If I suffered these things for the glory and love of God, -it would be called a martyrdom; and yet, to render service without hope -of reward, almost deserves the same name. God knows what is to become of -me! I should feel that my life was no longer in danger if I could take -any care of myself. Prepare your mind for every evil. It is the part of -a silly woman to lament a husband who is content to die. Let others -honour my memory with their tears; do you honour it by your courage. I -recommend our children to you; for if I die, you must be a father as -well as a mother to them. Arm yourself with reflection and manly -fortitude; guarding them from those who have reduced me to this state, -and teaching them to imitate their father in any thing rather than in -his fortunes."[34] - -This letter presents a lively picture of Guarini's disposition;--his -energy in struggling with evils; his ambition to please his prince, and -his fears lest he should not be fitly recompensed; the fervour of -imagination, which magnified ill fortune, and which, while it gave him -strength to meet it, yet doubled its power over him. Although he failed -in the object of the embassy, yet, after all the dangers to which he had -exposed himself, he felt that he had sacrificed his life to his prince, -and yet that he should go unrewarded. He was not deceived; but he was -incapable of meeting the fulfilment of his anticipations with any -patience or fortitude. - -His mind was naturally turned to poetry; but he pretended to disdain -such occupation. On the subject of his Pastor Fido, he writes to a -friend:--"This is the work of one who does not profess the poetic art, -but writes for his own amusement, as a recreation from more serious -studies; and who would willingly burn his works when they do not appear -good to good judges." The fame and favour which Tasso was enjoying made -him depreciate himself, since he could not excel his rival. Tasso and he -had been friends for many years; they quarrelled at this time, but the -discord did not result from any literary contest, but from rivalship in -the favour of a lady. They both loved the countess of Scandiano. Tasso -wrote a sonnet, accusing Guarini of lightness and inconstancy in his -passion, as well as of the greater sin of boasting of his triumphs over -the ladies of his love. Guarini replied, with bitterness, in another -sonnet, accusing his rival of uttering falsehoods that mirrored his own -faithlessness, which enabled him to nourish love for two objects at the -same time.[35] This contention broke off their friendship; but Guarini -was no ungenerous enemy; he possessed a loyal and noble spirit, and -never did any thing to injure his unfortunate rival. On the contrary, -some years after, when the Gerusalemme Liberata of Tasso was about to be -published in a very defective and erroneous state, he took great pains -to furnish a correct copy. - -[Sidenote: 1582. -Ætat. -45.] - -After struggling with his discontents at court for some time, he -requested his dismissal from the duke; and retired to his villa in the -Polesine of Rovigo, named La Guarina, having been bestowed upon an -ancestor by a former duke of Ferrara. He now congratulated himself on -having escaped from the tempests of public life into port; yet his -disappointments, and the duke's ingratitude, rankled at his heart, and -overflowed upon paper, even when the subject immediately before him was -not in accord with the pervading feeling of his mind. He occupied -himself at La Guarina by writing the Pastor Fido; and he makes one of -the characters of the pastoral complain of wrongs similar to his own. -Carino, narrating his story, says,-- - - -How I forsook -Elis and Pisa after, and betook -Myself to Argos and Mycene, where -An earthly God I worshipped, with what there -I suffered in that hard captivity, -Would be too long for thee to hear, for me -Too sad to utter. Only thus much know;-- -I lost my labour, and in sand did sow: -I writ, wept, sung; hot and cold fits I had; -I rid, I stood, I bore, now sad, now glad, -Now high, now low, now in esteem, now scorn'd; -And as the Delphic iron, which is turned -Now to heroic, now to mechanic use, -I fear'd no danger--did no pains refuse; -Was all things--and was nothing; changed my hair, -Condition, custom, thoughts, and life--but ne'er -Could change my fortune. Then I knew at last, -And panted after my sweet freedom past. -So, flying smoky Argos, and the great -Storms that attend on greatness, my retreat -I made to Pisa--my thought's quiet port. -* * * * * -Who would have dreamed 'midst plenty to grow poor? -Or to be less, by toiling to be more? -I thought, by how much more in prince's courts -Men did excel in titles and supports, -So much the more obliging they would be, -The best enamel of nobility. -But now the contrary by proofs I've seen: -Courtiers in name, and courteous in their mien -They are; but in their actions I could spy -Not the least transient spark of courtesy. -People, in show smooth as the calmed waves, -Yet cruel as the ocean when it raves: -Men in appearance only did I find, -Love in the face, but malice in the mind: -With a straight look and tortuous heart, and least -Fidelity where greatest was protest. -That which elsewhere is virtue, is vice there: -Plain truth, fair dealing, love unfeign'd, sincere -Compassion, faith inviolable, and -An innocence both of the heart and hand, -They count the folly of a soul that's vile -And poor,--a vanity worthy their smile. -To cheat, to lie, deceit and theft to use, -And under show of pity to abuse; -To rise upon the ruins of their brothers, -And seek their own by robbing praise from others, -The virtues are of that perfidious race. -No worth, no valour, no respect of place, -Of age, or law--bridle of modesty, -No tie of love, or blood, nor memory -Of good received; nothing's so venerable, -Sacred, or just, that is inviolable -By that vast thirst of riches, and desire -Unquenchable of still ascending higher. -Now I, not fearing, since I meant not ill, -And in court-craft not having any skill, -Wearing my thoughts charactered on my brow, -And a glass window in my heart--judge thou -How open and how fair a mark my heart -Lay to their envy's unsuspected dart. - -FANSHAWE's _Trans. of Pastor Fido._[36] - - -The Pastor Fido is the principal monument of Guarini's poetic genius. -Despite his pretended carelessness, he was animated by the spirit of -poetry, and emulation spurred him on to surpass the Aminta of Tasso; and -he took pains even to compose whole passages in opposition, and manifest -rivalship, of that drama. A pastoral presents in its very nature a -thousand difficulties. It has for its subject the passions in their -primitive simplicity, and the manners are deprived of all factitious -refinement; and yet the most imaginative thoughts and the softest and -noblest sentiments are to flow from the lips of the untaught shepherds -and shepherdesses. Thus its foundation being purely ideal, our chief -pleasure must be derived from the poetry in which it is clothed. Guarini -endeavoured to overcome the want of interest inherent in this species of -composition, by a plot more complex than that usually adopted. A portion -of this is sufficiently clumsy, and the bad character of the piece, the -coquette Corisca, is managed with very little art or probability. There -is much spirit and beauty, however, in the final developement,--in the -discovery that the priest makes that he is about to sacrifice his own -son, and the joy occasioned by the conviction suddenly flashing on his -mind, that the oracle, on which the whole depends, is happily fulfilled. -Still the chief charm of the Pastor Fido is derived from its poetry; the -simplicity and clearness of its diction, the sweetness and tenderness of -the sentiments, and the vivacity and passion that animate the whole. No -doubt he was satisfied with the result of his labours, and found pride -in communicating it. While affecting to despise his poetic productions, -their genuine merit, and his own vanity, which was great, caused him to -collect with pleasure the applauses which his Pastor Fido naturally -acquired for him. He read it at the court of the duke Ferrante di -Gonzaga, to a society composed of courtiers, ladies, and eminent men. -[Sidenote: 1585. -Ætat. -48.] -It was acted at Turin on occasion of the festivals to celebrate the -nuptials of Charles Emanuel, prince of Savoy, with Catherine, daughter -of Philip II., king of Spain. The drama excited the greatest admiration; -and Guarini was looked on henceforth with justice, as second only to -Tasso among the poets of the age. - -But he was not fortunate enough to be allowed to dedicate his whole time -and thoughts to poetry; and he might bring forward his own experience in -proof of his assertion, that private life is not more exempt than -public, from cares and the influence of evil passions. He was -perpetually plunged in lawsuits, his first being against his father, who -had married a second time, it was said out of spite, and disputed his -just inheritance. He had a family of eight children to provide for; and -unrewarded by his prince, he found himself, after struggling for -fourteen years to advance himself at court, overwhelmed by debt and -embarrassment. His time and attention were taken up by exertions to -extricate himself, and to settle his affairs; while his warm, impatient -disposition ill endured the delays and disappointments, and the contact -with selfish or dishonest men, which are the necessary concomitants of -pecuniary difficulties. - -[Sidenote: 1586. -Ætat. -49.] - -Perhaps these annoyances rendered him less unwilling to accept the -invitation, or rather to obey the commands, of the duke of Ferrara, and -to return to his post at his court. Alfonso, perceiving the esteem in -which he was held by other princes, with his usual selfishness resolved -to appropriate the services of a man, which others also were desirous of -obtaining: he made him secretary of state, and sent him on missions to -Umbria and Milan. His stay, however, was short: very soon after his -children had advanced to manhood, those dissensions occurred between -them and him, which form a painful portion of Guarini's life. It is -difficult to say who was most to blame. The poet's temper was impetuous, -and he perhaps showed himself tyrannical in his domestic circle, at the -same time that his nature was without doubt, on most occasions, generous -and artless. His son had married a lady named Virginia Palmiroli, and -continued, as is so usual in Italy, to reside with his wife under the -paternal roof. But this arrangement became, it is conjectured, from the -pride and imperiousness of the father, quite intolerable; and the young -pair left the house, and instituted a suit at law to obtain such a -provision as would enable them to live in independence. The suit was -decided against Guarini; and his indignation, and assertion that his -defeat was occasioned by the partiality of the duke towards his son, -seem to evince that he had more justice on his side than we are enabled -to discover. However this may be, he was so angry at what he considered -the injustice of the sentence pronounced against him, that he again -requested permission to retire from Alfonso's court. The duke granted -his request, but not without such tokens of displeasure, as induced -Guarini to leave Ferrara privately and in haste. He betook himself to -the court of Savoy, where the prince willingly took him into his -service; but the poet found that the change of masters benefited him -little, and he was so constantly employed, that he had not even time to -write a letter. Alfonso also set on foot some intrigues against him, -disliking that any dependant of his should find protection elsewhere. -[Sidenote: 1590. -Ætat. -53.] -His tranquillity being thus disturbed, he hastily quitted Savoy and took -up his abode at Padua. He here lost his wife, whom he affectionately -names in his letters as the better part of himself; and, by the -separation of his eldest son, and the absence of his daughters, who were -either married or had places in the palaces of various princesses of -Italy, his family circle was reduced to one son of ten years of age, -whom he calls "the hope of his house, and the consolation in his -solitude." This change gave birth to new projects in his restless mind. -"This sudden alteration and transformation of my life," he writes to the -cardinal Gonzaga, in a letter dated from Padua, the 20th of November, -1591, "appears to me to be brought about by the will of God, who thus -calls me to a new vocation. I am not so old nor so weak as to be unfit -to make use of those talents which God has bestowed on me; and it -appears to me that I act ill in spending without profit those years, -which by the course of nature I could turn to the advantage of my -family, and of my young son, whose inclination for the priesthood I am -desirous of assisting; and I would willingly spend the remnant of my -days at Rome, if I could obtain such preferment, as would enable me to -proceed honourably in the advancement of my moderate expectations." This -idea, however, was but the offspring of disappointed hopes, and it -vanished when other prospects were opened to him; yet these were -variable and uncertain. His life, both from the ingratitude of Alfonso -and his own restlessness, was destined to be passed stormily; discontent -and distrust had taken root in his mind, and existence wore a gloomy -aspect. - -At length Alfonso died, and this circumstance, and the death of a -daughter, assassinated by a jealous husband, caused him to quit Ferrara, -and to establish himself at Florence, where he was honourably received -by the grand duke Ferdinand. Here doubtless he might have remained in -peace, but for the irascibility of his temper, the indignation he felt -when his views were thwarted, and his tendency to consider himself an -ill-used man. His younger son, whom he mentions in the letter quoted -above with so much interest, was placed at Pisa for the sake of his -education, where he contracted an imprudent marriage with a young, -beautiful, and dowerless widow. Guarini was transported by rage: he -accused the duke of abetting his son in this act of disobedience, and -indulged in implacable anger against the youth himself, to whom he -refused any assistance, when reduced to the most necessitous -circumstances. Guarini exalted the paternal authority, and exacted -filial obedience, in a manner that displayed more pride than affection. -Now in his old age, he was at variance with nearly all his children; his -violent expressions is a proof that he suffered; but his heart did not -relent nor open towards them, even when death snatched them from him; -and it is impossible to sympathise in passions, which thus centred and -ended in himself. - -On leaving Florence, he visited Urbino; but, dissatisfied with his -reception, he retired to Ferrara. The citizens deputed him to Rome to -congratulate Paul Usur on his being created pope. It was on this -occasion that cardinal Bellarmino reproached him for having done more -harm to the Christian world by his Pastor Fido, than Luther and Calvin -by their heresies--a singular denunciation--since, though the softness -and tenderness of love, which pervades the poem, may tend to enervate; -yet the fidelity, the devotion, and purity of sentiment, exhibited in -the actions of the chief personages, certainly do not lay it open to -excessive censure. Guarini retorted by a witty reply, which the respect -paid to the cardinal by the historians, has not permitted to be -transmitted to us. - -[Sidenote: 1608. -Ætat. -71.] - -This was the last public service of Guarini. A few years after he was -invited to be present at the nuptials of Francesco Gonzaga and -Marguerite of Savoy, during which a comedy of his was represented with -great splendour. Chiabrera wrote the interludes, and the architect -Viamini arranged the scenery and decorations. - -The last years of his life were taken up by the lawsuits, which so -strangely chequered his career. He hired a lodging at Venice, where many -of his causes were decided, as near as possible to the courts, and -frequently visited that city to attend the proceedings; and he made a -last journey to Rome at the time that two suits were decided in his -favour. On his return to Venice he was seized by a fever, of which he -died, after an illness of seventeen days, on the 7th of October, 1612, -at the age of seventy-five. - - -[Footnote 34: There is another letter of Guarini, dated from Cracovy, -during his first visit to Poland, written with less personal feeling, -and greater toleration:--"I have viewed the climate and manners of this -country," he writes, "with infinite pleasure; mitigating the annoyances -resulting from unusual things, by the enjoyment of unusual sights. The -country and its inhabitants are certainly much less barbarous than is -generally supposed; and in my opinion there would be no fault to be -found, if the former was gifted with wine, and if the latter abstained -from it. But I am afraid that my words will scarcely find credit with -you, prejudiced as you are by the accounts given by the French who have -been here. Yet I am sure you would agree with me, if you ever visited -the country. The kingdom is extensive, rich, powerful, united, abundant, -and peopled by a brave population. The senators display great talent -during peace--the cavaliers valour in war: their aim is glory--their -support liberty. The form of the government is mixed, like that of -Sparta, but better than that. For the kingdom is neither oppressed by -the tyranny of one, nor the insolence of a few, nor the baseness of the -many; but having mingled the best parts of all three modes of -government, one has resulted, in which the kingly power cannot intrench -upon liberty, nor licence endanger the monarchy. The nobles cannot -oppress the people, nor the people injure the nobles. Valour holds the -first rank, nobility the second, riches the third; and every one, -however lowly born, may nourish the expectation of rising by merit to -the highest honours. How I wish that you had an opportunity of visiting -it: I am certain that you would be highly pleased. A journey to France -is more fatiguing; and after arriving in Poland, I, to whom an excursion -to Rome used to appeal an arduous undertaking, begin to think that -travelling is a natural state for every man."] - -[Footnote 35: Abate Serassi, Vita di Tasso.] - -[Footnote 36: Come poi per veder Argo e Micene -Lasciassi Elide e Pisa, e quivi fussi -Adorator di deità terrena, -Con tutto quel che in servitù soffersi, -Troppo nojosa istoria a te l' udirlo, -A me dolente il raccontarlo fora. -Si dirò sol, che perdei l' opra, e il frutto. -Scrissi, piansi, cantai, arsi, gelai, -Corsi, stetti, sostenni, or tristo, or lieto, -Or alto, or basso; or vilipeso, or caro. -E come il ferro Delfico; stromento -Or d'impresa sublime, or d' opra vile, -Non temei risco e non schivai fatica: -Tutto fei, nulla fui: per cangiar loco, -Stato, vita, pensier, costumi e pelo, -Mai non cangiai fortuna: alfin conobbi, -E sospirai la libertà primiera. -E dopo tanti strazi, Argo lasciando -E le grandezze di miseria piene, -Tornai di Pisa ai riposati alberghi. -* * * * * -Ma chi creduto avria di venir meno -Tra le grandezze, e impoverir nell' oro? -Io mi pensai che ne' reali alberghi -Fossero tanto più le genti umane, -Quant' esse han più di tutto quel dovizia -Ond' ha l' umanità si nobil fregio. -Ma vi trovai tutto il contrario, Uranio, -Gente di nome e di parlar cortese, -Ma d'opre scarsa e di pietà nemica: -Gente placida in vista e mansueta, -Ma più del cupo mar tumida e fera; -Gente sol d' apparenza, in cui se miri -Viso di carità, mente d'invidia -Poi trovi, e in dritto sguardo animo bieco, -E min or fede allor, che più lusinga. -Quel ch' altrove è virtù, quivi è difetto. -Dir vero, oprar non torto, amar non finto, -Pietà sincera, inviolabil fede, -E di core e di man vita innocente; -Stiman d' animo vii, di basso ingegno -Sciocchezza e vanità degna di riso. -L'ingannare, il mentir, la frode, il furto -E la rapina, di pietà vestita, -Cescer col danno e precipizio altrui, -E far a sè, dell' altrui biasmo onore, -Son le virtù di quella gente infida: -Non merto altrui, non valor, non riverenza, -Nè d' età, nè di grado, nè di legge, -Non freno di vergogna, non rispetto -Nè d' amor nè di sangue, non memoria -Di ricevuto ben, nè finalmente, -Cosa si venerabile, o si santa -O si giusta esser può, che a quella vasta -Cupidigia d' onori, a quella ingorda -Fame d' avere, inviolabil sia. -Or io, che incauto e di lor arti ignaro -Sempre mi vissi, e portai scritto in fronte -Il mio pensiero, e disvelato il core, -Tu puoi pensar se a non sospetti strali -D'invida gente fui scoperto segno. - -_Pastor Fido_, atto V. scena 1.] - - - - -TORQUATO TASSO - -1544-1595. - - -"Tu che ne vai in Pindo, -Ivi pende mia cetra ad un cipresso, -Salutala in inio nome, e dille poi -Ch' io son dagl' anni e da fortuna oppresso." - -"Thou, who to Pindus tak'st thy way, -Where hangs my harp upon the cypress tree, -Salute it in my name, and say, -I am bow'd down with years and misery." - - -These few lines, which, in the simple and beautiful original, show what -a burthen of thought and power of feeling may be compressed within the -smallest compass that language will allow, were written by Torquato -Tasso, during his second confinement as a lunatic in the hospital of St. -Anne, at Ferrara, by the duke of Alfonso, his patron and his oppressor. -They were written when all Europe was listening to the voice of his -song, but heard not that of his complaint; in the meridian of his glory -as a poet, and in the depth of his humiliation as a man. A spectacle -more deplorable and repulsive could hardly be presented to the eye of -humanity; nor a fame more enviable and attractive be contemplated by -young "spirits of finer mould," to tempt them to hazard all perils of -such suffering for the acquisition of such renown. This fragment--a -specimen of thousands of fancies, no doubt, equally exquisite and -affecting, which were continually passing through the darkened chamber -of his mind, more dreary than the gloom of his prison-house--has been -quoted at the commencement of this memoir, as letting the reader at once -into the whole mystery of the poet's life, by a single flash of his -genius affording a glance at his afflictions. What these were, a long -and melancholy tale must unfold; what their effect was may be painfully -conceived, when we recollect that he was scarcely turned upon _forty_, -at the time that he sends the message to his forlorn harp in the woods -of Pindus, that he is "oppressed with _years_ and ill fortune,"--"dagl' -_anni_ e da fortuna oppresso." - -If ever man was born a poet, it might be said so of Tasso; while his -whole manner of life, not less than its remarkable vicissitudes, -exemplified the poetic character, as it has been idealised in our minds -from infancy, by the impressions left upon them, both from fabling -traditions and authentic records, concerning these privileged, but on -the whole (perhaps) unhappy, beings. The price of greatness must be -paid, in labour or suffering, by every man who would distinguish himself -in any way above his fellow-creatures; and the poet (_no_ more, it may -be, though apparently _much_ more, than the prince, the warrior, the -statesman, or the philosopher,) must endure hardships, mental and -personal, in proportion to his enjoyments, and be humbled in the same -degree that he is exalted above the common lot. Among any ten names, -which might be mentioned as having secured an imperishable pre-eminence -beyond the probability of revolution, in the same walk of polite -literature, Tasso's undoubtedly would be one. At what an expense it was -acquired, we proceed to show in a train of events, almost as romantic, -and a thousand times more touching, than any thing in his own -diversified fictions. He was a poet in every thing and at all times, -from infancy (if we may believe his biographers) till he died in extreme -old age (if we measure his life by his own testimony above quoted), in -his fifty-second year! Smiles and tears, rapture and agony, hope and -despondency, a palace and a dungeon, were the alternations frequently -crossing in the course of one who was the companion of princes, the -delight of ladies, the admiration of the world,--an outcast, a wanderer, -clothed in rags and asking bread, or the lonely tenant of a maniac's -cell. Such was he, and such were the changes of his state. - -Torquato was the son of Bernardo Tasso, himself a poet of first rank in -his generation, and who has left works, both in prose and verse, to -which posterity is yet willing to give honour; but which suffer more -eclipse by proximity to the surpassing splendour of his son's, than -might have been their lot had he appeared by himself, the single one of -his race, who had proved how hard, and yet how possible, it is to climb - - -"The steep where Fame's proud temple shines afar." - - -Bernardo was the descendant of an honourable line of ancestors,--one of -whom, nearly two centuries before him, had been a benefactor to the -public, by first introducing the method of epistolary intercourse -through the medium of posts; and, leaving to his children the reputation -which he had acquired in the conduct of these, they became his -successors, not only in establishments for that purpose in their own -country, but some of them in lands beyond the Alps. It is said that -noble alliances were formed by various branches of the Tasso family, in -Spain and in Flanders, while others became sovereign princes in Germany, -that menagerie for potentates of all genera and species, from the -two-headed eagle of Austria to the wren of * * * *. It would be -invidious to set down one out of a hundred who might contend for the -honour of filling up the blank, as the least of the little among the -great. But, whatever were the hereditary glories of a name,--drawn like -a golden chain out of the darkness of the past, and connected, as that -of the obscurest peasant in a civilised country may be presumed to have -been, with all the varieties of rank, all the gradations of intellect, -and all the changes of good and evil fortune,--of all the links which -formed that chain, those of Bernardo and Torquato were and have remained -the most illustrious, though the consecutive or collateral series has -been continued to the present day, when the representatives are still -found at Bergamo. - -Bernardo, who was born in 1493, being left an orphan in early youth, -with two dependent sisters to provide for out of a very slender -patrimony, was compelled to quarter himself on the patronage of sundry -princes and prelates, who, according to the fashion of the times--some -from parade, and others from attachment to the noble arts,--loved to -have men of genius and letters in their train. Many of these, indeed, -were kept, not only to adorn their courts and swell their pomp, but were -employed as secretaries and counsellors, as well as occasionally -entrusted with important embassies, which, both in war and peace, were -frequent between the commonwealths and principalities into which Italy -was divided, and by whose conflicting interests, or under the malignant -influence of whose petty intrigues (the rank growth of such a state of -society), it was continually more or less distracted. Bernardo was, -therefore, from the pressure of circumstances, a restless and homeless -man through the principal part of his life, serving the great without -serving himself, for precarious bread; and at once pursuing fortune and -fame, in the vain hope of being at length--and at length--and at length -rewarded for his fidelity to his masters with the former, and leaving an -inheritance of the latter, which should as much exalt his family by -distinction in literature, as others had aggrandised it by the -acquirement of riches and alliances with rank, at home and abroad. - -At the age of forty-one, after a youth of liberal study, sanguine -anticipation, and cherished but ill-directed love for a lady of great -beauty and no less celebrity, having been praised by Ariosto--in the -unsuccessful pursuit of which he compensated himself and delighted his -countrymen with the blandishments of poetry,--he was at length appointed -secretary to Ferrante Sanseverino, prince of Salerno. Him Bernardo -accompanied through many strange vicissitudes of prosperity and -misfortune, in the court and in the battle-field; till, at the end of a -few years, he shared so grievously, yet so magnanimously, in the ruin of -his patron, that, the latter being involved in a conspiracy against the -vice-regal government of Naples, and compelled to flee into France, the -poet followed him thither at the sacrifice of his small estate, and an -income which had just raised him above want. Before this ebbing in the -tide of his affairs, which, "taken at the flood" (had that not been -arrested in its advance), he might reasonably have expected would have -led on to fortune, he had married a lady of Naples, named Portia Rossi, -an heiress in expectance, and of great personal and mental -accomplishments. This was the golden age of Bernardo's life. After the -revelry of fancy and romance which had carried him away during his -former passion, wherein his heart had little share, the love of -affection endeared him to his home, and he felt the transition like one -who exclaims, "How sweet is daylight and fresh air!" after the midnight -splendour of the ball-room, with the dream-like fascinations of music, -dancing, and spectacle, which vanish as effectually as fairy palaces -conjured up in the wilderness, and leave the heart desolate. - -While Bernardo was at Naples, he commenced a poem of the romantic class -on the adventures of Amadis de Gaul, or "Amadigi," as the work is -entitled. This he projected upon the regular plan of a fable, having a -beginning, middle, and end; but he was not of sufficient authority to -establish, by his example, a classical form of epic, though his more -successful and more gifted son seems to have borrowed the idea of doing -that from him. When he read the first cantos of this performance, as -originally constructed, he observed, that though the presence chamber of -the court of Salerno was well filled at first with eager and expecting -auditors, before he had done nearly all of them had disappeared. From -this he concluded (not suspecting any deficiency of power in himself), -that the unity of action prescribed by the severer critics was, in its -very nature, not agreeable to nature in art, knowing that he had -punctiliously observed all the rules of the latter. This failure, -enforced by the persuasions of his friends, and the commands of the -prince, induced him to remodel what he had written, and elaborate the -remainder after the precedents of Pulci, Bojardo, and Ariosto. The work -was extended to a hundred cantos, and, when published, was so well -received, that the author had cause to congratulate himself on having -met the public taste and gratified it; but it was the public taste of -the day only, for his poem passed away with the fashion of it, and is -now remembered among "things that were," while the three productions of -his afore-named predecessors still keep their graduated rank of ascent, -and find readers in every age, notwithstanding all the defects and -excesses that may be charged upon them. Bernardo's failed; less, -perhaps, because of its inferiority, than because it did not display the -proportionate superiority which the others had each in turn manifested -over all its respective forerunners. - -It was while Bernardo resided at Sorrento, a city in the vicinity of -Naples, where he occupied a palace overlooking the sea, happy in his -home, and prosperous, or rather promising himself prosperity in his -fortune, the prince of Salerno having released him from all burdensome -duties in his service, that his son Torquato, the second of that name -(the first having died young), was born, on the 11th of March, 1544. -Sorrento is here put down as the birth-place of the poet, among other -cities contending for that honour, like those seven - - -----"that strove for Homer dead, -Through which the living Homer begg'd his bread." - -_Ath. I._ 384. - - -For of Tasso, in the sequel, a sarcasm as bitter might be recorded. A -daughter, elder than either of the boys, was at this time growing up -under the eyes of their parents. A letter of the father's (previous to -_our_ Torquato's birth) to his sister Afra, who had retired into a -convent, gives a lively glimpse of Bernardo's affectionate and domestic -character.[37] "My young daughter is very beautiful, and affords me -great hopes that she will lead a virtuous and honourable life. My infant -son"--Torquato the first--"is before God our Creator, and prays for your -salvation. My Portia is seven months gone with child; whether a son or a -daughter, it shall be supremely dear to me; only may God, who gives it -me, grant that it may be born with his fear; pray together with the holy -nuns that the Almighty may preserve the mother, who in this world is my -highest joy." It is ludicrous, yet affecting, to observe what little -circumstances are eagerly laid hold upon after death, respecting the -personal history of men who, during their lives, were neglected in their -hardest trials, or oppressed in their helplessness by those who were -bound to protect and foster them. The very hour of Tasso's birth, as -well as the place, has been contested against his own authority: he says -that it was four o'clock in the morning; Serassi, that it was mid-day. -"He ought to have been born at Naples," says Manso, "though he happened -first to appear at Sorrento." It may be settled that he was a native of -Italy rather than of any place where he may first have seen the light, -in a country throughout which he was a stranger and a pilgrim all his -days. Indeed, he ought to have been born on the sea; so little claim, on -the ground of paternal kindness shown to him, had any city in the -peninsula to the glory of his birth. - -Scarcely had he been welcomed into the world under auspices so cheering -as those recently mentioned, than the fortunes of his family took an -adverse turn. Bernardo was summoned away from the delightful retirement -of Sorrento, to join his patron in the war which had just broken out -between the emperor Charles V. and Francis I., and in which the prince -brilliantly distinguished himself. Meanwhile, if we are to believe his -nursery traditions, the little Torquato was giving, even from his -cradle, proofs of the spirit that was in him, scarcely less -extraordinary than if, like Hercules, he had strangled serpents, or like -another poet of old, attracted bees to his lips, whether to gather or to -deposit sweetness there we need not stay to enquire. Manso, his latest -and most munificent patron, his first and most encomiastic biographer, -(whose memoir, like Boccaccio's of Dante, reads more like romance than -reality in many passages, and no where more than in this instance,) -says, that the child, even during his first year, gave evidence of the -divinity of his genius. For scarcely had he attained his sixth month, -when, contrary to the usage of children, he began not only to let loose -his tongue (or to prattle _a snodar la lingua_), but even to speak -outright, and that in such a manner that he was never known to lisp (or -clip) his syllables, as all other infants do, but formed his words -complete, and gave them perfect utterance. If this be true, his -marvellous faculty of speech, like the produce of a premature spring, -must have suffered an early blight: for he himself records that, in -speaking, he was little favoured by nature, having an unconquerable -impediment of tongue; whence he preferred to communicate his thoughts -rather in writing than by the audible voice, when he meant to win -attention or produce impression. His own testimony is so far at variance -with the assertion of his friend Manso respecting his early fluency, -that he appeals for confirmation of the fact that he is a stammerer -(probably to no very inconvenient degree) to some of his correspondents. -But we are told, on the same authority, that the infant was equally -precocious in the faculties of the mind; that he could reason, explain -his thoughts, and answer questions with surprising intelligence. -Moreover, to crown the climax, it is said that he seldom cried, and -never laughed; the only exception, it may be presumed, of a healthy -child since the world began; but that he was grave, dignified, and sage, -and announced by his behaviour that he was destined for some great -design. - -On the return of Bernardo from the army, he enjoyed a brief prolongation -of his domestic quiet at Sorrento, during which all that a romantic -father and a passionately tender mother could do to awaken, cherish, and -confirm the early intimations of transcendent intellect in their darling -son, was employed; and such discipline, by its natural effect, no doubt, -coloured and characterised their son's mind, in the sequel, to the end -of life. In one of Bernardo's letters to Portia, during his late -absence, he says, that, while he leaves to her the delicate task to -adorn their daughter Cornelia with every virtue and accomplishment which -becomes a maiden, he intends himself to train up their young Torquato -for his more arduous station in society, when he should be of proper -age. This purpose was never realised. - -In 1552, the prince of Salerno and his adherents being declared rebels, -Bernardo, as one of the most attached of his friends, was included in -the proscription: his estate was confiscated, and an income of 900 scudi -lost; leaving him utterly destitute of resources, with the exception of -a few valuable trinkets, and the hope of some time recovering his wife's -dowry--a hope which outlived himself, and which he bequeathed as a -perpetual plague of expectation and disappointment to his son, who, as -will be seen, obtained a decree to have it, against his mother's -brothers, nearly at his own last hour. Bernardo being thus driven into -exile, his wife remained with the children at Naples, in very narrow -circumstances, though amongst wealthy relatives, who seem always to have -treated her and her offspring with unnatural hard-heartedness. Torquato, -meanwhile, under her superintendence, was making progress in the general -rudiments of knowledge; but especially in the acquisition of languages, -in rhetoric, and in poetry, proportioned to the promise of his earlier -years. His principal tutor was one Angeluzzo, at a college of the -Jesuits, recently established in that city. So eager and intent was he -in quest of knowledge (such as lay within his reach), that his mother, -so far from having to urge or bribe him onward, was obliged, for his -health's sake, to restrain him. Early and late he was at his books; and -on the winter's mornings he was sent from his home to the school with a -lantern and servant to conduct him. At seven years of age he was already -a considerable proficient in the Greek and Latin tongues, and had begun -to exercise himself in oral eloquence and written composition; but no -genuine specimens of either of these have been preserved. - -The following beautiful and touching lines, in which he alludes to the -worst period of his life,--his separation from his mother, when called -away from Naples to join his father at Rome,--have been absurdly -attributed to him as actually penned at this date. Hoole, and even Hunt, -two of his modern translators, have fallen into this error; whereas a -moment's consideration would convince any man, who understood the -difference between adult poetry and puerile attempts at rhyming, that -such verses, at such an age, (nine years!) would have been sufficiently -remarkable to justify belief in the fables of his babyhood, when he sat -talking pretty unbroken Italian on his mother's knee, before he was -twelve months old. - -The passage occurs in a figurative canzonet on the river Metauso, but -addressed to the duke of Urbino, imploring refuge and protection in his -adversity. Though left unfinished, the fragment is acknowledged to be -one of the most exquisitely wrought of all the author's lyrics:-- - - -"Me dal sen della madre empia Fortuna -Pargoletto divelse: ah! di que' baci, -Ch' ella bagnò di lagrime dolenti, -Con sospir mi rimembra, e degli ardenti -Preghi, che sen portar l' aure fugaci, -Ch' io giunger non dovea più volto à volto -Fra quelle braccia accolto -Con nodi così stretti, e sì tenaci. -Lasso! e seguii con mal sicure piante, -Qual Ascanio, o Cammilla, il padre errante." - - -"Me, from a tender mother's breast, -Stern Fortune, while an infant, tore; -Ah! I remember how she press'd. -Press'd me, and kiss'd me, o'er and o'er, -Bathed with her tears, with doleful sighs, -Breathed for me many a fervent prayer, -Which, ere it reach'd the skies, -Was scatter'd by the passing air. - -"For I was nevermore to meet -That parent face to face, -Clasp'd in her clear embrace, -With folds so strait, so binding and so sweet. -Alas! 't was mine thenceforth to roam -With ill-supporting feet, -And, like Ascanius o'er the trackless floods, -Or young Camilla, cast on wilds and woods, -Follow a wandering father without home." - - -These lines--breathing forth such grateful recollections of maternal -tenderness, watching, weeping, praying, over a most beloved and -affectionate child, from whom she was parting for ever, and who was -destined to be far greater than even she, in her fondest entrancement, -could have hoped--remind us of our own Cowper's filial reminiscences, in -"words that weep," translating "tears that speak," on receiving, at a -more distant period of a suffering life, his mother's picture: at sight -of which, for a while, he lived over again, with a thousand times more -intense delight, the scenes of infancy, renewed, like a vision of -pre-existence in some happier state than that which had intervened since -he had borne the burthen and heat of a long day of life consumed in -anguish of spirit, for which, on this side of the grave, he found no -solace, and beyond it, no hope for his bewildered mind; dark as Egypt -under the ninth plague in that quarter, though, in every other, light as -the land of Goshen. Between Tasso and Cowper there were many traits of -sad as well as noble resemblance--kindred genius, a kindred malady, and -kindred misfortunes; but not kindred alleviations: the advantage here -was on our countryman's side; but his disease lay deeper than that of -the former, and the symptoms, if not so violent after the first terrible -attack, were more inveterate; so that, contemplating the fate of the -glorious Italian under eclipse, and pitying him with a sympathy which no -man living but himself could feel, Cowper might have drawn the same -comparison between Tasso's case and his own, as he has done in those -heart-wringing verses (the last which he is recorded to have composed) -under the title of "The Castaway." These were founded upon a -circumstance mentioned in Anson's Voyage, of a sailor who fell overboard -in a storm, when the ship could not be stayed to rescue him, but who -followed in its wake, crying after it, and being heard by his -companions, while he - - -----"lived an hour -In ocean, self-upheld; -And ever, as the minutes flew, -Entreated help, or cried 'adieu.'" -* * * * -"At length he drank -The stifling wave, and then he sank." - - -The melancholy poet adds, in reference to himself, that - - -"Misery still delights to trace -Its semblance in another's case. -* * * * -No voice divine the storm allay'd, -No light propitious shone, -When snatch'd from all effectual aid, -_We_ perish'd, _each alone_; -_But I beneath a rougher sea_, -_And 'whelm'd in deeper gulfs than he._" - - -Both of Tasso's parents had early and deeply impressed upon his mind and -his affections veneration and love to God. In his tenth year the Jesuit -fathers, following up the religious instructions of this child of -promise according to their views of the Gospel, admitted him to the -sacrament; on which occasion, though he acknowledges, in one of his -epistles, that he could not enter into the mystery of "the real -presence," according to the Roman interpretation of the true and simple -scripture doctrine of "the _communion_ of the body and the blood of -Christ," yet, impressed with awe by the pomp of the spectacle, and -elevated almost to transport by sympathy of devotion with the -surrounding multitude, he received the symbol, according to his own -ingenuous account, with "a certain indescribable and unwonted -satisfaction." This circumstance deserves particular mention, because, -assuredly, by such a course of domestic and school discipline the boy -was trained up in what he understood to be genuine piety, and of which, -through after life, he became a zealous professor, however lax on some -other subjects his writings, and even his actions, may have been. In the -latter respect, however, he was countenanced by the licentious manners -of the age, and especially of that class of society, refined and exalted -as it was, in which his lot was cast, but in which he was rather -entertained as a guest than recognised as a member of the privileged -order. His father, in one of his letters to his mother, says, "It is of -the utmost importance to impress, with all your influence and authority, -upon the infantine mind the name, the love, and the fear of God, that -the child may learn to love and honour Him from whom he has received, -not life only, but all the benefits and mercies of providence and grace, -which can render man happy in this world, and blessed in that which is -to come." In the same letter he says, "I condemn those who beat their -children, not less than if they should dare to lay hands on the image of -God." - -It was after the expatriated party to whom Bernardo belonged had planned -an attack upon Naples, by the combined fleets of France and Turkey, -which miscarried in a miserable piratical descent upon the neighbouring -coast, and a disgraceful re-embarkment, that Portia and her daughter -were received into a convent, and Torquato was sent to his father at -Rome; who, an exile, on a bed of sickness, and in deep poverty, was -solacing himself, amidst his misfortunes, with preparing a volume of his -Rime for the press, and unweariedly labouring to complete his _Amadigi._ -In "the eternal city," young Tasso prosecuted his studies with -indefatigable assiduity, and having for companion a cousin of his own -name, Christofero Tasso, a lad of indolent habits and slow capacity. He, -by his example and influence, for a while happily stimulated the latter -to become a worthy competitor of himself; but he soon growing tired in -the course, Torquato left him, and every rival beside, far behind in -every learned and liberal accomplishment. - -In 1556 Portia died, at Naples, never having seen her husband since his -original proscription. Her illness was so brief and so violent, that -Bernardo doubted whether it was poison or a broken heart that had cut -her off in the prime of her years,--most of which, however, had been so -melancholy, since her happiness first seemed consummated by her union -with the man of her choice, and in the children of their love, that -there needed no auxiliary, in this instance, for Nature to do her work -in the shape of death. Meanwhile Bernardo, not being permitted to return -to Naples, was compelled, by the stress of hard circumstances, to leave -his daughter in the hands of those whom he had but too much reason to -call her enemies, though the nearest of kin to her deceased mother. -These--probably from motives of rapacity, though political rancour may -have added its malignity to the cold venom of avarice--instituted a -process against young Torquato, to disinherit him, under a pretence -which a fiend incarnate (had such a wanderer from the abyss of lost -spirits been permitted to darken the earth with his shadow) might have -blushed to advance in a court of justice,--that, having followed his -miserable parent to Rome, the boy (at ten years of age!) had made -himself partaker of his father's imputed treason, and thereby -righteously exposed himself to the same penalties of exile and -confiscation. The issue of this iniquitous proceeding does not appear, -except it may be gathered from the fact, that the uncles contrived to -withhold Torquato's portion of his mother's dowry from him till the last -year of his life: and, further to secure the control, at least, of the -property by themselves, they married her daughter Cornelia, who, at -fifteen years, had grown up into a beauty, to a gentleman of Sorrento, -of narrow fortune, but honourable birth, in spite of the protestations -of her father, whose ambition had destined her for a higher and more -wealthy alliance; his hopes and his plans being even a day's march -beyond his power of overtaking them by performance. There is extant a -letter written on this occasion by Torquato (probably at the dictation -of his father) to Signora Vittoria Colonna, in which the lad bitterly -complains against the cruelty of his uncles in forcing this match upon -his sister; and implores her interference to prevent the entailment of -poverty and disgrace upon the young Cornelia, by such a sacrifice of her -person and property to the mercenary views of her relatives. "It is -hard," says the reputed writer, "to lose one's fortune; but the -degradation of blood is much harder to bear. My poor old father has only -us two; and, since fortune has robbed him of his property, and of a wife -whom he loved as his own soul, suffer not rapacity to deprive him of his -beloved daughter, in whose bosom he hoped to finish tranquilly the few -last years of his old age. We have no friends at Naples; our relations -are our enemies, and, on account of the circumstances of my father's -situation, every one fears to take us by the hand." These stern but -tender sentiments, wrung in the agony of heart-sickness from the father, -were written, not only by the hand of the son upon the paper of the -epistle, but on his own heart, and became identified with his personal -feelings through life. Though he never suffered the escutcheon of his -family to be blemished by a humbling connection, yet he paid dearly, -both in his affections and in his pride, to preserve it; and, if the -tradition of his love for a princess of the house of Este be founded in -truth, he must have felt that he was himself, in that case, playing the -part of "some poor gentleman," whose alliance would be a degradation of -the most ancient blood of Italy. Both the father and the son, in the -sequel, were reconciled--first for Cornelia's sake, and afterwards for -his own--to her husband; who proved a worthy and kind consort, with whom -she lived happily, though not long, and by whom she had several -children. - -In a letter addressed by Bernardo to his daughter, while she was yet a -girl, occurs the following affecting day-dreams of the comforts of old -age which he hoped to realise in her filial attentions. After exhorting -her to mind her lessons, and promising in due time to provide a husband -worthy of her, with whom she should live near himself, he thus fondly -adverts to that closing scene of a troubled life, to which many a -sufferer like him, to the last moment, looked on as a forlorn -hope--forlorn, yet inexpressibly soothing, and cherished even in the -heart of despair:--"Sweet and tranquil to me will be old age, when I -shall see (as I hope it may be the will of God) myself perpetuated in -your little ones, with my very features impictured on their -countenances. Death will then appear to me less terrible, when, -beholding you in honour and in peace, enjoying the love of your husband, -and the delights derived from the affections of your children, you shall -close with pale hands these eyes of mine. And surely it is due to a dear -father to receive the last kisses, the last tears, and every other pious -and tender office, from a dutiful and loving daughter." - -Fresh commotions in Italy rendering Rome an unsafe sojourn for the -homeless Bernardo, he removed his son and his nephew to Bergamo, and -fled himself to Ravenna, with two shirts and his _Amadigi_ yet -uncompleted; as destitute as his contemporary Camoëns, when he escaped -from shipwreck with his _Lusiad_ in one hand, and with the other -buffeting the waves--thus saving at once his life and his immortality! -On as troubled a sea, by land, as any breadth of water between Lisbon -and Canton, not excepting that round the Cape of Storms, Bernardo was -tossed to and fro throughout Italy; and continued to the last as poor, -yet as sanguine, as the only genius that Portugal had hitherto produced, -and proved itself unworthy to give birth to another by its neglect, if -not its ingratitude and inhumanity, to that one. But here a gleam of -sunshine broke upon Bernardo, amidst the darkness of his flight from -Rome. The duke of Urbino invited him to Pesaro, and afforded him a -welcome but temporary asylum there from the persecution of his enemies, -and the pressure of indigence--a retreat, indeed, which he himself -acknowledged was such as might give inspiration to any poet, and where -lie, himself, in quiet and amidst that comfort to which he had lately -been a stranger, might complete his long poem. - -Torquato for a little time was pleasantly situated at Bergamo, in the -family of his cousin and fellow-student, where, being a boy of -exceedingly prepossessing appearance, amiable disposition, and -manifestly brilliant talents, he was much noticed and even caressed by -many of the principal persons in the neighbourhood. Bernardo, however, -anxious to have him under his own eye and direction, soon reclaimed him. -At Pesaro, Torquato, as might be expected, won attention from the whole -circle of his father's acquaintance; and the duke d'Urbino himself was -so delighted with his graceful modesty and rare accomplishments, that he -introduced him to his own son as a suitable companion in his studies and -his pleasures. The young noble of fortune at once became attached to the -young noble of genius, and a friendship, so natural to kindred minds -early associated--the dawn of affection preceding the day-star of -passion in the order of Providence--speedily sprang up, and amidst all -the splendour of station which through life distinguished the one, and -the sufferings by adversity which were the subsequent lot of the other, -was never forsworn or forgotten by either. And well was the lustre, so -transiently shed by the prince, in the court of his father, upon the -humble son of the exile there, imperishably reflected upon himself, in -after years, even from the dungeons of Ferrara, by the glory of the -author of "Gerusalemme Liberata." - -Bernardo having at length put the finishing stroke to his _Amadigi_, -looked to the munificence of the king of France and the prince of -Salerno for the means of printing it. In these reliances he was -disappointed; and it appears that his patron, the prince, was himself so -impoverished, that the pension to the poet of 300 crowns (a poor -compensation for all his services and sacrifices) was about this time -withdrawn. So utterly perished were Bernardo's resources, in this -extremity, that, according to his own lamentable statement, had it not -been for the bounty of the duke d'Urbino, he must have been almost -reduced to the necessity of begging bread for himself and his son. The -duke liberally supplied him, not with bread only for himself and his -son, but presented him with 300 ducats, to which were added a hundred -gold crowns by the cardinal de Tournon. Hereupon he repaired to Venice, -to publish his work. Being received with great respect by the literary -characters of that city, then eminent for noble arts as well as -victorious arms and prosperous commerce, he was adopted by them, and -made secretary to their academy. To this office was annexed a salary so -considerable, that, with his wonted improvidence, he immediately -established himself in a handsome house, sumptuously furnished, and -adorned with what seems to have been his delight, rich tapestry, the -poetry of the needle and the shuttle, and which at best is but to -painting what painting itself sometimes is to nature — a copy -reminding the spectator of an original, of which one of the greatest -merits of the imitation is the difficulty overcome in achieving it. - -Bernardo's vicissitudes would present a touching but melancholy contrast -to those of Gil Blas of Santillane, if written in a style of seriousness -and sympathy with what is most sacred in suffering, and trying in hope -deferred, equal to the pungent humour and heartless indifference to what -is "virtuosest, discreetest, best," in the characteristic adventures of -that gay footman of fortune. But such transitions as both Bernardo and -Torquato experienced, strange as they seem to us, were events of common -occurrence, arising out of the state of society in the petty -principalities and commonwealths of Italy in the middle ages, and long -after the revival of learning, when those who followed the profession of -letters were too often dependent for the means of subsistence upon the -precarious patronage of haughty nobles and ostentatious ecclesiastics. -The part which Torquato had to bear in the diversities of circumstance, -scene, and company, into which he was thrown with his parent, was too -well calculated to cherish and confirm all his natural aspirings; while -those patrician sentiments, which had been instilled into him from his -cradle, amidst poverty, ignominy, and all the wretchedness of ephemeral -favour, ever sustained in him a lofty self-esteem, on the ground of -honourable birth, the consciousness of innate genius, and the pride of -acquired learning, to which had been carefully added those gentlemanly -accomplishments which rendered him a fit companion for people of the -highest rank in an age of extraordinary display of personal conduct and -ceremonial bearing. Tasso, in addition to his peculiar advantages, -excelled in all these conventional ones, except in self-control--that -especially which degenerates into servility--for (though the most -exquisite flatterer in the world, as thousands of panegyrical verses -prove him to have been) he never learned the meaner, but more -profitable, art of being a court-minion. - -While he was thus pursuing his studies with in defatigable application, -he was not less diligent in cultivating those talents, which had given -such extraordinary signs of power within him. It is stated that while, -for the latter purpose, he was reading with intense devotion the poets -both of old Italy and new, as well as the relics of the nobler bards of -ancient Greece, like most of his countrymen, (perhaps, from secret -nationality of feeling,) he preferred the Latins to these, and among the -Latins Virgil beyond every other bore the palm in his youthful -imagination. In fact he grew so enamoured of the graces and excellences -of the Æneid, that his own epic became just such a work as, it might be -presumed, Virgil himself would have composed in the same age, and under -the same influences, as Tasso lived; while, on the other hand, had their -births been exchanged, Tasso might have been the glory of the court of -Augustus, and flourished then in splendour amidst the greatest and most -intellectual society of men of talents that were ever contemporary, -instead of being an almoner, an exile, a prisoner, beholden for food and -raiment, in his best estate, to the bounty--or rather to the -parsimony--of "the Great Vulgar" of Italy in the sixteenth century, -whose names are more illustrious from having been connected with his, -than for any record of themselves or their ancestors, which could render -their families illustrious beyond the little boundaries of their -domains. This supposition, in reference to Virgil and Tasso, may be -deemed impertinent; hazardous it certainly is, and once would have been -deemed heretical by the idolaters of the Roman poet. Though this is not -precisely the place, yet, in a discursive memoir like the present, it -may be allowable, to remark upon a line of Boileau, which has done more -injury to the reputation of Tasso than all the splenetic criticisms of -Sperone, and the verbal persecutions of the Della Cruscans. Ridiculing -the bad taste of certain personages who haunt courts, and from their -rank and assurance are permitted to judge as foolishly as they please of -the merits of authors with impunity, he says (and in a note gives a -special instance of such aristocratic wrong-headness[38]) that these -will prefer "_à Malherbe, Théophile_," "Théophile to Malherbe,"-- - - -"Et le clinquant du Tasse à tout l'or de Virgile:" - -"And Tasso's tinsel to all Virgil's gold." - - -This flippant antithesis, which, from its sparkling ambiguity, might -itself be quoted as a specimen of sheer "tinsel" (_clinquant_), amounts -to no more than that there are "fools," as the satirist calls them, who -prefer what is _false_ in Tasso to what is _true_ in Virgil; but that -the whole, the half, or even a tenth of the "Gerusalemme Liberata," of -which he himself speaks elsewhere with sufficient commendation, is -composed of "_clinquant_," without a greatly overbalancing weight of -gold even in its worst parts, he has not dared to affirm, though by a -pitiful insinuation, not less unworthy of the author than unjust to the -object, he has had the left-handed luck to fix a stigma to that effect -upon the fair fame of one, in comparison with whose magnificent -creations of thought his own finely elaborated productions are but as -"French wire" to "solid bullion." The feeble confirmation of Boileau's -equivocal sentence, by the elegant but prejudiced Addison, is of little -weight. The critic, who, in tracing Milton's obligations to some of his -great forerunners, acknowledges that among these he might have included -Tasso, but that he does not deem him "a sufficient voucher," could be -but very imperfectly acquainted with the authority which he affected to -disparage, but which the poet of "Paradise Lost" held in very different -estimation. Try Boileau, when he attempts a strain of heroics, as in the -"Ode on the taking of Namur," or Addison, in his celebrated "Campaign," -by any page that may be first opened in all Tasso's multifarious -compositions in verse, and the "white plume" on the crest of Louis XIV., -which the court poet mistook for a star, and the destroying "angel," -which the court critics of queen Anne's reign hailed as descending from -"the highest heaven of invention," and the feather metamorphosis, in the -first instance, will be pronounced a puerile and pedantic conceit; and -the "angel," in the second, a piece of commonplace machinery, which -scarcely escapes the charge of profaneness in its main attribute. -Marlborough, a mortal man, burning to avenge his country's wrongs, may -well be imagined as slaughtering, with terrible delight, the thousands -and tens of thousands of her enemies; but that an angel should be -"pleased" (as the cold and heartless phrase is) in executing judgments -upon unresisting victims of divine wrath (righteous as the vengeance may -be) is utterly inconceivable; nor can the poet shelter himself under the -doubtful interpretation of the context,-- - - -"Pleased _the Almighty's orders to perform_, -Rides on the whirlwind and directs the storm,"-- - - -because the first, last, and only impression upon the reader's mind will -be, that the destroyer is "pleased" with the _destruction_, though the -Almighty himself declares that "_He_ hath no pleasure in the death of -the wicked." Both these passages might have escaped carping criticism; -but, when Boileau and Addison mislead the public to believe that Tasso's -writings are "all tinsel," it is fair to show that their own are not -"all gold."[39] - -Torquato's mind now feeling strength, and gaining confidence to -undertake things beyond his years, he diligently gave his days and -nights, in the intervals of severer exercises, to reading and meditating -upon the works of his great Italian predecessors, that he might form, -after their models, a style of verse and manner of composition which -should rival theirs, and yet be all his own. Unconsciously, it is -probable, at first, but gradually as he grew up, through an undefined -period, he conceived, and, before he reached the age of eighteen, had -executed, what Dr. Black calls "the most wonderful work that ever was -written by man," when the youth of the author, and the short time in -which it was composed--ten months, it is reported--are taken into the -account. The "Joan of Arc," by our illustrious countryman, Southey, -produced in a less compass of time, and at an age not much more advanced -than Tasso's, may fairly be put in competition with the "Rinaldo," -without disparagement to either. Nothing connected with the existence of -man, in this mysterious world, at once living within and beyond himself, -exceeds, either in purity or intensity, the delight of youth when -framing poetry at first according to the extent of new-formed powers, -and anticipating poetry to come, when years shall have matured his -faculties, and his wings, after their first moulting, shall have -acquired full vigour of plume to bear him "with no middle flight" above -the Aonian mounts while he pursues - - -"Things unattempted yet in prose or rhyme." - - -Among real "curiosities of literature" there yet remain copies of Dante -and Petrarch, with marginal notes in Torquato's handwriting, which prove -with what microscopic minuteness he examined and studied the productions -of those masters of that language, to which he himself was destined to -give consummate grace as well as power of expression--the strength of -Dante, modified from the muscular proportions of Hercules to those of -the fine-limbed Apollo,--the delicacy of Petrarch veiled, like the -Medicean Venus, in the mantle of Minerva. It may here be noticed, that -Tasso was no more an expert penman than a fluent speaker; his -manuscripts, according to his own acknowledgment, being very -indifferently recommended either by the fashion of the letters, or the -correctness of the spelling. The numberless erasures, interpolations, -and new readings, with which many of his best works, preserved in the -library of the house of Este, are disfigured to the eye, are interesting -marks of that process of elaboration by which he slowly but as -effectually brought out all the hidden beauty of his thoughts, as though -they had been suddenly conceived and perfectly expressed in the ardour -of inspiration. - -During their residence at Venice, Torquato was much employed by his -father in transcribing his own multitudinous poems and letters, as well -as in preparing for the press the enormous length of the "Amadigi." By -this exercise the son himself became daily more familiarised with the -means and artifices by which those who excel others in the productions -of their genius, form their peculiar style according to their peculiar -standard of intellect, and identify their whole cast of thinking with -their whole structure of language. To put a passage of an eloquent -author to the nicest test of _touch_ (if the expression may be allowed -for the intercourse of mind with mind, in the communication and -reception of ideas splendidly conceived and felicitously bodied forth by -the one, and by degrees only apprehended by the other,)--to put to the -nicest test of _touch_, as it were, any eloquent passage of poet or -orator, let the admirer copy it out at length, and he will find that the -progress of mind, hand, and eye, going all together, and through every -part, will give him the most distinct possible possession of the whole -in its full proportion, minutest details, and utmost effect. - -But while thus the amanuensis of his father, Torquato was not less -assiduously cultivating his own talents, and meditating the composition -already alluded to, in which he was soon not only to rival the former, -but even while a boy, and upon the enchanted ground of romance itself, -to prove a greater magician than he. This the sudden and passionate -admiration with which his "Rinaldo" was hailed throughout Italy, and -beyond the Alps and Pyrenees, irreversibly established. The failure of -Bernardo's hopes, in the neglect with which both sovereign princes and -the reading public, after the first effervescence of applause, treated -his "Amadigi," was nearly contemporaneous with the first triumph of his -more fortunate son, who, so far as fame could gratify or reward his -literary labours, may be said to have succeeded in all that he -attempted, either in prose and verse, thenceforward, though some of his -performances had but an ephemeral popularity, being welcomed at first, -and afterwards formally honoured from the courtesy due to their author, -and the measure of kindred excellence by which they were all allied to -the happier offspring of his too prolific mind. Bernardo, after he found -that the stupendous monument of labour in vain, which he had spent so -many years in accumulating, was likely to be left to moulder away and -fall of itself into oblivion,--having at its first appearance excited -neither enough of envy or admiration to render it extensively attractive -to public curiosity,--lay down in despondency at its base, amidst his -perished hopes; and though he made several attempts afterwards to rise, -these were all equally unavailing, and the latest solace of his life was -the contemplation of that glory descending upon his son which had -departed from him. - -In considering the fate, by a natural death (so to express it), after a -date somewhat longer than that of a natural life, of those who have been -renowned in their own age, but have dwindled into insignificance, or -become utterly extinct in that which followed, it may be said of the far -greater number of those who flourish among contemporaries, not, indeed, -that they, - - -"are born to blush unseen, -And waste their sweetness on the desert air," - - -but that they are flowers which bloom in their season, and charm with -their fragrance the passers by of one generation, then disappear, and -are remembered no more. This is the order of Providence, and it is wise -and good; for were the Almighty less liberal of his gifts, though the -possessors being "few and far between" might be more admired and longer, -the world would be less benefited than by that perpetual succession and -supply (according to the demand for literature) of minds worthy, -perhaps, of any age, but formed peculiarly to suit the taste, the -manners, and the society of their own. Among Chalmers' "English Poets," -for example, how many names, once illustrious, now merely catalogued, -are prefixed to works, unread though unforgotten, on which talents as -diversified and as well cultivated as the circumstances of the times -would allow were painfully expended, to delight and improve mankind; -each of whose possessors hoped, besides serving his own generation, to -leave something behind which the world would not willingly let die. Yet -it may be questioned whether some of these, had they lived in other -periods, or under different orders of things, might not have taken far -higher rank among the candidates for fame, and established permanent -claims to the veneration of posterity. Is not great genius, as we call -it, when fortunately developed, and favoured by many contingencies, -without which it never would have been so developed, more common than is -generally imagined? Is there not at all times and every where a class of -intelligences which may be trained up to become generals and captains in -literature, in comparison with the rank and file out of which they may -be called by peculiar events in their own or their nation's history, and -without which they could not have risen above the ordinary state of -their less distinguished, but, perhaps, equally capable companions; as -the working bees in a hive, as some naturalists tell us, when their -queen is lost or taken away from the little community, by a particular -regimen, may be nourished up into queens, and from labourers become -perpetuators of the race? There seems some probability for this -hypothesis, fanciful as it may be deemed, because in all extraordinary -emergencies, whether in the world of politics or of literature, minds of -the first order are invariably brought into activity from the motives, -the means, and the opportunities then afforded to them, though they -could never have risen above the depression, mediocrity, or neutral -indifference to which they were born, in which they had long lived, and -must assuredly have died, had it not been for those apparently -accidental opportunities which gave them distinction and pre-eminence, -by a change in themselves resembling a new creation, but in reality only -an awakening of latent powers. - -While Torquato was thus continually giving new pledges, and redeeming -old ones of equal lustre, or surpassing the proudest names in his -country's literature, the old man, from bitter but unprofitable -experience as regarded himself, having proved the precariousness of the -favour of princes, and the vanity of expecting fortune to follow fame in -verse, determined to indemnify his son for the loss of both his parents' -property by bringing him up to a profession in which wealth and honour -might more readily be acquired by common industry than by idly looking -for the golden rewards of genius at the hands either of aristocratic -patrons, who bestow them as bounties, or of the multitude that compose -the public, and who care little about the good or ill fare of those on -whom their transient applauses are lavished. - - -"So praisen babes the peacock's spotted trayne, -And wondren at bright Argus' golden eye: -But who rewardes him e'er the more for thy, -Or feedes him once the fuller by a graine?" - -SPENSER, _Ecl. X._ - - -In his seventeenth year, therefore, Bernardo placed his son at Padua, to -study jurisprudence, as Petrarch and Ariosto had been condemned to do -before him, by prudent parents, and like each of those hopeful sons, who -were - - -"born a father's hopes to cross, -And pen a stanza when he should engross," - - -Torquato (though it is said that he dutifully and diligently applied -with his head to the study of the law) gave his heart and his hand in -secret to the unportioned muse. The issue of this affiance, while he was -yet embroiled in the nets of legal precedents and practice, was the -"Rinaldo" already mentioned, a romantic poem, in twelve cantos. The hero -is not his own champion of that name, the glory of his later poems, but -one of "the million" that figure in the "Orlando Furioso"--a work which -so possessed the mind of young Tasso, while he was at Venice, that he -tells us he could not sleep for the fame of Ariosto. This juvenile -performance is written more after the manner of that inimitable master -than the "Gerusalemme;" but, though deficient in the humour and vivacity -which constitute the all-binding and assimilating spell of Ariosto's -tissue of episodes, and by which the reader is reconciled to wink at all -the author's incongruities and caprices, Tasso's poem, nevertheless, by -a more serious kind of magic, laid hold upon public feeling and so -happily hit the expiring taste of his countrymen for the extravagances -of chivalrous fiction, that where his father, after years of hard toil -in the same fields had miscarried, the son, in ten months, achieved a -triumph, of which the trophies remain to this day; "Rinaldo" being yet -one of the metrical romances which are interwoven with the party -coloured staple of Italian literature. - -Well might Bernardo be astonished and delighted, yet humbled and -chagrined (in some measure), when the manuscript of his son's poem was -presented to him, seeing himself already eclipsed in his meridian -altitude (which he fondly imagined he had attained in the "Amadigi") by -this morning-star of promise just "flaming in the forehead of the orient -sky;" and perceiving, as he must have done, that his purpose was for -ever thwarted, of placing the boy in that path where fortune scatters -her golden apples before the feet of competitors in the race for her -favour, rather than indulging them with golden dreams under the shadows -of laurels planted by the wayside, the most precious rewards which she -bestows on the most successful among poets. The father, however, was too -great a lover of song to ruin a good poet in making a bad lawyer, as -might have been the case had he persevered in his former views with his -son. Wherefore, after some delay, he reluctantly, yet willingly, (a -state of mind perfectly possible, though hard to reconcile,) gave his -consent to the publication of the "Rinaldo." He who in the letter to his -daughter formerly quoted, so tenderly and beautifully anticipated the -happiness of being himself, with his very features, perpetuated in her -infant progeny, could not but be transported to see himself, with the -features of his very soul, perpetuated in the glorious offspring of his -son's congenial yet surpassing mind. With a smile and a sigh, therefore, -he permitted the poem to appear, surrendering at the same time his -cherished expectation of seeing that son as eminent in the law as he was -now likely to be in that which is remotest from law practice and law -profits. "Let who will make the laws," said Fletcher of Saltoun, "let me -make the songs of a people, and by these I will govern them." Tasso's -songs have assuredly had larger dominion, and had deeper, wider, more -enduring influence in modifying the subsequent character of his -countrymen than any legislative enactments, in which it may be imagined -that he would never have been concerned, could have exercised. But then -he might have enriched and ennobled himself; he might have escaped most -of the calamities which hunted him to death in the midst of life; and he -might not only have been happier himself, but a more useful member of -that society in which he was born, which he served in his day, and in -which he died without any monument except some splendid sculpture to -record his name. It came otherwise to pass; and whether the world has -been made better or worse by his labours, it must be acknowledged that -the fame which he sought, and for which he sacrificed all beside, was -dearly purchased to himself by the sufferings which it cost him to win. -It is reported that when Bernardo remonstrated with him on his -indiscreet preference of philosophy (for with him philosophy and poetry -were identified) to jurisprudence, and angrily demanded, "What has your -philosophy done for you?" he replied, "It has taught me to bear with -meekness the reproofs of a father." - -The appearance of Torquato's "Rinaldo" was not only the dawn of his own -day of glory, but the dawn of a new day in the literature of his -country. The age of absolute romance was succeeded by one of transition -in public taste, during which what was most truly wonderful and -meritoriously captivating in the wild fictions of knight-errantry was -engrafted upon a stock of classical invention, design, and execution. -This was in fact the nearest recurrence that could be made in epic -poetry to the models of the ancients,--for the mythological machinery of -Greece and Rome could not again be revived in poetry any more than in -religion; Jupiter could never again resume his thunder and his throne; -Neptune his trident; Pallas her ægis, or Venus her cestus; nor could -the supernatural interposition of the supreme God, the agency of angels -and sainted spirits, or of Saturn and his legions, be extensively -employed (without constructive irreverence, not to say rank blasphemy) -as auxiliaries in heroic fable, disguised as true history, or true -history disguised as heroic fable. Tasso, Marino, Camoëns, and Milton -have indeed presumed upon the perilous experiment of enlisting the -armies of heaven and hell in conflict with each other, and intermeddling -with earthly affairs; yet, with the exception of our countryman--and he -would be a bold critic who should dare to arraign him for impiety in the -use of what nothing but the most signal, unexampled, and inimitable -felicity of success could justify,--it may be added, that he would be a -critic not less bold, who, as a believer in the Christian faith, should -venture to defend even Milton to the extent in which he has exercised -this questionable, though hitherto unlitigated, license of -fiction;--with the exception of our countryman, the authors aforenamed -have, for the most part, grievously miscarried in the management of -their agents of this class, whether good or evil, these being among the -most indifferent and ineffective personages in their respective poems. -Epic poetry, indeed, either upon classic or romantic precedent, may be -said to have become extinct from the time of Tasso. "Paradise Lost" -cannot be classed with either; he having achieved the only work of the -kind, which, being neither the one nor the other, but combining the -merits of each, touched the point beyond which improvement could not be -carried. He may be said to have lived in the last age in which -supernatural agents and miraculous interventions could be successfully -introduced into narrative verse, as being consistent with popular -credulity or superstitious belief--an absolutely indispensable requisite -for the employment of such means to illustrate human affairs. For -example, a poem equal to Homers or Ariosto's, written now on the plan, -and with the gods of the one or the enchantments of the other, would be -insufferable: no power of genius could create an interest in behalf of -Apollo and Venus, no longer believed in by the poet or by his readers; -nor would the achievements of giants and witches, if celebrated by one -born in this "age of reason," find mercy from criticism, or indulgence -even from the vulgar students of our _penny_ literature. Monk Lewis's -Tales of Wonder, and the monstrosities of the German drama, have been -long ago forgotten; the "Michael Scott" of the great minstrel "of that -ilk!" alone keeps his ground; but all the other preternatural machines -of the same creative hand would have perished utterly, had they not been -associated with records of the doings and sufferings of beings of flesh -and blood like ourselves, though existing in a state of semi-barbarous -society exceedingly different from our own. - -The "Rinaldo" was the first form of the abstract conception of a regular -poem, at once to rival Virgil and Ariosto, which originated in the mind -of Torquato while yet a youth of seventeen, but was not wholly developed -till, at twice that age, he had produced the "Gerusalemme Liberata." All -the characteristics of his peculiar genius are perceptible in the -incidents, style, embellishments, and conduct of this juvenile essay; -which, contrasted with the matured form and perfect majesty of that -later offspring of his genius, is, as his own Gabriel, sent to comfort -Godfrey, at the opening of the siege of Jerusalem:--take the image in -Fairfax's version,-- - - -"A stripling seem'd he, thrice five winter's old, -And radiant beams adorn'd his locks of gold,"-- - - -compared with Milton's "Raphael," "in prime of manhood, where youth -ended," alighting on the eastern cliff of Paradise, where,-- - - -"like Maia's son he stood, -And shook his wings, that heavenly fragrance fill'd -The circuit wide."[40] - -This prodigy of youthful genius no sooner appeared than it was hailed -with acclamation throughout Italy, and eager inquiries from every -quarter were made concerning the author--that prodigality of praise -might be lavished upon him by the learned, and parsimony of recompence, -doled out to him by princes, ambitious of attaching so great a "natural -curiosity" to the collection of live rarities about their palaces. For -the great of those times coveted the glory, little as they liked the -expense, of retaining men of talents in the train of their sycophants -and dependents, even when they regarded them only as remarkable among -their species, in the same manner as the lions, tigers, eagles, -peacocks, and other strange and beautiful animals in their menageries -were in comparison with the meaner ranks of brutes. Ariosto, who had -experienced all the bitterness of such favour, and felt keenly the -ignominy of such distinction, plainly tells us, that the patrons of his -day loved those of their parasites who would minister to their personal -necessities, pull off and on their boots, share in their orgies, and -pander to their vices,--rather than those, whose proud stomachs -disdained to allow them to be any thing less than themselves within the -precincts of courts,--poets among princes, who could give enduring -lustre to the names of inglorious patrons, which otherwise would have -found no better memorial than the registers of their births, marriages, -and deaths in their family genealogies. - -After Torquato's emancipation from the trammels of law by the hand of -the parent who had so carefully involved him in them,--flushed with the -new wine of liberty, obtained at the surrender of every thing else in -prospect, and with nothing but itself in possession,--he repaired to -Bologna, to pursue his philosophical studies and indulge in his poetical -passion;--for poetry was truly to him a passion, and the ruling one of -his existence,--honour, fortune, ease, pleasure, were all in turns but -ministers _to_ this, while _by_ this he aimed at the acquisition of each -of them, as the one or the other were, for the moment, the object of -desire or the subject of lamentation for having lost it. But from Bologna -he was expelled for a literary squib, the only thing of the kind by which -he has gained any celebrity, whether it were his own or not. Some -anonymous censor had been amusing himself with publishing pasquinades, -ridiculing the principal people of the city, as well as the students of -the college, with "much malice and a little wit." Those who were exposed -to these sarcasms were exceedingly galled by the firing from this -ambuscade of the pen, and the more so as they knew not on whom to wreak -their vengeance. Torquato, in the reckless gaiety of a youth of twenty, -on a certain occasion making himself merry among his companions by -repeating one of these, was immediately pounced upon as the author, not -only of the unlucky lines, with which he had been caught in his mouth, -but he was assailed as being the secret manufacturer of all the rest. It -was in vain that he denied the charge indignantly, and challenged his -accusers for the proofs, urging that he himself had been the butt of the -sharp-shooter's shafts, flying out of darkness and hitting in broad day. -His papers were seized and examined before the criminal magistrate; but -nothing being discovered to fix the imputation upon him, he was -nominally acquitted, though the suspicion was not so easily effaced from -the minds of the offended individuals. He took the matter himself in -such dudgeon, that he precipitately left Bologna, and removed to Padua, -whither he had been Invited by his early friend Scipio Gonzaga, who had -lately established in the latter city the academy _Degli Eterei_, of -which Tasso--certainly one of the most congenial spirits of the age--was -worthily enrolled a member, and, according to the pedantic fashion of -those pompous but puerile institutions, assumed the name of -_Pentito_--for some fanciful reason not well explained, though there has -been no small wrangling about it. - -To enlarge his mind, to exalt his imagination, and to enrich his -eloquence, Torquato now devoted much of his attention to the works of -Aristotle and Plato; but while the former subjected his reason to the -severest discipline in the ascertainment of principles of truth, he gave -his whole soul to the guidance of the latter, whose visionary splendour -and profound speculations, on subjects the highest that created -intelligences can conceive, and of which comparatively so little can be -learned without "light from heaven" to illumine the "light of -nature,"--while infinite space is afforded for everlasting conjectures, -showing at once the capabilities and the limitations of the human -intellect,--these peculiarly suited the young student's cast of thought -and intense delight in contemplating the things that are invisible and -eternal, as associated with things seen and perishable. Nor was the -philosophical poet an unworthy disciple of the poetical philosopher, -even upon his own ground and in his own style. Many of Tasso's sublimest -compositions are in the form of dialogues, in which he discourses with -an elevation of sentiment and a power of diction which might have gained -admiration in the school of his master himself. - -Meanwhile the germ of his great poem, which had been quickened, probably -not later than the publication of the "Rinaldo," was growing up in his -thought,--for Tasso, by the necessity of his nature, was ever ruminating -on some premeditated or progressive theme; and some mightier conception -followed the disburdenment of every matured production of his -inexhaustibly inventive genius. While this new and magnificent project -was gradually assuming shape and character before he entered upon the -deliberate execution of it, he prepared himself for the task by -composing his "Discourses on Heroic Poetry," which place him among -critics in as high a rank as that which he holds among poets. The merit -of these essays, indeed, is so remarkable, that his principal English -biographer, Mr. Black, is almost seduced by them to assert the -universality of the author's genius, in the following plausible remark -and happy quotations from high authority concerning another -extraordinary poetic genius, which seemed capable of excelling in -whatever it undertook, whether in prose or rhyme:--"Of the 'Discourses -on Heroic Poetry' there appear to have been four, only three of which -have been printed. Though composed at the age of twenty, and published -without the knowledge and corrections of the author, they are -exceedingly valuable; and while they display a most refined taste, -discover also much metaphysical acuteness and geometrical precision. -Indeed, I am more and more of opinion that what Mr. Stewart says of -Burns is true in general of every great poetical genius, 'All the -faculties of Burns's mind,' says he, 'were, as far as I could judge, -equally vigorous; and his predilection for poetry was rather the result -of his own enthusiastic and impassioned temper, than of a genius -exclusively adapted to that species of composition.'" - -In this year, 1564, Torquato visited his venerable father, now literally -"_dagl' anni e da fortuna oppresso_," "borne down by years and evil -fortune." The transport of affection with which two of the greatest men -of their age, in the most seductive walk of human ambition, met at -Mantua, in the relationship of parent and offspring, must have been -chastened, yet rendered more exquisitely endearing, when the father, -from his own sad experience, must have foreseen, by "his prophetic -soul," the sorrows to come which his son would encounter in the course -that he had chosen; while the son, with emotions not less painful, must -have looked upon his father, remembering the sorrows past, which he had -endured in the vain pursuit of fame from the multitude, and fortune from -patrons, in whose cause he had sacrificed two sources of competence--his -own small patrimony, and his wife's dowry. - -During this visit the youth was attacked by a dangerous illness, from -which being rescued by the skill of a physician named Coppino, the -grateful father rewarded the doctor with the fee of a stanza to his -honour in a new poem, entitled "Floridante," which the aged minstrel, -whom no medicine could cure of the disease of rhyme, was composing in -his seventy-third year. This daughter, as she might be called, of his -"Amadigi," to which it is a sequel, and his own last child of -imagination, proved as short-lived as its romantic, and almost as its -natural, parent, though the dutiful Torquato endeavoured himself to -revive it, in his own dark days; but "Floridante," of whom it could not -be said that "she had no poet," died though she had two, and those of no -mean name. Bernardo Tasso himself survived for five years, dying in -1669, at the age of seventy-six. However undervalued by posterity, he -was unquestionably the greatest poet who had appeared between Ariosto -and his son Torquato. - -About this time Torquato received an intimation that the cardinal -d'Este, brother to the duke of Ferrara, had nominated him one of his -personal attendants, and expected him forthwith in that city. -Notwithstanding the warnings of his father's old friend, Sperone, and -afterwards his own, Zoilus, who, exasperated by the disappointment of -hopes of preferment which he had cherished when he went to Rome, gave -loose to the most violent invectives against courts and courtiers, and -earnestly dissuaded Torquato from trusting himself where nothing but -allurements to ruin would be placed in his way, from which it was hardly -possible for virtue to escape unscathed or uncorrupted, the young poet, -however, determined not to profit by the experience of the old one, but -to learn for himself what experience alone can teach, and what he indeed -learned at an awful cost in the issue. He resolutely, therefore, -determined to put both his virtue and his fortune to the hazard of -temptation, not doubting that he could secure the former and advance the -latter, where the most illustrious court in Italy was held by a -descendant of the patron of Ariosto. Accordingly he hastened to Ferrara, -anticipating every thing that _never_ came to pass, except the one thing -on which, indeed, his mind was most bent, that there he should complete -his contemplated epic, and establish a name which should associate him -with the most renowned of his predecessors. What a bright morning was -that, forerunning a day of darkness and despair, on which he entered the -city, happily unsuspecting the troubles that awaited him there! The -kings of England, of the house of Hanover, are lineally descended from -the family of Este. These much celebrated princes, in the best period of -their ascendency, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, were -the magnificent, if not the liberal, patrons of most of the men of -genius in the finer arts who were contemporary with them; and none was -more so than the reigning duke, Alfonso II., under whose benign -influence for a while, but under whose blighting displeasure afterwards, -poor Tasso flourished and faded. - -On the last day of October, 1565, Torquato arrived at Ferrara, where the -most superb preparations were making for the nuptials of Alfonso with -Barbara, daughter of the emperor Ferdinand, and sister to Maximilian II. -He was cordially welcomed, and immediately received into the service of -the duke's brother, cardinal Luigi, whose establishment consisted of -nearly 800 persons, ministering to his pleasure or subsisting on his -bounty. This prince was not less dignified than his brother, but -altogether more amiable and engaging. On the 2d of December the queen -(as she was styled from her imperial lineage) entered Ferrara, crowned, -and accompanied by a gorgeous retinue. The marriage was celebrated by a -succession of the most imposing spectacles and profuse festivities, -which continued for six days, when they were suddenly broken off on the -arrival of intelligence of the death of the pope, Pius IV. Among the -throng of the great and the small, who had assembled from all parts of -Italy to witness the tournaments, the pantomimes, the balls, and the -banquets given on this occasion, Torquato was but a solitary unit; -observing and treasuring up in his memory all that he saw and heard, as -materials for celebration in another form of the same scenes of luxury -and splendour upon a grander scale, and, though in an ideal field, of -more enduring exhibition. Myriads of eyes may have glanced upon the -contemplative youth, and passed over him as one of the most -insignificant personages in the city; but, after the lapse of nearly -three centuries, even these gorgeous ceremonials are principally -subjects of interest because he was present at them. Not a human being -in existence at this remote period (one might imagine) can feel any -personal sympathy with the bridegroom, the bride, or any other actor or -spectator, native or stranger, upon the spot; yet even "the -representation of the Temple of Love, which was erected in the ducal -gardens, with a stupendous scenery of porticoes and palaces, of woods -and mountains," is worthy of being remembered, because of the -far-surpassing glory of imaginative palaces and gardens which were -suggested to the admiring poet by the tawdry pageant, "which lasted six -hours _without appearing tedious to the spectators_," as Muratori -states; though, according to the pithy remark of Gibbon, the latter is -"the most incredible circumstance" connected with the whole account. - -During the four months which intervened between the demise of Pius IV. -and the election of a new pope, who assumed the name of Pius V., -Torquato's patron, the cardinal Luigi, being absent, he was left at -Ferrara to make his way into favour wherever an opening might be -presented; and it was then that he became more particularly acquainted -with the princesses Lucretia and Leonora of Este, by whom he was brought -under the notice of their brother the duke, who, after all that has been -said and conjectured, seems never to have regarded him otherwise than -with stately or selfish condescension. That a youth so gifted with -genius, so early distinguished among his countrymen, favoured by nature -with more than ordinary personal advantages, and in many other ways -gallantly accomplished, should have attracted the esteem of these -illustrious ladies, who appear to have been more than mere court -beauties, both in intellect and sensibility, delighting in poetry, and -occasionally exercising themselves in it, was almost a necessary -consequence of the parties becoming acquainted. Under such -circumstances, nothing could be more natural than that, on either side, -secret presentiments of the most gratifying kind should unconsciously -spring up and be covertly cherished by the several individuals; never, -indeed, as must be inferred from the sequel, to be fully disclosed, nor -even, perhaps, perfectly understood by themselves. If, in the age of -chivalry, it was imperative upon true knights to assert the beauty and -maintain the honour of their ladies in all due seasons, and in all -proper places, it was, in the seventeenth century, equally the duty of -true poets to celebrate the same virtues and adornments in their verses -upon those of the better sex, who were either their mistresses or their -patronesses. Torquato, dazzled by the transition from schools, law -offices, and colleges of philosophy, to the court region of enchantment, -has described his own emotions and the influence of the change upon him -in the language which he puts into the mouth of _Tirsi_ (the -representative of himself in his "Amintor"), where, after taking -vengeance on his father's friend, but his own very questionable one -(Sperone), for having dissuaded him from going to the city, which, he -assured him, was given up wholly to deceit, voluptuousness, avarice, and -ambition, the shepherd tells his companions how bravely he was disabused -when he beheld the marvellous reality; for there, "as gracious heaven -would have it, I happened to pass near the blissful dwelling, whence -issued sweet, harmonious voices of swans, of nymphs, of syrens--heavenly -syrens! and sounds of music soft and clear, with other ravishments so -strange, that for a while I stood entranced with joy and admiration." -Being courteously invited to enter by one of noble aspect, who appeared -the guardian of the enchanted spot, he exclaims, "O then what saw, what -felt I? I beheld nymphs, goddesses, and minstrels--luminaries new and -beautiful--all without veil or cloud, as to the immortals, scattering -silver dews and golden rays, Aurora seems; Apollo and the Muses, too, I -saw, and in that moment felt myself as growing greater. Filled with new -virtue, new divinity, I sang of wars and heroes, disdaining my rude -pastoral pipe. But though I soon returned to these calm shades (to -please another), I still retained a portion of that nobler spirit; my -simple reed no longer warbled as before, but, rivalling the trumpet, -filled the woods with notes more lofty and sonorous. Mopso (Sperone) -heard it, and, with evil eye, looked on me and bewitched me, so that I -grew hoarse, and long continued mute. The shepherds thought I had been -glared at by a wolf--a wolf, indeed, he was to me!" The last allusion is -to Sperone's savage criticisms on the "Gerusalemme," when submitted to -his examination in manuscript. Torquato, however, had reason to think, -after years of disappointing experience, that Sperone's notions of -courts and courtiers were quite as near the truth as his own, during his -first visit and sojourn at Ferrara. - -Of the duke, his brother the cardinal, and their three sisters, it is -recorded that thirteen years before this date, on a public occasion, in -presence of their father, Hercules II., and pope Paul III., the -"Adelphi" of Terence, in the original, was recited by them with great -spirit and effect, the parts being sustained by the princesses Anna, -aged twelve, Lucretia, eight, Leonora, six, the princes Alfonso, ten, -and Luigi, five years of age. Mr. Black observes, with apparent justice, -that the court of Alfonso united, "like the poems of Tasso, classic -elegance with the richness of romance; and every thing conspired to -kindle the fancy and refine the taste of the youthful bard." - -Anna, the eldest of the three sisters above named, in 1548 was married -to the celebrated Francis, duke of Guise, and, after his decease, to -James of Savoy, duke of Nemours. Lucretia, some years later than Tasso's -arrival at her brother's court, was married to the prince of Urbino, -only fifteen years old, when she herself was thirty-seven. This was one -of those state alliances which so little resemble treaties of peace, -that they deserve to be branded as treaties of discord, in which royal -and noble parents sacrifice their children, if not to Moloch, at least -to Mammon--nay, too often to both,--for purposes of family -aggrandisement, by adding territory to territory, and confounding blood -with blood. On the occasion of these unhappy nuptials, Tasso, "as in -duty bound," wrote an epithalamium, which had, in its predictions of -felicity, the equivocal qualification for excelling in that kind of -poetry which Waller, with experienced adroitness, hinted to Charles II., -when rallied by his majesty on having composed a far finer panegyric on -Cromwell than on himself--the qualification of fiction; for scarcely had -the ill-paired couple had time to fall out, when the gallant prince left -his bride to volunteer in a crusade against the Turks, with whom -everlasting warfare, in every petty form of hostility, was wont to be -carried on by the states of Italy. The union ultimately was dissolved, -without the intervention of death; and Lucretia, as duchess of Urbino, -returned to Ferrara. For many years afterwards, she was, more openly -than either her brother or her younger sister, the patron of Tasso, and -to her are some of his most graceful lyrics addressed. - -Leonora, the third and younger sister, remained unmarried. Being highly -attractive in person, in manner, and in mind, it is no wonder if -Torquato, having many opportunities of ingratiating himself in her -favour, should be gradually betrayed, under the guise of that romantic -strain of adulation to rank and beauty (especially in verse) which the -fashion of the times not only tolerated but sanctioned, to insinuate all -the fervour of a passion which, though hardly aware of it himself, and -altogether unacknowledged by its sensitive object, might yet be -harboured in the bosoms of both, though so secretly, that each more -complacently and jealously watched the symptoms of a tender attachment -in the other, than cared to examine the reality of the same in -themselves. The mystery, thus cherished, for the tantalising delight of -a hope too remote to be fulfilled, except at the sacrifice of every -thing but that love, for which, if true, nothing might be deemed too -much to be sacrificed, has never been cleared up, and all reasoning and -conjecture on the subject, at this distance of time, must be vain. It -has been with equal confidence both affirmed and denied, that the poet -imprudently aspired to the hand of the princess, and that the princess -as imprudently surrendered her heart to the poet, though, from -necessity, she withheld her hand. From the numberless _canzoni_ and -_sonetti_, of which love is the theme, among the _rime_ of Tasso, no -premises towards the solution of this problem can be drawn. Dante and -Petrarch, in all their effusions of the kind, are constant each to his -respective mistress. Beatrice and Laura are the perpetual idols of their -amorous devotion; but to so many--or, if to one, under so many different -names and characters,--are Tasso's adorations addressed, that he may -have had fifty fits of passion for as many flames, and been as true in -turn to each and equally volatile to all. It is, however, a remarkable -circumstance, that three of the greatest poets of Italy should owe as -much of their posthumous renown to their questionable love as to their -acknowledged genius, having been avowedly attached to ladies whose very -existence is unascertained at this day, though volumes have been -written, proving nothing more than (to borrow the comprehensive judgment -of sir Roger de Coverley) that "much may be said on both sides." - -In the mean time, whatever was the subsequent conduct of Alfonso towards -Tasso, there seems to be no doubt that, for a considerable period during -which the poet was engaged upon his great work, the duke countenanced -him in the way most agreeable to his literary ambition and his personal -vanity; for he loved rich apparel, splendid apartments, sumptuous fare, -and to be associated with persons of the highest rank--feeling that he -could adorn and dignify the circle in which he moved, both as a man of -genius exalted above competition by intellectual endowments, and as a -man of the world qualified to shine in external demeanour among -gentlemen and soldiers as well as among students and men of letters. -During this prosperous period--when the smiles of princesses, who were -pleased to receive the homage of his muse, flattered his gentler -affections, and the favour of sovereigns gratified the pride of a heart -easily elevated to an eminence of self-satisfaction, from which the fall -when it came was the more terrible, and the dashing to pieces of its -hopes and its claims the more humiliating and deplorable--Tasso -accompanied the cardinal Luigi as legate to the court of France. Here -his fame had prepared the way for his reception with peculiar honour by -Charles IX., himself both a lover of verse and a versifier. It is said -that the king offered the poet some splendid presents, which the latter -declined to accept, though he was so scantily provided with a wardrobe, -that he left the kingdom, at the end of twelve months, in the same suit -of clothes in which he entered it. The snake has but one skin, but while -that is wearing out another is forming beneath: it would be well for -poets, who live on court expectations, if they were as well provided. - -As not many personal anecdotes are related of our poet, two or three -indifferent ones may be given here as specimens of the tone of his -conversation and address in public. A poet of some repute having -committed a crime for which he was condemned to die, Tasso resolved to -obtain, if possible, a mitigation of the punishment. At the palace he -learned that the sentence was about to be executed immediately. -Undiscouraged, however, he pressed forward; and being admitted to the -presence, he thus addressed the king:--"May it please your majesty, I am -come to implore you to put to death a wretch, who has brought disgrace -upon philosophy, by showing that she cannot stand out against human -depravity." The king, struck with the turn of the request, spared the -criminal. Being asked by his majesty one day, "Whether men most -resembled God in happiness, in sovereign power, or in the ability to do -good?" Tasso replied, "Men can resemble God only by their -virtue."--Again, before the same monarch a discussion was held to -determine what condition in life is most unfortunate. "In my opinion," -said Tasso, "the most deplorable condition is that of an impatient old -man, borne down by poverty, who has neither fortune to preserve him from -want, nor philosophy to support himself under suffering." - -In the course of this journey, whatever he may have gained in honour at -the French court, gratification in the society of eminent -contemporaries, and knowledge of the country and people of his hero, -Godfrey, Torquato lost the favour of cardinal Luigi, as Ariosto -forfeited that of the cardinals kinsman and predecessor, Hippolyto of -Este; though not for the same reason--want of servility to his highness -(Luigi probably not exacting such base homage as Ariosto's barbarian -patron had done), but for having manifested more zeal for the catholic -faith than, in the opinion of some of his confidants, was deemed politic -at a time, when, for the most treacherous purposes, previous to the -massacre of St. Bartholomew, the protestants were treated with unwonted -indulgence, to throw them off their guard. Hereupon he returned to -Italy, though not immediately to Ferrara; for, travelling in company -with Manzuoli, the secretary of the late embassy, we find that he -arrived at Rome in January, 1572. Here he was cordially welcomed by many -of his father's old acquaintances, as well as greatly distinguished for -his own sake. Pope Pius V. honoured him with an audience, and the -privilege of kissing his foot. - -Through the mediation of the duchess of Urbino and Leonora, he was soon -afterwards formally admitted into the service of Alfonso, with a pension -of a hundred and eighty gold crowns a year, and the understanding that -no personal duties would be required of him; but that he should be at -liberty to pursue his studies and finish his poem at his own leisure. -Generous as this provision undoubtedly was, it yet made him a captive in -golden chains, too weak to bind the limbs, but strong enough to enthral -the soul and enslave the mind. So, at least, Torquato found his -obligation; and even when on both sides it had been broken, after his -second imprisonment, he was never in spirit enfranchised from the yoke -of Alfonso, till death set him free. His own testimony concerning his -patron's munificence at this time, long after he had lost his favour, is -honourable to both:--"He raised me from the darkness of my low estate to -the light and glory of his court; he removed me from penury to -abundance; he exceedingly enhanced the value of my works, by often and -willing listening while I read, and treating their author with every -mark of esteem. He placed me at his table, and countenanced me with his -personal attention; and he never denied me a favour which I requested." - -Under these auspices, while Tasso was still vigorously prosecuting that -splendid crusade of his muse, the poetical siege of Jerusalem, and had -now nearly made himself master of it for an everlasting stronghold of -his poetical sovereignty, his exuberant mind poured out multitudes of -sonnets, canzoni, and other miscellanies in verse and prose--almost -entirely on transient themes, love fancies, and panegyrical attempts-- - - -----"to give a deathless lot -To names inglorious, born to be forgot." - - -Among these, in the composition of which it might be questioned whether -he was wasting his genius or cultivating it, he produced something more -excellent, in the form of a pastoral drama. Accordingly, the most -beautiful offspring of his imagination--so far as refers to exquisite -grace of diction, and consummate skill in adorning a subject altogether -artificial, and feigning a state of society that never did, never could, -never ought to exist,--in a story not very natural though the incidents -are few, nor very happily connected or intelligibly developed,--his -"Aminta" appeared, written in flowing verse of various measures without -rhyme, and enriched with lyric chorusses of extraordinary elegance. How -the public exhibition of such a drama could be tolerated, before the -most exalted personages of the state, ladies of the highest character, -and religionists of the most plausible professions, is very difficult -for us, in our cold climate, and with our severer as well as juster -sentiments of decorum, to imagine. All that can be said in extenuation -of the audience, and perhaps of the poet, comes to this presumption, -that, though the piece abounds with descriptions and allusions the most -voluptuous and fascinating to awaken the most perilous passions in -youth, and which no gravity of age ought to endure, such were the -manners of the day, and so little of evil was apprehended, where the -serpent, that allured Eve with his wiles of beauty among the flowers of -paradise, put on this pastoral disguise of the innocence of the golden -age, that the fair and the virtuous alike imagined themselves as -guiltless in listening to his blandishments, as Milton represents the -mother of mankind to have been unsuspicious of danger, when she followed -the tempter to the forbidden tree, and entered into a parley with him -there, till at length, beguiled by his subtilty, "she plucked, she ate." -And here a subject too delicate to be handled on the present occasion -must be left to every one's conscience who indulges in the luxury of -such reading as the work under consideration furnishes. It is remarkable -that the author, designating himself under the name of _Tirsi_, seems to -have been forewarned of the malady which soon afterwards overwhelmed -him, and to which, no doubt, from constitutional temperament he had been -prone from his youth upward, and which, in premature old age, cast such -clouds of mystery over the gloom and splendour of his latter life. -"Knowest thou not what _Tirsi_ wrote, when, fired with frenzy, he -wandered through the forest, at once moving laughter and pity among the -lovely nymphs and shepherds? Nor _wrote_ he even then 'things worthy to -be laughed at, although he _did_ such things.'" - -The duchess of Urbino being absent from Ferrara, when Tasso's muse, like -Habington's "halcyon," produced - - -"The happy miracle of this rare birth," - - -invited him to her delightful retirement of Casteldurante, where she -heard the pastoral strains from his own lips, which, though not eloquent -from natural infirmity, would yet convey the soul and passion, the -delicacy and pathos, of every passage, with an impression which no actor -on the stage, nor indeed any reader but himself, could give. The living -voice, in this case, would be the actual language of the spirit that -conceived the thoughts, speaking to the spirit of her who received them -through the ear, fresh and flowing from the fountain in his heart; for -the written copy, to the eye, would be but a translation, wanting the -incommunicable accompaniments of tone, look, expression, and perfect -intelligence of the whole in all its bearings and meanings, such as the -original author alone could possess; for, as Dr. Johnson said, "no -_words_ can convey _sounds_;" and both sounds and words were requisite -to do justice to such verse as his. Tasso remained several months with -the duchess. - -All Italy soon echoed with the fame of this poetical phenomenon, which, -though not the first of the kind, (an indifferent model having been -produced six years before, by one Arienti,) it was the first that had -power to compel almost universal admiration, and establish a precedent -and authority for that fantastic species of literary composition. -Imitations, by the most gifted of his contemporaries, sprang up in rapid -succession, and passed away as rapidly, with the exception of one, the -"Pastor Fido" of Guarini, which not only maintained its ground, but even -disputed that on which its forerunner stood, and from which no rivalry -has ever yet been able to remove it. The renown which Tasso acquired by -the "Aminta" naturally exasperated envy in proportion as it commanded -applause, and among the multitude of competitors who could not soar to -his elevation, there were not wanting those who employed every artifice -to bring him down to their level, that they might trample him under -foot. Whatever were the causes, Tasso to the end of his life was -persecuted as much by unmerciful critics as he was oppressed by -hard-hearted patrons. - -But the "Aminta" was not the only episodal enterprise of Tasso, while he -was slowly but unweariedly proceeding with the "Gerusalemme." Flushed -with the success of his pastoral drama, he set earnestly about the -construction of a regular tragedy; but he had not advanced far in the -second act, when the project was suspended, and the fragment of fine -promise which remains, compared with the completed performance long -afterwards, when his faculties were on the decline, exhibits a brilliant -but melancholy contrast of "the change" that had come "o'er the spirit -of his dream"--his dream of life, love, and glory, blighting his "May of -youth," and causing him in the prime of manhood to "fall into the sere -and yellow leaf." His "Torindo," as this failure was styled, was less a -failure than the "Torrismondo," as the resumed and perfected task was -called. - -Towards the conclusion of his toils on his main work (as he fondly -hoped), but the beginning of a series of miseries consequent upon it, -from which he found no end but in the grave, Tasso was seized with a -violent fever. This left him in such a state of bodily exhaustion, that -it was not till the following spring (1575), that from the last lines of -his poem he could look back upon all the intervening ones to the first, -as the links of a chain, more subtle than air, yet stronger than -adamant, which should deliver his thoughts as he had bound them in his -words, from generation to generation, to delight millions of minds, so -long as his country's language should be understood. He had already -enjoyed such exhilarating foretastes of fame by the circulation in -manuscript of portions of the poem, as they came completed from his -hands, that he was the less prepared to encounter the enmity and -opposition, which rancorous and intriguing rivals, or fanatic and -supercilious ecclesiastical censors of the press, immediately commenced, -and inveterately continued to manifest towards him to the close of life. -There was in Tasso--conscious as he must have been of his powers, and -confident as he must have felt in the exercise of his own judgment--a -readiness to submit to learned and candid criticism, and a willingness -to concede to dissentient opinions on minor points of taste, so far as -was consistent with manly independence,--which can rarely be found among -men of first-rate talents, but yet might be expected from a court poet, -accustomed in other matters to defer to superiors, be compliant towards -equals, and condescending to inferiors. This disposition, however, which -ought to have conciliated envy herself, only provoked her the more to -assume every shape of candour or malignity, as best suited her humour, -to torment and distract him, that she might revel over his wretchedness, -if she could not accomplish his fall. Years intervened while the -"Gerusalemme Liberata," in its finished form, was undergoing as many -ordeals almost as he had friends, and its author suffering almost as -many martyrdoms as he had enemies. Into the particulars of these -persecutions it is not necessary to enter here. The poet was certainly -induced by the force of arguments used by some, and the terror of -inquisitorial powers exercised by others of his critics, to alter, -expunge, and amend many parts of the poem, which, after all, suffered -little from the processes to which it was thus exposed before its -publication. That publication, however, was long delayed by such -vexatious hinderances, and at last was effected surreptitiously, to the -great offence and injury of the author, then in confinement as a -lunatic. - -Tasso's malady was grievously aggravated by these excruciating -criticisms, when he found himself, on the one hand, charged with heresy -against Aristotle and good taste, and, on the other, with heresy against -the church and good morals. Fevers, headaches, strange dreams, waking -suspicions, restlessness, disappointment, dissatisfaction with his -patron, to whom he had dedicated his poem, and in honour of whom he had -created his imaginary hero, Rinaldo,--perhaps, too, the bitterness of -desponding passion, though that is questionable,--suggested to him the -idea of absconding from Ferrara and taking refuge at Rome, where he -purposed to bring out the "Gerusalemme," at his own pleasure, and hoped -to reap a considerable pecuniary benefit from the sale. Alfonso, -however, was not willing to lose the glory of the dedication to himself, -though he seems to have wanted the generosity, the humanity, the justice -to deal with the author except as an impotent creature in his power, who -could do him much honour by flattering his pride, but to whom he showed -at best but stinted kindness. To secure his selfish object, he made the -poet a prisoner near his own person,--both at Ferrara, and at his palace -of Belriguardo in the country,--a prisoner at large, indeed, but under -perpetual observation. Of this the sufferer was aware; and the very idea -of a human eye for ever upon him, restraining his looks, words, and -actions, poring over him while he slept, haunting his dreams, and -entering into his very thoughts--for so he must have felt as though it -did--this alone was enough to madden a man of iron heart and millstone -brain, much more a poor hypochondriac, as Tasso had already become. - -Notwithstanding the jealousies of Alfonso, and the fascinations of his -sisters to detain him, the capricious bard escaped from his splendid -captivity to Rome,--and escaped even with the permission of the duke; -who gave him a letter of recommendation to the cardinal Hippolyto, to -befriend him as a stranger there, for the avowed purpose of obtaining -the accustomed indulgence granted to visiters during the jubilee. Here -he met with the cardinal Ferdinand de' Medici, afterwards grand duke of -Tuscany, who renewed to him in person the tender of an honourable asylum -(formerly intimated to him in private), should he be disposed to leave -altogether the service of Alfonso. The offer was gratefully -acknowledged, but not formally accepted; and after six weeks of holidays -(as he felt them to be) spent in the luxury of literary intercourse, and -the renewal of the impressions which the scene of Rome's posthumous -glory in her magnificent ruins, and her not less imposing revival in her -hierarchal pomp, had left on his mind in youth, he returned by way of -Sienna and Florence to Ferrara. Here, while his poem was going through a -second round of critical purgatory, and his soul was sinking under the -burden of censures laid upon him, like the spirits of the proud in -Dante, condemned to bear enormous stones along the uneven uphill road, -he received the appointment of historiographer to the house of Este, -with a small stipend, which laid upon him another cobweb obligation to -remain at Ferrara. What were the duties of this office it is of no -consequence to inquire; he does not seem even to have performed any, nor -perhaps did he owe any; his fable of the origin of that family from his -hero Rinaldo--the Rinaldo of his "Gerusalemme"--had already conferred on -it more of that glory which princes covet, than the true history of all -its ancestors might have done. When the results of the aforesaid second -revisal of his poem were communicated to him, in despair of conciliating -his critics, and determined not to yield altogether to their incompetent -authority, on points where he felt himself strong in poetical power to -produce the very effects which they deprecated, but which he had aimed -at and achieved most triumphantly, he composed an interpretation of the -whole as an extended allegory, spiritualising its heroes and its scenes, -with more perverse ingenuity than felicity of success. Of this it may be -fairly said, that if the original were mainly fiction, the moral was -wholly so. His censors, however, persisted in condemning the voluptuous -passages to which he himself was most attached, because he knew them to -be the most beautiful, and recked not that they were the most seductive. -In this respect the poet himself was the Rinaldo of his sorceress muse, -who by her enchantments had wholly captivated his heart, and carried him -away to her "limbo of vanity;" from which Sperone and Antoniano, his -remorseless critics, in vain endeavoured to deliver him; as Carlo and -Ubaldo had rescued his hero from the thralls of Armida in her island of -sensual delights. He never yielded all, though he conceded many things, -and sacrificed several extravagant inventions, by which the poem, was -rather mended than mutilated. - -An incident occurred about this time, which exhibited Tasso not less in -the character of a hero than he had hitherto figured in that of the -laureate of heroes. Suspecting one of his friends to have been guilty of -opening his trunks with false keys, to pry into his secrets among his -papers, he gently remonstrated with the offender, who resented the -charge by giving him the lie, and received in return a blow upon the -face. This rencontre took place in the court of the palace, and was -therefore sufficiently notorious. The cowardly aggressor--one Maddalo, a -notary--walked away with the dishonour on his brow, but meditating in -his heart the most atrocious vengeance. Accordingly, having enlisted -three of his kindred in the quarrel, they sallied forth, armed, to -assail the poet; and finding him abroad in the street, they fell upon -him from behind. Tasso promptly turned round, drew his sword, and dealt -so dexterously with it, that the ruffians were soon put to flight; -though their fears of being apprehended, no doubt, to their "speed lent -wings," till they found refuge under the roofs of various friends. The -circumstance gained him no small reputation, and gave rise to a couplet -which was often repeated:-- - - -"Con la penna e con la spada -Nessun vai quanto Torquato." - -"With the sword and with the pen, -Tasso beats all other men." - - -It is not practicable, in this succinct memoir, to trace the sufferer -through all the details which have been recorded of his miseries from -penury, pride, ambition, and disappointment, the wrongs inflicted on him -by patrons and rivals, and above all, those growing symptoms of a mind -diseased, occasioning suspicions, jealousies, misunderstandings, and -quarrels with his friends and contemporaries; while that insidious -malady, which no medicine can reach, was making its unchecked ravages -upon his constitution, and inveterately fixing upon him its evil -influences, so that, with brief and distant lucid intervals, his -remaining days were passed in horror and despondency, whether amidst the -darkness of the dungeons of Ferrara, or wandering amidst the broad -sunshine on foot, and depending for bread and shelter upon casual -hospitality, from province to province throughout Italy. Imagining that -his enemies--enemies as imaginary, in this case, as were his fears of -them--had accused him to Alfonso of treason, and to the pope of heresy, -he at length grew so outrageous, that, one day, for some unaccountable -provocation, he drew a dagger upon a servant, and assaulted him in an -apartment of the duchess of Urbino. Being instantly disarmed, he was -confined, by order of the duke, within the precincts of the palace. -Here, when for the first time he found himself a prisoner, he was -overwhelmed with anguish, and bitterly bewailed his fate. As soon as he -could again command his passion, he wrote a very penitential letter to -Alfonso, suing for pardon and release. Both were granted to him; and he -was removed, under the eye of the duke himself, to the palace of -Belriguardo, in the country, that he might recover his health and -spirits, amidst scenes and with the society in which he had formerly -delighted to be placed. With a delicate regard to one of his most -grievous temptations--that he had been guilty of heresy, Alfonso -introduced to him the head of the holy inquisition at Ferrara, who, -after duly examining him, fully absolved him from all imputations of the -kind, and assured him that he was yet a good catholic. Not contented -with this, he suddenly left Belriguardo, and took refuge in a convent of -St. Francis, from which he sent word to his patron, that as soon as he -should be sufficiently restored he intended to enter himself among the -fraternity. But nothing could calm the troubled waters of his mind; he -still conceived himself under the displeasure of the duke, and that his -acquittal by the inquisitor was invalid. In this turmoil of doubts and -self-reproaches, he importuned Alfonso and the duchess of Urbino with -letters concerning his imaginary offences, and imploring comfort and -assurance which they could not give, because he would not receive. With -Leonora he appears never to have had that freedom and frequency of -correspondence which he had hitherto been permitted to hold with her -elder sister. Whether this be in favour of his presumed passion or not -must be left to those who are skilled in the mysteries of love-making -between unequal parties. On this subject, as on the poet's strange -melancholy, and the severity with which it was visited by his patron, -whether for the punishment of the lover or the cure of the maniac, it -would be futile to argue here. After all the explanation and -mystification by Tasso's biographers, the general impression has been, -is, and probably will remain, that his love for Leonora was real; that -his imprisonment was vindictive on the part of her brother, and that his -frenzy was the effect of hopeless passion and impotent resentment -against oppression. "Historians," says Ugo Foscolo, "will be ever -embarrassed to explain aright the reasons of Tasso's imprisonment: it is -involved in the same obscurity as the exile of Ovid. Both were among -those thunder-strokes that despotism darts forth. In crushing their -victims they terrified them, and reduced spectators to silence. There -are incidents in courts, that, although known to many persons, remain in -eternal oblivion--contemporaries dare not reveal, and posterity can only -divine them." - -In the following summer, Tasso, bewildered and desperate, and not -knowing whither to turn, or in whom to confide, at length fled secretly -from Ferrara to visit his sister at Torrento, whom he had not seen since -they were children together. She was now a widow, the mother of two -sons, and dependent upon her uncles, who still withheld her mother's -dowry, for the means of subsistence. With that caution to do every thing -by stealth, which characterises the hallucination of one who fancies all -the world conspiring to do him harm, he presented himself before her in -the habit of a shepherd, affecting to be the bearer of certain letters -from himself. He found her alone; her children being absent. The letters -represented her brother at Ferrara as surrounded by enemies, and in the -most imminent danger of his life, unless she interposed in his behalf, -and rescued him from their machinations. When she had read the -distressing intelligence, she implored the supposed messenger to tell -her all, the worst, at once. He answered by a recital of miseries so -aggravated, in a tone so earnest and impassioned, that, whether she -suspected him or not, she fainted with alarm. When she had been -sufficiently recovered, the cunning minstrel changed the hand that -played upon her, like Timotheus on his harp, and, from excess of pity -for her brother's sufferings, gently awoke all her tenderness of -affection, by old and beautiful recollections of former days, and hopes -yet possible to be realised in years to come. At length, when she was -well prepared, he discovered himself fully to her, and they were brother -and sister again in a moment, and thenceforth to the end of life. With -her he remained in comparative tranquillity for several months, being -all the while unacknowledged in the neighbourhood, except as Cornelia's -cousin from Bergamo, who, coming to Rome, had availed himself of the -opportunity to visit her. - -But, as might be expected, his self-tormenting mind became unquiet -amidst scenes of repose, which, from day to day, delighted him at first, -but, from day to day, presenting little change of aspect or incident, he -sighed again for Ferrara, choosing rather the agony of life to that rest -which was no longer supportable. Thither, then, he returned, on the -assurance of pardon from the duke, and the restoration of his papers. It -was soon after his arrival, that an act of indiscretion attributed to -him by some, and denied by others of his biographers, is said to have -caused him to be put in ward as a person of deranged intellect. Being in -company with Alfonso and his sisters, in the presence of the court, in -reply to a question from Leonora, Tasso gave her an involuntary salute, -their faces being so near together that he felt attraction to be -irresistible. The duke, astonished and indignant, turned to his -attendants and exclaimed, "See to what a lamentable condition this great -man has been brought by the loss of his reason!" But the date of this -circumstance happens to be as disputable as the fact; for it is certain -that the poet had not long resided at Ferrara, when, still unsatisfied -with the duke's conduct towards him, he again withdrew from the city, -and successively sought temporary refuge at Mantua, Urbino, Florence, -Padua, Turin, and Venice. Being ill at ease every where, by a fatality -of instinct, as it might be deemed, he returned to Ferrara, and thence -departed no more till after a confinement of seven years. For, imagining -himself coldly received at court, and unworthily repulsed when he sought -an audience, he vented his anguish of disappointment in bitter -invectives against the duke, who, amidst the festivities of his new -nuptials with a young bride, his third wife, a daughter of the duke of -Mantua, was little inclined to hearken to the complaints and -supplications of one whom he had long looked upon as insane. On this -ground he was committed to St. Anne's hospital, as a lunatic, which in -those days of medical ignorance of the proper treatment of such patients -was to be punished as a criminal for his misfortune. The following -extract must stand in place of multifarious details of the poet's -feelings under this long restraint. His imprisonment commenced in March, -1579. Soon afterwards he thus expressed himself in a letter to his -friend Scipio Gonzaga:-- - -"Ah me! I had intended to compose two heroic poems of noble argument, -and four tragedies, of which I had contrived the plots. Many works in -prose also, on the most exalted and useful subjects, I had contemplated; -purposing so to unite philosophy and eloquence, that I might leave an -eternal monument to my memory in the world. Alas! I hoped to close my -life with glory and renown, but now, borne down under the load of my -misfortunes, I have lost all prospect of fame and distinction. Indeed I -should consider myself abundantly happy, if, without suspicion, I could -but quench the thirst with which I am tormented; and if, as one of the -multitude, I could lead a life of freedom in some poor cottage, if not -in health, which I can no longer be, yet exempt from this anguish. If I -were not honoured, it would be enough for me not to be abominated; and -if I could not live like men, I might at least quench the thirst that -consumes me, like the brutes which freely drink from stream and -fountain. Nor do I fear so much the vastness as the duration of this -calamity; and the thought of this is horrible to me, especially as in -this place I can neither write nor study. The dread, too, of perpetual -imprisonment increases my melancholy, and the indignities which I suffer -exasperate it; while the squalor of my beard, my hair, and my dress, the -sordidness and the filth of the place, exceedingly annoy me. But, above -all, I am afflicted by solitude, my cruel and natural enemy; which; even -in my best state; was sometimes so distressing, that often, at the most -unseasonable hours, I have gone in search of company. Sure I am, that if -she who so little has corresponded to my attachment, if she saw me in -such a condition; and in such misery, she would have some compassion -upon me." - -Though such statements must be received with some allowance for the -power of self-torturing which he possessed in no small degree, and -exercised with as little forbearance as though he were his own most -implacable enemy, yet, according to Tasso's representation, the -treatment which he experienced under the hands of his brother-poet, -Agostino Morti, formerly a disciple of Ariosto, the keeper of the -hospital, was almost as bad as that which he received at his own. He -says that by this man he was not allowed the necessaries of life, the -medicines which his bodily disease required, nor the spiritual -consolations which his heart-sickness needed: moreover, that his -meditations were disturbed by the inmates of the house, so that he could -not proceed with the preparation of his works for the press; but above -all, that he was under the power of witchcraft, Morti being in league -with certain magicians to destroy him by enchantments; and as this was a -capital crime, he threatens to accuse the keeper to the duke.[41] His -sonnets to the cats of the hospital, imploring them to lend him the -light of their eyes to write by, are specimens of that _kind_ of mirth -which suits and sets off melancholy, in a certain "humorous sadness." -Their genuineness, however, is not certain, and they are hardly -translatable. - -Whatever were the actual circumstances of Tasso's mental alienation and -corporal sufferings from disease or ill usage, his life, from the period -of his first imprisonment, was to himself like one of _the opium-eater's -dreams_--splendours and horrors, alternations of agony and rapture, -changes sudden, frequent, and strangely contrasted: he inhabited a world -of _unrealities_, of which the joys and sorrows, the hopes and fears, -were the more real in proportion as they were ideal, and therefore -incurable; acting upon the soul itself like that effect upon the bodily -senses, excruciatingly susceptible of impressions of pain, so happily -imagined, and not less felicitously expressed by the most polished of -our own poets:-- - - -"Say what their use, were finer optics given? -To inspect a mite, not comprehend the heaven; -Or touch, if tremblingly alive all o'er, -To smart and agonise at every pore; -Or, quick effluvia darting through the brain, -Die of a rose in aromatic pain; -If nature thunder'd in his opening ears, -And stunn'd him with the music of the spheres. -How would he wish that heaven had left him still -The whispering zephyr and the purling rill." - -POPE's _Essay on Man_, Epist. I. - - -And such a being, too exquisitely sensitive, is every poet, whose -imagination or whose passion overmasters his reason and his judgment. -Tasso was eminently such--a poet in every thing, and all life long. - -Meanwhile editions of his "Gerusalemme" were multiplying throughout -Italy, and beyond the Alps and the Pyrenees; while the mind that -conceived and produced it was wandering, like a lost star through the -infinity of space, unaccompanied by any kindred planet, and unattracted -by any parent sun; and the poet himself--he whom monarchs had delighted -to honour, the associate of sovereigns, who had been the favourite of -princesses, and the admiration or the envy of the highest intellects of -his age--was treated as a brute, out of whose living frame the rational -soul had departed, and whose animal appetites were to be subdued by -severe abstinence, or controlled by harsh discipline. - -Yet in his solitude, when the first rigours of his imprisonment had been -relaxed, and an apartment of less discomfort was allotted to him, he -pursued, with unabated ardour and intensity, his studies, so far as he -had the means, and poured out, as he was ever wont, his sorrows and his -hopes, his remembrances and his imaginations, in every form of verse. -Indeed, many of his most beautiful compositions are dated within the -term of his captivity. In course of time, as he grew calmer, his -friends, and illustrious strangers attracted by his fame, were permitted -to visit him. Occasionally, too, a day of light and liberty was granted, -and he was brought out of his prison-house to those splendid mansions -which he loved to inhabit, and which he was so well qualified to adorn. -Marfisa of Este, cousin to the duke, especially befriended him in this -manner, and entertained him at her delightful villa, where, in company -with her distinguished household and visiters, he looked abroad again in -sunshine, with all a poet's transport and all an invalid's delight, when -mere existence, void of suffering, is enjoyment. - - -"See the wretch, who long has tost -On the thorny bed of pain, -At length repair his vigour lost, -And breathe and walk again: -The meanest floweret of the vale, -The simplest note that swells the gale, -The common air, the earth, the skies, -To him are opening paradise." - - -So sang Gray, and so felt Tasso for a few hours of freedom,--but soon -remanded back to his lonely abode, he relapsed into despondency; and -though one such day, while it lasted, might seem to compensate for all -the past, yet when it was gone, its pleasures appeared too dearly -purchased by the misery of another day rendered more bitter by the -transient change. - -Having collected a volume of his fugitive verses, principally composed -in prison, he published it with a dedication to the princesses, the -duchess of Urbino and Leonora; but the latter lived not to receive this -mournful proof of the fidelity of his gratitude, if not of his love. She -died, after a long illness, in 1581, aged 43 years. Tasso enquired -earnestly after her during her sickness, and offered to do any thing in -the power of his muse to beguile that part of her suffering which song -might soothe, while patiently bearing the rest, for which there was no -relief but from Heaven. After her death he became mute on that theme, -which most of his biographers would fain prove to have been the real -though covert one of many an amorous effusion among his sonnets and -lyrics. "Great griefs are silent." - -Among his wild imaginations, Tasso thought himself haunted in his prison -by a sprite--something akin to our old English Robin-good-fellow--who -(probably in the very person of his knavish attendant) played all manner -of petty mischievous pranks to plague him. One extract from a letter on -this subject will show how little command of his reason he had at this -time. He says, "The little thief has stolen from me many crowns, I know -not what number--for I do not, like misers, keep an account of them--but -perhaps they may amount to twenty. He turns all my hooks topsy-turvy, -opens my chests, and steals my keys, so that I can keep nothing. I am -unhappy at all times, especially during the night, nor _do I know if my -disease be frenzy, or what is its nature._" Far more frightful -visitations he complains of during this dreadful interval, all which -seem to prove a lamentable derangement of intellect, of which he was -himself sometimes so conscious, that he rouses all his powers of -reasoning to convince himself that he has not really lost his wits. To a -friend he writes--"I cannot defend any thing from my enemies, nor from -the devil, _except my will_, with which I will never consent to learn -any thing from him or his followers, or have any _familiarity with him -or with his magicians._ * * * * Amidst so many terrors and pains, there -appeared to me in the air the image of the glorious Virgin, with her Son -in her arms, encircled with clouds of many colours, so that I ought by -no means to despair of her grace. _And though this might be an illusion, -because I am frenetic_,--troubled with various phantasms, and full of -infinite melancholy,--yet, by the grace of God, I can sometimes -_cohibere assensum_ (withhold my assent), which, as Cicero says, being -the act of a sound mind, I am inclined to believe it was a miracle of -the Virgin."--This vision he celebrates in one of his most brilliant -sonnets, and also in an elegant madrigal, ascribing to her grace the -marvellous cure of his mental affliction. - -In whatever way that cure may have been temporarily effected, Tasso, -after more than seven years' confinement, was liberated in 1586, at the -special intercession of the prince of Mantua. Alfonso refused to allow -him an audience, and he left Ferrara like a transport released from -prison, to go into perpetual banishment; for the duke remained -inexorable, and, indeed, implacable, to the end of his victim's life. -For a while Tasso enjoyed the sudden transition, again being lodged in -the palace of Mantua, faring sumptuously, and being admitted to the -high, amiable, and intellectual society of nobles, ladies, and scholars. -This pleasant season was not, however, without relapses of his fearful -disease: the evil spirit came upon him at times, and all the enchantment -of his harp could not drive it away. - -During several years afterwards, the poet wandered about, as his father -had done, from city to city, and from court to court, experiencing all -the vicissitudes of what is called fortune, but which, in his case, -appears to have been the lot which he chose and cut out for himself. -Princes were ever ready to open their doors to him, and wherever he was -known, he was honoured according to the reputation which he had so -painfully but unprofitably acquired; his patrons having only afforded -him hospitality while he abode with them, and booksellers having been -enriched at his expense by the spoils of his genius, in a country where -the property of literary men in their own works was little acknowledged -and less respected. His controversy with the _Della Cruscan_ academy -during his imprisonment, the members of which had invidiously prejudiced -the public mind against him, the living, whom their favour might have -benefited, by exalting Ariosto, the dead, whom their preference could -not serve,--while it grievously galled him, rather tended to spread the -knowledge, and, necessarily with that knowledge, the fame of his -"Gerusalemme," than permanently to injure his fair fame. But he himself, -from scruples of conscience and infirmity of mind, became dissatisfied -with it, and employed no small portion of his brief remaining life in -remodelling it, under the title of "Gerusalemme Conquistata,"--a scheme -in which he utterly miscarried. His last great poetical attempt, and -worthy of him in his palmy state, was a work on the creation, entitled -the "Sette Giornate" (the Seven Days), which he left unfinished. It was -composed in _versi scidti_, which nearly correspond to English blank -verse. There are many passages in this magnificent fragment, which were -evidently so familiar to Milton's mind, that he fell into the same -trains of thought, and imitated them in the style peculiar to himself, -repaying as much as he borrowed, "stealing and giving odours." - -Tasso, soon tiring of Mantua, and even languishing for Ferrara, though -never permitted to return thither, wore away the residue of his -desultory life, principally at Bergamo, Florence, Rome, and Naples. In -the latter city (his sister being dead), when it was too late for him to -enjoy the possession of it, he recovered his mother's long-disputed -dowry, or such a portion of it as, at an earlier period, might have -rendered him independent of those eleemosynary supplies from precarious -hands, on which he generally subsisted. About the same time the pope -also settled a pension upon him, and consented to allow him the honour -of a coronation, such as had been granted to Petrarch, two centuries -before. But wealth and honour, such as mortal hands could confer or -withhold at pleasure, came too late for him. In his latter years, too, -he became acquainted with Manso, marquis of Villa, his last patron, and -his first biographer; known in this country as, in his old age, -befriending our Milton, then a youth, on his travels in Italy, as, in -his own youth, he had befriended Tasso sinking to the grave under -premature decay. - -One of the most remarkable circumstances of the last days of Tasso was -the imagination, that he was occasionally visited by a spirit--not the -mischievous Robin-good-fellow of his prison, but a being of far higher -dignity, with whom, alone or in company, he could hold sublime and -preternatural discourse, though of the two interlocutors none present -could see or hear more than the poet himself, rapt into ecstasy, and -uttering language and sentiments worthy of one who, with his bodily, yet -marvellously enlightened eyes and purged ears, could distinguish the -presence and the voice of his mysterious visitant. Manso gives a strange -account of such an interview, when he himself stood by, yet perceived -nothing but the half-part which the poet acted in the scene. - -"One day," says the marquis, "as we were sitting alone by the fire, he -turned his eyes towards the window, and held them a long time so -intensely fixed, that when I called him he did not answer. At last, -'Lo!' said he, the courteous spirit, which has come to talk with me; -lift up your eyes and you shall see the truth.' I turned my eyes thither -immediately; but though I looked as keenly as I could I beheld nothing -but the rays of the sun, which streamed through the window-panes into -the chamber. Meanwhile Torquato began to hold, with this unknown being, -a most lofty converse. I heard, indeed, and saw nothing but himself; -nevertheless his words, at one time questioning, and at another -replying, were such as take place between those who reason closely on -some important subject. * * * * Their discourse was marvellously -conducted, both in the sublimity of the topics, and a certain unwonted -manner of talking, that exalted myself into an ecstasy; so that I did -not dare to interrupt Torquato about the spirit which he had announced -to me, but which I could not see. In this way, while I listened between -transport and stupefaction, a considerable time elapsed; at length the -spirit departed, as I learned from the words of Torquato, who, turning -to me, said, 'From this day forward, all your doubts will be -removed.'--'Rather,' I replied, 'they are increased; for though I have -heard many wonderful things, I have seen nothing to dispel my doubts.' -He smiled, and said, 'You have seen and heard more of him than -perhaps--' here he broke off, and I, unwilling to trouble him, forbore -to ask further questions; as it was more likely that his visions and -frenzies would disorder my own mind, than that I should extirpate his -true or imaginary opinion." - -Throughout the year 1594 the poet was so manifestly breaking down, both -in his bodily and mental faculties, that his early dissolution was -anticipated by all his friends. He arrived at Rome on the 10th of -November; when on being introduced to the pope, his holiness, in the -most condescending terms, told him that he intended to bestow upon him -"the crown of laurel, that from him it might receive as much honour as, -in times past, it had conferred on others." The winter proving very -tempestuous, the ceremonial was deferred till the succeeding spring. As -the time approached when all his dreams of ambition were to be thus -consummated, Tasso drooped daily both in spirits and in strength, so -that from the 10th of April, when he was seized with violent fever, no -hope could be entertained of preserving his life. Being informed of his -danger, he thanked the physician for communicating tidings so welcome. -Instead, then, of the vain glories of coronation in this world, he set -himself to prepare, according to his religious views, for his last -change to that eternal state, where nothing could avail him but to have -found that mercy, which is the only hope of sinful man beyond the grave. -On the 25th of April he quietly expired, with the words upon his lips -(of which the last were inaudible), "_Into thy hands, O Lord! I commend -my spirit._" He was aged fifty-one years. - -The personal and poetical character of Tasso are so strikingly betokened -in the incidents of his life, that, in a memoir, necessarily so -circumscribed as the present, no further remark on either need be -introduced here. To enter into a critical examination of his writings, -which should at all do justice to their extent, their diversity and -their excellence, of various kinds whether in prose or verse, would -require a distinct essay, equal in length to the whole of this article. -This, however, is little to be regretted, for, of all the Italian poets, -Tasso is the best known in our country; indeed, he has been almost -naturalised, for his greatest work has been oftener translated than any -other continental poem,--so that the style, the story, the sentiments, -the actors, the scenes, the whole fable, with all its embellishments and -adjuncts, are better known to general readers than those of the "Faerie -Queene," and, perhaps, it may be said, than those of "Paradise Lost" -itself, except among that "fit audience," which, "though few," Spenser -and Milton must for ever "find," while English poetry holds its -place--and that the highest, hitherto--in the literature of Christendom. - -Besides several inferior versions, those of the "Jerusalem Delivered," -by Fairfax, Hoole, Hunt, and Wiffin, have each some peculiar merit, -though it must be confessed, that, in each, so far as regards the -diction, that peculiar merit belongs rather to the translation than to -the author, the grace and harmony of whose verse, unsurpassed in his own -language, is absolutely unapproachable in ours. Fairfax's version, in -the original stanza, is masculine and free; Hoole's, in the heroic -couplet, is easy and commonplace, but as a mere entertaining tale, the -most _readable_ of the four; Hunt's, in the same measure, may lay great -claim to indulgence for any defect in vigour, on the score of the -classic taste and learning which it displays. Wiffin's is unquestionably -the best; and it is his own fault that it is not as good as any -reasonable judge could desire a translation of Tasso to be: but, having -chosen to hamper himself, and to encumber his author, with the intricate -stanza of Spenser, containing an extra-Alexandrine line beyond the -Italian octave, he has been compelled to amplify his original _one -eighth_, which must deduct at least in the same proportion from the -compactness, precision, and symmetry of every corresponding section. How -could a master of versification like Mr. Wiffin, himself a genuine poet, -choose to run such a race, carrying such a weight? He has won it, -nevertheless, though not in the style that might have been wished; yet -he that shall hereafter beat him must be a rival, who, beyond the Alps, -would have been a worthy competitor with Tasso himself, had they been -countrymen and contemporaries. - - -[Footnote 37: The translation is from Dr. Black's valuable Life of -Tasso, from which other occasional quotations may be hereafter made, -with this brief but grateful acknowledgment.] - -[Footnote 38: See note, page 117.] - -[Footnote 39: It is curious and provoking to observe in how momentary -and contemptible a circumstance originated this enduring injury to the -reputation of one of the greatest poets by one of the greatest critics. -In a note to the clause in Satire IX., Boileau says, "_Un homme de -qualité fit un jour ce beau jugement en ma présence._" So, because "a -fool of quality" ("_un sot de qualité_," as he words it in the verse) -once happened to "say, in the hearing of a wit, that he preferred the -"Gerusalemme" to the "Æneid," "all Europe" has been made to "ring from -side to side," for a century and a half, with the _clinquant_ of Tasso -against the gold of Virgil.] - -[Footnote 40: Milton, in the context, has manifestly imitated both Tasso -and Fairfax;--Tasso in the description of the angel's descent, and -Fairfax in the lively circumstance here quoted, and which is not in the -original:-- - -"On Libanon at first his foot he set, -_And shook his wings_, with rory May dews wet." - -The "fragrance" is Milton's own; and here we have the process of one -thought, carried onward by three poets, to consummate beauty and -perfection in the last.] - -[Footnote 41: Well might Collins, a kindred spirit, both in his powers -of song and in his "moody madness," thus celebrate the great Italian, -whose "Godfrey of Bulloigne" he only knew through Fairfax's -translation:-- - -----"In scenes, which, daring to depart -From sober truth, are still to nature true, -And call forth fresh delight to fancy's view, -The heroic muse employ'd her Tasso's art. -How have I trembled when, at Tancred's stroke, -Its gushing blood the gaping cypress pour'd; -When each live plant with mortal accents spoke, -And the wild blast upheaved the vanish'd sword; -How have I sat, when piped the pensive wind, -To hear his harp by British Fairfax strung! -Prevailing poet! _whose undoubting mind_ -_Believed the magic wonders which he sung._" - -_Ode on the Highland Superstitions._] - - - - -CHIABRERA - -1552-1637. - - -Gabbriello Chiabrera was born at Savona, a town on the sea-shore, not -far from Genoa, on the 8th of June, 1552. He was born fifteen days after -his father's death, and his mother, Gironima Murasana, being young when -she was left a widow, married again; which circumstance caused Chiabrera -to be brought up by an uncle and aunt, brother and sister to his father, -who were both unmarried. At the age of nine, his uncle, who resided at -Rome, took him thither, and gave him a private tutor, who taught him -Latin. He was twice during childhood assailed by dangerous fevers, which -left him so weak and spiritless, that his uncle placed him at the -Jesuits' college, that he might regain vigour and hilarity in the -company of boys of his own age. The experiment succeeded, and Chiabrera -became robust and healthy to the end of his long life. During his -juvenile years, his application, memory, and studious habits attracted -the applause of his instructors; and the Jesuits were desirous of -inducing him to become one of them. The youth showed no disinclination; -but his uncle watched over him, and prevented that sacrifice of liberty -and independence, which would have rendered him miserable through life. -When he was twenty this good uncle died; but he had emancipated himself -from monkish influence, and after paying his relations at Savona a short -visit, he returned again to Rome, where coming accidentally into contact -with the cardinal Comaro Camerlingo, he entered his service, in which he -remained some years. - -His residence at Rome, however, came to a disastrous termination: he was -insulted by a Roman gentleman, and being forced by the laws of honour to -avenge himself, the consequences obliged him to quit the city; nor was -he permitted to return till eight years after. He now took up his abode -in his native town, and grew to love the leisure and independence of his -life. At one time his tranquillity was disturbed by another quarrel, in -which he was wounded; but with his own hand, as he tells us, took his -revenge. He was forced, on this, to absent himself from Savona; and -remained, as it were, outlawed for several months, when at last a -reconciliation being brought about, he returned and enjoyed many years -of complete tranquillity. - -Chiabrera had been born rich, but he was negligent of his affairs, so -that at last his fortune was reduced to a mere competence; and this was -at one time even endangered by a lawsuit at Rome, all his property there -being confiscated; but it was returned to him, through the intervention -of cardinal Aldobrandini. At the age of fifty he married, but had no -children. With the few interruptions above recorded, he passed a life of -peaceful leisure, content with his fortunes, honoured and esteemed by -every body, and rendered happy by the exercise of his talents and -imagination. While at Rome in his early life, he had cultivated the -friendship of literary men; and during his leisure, on his return to -Savona, he occupied himself by reading poetry as a recreation. His own -genius developed itself as he studied the productions of others. The -Greek poets particularly delighted him; and perceiving how much they -excelled all other writers, he made them his study, till, his emulation -being awakened, he wrote some odes in imitation of Pindar: these being -much admired, he was encouraged to continue, still making the Greek -lyrical poets his models, though he did not confine his admiration to -them only. Homer he preferred to all other writers; he was charmed by -the versification and imagery of Virgil; and appreciated in Dante and -Ariosto, the power which they possessed of felicitously describing and -representing the objects which they desire to bring before their -readers.[42] - -Chiabrera had the ambition of forming a new style; as he expressed it, -he meant to follow the example of his countryman, Columbus, and to find -a new world, or be wrecked in the attempt. His wish was, to transfuse -the spirit of the Greeks into the Italian language. He perceived that -the fault common to the poets of his day, was a certain cowardice of -style, and an obedience to arbitrary laws, which limited and chilled the -poetic fervour. He shook off these trammels, and adopted every possible -mode of versification, and even bent the dialect of Petrarch and Tasso -to new and unknown forms of expression. He was no lover of rhyme, -preferring to it a majestic harmony in the arrangement of syllables and -sound, which he found more musical and expressive than the mere jingle -of a concluding word. His style thus became at once novel and exalted. -He adorned his verses with pompous epithets and majestic turns of -expression: he was harmonious and dignified, fervent and spirited.[43] - -As he dedicated nearly the whole of his long life to the composition of -poetry, he has left a vast quantity, much of which has never been -printed,--narrative poems, dramas, odes, canzoni[44], sonnets, &c.; but -his canzoni, or lyrics, far excel all the rest. This results from his -style being at once more original and beautiful than his ideas. We are -apt to say, as we read, we have seen this before, but never so well -expressed. He does not, like Petrarch, anatomise his own feelings, and -spend his heart in grief: even in his love poetry, while he complains, -he does not lament, and there is a sort of laughing and vivacious grace -and a liquid softness diffused over these poems in particular, which is -infinitely charming. One of his most celebrated, beginning-- - - -"Belle rose porporine," - - -is in praise of his lady's smile. It is impossible for any thing to be -more airy and yet heartfelt--he speaks of how the earth is said to -laugh, when, at the morning hour, a rivulet or a breeze wanders -murmuring amid the grass, or a meadow adorns itself with flowers;--how -the sea laughs, when a light zephyr dips its airy feet in the clear -waters, so that the waves scarcely play upon the sands;--and how the -heavens smile when morning comes forth, amidst roseate and white -flowers, adorned in a golden veil, and moving along on sapphire wheels. -"When the earth is happy," he says, "she laughs; and the heavens laugh -when they are gay: but neither can smile so sweetly and gracefully as -you." The flowing measure, the admirable selection and position of the -words render this and other similar poems models of lyrical composition. -A fairy-like colouring, and a thrilling sweetness, like the scent of -flowers, invest them, and render them peculiar in their aerial vivacity -and spirited flow. - -These lighter and more animated productions have not been translated; -but, as a specimen of his more serious style, we select one of the -epitaphs or elegiac poems among those which Mr. Wordsworth has -translated, with his usual accuracy and force of diction:-- - - -There never breathed a man who, when his life -Was closing, might hot of that life relate -Toils long and hard. The warrior will report -Of wounds, and bright swords flashing in the field, -And blast of trumpets. He, who hath been doom'd -To bow his forehead in the court of kings, -Will tell of fraud and never-ceasing hate, -Envy, and heart-inquietude, derived -From intricate cabals of treacherous friends. -I, who on shipboard lived from earliest youth, -Could represent the countenance horrible -Of the vexed waters, and the indignant rage -Of Auster and Boötes. Forty years -Over the well-steer'd galleys did I rule: -From huge Pelorus to the Atlantic pillars, -Rises no mountain to mine eyes unknown; -And the broad gulphs I traversed oft and oft; -Of every cloud which in the heavens might stir -I knew the force; and hence the rough sea's pride -Avail'd not to my vessel's overthrow. -What noble pomp, and frequent, have not I -On regal decks beheld! Yet in the end -I learn that one poor moment can suffice -To equalise the lofty and the low. -We sail the sea of life--a _calm_ one finds, -And one a _tempest_--and, the voyage o'er, -Death is the quiet haven of us all.[45] - - -The tranquil life of Chiabrera was agreeably varied by his love, not -exactly of travelling, but of visiting the various cities of Italy, and -by the honours paid him by its princes, in recompence for his poetry, -which was enthusiastically admired by all his countrymen. He never made -any long stay away from home, except at Genoa and Florence, and there he -possessed friends who were glad to welcome him; for if he was of an -irascible, he was of a placable disposition, and though serious of -aspect, he was gay and good-humoured in society. The grand duke of -Tuscany, Ferdinand I., held him in high esteem, and employed him in -arranging various dramatic representations on the marriage of Mary de' -Medici with the king of France. Charles Emanuel, duke of Savoy, made him -generous offers of remuneration, if he would take up his abode at his -court; but Chiabrera wisely preferred his independence. It has been -mentioned that he arranged the interludes of a comedy of Guarini, when -it was represented on occasion of the marriage of the son of the duke of -Mantua with a princess of Savoy. All these princes rewarded him with -gifts, or honours, which he seems to have set a still higher value upon; -lodging him in their palaces, sending their carriages for his -conveyance, and permitting him to remain covered in their presence. He -had been the intimate friend of cardinal Barberini, and when the latter -was created pope, under the name of Urban VIII., Chiabrera often visited -Rome, though he would never reside there; and the pope made him priestly -gifts of _agnus dei_ and medallions, and in the year of the jubilee -wrote him a brief, or letter of compliment, similar to those sent to -sovereign princes and men of the highest rank. - -Chiabrera was always an orthodox catholic, "a sinner," he expresses it, -"but not without Christian devotion. He had Santa Lucia for his -advocate, and during a space of sixty years, he never failed twice a day -to devote himself to pious thoughts, which continued uppermost in his -mind all his life." His moderate desires and temperate habits assisted -to preserve him in uninterrupted good health. He died at the advanced -age of eighty-six, and was buried in his own chapel in the church of San -Giacomo. - - -[Footnote 42: Vita di se stesso.] - -[Footnote 43: Muratori.] - -[Footnote 44: There is no English word that gives the exact idea of a -canzone; we call such lyrical poems; yet in Italian they form a class -apart.] - -[Footnote 45: _Per il Signor Giambattista Feo._ - -Uomo non è, che pervenuto a morte -Non possa raccontar della sua vita -Lunghi travagli. Il cavalier di Marte -Dirà le piaghe, e lo splendor de' brandi, -Ed il suon delle trombe: il condannato, -Nelle gran Reggie, ad inchinar la fronte, -De' Re scettrati, narrerà le frodi, -Le lunghe invidie, ed i sofferti affanni -Infra le schiere de' bugiardi amici. -Io, che mi vissi in su spalmate prore, -Potrei rappresentar l' orribil faccia -Del mar irato, ed i rabbiosi sdegni -E d'Austro e di Boöte. Anni cinquanta -Commandai su galere a buon nocchieri: -Dal gran Peloro all' Atlantei colonne -Non sorge monte a gli occhi miei non noto, -E gli ampj golfi veleggiai più volte: -D' ogni nube, che in ciel fosse raccolta, -Seppi la forza, onde marino orgoglio -A' legni miei non valse fare oltraggio. -Che nobil pompa non mirai sovente -Su regie poppe? E pure io provo al fine, -Che le disuguaglianze un' ora adegua. -Tutti quaggiuso navighiamo in forse. -Altri ha tempesta, ed altri ha calma, e poscia -Nel porto della Morte ognun dà fondo.] - - - - -TASSONI - -1565-1635. - - -Alessandro Tassoni was born at Modena, in 1565, of a noble and ancient -family. He was so unfortunate as to lose both parents in early -childhood; nor had he any near relative to watch over his tender years -and guard his interests. In consequence, scarcely had he emerged from -boyhood, than his inheritance was attacked by lawsuits, and he was -involved in the most annoying struggles with private enemies, while long -and painful illnesses unfitted him to cope with these evils. Still a -love of knowledge rose above the multiplied disasters that beset him, -and from his earliest years he was a student. He learnt the Greek and -Latin languages under Lazzaro Labadini, a learned and worthy man, but -somewhat of the Dominie Sampson species: simple-hearted and abstracted, -he was exposed to ridiculous mistakes; and his pupil records in his -celebrated poem, how, when a servant informed him of the death of a cow, -he sent to the apothecary's shop for drugs to cure her.[46] While yet -under this master's tuition, he wrote a Latin poem named Errico, which -displayed an extraordinary smoothness of versification and command of -language. At the age of eighteen he took the degree of doctor of laws, -and in 1585 he entered the university of Bologna, where he continued -five years, applying himself to philosophy, under the most celebrated -masters. He afterwards studied jurisprudence at Ferrara, and acquired a -reputation for his learning and critical acumen. - -It was not till past thirty years of age that he appears to have -seriously entered on the task of bettering his moderate fortunes. -[Sidenote: 1597. -Ætat. -32.] -He visited Rome, and entered the service of cardinal Colonna. He -accompanied his patron to Spain, and two years after was sent by him to -Rome, to obtain permission from pope Clement VIII. to accept the -viceroyalty of Aragon. Succeeding in his mission, Tassoni returned to -the cardinal. It was during these journeys that he amused himself by -composing his "Considerations on Petrarch," which afterwards occasioned -so much controversy. The cardinal sent him again to Rome to manage his -affairs there; but a few years after, for some reason, with which we are -unacquainted, Tassoni quitted his service. - -Restored to independence, he visited Naples, and then took up his abode -at Rome. He now published his "Considerations on Petrarch," and his -"Thoughts on various Subjects," which exposed him to the attacks of the -literati of Italy. Tassoni was of a bold and original turn of mind; he -hated literary prejudices, and loved to set himself against received -opinions, merely because they were supported by the greater number. Thus -he attacked Homer, Aristotle, and Petrarch. He was singularly acute in -discovering minor defects, and his sarcastic and witty talent rendered -his criticisms doubly poignant. He was attacked for his publications and -he replied with a mixture of humour and bitterness peculiarly galling. - -He had thus become well known in Italy, when his reputation was raised -to its highest pinnacle by the "Secchia Rapita," or Stolen Bucket, a -serio-comic or mock-heroic poem, the first of the kind that had -appeared. A work of this nature is adapted only to the very region in -which it is composed; and even then, there are certain minds which never -relish travesti. How much more is Hudibras spoken of than read, and to -how many, except in select and peculiar passages, does it prove heavy -and tedious. To an English reader the "Secchia Rapita" must appear -greatly inferior to the work of Butler; it is coarser and more -long-winded; besides that the rhymes, the wrenching and transformation -of language, the vulgarisms and idioms fall coldly on the ears of those, -who have not been habituated from infancy to their use or abuse. - -The "Secchia Rapita" is founded on those petty wars between two towns, -so common in Italy in the 14th and 15th centuries. The people of Modena -had, in 1325, discomfited the Bolognese at Zoppolino, and the vanquished -fled with such precipitation, that their pursuers entered their town -with them. The Modenese were driven out again, but carried off, as token -of their triumph, the bucket belonging to the public well of the city. -The Bolognese made an expedition to recover it, and this forms the basis -of the poem. The plebeian names of the "unwashed artificers" who compose -the several armies, their ridiculous proceedings, their combats, mocking -those of belted knights, are all infinitely relished by the Italians. -Tassoni is praised also for the various fancy he displays in -individualising the combatants, their combats, and the modes by which -they die, as well as for the dignity with which he invests the really -noble personages who take a part in the warfare. There are episodes -also, some more dignified, others more burlesque even than the main -subject of the poem; the gods and goddesses take part, and the kings of -Naples and Savoy are brought in on either side. The chief satire of the -poem falls on an unfortunate count di Culagna, under which name Tassoni -held up to ridicule count Paolo Brusantini, a noble of Ferrara, who had -provoked him by instigating a violent and infamous attack on one of his -works. Tassoni was unable to avenge himself openly, as Brusantini was a -favourite of his prince, but vowed future vengeance, and writing to a -friend he exclaims, "If God lends me life, he shall learn, in one way or -another, that he has furnished a work to the devil." The count di -Culagna falls in love with the Amazon of the poem, and resolves to -poison his wife: he makes a confidant of one Titta, a Romagnole, a -courtier of the papal court, who was in fact the lover of the countess, -and betrays to her the murderous design. The lady accordingly deceives -her husband, changes her soup plate with him, and then flies to the tent -of Titta. The count's physician, however, who had been applied to for -poison, has only furnished physic, and Culagna recovers. He hears of the -infidelity of his wife, and defies Titta to mortal combat. Titta is not -brave, but Culagna is trebly a coward. When his challenge is accepted, -he takes to his bed, makes his will, and declares that he is going to -die. His friends cannot inspire him with any valour, but his doctor, by -administering three or four large cups of wine, imparts the necessary -courage. The opponents meet; Titta's spear strikes the throat and chest -of the count, who falls to the ground, and is carried to his tent, to -bed, while Titta exults in his overthrow and death. The surgeon visits -Culagna's wound; but, to the surprise of all, the skin even is not -scratched: "Yet I saw something red," cries the count, "it was assuredly -my blood!" On this they examine him with more attention, and discover a -red riband hanging from his throat to his girdle. The blow of Titta -disordering his dress, had exposed this unfortunate silk of sanguineous -hue to the eyes of the frightened combatant, who at once believed that -he had received a mortal wound. Now, perceiving how he had been -deceived, the count thanked God most fervently, and, in his artless, -pious gratitude, pardoned his friend and his wife all the injuries they -had done him. Such is the outline of the principal episode of the -"Secchia Rapita," which concludes by a peace brought about by the pope's -legate; the bucket remaining, however, with the Modenese; and there it -probably is to this day. Goldoni saw it, in 1730, suspended by an iron -chain from the belfry of the cathedral. - -This poem was hailed with rapture, even in manuscript: for some time, -indeed, it was only known thus, and numerous copies were made at the -price of eight crowns each. As Tassoni had not spared his countrymen or -his contemporaries, great obstacles were thrown in the way of its -publication; and even when printed at Venice and Padua, no edition was -really on sale till 1622, when it was published at Paris, under the -inspection of Marini. - -Tassoni's slender fortunes meanwhile did not permit him to preserve his -independence: he accepted the offers of Charles Emanuel, duke of Savoy; -but scarcely had he entered on his new service, than a series of -persecutions was commenced against him, which ended by his taking refuge -in private life. -[Sidenote: 1625. -Ætat. -50.] -Again free from all slavery, disgusted by the inconstancy of men and the -intrigues of courts, he took up his abode at Rome, where he had a house -and vineyard, giving himself up to the enjoyment of solitude and study, -and deriving his chief pleasure from hunting and the cultivation of -flowers. Still he was not wholly weaned from the world, nor content to -be neglected: he said that he reminded himself of Fabricius expecting -the dictatorship; and to follow up this truly mock-heroic similitude, he -accepted the offer of cardinal Ludovisio, nephew of pope Gregory XV., -and entered his service, in which he remained till his patron's death. -He afterwards returned to his native town, and being taken into favour -by its reigning prince, he passed the remnant of his life prosperously, -under the shadow of that fame, which his works, his arduous studies, and -great talents caused to gather thick around him. After a few years spent -in peace and honour, he died on the 5th of April, 1635, in the -seventy-first year of his age. - - -[Footnote 46: La dove il Labadin, persona accorta, -Fe' il beverone alla sua vacca morta.] - - - - -MARINI - -1569-1625. - - -Giambattista Marini was born at Naples on the 18th of October, 1569. His -father, a celebrated jurisconsult, was desirous of bringing up his son -to the same profession; but the youth felt an unconquerable distaste to -the career of the law. Marini possessed a fervid and lively imagination, -and a facility in the composition of poetry which determined, without a -question, his destiny in life. There are many poets even, we may say, of -a higher class than Marini--many more sublime, more earnest, more -pathetic--but, in his degree, Marini is a genuine poet, and gave himself -up with confidence and ardour to the pursuit of that fame of which he -reaped so large a harvest. His father, angry at his resistance to his -wishes, was doubly indignant when he gave open testimony of his new -career, and actually published a volume of poetry: he turned him from -his house, and refused to supply him with the necessaries of life. - -But Marini was born under a more fortunate star than usually smiles upon -men who give themselves to the fervent aspirations of genius. Amiable -and generous as he was, he did not possess that stern independence of -disposition, nor that self-engrossed intensity of feeling, which often -render poets an intractable race. Several noblemen stepped forward to -assist and patronise the young adventurer in the groves of Parnassus. -[Sidenote: 1589. -Ætat. -20.] -The duke of Bovino, the prince of Conca, and the marquess of Manso, the -friend of Tasso, offered him protection and shelter. He became -acquainted with Tasso, who encouraged him to pursue his poetic career; -and he published his Canzoni de' Baci, which acquired for him a great -reputation. - -He was concerned in some youthful scrapes; and having assisted a friend -to escape, who had been imprisoned on account of a love adventure, he -was himself thrown into a prison. He amused himself there by writing gay -and light-hearted verses; but soon after he escaped from confinement, -and fled to Rome, where he took up his abode with monsignore Crescenzi. -With him he visited Venice, but returned to Rome after a short absence, -and entered the service of cardinal Aldobrandini. At Venice he published -a volume of lyrical poetry, which established his fame. - -Marini was always a popular man, and beloved and esteemed by his -friends. When Paul V. was created pope, his patron, cardinal -Aldobrandini, was sent as legate to Ravenna, and Marini accompanied him. -He frequently visited Venice and Bologna, and formed intimacies with the -men of reputation and talent residing in those cities. He was devoted to -the cultivation of poetry; and here he first conceived the idea of the -"Adone." He accompanied the cardinal to Turin, where Charles Emanuel, -duke of Savoy, received him at his court with the most flattering marks -of distinction. Marini repaid him by a panegyric, which he called "Il -Ritratto" or the Portrait, and was rewarded by the gift of a gold chain, -and made cavalier of the order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus. When -cardinal Aldobrandini returned to Ravenna, the poet was invited to -remain at the Piedmontese court; and, with the consent of his former -patron, he accepted the offer. - -Marini's life was chiefly diversified by literary quarrels, in which he -came off with his usual good fortune. He had already sustained several -skirmishes with various authors, when the most deadly war was declared -against him by Gasparo Murtola, a Genoese, and secretary to the duke. He -believed himself to be the first poet of the age, and was indignant at -the favour shown to Marini. He levelled an attack of epigrams and -satirical sonnets against him, which Marini answered, and was considered -to have the best of the battle: they published these collectively -afterwards, under the title of the Murtoleide and the Marineide: but -Murtola, still more angry at the advantages gained by his adversary in -this paper hostility, took a more injurious mode of showing his enmity: -he shot at him as he was walking in the public square, but, missing his -aim, wounded a favourite of the duke who was with him. Murtola was -thrown into prison, and condemned to death. Marini generously interceded -in his favour, and at his solicitation he was pardoned and liberated. -Murtola, more angry and envious than ever, brought forward a poem of his -enemy, which satirised the duke of Savoy. In vain Marini represented -that this work had been written at Naples in his youth, many years -before. He was thrown into prison, nor liberated till the marchese Manso -sent his testimony of the truth of what he had declared, as to the -period of its composition. His tranquillity does not appear to have -suffered by this persecution. He continued to devote himself to learning -and poetry: he applied himself to the study of the Holy Scriptures and -the writings of the Fathers, and published his poem on the Murder of the -Innocents, which he considered his best production. - -His fame, spread beyond the Alps, had induced queen Marguerite of France -to invite him to her court. Marini accepted her invitation; but by the -time he arrived in Paris his patroness had died. Queen Mary de' Medici -stepped forward, however, in her room, and the place of gentleman to the -king, with a pension of 2000 crowns, was bestowed on him. He became very -popular among the French nobility; many learnt Italian for the express -purpose of reading his works. He lived a happy and honourable life. His -great pleasure consisted in forming a valuable and extensive library, -and collecting pictures by the best artists. The queen showed him many -marks of favour: if she met him in the street, she was in the habit of -stopping her carriage, for the sake of conversing with him; and such -generosity was shown him by her, and his other noble patrons, that he -was enabled to buy a villa near Naples, on Mon Posilippo, whither he -intended at some future time to retire, and end his days. No doubt, in -the chill climate of Paris, under the dusky atmosphere of the north, his -lively imagination recurred with yearning to the beautiful and genial -land of his nativity. - -[Sidenote: 1623. -Ætat. -54.] - -He published his "Adone" while at Paris. The popularity of this poem was -extraordinary; nothing was spoken of but it and its author, and the -rapid sale enriched Marini, though it also exposed him to much literary -enmity, and the censures of the church. Italian critics have since -become exceedingly indignant, and consider it the origin of the false -taste, the conceits, and flowery style of the seicentisti. But, while it -must be allowed that the imitators of Marini form a school of poetry -remarkable for its corrupt style, its mannerism, and false and -metaphoric imagery, it is impossible not to admit that the "Adone" -itself is a work of great beauty and imagination: it wants sublimity, -and deep pathos and masculine dignity; but its fancy, its descriptions, -its didactic passages, are animated by the undeniable spirit of poetry. -Marini possessed an extreme ease of versification, and a versatility and -fecundity of style that carries the reader along with it. The "Adone" is -founded on the well-known mythological story of Venus and Adonis. Cupid, -having been chastised by his goddess mother, in revenge, resolves to -wreak on her the miseries of love. He brings the son of Myrrha to the -shores of Cyprus, and while the Queen of Beauty is regarding the -beautiful youth as he sleeps, her wily son pierces her heart with his -love-poisoned arrow. She falls in love on the instant, and Adonis, on -awakening, is not slow to return her passion. Venus conducts him to her -palace, where Cupid relates to him his adventures with Psyche, and -Mercury those of Narcissus, Hylas, Actæon, and other victims of love. -He is then led through the gardens of pleasure, into the tower of -delight; but the loves of the goddess and her favourite are interrupted -by the jealousy of Mars, and Adonis flies in alarm from the angry god. -He falls afterwards into the hands of a fairy, who imprisons and annoys -him: he escapes, and, after many wanderings and adventures, returns to -Venus. It is then that he departs on that fatal hunting expedition which -brings on the catastrophe. Mars and the malicious fairy unite in sending -the hoar against him, by which he is destroyed: his death--the grief of -Venus--his interment--and the combats with which the goddess celebrates -his funeral, conclude the poem. Its chief fault is, that it is terribly -wiredrawn, even in the particular descriptions; for as to the story -itself, that forms but a slender portion of the whole composition. -Besides this, we are told that an allegory of youth is contained in the -temptations, pleasures, and fatal catastrophe of the young lover; and -this, as well as the unreal and fantastic nature of the personages, -deprives it of all vivid interest. It is far removed from the fire of -Ariosto, or the pathos and dignity of Tasso; still it is pleasing, -varied, and imaginative, and but for its length would to this day be a -more general favourite. - -The cardinal Ludovisio, nephew of pope Gregory XV., earnestly entreated -Marini to forsake Paris and repair to Rome. The king and queen of France -permitted him to accept the invitation; and he returned to Italy, -unterrified by the accusation that hung over his head, on account of the -licentiousness of his work. He was received at Rome with enthusiasm, and -his society was courted by every person of distinction. Here, as -elsewhere, however, he was involved in literary squabbles; so that at -last he resolved to retreat to the home he had prepared for himself at -Naples. The tribunal, meanwhile, demanded alterations in his poem, -accused of licentiousness and a tendency to impiety. Two of his friends -appeared to answer for him; but he permitted two stanzas only to be -altered. The poem of Marini is certainly in its very texture soft, -effeminate, and amorous; but there are no passages so reprehensible as -many in Ariosto: the "Orlando Furioso" was never denounced; and it is -singular that so pertinacious an outcry should have been raised against -the "Adone." - -Its author, however, was not destined to suffer persecution, nor to -enjoy his success for any long time. Soon after his return to Naples, he -established himself at his delightful villa at Posilippo, where his life -came to a sudden close: he fell ill of a painful malady, and died on the -25th of March, 1625, aged fifty-six. He was buried in the cloister of -the Theatin Fathers, to whom he had bequeathed his valuable library. - - - - -FILICAJA - -1642-1707. - - -Vincenzo da Filicaja was born at Florence, on the 30th of December, -1642. The families of both his parents were noble; his mother being the -daughter of Christofano Spini, one of the most distinguished families of -Tuscany. His father educated him with care, and he attended the public -schools of Florence. He gave early token of his literary and poetic -genius: his memory was tenacious, and his industry indefatigable; while -the seriousness of his disposition rendered retirement and study natural -and easy to him. Perceiving his inclination for learning, his father -sent him to the university of Pisa, to fit him for pursuing the legal -profession. Filicaja attended the lectures of the professors on this -subject; yet he could not induce himself to bestow his whole time on the -law, but applied himself also to philosophy and theology, and to the -imbuing himself with a perfect knowledge of the Latin and Italian -languages. He was naturally inclined to piety, and spent much of his -time in prayer and devout exercises. His habits were regulated by strict -principles of morality; and so devoted was he to the cultivation of his -intellect, that he always rose two hours before dawn, finding his mind -clearer, and more capable of grappling with the abstruse subjects of his -contemplation, in the early hours of morning. - -While yet a student at Pisa, when on a visit to his home during the -vacation, he fell in love; and his poetic talent first developed itself -in verses addressed to the beautiful and noble girl who was the object -of his affection. She died soon after, and he lamented her death in -poetry; but the exact moral discipline to which he subjected his -inclinations reproached him for giving himself up to the influence of -passion; and he burnt all his love poetry, and made a resolution, which -he kept to the end of his life, of dedicating his genius to the -celebration only of moral and sacred subjects. - -After a residence of five years at Pisa, having taken the degree of -doctor of laws, he returned to Florence, and was placed under Giovanni -Federighi, a jurisconsult of eminence, that he might add to his -theoretical, a practical knowledge of law. At the age of thirty-two, he -married Anna, the daughter of the marchese Capponi. Soon after his -father died; and, freed from all restraint, he followed the bent of his -disposition, by retiring into the country, where he spent the greater -part of each year in domestic retirement, devoting himself to the -education of his two sons. - -Hitherto his poetic merits were unknown beyond the limits of a small -circle of friends; but public events called his genius to higher -flights. The Turkish army overrunning Hungary, laid siege to Vienna, and -filled Christendom with alarm. The enthusiastic piety of Filicaja added -to the natural disquietude inspired by such a disaster; and while the -fate of the war was in suspense, and afterwards, when victory drove the -infidels from the gates of the capital of Austria, he poured out his -terrors and his exulting triumph in odes, which breathe a pure and -elevated lyric spirit. - -At the time when he wrote, Italian poetry had received a check from that -unfortunate propensity men have to shackle the free course of genius by -rules and precedent. There was a distinction made between the poetic and -prosaic style; the former was founded upon Petrarch, and it became a law -to use no expressions but such as had his authority. The language of -Italian verse was thus becoming, as it were, a dead idiom; repeating -itself, and incapable of any original expressions. Filicaja disdained -these shackles, and revivified his poetic diction by transfusing into it -many elevated and energetic modes of speech, hitherto reserved for prose -only. Facility, dignity, and clearness are his characteristics; and the -grandeur of his ideas gives force to the originality of his expressions; -which, emanating spontaneously, as they did, from a mind full of his -subject, found an echo in the hearts of his readers. - -His friends alone had hitherto been aware of his talent; but the -enthusiasm they felt on reading these spirited odes led them to give -copies; and they got into the hands of those princes who, as the leaders -of the armies against the Turks, were celebrated in them. One of his -finest odes he had addressed to John, king of Poland; who acknowledged -the honour in letters full of praises and thanks. Christina, queen of -Sweden, displayed in a more kind and liberal manner her admiration: -hearing that Filicaja had two sons, she insisted upon providing for -their education; declaring that she would bring them up as her own -children. She showed herself so generous, that the poet was accustomed -to say, that he could not look on his home and family without perceiving -the marks of her favour. While her modesty was such, that she insisted -that her bounty should be kept a secret; declaring she was ashamed it -should be known that she did so little for a man, whom she esteemed so -much; and her benevolence remained unknown till after her death. -Filicaja's life was not, however, wholly prosperous: on the death of -Christina, he became involved in pecuniary embarrassments, and he was -attacked by a dangerous malady. He lost, also, his eldest son, who, -since the queen's death, had been appointed page of honour to the grand -duke of Tuscany. The high opinion entertained of him by Cosmo III. -extricated him from a part of his difficulties. This prince named him to -the command of the city of Volterra. Ancient feuds and old and almost -irremediable abuses of various kinds, afflicted the town; and it -required all the influence which Filicaja obtained by his justice, his -benevolence, and urbanity to put an end to these evils. Volterra enjoyed -tranquillity and plenty under his direction; trade and the arts -flourished; and this venerable city was restored to a portion of its -former splendour: he thus became so dear to the citizens, that they -twice petitioned the grand duke to continue him in the government. Their -request was accorded; and when, at last, he was recalled, he carried -with him the universal regret. - -On his removal from Volterra, he was, for two years, governor of -Pisa,--a situation of high trust. On his return to Florence, he filled -several law offices of great power and emolument. He was popular and -beloved throughout: equitable, but benevolent; diligent and -conscientious, his virtues were adorned by his pleasing and affable -manners. His piety caused him to devote much of his leisure to -devotional exercises; and his taste led him to cultivate poetry. His -industrious habits enabled him to compose a great deal when his time was -otherwise much taken up by his public duties. He wrote much in Latin, a -small portion only of which has been published; and it displays a deep -knowledge and command of that language. He employed himself also in -correcting and adding to his Italian poetry. He was a severe critic on -his own works; and yet, mistrusting his judgment, he submitted them to -the further censorship of four selected friends. He was much beloved, as -well as admired, by all who knew him; and belonged to the Della Crusca -academy, and to the Arcadian,--of both of which he was the brightest -ornament. His last work was an "Ode to the Virgin," which occupied him -but a few days before his death. Filicaja was not only devout, but a -rigid catholic. One of the acts of his life previous to entering on a -new career, had been a pilgrimage to Loretto; and, in his dying moments, -a picture of the Virgin excited his pious and poetic thoughts. There is -great spirit and sweetness in this ode, in which he recurs to the love -of his earlier days; and how, on losing the object, he transferred his -devotion, entire and for ever, to the mother of his Saviour. - -While thus employed, he was seized by an inflammation of his lungs. His -religious faith supported him in his sufferings, and did not forsake him -to the last. He died on the 24th of September, 1707, at the age of -sixty-five. He was buried in his family tomb in the church of San Piero, -at Florence. - - - - -METASTASIO - -1698-1782. - - -Metastasio was of obscure origin. He owed his prosperity, in the first -place, to the talents with which nature had endowed him; and, in the -second, to singular good fortune; while his amiable disposition and -excellent character gave a scope to the course of felicitous -circumstances; which, among men of genius, is frequently checked by -their impetuosity and thoughtlessness, or by the proud sense of -independence attendant upon their organisation. The name of the poet's -father was Felice Trapassi, a citizen of Assisi. His poverty had forced -him to enter into the Corsican regiment of the pope; and he added to his -slender means by acting as copyist. He married Francesca Galasti, of -Bologna; by whom he had two sons and two daughters. Later in life, he -saved money enough to enter into partnership in a shop of _l'arte -bianca_,--a sort of chandler, where maccaroni, oil, and other culinary -materials, are sold. His younger son, Pietro, was born at Rome, on the -13th of January, 1698. The child gave early indications of genius; and -his father resolved to bestow on him the best education in his power; -and placed him, at a very early age, with a watchmaker, that he might -learn a respectable art. - -But the boy was born to pursue a nobler career. He was already a poet; -and, when only ten years old, attracted an audience in his father's shop -by his talents as improvisatore. It happened, one summer evening, that -Vincenzo Gravina, a celebrated jurisconsult, and renowned for his -learning and love of letters, was walking with the poet Lorenzini in the -streets of Rome. Passing by Trapassi's shop, he was attracted by the -childish voice of the juvenile poet, who was in the act of reciting -extempore verses. He joined the audience; and, being perceived by -Pietro, the little fellow introduced some stanzas in his praise into his -effusion. Gravina, charmed by his talent and prepossessing appearance, -offered him money, which the child refused. The lawyer continued to -question him, and was so satisfied by the propriety and spirit of his -answers, that he immediately proposed to adopt him as his son; promising -to give him a good education, and to facilitate his career in the same -profession as himself. No objection could be raised to so generous and -beneficent an offer. The boy was not to be taken from his native town, -nor were his duties towards his parents to be interfered with. - -One of Gravina's first acts was to change his adopted son's, name from -the ignoble one of Trapassi to the better sounding appellation of -Metastasio, which was a sort of translation of his paternal name into -Greek. Gravina did not delay to cultivate the boy's understanding, so as -to fit him for a literary career. Being an idolater of ancient learning, -his first care was to initiate his pupil in the languages of the writers -of Greece and Rome, and then to imbue him with a knowledge of their -works. Metastasio showed himself an apt scholar: at the age of fourteen -he wrote a tragedy, which, in a letter written in after years, he freely -criticised. "My tragedy of 'Giustino,'" he says, "was written at the age -of fourteen, when the authority of my illustrious master did not permit -me to diverge from a religious imitation of the Greek models; and when -my own inexperience prevented me from discerning the gold from the lead -in those mines whose treasures were but just opened to me." The tragedy, -written thus in strict imitation, is necessarily frigid; nor does the -language bear the stamp of the ease and grace which so distinguished -Metastasio's after writings. - -He still continued to improvisare verses in company. This attractive art -renders the person who exercises it the object of so much interest and -admiration, that it is to be wondered that any one who has once -practised it, can ever give it up. The act of reciting the poetry that -flows immediately to the lips is peculiarly animating: the declaimer -warms, as he proceeds, with his own success; while the throng of words -and ideas that present themselves, light up the eyes, and give an air of -almost supernatural intelligence and fire to the countenance and person. -The audience--at first curious, then pleased, and, at last, carried away -by enthusiastic delight--feel an admiration, and bestow plaudits, which, -perhaps, no other display of human talent is capable of exciting. The -youth, the harmonious voice, and agreeable person of Metastasio added to -the charm: yet, fortunately, he gave up the exercise of his power before -it had unfitted him for more arduous compositions. He gives an account -of his success, and his quitting the practice, in a subsequent letter to -Algarotti. "I do not deny," he writes, "that a natural talent for -harmony and rhythm displayed itself in me earlier than is usually the -case; that is, when I was about ten years of age. This strange -phenomenon so dazzled my great master. Gravina, that he selected me as -soil worthy to be cultivated by so celebrated a man. Until I was -sixteen, he brought me forward to improvisare verses on any given -subject; and Rolli, Vanini, and Perfetti, then men of mature years, were -my rivals. Many people tried to write down our effusions while we -extemporised, but with no success; for, besides that they were no adepts -in short-hand, it was necessary to deceive us cleverly, otherwise the -mere suspicion of such an operation would have dried up my vein. This -occupation soon became burdensome and injurious to me; burdensome, -because I was perpetually obliged, by invitations which could not be -refused, to task myself every day, and sometimes twice a day,--now to -gratify some lady's whim, now to satisfy the curiosity of some high-born -fool, and now to fill up a blank in some grand assembly,--losing thus -miserably the greater part of the time necessary for my studies. It was -injurious, because my weak and uncertain health suffered. It was -perceptible to every one that the agitation attendant on this exercise -of the mind, used to inflame my countenance and heat my head, while my -hands and extremities became icy cold. Gravina consequently exerted his -authority to prohibit me from making extempore verses,--a prohibition -which, from the age of sixteen, I have never infringed, and to which I -believe that I owe the remnant of reasonable and connected ideas that -are to be found in my waitings." He goes on to state the evils that -result to the intellect perpetually bent on so exciting a proceeding; -when the poet, instead of selecting and arranging his thoughts, and then -using measure and rhyme as obedient executors of his designs, is obliged -to employ the small time allowed him in collecting words, in which he -afterwards clothes the ideas best fitted to these words, even though -foreign to his theme: thus the former seeks at his ease for a dress -fitted to his subject; while the latter, in haste and disturbance, must -find a subject fitted to his dress. - -On withdrawing his pupil from the exercise of this fascinating art. -Gravina became aware that his education could not be carried on with -success amidst the pleasures and idleness of his life at Rome; and he -sent him to study under his cousin Camporese, who lived near the ancient -Cortona, a town of Magna Græcia, famous in antiquity for its schools of -philosophy. Metastasio was very happy at this period of his life; and, -in a letter written at an advanced age, he recurs to it with yearning -fondness. "Of how many dear and pleasing ideas, my friend," he writes to -Don Saverio Mattei, "you have awakened the recollection, by causing me -to go over in my thoughts the happy time I spent, not less usefully than -delightfully, between boyhood and adolescence, in Magna Græcia. I saw -again as if they were present all those objects which pleased me so much -at that time. Again I inhabited the little chamber, in which the sound -of the breakers of the neighbouring sea so often lulled me into the -sweetest sleep; and, by force of my imagination, I revisited in my boat -the shores of neighbouring Scalea; and the names and aspects of many -places recurred to me, before forgotten. I heard again the venerable -voice of the renowned philosopher Camporese; who, stooping to instruct -one so young, led me, as it were, by the hand among the vortexes of the -then reigning Descartes, of whom he was a strenuous advocate, and -attracted my boyish curiosity, by showing me in wax, as if in a game, -how globules were formed from atoms, and filling me with admiration of -the bewitching experiments of philosophy. It seems to me as if I again -saw him labouring to persuade me that his dog was formed upon the same -principle as a watch; and that the trinal dimension is a sufficient -definition of solid bodies. And I behold him smile, when, having kept me -long plunged in a dark reverie, by forcing me to doubt of every thing, -he perceived that I breathed again, on his assertion, 'I think, -therefore, I am;' the invincible proof of a certainty which I had -despaired of ever again attaining." Camporese died, unfortunately, in -the midst of these studies, and Metastasio returned to Rome. - -[Sidenote: 1718. -Ætat. -20.] - -It was soon after his lot to lose his adopted father, Gravina. He -expresses, both in letters written at the time, and in after years, his -deep grief on the death of his benefactor. Gravina kept his word, of -considering him as his son; and, with the exception of a legacy to his -mother, left him heir to all that he possessed, to the amount of about -fifteen thousand crowns. Finding himself thus independent, and even rich -in his own eyes, Metastasio gave himself up to the study of poetry. -Hitherto the rules of Gravina had limited his reading: now he emerged -into freedom; and, having been before allowed only to peruse Ariosto, -among the Italians, he read the "Jerusalem Delivered" for the first -time. He was enchanted by the order and majesty of a single action, -conducted with art, and terminated with dignity. The grandeur of the -style, the vivid colouring and fervid imagination of Tasso, transported -him with delight. Ovid was also an especial favourite; and it is -recorded that he regarded Marini with an approbation which that poet, -indeed, deserves, but of which, as the original corrupter of the Italian -style, and the leader of the degenerate Seicentisti, he is usually -deprived. - -Unfortunately, independence and youthful thoughtlessness led Metastasio -into other deviations from Gravina's lessons, less praiseworthy than -reading Tasso. The poet was warm-hearted, hospitable, and gay. He was -surrounded by companions ready to share the pleasures and luxuries which -his money procured; while he believed his future prospects secured by -the promises he received from influential protectors. Two years had not -passed before he was undeceived. He had squandered the greater part of -his fortune; he had made many enemies, and his friends fell off. With a -firmness worthy of his education, he stopped short of actual ruin; and, -disgusted with the society of Rome, and the treatment he had suffered, -he changed, on a sudden, his whole plan of life, following up his new -designs with zeal and perseverance. - -"There lived at Naples," says his biographer, Venanzio, "a rough incult -lawyer, called Castagnola, covered with rust and dust, and an enemy to -every thing that was not allied to forensic struggles and turmoils." -Wishing to place a barrier between his will and his inclinations, -Metastasio went to Naples, and chose this man for his master, believing -that his asperity and detestation of poetry would serve to guard him -against having again recourse to an art towards which nature impelled -him. For nearly two years he submitted to the control of Castagnola, and -devoted himself to the severest study. But he was well known at Naples, -and his talents were appreciated. He was perpetually solicited to -compose epithalamiums, theatrical pieces, and occasional verses. He -resisted the temptation as long as he could: at last, commanded by the -viceroy, he consented to write a drama, to celebrate the birthday of the -empress Elizabeth Christina, wife of Charles VI. He, however, obtained a -promise of secrecy, and hoped to conceal his crime from his master. To -accomplish this, he was obliged to steal for his work the hours usually -devoted to sleep; but his natural vein, checked for some time, flowed -with such felicity, that he accomplished his task before the appointed -time. The "Orti Esperidi" charmed his august employer, who bestowed on -it the highest praise, and presented the author with a purse containing -two hundred ducats. - -The success of this interlude on the stage confirmed the judgment of the -viceroy. It was admirably set to music, and the decorations were most -splendid. All Naples flocked to the representation--all Naples resounded -with its praises, and every one was eager to thank and applaud the -author. But Metastasio, reluctant to quit his legal studies, shrank from -the censures of his master, and continued to preserve the concealment he -had at first adopted: he even angrily denied the charge when he was -accused of being the writer, and put enquiry to fault; till at last the -discovery was made by the prima donna, Marianna Bulgarelli, usually -called La Romanina, from her native city. She had received the greatest -applause in the character of Venus, in this drama; and her gratitude and -admiration made her eager to learn to whom she owed her success. Despite -all his efforts, she discovered that Metastasio was the author, and she -lost no time in spreading the report throughout Naples. - -Castagnola was highly indignant. He treated his pupil with severity and -disdain; while, on the other hand, the Romanina used every argument to -inspire him with self-confidence, and to induce him to follow the career -for which he was formed by nature. He consented at last: he quitted the -angry lawyer, who refused even to listen to his farewell; and, at the -earnest invitation of his new friend, took up his abode at her house. -Marianna Bulgarelli had a society around her of distinguished men and -accomplished artists, and among these Metastasio found every -encouragement to pursue his new career. He studied the science of music -under Porpora, the first composer of the day, and acquired a knowledge -of the art which greatly assisted the melody of his verses; so that, he -tells us, he never wrote any lyrical poetry without imagining an -accompaniment at the same time, which regulated its cadences and -modulated the sounds. His natural inclination led him to desire to write -tragedies; but, on reflection, he found that it was not sufficient that -tragedies should be written, if there were no actors to represent them, -nor an audience which could take interest in the representation. His -association with musical people, and a prima donna, led him to consider -the opera as the natural drama of Italy. Operatic dramas owed their -origin to Florence, the birthplace of so much that is great and -admirable, and were first brought forward in 1594. After that time they -fell into disrepute, till Apostolo Zeno, choosing in ancient mythology -and history the groundwork of his plots, brought out pieces that -acquired great popularity. To this species of composition Metastasio -accordingly turned his thoughts. Marianna encouraged him to proceed; -and, when he received the commission to furnish the Neapolitan theatre -with an opera for the carnival of 1724, she suggested the subject of -"Didone Abbandonata," or the desertion of Dido. In this, she filled the -part of the unfortunate queen; and her dignity, pathos, and musical -powers imparted an attraction to the piece, which filled the audience -with enthusiasm, while her heart warmed with gratitude towards the poet, -whose admirable conception and execution gave a scope to her talents, -before denied to them. The reputation of Dido spread through Italy: -during the carnival of the following year, it was acted at Venice, la -Romanina being still engaged to fill the principal part. Metastasio -accompanied his friend, and wrote, while in that city, another opera, -called "Siroe." - -This was the last appearance of Marianna on the stage: she was no longer -young, and retired from her profession. She took up her residence at -Rome, and with some difficulty persuaded her friend to return to his -native city. The two families resided under the same roof--Marianna and -her husband--Metastasio with his father, elder brother, and two sisters. -The relations of the poet were indigent; but he possessed some property, -and his friend was comparatively rich. The household was in common; -Marianna acting as steward and housekeeper, while she still kept her -station beside the poet; encouraging him in moments of despondency; -suggesting subjects for his muse; and displaying, at all times, that -active and generous affection which so distinguished her. - -Metastasio did not, however, meet with the encouragement at Rome which -hailed his first exertions. He wrote his drama of "Cato," which was -acted in 1727: but it was not attended with his accustomed success. The -austere character of the Roman hero--the cold loves--and disastrous -ending--displeased the morbid tastes of the spectators, who were unable -to appreciate the simplicity of the plot, or the grandeur of the -sentiments. Metastasio had a true tragic bias for an unhappy -catastrophe; but his audience did not relish it, and, subsequently, he -adapted himself better to their tastes, and his operas have usually the -happy ending, then supposed more consonant to the inherent lightness of -musical dramas, or, probably, to the talents of the singers: as, in our -days, the sublime acting of Pasta has induced composers to bring forward -tragedies of the deepest dye, "Medea" and "Otello," as the subjects best -fitted for their art. - -Metastasio was discouraged: he was poor, and he had many enemies at -Rome, who prejudiced the pope against him, and rendered his abode very -disagreeable. At this moment, fortune came to his aid, and his whole -future life became prosperous and stable. In November, 1729, he received -a letter from prince Pio of Savoy, director of the imperial theatricals, -inviting him to become the court poet of Vienna. Apostolo Zeno was at -that time poet laureate to the emperor Charles VI.; but he also, with -praiseworthy liberality, seconded the emperor in his wish to invite -Metastasio to his court; and the way was opened to him by the absence of -envy in one, who might have looked on him as a rival, but who generously -preferred regarding him as a fellow-labourer, or rather, successor, to -his own exertions. Metastasio at once accepted the offer with many -expressions of gratitude. He was allowed to delay his journey to Vienna -till the spring of 1730, and to fulfil his engagement of supplying the -Roman theatre with two pieces for the carnival. These were "Alexander in -India," and "Artaxerxes." The latter was a favourite from the first: the -poet considered it the most fortunate of his productions, and was -accustomed to say that he owed it more obligations than any other of his -dramas; since, even when set to indifferent music, it never failed to -meet with success. - -Metastasio thus made his appearance at Vienna, surrounded by the halo of -a recent triumph. He left Rome with pleasure; but he quitted his family -with regret: more than all he must have lamented his separation from his -generous and affectionate friend, Marianna, the encourager of his -youthful timidity, the chief promoter of his fortunate choice of a -profession, and his unwearied comforter during adverse circumstances. He -went to new scenes and to a new people, and adapted himself at once to -the change. He was kindly received by the emperor, and his heart -overflowed with gratitude for his condescension and beneficence. - -It is a strange fact, how little we are contented with negative -qualities in our fellow-creatures; and, indeed, how amiability, and even -generosity, become slight in our eyes, if unaccompanied by energy, -independence, and pride. Metastasio was the most amiable of men: his -disposition was affectionate and constant; yet he was derided in his own -time for his courtier-like qualities, and the gratitude he naturally -evinced towards his imperial benefactors; and censured for a coldness of -heart of which we can find no trace in his writings or actions. There is -one circumstance that renders posterity more just, and, in particular, -induces those who write his biography to regard him with a favourable -eye: this is the publication of his letters. We possess a series from -the age of thirty to that of eighty-four, when he died, which let us -into the secrets of his heart, and display his good sense, his friendly -disposition, his justice, and the ready sympathy that he afforded to -those to whom he was attached, in a more undisguised manner than could -be known to his contemporaries. These letters prepossess the reader in -his favour; and, while the biographer finds few events to record, and -little of misfortune or error to mark his pages with high-wrought -interest, he may envy the tranquil career of the fortunate poet, and -wish that fate had made him the friend of such a man. - -Metastasio entered on his employments at Vienna in the year 1730, at the -age of thirty-two. He took up his abode in the house of Niccolo -Martinetz, who held a place in the court of the apostolic nuncio, and -with whom he remained to the end of his life. The dramas that he brought -out during the year succeeding to his arrival were eminently successful. -These were "Adriano," and "Demetrio;" and, during the three following, -he wrote the "Olimpiade," "Demoofonte," and "Issipile." Each, as it -appeared, excited still renewed admiration and applause. After the -representation of "Issipile," the emperor broke through his habitual -majestic reserve, and expressed his satisfaction to the poet, who was -enraptured by the unusual condescension. His imperial master soon after -testified his approbation in a more solid manner, by bestowing on him -the place of treasurer to the province of Cosenza in Naples, worth -annually 350 sequins. Unfortunately, the war of the Spanish succession -deprived him of this income, after he had enjoyed it but for a few -years. - -The poet's heart and soul were in his profession, and his operas were -written with that fervent and exalted spirit which marks the -compositions of genius; while his modesty engendered doubts concerning -their reception, which were delightfully dissipated by the triumph of -their success. His feelings are all ingenuously expressed in his letters -to Marianna Bulgarelli, who, together with her husband, still remained -at Rome with the poet's family. "I did not believe," he writes, "that I -should have been able to send you the good news I now give--I was so -entirely prepared for the contrary. My _Demetrio_ was brought out last -Sunday, and with so great success, that the old people here assure me -they never witnessed such universal applause. The audience wept at the -Addio--my august master was not unmoved--and, notwithstanding the -respect paid to the imperial presence, the public could not restrain -themselves from giving marks of applause. My enemies have become my -applauders. I cannot express my surprise, for this opera is so -delicately touched, without any of that strong colouring that strikes at -once, that I feared that it was not adapted to the national taste. I was -mistaken--every one seems to understand it, and passages are recited in -conversation, as if it were written in German." While composing the -"Olimpiade," he thus addresses his friend:--"Here is a moral sonnet -which I wrote in the midst of a pathetic scene, that moved me as I wrote -it: so that, smiling at myself, when I found my eyes humid from pity at -a fictitious disaster, invented by myself, I expressed my feelings in -the sonnet I send. The idea does not displease me; and I did not choose -to lose it, as it will serve as an incitement for my piety." The thought -of the sonnet is, that, while he smiles at himself for weeping over -dreams and fables of his own invention, he may remember that every thing -that he fears and hopes is equally fictitious,--that all is false, his -existence a delirium, and his whole life a dream;--and it ends with a -prayer that he may awaken and find repose in the bosom of truth. - -Again, he writes, "Will you suggest the subject of an opera? Yes or no? -I am in an abyss of doubt. Oh! do not laugh, and say that the disease is -incurable; for indeed; the choice of a subject merits all this -inquietude and scepticism. It is my lot to be forced to make a choice; -and I cannot avoid it; otherwise I should continue to doubt until the -day of judgment; and then begin again. Read the third scene of the third -act of my 'Adrian;' remark the character which the emperor gives of -himself, and you will see my own.[47] From this you may conclude; that I -know my faults; but not that I can correct them. This pertinacity in a -fault; which torments me without the recompence of any pleasure; and -which I clearly perceive; without being able to remedy; makes me often -reflect on the tyranny which the body exercises over the mind. If my -understanding is convinced, when reasoning calmly, that this excess of -indecision is a troublesome, tormenting, and useless vice, and an -obstacle to the execution of any design, why do I not get rid of it? Why -not abide by a resolution, so often taken, to doubt no more? The answer -is clear; that the mechanical constitution of the soul's imperfect -habitation gives a false colouring to objects before they reach it, as -rays of the sun appear yellow or green or red, according to the hue of -the substance which they traverse to meet our eyes. Hence it is clear, -that men for the most part do not act from reason, but from mechanical -impulse, subsequently adapting, by the force of their understanding, -their reason to their actions, so that the cleverest frequently appear -the most reasonable. Do not get weary, because I play the philosopher -with you; I have none else with whom to play it; and doing it thus by -letter, I call to mind conversations of this kind, which made us spend -so many happy hours together.--O, how much more matter for such has my -experience in the world given me! -[Footnote: July 4. -1733.] -We will again talk on these subjects, if fortune does not, through some -caprice, entangle the thread of my honourable but laborious life." - -A few months after fortune cut, rather than entangled, the thread of -these prospects; Marianna died, and, true to her feelings of -friendship[48] to the end, she left the poet heir to her possessions, to -the amount of thirty thousand crowns. Metastasio writes thus to his -brother, on receiving this sad intelligence:-- - -"In the agitation I feel from the unexpected death of the poor and -generous Marianna, I cannot long dilate. I can only say, that my honour -and my conscience have both induced me to renounce her bequest in favour -of her husband. I owe it to the world to undeceive it from a great -mistake,--that of fancying that my friendship was founded on avarice and -interested motives. I have no right to take advantage of the partiality -of my poor friend to the injury of her husband, and God will by some -other means make up for what I now renounce. I need nothing for myself; -I possess sufficient at Rome to maintain my family in decency, and if -Providence preserves to me my property in Naples, I will give my -relations other marks of my affection, and think seriously of you in -particular. Communicate my resolution to my father, as I have not time -to write to him. Assure him of my intention always to contribute as -heretofore to his comfort, and even to increase my assistance, if my -Neapolitan income does not fail me. In short, make him enter into my -feelings, so that he shall not imbitter them by disapproving of my -honest and Christian determination. - -"You will continue to live with signor Bulgarelli, who will, I hope, -display towards you that friendly kindness which my conduct with regard -to him deserves. All will go on as before; only poor Marianna will never -return, nor can I hope for any consolation, and the rest of my life will -be insipid and painful." - -"I feel," he wrote to another friend on this occasion, "as if I were in -the world as in an unpeopled solitude; desolate as a man would feel, if, -transported in his sleep among the Chinese or Tartars, he should, on -awakening, find himself among a people whose language, manners, and -customs are alike unknown to him. In the midst of such fancies, so much -reason remains, as permits me to be aware how without foundation they -are, and how produced; but reflection has not yet sufficed to dissipate -them. You will have heard that I have renounced the bequest. I know not -whether this renunciation will be approved of by all, but I know that -neither my honour nor my conscience permit me to take advantage of the -excessive partiality of a woman to the injury of her relations, and that -the want of the riches which I refuse, is more tolerable than the shame -which they would produce in me." - -Metastasio was, with his accustomed modesty, disturbed by the fear, lest -his honourable conduct would be disapproved of by his friends and the -world; and he was agreeably surprised when, on the contrary, it met with -the general approbation it deserved. "I should be insincere," he writes -to the same friend, "if, affecting philosophy, I pretended to be annoyed -by the kind approval which my country has universally yielded to my -renunciation of Marianna's bequest. It delights me in the first place, -and like a vow, confirms me in my opinion of the justice of the act; and -in the second, it surprises me, as being the testimony of the affection -of so great a mother for the least of her sons." - -This, during the space of ten years, from the time of his first arrival -in Vienna, was the only event that disturbed Metastasio's life. These -ten years are the period during which his poetic powers flourished most -vigorously, and during which his best as well as the greater number of -his works were produced. The favour they met confirmed his situation at -court, while they caused him to labour unintermittingly. It is difficult -to give one not versed in the Italian language a correct idea of the -peculiar merits of his poetry, and the excellences of his dramas. They -are not absolute tragedies: their happy conclusions, the introduction of -airs, and their being compressed into three acts, give them a lightness -and a brevity unlike the heavier march of tragedy. They are to a great -degree ideal, and yet possess the interest which passion and plot, -described and developed with masterly skill, necessarily impart. His -command of language is singularly great, and he adapted poetic diction -to dramatic dialogue with wonderful felicity. A long and profound study -of the genius of his native tongue gave him such extreme facility, that -the perfection of art takes the guise of the most unadorned nature; and -the flow and clearness of his verses so excite our sympathy, as to make -us feel as if the thoughts and sentiments which we find in his pages -were the spontaneous growth of our own minds. The magic of his style -renders sensible and distinct the most delicate and evanescent feelings, -so that it has been remarked[49], that many of the movements of the -human soul, which the ablest writers have scarcely been able to indicate -in prose, and which, from their subtlety, are almost hidden from our -consciousness, are brought home to us in his verses with a lucid -felicity of expression, that leaves no portion of them either obscure or -vague. He thus formed a language peculiarly his own. In his airs the -words flow in so unforced a manner and with such extreme propriety, that -they appear to place themselves: not one can be changed, not one -omitted. There is no pedantry, no affectation; simplicity is his -principal charm; it seems as if a child might utter them,--they are so -unstudied; and yet no other poet possesses to an equal degree the art of -clothing his ideas with the same easy grace. - -When we reflect on the singular perfection of his style, we are not -surprised that he preserved it with the most jealous watchfulness. He -was careful not to accustom his mind to the use of any language except -Italian, and never knew more of German than the few words "sufficient," -as he forcibly expresses it, "to save his life." Many nobles of Vienna -paid him the compliment of learning his language for the sake of -conversing with him, and Italian being in common use among the -well-educated, he did not lose so much as might be expected: yet he must -have felt the privation. He was right, however, in adhering to his -resolution. He was settled at Vienna for life, while at the same time -his present occupation and his future glory depended on his preserving -uninjured that delicacy of taste, and felicity of expression in his -native language, which characterises his compositions. But to return to -his operas. - -He himself has said, that if he were forced to select one of his dramas -to be preserved, while all the rest were annihilated, he should fix upon -"Attilio Regulo." The principal action of this play, founded on the -well-known heroism of Regulus, in dissuading his countrymen from an -exchange of prisoners, and his consequent return to servitude and a -cruel death in Carthage, is conducted with dignity and pathos. But the -interest of the piece is somewhat marred by an underplot, and the airs -interspersed are not among his best. Perhaps we are inclined to give the -preference among them to "Themistocles:" the dignity of the subject -raises it to this pre-eminence; but in pathos, tenderness, and -impassioned dialogue, the "Olimpiade" is unequalled. Devoted friendship -forms the action; the personages are placed in the most interesting -situations, and the language is sustained to the height of those -emotions which the clash of heroic feelings would inspire. There are -scenes in "Demofoonte" as fine as any to be found in Metastasio, but -there is a reduplication of plot which mars the unity of the action; as, -after deeply sympathising with the hero in his fears concerning his -wife's fate, through nearly four acts, we are somewhat exhausted, and -cannot well reawaken other sentiments, to mourn over the relationship -that he imagines that he has discovered to exist between them. Voltaire -and others have praised the scene between Titus and Sestus in the -"Clemenza di Tito," as surpassing the representation of any similar -struggle of feeling in any other dramatic poet; and the airs in that -piece are among his happiest compositions. It was the poet's aim and -pleasure, in all his writings, to make virtue attractive, and to paint -patriotism, self-sacrifice and the best affections of the soul, in -glowing and alluring colours. This gives a great charm to his dramas. We -live among a better race, and yet the sorrows and passions and errors of -the personages are represented in a manner to call forth our liveliest -sympathy. A heartfelt pathos reigns throughout, and if passages of -sublimity are rare (though there are several which merit that name), the -elevated moral feeling acts on our minds to prevent the enervating -influence of mere tenderness and grief.[50] - -Besides his dramas, Metastasio composed at this period two canzonetti, -which are among the best of his productions. The "Grazie agli inganni -tuoi," or thanks of a lover to his lady for having disenchanted him by -her caprices, is written at once with feeling and spirit. The "Partenza" -is yet more beautiful. It was founded on the unfortunate attachment of a -Viennese nobleman for a public singer, who at last yielded to the -entreaties of his friends, in detaching himself from her, on condition -that Metastasio should write some verses of adieu. The lover must have -been satisfied, and the lady charmed, despite regret, by the passion, -tenderness, and beauty of the poem which celebrates their separation. - -Metastasio's tranquil and prosperous life was broken in upon in 1740, by -the death of the emperor Charles VI., who fell a victim to either poison -or indigestion, after eating mushrooms. The poet was unfeignedly -attached to his imperial master, whose moral and religious character was -congenial to his own; and the disturbed state of Europe, immediately -after, added to his regret. This prince had no son, and his daughter, -Maria Teresa, succeeded to him as queen of Bohemia and Hungary. Her -husband aspired to the imperial crown; but the influence of France -caused the duke of Bavaria to be elected, under the title of Charles -VII. This disappointment was not the only misfortune of the queen; the -king of Prussia invaded Silesia almost immediately after her father's -death, and Vienna being threatened with a siege, she was obliged to quit -it, and to take refuge in Presburg. After a reign of four years, Charles -VII. died, and the husband of Maria Teresa, then grand duke of Tuscany, -was elected emperor in the year 1745, under the name of Francis I.: but -the war still continued, and its various success, and the disasters, -with which it was attended, gave the court little leisure or inclination -for amusement, until the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. - -On the death of Charles VI., several of the European sovereigns invited -Metastasio to their courts, and made him advantageous and honourable -offers; but, as Maria Teresa still continued him in the place he held -under her father, the poet felt that fidelity and gratitude alike -forbade him to change masters during her adversity. His naturally -sensitive mind was strongly agitated by the various success of the -empress queen's arms. His susceptibility of disposition did not allow -him to regard the course of events with a stoical eye; and to the -disquietude he suffered is attributed the bad state of health into which -he fell after the year 1745, when he was forty-seven years of age. His -malady was chiefly nervous; hysterical affections, and a rush of blood -to the head, were brought on by the slightest mental exertion, followed -by a total temporary inability to write, or even to think: he was thus -obliged entirely to suspend his poetic labours; and when he forced -himself to them, they bear the mark of a falling off in his powers. It -cannot be doubted that this unfortunate state was brought on in a great -degree by climate. He was a native of Rome, and, till the age of -thirty-two, had resided constantly in the south of Italy. What a dreary -contrast did Vienna present to the enchanting land in which he passed -his youth! The clear skies, the perpetual summer, the cheerful feelings -produced by the habits of a southern life, were injuriously changed for -the gloom of the freezing north. The very precautions which the natives -take to protect themselves from cold during the interminable winters, -the stoves, closed windows, and consequent want of fresh air and healthy -exercise, being in diametrical opposition to the more hardy habits of -southern nations, are injurious to the health and spirits of those who -are accustomed to regard the "skiey influences" as friendly instead of -inimical to their comfort and well-being. Metastasio never left Germany -after he first entered it. A part of his occupation, in the sequel, -became the teaching the archduchesses, daughters of Maria Teresa, -Italian: this was an office he felt that he could not desert, with any -grace, even for a limited number of months. The kindness of the empress -in yielding to the total suspension of all theatrical composition on his -part, forced on him by ill health, bound him yet more devotedly to her. -As he grew older, he became a man of habit, and consequently averse to -travelling. It is impossible, however, not to believe, that if he had -varied his residence in Germany by occasional visits to his native -country, the disease under which he laboured, which embittered though it -did not shorten existence, would have been dissipated and cured. - -Metastasio's life, we are told, is only to be found in his letters, yet -these detail no event; one of them contains, indeed, an offer of -marriage to a lady, whose name is omitted: it is well written, and with -considerable delicacy of sentiment; but, as he had no acquaintance with -the object, and aspired to her alliance on account of her character, and -his friendship for her father, his feelings could not be very deeply -interested. Many of his letters are addressed to his brother, and they -display a warm interest for his family. After the death of Marianna, the -management of his affairs in Italy devolved on his relatives, and many -are taken up with directions and advice. Leopold, and the rest of -Metastasio's family, fell into the common error of supposing, that since -he was in favour at court, the greatest prosperity would flow in upon -him. The poet endeavoured to undeceive him:--"Princes and their -satellites," he writes, "have neither the will nor power to confer -benefits correspondent to the notions people are pleased to form. I do -not know what definition merit bears among them; and I religiously -abstain from inquiring, placing it among those mysteries which are -beyond, though not contrary to, our understanding. Following these -principles, I do all that is enough to prevent my feeling remorse for -sins of omission; but I never allow hope to interfere in the guidance of -my cautious line of conduct. It is a long time since I have ceased to be -the dupe of hope, and it would be shameful to become such at our age. -Expect less, therefore, on my account, and you will find the scales more -even. This letter speaks more freely than any other, as I write only for -you, and among other earthly goods, I desire for you the most useful of -all,--a clear perception, if not of all, of the greater part of those -innumerable errors, contracted through our lamentable education, and our -intercourse with fools." - -These sentiments did not float merely on the surface of Metastasio's -mind,--he made them the guides of his actions. As he says, gratitude and -duty regulated his conduct, but no servile hunting after greater -benefits mingled with the deference he manifested towards those in -power. He acted on the defensive in his intercourse with courts, with -such consistency of purpose, that he refused the honours chiefly valued -there, and declined the various orders, and the title of count, which -the emperor Charles VI. had offered to bestow on him. - -It is from passages such as these, interspersed in his letters, that we -can collect the peculiar character of the man--his difference from -others--and the mechanism of being that rendered him the individual that -he was. Such, Dr. Johnson remarks, is the true end of biography, and he -recommends the bringing forward of minute, yet characteristic details, -as essential to this style of history; to follow which precept has been -the aim and desire of the writer of these pages. - -In other letters Metastasio writes concerning his works, and explains -his views in the developement of his dramas; but he never makes himself -the subject-matter without an apology. "Never in my life," he writes on -one occasion, "did I before write so much concerning myself. I perceive -this at the end of my letter, and blush, not because I feel myself -guilty of too great self-love, but because I shall appear so to you. -Remember that few people distrust themselves to a fault, as I do; and in -communicating to you the perfection which I desire to attain, I do not -fancy that I am exempt from those defects, to which human nature and my -own weakness expose me." - -All his letters to his brother express the most earnest and affectionate -interest. It is the more necessary to mention this, as one of the -calumnies propagated against him was, an aversion to render service to -his relatives. "You know," he writes to his brother, "that your honour -and welfare have always been the objects of my solicitude, and that I -never proposed to myself any reward, except the agreeable consciousness -that my endeavours to introduce you and sustain you in the career of -letters, have not failed of success; if you think that you owe me any -gratitude, pay it by increasing my self-satisfaction on this account. -You can never show yourself more generous to me than by meriting that -esteem which begins to be your due." - -On the death of their father he writes with great feeling:--"The loss of -our poor father did not surprise, while it filled me with the liveliest -grief. I measure your sorrow by my own. I feel that it will require time -to render me reasonable. I thank you for your fraternal kindness in the -midst of your affliction. Dear brother, you now fill the place of a -father in his stead: do it worthily, and if there is any thing that I -can do to comfort you, demand it from me without reserve: your -consolation will produce mine. My poor sisters!--how lost they will feel -themselves! take care of them, dear Leopold: reflect how much fewer -supports they have than we against the assaults of passion, especially -of that feeling which is derived from the most sacred of nature's laws. -Adieu. If I have always loved you, consider how this affection is -augmented by the loss of him who possessed before so large a proportion -of it. Let yours increase also." - -His brother distinguished himself afterwards by some writings in favour -of religion; and it appears that he even had the design of writing the -poet's Life. Metastasio, while he praised Leopold for occupying himself -in a praiseworthy manner, advised him against publishing controversial -arguments, which would occasion him to be attacked by the cleverest men -of Europe; and which, doubtless, were not stamped with that talent which -could insure success. Metastasio, while deprecating the spread of -unbelief occasioned by the French philosophers of those days, yet joined -with the throng in fearing their attacks, and in flattering -Voltaire,--showing in how great awe he stood of the enmity and sarcasm -of that wonderful man. It is supposed that Leopold died in 1770, after -which date no more letters appear addressed to him. - -One of the principal correspondents of Metastasio, and to whom his most -agreeable letters are addressed, is Farinelli. The poet and the singer -were nearly of the same age; both began their career at Naples at the -same time; which causes Metastasio to give his friend the affectionate -appellation of his twin. Both met with immediate and complete success; -and they formed a friendship, which the letters of the poet prove to -have been maintained on his side with sentiments of the warmest -affection, and the most active wish to render service. After having met -with the greatest applause in the various theatres of Europe, Farinelli -was invited to Spain, in 1737; where his voice had the peculiar effect -of calming and solacing the accesses of malady to which the king, Philip -V., was subject. On this account he was retained at the Spanish court, a -large income was settled on him, and he never sang again on the public -stage, being, to please the Spanish notions of etiquette, made cavalier -of the orders of St. Jago and Calatrava, that he might be considered of -rank sufficient to attend the private hours of the monarch. Philip V. -died in 1746, but Farinelli continued in equal favour with his -successor. His prosperity continued till the accession of Charles III., -in 1763, when he was ordered to quit Spain, and, with singular cruelty, -not permitted to make choice of an abode. At last, Bologna was -prescribed to him as the place that would best please the Spanish -monarch,--we are not told for what reason, except that Farinelli was as -a foreigner in that city, and cut off from all personal intercourse with -his friends. - -An interesting volume might be formed out of Metastasio's letters to the -singer. They are full of enthusiastic friendship; now dwelling on -alterations made to operas for the peculiar benefit of Farinelli,--now -on more personal topics. Metastasio's days were clouded by ill health, -and his genius impaired through the same cause; but it did not check the -overflow of his kind heart, nor injure the happy influence of his -contented disposition. It is difficult, however, to select passages, -since the interest consists in the openness, friendship, and warmth of -the whole, and mere isolated extracts would be devoid of attraction. The -whole correspondence is replete with frank exhibitions of the writer's -mind, and the style is remarkable for its vivacity as well as elegance. - -With the exception of his physical sufferings, which were rather -annoying than painful, and that sensibility of character which could not -fail to chequer his life with a thousand various emotions, Metastasio's -latter years was singularly prosperous, and perfectly monotonous. A few -weeks spent each autumn in Moravia was his only change. The empress -kindly excused him from forcing his powers to compose new dramas, and -his occupation principally consisted in the easy task of instructing the -archduchesses in Italian. When the empress Maria Theresa died, the -emperor Joseph II. continued to him his protection; and the esteem and -even affection in which he was held at the imperial court prevented the -death of his benefactress from injuring his fortunes, or disturbing his -repose. - -He filled, however, a place in the public eye which exposed him to a -good deal of trouble. As the first Italian poet of the day, each minor -aspirant to the laurel sent their verses for his criticism, or rather -approval. He has been accused of lavishing praise without moderation or -judgment. It is difficult for one author not to flatter other authors, -since severity of criticism will be attributed to envy or ill-humour; -and, besides, the Italian genius is singularly inclined to superlative -panegyric. But it may be remarked that, though Metastasio gilds the -pill, he never fails, particularly to his friends, to point out the weak -points of their works, and to bestow sagacious and valuable -observations. - -When Dr. Burney visited Vienna in 1772, Metastasio was an old man; and -his life, uninterrupted by any events, flowed on in one unbroken and -quiet stream. "He lives," writes the doctor, "with the most mechanical -regularity, which he suffers none to disturb. He has not dined from home -these thirty years. He studies from eight o'clock in the morning till -noon. Then he is visited by his acquaintance. He dines at two; and at -five receives his most intimate friends. At nine, in summer, he goes out -in his carriage, pays visits, and sometimes plays at ombre. He returns -at ten o'clock, sups, and goes to bed before eleven. In conversation he -is constantly cheerful; fanciful, playful, and sometimes poetical; never -sarcastic or disputatious; totally devoid of curiosity concerning the -public news or private scandal in circulation; the morality of his -sentiments resembles that of his life. In confidence with few, but -polite to all, his affection to his countrymen is great, and extends to -ecclesiastics, painters, musicians, poets, and ministers from the -Italian states, who are all sure of his kindness and good offices. I was -no less astonished than delighted to find him look so well; he does not -seem more than fifty years of age. There is painted on his countenance -the genius, goodness, propriety, and benevolence, which characterise his -writings. I could not keep my eyes off his face,--it was so pleasing and -worthy of contemplation." - -He thus spent in ease and peace the last years of his life. It has been -said that, like Dr. Johnson, he had a great aversion to any allusion -being made to death in conversation, and carefully avoided all -lugubrious subjects. He continued to live with his friend Martinetz, -whose daughter, Marianne, being educated by Gluck, became a celebrated -musician; and in this family he met with that respect, attachment, and -attention that rendered old age easy. - -His last letter was written to Farinelli. He complains of the "dreadful -season," and says, that he "cannot find a friend or acquaintance who -does not complain of ill health."--"We are all equally obliged," he -writes, "to have recourse to resignation. My neighbour prays for me, and -I pray for my neighbour; and we all are wishing better health to our -afflicted friends. My complaints obstinately defend their posts, and I -my patience." - -This letter is dated in March, 1782, and was written but a short time -before he died. Though advanced to the age of eighty-four, his death was -unexpected, as the vigour of his constitution, and his vivacity and -unbroken powers, promised several years more of life; nor did his -nervous indispositions threaten dissolution, for they neither interfered -with his sleep nor appetite, nor the enjoyment he both conferred and -received in his domestic circle. A fever, attended with weakness and -loss of speech, and lethargy, carried him off after an illness of only -twelve days. He died tranquilly, and without pain, on the 12th of April, -1782. He left the family of Martinetz his heirs to considerable wealth; -his property consisting of about 130,000 florins, in addition to many -valuables presented to him by sovereign princes. He was sincerely -regretted at Vienna; and Martinetz struck a medal in his honour. Nor was -he forgotten in his native country; and the various literary academies -of Italy vied with each other in offering poetic testimonials of -veneration to his worth and genius. - - -[Footnote 47: "Ah, tu non sai -Qual guerra di pensieri -Agita l'alma mia. -* * * * -Trovo per tutto -Qualche scoglio a temer. Scelgo, mi pento; -Poi d' essermi pentito -Mi ritorno a pentir. Mi stanco intanto -Nel lungo dubitar, tal che dal male -Il ben non distinguo: alfin mi veggio -Stetto dal tempo, e mi risolvo al peggio." - -"Ah, thou knowest not the war of struggling thoughts -That agitates my soul. I find in all -Some peril still to dread. I choose; and then, -My choice repent--and then again regret -Having repented; while protracted doubt -Wearies my mind, so that the ill from good -No longer I distinguish; till at length -The flight of time impels me to the worst."] - -[Footnote 48: We have made no remark on the nature of this kind-hearted -and generous woman's attachment. In Italy it is customary to look on -such as formed by friendship only, and to consider that they are -rendered respectable by constancy. The Italians lavish the greatest -praise on Marianna Bulgarelli for her perception of the poet's merits, -her zeal in persuading him to, and assisting him in, his arduous career; -and the disinterested affection which caused her at once to make a -sacrifice of her own feelings, and to advise his journey to Vienna. Her -errors are those of her country. Any one who has visited Italy must at -once censure, and deeply deplore, the social system there carried on--a -system which blights the affections, degrades the moral feeling, and -causes almost universal unhappiness. But it is unjust to heap the -censure of a system belonging to a whole country, and carried on for -centuries, on the head of an individual, whose virtues, we may presume -to say, redeemed an error, the very existence of which is, after all, -uncertain.] - -[Footnote 49: Baretti.] - -[Footnote 50: There is a curious instance in Metastasio of a poet using -the same image adopted by a preceding writer, which yet, it is probable, -that the later one had not read. The explanation may be, that both drew -it from an ancient writer; but we have been unable to find it. The -passages are subjoined as, if both are unborrowed, it forms a curious -though natural coincidence of thought. - -And as goodly cedars, -Rent from Oeta by a sweeping tempest, -Jointed again, and made tall masts, defy -Those angry winds that split 'em, so will I -New pieced again, -And made more perfect far, -Stand and defy bad fortunes. - -FLETCHER, _Tragedy of "Valentinian._" - -Spezza il furor del vento -Robusta quercia, avezza -Di cento verni, e cento -L' ingurie a tollerar. - -E se pur cade al suolo -Spiega per l' onde il volo, -E con quel vento istesso -Va contrastando il mar - -_Adriano._] - - - - -GOLDONI - -1707-1792. - - -The life of Goldoni, written by himself, is, as well as his comedies, a -school, not of crabbed philosophy, but of Italian manners, in their -gayest, lightest guise. At a time when it is hoped that a change is -taking place in the system of society in that country, resulting in a -great degree from the concourse of English, it is interesting to observe -what they were anterior to the French revolution, and to remark the -state of the Italians before they awoke to the sense of their -oppression, or, rather, while oppression was in exercise only of the -first of its effects--the demoralisation of its victim, before the -second stage of its influence, that of producing a noble and impatient -disdain of servitude. - -Carlo Goldoni was born at Venice, in the year 1707, in a large and good -house, situated between the bridge of Nomboli and that of Donna Onesta. -The Venetians, who, when on land, spend their lives in running up and -down the bridges that cross the canals, make them the chief land-marks -of their directions. The family of Goldoni came originally from Modena. -His grandfather, while studying at Parma, formed an intimacy with two -Venetian nobles, who persuaded him to accompany them to Venice; and the -death of his father rendering him soon after independent, he established -himself in the native city of his friends. He had an employment under -government, and was sufficiently rich, but not at all economical. He -loved the drama; comedies were played in his own house; the most -celebrated actors and singers were at his orders; and he was for ever -surrounded by a concourse of theatrical people. His son had married a -lady of the Salvioni family, and resided with his father. Carlo was -born in the midst of all the bustle and hilarity attendant on a -predilection for actors and acting: his first pleasures were derived -from plays; his first recollections were of histrionic gaiety; and his -future life retained the colouring imparted by the amusements of his -early years. - -He was the delight of the family. His mother devoted herself to his -education, and his father to his amusement. He made a puppet theatre for -him, and, with two or three friends, drew the cords and acted plays to -the boy's infinite delight. But a change soon came over this holiday -life. His grandfather died, in 1712, from the effects of a cold, caught -at an assembly. His extravagance had dissipated his fortune; and, from -abundance and luxury, the family fell into the narrowest circumstances. -The prospects of the father of Goldoni were dark. He had no employment -and no profession, and his inherited property was all sold or mortgaged. -In the midst of this distress, his wife gave birth to a son: this added -to the solicitude of the father; but, unwilling to be the prey of -useless gnawing cares, he set out on a visit to Rome, for the sake of -diverting his thoughts. His wife remained at home with her sister, and -two sons. The second, never a favourite, was put out to nurse; and she -devoted herself to Carlo. He was gentle, obedient, and quiet. At the age -of four he could read and write and say his catechism; on which they -gave him a tutor. He grew to love books, and made progress in grammar, -geography, and arithmetic; but the old instinct survived, and plays were -his favourite reading. There were a good many in his father's library: -he pored over them at his leisure hours, copied the passages that -pleased him most; and, incited by a noble hardihood, at the age of -eight, wrote a comedy. Some laughed at it; his mother scolded and kissed -him at the same time; while others insisted that it was too clever to -have been written by a child of his age, and that his tutor must have -helped him. - -Meanwhile his father, instead of returning after a short visit, remained -four years at Rome. He had a rich friend there, who received him -cordially, lodged him in his own house, and introduced him to Lancisi, -physician and private attendant to Clement XI. He attached himself -warmly to Goldoni, who was clever and agreeable, and sought to advance -himself. Lancisi advised him to study medicine. The advice was taken. -After attending lectures and hospitals for four years at Rome, he took -his doctor's degree; and his patron sent him to Perugia to exercise his -profession. He became in vogue in this town: if he were not the best -physician in the world, he was an agreeable man, and quickly gained the -esteem and friendship of the first families. Thus fortunately situated, -he resolved to have his son with him. He does not appear to have thought -of inviting his wife also; and the mother and child were separated, to -the deep grief of the former. Carlo quitted Venice for the first time, -in a felucca. He disembarked at the mouth of the Marecchia, and it was -proposed that he should continue his journey on horseback. Carlo had -never seen a horse except at a distance: he was frightened when placed -on the saddle, confused when told to hold reins and whip; but, as the -novelty wore off, he made acquaintance with this new and strange animal, -and fed him with his own hands. - -On arriving at Perugia he was placed at school. His first trial by the -masters, for the purpose of judging what progress he had made in Latin, -was infelicitous; he became the ridicule of his companions; his masters -conceived a slight opinion of his abilities; his father was in despair, -and Carlo fell ill from mortification. The holidays drew near, when it -was usual for the scholars to present a Latin composition, as a specimen -of their powers, on which their advancement to a higher class was -determined upon. Carlo had no hope of any such promotion. The day came: -the master gave out the theme; the pupils wrote. The boy summoned all -his powers; he thought of his honour, his father, his mother; he saw his -companions look at him and laugh; rage and shame animated him to -redoubled exertions; he felt his memory clear--his thoughts free: he -finished, sealed, and delivered his paper before any of his comrades. -Eight days after, the school was assembled--the decision announced: -Goldoni had the first place--his translation was without a fault. He now -received compliments on all sides, and his father was desirous of -rewarding him. He was aware of his love for theatricals, and shared it. -He assembled a company of young actors in his own house, and erected a -theatre. A play was got up, in which Goldoni took the part of prima -donna, and was much applauded; but his father told him that, though not -devoid of talent, he would never make a good actor, and after experience -proved the justice of his decision. - -The signora Goldoni bore her husband's absence very philosophically; but -she could not consent to continue separated from her son: she entreated -her husband to return; and, on his refusal, removed herself to Perugia. -But, accustomed to the soft air of Venice, the climate of that city, -placed on the summit of a hill, and surrounded by mountains, disagreed -with her: other circumstances tended to disgust her husband with -Perugia; and, as soon as Carlo had finished his course of education at -the school, they resolved to return to Venice. Passing through Rimini in -their way, they were received kindly by a friend, who persuaded them to -leave Carlo for the sake of his pursuing his studies under a celebrated -professor. His parents embarked for Chiozza. Chiozza is a town -twenty-five miles from Venice, built, like that city, upon piles in the -midst of the sea; it contains 40,000 inhabitants; the population were -divided between rich and poor; the rich wore a wig and a cloak; the -poor, a cap and a capote. These last, who were fishermen and sailors, -while their wives fabricated lace, had often more money than many -individuals of the class named rich. The signora Goldoni took a liking -to this place; and her husband was averse to return to Venice till his -circumstances should have become more easy. To further this end, he was -obliged to make a journey to Modena: he proposed to his wife to -establish herself at Chiozza till his return; and she consented. - -Carlo, meanwhile, remained at Rimini. He did not like his master, who, -bigotted to rules and systems, wearied him to death: he escaped from -him, to read Plautus, Terence, Aristophanes, and the fragments of -Menander; and soon the incarnate spirit of drama arriving at Rimini, he -was wholly turned from his abstruser studies. A company of actors made -their appearance, and Goldoni became familiar with them: he went behind -the scenes; joined in their parties of pleasure; and they, being all -Venetians, were happy to find a countryman. One Friday it was announced -that they were leaving Rimini, and that a boat was engaged to carry them -to Chiozza. "To Chiozza!" said Carlo, "My mother is at Chiozza!"--"Come -with us, then," cried the director. "Yes, come with us," cried the whole -company, "come in our boat; you will have a pleasant passage; it will -cost you nothing: we shall laugh, dance, and sing, and be as happy as -the day is long." A boy of fourteen could scarcely resist so strong a -temptation. His master refused leave, and the friends of his family -interfered with objections. There was but one resource: Carlo put two -shirts in his pocket, and hurried to hide himself in the boat. It made -sail, and he was on his way to Chiozza. The light-hearted rambling life -of strolling comedians was alluring beyond measure to a mirthful lad, -who loved plays better than any thing in the world. The company -consisted of twelve, besides scene-shifters, mechanists, and prompters; -there were eight men servants, and four women, two nurses, a quantity of -children, dogs, cats, apes, parrots, birds, pigeons, and a lamb. The -prima donna was ugly, clever, and cross; the suicidical drowning of her -cat diversified the time; and, after a prosperous and merry voyage, the -whole cargo, with the exception of poor puss, arrived safe at Chiozza. - -The signora Goldoni received her son with a mixture of gladness and -scolding, which evinced no violent disapprobation of his truant -disposition; but he himself began to regret it, and to reflect seriously -on the consequences, when he read a letter just received from his -father. Business had taken Goldoni from Modena to Pavia. The governor of -Pavia was named the marchese di Goldoni-Vidoni. On hearing of the -arrival of a namesake in his town, he sent for him, and invited him to -dinner. The governor belonged to one of the best families of Cremona; -but he considered that Cremona and Modena were not far distant from each -other, and he had the whim of finding out and assisting a poor relation: -he promised to get a presentation for Carlo to a college of the -university of Pavia, and the father gladly consented to accept it. He -set out to seek his son with this news, and found him sooner than he -expected, and was by no means pleased at a scrape which promised little -for his future steadiness; but Carlo was penitent, and Goldoni gloved -actors, and was acquainted with several of this very company in -question: so, good easy man! he forgave the runaway, and accompanied him -to thank the companions of his voyage. - -Goldoni's fame as a physician had spread to Chiozza, and he found it -worth his while to establish himself, and to enter upon practice there: -while waiting for the presentation for the university of Pavia, he -resolved to initiate his son in the rudiments of a profession which he -intended him hereafter to pursue. He did not put him to the more -difficult part of the medical science; but made him accompany him in his -visits to his patients, as the easiest mode of giving him a superficial -knowledge. Carlo did not like this plan, though he was forced to submit. -But passive obedience of will does not conquer the mind: with all his -gaiety, the youth was subject to fits of hypochondria and low spirits, -and under the paternal discipline he lost his appetite, and grew thin -and serious. His mother easily extracted from him the cause of his -dejection, and sought to bring a remedy. She represented to her husband, -that the patronage of the marchese Goldoni could be of no possible -service to their son in a medical career; while, on the contrary, if -they brought him up to the bar, a senator of Milan could without -difficulty open to him the road of fortune. She advised his going to -study under an uncle at Venice, proposing to accompany him herself, and -to stay with him till his removal to Pavia. Goldoni resisted for a long -time, but at last he became aware that her representations were -reasonable: poor Carlo listened to the discussion with tearful eyes and -a beating heart; and his indisposition vanished as soon as his father's -consent was given. Four days after, he and his mother set out for -Venice. They were kindly received by signor Paolo Indric, who had -married his father's sister; and Carlo found his home with him perfectly -delightful. The study of law was infinitely to be preferred to his -father's medical initiation at Chiozza; he fulfilled his duties with -exactitude, and his uncle was satisfied with him. - -Meanwhile he enjoyed his residence at Venice. "Oh! la triste ville que -Vénice!" Madame de Genlis exclaimed, on entering the sea-paved city. -Scarcely any but a French person would echo her exclamation; and _we_, -who people the palaces and bridges with the shades of Othello, -Desdemona, Pierre, and Belvidera, find a peculiar charm in its strange -and beautiful appearance. There is something charming to the imagination -in the wide-spread lagunes, in the palaces rising from the waves, the -sea that flows through the streets, and the sombre-looking but luxurious -gondolas: no picture, no description, can convey an idea of Venice, that -is, of the impression made by its singular aspect, and the modes and -machinery of daily life--dissimilar to those of every other city in the -world. The young Goldoni, as a native, yet returning to it after so long -an absence, was enchanted by the novelty of all he saw. His stay, -however, was short; the presentation to a College at Pavia arrived: he -was forced to quit Venice; and, after a harried visit to Chiozza to join -his father, they set out together. - -[Sidenote: 1723. -Ætat. -16.] - -On arriving at Milan, several obstacles presented themselves to impede -his entrance into the university, which, being under clerical -jurisdiction, required a number of attestations and documents, with -which the travellers were wholly unprovided, and which could only be -obtained at Venice. Signora Goldoni hastened thither to get them, while -the father and son enjoyed themselves at Milan, hospitably entertained -by their kind and noble soi-disant relation; till, the necessary papers -having arrived, they pursued their way to Pavia, and Goldoni left his -son at his college. - -The university of Pavia was on a more expensive and luxurious footing -than is usual in Italy, and dissipation and liberty were the order of -the day. The students were regarded in the town like officers in -garrison: the men hated, and the women welcomed them; while the studies -principally followed up were dancing, fencing, music, and games of -hazard: the latter were prohibited, and, therefore, the more sought -after. Carlo's youth, gaiety, and Venetian dialect pleased generally; -and he easily suffered himself to be seduced from study to pleasure. - -His success caused him to make many enemies among his fellow-students, -augmented by the distinction derived from the kindness of the marchese -Goldoni; still he passed two years happily enough, returning to Chiozza -during the vacations, and spending his time between unforced studies and -pleasant society. But misfortune was at hand to blight his happiness. -The time approached when he was to take his degree; and this very moment -was seized upon by his college enemies to ensure his disgrace. He had -been admitted into the university at sixteen: the legal age was -eighteen. He was a boy among men, and an easy prey. A serious quarrel -arose between the inhabitants of Pavia and the students: four among the -latter, who had conspired to ruin poor Carlo, persuaded him to revenge -himself and his comrades by a satire. The verses of which he was the -author attacked and insulted many families: his four false friends -dispersed them and betrayed him: the outcry was prodigious; and, despite -every exertion made by his protectors, Goldoni was expelled. The youth -repented very bitterly at once his imprudence and the easiness of his -disposition. Shame and regret overwhelmed him, and the idea of his -parents' reproaches filled him with terror. To escape these he meditated -plans of flight, resolving to seek his fortunes at Rome. It appeared of -slight import to him that he should go on foot without money or -resources, so that he could fly from those who were justly offended. -This idea was frustrated by the vigilance of those about him: he was -sent back to his family under the especial care of the master of the -boat, who never lost sight of him; and a good monk, who was a passenger -with him, comforted him by his pious but kind admonitions. His mother's -affection and his father's easiness of nature led them to pardon his -fault, from which he had suffered severely enough. A few days after he -accompanied his father to Friuli. Goldoni exercised his profession as -physician at Udine, and Carlo studied the law under an eminent advocate; -after a short time, the former proceeded to Gorizia, to the house of -count Landieri, lieutenant-general of the army of the emperor Charles -VI. The count was ill, and having heard of the skill of Goldoni, sent -for him. Carlo, left behind at Udine, got into several youthful scrapes, -very little to his credit: he found himself deceived and betrayed; and, -fearing a dangerous termination, he hurried away, and found his father -at Vispack, where count Landieri had a mansion. They remained there for -some months, till the count was convalescent, hospitably entertained, -and very happy. A dramatic puppet-show was got up, which exercised the -theatrical talents of Carlo; and afterwards he made a tour to Laubeck, -Gratz, and Trieste, with the count's secretary. On his return to -Vispack, he and his father set off on their journey home, the latter -having happily effected the cure of his patient, who rewarded him -handsomely for his trouble. "We arrived at Chiozza," said Goldoni, "and -were received as a fond mother receives a son, and a wife a beloved -husband, after a long absence. I was delighted to see again a virtuous -mother who was tenderly attached to me. After having been deceived and -betrayed, I needed the consolation of being loved. This, indeed, was -another species of attachment, but, until I felt a virtuous and -engrossing passion, my mother's love formed my greatest happiness." Soon -after his arrival at Chiozza, his father received a letter from a cousin -at Modena, to inform him that the duke of that state had revived an -ancient decree, which forbade the possessor of any landed property -within it, to absent himself without an express permission from the -sovereign, which it was very expensive to obtain. This relation added, -that his best course would be to send his son to Modena, which would -satisfy the law, and he might there pursue his legal studies. The advice -was followed, and the youth sent to Modena. - -He went by water; and the master of the boat was a very religious man: -each evening he invited the passengers to join him in prayers. When -Goldoni arrived at Modena, this man, whose name was Bastia, asked him -where he meant to lodge, and, learning that he had his lodgings to seek, -asked him to select his house as his place of abode; and, with the -assent of his cousin, who had been the cause of his journey, Goldoni -agreed to the proposal. He found that the family of Bastia was equally -devout with himself; father, sons, and daughters, all were given up to -pious exercises. No great amusement could be derived from their society; -but, as they were respectable people, and lived in concord, Goldoni was -satisfied and happy under their roof. He grew as religiously inclined as -themselves, while, as is often the case in youth, this sentiment was -accompanied by feelings of despondency and even terror. One day he -happened to pass through the public square while an unfortunate -churchman was doing public penance for his conduct towards a female -penitent. The sight struck him in the most painful manner: he brought it -home to his own heart; he thought of his past life, his expulsion from -college, his adventures in Friuli: the world seemed beset with -multiplied dangers, and there was no refuge from them, except in total -retirement. He wrote to his parents to express a part of these feelings, -and to declare his resolve of entering the order of Capuchin monks. His -parents acted on this occasion with prudence: they were both, especially -his mother, pious, but without bigotry. They wrote in answer, that he -should do exactly as he pleased, but in the mean time entreated him to -return to them without delay. He immediately obeyed: he was received -with caresses, and no opposition was made to his project. His father -proposed to take him to Venice, and he refused with that boldness which -the fancy of acting in immediate obedience to God, alone inspires; but, -on being told that he was to be introduced to the guardian of the -Capuchins, he consented. They went to Venice, visited their relations -and friends, dining with one and supping with another: he was even -tricked into going to the theatre. His low spirits and ascetic vocation -vanished insensibly, and he returned to Chiozza cured of every wish to -shut himself up in a cloister. - -It became matter of anxiety to know what to do with him. His brother, an -adventurous, gallant youth, had entered the army, and was in garrison. -But Carlo was nothing; the plaything of fortune, all the expense gone to -on his account had been of no avail; the only resource seemed to be to -obtain an employment under government; and, at the moment when it -appeared impossible to succeed in so doing, one presented itself to -them. The republic of Venice governed the towns under their dominion -through an officer called a podestà, who had under him a chancellor, or -criminal judge, who was assisted in his duties by a vice-chancellor, or, -as he was called, a coadjutor; and where there was much to do, this -officer also had an assistant. These places were more or less lucrative, -but were always desirable, since they included the privilege of dining -at the governor's table, and making one of his society. The father of -Goldoni was intimately acquainted with the governor of Chiozza, and with -the judge, and through their means Carlo was employed to assist the -coadjutor. - -Goldoni was not of a noble and enterprising disposition, but he -possessed great integrity, and that habit of scrupulously examining his -own motives, and those of others, which makes a part of the nature of -one whose bent it was to enter into and describe character. On this -occasion he was earnest to do his duty, and interested to observe the -variety of human action and motive, which presented themselves to his -enquiry in the exercise of his office as assistant to the criminal -judge. He acquitted himself to the satisfaction of his superiors; and, -when the governor of Chiozza was changed, and the chancellor was -appointed to go to Feltri, the latter offered Goldoni the place of -coadjutor, which was eagerly accepted. - -Feltri is at a distance of 180 miles from Venice, high up among the -mountains, whose snows besiege it during the winter, and block up the -streets and houses. Goldoni found plenty of amusement here, for there -was a company of comedians; and he also fell in love. He assures us that -this was his first passion, and a sincere one; but the future writer of -comedies had not that tenderness and passion of soul which creates a -profound and engrossing attachment. He made parties of pleasure for the -lovely girl, who returned his affection, and got up a tragedy for her -amusement, which did not amuse her at all; for, too bashful to act -herself, with all the delicacy of love, she was pained at witnessing her -lover's familiar conduct with other women. "Poor girl!" exclaims -Goldoni, with naïveté; "she loved me tenderly and sincerely, and I -loved her with all my heart; and I may say that she was the first person -for whom I felt a sincere attachment. She was desirous of marrying me; -and would have become my wife, but for some considerations which -prevented my proposing for her." These considerations were a notion he -formed that her beauty was of a delicate, evanescent species, and that -she would soon fade and become old, while he remained in the pride of -youth. Such was the force of his first passion, that it was at once -overcome by selfish foresight, and the habit, innate in him, of -dissecting the materials of life, despoiling them of their sunny gloss, -and handling the most frail, yet precious, among them with a roughness -that iron and rock could not have resisted. This dry, analytical spirit -is very apparent in his comedies: he dignifies it with the name of -morality and honour; but its root is often in coldness and tameness of -feeling and fancy. - -On his return from Feltri his father had accepted a medical situation at -Bagnacavallo, a town of Romagna, near Ravenna. Carlo joined him; but, -after a short time, the elder Goldoni fell ill of a malignant fever, and -died in the month of March, 1731, when his son was four and twenty years -of age. He was sincerely lamented by his wife and son, who wept together -over their loss. As soon as the funeral was over, Goldoni accompanied -the widow to Venice, and established her with her sister at the house of -a relation. She was most anxious to have her son resident with her, and -her persuasions, and those of other friends, induced him to yield, and -to enter on the profession of barrister at Venice. The profession of -advocate at Venice was exceedingly honourable; the first men of the city -practised it: but there were 240 registered barristers, and few among -them rose to eminence; the rest spent their time in running after -briefs. Goldoni, however, was of a sanguine disposition, and did not -doubt that he should rank among the most celebrated pleaders at the bar. -He calculated how much could be gained, and found that a barrister might -make an income of 2000_l_. a year,--a large fortune at Venice, which at -that time, before it fell under the Austrians, whose aim is to ruin it -by the imposition of a vexatious taxation, was one of the cheapest -places in the world. It is true that the beginning of a forensic career -is in all countries trying to the patience; and, while Goldoni indulged -in castles in the air with regard to future eminence, he spent his time -attending the courts without a brief, or in waiting for clients, who did -not appear: still he might hope for better success than the major part -of his brethren of the robe, since, during the first six months of his -being at the bar, he carried on and won a cause; but his destiny -concurred with the genius still unformed and dormant within him to draw -him another way. - -At the very moment of triumph on gaining his suit, and when he might -fairly hope for an influx of clients, an incident occurred to destroy -his prospects, causing him to form the resolution to quit Venice. - -He had fallen in love with a lady at Venice, who, though forty years of -age, was as fair and beautiful as a girl. She was rich and unmarried: -the affection was mutual, and he already looked forward to their union, -when the attentions of a noble awakening the ambition of the lady, she -jilted him for his patrician rival. This lady had a married sister with -two daughters, one deformed and the other ugly, but not without -attraction; she had beautiful eyes, a laughing countenance, and -graceful, fascinating manners. She had often deprived her beautiful aunt -of lovers, and inspired her with jealousy. She tried to win Goldoni from -her; and, on her tergiversation, vengeance induced him to make the niece -an offer. Her mother entered into her plans, and the contract of -marriage was drawn up and signed; but when the moment came to fulfil it, -a variety of doubts presented themselves to Goldoni's mind. He was -himself in debt, and several years must pass before he could hope to -make an income at the bar. The mother of his promised bride was wholly -unable to fulfil the conditions of the marriage contract, and he found -that he should be burdened with the expense of his wife's family. He -consulted his mother, and his own sense of prudence: he had become very -much in love but, in his light heart, every motive and impulsa was -stronger than the strongest affection: frightened at the prospect before -him, he made a sudden determination; paid his debts, threw up his -profession, and quitted Venice; leaving a letter for the unfortunate -girl's mother, attributing to her his sudden departure, and promising to -return if she would fulfil the conditions of the contract. He received -no answer. - -Again he was thrown on the world, and all his prospects of future -subsistence were centred in a tragedy, called "Amalassunta," which he -had written in his leisure hours. It has been mentioned how, born amidst -theatricals, his early pleasures had all been derived from plays. When -he first went to Pavia, he had studied the ancient drama; and, finding -that Italy had no theatre, he had already conceived the idea of -bestowing one on her, on a more enlarged plan, more intricate as to -plot, and more diversified as to character, than those of Plautus and -Terence. In the course of his youth, to get up a play was his chief -pleasure; and now, with "Amalassunta" in his pocket, he felt sure that -his fortune would be made at Milan, at the theatre of which city he -intended to offer it; and, with this expectation, his happy disposition -caused him easily to forget prospects, friends, love, and -disappointments,--all but his mother; while the pleasure of freedom -easily consoled him for the loss of his bride. - -Poor and almost friendless, the first piece of good fortune that -happened to him was finding at Bergamo the noble who had been governor -at Chiozza when he was vice-chancellor. He presented himself at his -palace, and was kindly received. The governor perceiving that he was -depressed in spirits, enquired the cause: and Goldoni confessed that he -was penniless: his kind protector offered him his purse and a home at -his house. Goldoni contented himself with borrowing ten sequins, and, in -lieu of the latter offer, asked for letters of introduction at Milan, -which were instantly given him. These served him in good stead in that -capital. The Venetian resident received him kindly, asked the object of -his journey, and, when Goldoni had recounted his adventure, offered to -lend him money, which was declined. - -"Amalassunta" was the anchor of his hope, and he lost no time in seeking -the actors and directors of the theatre. He paid a visit to the first -ballerina, whom he had formerly known, and offered to read his opera to -her circle of actors, and musicians, and theatrical patrons. His offer -was accepted: he took the manuscript from his pocket, and -commenced--"Amalassunta!" The chief actor, Caffariello, began to object, -in the first place, to so long and ridiculous a name. Every one joined -in the laugh thus raised, except the poor author, who went on to read -the list of dramatis personæ. New censure followed the too great number -of persons introduced; and, when it was found that the opera commenced -by a scene between the two principal actors, he was told that would -never do: the chief singers would never consent to begin during all the -bustle of the first entrance of the audience. The criticisms multiplied -as he went on, till a kind amateur, count Prata, took him by the hand, -and, leading him into another room, asked him to read the opera to him -alone. Poor Goldoni consented, and the whole piece was gone through. -When finished, the count pointed out its defects, not with regard to -plot and situation, but to operatic rules; how he had given airs of -passion and interest to secondary personages, and curtailed the first of -what they considered their just proportion. The count would have gone on -to find more fault, but Goldoni begged him to take no more trouble, and -took his leave. He returned, mortified and miserable, to his inn. His -first impulse was to burn his unlucky opera. The waiter asked him if he -would sup. "No," he replied, "no supper, only a good fire." While this -was making, he looked over his poor "Amalassunta:" it appeared to him -very beautiful, and worthy of a better fate: the actors were in fault, -not it. Yet; after all his pains, his hopes were fallen; and, in a fit -of desperation, he cast it on the flaming brands, glad to see it burn, -and busy in collecting all the fragments, that none might escape -destruction. While thus employed, he began to recollect that no disaster -which had yet happened to him, had ever caused him to go to bed -supperless. He recalled the waiter, ordered his repast, ate it with a -good appetite, and went to bed to sleep till morning. It is no wonder -that love could exercise so little power over so well-regulated an -appetite! - -The next morning he was obliged to reflect seriously on his desperate -situation, and he paid Signor Bartolini, the Venetian resident, a visit, -that he might consult with him. He asked for a private interview, and it -was granted; and then he related the occurrences of the previous -evening, the impertinent criticisms of the actors, and the decisive -judgment passed by count Prata, and ended by declaring that he was -totally at a loss what to do. Bartolini laughed at his recital, and -asked to see the opera. "The opera?" cried Goldoni, "I have not got -it!"--"Where is it, then?"--"I burnt it; and with it my hopes, my -possessions, and my whole fortune." The minister laughed still more at -this _dénouement_, and ended by offering him the situation of gentleman -in his palace, with a good suite of rooms. Goldoni now found that he had -gained by his loss: without doubt, as he declares himself, he was a -lucky man, and it was his own fault whenever he fell into misfortune. -Yet he did this so frequently, that the best part of his luck was that -cheerful buoyant disposition which never allowed him to be overwhelmed -by adversity, and an integrity that always kept him from any -dishonourable scrape. - -"Amalassunta" was burnt, but Goldoni's predilection for theatricals -continued as strong as ever. There arrived at Milan a singular man, -named Buonafede Vitali, who had talents and knowledge enough to practise -as a regular physician, but who preferred strolling as a mountebank, -under the name of the Anonymous. As a part of the paraphernalia of his -trade, he had with him a company of comedians. Goldoni sought out this -man, who availed himself of his protection, to obtain leave for his -company to act on the Milanese theatre. There were several good actors -among them, but their representations were made on the old Italian plan. -Goldoni was particularly scandalised by a travestie of the story of -"Belisarius," given out as a tragedy; and, to prevent the future -degradation of historical names and sentiments, he promised to write a -tragedy on the subject, but was interrupted by events of greater moment. - -The king of Sardinia allying himself with France against the Austrians, -in the war of 1733, he sent an army of 15,000 men, to which was added -some French troops, to occupy Milan. That city being too wide in circuit -for defence, it was forced to receive the soldiers; who immediately -entered on the siege of the citadel. On this event, the Venetian -resident was ordered by his government to quit Milan, and to take up his -abode at Crema: he had before quarrelled with his secretary, and he took -this opportunity to dismiss him, and to install Goldoni in his place. He -was now fully employed, and his situation was at once honourable and -lucrative; but soon after he lost the good graces of the minister, -though not from any fault of his own. His brother had quitted the -Venetian service, and, seeking employment, visited him at Crema. He -introduced him to the governor, who gave him the situation of gentleman -of his chamber, formerly occupied by Goldoni; but both were violent and -irritable, and they did not agree. The resident dismissed his gentleman, -and no longer regarded Goldoni with the same favour as heretofore. They -had a quarrel; Goldoni asked for his dismission, and set out for Modena, -where his mother was residing. - -The country through which he passed on his way was the seat of war; -robbers took occasion of the unsettled state of the country, and the -roads were unsafe: Goldoni was the sufferer; the little carriage in -which he travelled was attacked by five men, who robbed him of his -money, watch, and effects, while he escaped across the country, glad to -preserve the clothes he had on. After running a long way, he came to an -avenue of trees, by which flowed a rivulet. He drank of its waters in -the hollow of his hand, and then, fatigued in body, but more composed in -mind, he proceeded quietly along the avenue, till he encountered some -peasants, to whom he related his misfortune, and who in return told him -that there were a set of outlaws who took advantage of the war to attack -not only travellers, but gentlemen's seats and cottages; while a number -of men of some wealth near, who had formed themselves into a company to -purchase the spoils of war, became their accomplices by becoming the -purchasers of the stolen goods. "Such," exclaims Goldoni, "are the -miseries of war, which fall alike upon friends and enemies, and ruin the -innocent!" The sun was now declining, and the peasants offered Goldoni a -part of their supper, of which, notwithstanding his disaster, he partook -with appetite. They then guided him to a village, and recommended him to -the care of the curate, who received him hospitably. To him he related -his adventures, making his manuscript tragedy of "Belisarius," then in -his pocket, the principal hero of the tale. He was invited to read it. -The curate, two abbés, and the servants of the house, were his -audience; and they all applauded it with enthusiasm. The offers and -kindness of these good simple-hearted people filled Goldoni with -gratitude. Unwilling, however, to burden them with his maintenance, he -hastened to take leave; the curate lent him his horse, and sent his -servant with him to defray the expenses of the day's journey to Brescia. - -From Brescia, Goldoni proceeded to Verona. He was in a deplorable -situation; he only possessed a few sequins, lent him by an adventurer -whom he met by accident at Brescia; but with "Belisarius" in his pocket, -he did not fear the enmity of fortune, and "Belisarius" did not prove so -false a friend as "Amalassunta." When at Verona, he went to the -celebrated amphitheatre, a portion of which was arranged as a theatre, -and here a drama was about to be performed. To his infinite joy, he -discovered in the principal actor a man who had formed one in the -companions of the mountebank at Milan, and for whom he had promised to -write "Belisarius." He instantly went behind the scenes, and was -welcomed with joy. He was on the moment installed poet to the company. -"Belisarius" was read, approved, and the parts distributed. In the month -of September they proceeded to Venice. Goldoni was presented to the -proprietor of the theatre, who received him with kindness. On the 24th -of November, 1734, he being then twenty-seven years of age, "Belisarius" -was acted, and met with the most complete success. All actors in Italy -are strollers, and looked upon with a good deal of contempt. Goldoni -might have been expected to regret the exchange he had made from the -honourable profession of an advocate, for that of poet to a theatre; but -his light heart and easy temper were not to be afflicted by trifles of -this nature, and the talent that perpetually impelled him to take -interest in theatricals, prevented him from feeling degraded by his -association with the professors of the art: and their existence and all -its vicissitudes bear another aspect under a sunny sky, and amidst a -laughter-loving people, unspoilt by pride. Goldoni had much of the -spirit of Gil Blas in his disposition, and possessed in his own person -all the talent which belongs, not to the hero of that book, but its -author. Several pieces, operas, and interludes of his were brought out; -and in the spring he accompanied the actors to Padua and to Friuli, -where, leaving them, he returned to Venice to see his mother, who had -arrived there from Modena. His success as an author, and the talent he -displayed, raised him in the estimation of his fellow-citizens. His -relations crowded around him; and he repaid their kindness by relating -his adventures to his old uncles and aunts, making those laugh, who had -never laughed before. In September the actors returned to Venice, and he -recommenced his labours, which were not all literary, but interspersed -by those occasioned by the jealousy of the actors, or rather of the -actresses. After the winter season had passed, he consented to accompany -the manager to Genoa and Florence, and was glad, without expense, to -visit two of the most celebrated cities of Italy. - -He was delighted with the aspect of Genoa; and the first good fortune -that happened to him, was to gain 200 crowns in the lottery; the second, -to marry a girl, "who," he tells us, "was beautiful, virtuous, and -prudent, and who, after all he had suffered from the treachery of women, -reconciled him to the sex." - -His acquaintance began in the true Italian style: he saw her at an -opposite window, and, pleased with her appearance, saluted her. She -curtsied, and hastily withdrew, nor again presenting herself at the -window. His curiosity was thus excited; he made enquiries, and learnt -that her father's name was Corrio; that he was a notary, with a large -family and small fortune. He contrived to make acquaintance, and within -a month asked permission to marry his daughter. The affair was soon -concluded: he was married in July; and, omitting the promised visit to -Florence, returned to Venice at the beginning of September. - -Hitherto Goldoni's pieces had been rifaccimenti of old dramas. -"Griselda," "Don Giovanni," and "Rinaldo di Mont' Albano," were -melodramas or tragedies, written in the old style. But at this time, -finding that the company of actors at Venice, through various changes, -had become one of great excellence, he began to think the time arrived -when he might enter on the reform of the Italian theatre, which he had -long meditated: he commenced writing comedies of character, which are -the genuine source of the dramatic merit, following the example of -Molière, who had surpassed all ancient models, and even now stands -alone, as the first comic writer in the world. "Was I wrong," he asks, -"in presuming to enter upon such an undertaking? for my natural bent -leading me to write comedies, excellence in the art was the proper aim -of my endeavours." - -The old comedy in Italy was on a singular system: there were four masks -on which all the farcical incidents turned. Pantaloon, a Venetian -merchant, who was the father of the heroine; a garrulous, kind-hearted -old gentleman. The doctor, a Bolognese, also an old man, whose learning -was opposed to Pantaloon's simplicity: and two Bergamese servants. -Brighella and Harlequin. Brighella, a clever rogue; Harlequin, a greedy -simpleton; his many-coloured clothes symbolising the poverty that forced -a patched garment. The actors who filled these respective parts seldom -played any others. It required ready wit and cleverness; for the plot -only being sketched, and the scenes indicated, the dialogue was left to -their own invention. Of course, no great refinement could be expected: -practical tricks and broad jokes were sure to command the laughter and -applause of the audience; while, there being in the Italian character -something peculiarly adapted to extempore exercises of the intellect, -and a vivacity that renders them good actors, many people regarded this -rude but amusing effort at drama, as something at once so national and -so genuine, as rendered it preferable to the studied productions of the -closet. Goldoni, on the contrary, saw farce take place of comedy, and -the whole action and conduct of the piece often sacrificed to the -petulance of a favourite mask; while no real sentimental interest, nor -any comic incident out of the common routine, could be introduced. He -proceeded, however, slowly in the reform he meditated. At first writing -only the more serious portions of his plays; then the parts of the masks -themselves, and only after some time, and at intervals, dispensing with -them altogether. Nor, at the time of which we are writing, did he bring -out any of his best dramas; though those which he did produce were -eminently successful. - -To add to the respectability, and, as he hoped, to the emoluments of his -situation, the relations of his wife obtained for him the Genoese -consulship at Venice. This office, however, turned out more honourable -than lucrative: no salary attended it, and the fees did not amount to -more than 100 crowns a year. To do the republic he served honour, he had -taken a better house and increased his number of servants, and found -himself considerably embarrassed. To add to these annoyances, his income -from Modena failed him; and he came to a resolution to make a journey, -with the triple object of bringing out a comedy with a part for a -favourite actress at Bologna, to solicit a salary at Genoa, and to look -after his possessions at Modena: the first object failed before he set -out, through the sudden death of the actress, while an unexpected -disaster rendered the two latter even more imperative than before. His -brother, who was out of employ, introduced to him a Ragusan of agreeable -and gentlemanly manners. He asserted that he was sent on the secret -service of raising a regiment of 2000 men for his state. He showed his -commission as colonel, offered a company to Goldoni's brother, and the -office of auditor, or judge, to the author. Goldoni, always -easy-tempered and credulous, though a little frightened by the danger -incurred if the Venetian state should come to suspect these proceedings, -was soon talked over, and, on an alleged emergency, lent the man a large -sum of money. The fellow was an adventurer: he ran off with the money, -and left Goldoni so disagreeably implicated by his tricks, that he -judged that his only resource was to quit Venice on the instant. The -Ragusan had disappeared on the 15th of September, and on the 18th of the -same month Goldoni and his wife embarked for Bologna. - -[Sidenote: 1741. -Ætat. -34.] - -Their journey was full of "many accidents of flood and field." The -melancholy and thoughtfulness occasioned by his disaster vanished under -the influence of his happy temperament; and his wife was even better -skilled than he in that best philosophy which makes light of worldly -misfortunes. On their arrival at Bologna, he was surrounded by the -directors of theatres, who asked for comedies. He gave them three, and -wrote another on the subject of the Ragusan swindler, in which he -comforted himself, and dissipated the rest of his regrets, by -representing to the life all the actors in that too real drama. This -task concluded, he was about to proceed to Modena, when he heard that -the duke was absent at the Spanish camp at Rimini, and that his best -chance of pursuing his claims was to accompany Ferramonti, a celebrated -pantaloon, to the latter town; where, in default of justice being done -him by his sovereign, he might have a further resource in the company of -actors to which this comedian belonged. This latter staff turned out the -stoutest of the two: the duke changed the conversation when Goldoni -mentioned his claims on the ducal bank; but as long as the carnival -lasted, he supplied the actors with dramas, and lived a comfortable life -at Rimini. At length it became necessary to depart for Genoa. The armies -which then occupied the country rendered it impossible to get horses; -and he and some other travellers agreed to embark for Pesaro. The sea -was high, the passengers suffered: weary of their sea voyage, they -disembarked half way, at Cattolica, and, leaving their effects to the -care of servants, proceeded in a cart to Pesaro. - -A new misfortune here awaited him. The Spanish army had changed -quarters, and were replaced by their enemies, the Austrians. The -soldiers entered Cattolica, and seized on the boat, the servants, and -the effects of the unlucky passengers. All was lost: trunks and -band-boxes, dresses and jewels, were the spoil of the ravagers: even the -signora Goldoni was moved by so overwhelming a calamity: but some remedy -was to be found. Goldoni resolved to apply in person to the Austrian -officers for the restitution of his property; and his wife, with great -cheerfulness, prepared to accompany him. Pesaro is ten miles distant -from Cattolica: with great difficulty they hired a carriage to take -them. The vetturino was very averse to the job, but showed no signs of -discontent. When three miles from Pesaro, the pair alighted to walk a -short distance; and the cunning fellow, seizing the opportunity, turned -his horses' heads, and gallopped back to Pesaro, leaving them in the -middle of the road. No house, no living being was to be seen; the -inhabitants had fled on the arrival of the armies. Signora Goldoni began -to cry. "Courage!" said the husband; "it is but six miles to Cattolica: -we are young and strong; it will not do to turn back; let us walk on." -The journey was not, however, an easy one; the road was crossed by -several torrents, and the bridges were broken. Goldoni carried his wife -over the swollen streams; but they had been obliged to make a circuit in -search of a ford, and found themselves fatigued beyond measure. At -length they arrived at the first advanced post of the Austrians. Goldoni -presented the passport with which he came provided, and they were -conducted to the commanding officer. The colonel at first took them for -two wandering pedestrians; but, reading the passport, he made them sit -down, and, looking kindly on them, said: "What, are you signor -Goldoni?"--"Alas! Yes," replied the other. "Author of 'Belisarius?'"--"I -am indeed."--"And this lady is the signora Goldoni?"--"She is the last -good I possess in the world."--"I hear you came on foot."--"Alas! sir, -you heard the truth." Goldoni now explained the nature of his -expedition, and the officer reassured him: he restored his luggage, and -liberated his servant, and, happy in the recovery of their property, -Goldoni and his wife returned to Rimini. - -After spending some weeks happily in this town, he set out on a tour -through Tuscany, meaning to proceed afterwards to Genoa. He visited -Florence, Siena, Volterra, and then arrived at Pisa. While walking -about to see the "liens" of this town, he passed by a palace, and, -perceiving that a great concourse of people were entering its gates, he -looked through, and saw a large court, and the company all seated in a -circle round. He asked a servant in livery, who waited, what the -occasion was of so large an assembly. "That assembly," replied the man, -"is a colony of the Arcadians of Rome, called the Alphean colony; that -is, the colony of Alpheus, a celebrated river of Greece, which flows -near the ancient Pisa of Aulis." Goldoni asked if he might make one of -the audience, and the servant ushered him to a seat. After a variety of -pieces of poetry had been read, he sent the servant round to ask if a -stranger might be permitted to recite; and, on being answered in the -affirmative, he repeated an old sonnet of his, which, with a little -alteration, seemed extemporised à propos for the occasion. The Pisans, -charmed at once by the compliment and the talent of the stranger, -crowded round him. He made many acquaintances, was invited to their -houses, and their cordial kindness seemed at one time to change the -whole tenour of his life for ever. For, invited and pressed by them, and -promised protection and patronage, he became a pleader once again, and -for three years practised at the Pisan bar. Briefs flowed in, clients -were numerous, all were satisfied, and Goldoni, content with his lot, -abjured the theatre. He was too well known to be without temptations to -break his resolution: actors wrote to him for plays, and he tried to -refuse, and then, yielding to the desire, he wrote pieces for them in -hours borrowed from sleep, and gave his days entire to his profession. -Still law and the drama contended for him, and his heart was with the -latter, though he tried to turn his back on her, and to devote himself -to her rival. But he lost the game. A manager, named Mendebac, arrived -at Pisa with a company. Goldoni went to see the representations. They -acted his comedy of "La Donna di Garbo," which he considered his best -piece: he had written it for a favourite actress; but she died, and he -had never seen it acted. The wife of the manager was young, beautiful, -and a good performer, and she took the part of the Donna di Garbo. It is -difficult exactly to translate, in one word, this expression: as used by -the Tuscans it means, the worthy woman--the woman whose conduct is -upright and estimable. The heroine of the piece, however, deserves more -the name of the cunning than the worthy; and her chief merit consists in -her success. Rosaura is the daughter of a lace-maker of Pavia; and her -mother's house being frequented by many of the students and professors -of the university, she acquires a good deal of the scholastic pedantry -of the schools. She is seduced by a student, who deserts her; on which, -for the sake of revenge, she gets, herself introduced as a servant into -the house of his father, where, by pleasing every body, and adapting -herself to their humours, and by great display of learning, she hopes to -force her lover into a marriage, and succeeds. This is by no means one -of the best of Goldoni's comedies, but it pleased on the stage; and on -this occasion the principal part being filled up by the wife of the -manager, who was a clever actress, it met with the greatest approbation. -Goldoni, warmed by success, enticed by the offers of the manager, and -drawn on by the instinctive bent of his disposition, suddenly resolved -to leave Pisa and the profession which he was pursuing with so much -advantage, and returning to Venice, to enter again on the task of -writing comedies for its theatre. Such a determination was sufficiently -strange and imprudent; but Goldoni's love for his art was such, that he -never regretted the sacrifice he made; on the contrary, being now wholly -devoted to the drama, his enthusiasm rose, and, filled with projects for -its reform, he worked with an ardour, which was rewarded by success, and -which inspired his best pieces. - -It is, perhaps, difficult for a person who has never visited Italy to -enter with zest into all the merits of Goldoni. His perfect fidelity to -nature, the ease of his dialogue, and the dramatic effect of his pieces, -can only be entirely appreciated in the representation. The best of them -have often a slight plot, but the interest is kept alive by the variety -of the dialogue. It was only slowly, however, that he proceeded to the -reform of the Italian comedy; the substitution of natural incident for -violent and forced situations, and the higher properties of comedy for -the mere burlesque of farce. Obliged to bring out his plays in quick -succession, they are, of course, unequal, and did not meet always with -the same approbation. Unfortunately, his first season ended with a piece -which had no success. The company for which he wrote, had to contend -with others, longer established in the city; and; at the end of the -carnival; these circumstances combined to afford a dreary prospect for -the following year. At this moment Goldoni stepped forward in the most -singular manner; to the assistance of the manager. He publicly promised -sixteen new comedies for the next season; and the audience, wondering -and anxious, instantly engaged all the boxes. His enemies ridiculed, his -friends trembled for him; but he felt secure that he could fulfil his -engagement, although at the moment he had not conceived the plot or plan -of one of the promised sixteen. - -This certainly was a great stretch of invention and mental labour. Out -of the sixteen, for he completed the whole number, there were not more -than three or four mediocre ones, and some were among his best. The -"Donne Puntigliose," or Punctilious Ladies, is exceedingly amusing. A -Sicilian trader's wife from the country, desires to be received among -the noble ladies of Palermo: she contrives to get herself invited to -small parties, where there are many men, and no lady except the mistress -of the house; but finds it impossible to get admitted to their -ceremonious assemblies. At last, an old countess, high-born, but poor, -promises to give a ball, to which she shall be invited, on certain -conditions, to which the low-born lady readily consents, though they -draw rather largely on her purse. But to her consternation, as soon as -she enters the ball-room, every woman flies as if she brought infection -with her, and leaves her alone with her hostess. The punctilious -scruples of those who try to make use of her without derogating from -their own dignity, and who are ever ready to receive, but never to -confer favours, form a very amusing picture of manners. "Pamela" was -among the most successful of these pieces. Richardson's novel of -"Pamela" is a great favourite with the Italians; and Goldoni was often -asked to write a drama on the subject. As the Venetian laws are severe -against the children of a _mésalliance_, he considers the catastrophe -of the novel as not inculcating a recommendable line of conduct. He, -therefore, transformed Gaffer Andrews into a Scottish lord of the -rebellion of '45, and gave Pamela good blood to render her marriage with -her lover a commendable act on his part. This comedy had the greatest -success. "The Donna Prudente" was equally a favourite. The story is -founded on a jealous husband, afraid of ridicule, who is tortured by the -attentions of the cavaliere servente of his wife, yet who dares not -encounter the laughter that would ensue if he forbade the service. The -prudent lady exerts herself with success to get rid of her cavaliere -without its being supposed that her conduct arises from her husband's -jealousy. The last of his sixteen was a purely Venetian subject, written -almost entirely in the Venetian dialect: it is called "I Pettegollezzi," -or The Gossipings, and turns on the misfortunes brought on the heroine -through the gossip of her female acquaintances. It was brought on the -last day of carnival. "The concourse," Goldoni writes, "was so immense, -that the price of the boxes was tripled and quadrupled; and the applause -was so tumultuous, that those who passed near the theatre were uncertain -whether the sound was that of mere plaudits, or of a general revolt. I -remained tranquil in my box, surrounded by my friends, who cried for -joy. When all was over, a crowd of people came for me, forced me to -accompany them, and carried, or rather dragged, me to the Ridotto, and -overwhelmed me with compliments, from which I would fain have escaped. I -was too tired to support all this ceremony; and, besides, not knowing -whence all this enthusiasm sprang, I was angry that the piece just -represented should be more extolled than many others which were of -greater merit. By degrees I discovered the true motive of the general -acclamation: it celebrated the triumph of my fulfilled engagement." - -Goldoni was now forty-three years of age. His invention had not yet -fallen off, but he tried his strength too much. An illness was the -consequence of this extraordinary exertion, and he felt the effects of -it all his life after; yet during the ensuing season he brought out -scarcely a smaller number, and, as he proceeded, attained a yet purer -style of comedy; and he became the censor of the manners, and satirist -of the follies, of his country. The peculiar system of what is called -service, paid by gentlemen to the ladies of their choice, all over -Italy, would have presented an ample field both for ridicule and -reprehension, could he have ventured on it openly; but he was obliged to -treat it with the same reserve, when bringing it on the stage, as is -used when it is spoken of in society; and he could attack only the -ridicule, not the real evils of the system. This comedy, called the -"Villeggiatura," which turns on this subject, is particularly amusing; -but it can scarcely be called an attack upon it. An Italian gentleman, -returned lately from Paris, offers to serve a lady in the French manner: -he is not to perform those thousand services required of the cavaliere -servente, nor to attend on her, nor to be of any use or amusement to -her: they are to be friends secretly; and, to preserve their friendship -more sacredly, they must abstain from nearly all intercourse with each -other. The lady, accustomed to be constantly waited upon, and to find in -her cavaliere a resource against the ennui of solitude, is at a loss to -understand the good that is to result from a negative of all the -ordinary uses of friendship. The "Smanie della Villeggiatura" attacks -another of the foibles of the Venetians. It is their custom, each -autumn, to spend several weeks at their country seats; but, instead of -this being a period of economy and retirement, it was the fashion to -invite their friends, and to transport with them the dissipation of the -city. Besides this, it being necessary, as a mark of fashion, to retire -to a villa, those who were poor, and did not possess one, fancied -themselves obliged to hire a house, and to go beyond their wealthier -neighbours in the number of their guests and the splendour of their -entertainments: nor can any idea be formed out of the country of the -sort of fanaticism with which this custom was pursued; even to the -bringing ruin on those who imagined themselves forced to so unnecessary -an expense. Goldoni wrote three comedies on this subject: the first -consisted in describing the preparations for the villeggiatura, or visit -to the country. It has for its subject the difficulties of a a poor -proud family, who were bent on following the general example; the -thousand obstacles that rendered it almost impracticable; and the envy -with which they view and vie with the preparations of their wealthier -acquaintance. At length they depart triumphant, resolving to forget -their debts and difficulties until their return. The second comedy -consists of the adventures in the country; where, in the midst of -gambling, pleasure, and apparent enjoyment, a thousand annoyances -distract, and jealousy and envy prevent, all real happiness. The third -comedy, of the return from the country, shows the unfortunate lovers of -rural pleasures overwhelmed by debt; surrounded by a thousand -difficulties, sprung up while there; and saved only, when on the verge -of ruin, by a kind and prudent friend who assists them, on their promise -never to undertake a villeggiatura again. These plays are without the -masks, and give a perfect representation of Italian conversation and -manners. As he wished to criticise the Venetians, he did not venture to -place the scene at Venice; but the audience easily brought home to -themselves the faults and follies of the Tuscans or Neapolitans. In thus -making a detail of some of the best of his plays, it is impossible to do -more than to indicate those which appear the best worth reading. The -"Vedova Scaltra," or The Gay Widow, was a great favourite in Italy. A -rich widow, with four lovers from four different nations, seeks from -each a proof of love, and gives her hand to the Italian, who, by his -jealousy, evinces, she imagines, the sincerest testimony of the tender -passion. The "Feudatario" has in it more of farce than he usually -admits, and is peculiarly amusing; as well as the "Donna del Maneggio," -or Managing Lady, whose avaricious husband, after incurring a thousand -ridiculous disasters, ends by placing the disposal of his property in -his wife's hands. It would be too long and uninteresting to enter on -even this brief notice of more; but we may mention the titles of some of -his best, to guide any one who wishes to read only a portion of the vast -quantity he wrote: among these may be named "Il Cavaliere e la Dama," -"Il vero Amico," "La Moglie Saggia," "L'Avanturiere Onorato," "Molière -e Terenzio," which he names himself as the favourite offspring of his -pen. - -He spent many years thus respectably and happily. He loved his wife and -his domestic circle. The applause of a theatre perpetually ringing in -his ears, he was gratified by the consciousness that he was reforming -the national taste. Sometimes he was attacked for what he considered the -chief merit of his dramas. The advocates of the old comedy condemned his -new style as puerile and tame. He defended himself, and was satisfied -that he obtained the victory. During the summer, when the theatres at -Venice were closed, he visited the various cities of Italy; and his life -was diversified, and his invention refreshed, by these occasional tours. -He had reason to be dissatisfied with the manager, Mendebac, who had -allured him from Pisa, as he not only was illiberal enough not to add to -his salary on these extraordinary efforts, but appropriated the profits -arising from the publication of his works. Goldoni was unwilling to -enter into a lawsuit with him; he contented himself, therefore, by -bringing out an edition of his play at Florence; and as soon as his five -years' engagement with Mendebac was over, he transferred himself to the -theatre of San Luca, on terms at once more advantageous and honourable. - -With some few reverses, attendant on an entire change of actors, and his -ignorance of the peculiar abilities of the company, to which he was not -accustomed, his career on this new stage was equally successful. He -wrote several comedies in verse, which became peculiar favourites. This -success was the occasion of his being invited to Rome during the -carnival: but his dramas did not succeed so well there. The actors, -unaccustomed to his style, were unable to give them with any effect, and -the Roman audience called out for Puncinello. - -In 1750, he received an offer from the French court of an engagement for -two years, on very advantageous terms. Goldoni hesitated a little about -accepting it. A few years before, his brother had returned to Venice, a -widower, with two children. Goldoni gave up to him all his property in -Modena, and adopted the children, having none of his own. He made a good -income in Italy; but he had no provision for old age: still he was -unwilling to leave his native country--whose climate and people were -dear to him--where he was honoured, loved, and applauded. He made some -enquiries with regard to the possibility of getting a pension from the -Venetian government; but this appearing a vain hope, he considered it -right to close with the offer of the king of France. He hesitated the -more before taking this step, as, although the engagement in question -was but for two years, he felt that, once in Paris, and acquiring an -honourable maintenance, it was probable that he should never see Italy -again. - -During the carnival of 1761, the last pieces he wrote for the Venetian -theatre were represented: one, the last acted, was a sort of allegorical -leave-taking, which was so understood by the audience; and the -acclamations and adieus of the public moved him to tears. He left Venice -in April 1761, accompanied by his wife. His mother was dead; his niece -he placed in a convent, under the superintendence of a respectable -family at Venice; his nephew was soon to follow him. As he passed -through Italy, on his way to France, he was received at the various -towns with distinction and kindness. He spent some little time at Genoa, -with his wife's relations, and then they proceeded by slow stages to -Paris. - -Goldoni's _débût_ as an author in the French capital was not a happy -one. The Italian comedians there were not accustomed to regular -comedies, which they were to learn by heart, but to the old style of -their native farce, where the plot and arrangement of the scenes were -all that was written, and they filled up the dialogue themselves. -Goldoni wrote two or three pieces for them on this plan without success. -His stay in Paris was, however, decided by the post of Italian master to -the daughters of Louis XV. being bestowed on him. He knew so little of -French, that he gained as much knowledge from the princesses as he -imparted to them. His salary was very slender, but it was increased in -the sequel; and his nephew also was provided for by the post of Italian -teacher in the military school. - -Goldoni was charmed by the French actors; and his ambition was excited -to write a comedy to be represented by the excellent comedians who then -flourished. His desire was fulfilled to the utmost. He brought out "Le -Bourru Bienfaisant," into which he endeavoured to instil the spirit of -French dialogue and plot with great success; so that Voltaire praises it -as the best French comedy written since Molière. He wrote another on -the same plan; but it fell to the ground, and he at last desisted from -adding to the immense number of pieces of which he is the author. - -He lived tranquilly and content with his moderate means. His niece was -married at Venice; his nephew settled happily at Paris. The revolution -did not, fortunately, disturb the repose of his last years. The National -Convention confirmed his pension to him, and continued it to his widow -after his death. Goldoni died in the year 1792, at the age of -eighty-five. No man was ever more born for the career which he pursued. -His heart was excellent, and his disposition gay. He never allowed -himself to be cast down by adversity, and met the attacks of his enemies -with good humour, or such replies as caused the laugh to be on his side. -He is numbered by his countrymen as among the best of their authors,--an -opinion confirmed by all those sufficiently cognisant with the Italian -language and manners to enter into the spirit of his compositions. - - - - -ALFIERI - -1749-1803. - - -The Italian poets of the early ages were eminently distinguished for -their patriotism. The haughty spirit of Dante burst forth into indignant -denunciations against the oppressors of his country; the gentler, but -not less fervent, Petrarch was never weary of adjuring its rulers to -bestow upon it the blessings of justice and peace; and the latter years -of Boccaccio's life were ennobled by his public services, and his -earnest endeavours to implant a love and reverence for literature in the -minds of his countrymen. The pages of Roman history and the writings of -Roman poets made them proud of the country which had given them birth, -and which added to its moral grandeur, of having been once the sovereign -and civiliser of the world,--the natural affection inspired by its -being, from its fertility, the diversity of its woods, lakes, and -mountains, and surrounding sea, the most beautiful country upon earth. - -The national spirit died away in after times. The devastating wars -carried on in the Peninsula by France and the emperor, the rise of minor -principalities, and the struggles of rival states, so excited the -passions and absorbed the interests of the Italians, that they became -incapable of enlarged views for the good of their country. The -depressing influence of courtly servitude checked the free spirit of the -writers; Ariosto and Tasso were both conspicuous for personal -independence of character; but they did not extend their love of liberty -to any exertions for the redemption of Italy. A darker day was at hand. -The Peninsula, divided and weakened, became a mere province. A Spanish -viceroy reigned over Naples, and the northern portion was controlled by -France and Austria. The Italians were taught to take pride in the -virtues of slaves; in submission, patience, and repose. The prosperity -of the country was gone, its trade destroyed, its armies annihilated. No -scope was given to generous ambition; no career offered, by entering on -which a man might exercise the peculiar privilege of the free--that of -instructing their fellow countrymen: to be inoffensive to the ruling -powers was the aim of all. The love of money--not the love of gain, for -to gain was impossible, but mere parsimony, arising from the necessity -of regarding the domestic expenditure as the only business of -life--engrossed the fathers of families; the women were uneducated and -degraded, and though they preserved, as is often the case in a depraved -state of society, a nature more generous, artless, and kindly than the -other sex, yet these virtuous feelings found no scope for their -developement, except in the passion of love. While the law of -primogeniture interested not only the large class of younger sons, but -even the heads of families, who wished to prevent their children from -marrying, to establish a system of society, which, beginning by -subverting the best principles of morality, ended by destroying all -social happiness. While the higher orders were thus occupied by -money-saving and intrigue, the lower orders were tamed by hard labour, -and rendered submissive by the priests. The writers were the servants of -princes: they administered to the pleasures of their countrymen, without -uttering one word that could call them from their state of debasement, -or inspire a love of the active and disinterested virtues. - -Full of talent as the Italians are, and formed by nature for the noblest -scenes of action, doubtless "many a village Hampden" was born and died -in obscurity and inaction; and yet this expression gives rise to a false -notion. The peasants of Italy have no education, and, although -infinitely superior in talent, perhaps, to any other peasantry in the -world, are incapable of that generalisation of ideas which produces -patriotism. But, among the better sort of gentry,--men of simple habits -and strong good sense, among the men of science and the professors at -the universities,--there were individuals who mourned over the ruin of -Italy. These men did not so much dwell on the ancient greatness of Rome, -as on the achievements of their countrymen during the middle ages. -Literature had been revived by them; the arts had flourished among them: -they were proud of the past, but they despaired of the present. - -The voice of liberty was silent. The Italians hated and despised their -masters, but never dreamed of rebelling against them. Tuscany was -slothful under a mild sway, whose tyranny was never felt, except by the -few who believed that they were not merely _fruges consumere nati_, and -were bitten with a noble mania for benefiting their race. Piedmont was -ruled by a prince, who, by cultivating in his subjects, not a martial, -but a military spirit (a very different thing), gave his idle nobles -something to do. Lombardy was crushed by foreign bayonets. The voice of -liberty was silent, when the French revolution awoke the world, and the -hope of freedom spoke audibly in the hearts of all; and, afterwards, -when the victories of Napoleon crushed this hope, they could not impose -a silence for ever broken. Its language is now felt and understood from -one end of the country to the other, and the day must come when the -oppressors will be unable to oppose the veto of mere physical force to -the overpowering influence of moral courage. - -It was while Italy yet reposed submissive and mute, that a poet was -born, who dedicated all the powers of his mind to the awakening his -countrymen from their lethargy--to strengthening their enervated minds, -and spreading such knowledge and such sentiments abroad among them, as -would at once reveal their degraded state, and give them energy to -aspire to a better. - -Vittorio Alfieri was born at Asti, in Piedmont, on the 17th of January, -1749. His parents were noble, wealthy, and respected. To these three -circumstances Alfieri attributes many of the prosperous circumstances -that attended his literary career. "Since I was born noble," he says, "I -could attack the nobility without being accused of envy; since I was -rich, I was independent and incorruptible; and the respectability of my -parents prevented my ever being ashamed of my rank." - -His father was named Antonio Alfieri, and his mother was Monica Maillard -de Tournon, whose family, originally from Savoy, had long been -established at Turin. His father was a man of blameless life: he had -never entered on any public office, and was without a spark of that -ambition which might have led him to seek distinction at court. He was -fifty, five when he married, and his wife, though very young, was -already a widow. Their eldest child was a daughter. Two years after, to -the infinite joy of his father, Vittorio was born. He was put out to -nurse, at a village called Rovigliasco, two miles from Asti; but such -was the tenderness of his father, that he went on foot each day to see -the child. This was a strong mark of affection, and testified also his -simple and unostentatious disposition: for the Italian nobility usually -love repose beyond all things, and their greatest pride is never to go -on foot. This solicitude unfortunately cost him his life: he caught cold -on occasion of one of his visits, and died after a few days' illness, -leaving his wife about to give birth to another son, who, however, died -in his infancy. She was an amiable and excellent woman, and still young -when her second husband died; so that she was induced to marry a third -time. Her husband was a cadet, of another branch of the Alfieri family; -but, by the death of his elder brother, he in process of time inherited -the wealth of his family, and became very rich. This marriage proved a -very fortunate one. The cavaliere Giacinto was handsome and amiable; the -couple grew old together in happiness; and the lady, as she advanced in -years, gained the love and respect of all by her piety and works of -charity and kindness. - -On the marriage of his mother, Vittorio and his sister went to live in -their father-in-law's house, who proved himself a kind parent to the -orphans. Although his health was not robust, Alfieri's childhood was -little interrupted by sickness; and his first grief was experienced at -the age of seven, when his sister Julia was sent to a convent for her -education. Although he was, at first, permitted to see her every day, -yet he felt, on her removal from the parental roof, that violence of -emotion and boiling of the blood which was apt to seize on him, in after -life, when forced to separate from any one to whom he was warmly -attached. Thus his sensibility developed itself early; and sensibility -and pride, both exalted into passions rather than feelings, were always -the prominent traits of his disposition, and which at last, from the -excessive influence they exercised over him, generated that gloomy -melancholy to which he was a victim. - -Alfieri remained at home, under the tutelage of a worthy priest, named -Don Ivaldi, with whose assistance he began to learn the rudiments of -Latin. His disposition was, for the most part, taciturn and placid: now -and then he became loquacious and gay in the extreme, and, at other -times, the melancholy already nascent in his heart, filled him with -strange and passionate thoughts. He was obstinate when treated unkindly, -but readily yielded to affection; and, above all, he was susceptible, to -a painful degree, of the sense of shame. When, as a punishment for -childish faults, any sort of public penance was imposed on him, he -endured such transports of agony as affected his health for weeks. - -At the age of nine, his uncle, the cavaliere Pellegrino Alfieri, who was -his guardian, returned from a tour in France and England, and visited -Asti, on his way to Turin. He found his nephew happy under the domestic -roof, but learning little or nothing; accordingly, he thought this a -very bad state of things, and insisted that he should be placed at the -public school at Turin, where ignorance, rather than knowledge, was -taught, but where, as he would be neglected and enslaved, it was to be -supposed that his education would prosper better than under the -indulgent care of a fond mother. She was obliged to consent, and parted -from her son with reluctance and tears. The boy's grief at the moment of -separation was vehement; but it was quickly dissipated by the delight of -travelling post, and the pleasure he took in bribing the postilions to -go at their utmost speed. He was accompanied by a servant only; and, -while the old man slept, the little fellow sat proud and gay in the -carriage, as it whirled past village and town in quick succession. When -arrived at Turin, his uncle received him kindly. He was at first -depressed by the change of scene, and missed the caresses of his loving -mother; but soon he became so joyous, and even riotous, that the -cavaliere Pellegrino hastened to place him at the academy: and here he -was, at the age of nine, torn from the domestic circle to which he was -accustomed, at a distance from all his friends, isolated and abandoned. -The only species of education, such as it was, entered upon at the -academy, regarded their literary studies: the feelings were left to form -themselves; lessons of morality and the duties of life making no part of -the instruction afforded the pupils. - -"The academy," Alfieri tells us, "was a large, handsome quadrangular -building, with a large court in the middle; two sides of the square were -occupied by the students, the other two by the king's theatre and royal -archives. The side occupied by us, who were called of the second and -third apartment, was opposite the latter; that occupied by the students -of the first apartment being opposite to the king's theatre. The upper -gallery on our side was called the third apartment, and was devoted to -the younger boys and lower schools. The gallery on the ground floor was -called the second, and occupied by the pupils rather more advanced in -age: a portion of these studied at the university, another edifice -adjoining to the academy; the rest received their education in the -military college. Every gallery contained at least four chambers, each -occupied by eleven youths, over which an assistant, or usher, -presided,--a poor fellow, whose only payment consisted in being boarded -and lodged free of expense, while he studied theology or law, at the -university; or, if he were not a poor student, he was an old and -ignorant priest. A third portion of the side destined to the first -apartment was occupied by the king's pages, to the number of twenty or -twenty-five, who were totally separated from us of the second, at the -opposite angle of the court, and close to the galleries of the archives. -We, the younger pupils, could not have been worse placed. On one side, -was a theatre which we were only permitted to visit about five or six -times during the carnival; on the other, the pages who attended on the -court, and who, continually hunting and riding, appeared to enjoy much -freer and happier lives than the poor imprisoned boys; besides these, we -overlooked the proceedings of the first class, which was composed almost -entirely of foreigners, Russian and German, with a large proportion of -English;--this class was restrained by no rule except that of being in -by midnight; and their apartment was a mere lodging house to them, -instead of being a place of education." - -Alfieri was placed in the third apartment: he had the luxury of a -servant to attend on him; but the fellow, unchecked by superior -authority, became a sort of petty tyrant over his young master: in all -other respects, he was on an equality with the rest of his comrades. - -The basis of the system of education consisted in strict imprisonment, -little sleep, and unwholesome food. To this was added a certain degree -of parrot knowledge of the Latin language: the boys were taught to -construe Cornelius Nepos; but so little pains were taken, or, rather, so -little power was there in their instructors to enlarge their stores of -real knowledge, that Alfieri tells us, that not one of them knew who the -men were whose lives they read; nor what the country, government, or -times were in which they lived, nor even what thing government was. The -boy made progress, however, in what he was taught: his emulation was -excited, and his memory was cultivated; but, on the other hand, he grew -sickly and stunted in growth, the effects of bad food and too little -sleep. He had only his drunken, his dissipated servant to attend on him -when he was ill; who often, on such occasions, left him half the day -alone, which increased the constitutional melancholy of his disposition. -His pleasures were few; and the want of all affectionate treatment -blighted his life. It seems strange to us that his mother did not visit -him, and that he never went home for a vacation: but such were the -customs of the country, and he was brought up in conformity with them. - -The spirit of emulation, caused him, in some degree, to distinguish -himself, and he advanced to higher classes and attended lectures on -philosophy, humanity, and mathematics; but such was the style in which -they were taught, that, when he had gone through six books of Euclid, he -was unable to demonstrate the fourth proposition; and, though he studied -a whole year under the famous Beccaria, he did not comprehend a word of -what he was taught. This is the less extraordinary, since, speaking the -patois of Piedmont, Italian was as a foreign language; and, though he -contrived to obtain a copy of Ariosto, he was unable to understand a -word of it. His teachers were, for the most part, equally ignorant; so -that while his time was devoted to Latin, his native language was a -sealed book to him. He had a few relations at Turin, and when he became -really ill, they interfered that he should have more sleep and better -food; but he continued a puny and ailing boy. - -Some few pleasures diversified his life. His uncle found that the -education of his sister Julia was entirely neglected at Asti, and she -was removed to a convent at Turin. She was fifteen--in love--and divided -from the object of her affections. Her brother became her confidant: he -visited her twice a week, and tried to inspire her with constancy and -resolution; but youthful spirits were of more avail than the lessons of -romance, and, in short time, she was consoled. Another pleasure he -enjoyed was, when a relation took him, on one occasion, to the opera -buffa, sung by the best comic singers of Italy. The opera was the -"Mercante di Malmantile." The spirit and vivacity of the music made a -profound impression on him, leaving, as it were, a trail of harmony in -his ears and heart, so that for many weeks after he remained immersed in -an excessive, but not painful, melancholy. During this time he abhorred -and nauseated his usual studies, while a world of fantastic images -crowded his mind; and had he known how, he would have composed verses, -and have expressed the most lively emotions, had not all language in -which to express them been denied to him, through the ignorance of his -teachers. This was the first time that music exercised so great an -influence over him, and it remained long impressed upon his memory. At -all times he was excessively susceptible to the impressions made by -harmony, and he found that vocal music, especially female voices, -possessed a peculiar power to disturb and agitate his mind. Nothing, he -tells us, awakened in him more violent or various emotions; and almost -all his tragedies were conceived while in the act of listening to music, -or a few hours after. One other pleasure that he enjoyed during this -period, was spending a fortnight with his uncle at Cuneo. This little -journey did his health good, and occasioned him infinite delight. It was -here that he wrote his first sonnet, addressed to a lady admired by his -uncle, and who pleased him. As he knew nothing of Italian, or, as it is -called, Tuscan, this sonnet must have been very bad. It pleased the -lady; but his uncle, who was a soldier, and of an austere disposition, -and who, though imbued with sufficient knowledge of history and -government, despised poetry, ridiculed the boyish effusion, and put all -thought of writing another out of his head. - -At the age of fourteen, the circumstances of his life were considerably -altered. His guardian uncle died. By the Piedmontese laws, children of -fourteen are considered, to a certain degree, of age, and are allowed -the entire disposal of their incomes; while a trustee is appointed to -prevent their alienating any part of the principal or real property. -Alfieri was thus raised at once to independence; and, to add to his -comfort, his servant, who had tyrannised over him, and who, unwatched, -and unchecked, had fallen into the worst vices, was dismissed. Alfieri -parted from him with regret, despite his ill-treatment, and showed the -kindliness of his heart by visiting him twice a week, and giving him -what money he could spare. He tells us that he can ill account for his -attachment to one who had shown so little kindness to him: he could not -attribute it to generosity on his part; but partly to habit, and partly -to the talents of the man, who, besides being singularly sagacious, was -accustomed to tell him long adventures and tales full of imagination and -interest. - -The first fruit he reaped from the death of his uncle was being -permitted to attend the riding school, which had been before denied. He -was then of diminutive stature and weak of frame, and little able to -control his horse; but perseverance, and a great desire of success, -supplied every other defect. To this noble exercise he owed the good -health, robustness, and increase of stature, that he soon acquired. The -next great event that followed was, his being removed from the second to -the first apartment of his college. In the second, the students were -mere boys, and they were kept in strict discipline; in the first, entire -freedom and idleness was the order of the day. He made his entrance on -the 8th of May, 1763. His comrades were almost all foreigners, many were -French, a still greater number were English. An excellent table was -served in the best style, and all breathed luxury, comfort, and freedom. -Much amusement, a great deal of sleep and of riding, gave Alfieri -renewed health and spirits. He spent his money on horses or dress. His -trustee quarrelled with him for his extravagance, but that did not alter -the state of things. With liberty and money he acquired friends and -companions in every amusement and enterprise. "Yet," he says, "in the -midst of this busy vortex, being little more than fourteen, I was not -nearly so unreasonable as I might have been. From time to time, I felt a -silent impulse within me to apply to study, and a good deal of shame for -my ignorance, concerning the extent of which I never deceived myself, -nor others. But, grounded in no one study, undirected by any, not really -acquainted with a single language, I knew not how nor to what to apply -myself. I read French romances, and conversed with foreigners, and -forgot the little Italian I had before contrived to pick up from my -Ariosto. At one time I took it into my head to immerse myself in the -thirty-six volumes of Fleury's Ecclesiastical History, making extracts -in French; but soon I threw it aside, and took to romances and the -'Arabian Nights.'" - -Riding, and horses, and fine clothes were his passions. He and his -friends went out in troops, leaping over every obstacle, fording rivers, -and breaking down the unfortunate animals they rode, till at last no one -would let them any. But these active exercises invigorated Alfieri's -health, strengthened his frame, and filled him with spirit and -resolution; preparing his mind to support, and even to make good use of, -the physical and moral liberty he afterwards acquired. - -The youth of the first apartment were perfectly free, but they were all -young men: Alfieri was as a boy among them, being only fifteen; and it -was considered right that his servant should attend him constantly, and -act as a check upon him. The man who had replaced his former tyrant was -a foolish, good-humoured fellow, who easily yielded to bribery and -persuasion, and let his young master do as he pleased. But this did not -satisfy the youth's pride; he resolved to be on an equality with his -comrades, and, without saying a word to his valet, or to any one, went -out alone. He was reproved by the governor, but repeated his offence -immediately. On this he was put under arrest for a few days; but no -sooner was his prison door opened, than, in open defiance, he went out -again unaccompanied; and although, on the renewal of his offence, the -term of his imprisonment was prolonged, it was without avail. At length -he declared that his arrest must be perpetual, since as soon as he was -set at liberty he should exercise the same privilege, being resolved not -in any way to be on a different footing from his comrades; that the -governor might remove him from the first, and replace him in the second -apartment, but that he insisted upon being put in possession of all the -rights of his companions. On this he was kept confined for more than -three months; nor would he make any request to be liberated, but, -indignant and stubborn, had died rather than have yielded. "I slept -nearly all day," he tells us; "towards evening I got up from my bed, -and, having a mattrass placed near the fireplace, I stretched myself -upon it on the ground. Not choosing to receive the usual college dinner, -I caused food to be brought into my room, and cooked pollenta and -similar things at my fire. I never dressed myself, nor allowed my hair -to be touched, and became an absolute savage. Though I was not allowed -to quit my room, my friends were permitted to visit me; but I was sullen -and silent, and lay like a lifeless body, not replying to any thing that -was said; and thus I continued for hours, with my eyes fixed on the -ground, and full of tears, though I never suffered one to escape from -them." - -This obstinacy must have annoyed his masters considerably, and they -were, no doubt, glad to make use of the first fair occasion for -restoring him to liberty. The marriage of his sister gave them a -pretext, of which they availed themselves. Julia married count Giacinto -di Cumiano on the 1st of May, 1764: the wedding took place at the -beautiful village of Cumiano, ten miles from Turin. Alfieri enjoyed the -spring season and his newly recovered liberty with intense delight, and, -on his return to college, was admitted to all the privileges of the -class of students to which he belonged. The control over his income -being now almost entirely in his own hands, he launched out into a -variety of expenses, the first of which was the purchase of a horse, a -fiery but delicate animal, which he loved so passionately, that he could -never after call him to mind without emotion: if it was ill, he could -neither eat nor sleep. The delicacy of this beloved horse was the -occasion of his buying another; and after that he bought carriage -horses, and cab and saddle horses, till he had a stud of eight, to the -great dissatisfaction of his trustee; but, as he could set his -reprehensions at nought, he gave no ear to them, but plunged into every -kind of expense, principally in dress, competing in extravagance with -the English members of the university. In the midst of this vanity, the -ingenuousness of his disposition manifested itself. He made display -among the rich foreigners, who were his associates; but, when he was -visited by his poorer friends and countrymen, who, though of noble -birth, were yet straitened in means, he was accustomed to change his -dress, to put on modest attire, and even to hide his finery, that he -might not appear to possess any superiority over them: this delicacy of -feeling extended itself to other parts of his conduct, and showed the -genuine urbanity and benevolence of his disposition. - -In the autumn of 1765, he made a short journey to Genoa with his -trustee: this was the first time that he had left Piedmont; and here, -for the first time, he saw the sea, the aspect of which transported him -with admiration, and so exalted his imagination, that he says, if he had -understood any language, or had had any poetry before him, he should -certainly have composed verses. During this journey, to his infinite -delight, he visited his native town, and his mother, whom, strange to -say, he had not seen for seven years. There seems something -incomprehensible in a state of society that should admit of the -propriety, or, rather, enforce the necessity, of a boy of nine being -separated from all maternal care, and left to struggle as he might, -during the precarious season of childhood and of adolescence, without a -parent's eye to watch over his well-being, and administer to his health -and happiness. On his return to Turin, he was not a little proud among -his countrymen of his journey to Genoa; but among the English, German, -Polish and Russian students he felt the utmost rage and shame to think -that they had seen countries so much more distant. This uneasy sense of -inferiority inspired him with a passion for travelling, and made him -resolve to visit the various lands of which his comrades were natives. - -In the first impulse of expectant manhood, he had petitioned to be -allowed to enter the army. As he grew older he began to find that his -liberty was dearer to him than any military parade; but, as he did not -withdraw his request, he found himself admitted, in 1766, as ensign into -the provincial regiment of Asti. He had chosen this, as the duties -attendant on it were slight, it being only required to assemble for -review for a few days twice a year: however, this necessity annoyed him, -especially as it forced him to quit the university, where he would have -been well pleased to remain; but there was no help, and he left college, -after an abode of nearly eight years. He took a small apartment in the -same house with his sister, and spent all he could in horses and all -sorts of luxuries, as well as in dinners given to his friends. A dislike -of military discipline, and a love of travelling, made him soon after -ask a year's leave of absence; and he set out for Rome and Naples under -the care of an English Catholic, who was about to make that tour, as -tutor to two young Flemish gentlemen. It was with great difficulty that -he obtained the necessary permission; the king was averse to the nobles -leaving the country, and it was only by a thousand petty artifices and -intrigues that at last he succeeded in his wishes. - -Agitated by an inexplicable disquietude of mind, ignorant of all with -regard to literature and the arts, that could make travelling -interesting. Alfieri had at this time but one pleasure in a journey, -which was, going along the high road with the greatest possible speed. -His companions were as little awake to rational inquiry as himself; and -the only one among them, he tells us, who had common sense, was his -valet, who also acted as courier,--a man named Elia, who served him for -many years with the greatest fidelity. The first city at which the party -stopped was Milan. They went to see the curiosities, and visited the -Ambrosian library. The treasures of the collection were wasted upon -Alfieri: when an autograph of Petrarch was shown him (perhaps the Virgil -on whose cover the poet has recorded his passionate sorrow on the death -of Laura), he, barbarian like, pushed it away, saying, it was nothing to -him. This act did not arise from mere indifference; but partly from a -grudge he felt against Petrarch, arising from his not being able to -understand his poetry; and shame for his own ignorance took the guise of -contempt of another's genius. On visiting Florence, the only object that -called forth any emotion was the sight of Michael Angelo's tomb; when -the recollection of the fame which had been acquired by this master of -his art filled him with ideas that he could not define; and the thought -rose in his mind, that those men only were truly great, who left some -enduring monument of genius behind them. But these notions were vague -and transitory; he lived only for the present hour, even while that -afforded no one object to occupy or please him. - -On leaving Florence, he hurried through Pisa and Siena; but such is the -magic of the name, that the approach to Rome made his heart palpitate, -and his torpid soul warmed into something like enthusiasm. He was -charmed by the magnificent aspect which the eternal city presents as it -is entered by the Porta del Popolo; and scarcely had he alighted at the -hotel in the Piazza di Spagna, than he hurried off co behold the wonders -of the place. Ignorance narrows the intellect, and takes the living -colours from the imagination. Alfieri, after all, regarded coldly those -objects which render Rome a city of absolute enchantment. He was best -pleased with St. Peter's. At each successive visit, the solemn vastness -of the mighty aisles of the cathedral made a deeper impression; the -splendour of the architecture, the sublime stillness of its -incense-breathing atmosphere, and the soft twilight that reigns beneath -its dome, kindled his soul to something like poetic inspiration. But -even these feelings could only for a few moments appease the -restlessness that pursued him, and he hurried away from Rome with all -the impatience of one ill at ease in himself. At Naples he grew still -more disturbed and melancholy: music, which he loved, only tended to -increase his gloom; and his reserve prevented him from forming any -intimacies. All day he drove from place to place, in those droll little -Neapolitan _calesine_, which go at such a prodigious rate under the -guidance of their Lazaroni drivers,--"Not," he says, "that I wished to -visit remarkable objects, for I had no curiosity nor knowledge about -them, but merely for the sake of being on the road: I was never satiated -of rapid motion, but a moment's quiescence filled me with annoyance." -... "And thus I lived, a riddle to myself, believing that I had -capacity for nothing; feeling no decided impulse or emotion, except a -continual melancholy; never finding peace nor quiet, yet not knowing -what I desired; blindly obeying my nature, although I neither studied -nor comprehended it. Many years afterwards I perceived that my -unhappiness proceeded from the want, nay the necessity, which I have, to -have at once my heart occupied by some worthy object, and ray mind by -some ennobling pursuit; for, whenever either of these two fail me, I -remain incapable of the other, satiated and weary, and beyond all things -miserable." - -In the midst of this disturbed and unprofitable state, he nourished the -ardent desire to travel on and on, beyond the mountainous boundaries of -his country, uncontrolled and alone. For this purpose he applied to the -Sardinian minister; and, representing how correct his conduct was, and -how capable he showed himself of managing his own affairs, he besought -him to obtain leave from their sovereign, that he might detach himself -from the tutor, and proceed alone. To his great joy, his request was -complied with; and, with infinite delight, he left Naples for Rome, -eager to make use of his entire independence, and to find himself -solitary and lord of himself, on the high road, more than three hundred -miles distant from his native Piedmont. - -How little does mere freedom of will satisfy the mind, when not -ministered to and filled by thoughts that go beyond the present moment. -The aimless uneasiness of Alfieri was not to be dissipated by the mere -ability of satisfying his craving for locomotion. He obtained leave of -absence for another year, and permission to visit France and England: -but the same spirit accompanied him of melancholy and ennui; and all -objects were stale and unprofitable to his languid senses. Motive was -absent; and his ardent feelings, left to prey on themselves, produced -tears and regret but no power of finding a means of exercising them with -advantage and happiness. If his ignorance was ever brought home to him, -he was rendered uncomfortable, but felt no wish to improve. He tells us -that, at Rome, he was accustomed to visit each day the count of Rivera, -minister of Sardinia,--a worthy old man, who showed him every kindness, -and gave him the best advice. One morning he found the count occupied in -reading the sixth book of the Æneid; and when Alfieri entered, he -signed to him to approach, and began to recite the beautiful lamentation -for Marcellus. Six years before, Alfieri had translated, and known by -heart, the greater part of Virgil; but he had now forgotten it, and felt -thoroughly ashamed, but with little courage to amend; so that the result -of this scene was only that he sullenly ruminated over his disgrace, and -never went near the count again. The desire of some sort of interest -drove him into a fit of avarice. He was slenderly provided with means -for his ultramontane journey; and he resolved to save all he could in -Italy, that he might not be restricted when among foreigners. He -followed up his system of parsimony with his usual ardour, and carried -it to an excess which became its cure, since he got weary of the -privations and annoyances he thus brought on himself. - -From Rome he proceeded to Venice, passing through Ferrara without a -thought of Ariosto or Tasso; and Padua, without visiting either living -professors, or the tomb of the illustrious dead in the neighbourhood. -What was Petrarch to him? he again asked himself; he wrote in an unknown -tongue, of which, after all, he felt ashamed of being ignorant. He was -pleased with Venice, and was diverted by its amusements; yet the spring -season brought his usual annual fit of melancholy, and he spent many -days brooding over he knew not what, and weeping he knew not why. -Spurred on by restlessness, he hurried away from Venice: he passed -solitarily and ennuied through the beautiful cities of Lombardy, seldom -presenting letters of recommendation, and always keeping out of the way -of acquaintances: proud and shy, he hated new faces; and besides, his -desire of travelling made him avoid the ties of friendship and even of -love, though once or twice the smiles of beauty almost softened his -heart. All his desire was to hasten to France, and to enjoy the delights -he there promised himself. He was destined to be disappointed; for his -ill-regulated imagination always exaggerated the pains and pleasures of -the future, while it did not possess the better power of exalting and -adorning the objects which in anticipation had appeared so desirable, -and which in possession grew contemptible and barren. - -One of the singularities of Alfieri's character was the extravagant -hatred of France which he cherished all his life. He attributed this, in -the first place, to a vehement childish dislike of his French -dancing-master. Still he read nothing but French books, French was the -language he commonly spoke, and he left Italy in eager anticipation of -the pleasures of Paris. But Alfieri did not know his own nature; nor was -he aware that he could find happiness through the medium of his passions -and intellect only, while amusement and even dissipation had the effect -of wearying and disgusting him. The circumstance of his first entrance -into Paris sufficed to cloud his stay; nay, the feelings of his whole -life were influenced by the painful impression then made. It was the -month of August, in Italy so sunshiny and festal; a drizzling rain, -accompanied by a chilling temperature of air, impressed him most -disagreeably; the streets, houses, and people were all mean, dirty, and -impertinent in his eyes; his illusions vanished, and, but for a sense of -shame, he would on the instant have quitted the city he had come so far -to visit. The lapse of a quarter of a century did not erase the profound -traces of disgust and aversion that were then trenched in his mind. At -the time, the principal effect of his disappointment was a little to -diminish his passion for travelling; and to find that, beyond the Alps, -he learned to appreciate the beauties of the divine country he had been -so eager to quit. - -He delayed his departure from Paris till January, and then hurried to -London, which delighted as much as Paris had disgusted him; and he thus -gives evidence of a fact of which many English, who have travelled, must -be aware--that there is something in Italy and the Italians, in the -rural beauty of the country, and in the unpretending but highly gifted -natives, more congenial to our taste, than in the peculiar habits and -manners of the French. Industry does here, in beautifying the landscape, -what nature does beyond the Alps; while in France, there is a discomfort -and a desolation apparent in the midst of its civilisation and plenty, -which is singularly disagreeable. In this country, the roads, the inns, -the horses, the women, all charmed Alfieri; the appearance of general -competence, the activity of life, and the cleanliness and comfort of the -houses, diminutive as they struck him to be, made an agreeable -impression, which each successive visit renewed. Yet he led a strange -life--avoiding society, although in the midst of it. He had been -accompanied from Paris by a friend; and he amused himself, each morning, -by driving him about town, and acting the coachman for him at night, -sitting on the box for hours, and taking pride in his dexterity in -extricating his carriage amidst the difficulties and confusion attendant -on the vast multitude of equipages that throng round places of amusement -during the London season. This did for a little while; then, in -obedience to his wandering propensity, he made a tour to Portsmouth, -Bristol, and Oxford. He was pleased with all he saw; and began to -entertain a wish to settle in a country whose aspect was so agreeable, -where the manners were simple, the women modest and beautiful, the laws -equitable, and the men free. The enthusiasm he felt, made him disregard -the melancholy generated by the gloomy climate, and the ruinous expense -of living. He observes, and with justice, that Italy and England are the -only countries in which it is desirable to live: the former, because -there nature vindicates her rights, and rises triumphant over the evils -produced by the governments; the latter, because art conquers nature, -and transforms a rude ungenial land into a paradise of comfort and -laughing abundance. - -In June, he left England for Holland; and at the Hague for the first -time became really in love, and at the same time his heart opened itself -to friendship. The lady whom he admired, and who returned his affection, -was unfortunately a married woman, but an Italian education and habits -prevented any scruples of conscience from interrupting the felicity he -enjoyed. His friend was Don José d'Alcunha, Portuguese minister in -Holland. Alfieri describes him as clever and original, with a cultivated -understanding and firm unbending character: with tact and efficacy the -Portuguese awoke in his new friend shame for his idle, aimless life. It -was a curious circumstance, he tells us, that he never felt a strong -desire for mental improvement, except at such periods as when he was -passionately in love, and his time so employed that he could bestow none -of it on literature. In process of time, when he became worthily -attached, he may have perceived in this, the beneficent action of the -passions in our nature, when their objects are what they ought to -be--ennobling and permanent. - -After a period of great happiness, he was forced to separate from the -lady to whom he was attached,--she being obliged to join her husband, -who had gone to Switzerland; and Alfieri suffered the mildest of the -punishments that result from loving one to whom you cannot consecrate -your life. But though a separation, attended neither by disastrous -incident nor infidelity, is the gentlest penance for such an error, it -visited the young Italian in no gentle manner. It was a natural wish, as -any one will acknowledge who has attended to his own sensations, on -first being subjected to passionate sorrow, that which he formed--for -being bled: prevented by his friend and a faithful servant from allowing -this bleeding to be fatal, his grief became gloomy and taciturn; Holland -grew hateful to him; and he returned to Italy with the utmost -speed--never resting till he found himself at Cumiano, in his sister's -villa, after a three weeks' journey, during which time he saw nothing -and said nothing, communicating only by signs with his faithful servant, -Elia, who never lost sight of him, and bore with exemplary patience his -caprices and heedless tyranny. - -This state of melancholy regret augmented his love of solitude, and -engendered, moreover, a desire to study: he passed the winter at Turin, -in his sister's house, seeing absolutely no society, and spending his -time in reading. He turned over the pages of Voltaire, Rousseau, -Helvetius, and Montesquieu; but his chief delight was derived from the -perusal of Plutarch's lives. His mind was strongly excited by the heroic -virtues of the great men of whom he read, and tears of mingled -admiration and indignation gushed from his eyes. He felt the misfortune -it was to be a native of Piedmont; and to have been born in a country, -and at a time, when no scope was afforded for word or action, scarcely -any for thought and feeling. - -In the spring of 1769 he set out on another and a longer tour. He had -been disappointed in a matrimonial project, proposed to him by his -brother-in-law. The young lady was rich and beautiful, but she preferred -a handsome young courtier to a man already remarkable for the -eccentricity of his conduct and the sombreness of his disposition: for -Alfieri, withdrawn from the common routine of society by his passionate -and earnest nature, could but awkwardly and reluctantly fulfil the -thousand minute duties which an Italian is accustomed to pay to his -lady; nor, on this occasion, did love inspire him with that devotion of -heart which might have proved acceptable in lieu of petty attentions. He -was now twenty, and, according to the laws of his country, of age--so -that his entire fortune was at his disposal: this consisted of an income -of 2500 sequins, or about 1200_l_. a year, and a large sum of ready -money; and, to augment the value of his possessions, he had acquired the -habits of rational economy, which sprang from the scantiness of the -allowance which his prudent trustee had made him. Thus he set out with -"money in his purse," and no love in his heart, except the tender -recollection of his half-extinguished Flemish flame; and if with a head -not much fuller of ideas, yet with a thousand sentiments awakened, which -afforded matter for thought. As he drove along, he read Montaigne, or -reflected on what he read--a little galled by finding that he could not -construe the Latin quotations, and still more so by being obliged to -skip the Italian ones. Vienna and Berlin were hastily visited, and seen -without pleasure: he had beheld the results of liberty in England, and -he had read of them in Plutarch, and his natural sense of independence -made him revolt from the military despotisms of the north. Instinctive -good sense served him better than the philosophy of Voltaire, and he -recognised the cloven foot of arbitrary power in the barrack capital of -the philosopher of Sans Souçi. He hurried away from these mockeries of -liberalism, and found more pleasure in the simplicity of the Swedes: the -contrast which barren nature afforded, in these frozen regions, to the -luxuriance and glory of Italy interested and pleased him; the velocity -of his sledge, as he proceeded through the silent pine forests, and over -the ice-covered lakes, fostered an agreeable melancholy; and he -describes his spring journey from Sweden to St. Petersburgh with a -vividness and beauty which it would spoil to abridge. Embarking at the -first breaking up of the frost on the Gulf of Bothnia, his boat had to -struggle through the floating ice; and the novelty of his situation was -a source of amusement. "This is the country of Europe," he says, "most -agreeable to me, from its savage rudeness; fantastic, gloomy, and even -sublime, ideas are created in the mind by the vast, undefinable silence -that reigns there, making you feel as if transported away from the -globe." St. Petersburgh disappointed him; nor would he see the empress -Catherine, whom he regarded as the murderess of her husband, and whose -conduct--having failed in her promise of bestowing a constitution on her -subjects--was unredeemed, in his eyes, by any mitigating circumstances. - -From Russia he traversed Germany to Holland, and again visited England. -His time, during his second visit to this country, was engrossed by an -attachment for a lady of rank, who proved herself not only unworthy of -the affection of the husband whom she betrayed, but the lover to whom -she was false. The more violent passions of Alfieri were all roused to -their utmost vehemence by the various chances of this adventure, which -was attended by all those hairbreadth escapes, menacing dangers, and -final ruin and misery, which usually wait upon intrigue in England. -First it was love, accompanied by the "sin and fear" which attends on -mystery and deceit; then separation came to drive him to despair. The -London season over, the lady went to her country house near Windsor; and -Alfieri could only visit her clandestinely, on such nights when her -husband was absent in London. His impatience and agony during the -periods of separation were only appeased by excessive exercise: he rode -about all day, performing such feats of horsemanship as endangered his -life. Leaping a five-barred gate, with his thoughts wandering to his -lady, instead of being fixed on his bridle-hand, his horse fell on him, -and dislocated his shoulder; but that did not prevent a visit to Windsor -on the following evening, the last that he was destined to make. The -servants observed and watched him, and the husband of the lady had -intelligence of her infidelity; "and here," he writes, "it is impossible -not to laugh at the contrast between English and Italian jealousy, so -different are the passions in different characters, in another climate, -and, above all, under other laws. Every Italian would now expect to hear -of blows, poison, stabs, or, at least, of the imprisonment of the lady, -under such violent provocation: nothing of all this happened, though the -English husband adored his wife after his manner." It was much according -to the present customs, that the English husband, besides instituting -legal proceedings against his wife and her lover, called out the latter. -The duel was, however, a very harmless proceeding: Alfieri could not -fence, and his adversary was satisfied by merely drawing blood by a -scratch in the arm, carefully abstaining from inflicting the wound or -death which he had it in his power to bestow. A far deeper and more -painful wound was reserved for the Italian, when he learned how grossly -the lady had deceived him. A groom of her husband had formerly been her -lover: he still lived in the house; and, fearing that his lord would -risk his life in an encounter with Alfieri, he hastened to inform him -that the lady was totally unworthy such a chivalrous encounter. All -these disgraceful circumstances came out on the trial. Alfieri, maddened -and enraged, was yet unable, at first, to separate from his treacherous -mistress. They travelled together in England, he furious at his own -weakness, and perpetually struggling to vanquish it; till, seizing on a -moment when shame and indignation were stronger than love, he left her -at Rochester, on her way to France with a relative, and returned to -London. In after times, the chief impression left on his mind from this -adventure was, a feeling of mixed respect and gratitude towards her -husband, who spared both his life and his purse, neither killing him, -nor demanding damages: the first the English noble, apparently, had at -his mercy; but it is unlikely, under all the circumstances, that the -latter should have been awarded him, to any great extent. - -After tempests like these, it was long before the impetuous and -sensitive soul of Alfieri settled into any thing like calm: paroxysms of -rage, love, grief, and despair succeeded one to the other, and his only -relief was derived from locomotion. He left London, and after visiting -his friend Alcunha at the Hague, he hurried on to Paris; he traversed -France, and entered Spain, struggling with the passion that warred -within him, and devoured by the gloomiest melancholy. At Barcelona he -bought two Spanish horses, and with these resolved to proceed on his -journey to Madrid. His carriage went on first, under the care of the -servants and muleteers; and he followed, chiefly on foot, his beautiful -Andalusian trotting beside him with the docility of a dog. This mixture -of idleness and change--of solitude and independence--soothed his -disturbed mind. He was given up to endless reverie, now engrossed by -melancholy and moral trains of thought; now possessed by images wild, -terrible, or gay. He knew no language, and could express nothing that he -felt--all was confused and vague, and mingled with violent transports of -grief and despair. He spoke to no one; and his taciturn, self-devouring -misery irritated him almost to madness. His faithful servant, Elia, who -followed him during all his journeys, had nearly become the victim to an -explosion of the pent-up volcano. In combing the count's long -tresses,--which it was the fashion then to wear,--he accidentally pulled -one hair; and Alfieri, starting up like lightning, hurled a candlestick -at his head, which struck him on the temple and inflicted a wound. -Elia's Italian nature was roused, and he flew on his master. Other -people interfered, and no more harm was done. Alfieri told his servant -that he might kill him if he chose: he deserved it, and would take no -precautions against his vengeance; and he praises his own courage in -thus exposing himself, and the magnanimity of the man for not rising in -the night and murdering him as he slept. The whole scene is inexplicable -to our northern imaginations, and borders on the excesses of savage -nature. "It would be difficult for any one," says Alfieri, "to -understand the mixture of ferociousness and generosity on both sides, -who has not had experience of the manners and hot blood of the -Piedmontese." - -After a journey through Spain and Portugal more savage, wild, and -solitary than was even his wont. -[Sidenote: 1772. -Ætat. -23.] -Alfieri returned to Turin; and here he seemed to be in greater danger -than he had ever been of losing all the exaltation of character and -feeling that clung to him despite his excesses, his ignorance, and the -total absence of all mental culture. He took a magnificent house, and -fitted it up with luxury and taste. He had a circle of friends, who -formed themselves into a society, with laws and regulations. One of -their amusements was a sort of literary budget, to which the various -members contributed writings for the recreation of the general society. -Alfieri wrote several papers, which obtained a good deal of applause: he -had a turn for satire, and that is always a popular style of writing in -a coterie. These compositions were all in French. - -A worse degradation than this sort of vegetative dissipation awaited the -count: he became a cavaliere servente. The lady was of rank, a good deal -older than himself, but of extraordinary beauty. She was noted for her -gallantries; and Alfieri, who was not in love, her style of beauty even -not being exactly to his taste, was drawn in, at first, by mere -idleness, and a belief in the excessive attachment she bore him. Soon a -most vehement passion engrossed him. Friends, diversions, even horses, -were neglected; from eight in the morning till twelve at night he was -continually with her--discontented with his servitude, but unable to -stay away. - -It is difficult to understand, and impossible to sympathise with, the -sort of frenzy he describes. He did not esteem the lady, and he despised -himself for the humiliating state to which he was reduced. The situation -of a cavaliere servente is, we are told by high English authority in -such matters, "no sinecure." To be constantly in attendance is its chief -duty. A cavaliere sits with his lady, drives with her, walks with her, -goes to assemblies and the opera with her: he follows her like her -shadow, and no matrimonial exigence can equal the total abnegation of -all independent occupation to which the cavaliere must submit. The lady, -indeed, may equally become weary; but an Italian woman is used to this -excess of indolence. Her life is monotonous, her passage from one -amusement to the other invariable, sameness forming the essence of her -existence: nothing animates it except love, scandal, or quarrelling: -these, and the natural vivacity of southern blood, which can diversify -the indolence which would otherwise mantle over and incrust every -faculty. But all this was torture to the fiery spirit of the count, who, -born for better things, struggled with his fetters, and roared like a -lion in the toils. His slavery lasted for two years. At one time, the -nervous irritation produced a violent and inexplicable malady, which the -wits of Turin declared he had invented exclusively for himself. He was -unable for several days to swallow aliment in any shape; and the -convulsions brought on by any attempt to force it on him almost deprived -him of life. At another time, he acquired resolution enough to scheme a -journey to Milan, and actually set out; but scarcely had he passed the -gates of Turin than his heart failed him, and he returned, burning with -indignation against himself, to resume his chains. His friends saw and -pitied his miserable state, and their compassion aggravated his -sufferings, while it did not enable him to rise above the enthralment. -Day after day, month after month, he formed new resolves to extricate -himself, and for a long time in vain. - -At length, in the February of 1775, being now twenty-six years of age, -he, in desperation, came to a determination to break off the disgraceful -intercourse. His old remedy of change of place had proved of no avail, -so he resolved to remain on the same spot; to shut himself up in his own -house, which was opposite that of the lady, but to receive no letters, -hear no messages, and to be induced by no failing of the heart ever to -behold her more. In token of his fixed purpose, he cut off his long -hair, and sent it to a friend, as a proof that he could not present -himself in society so shorn and disfigured. - -And now a better day dawned on the tempest of passion that darkened his -soul. In Lisbon he had been acquainted with the abate Caluso, a man of -learning and talent, who had, in some degree, awakened in him a desire -for knowledge, while, with the utmost forbearance and kindness, he tried -to lighten the shame inspired by every glimmering light that displayed -his excessive ignorance. They had passed many long evenings together, -and Alfieri preferred his instructive but unpretending conversation to -the gaieties of society; and here he felt an awakening of that dormant -power of composition which afterwards was to expand into worthy and -perennial fruit. In Turin, also, he was acquainted with several -literati; and now, a voluntary prisoner, and passing many long hours in -entire solitude, unaware and almost unsought, a true, strong, and -enduring love of knowledge sprang up within him, never after to be -weakened or destroyed. The first token of the spirit of composition, was -a sonnet in commemoration of the freedom he had acquired. Some years -before, in Paris, he had bought a collection of Italian poets, and by -reading them had gained a slight knowledge of versification, and of his -native language; yet so ludicrously imperfect was this, that, when he -showed his sonnet to a literary man, the first advice he received was to -learn to spell. Orthography, grammar, and rhythm were alike defective in -his production. He was not discouraged. This same friend, father -Paciaudi, had given him the "Cleopatra" of cardinal Delfino. Alfieri -fancied that he could write a better tragedy himself; and he began one -on the same subject. He consulted his friends upon it, and tried to gain -some instruction as to style and poetic laws, of which, hitherto, he had -remained in profound ignorance. His house became a sort of academy; -while he, desirous of learning, but proud and indocile, wearied himself -and all around him by his alternate fits of industry and despondency. At -length, a tragedy and a farce were the result of his endeavours, and -both were acted on the same nights, at the theatre of Turin, with -applause, on two consecutive evenings, and were given out for a third -representation. But Alfieri by this time began to discover the entire -want of merit of these productions: which prove, as we may judge from -the passages he has preserved, that ideas and feelings are of no avail -in composition, where there is a total absence of style, and an absolute -incapacity of finding language in which to clothe the naked and unformed -conceptions of the brain. On the third night, therefore, Alfieri -prevented the representation; and on the same night he was seized by so -vehement and burning a wish to deserve the applause of an audience, -that, he tells us, no fever of love had ever assailed him with similar -impetuosity. - -"And thus," he says, "at the age of seven and twenty, I entered into the -difficult engagement with the public and myself to become a writer of -tragedies; and these were the props I had to sustain me in my -undertaking,--a resolved, obstinate, and untamed spirit; a heart boiling -over with all sorts of emotions, among which predominated the transports -of love, and a profound and indignant abhorrence of every species of -tyranny; a very slight recollection of the French tragedies I had seen -acted, having read and studied none; an entire ignorance of the rules of -the drama; and a total incapacity to command the language of which I -made use;--all this was surrounded by a husk, not so much of -presumption, as of petulance, and an impetuosity of character which -stood in the way of my ever, except with reluctance, acknowledging, -investigating, or giving ear to truth." - -The first thing he found he had to do, was to apply himself to a -spelling-book and grammar: this necessity was not admitted without a -struggle; but the ardour of his enthusiasm enabled him to triumph over -these petty but perplexing and irritating obstacles; and he gave himself -up to the study of language with a mixture of impatience and -perseverance that kept his mind in a perpetual tumult. He was under the -necessity of driving away all French words and forms of speech from his -mind, and of imbuing his thoughts in the idiom of Tuscany,--a work of -unspeakable labour, uniting the studies of a man with those of a child, -and sufficient to have overcome the resolution of any temper less ardent -and ambitious than his own. After all, it must be acknowledged that it -was to a great degree an insuperable difficulty; and, though overcome, -in appearance, by Alfieri, yet in composition he had always two -labours,--that of giving birth to ideas, and that of examining with the -attention and scepticism of a foreigner the words in which he clothed -them. This, perhaps, is the cause, that although, in process of time, -his prose style became unexceptionable, and that of his tragedies full -of fire and strength, his lyrics are such lamentable failures. - -For nearly a year he was given up to the ungrateful task of clearing -away the rubbish of another language, and placing the foundation stones -of a pure and classic Italian. He retired to a village near Turin, that -his attention might not be called off; and there, with a literary -friend, he laboured at all that nauseates a schoolboy, with the still -greater disgust of mere verbal difficulties which is felt by a man. -After a year of much industry, he began to be aware that he should never -attain his object as long as he merely translated himself from the -French, which had become the language of his thoughts; and he resolved -to pass six months in Tuscany, to learn, to hear, speak, think, and feel -Tuscan only. - -In this journey he sought the acquaintance of the first literary men, -and exerted himself strenuously to acquire the knowledge of which he was -so deficient. He never deceived himself by fancying his deficiencies -were less than they were. He was born endowed with genius; uncultivated -and empty of all knowledge as his mind was, yet it was filled with -thought and feeling, and, during his solitary journeys and long -incommunicative days of reverie, he had studied his own character. At -one time he had kept a journal, in which he put down not only his -actions, but their motives, investigating his moral nature in its inmost -recesses. This was an exercise of mind which, joined to his natural -talent, peculiarly adapted him to developement of feeling and motive, -which is the essence of the tragic art; and it was towards this species -composition that, from the first, he felt himself irresistibly impelled. - -He had now fully entered on his dramatic enterprise. Several months -before, he had written his tragedies of "Philip" and "Polinices," in -French prose, which with unwearied industry, he put into Italian verse -three or four several times; endeavouring to form a rhythm adapted to -dialogue, and to concentrate and simplify his style as much as possible. -While studying Italian, he had also applied himself to re-learning -Latin; and the tragedies of Seneca suggested other subjects. "Antigone," -"Agamemnon," "Orestes," and "Don Garzia," were all conceived, and in -part written, while he was indefatigable in the labour, it cannot so -well be said of polishing his language, as of modelling and remodelling -it, as his greater use of Tuscan, and his critical taste suggested. - -He had now an aim in life, from the pursuit of which he never deviated, -but followed it up with incredible enthusiasm and perseverance. His -labours were great in literature, yet confined chiefly to the formation -of style; and he translated Sallust, and other Latin authors, for the -sake of improving in force and conciseness. -[Sidenote: 1777. -Ætat. -28.] -He did not continue in one place: after a few months spent at Florence, -he returned to Turin, recalled by the love of his friends and his stud: -but during the following spring he obtained the necessary permission of -the king to quit Piedmont and return to Tuscany, for the purpose of -imbibing at the purest source that energetic and concise language, which -he considered yielded in elegance and force of expression to no other in -the world. - -As the city where the purest Tuscan is spoken. Alfieri visited Siena, -and spent the summer there. He there formed an intimacy which served to -encourage him in his laborious pursuits; for he tells us he was never -capable of arduous and sustained undertakings, except when the feelings -of his heart were exercised by an intercourse of friendship or love. -Francesco Gori was of ignoble birth, and his ostensible pursuits were -those of traffic, which he pursued more for the sake of pleasing his -family than for gain. In the obscurity of his warehouse he occupied -himself with classical literature, and nurtured an admirable and -delicate taste for the fine arts. Extreme philanthropy formed the -essence of his character, and a warm-hearted sympathy, that led him to -forgive and love all mankind. The idle and opulent nobles of the city -could not, by their worthlessness, excite his hatred or contempt. With -Tacitus in his hand, and the pure love of liberty in his heart, how -could he hate the victims of tyranny? he might exclaim, with a poet of -modern days, whose political principles were equally derived from the -sensibility of his heart,-- - - -"I hate thy want of love and truth: -How should I then hate thee?" - - -Self-knowledge deracinated pride in himself, and contempt for others; -and thus, humbly occupied in his shop, he could extend forbearance to -all, except the primal causes of the degradation of his countrymen; -while his only happiness was derived from books, and his chief grief -from comparing himself and his times with the men and times of which he -read. - -There is a simplicity in Italian manners that renders the friendship -between count Alfieri and Gori, the mercer, by no means extraordinary. -To the sympathy produced by an agreement in opinions was added the -respect which Alfieri felt for the virtuous qualities of his -unpretending friend. Their talk was of the ancient glory of their -country, and of the literary ambition of Alfieri. In the course of -conversation, Gori suggested the conspiracy of the Pazzi as a good -subject for a tragedy. Alfieri was ignorant of the history of the -republic of Florence, and had never heard of the Pazzi. Gori placed the -Florentine annals of Machiavelli in his hands. Machiavelli (whatever his -motives were for writing "The Prince") was an enthusiastic republican. -He tells us in his letters, that while writing the history, he delighted -himself by exposing the conduct of the princes who had ruined Italy: his -spirit of freedom found an echo in Alfieri's heart, and so sharpened his -hatred of despotism, and his love of liberty, that, throwing aside his -tragedies, he wrote a treatise on tyranny,--a work of eloquence, but -rather a juvenile ebullition of feeling, than an argumentative essay. - -On the advance of winter, Alfieri transferred himself to Florence; and -here an event happened that altered the colour of his future life, -through the influence of a constant attachment, which, accompanied by -esteem for the good qualities and talents of its object, remained fixed -in his heart to the end of his life. - -Louisa de Stolberg, countess of Albany, was at that time twenty-five -years of age, beautiful and full of talent. Her rank and wealth gave her -a distinguished place in society. She was the wife of the last of the -Stuarts who made pretensions to the throne of England, who unfortunately -disgraced his illustrious house, and even the private station to which -he was reduced, by habits the most deplorable. Alfieri now regarded his -future prospects as fixed: he had long determined never to marry, -considering that, under the despotic government to which he was a -subject, the ties of husband and father would add weight to the chains -imposed upon him: attached for life to a woman whom he esteemed worthy -of him, and beyond all things ambitious of distinguishing himself as an -author and a defender of the cause of liberty, he began to put into -execution the schemes which had long presented themselves to his -imagination, for acquiring entire personal freedom. The nobles of -Piedmont were in a peculiarly enslaved state: they could not quit the -territories of their sovereign except by especial leave, granted for a -limited time; nor could they publish any writings in a foreign country, -without the licence of their native prince, under penalty of a fine, and -even imprisonment, "if" (so the law was expressed) "it was necessary to -make a public example." These shackles were intolerable to a man of -independent mind, bent upon giving testimony of his abhorrence of -despotic rule: but few men would have freed themselves at the cost that -Alfieri paid. He came to a resolve to make a donation of the whole of -his property to his sister Julia, reserving to himself only the annual -income of 1400 sequins, or about 600_l_. a year, the half of his actual -receipt. To execute this design, the king's permission was necessary, -who readily gave it, "being," says Alfieri, "as willing to get rid of me -as I was to emancipate myself from his authority." - -The transfer, however, was not completed without a good deal of -annoyance; and Alfieri was irritated, at one time, into making a -declaration, that, if his brother-in-law would not receive the donation, -he must the count's abandonment of his whole property; and that he would -resign his claim to every possession rather than be fettered by the laws -attendant upon keeping it. In the exaltation of his imagination, he -almost imagined that this latter offer would be acted on; and, finding -himself reduced to merely a few thousand sequins of ready money, he fell -into his second fit of avarice, selling his horses, and all his -superfluous plate, furniture, and even dress, renouncing the Sardinian -uniform, to which he had adhered, from boyish vanity, even after -quitting the service. He spent a good deal of money in books; but this -was his sole expense; while his abstemiousness of living, directed by -economy, became of the most rigid kind. Thus, even in extremes, resolved -never to marry, resolved to be an author, he completed sacrifices, which -a thousand circumstances might afterwards have caused him to regret, but -which, he assures us, he never for a moment repented. He did not confide -the secret of this change in his affairs to the countess until it was -past recal; for, as their ultimate effect was to render their union more -stable and permanent, he felt that she might consider it right, as a -mark of her disinterestedness, to oppose them. When all was over, her -blame was of no avail, and she forgave the mystery he had practised. - -These various annoyances, joined to the perturbations of love, and the -ardour of his literary application, occasioned an illness from which he -only recovered when the season of summer brought that healthiness of -feeling, that lightness of spirit, and that energy for composition, -which summer and its heats always imparted to his constitution. During -this summer, Alfieri, as he tells us, "in a frantic delirium of a love -of freedom," wrote his tragedy of the "Pazzi," and that of "Mary Stuart" -(Mary Queen of Scots); the latter at the request of the countess of -Albany. During the following year he completed these and made the first -sketch of "Rosmunda," "Ottavia," and "Timoleon." Since his tragedies -have become so numerous, and many of his best are written, it will be as -well to glance over them, and to give some account of his progress and -success in an art to which he devoted his life and fortune. - -Energy and conciseness are the distinguishing marks of Alfieri's dramas. -Wishing to bring the whole action of the piece into one focus, he -rejected altogether the confidantes of the French theatre, so that his -dramatis personæ are limited to the principals themselves. The -preservation of the unities of time and place also contributed to -curtail all excrescences; so that his tragedies are short, and all hear -upon one point only, which he considered the essence of unity of action. -Thus, in the "Merope," there are but four interlocutors, the queen and -her son, his foster-father, and the tyrant. Instead, therefore, as is -the case in the French dramas, of the action being carried on by a -perpetual talk about it, at once tedious and unnatural, the interest is -always at its height between the parties themselves; and it is singular, -in the "Merope" in particular, with what talent and success he keeps the -action in perpetual progress, and the passions developed by such slender -means. It was the turn of Alfieri's character to consider it a duty in -an author rather to conquer difficulties than to acquire facilities. He -would read no other tragedians, for fear of imitating them, and -abstained from a perusal of the great master of the art, Shakspeare, -from the same mistaken notion. Genius need not fear to be imitative; but -genius, unaided by cultivation, and by a study of what has gone before, -can never surpass what is already written: it were as if a scientific -man were to refuse to be initiated in the discoveries of science, that -he might pursue his labours in a new and original path. Thus he might, -we will say, re-invent gunpowder and printing, but never a new law and a -new power. To use a more homely illustration, it were as if an -agriculturist refused to manure the ground, and was bent on forcing the -native soil, to produce by labour what would arise with greater -fertility and ease if aided by extraneous nutriment. It is a law of -mechanics, never to waste power, but to proportionate on all occasions -the means to the end. If, instead of refusing to read the finest -dramatic works, Alfieri had studied in them the genius and essence of -the art; he might; instead of simply restricting his invention to the -bald and inconclusive expedient of contracting the personages of his -drama, have invented some original method of combining the simplicity of -design consequent on an observance of the unities, with a more natural -and inforced arrangement of plot, and with a greater variety and truth -of character. - -The great distinction between Shakspeare and almost every other dramatic -writer arises from his developement and variety of character: all his -personages are individuals. In other authors, we have a lover, an -ambitious man, a tyrant, or a victim of tyranny; but in Shakspeare it is -not the passion that makes the man, but the peculiar character of the -person that gives reality and life to the passion. Thus Richard III. and -Macbeth are both ambitious; but how differently do their respective -dispositions modulate their conduct and feelings! The cruel, remorseless -Richard can never, in a single line he utters, be mistaken for the weak, -vacillating usurper, whose cruelties result from the necessities of his -situation, and not from inborn ferocity of character. Juliet, Imogen, -and Rosalind, are alike girls in love; but how variously do they display -their sentiments! the ardent Italian, the fond, devoted wife, and the -sprightly, spirited daughter of an exiled prince, are all individuals -characterised by distinctive marks; so that a painter would give to each -a physiognomy utterly dissimilar the one from the other. If Alfieri had -read Shakspeare, he might have discovered and appreciated this -incomparable mark of his excellence; and his knowledge of the human -heart would have led him to imitate a model which, if succeeded in, -could not, from its very nature, bear any resemblance to mere -plagiarism. He himself felt that one tyrant should not quite resemble -another, nor one lover be but the mirror of another: but so it is with -him, with few exceptions--situation, not character, forms the interest -of his pieces. - -Besides this, Alfieri was not an imaginative poet: his sonnets and -longer poems are failures; his tragedies are vacant of ideal imagery; -his sensible objects are never animated by a soul infused into them by -the speaker; his daggers and poisons, and all the other tragic -paraphernalia, are the mere things themselves--the poet's eye never -gives "to airy nothing a local habitation and a name." His inventive -powers consisted in being able to conceive situations of passion and -interest, and giving to his personages feelings and language at once -natural, powerful, and pathetic. - -His mode of writing his tragedies shows, indeed, how spontaneous was his -conception of the action of a piece, how mechanical the effort by which -he clothed it in verse. He was accustomed to throw off the design of the -intended action in a sketch of a few pages, and then to lay it by: after -an interval, he read this sketch, and, if it pleased him, he arranged -the plot into acts, and scenes, and speeches, putting down every idea -that presented itself, and the whole in prose; and again he put aside -his labour for future consideration. If, on reading it over, he felt his -imagination warmed and excited, and the ideas renew themselves in his -mind vividly and forcibly, then he completed his work by versifying it. -This is not the routine which a genuine poet follows: something of the -improvisatore's art is inherent in him, and he writes "in numbers, for -the numbers come." - -"Philip" was the first of Alfieri's tragedies: it was originally written -in French prose; and he was so well pleased with its conduct, that he -was never weary of composing and recomposing it in Italian verse, till -he was satisfied that the language was equal in vigour to the ideas it -expressed. The subject of "Philip" is the death of don Carlos, prince of -Spain; and the contrast of character in the three principal persons is -finely conceived and well executed. There is the obdurate, deceitful, -cruel tyrant. His son, educated near him, in perpetual fear and -suspicion, is never his dupe: he sees through all his subterfuges, and -perceives the snares laid for him in his pretended mercies; and love, -while it causes him to expose himself to his father's vengeance, only -renders him doubly watchful and cautious. Isabella, on the contrary, a -daughter of France, at the same time that, from feminine delicacy, she -is more restrained in her feelings, yet is unsuspicious, unguarded, and -ready to give credit to the professions of those around. Her heart opens -itself readily to hope; while that of her lover is impassive to every -delusion, and he regards with terror and grief the peril to which, in -her generous trustingness of nature, she heedlessly exposes herself. - -As the genius of Alfieri led him to depict the passions in their -simplest though most energetic form, unaccompanied by the influence of -manners, the metaphysical subtleties of Shakspeare, or the wild, but -deeply interesting intricacy of plot of Calderon and our old dramatists, -so classical subjects were treated by him with peculiar felicity. -"Agamemnon" and "Orestes" are among his best dramas: the dignity and -tenderness of Electra, the remorse and struggles of Clytemnestra, and -the haughty, rash disposition of Orestes, have more of truth, of nature, -and grace than is to be found among any modern tragedies on similar -subjects: but this very simplicity becomes, to a certain degree, -baldness in modern subjects; and though the conspiracy of the "Pazzi" -was written, he says, with a delirious enthusiasm for liberty, there is -a want of developement and relief that renders it more like the sketch -of a tragedy, than one filled out in all its parts. "Virginia," equally -pregnant with the spirit of liberty, has more grace and more pathos. - -While the mind of Alfieri was thus fully occupied by the composition of -his dramas, he was happy in the enjoyment of the friendship and love of -the persons dearest to him in the world. He was the _amico di casa_ of -the countess of Albany; that is, he spent his evenings in her society, -and attended her in mornings during her visits and excursions: he kept -up a constant correspondence with Gori, at Siena; and the abbate Caluso, -the friend who had first awakened his desire for literary composition, -many years before, at Lisbon, and to whom he was warmly attached, came -from Turin, and spent a whole year at Florence, that he might enjoy his -society. But the tranquil course of happiness is seldom allowed to human -beings, especially when they feel and acknowledge their perfect -well-being, and repose content on the accomplishment of their desires. -The conduct of the unfortunate prince, who was the countess of Albany's -husband, poisoned every enjoyment, and, at last, forced his wife to -separate herself from him. Given up to the most degrading vice,--in his -drunken fits his ferocity and madness endangered her life, and she lived -night and day, haunted by the terror inspired by his outrages. Alfieri -exerted himself to obtain permission from the government for their -separation; and, that being obtained, she retired to a convent in -Florence, and afterwards, under the sanction of the pope, she removed to -another convent at Rome. - -Alfieri found that thus he had succeeded in saving the life of his -friend; but the separation necessary to prevent any injurious opinions -being formed as to the motives of his interference, was a cruel reward -for his exertions. Florence grew hateful to him in her absence; he -became incapable of every occupation, and his whole thoughts were bent -on contriving their re-union: it was matter of difficulty, but not -insuperable to his earnest endeavours. After some months, the pope -allowed her to quit her convent, and to take up her abode in the palace -of cardinal York; and Alfieri, having already quitted Florence and spent -some time at Naples, ventured at last to fix himself at Rome also, -having, as he tells us, paid court, made visits, and employed a thousand -servile and humiliating arts, from which his nature revolted, to obtain -the sufferance of the pope for his residence in the same city as the -countess. No honours, no glory, no worldly advantage, could have induced -him to submit to what he considered the excess of meanness and -degradation; love alone exalted the debasement in his eyes. - -Now again he was happy: he lived at the villa Strozzi, near the baths of -Dioclesian. He spent the long mornings in study, never leaving his house -except to ride over the solitary and uncultivated country around Rome, -whose immense and lonely expanse invited him to reverie and poetic -composition. He spent the evenings with the countess, retiring at eleven -to his tranquil home, which, divided from all others, rural though in -the city, and surrounded by objects of antique grandeur and natural -beauty, was an abode such as Rome only in the world can afford, and -peculiarly adapted to the noble poet's temper, character, and -occupations. - -His imagination received its happiest inspirations during this period. -Besides continual labour on his former compositions, he wrote the -tragedies of "Merope" and "Saul," both conceived and executed with a -fervour of inspiration that allowed him no pause between the various -operations into which he divided the composition of a tragedy. The -"Merope" was written in a sort of indignant burst, to prove that the -tragedy of Maffei on the subject, could be easily surpassed. The "Saul" -emanated from reading the Bible, in the study of which he at that time -occupied himself, and which awoke in him a desire to write several -dramas on scriptural subjects; had it not been that, fond of forming -resolutions and of adopting voluntary chains, since he cast away and -abhorred all others, he had determined to limit his tragedies to twelve. -The "Saul" and "Merope" caused him to exceed this number by two; but he -would not be allured to go beyond. - -The "Saul" is, there can be little question, the chef-d'oeuvre of -Alfieri: character forms the basis of the interest, and the situations -are deeply pathetic. Saul, in some degree, reminds the reader of king -Lear. The Hebrew king is not, like Shakspeare's dethroned monarch, -thrust from his state, and turned out by his children, a victim to the -pitiless elements, and, more bitter still, the sense of undeserved -injury from those whose duty it was to foster and shelter him. The -children of Saul, and his son-in-law David, surround him with -protestations of duty and a heartfelt wish to soothe him by their -affection and care; but he is struck by God; prosperity has departed -from his house, victory from his banner; and his vacillating reason -discerns rebellion and dethronement in the very submissions of those -around him. He struggles with the sense of ill fortune, and the sad -consciousness of the occasional aberrations of his intellect; now -lamenting the days of his prosperous youth, now melted to tenderness by -the caresses of his children; and again, seized upon by suspicion, envy, -and pride, he wildly and madly casts from him every support and hope, to -find himself, in the end, alone, defeated, lost; till in a transport of -shame and despair, he ends a life so tarnished and abhorrent. "Saul" is -the best of Alfieri's tragedies; and, if we were called upon to point -out his best scene, we should select the second act of that play. - -[Sidenote:1782. -Ætat. -33.] - -Alfieri felt proud and happy when he had completed his fourteen -tragedies. "That month of October," he writes, "was memorable to me, -since I enjoyed a repose no less delicious than necessary, after so much -labour: full to the brim of vainglory, I breathed no word of my -achievements to any but myself, and, with a sort of veiled moderation, -to her I loved; who, through her affection for me, probably, seemed well -inclined to believe that I was capable of being a great man, and always -encouraged me to do all I could to become one." His works, also, were -becoming known. A few of the nobility of Rome formed themselves into a -company, and acted his "Antigone," in which he took the part of Creon: -the representation was crowned with success. He was, besides, in the -habit of reading his tragedies in society, partly for the sake of the -mute criticism displayed by the attention and interest they excited in -his audience; and, under the superintendence of his friend Gori, four -among his dramas were printed at Siena. - -But this very celebrity was the cause of the disaster that hung over his -head, and, by drawing attention to him, engendered enmity and -disturbance. His familiar intercourse with the countess, and the daily -habit of his life, in forming a part of the society she gathered around -her, began to excite censure: this roused at once his fears and -indignation. His mode of life was in strict accordance with the notions -of propriety, as they rule manners in Italy. Injurious and to be -deprecated as the system of society is, no individual thinks, when he -follows the example of the whole of his countrymen, that he should be -selected as an object for blame. However, in a moral and religious view, -the so-named friendship of the countess and Alfieri was blameable, yet -they scrupulously attended to the rules of decorum, which form the whole -of an Italian's conscience, generally speaking, and believed that they -had every right to be happy in each other. As we have said in another -place, we are not inclined to bestow vehement blame on individual -conduct, resulting from a system of manners which has endured for ages, -while that system itself merits the utmost abhorrence, and, we are happy -to be able to say, is in progress of being extirpated in Italy: until it -is, there can be no hope of moral regeneration, or for the happiness and -improvement of its inhabitants. - -However, it must be remembered that though, especially in those days, no -one would have been so unreasonable or barbarous as to prevent a lady -from having a cavaliere servente, yet the peculiar cavaliere she selects -is usually forbidden; and as much misery is often produced by an -interference in the lady's choice as by a total prohibition to be -allowed a friend at all. In the present instance, the husband of the -countess complained to his brother, the priests of the holy city were -roused to a perception of the scandal, and the pope induced to consider -it right to interfere. Alfieri found only one mode of mitigating the -violence of the menaced storm, which was to meet it: he voluntarily -quitted Rome, and, to prevent any actual measures of prohibition and -banishment, went into voluntary exile. - -Affections and habits which had subsisted so long could not be thus -rudely torn up without intense suffering. After several years of -happiness, Alfieri found himself cast from the shelter he had selected, -wherein to place his warm and sensitive heart, upon solitude, -uncertainty, and bitter regret. Poetry and composition became -distasteful to him; he could not even enjoy his friend Gori's society, -whom he visited immediately upon quitting Rome: he was ashamed to annoy -him by his melancholy, and his restlessness and desire for travel -returned. He visited Venice, and wandered for some time in Lombardy, and -then again returned to Siena, to attend to the printing of six other -tragedies, although he had become indifferent even to the lately -engrossing desire of fame; and then he suddenly resolved to visit -England, for the sole purpose of buying horses. -[Sidenote: 1783. -Ætat. -34.] -He had long put himself on short allowance with regard to these -favourite animals; but, having saved a large sum of ready money, during -several years, at first of parsimony, and then of economy, he determined -to spend it on the purchase and maintenance of a number of English -horses of the best breed. A journey thus undertaken, with but one -object, was executed with a mixture of impetuosity and persevering -patience characteristic of Alfieri. He went to England; he bought his -horses, fourteen in number, to equal that of his tragedies; he -transported them safely across the straits of Dover, conducted them with -unwearied care through France, and led them across Mont Cenis with a -success--they being injured neither in wind or limb--on which he for the -moment prided himself scarcely less than on his dramatic labours. - -On his return to Italy, he remained a few weeks at Turin; and the king -showed a disposition to employ him under government. His minister -sounded the count: but he refused to entertain any proposition on the -subject; for, although he acknowledges that the sovereigns of the house -of Savoy were not tyrannically inclined, but showed every inclination to -benefit their subjects, his uncompromising, and even fierce, spirit of -independence spurned every shackle, and he felt to breathe more freely -when he had quitted the territories of Piedmont. The countess of Albany -was now on her way to Baden for the summer. She passed northwards along -the shores of the Adriatic, while Alfieri proceeded south, by Modena and -Pistoia, to Siena. He had resisted the temptation of crossing the narrow -portion of Italy between them, and obtaining a brief interview; but when -she had arrived at Baden, and he at Siena, this fortitude gave way, and -he suddenly left his horses, and his friend Gori, and posted with all -haste to Alsatia, there for three months to enjoy her society. - -During the two years of absence which he had endured. Alfieri had -forgotten poetry, study, glory, and his tragedies. But the countess's -presence awoke every dormant energy, and scarcely had he arrived, before -he conceived and wrote "Agis," "Sofonisba" and "Mirra." The last -deserves to be particularly mentioned as one of the best of his dramas, -particularly as he overcomes difficulties of the most appalling -description. "I had never thought," he says, "either of Myrrha or Biblis -as subjects for the drama. But, in reading Ovid's "Metamorphoses," I hit -upon the affecting and divinely eloquent speech of Myrrha to her nurse, -which caused me to burst into tears, and, like a flash of lightning, -awoke in me the idea of a tragedy. It appeared to me that a most -original and pathetic piece might be written, if the author could -contrive that the spectator should discover by degrees the horrible -struggles of the burning but pure heart of the more miserable than -guilty Myrrha, without her betraying the half, nor scarcely owning to -herself so criminal a passion. My idea was, that she should do in my -tragedy what Ovid describes her as relating, but do it in silence." - -There is something touchingly beautiful in the first description of -Myrrha, in a scene between her mother and her nurse. She is described as -so gentle, docile, soft, and pliable of nature--so fearful of doing -wrong--so sweetly earnest to please her parents--and now to be labouring -under a melancholy so dark and gloomy, as to deface her beauty, and bow -her in appearance to the grave. As the action is developed, the notion -that she is under a supernatural curse adds to the awe and pity of the -reader; but, at last, it must be confessed, her violence and frenzy pass -the bounds of modest nature, and the passion she nurtures fails in -exciting our sympathy. This is the fault of the subject; inequality of -age adding to the unnatural incest. To shed any interest over such an -attachment, the dramatist ought to adorn the father with such youthful -attributes as would be by no means contrary to probability: but then a -worse evil would ensue; and the more possible such criminal passion -becomes, the more violently does the mind revolt from dwelling on it. - -While at Baden, Alfieri received the afflicting intelligence of the -unexpected death of his friend Gori. This misfortune disturbed his -enjoyment of the last days of his visit, which of themselves were sad, -from the approximation of so painful and bitter a separation. With -reluctance and grief he left the countess and returned to Siena; but his -sorrow was too acute to admit of a prolonged stay in a town where he had -enjoyed the company of a friend lost for ever. He removed to Pisa; while -the countess took up her abode at Bologna. The Apennines only divided -them, but he dared not cross them. The gossip of the small Italian towns -is unconceivably eager and pertinacious; and it was necessary for her -future liberty to guard their conduct from all remark. Early in the -following spring, the countess departed for Paris, resolving to fix -herself in France, where she had friends, relations, and resources. In -the month of August she again visited Baden, and Alfieri joined her. -Again his mind was vivified and warmed by happiness, and again two -tragedies were the result of the inspiration. The subjects were the -Brutus of the monarchy of Rome and the Brutus who died at Philippi. In -the first he displays great force and energy; but the second, we must be -permitted to say, is a complete failure. To make a perfect equality of -sacrifice between the two heroes, as Lucius Junius Brutus caused his -sons to be decapitated, so he makes his descendant, Marcus, assassinate -his parent. The idea that Cæsar was the father of Brutus is so totally -devoid of foundation, and so little in consonance with the simple -majesty of the character of the patriot, that it deteriorates from the -interest of the drama, and, instead of exalting him, the discovery, the -resolution he declares nevertheless to persist in the assassination, the -sympathy and admiration he gains, is all so feeble, so puerile, and so -false, that it is astonishing that Alfieri did not detect his mistake. -To us, who possess the most admirable portrait ever drawn of magnanimous -and single-minded virtue in Shakspeare's delineation of the character of -Brutus, this failure becomes more glaring, and gives further proof of -the Italian poet's error in not studying the pages of the greatest -writer the world ever produced. - -After some months spent at Colmar, the countess returned to Paris; while -Alfieri remained at the former place, writing letters and sonnets, -mourning over his separation, and correcting his tragedies. He passed -two or three years at this place, the countess joining him during the -summers. In that of 1787, he had a most dangerous illness. His friend, -the abbate Caluso, came from Turin to visit him; and but for this -illness, he had been perfectly happy. On the approach of winter that -year, he accompanied the countess back to Paris, and established himself -there. The death of her husband restored her to liberty; but a number of -circumstances led them to continue for some time in France. Whether they -were married now, is a secret that never has been revealed; but their -union was acknowledged, and it was understood that their constant, -inviolable attachment had received from time a sanction which prevented -any blame from being cast on it by their relations and friends. Alfieri -mourned over the necessity that brought him back to his abjured -Gallicisms; but he was somewhat consoled, during a three years' -residence in Paris, by superintending and bringing out an edition of his -tragedies, on which he bestowed the last labours of correction with -regard to style, and brought the language as near to his standard of -perfection as he was capable of attaining. - -The disagreeable and, to his sensitive temperament, irritating task of -correcting the press, seems to have exercised an injurious influence -over his temper and genius. According to his own account, it dried up -his brain, quenched the fire of youthful enthusiasm, and prevented his -ever again writing with equal vigour and felicity. After terminating the -correction of his tragedies, he fortunately betook himself to writing -the memoirs of his life, which are the groundwork from which the present -pages are taken. It is written unaffectedly, and with great frankness -and self-knowledge; the style is unstudied, and the egotism of feeling -which produced it imparts extreme interest to the details. After -bringing down the history of his life till the year 1790, when he was -forty-one years of age, he still felt an utter inability to any high -flight in literature, and he occupied himself in translating the -"Æneid" and the Comedies of Terence. He had long enthusiastically -admired the versification of Virgil, and tried to model his own upon it, -adapting it, at the same time, to dramatic dialogue. This circumstance -is curious, since no style can be so opposite; the mellifluous, -dignified, and graceful flow of the Latin poet being a contrast to the -rough and concise energy of the modern Italian. This observation -regards, however, only his tragedies; less praise must be bestowed on -his other productions in verse: his translation of the "Æneid" is -feeble in the extreme; his longer original poems are devoid of even -secondary merit; and his love sonnets are, to say all in a word, the -very antipodes of his immortal master, Petrarch. Alfieri is a great -tragedian: it is impossible to read his best dramas without being -carried away by the eloquence and passion of the dialogue, and deeply -interested by the situations of struggle or peril in which his -personages are placed. The rapidity of the action, and the earnestness -and life with which every scene is instinct, renders it impossible to -close the volume till the catastrophe ends all. Alfieri was also an -excellent prose writer: his treatise on "Princes and Literature" is full -of power; the style is correct, flowing, yet simple, and without -meretricious ornament. The pure spirit of independence burns like a holy -lamp throughout, and gives a charm to every sentiment and expression. -But never was line so distinctly drawn between the poetry of -circumstance, so to speak, and ideal poetry: In all the pages of Alfieri -there is not one imaginative image; and we feel this most in his lyrics, -since ideality is the soul of lyric poetry. He seems never to have been -conscious of this defect. He would readily have admitted that Dante and -Petrarch were superior to him in genius; but he seems unaware that they -possessed a quality of which not one glimmering ray is to be found in -the whole course of the flood of rhymes to the composition of which he -alludes frequently as being the overflowings of poetic inspiration. It -is possible that Alfieri might have been a great novelist, had he ever -turned his attention to that species of composition. Or had he continued -to invent, instead of drying his brain up with the irksome task of -correcting what he had already written, he might have bestowed on us -tragedies finer than any we have of his, or, at least, several equal to -the "Saul." But, with all his philosophy and self-examination, he did -not understand the texture and capabilities of his intellect. - -To return to his life in Paris. The disquietude arising from the French -revolution added to the irritable state of Alfieri's mind. We all see -the visible universe through a medium formed by our individual -peculiarities; but it is curious to find the advocate of liberty lay -most stress on his fear lest the tumults of Paris should interrupt the -completion of Didot's edition of his works. Probably his intense -abhorrence of the French prevented his fostering rational hopes for the -ultimate advantages to be gained by the overthrow of the time-worn and -corrupt monarchy of France, at the same time that it prevented his ever -being blinded by any illusion as to the real character of the events -passing around him. He prides himself on never having seen or conversed -with any one of the revolutionary leaders, and on having always regarded -the rise of a lawless democracy as the stepping-stone to military -despotism. From the first, he was eager to get away from these scenes of -bloodshed and horror, and in the spring of 1791 accompanied the countess -of Albany to England. This country did not please her; and he, grown -querulous and subject to the gout, was quickly disgusted by the climate, -and annoyed by the peculiar habits of life of the English. A great -portion of his and the countess's fortune was in the French funds; and -the fall of the assignats made it advisable for them to live in the -country where they still bore a value. This circumstance induced them to -return to Paris; and, resolving to fix themselves there, they took a -house, furnished it, and Alfieri collected a voluminous library: but the -whirlwind that swept over unhappy France included them in its -devastations. They became alarmed by the increase of lawless violence; -and when, on the 10th of August, 1792, Louis XVI. was dragged from the -Tuilleries and imprisoned in the Temple, they determined to fly from a -city, where it appeared that no one of rank or wealth could remain in -safety. The impetuosity of the poet's character was of great advantage -on this occasion. With infinite difficulty passports were obtained for -the countess and himself; and they fixed on the 20th of August for their -departure. The impatience of Alfieri caused them to anticipate their -journey, and they set out on the 18th. With a good deal of difficulty -they passed the barrier of St. Denis, and hastened to a place of safety. -Two days after, on the 20th, the municipality of Paris sent to arrest -the countess: had she remained, she would have been thrown into prison, -and, in all probability, have fallen a victim during the massacres of -the 2d of September. Not finding her, their income arising from the -French funds was sequestrated, their furniture, horses, and books -confiscated, and though foreigners, they were both declared emigrants. -Alfieri chiefly lamented his library, and the edition of his works. Some -years after, a French general, then at Turin, with a good deal of -ostentation, offered to obtain the restoration of his books, a list of -which he sent him. Alfieri has left about 1600 volumes: the list -contained the names of 150 of the least valuable. He refused to avail -himself of what he ironically calls a "French restitution;" and surely, -if national contempt and hatred is ever pardonable, it was to be excused -in an Italian, who saw his country over-run by soi-disant liberators, -who displayed their friendly intentions by a thousand acts of plunder -and arrogance. - -Burning with an unquenchable hatred for all things French, Alfieri -returned to Florence with the countess of Albany, in which city he -remained till his death. In the tranquillity of his position, his love -of study awoke with renewed force. But whether it was that his fiery -temperament burnt itself quickly out, or that the ardour of his studies, -joined to ill health and intemperate abstemiousness, exhausted him. -Alfieri appears to have grown prematurely old. The spirit of invention -was dead within him; and nothing can be more deplorable than that which -he mistook for such, under whose influence he wrote laughterless -comedies and toothless satires, the most dolorous and innoxious that can -be imagined. Still, though original invention was dead, industry, -perseverance, and fervour in the pursuit of learning were as warm as -ever in his heart. He brought to a conclusion his translations of -Terence, the "Æneid," and Sallust: the latter is an excellent specimen -of style; but his poetic translations are languid and unworthy. As to -the unlucky "Misogallo," in which he accumulates, in prose and verse, -the whole force of his detestation of the French, it remains a monument -of how little men know themselves, and the mistakes to which genius is -liable, when it exchanges the nobler pursuit of the good and beautiful, -to soil itself by the pettier passions of our nature. - -While thus employed, a more genial pursuit occupied him for a short -period, which he calls waste of time, but which, by linking him in -agreeable intercourse with his fellow creatures, and wearing away the -rust produced by despondency and over-excited feelings, would have made -his latter years happier; but Alfieri, ever bent on fighting with -difficulties, and thwarting his natural tendencies, cast from him the -medicine offered to his diseased mind. Some friends of his, possessed of -histrionic talent, got up his tragedy of "Saul:" Alfieri filled the part -of the unfortunate king. Others of his plays were afterwards -represented, in which he also acted; but he always preferred the part of -Saul, which confirms our opinion, that it is, of all the characters he -has pourtrayed, the best fitted for the stage, and the nearest approach -to those unrivalled princes of the drama, the heroes of Shakspeare. - -After some months had been occupied by these representations, Alfieri -gave them up, and devoted himself exclusively to study. He had many -plans for composition: the chief of these were what he called -tramelogedie, or tragic melodramas, only one of which, "Abel," he found -energy to write, and this is an entire failure. He entered on a new -field, to which his genius was not adapted--the mingling of human beings -and spirits, of the passions of the heart and the airy creations of our -fancy; a species of composition which is to be found in perfection in -Calderon, and which Goëthe, Byron, and Shelley have made familiar to us -in modern times, and, according to their various capacities, adorned -with the mystery, fire, and glowing imagery peculiar to each.--But of -this creative power, that peoples our world with beings not of it, -though in it,--Alfieri was wholly destitute. We have already remarked -how entirely his writings are wanting in the more ideal attributes of -imaginative poetry. - -At the age of forty-six he applied himself with desperate ardour to the -study of the Greek language. Forty-six is no advanced age: how many men -are in their prime at that epoch! but it was not so with Alfieri; his -very memory failed him, but he persevered with his accustomed energy, -battling with difficulties as if they had been opponents, inspired with -a sense of opposition. Thus he read the most difficult authors, with the -notes of the scholiasts, learning an infinite multitude of verses by -heart, and acquiring, in the end, by dint of unwearied industry, a -considerable knowledge of the language. - -His health was infirm and his quiet disturbed by the progress of the -French armies. They came, they said, to liberate Italy, and, under this -pretence, destroyed its native governments, introduced their own crude -institutions, and then, on pretence of the opposition their tyranny met, -despoiling the Italians of their works of art, endeavouring even to -supplant their divine language, and treating with contempt and insolence -their peculiar manners and customs; so that any welcome given by the -Italians to these pretended friends only showed more plainly their -insulting pretensions and rapacity. When the French first appeared in -Florence, Alfieri and the countess hurried away as if it had been -visited by the plague. They established themselves at a villa in the -environs, having removed all their property from their house in the -city; and here they remained till the French were temporarily driven -from Tuscany. On their second invasion, Alfieri had no time to retreat, -and he satisfied his feelings of scorn and hatred by never speaking to a -Frenchman, or admitting the visits of the leaders of its armies. - -His melancholy increased with the irritation caused by political events, -by unwearied study, and the physical weakness produced by his systematic -abstinence. He was happy in the society of the countess of Albany, and -that of his dear friend, the abbate Caluso: but many long hours he spent -by himself in gloomy reverie. The bitterness and asperity of his mind -was thus increased, and his dislike of society prevented the beneficial -action of sympathy and mutual forbearance. He considered himself, to a -great degree, a disappointed man in his literary career, and was -ignorant of the universal applause bestowed upon his tragedies. He -divided his time with the most scrupulous exactitude, and his horses -were still dear to him. Many hours were spent in the aisles of Santa -Croce, or other churches of Florence, listening to the music, and -absorbed in reverie. - -During the last years of his life, he was visited each spring by a fit -of the gout, and each summer by a desire to employ himself upon original -composition, to which he devoted himself with an ardour which brought -on, each autumn, a dangerous illness. His six unlucky comedies were the -principal objects of these ill-fated labours; and his life was at last -their sacrifice. A theorist in all things, he imagined that, as the gout -proceeded from inflammation, it could be starved out of his frame; and -he commenced a system of abstinence that deprived him of the nutriment -necessary to support life. The countess in vain implored him not to -adhere to so senseless a plan: it has often happened that, by resisting -the prescriptions of physicians, and the aid of medicine, a man has -conquered inherent disease, and lived to an old age; but as soon as he -begins to administer remedies to himself, and to act from theories, -instead of from that long and arduous practice necessary to give the -smallest insight into the delicate structure of our physical nature, he -must become the victim: thus it was with Alfieri; hard study and -abstinence reduced his life to a mere flickering spark; he became a -skeleton in appearance; each day he took less nourishment, and the -weaker he grew, the more resolutely did he apply himself to study, as -the sole solace of his worn-out and burthensome existence. In the month -of October, 1803, he was attacked by gout in the stomach. The physicians -wished, by means of blisters and sinapisms, to draw it to the -extremities; but a childish dislike to the inconvenience which would -ensue, and the impossibility of taking his daily walk, if these remedies -were applied to his legs, caused him to refuse them. Opium was given -instead, and his pain was moderated; but still he sat up; and his mind -was rather excited than calmed by the narcotics administered: he -remembered as in dreams, but with the utmost vividness, various -incidents of his past life, or passages from his own writings and those -of others; and these he repeated to the countess, who sat by him -watching. No idea of approaching death seems to have entered his mind; -and the priest, who came to offer the usual offices of the catholic -religion to the dying, was sent away with an invitation to return on the -morrow; whether because he believed that by that time he should be -beyond such interference, or as a mere excuse for delay, cannot be told. -As he grew weaker, he sent for the countess, and when she came he -stretched out his hand, saying "Stringetemi la mano, cara amica; mi -sento morire." "Press my hand, dear friend; I am dying." These were his -last words. He died on the 8th of October, 1803, at the age of -fifty-five. - -He was buried in Santa Croce, and the countess of Albany erected a tomb -to his memory, sculptured by Canova. It is not one of his happiest -efforts; but the inscription, which has been called pretending, appears -to me simple and affectionate. "Louisa de Stolberg, countess of Albany, -to Vittorio Alfieri," is surely no impertinent obtrusion of the name of -his dearest friend; and it may be remarked, that, while the countess has -been censured for recording her name so prominently. Alfieri, in the -epitaph he himself composed for her, makes it her chief praise that she -was "quam unice dilexit,"--the only love of the poet. - -This account of the life of a man who was endowed with the chief -attribute of genius,--that of spontaneously forming and manifesting -itself, despite every obstacle or adverse circumstance,--may be -concluded by the quotation of the sonnet in which he describes his own -person; a faithful translation of which, which we also append, appeared, -some years ago, in "The Liberal." It may be quoted with the more -propriety at the end of his life, since it was written when time had -robbed him of the graces of youth; giving instead those characteristic -marks stamped by the action of his disposition and pursuits. - - -"Sublime specchio di veraci detti -Mostrami in corpo e in anima qual sono. -Capelli or radi in fronte, e rossi pretti; -Lunga statura e capo a terra prono; -Sottil persona su due stinchi schietti; -Bianca pelle, occhi azzurri, aspetto buono, -Giusto naso, bel labbro, e denti eletti, -Pallido in volto più che un re sul trono. - -"Or duro, acerbo, ora pieghevol mite. -Irato sempre e non maligno mai, -La mente e il cor meco in perpetua lite, -Per lo più mesto, e tal or lieto assai, -Or stimandomi Achille, ed or Tersite; -Uom, se' tu grande o vii? Muori, e il saprai."[51] - - -[Footnote 51: "Thou lofty mirror, Truth, let me be shown -Such as I am, in body and in mind. -Hair plainly red, retreating now behind; -A stature tall, a stooping head and prone; -A meagre body on two stilts of bone; -Fair skin, blue eyes, good look, nose well design'd; -A handsome mouth, teeth that are rare to find, -And pale in face, more than a king on throne. - -"Now harsh and crabbed, mild and pleasant soon; -Always irascible, no malignant foe; -My head and heart and I never in tune; -Sad for the most part, then in such a flow -Of spirits, I feel now hero, now buffoon; -Man, art thou great or vile?--die, and thou 'It know."] - - - - -MONTI - -1754-1828. - - -Monti is, without question, the greatest Italian poet that has appeared -since the golden days of its poetry: he alone emulates his predecessors -in the higher flights of the imagination. It has been pronounced of -Dryden, that if each of the princes of poetry surpassed him in their -peculiar vein, yet his fire and originality give him a near place beside -them. Thus Monti has not the sublimity of Dante, nor the tenderness of -Petrarch; neither the inventive flow of Ariosto, nor Tasso's epic -conception and voluptuous grace: but he has a fervour, a power of -imagery, an overflowing and redundance of ideal thought, that mark the -genuine poet. - -He came to revive the languid and unnatural style that flourished under -the reign of the Arcadians. Some few real poets had sprung up in Italy -in the interval between Ariosto and Monti: they are recorded in this -volume. Chiabrera and Filicaja are the chief. These men found in the -inspiration of their own minds the power that led them to adopt a style -of their own, and to bestow originality--which, in one shape or another, -is the vivifying soul of composition,--on their productions. Metastasio -carried clearness and grace of expression to a great perfection, but he -wanted strength and daring: Alfieri had not a trace of that sunshiny and -rainbow-like (so to speak) colour-giving power of fancy, without which -there is no real poetry. For the rest, the poets of those days were -Arcadians; the very word seems to express volumes of inane affectation, -and turgid, yet soulless, language. It is thus that a clever Italian -critic of the present day speaks of them:--"To the hyperboles and -conceits of the seicentisti, succeeded the follies and pastorals of the -Arcadians. The subject treated by these poets were restrained in narrow -limits; they were all futile, trite, vulgar, or silly,--adulatory, or -false. A new-married pair, a nun,--the new-born babe of some sovereign -or noble,--the election of a cardinal, or a bishop, or even of an -abbé--a funeral or a feigned love; such were the favourite themes of -the Arcadians. Was a marriage in question,--Hymen was adjured to bring -its chains to link two hearts; and a new Hercules or Achilles was -prognosticated as the future result of the union. If a girl shut herself -up in the cloister, the poets expatiated on her happiness; they -described the heavenly bridegroom as descending and stretching out his -hand to her, while the mischievous Cupid angrily threw away his golden -quiver; a censurable mixture of sacred and profane imagery was thus -introduced, and their ideas were steeped in two fountains, in -contradiction one to the other, the Bible and mythology. The most -shameless flattery blotted their pages, as they praised one another, and -depicted themselves on the heights of Parnassus,--beside the waters of -Hypocrene,--in the company of Apollo and the Muses; and the wonders of -Orpheus and Amphion were renewed, to express the charms of each other's -verses. No Arcadian dared imagine himself enamoured of a human being: -she was no mortal woman, but a goddess,--a Venus sprung on the instant -from the foam of the sea: lips, and eyes, and hair, had all their -appropriate, still-repeated epithets: did their lady sigh, or did one -word escape the paling of her ivory teeth,--tempests fled, the winds -were stilled, and Jove was again tempted to transform himself into a -bull for her sake."[52] - -Men can do strange things when they associate in companies, and keep -each other in countenance by a wide-spread folly, that bars out the -wholesome fear of ridicule. Thus, the Arcadians had colonies all over -Italy. They gave feigned names to each other; they lauded, and -celebrated, and crowned each other. Good sense and good taste were -sacrificed in the emulation each felt to transcend his rivals in a -sonorous and turgid system of words, in which neither passion nor -thought appeared.[53] A new genius was wanted to trample on this -overgrowth of vanity or folly, and to gift the tamed and chained -language of Dante and Bojardo with wings and liberty. Such was the poet, -the incidents of whose life we now proceed to detail. - -Vincenzo Monti was born in Romagna, on the 19th of February, 1754. His -father's simple, and even humble, but pretty and agreeable, house was -situated among the vineyards and agricultural country which lies between -Fusignano and the Alfonsine, in the Ravennese territory. The air is -healthy and serene, the country fertile and diversified, and the style -of life of his parents such as at once cultivated simplicity of taste -and kindness of heart. Nothing can be more primitive and patriarchal -than the mode of life of the smaller landholders in Italy; and to this -class Monti's father belonged. The farm-house--or villa, as it is -called, if a little better than a cottage--is situated amidst the ground -they cultivate. The name of _podere_ is given to these small farms, -enclosed by hedges, within whose limits grapes, corn, vegetables, and -fruits are all cultivated in a sort of picturesque confusion. The vines, -trained on trellises, form covered walks; and the sound of the -water-wheel is continually heard, and of the water trickling through the -conduits that lead it to the various parts of the grounds. The Italian -farmer works very hard, and the cottager still harder. He divides the -produce of the land with his landlord, entertains few servants, and his -habits are at once laborious and frugal. The parents of Monti were an -excellent specimen of the virtues of this unpretending race. They are -still remembered in the country by numbers of the poor whom they -assisted and comforted. Their children were brought up to consider it a -valuable privilege to bestow help upon those in want of the necessaries -of life, and Vincenzo in particular inherited from them a warm heart and -a tenderness of feeling that caused him to be idolised in his domestic -circle. - -Monti passed his early boyhood in this rural retirement. To the end of -his life he remembered with fondness the days of his childhood, which -were spent gaily amidst a large family of three brothers, older than -himself, and five sisters. The reward for good behaviour among them was -a permission to distribute charity among the indigent,--a sacred, -soul-saving duty with catholics. The well-known benevolence of his -parents drew numbers to their house, where portions of food were -distributed to them. His mother never felt so happy as when thus -engaged; and it is related of her that, when, a few years after, the -family removed to Majano, where their charitable habits were at first -unknown, she complained in a sort of alarm that they were no longer -visited by the poor. The same biographer relates a story of Vincenzo. On -one occasion he was permitted to distribute the portions of food to -mendicants, who entered at one door and went out at the other: some -among them fancied that they could deceive the child, and returned -twice; and he, with ingenuous shame, turned away, and gave to them twice -without looking, that he might not be obliged to accuse them of their -trick. "An anecdote," continues his biographer, "perhaps scarcely worth -relating, only that it describes the character, or rather, it may be -said, the whole life of Monti, who, even in old age, frequently suffered -himself voluntarily to be imposed upon." Were a philosophical analysis -of Monti's disposition to be attempted, it might be discovered how this -sensitiveness to the shame of others, this sparing of their feelings in -preference to the assertion of truth and honesty, makes a part of the -same weakness that led him always to regard as a secondary consideration -moral truths and political integrity, when put in competition with the -happiness and welfare of his domestic circle. We call this sort of -sensibility weakness, because, though usually united to great private -rectitude of character, it is incompatible with the heroism of the -patriot and the martyr. - -For several years Monti had no instructors except his kind parents; but, -soon after their removal to Majano, he was sent to the seminary of -Faenza, which enjoyed a good reputation for the solidity of its -instruction; there he learnt early and well the Latin language. His -first attempts in Latin verse were, however, so singularly infelicitous, -that his master thought it necessary to put him into a lower class than -that in which he had first been placed. The boy, roused to indignation, -made no complaints, but secretly learned by heart the whole of the -Æneid; and persevered so earnestly in conquering the difficulties, that -his Latin verses soon became distinguished for a style and harmony that -announced his poetic talent. His second trial was so different from the -first, that his masters began to regard him as a sort of prodigy; and he -himself entered with delight and ardour on the study of the Roman poets. -The full force of his impetuous and fertile imagination was early -awakened by them, and he began to exercise the art peculiar to his -country of extemporising verses; but his master had the judgment to -withdraw him from an exercise so pernicious to the strength and critical -delicacy of poetry, and induced him to write with care and meditation. -He was yet a boy when, under this tutelage, he composed a volume of -elegies, several of which have been printed. - -It is the usual custom among the smaller landholders of Romagna to -destine their youngest sons to the agricultural labours of their farms; -and this was fixed as the career of Monti. He yielded to his father's -commands, but with reluctance. His mind was opened to the necessity of -cultivation, and mere manual labour and low-thoughted cares were -infinitely distasteful to him. His heart was with the Latin poets, from -whom he could not separate himself; and his dislike to every occupation -that was not intellectual grew to be insurmountable. His father thought -it necessary to reprove him; and a scene ensued similar to one recorded -as having taken place, several centuries before, between Petrarch and -his father. Vincenzo, moved by his parent's reproof to a belief that his -literary predilections were reprehensible, made a resolution to renounce -them. He led his father into his chamber, and there, before him, threw -his favourite authors into a large fire. The good man, touched by this -act of docility, gave him twelve sequins; and the youth, unable to -resist the temptation thus held out, hastened to the neighbouring fair -of Luga, and spent the whole sum in buying over again the authors whose -works he had left at home, still warm in the ashes of the fire into -which he had thrown them. His father, seeing the inutility of combating -with his inclinations, sent him to the university of Ferrara, wishing -him to enter on the legal or medical profession. But, after a few vain -attempts to apply himself to these studies, Monti gave up every other -pursuit, and dedicated himself wholly to the cultivation of literature -and poetry. He still continued to write in Latin, and always retained a -predilection for this language, and later in life translated some of his -own works into it. His first Italian poem was "The Prophecy of Jacob." -It was, of course, inexact in versification, and unequal; but when Jacob -prophesies the future glory of the Lion of Judah, the style rises into -vigour, and even sublimity. At this time the "Visions" of Varino and the -sonnets of Minzoni, two Ferrarese poets, fell into his hands. They rose -above the inanities of the Arcadians, and indicated to him the path he -should pursue. Through reading them he was brought to the perusal of -Dante, and his soul opened at once to the conception of all that Italian -poetry contains of grand and beautiful. Henceforth Alighieri was his -model and master, and he regarded at once with admiration and a sort of -worship the elevated and godlike powers of this most inspired of poets. -He wrote the "Vision of Ezekiel" in a sort of imitation of his -favourite, in which he displayed that grandeur of imagery and command of -language which distinguish his compositions. - -Cardinal Borghese was at that time legate at Ferrara. Admiring the -youth's genius, he took him under his protection. On his return from his -legation, he obtained the elder Monti's consent to his son's -accompanying him to Rome. He was now eighteen. The first intimacy that -he formed in the capital was with Ennio Quirino Visconti, a man of vast -erudition; and under his direction Monti extended his classical -knowledge. It happened, while he was at Rome, that the Erme of Pericles -and Aspasia were discovered,--one in excavations made in the villa of -Cassius at Tivoli, the other at Cività Vecchia. Visconti wrote a -treatise on these marbles, and invited his friend to celebrate them in a -poem; and he wrote the "Prosopopea di Pericle," which is preserved in -the Vatican museum, written with great simplicity of style, and his -usual easy flow, yet fervour, of language. This was the first time that -he appeared in the character of a poet at Rome; and it was followed by -several other attempts. He thus attracted attention; but, having no -fixed situation, after remaining some years in the capital, he was on -the point of complying with his father's frequent requests that he would -return home, when a circumstance happened to change his plans. The -Arcadians of the Bosco Parrasio celebrated the Quinquenalli of Pius VI. -(1780, ætat. 26.); when Monti recited some of his compositions, which -attracted so much applause that the duke of Braschi, the pope's nephew, -sent for him the next day, and offered him the place of his secretary, -which was at once accepted. Monti remained at Rome in the house of the -prince, who treated him with all the kindness of friendship, and he -enjoyed full leisure to pursue his literary studies. - -Yet it is, perhaps, matter of regret that Monti should have been thus -employed. It is very difficult to make rules for the education of -genius, when, on the one hand, care and want may fetter, and even crush, -its loftiest aspirations; or too much case and leisure wean it from -habits of industry, and foster the dissipation of thought and feeling -which too frequently accompanies the poetic temperament. Monti's muse -had surely not been silent if he had remained in his father's farm, -surrounded by the luxuriant beauty of nature, and supported by conscious -worth and independence. But no people need so much sympathy as poets. -The interchange of thought and feeling, the fresh spirit of inquiry and -invention, that springs from the collision or harmony of different -minds, are with them a necessity and a passion. And though solitude is -named the mother of all that is truly sublime, yet this solitude ought -not to be that of desolation, but retirement to meditate on the stores -heaped up in our intercourse with our fellow-creatures. Monti, among the -uncultivated peasantry of Romagna, might have found his glowing -enthusiasm grow cool from the absence of appreciation, and the want of -sympathy and equal intercourse. - -Yet servitude at the court of Rome was no good moral school. To the -years he spent in the service of the pope's nephew, the habits of -dependence, and his daily intercourse with courtiers, may be attributed -that want of political integrity, and ready worship of ruling powers, -which was the great blot of Monti's character. The genuine glow of real -talent, the ambition natural to conscious genius, and the instinct of -one, in whom invention and the power of expression were indigenous, to -pour forth his ideas and sentiments, qualities which indefeasibly -belonged to him, would, in almost any situation, have made Monti a -writer. He might have been less refined in the farms of Romagna, but -more useful as a moral and dignified asserter of truth and independence. -Yet we must reflect that the germ of each man's character is born with -him, to be checked or fostered by education, but still there to colour -the tide of thought and influence the motives of conduct. And as -independence and strength of principle never displayed themselves as a -part of Monti's character, temptation might have found him as willing a -slave in the poverty of his farm as in the luxurious servitude of papal -Rome. - -At Rome, at least, he continued to cultivate his poetic tastes. He -produced several poems which kept alive his fame. On occasion of the -marriage of his patron, the duke of Braschi, he wrote an ode entitled -"Beauty of the Universe;" and he celebrated the journey of Pius VI. to -the imperial court in a poem entitled the "Apostolic Pilgrim." But he -aspired to signalise himself by some greater work, and long meditated -writing a tragedy. As early as 1779 he writes to a friend,--"I am weary -of writing verses on frivolous subjects. A tragic drama is the notion -that most delights me. But how can I satisfy the craving I have to write -a tragedy, since I am not able to tranquillise my mind, and am occupied -by affairs which have no connection with poetry? An hundred times I have -begun, and as often broken off." And in another letter he expresses a -feeling which has often entered the mind of any one deeply interested in -carrying on some literary labour:--"I have a ravenous desire," he says, -"to write tragedies, which preys upon me. This is my madness; and I am -in despair, because I fear to die before I finish one." - -His ambition was further excited by the emulation inspired by Alfieri. -This great tragedian was now residing at Rome; and Monti was present -when he read his "Virginia" in a society composed of the most celebrated -literati of the day. Monti listened with transport, and, burning with a -desire to rival this production, he instantly began his tragedy of -"Aristodemo," founded on a story he had read a few days before in -Pausanias. He was the more eager to accomplish his purpose, as lie -perceived the faults of Alfieri's style, and hoped to avoid them. The -fecundity of his imagination rendered it easy for him to rise above the -baldness and unideal versification of his rival; so that it has been -pronounced, that a perfect tragedy would be produced, were "the grandeur -and penetration of Alfieri adorned by the style of Monti." "Aristodemo" -was acted with the greatest success at Rome in 1787. Monti writes to a -friend,--"My tragedy was represented yesterday evening at the theatre of -Valle. I was not present; but when it was over, my house was inundated -by my acquaintances, who seemed mad with delight. I ought not to mention -this, but I write to a friend, and I assure you that every one agrees -that so great a success and so much enthusiasm was never known at Rome -before." - -And here it is impossible not to remark the different feelings of -Alfieri and Monti. Alfieri entered upon his literary career when the -more brilliant portion of the fire of youth was passing away. He had -sufficient enthusiasm to animate him to mental labour, and to warm his -imagination to the conception of fictitious situations, but not enough -to foster the delusion of success. While he pretended stoicism and -disdain, he was very sensitive to criticism; but when applause was -afforded, he scanned the merits of his judges, was annoyed by the faults -of the actors, and never reaped the just reward of his toils--the sense -of triumph. While the more youthful Monti, early catching the spark of -enthusiasm from his audience and his friends, enjoyed, to its full -extent, the celebrity which a successful tragedy, more than any other -species of literary composition, is able to confer. - -The genius of Monti, however, was not that of a tragedian: lyrical and -imaginative rhapsodies, rather than the concatenation of a plot and the -impersonation of human passion, were the native bent of his mind. The -story of "Aristodemo" is eminently simple in its construction; the -interest is entirely confined to the principal character, and there is -almost no action to support the piece. Aristodemo had, to acquire the -popular favour, and his election to the throne of Mycene, resolved to -sacrifice his daughter, when some angry god required that the blood of a -virgin should be shed on his altar. To save the girl, her lover declares -that she has yielded to him, and is about to be a mother. In his fury -the father destroys her, and afterwards discovers that she is innocent. -To add to his misfortunes he loses his only other child, a little girl -of three years old, in a skirmish with the Spartans. Henceforth he is -pursued by remorse; the spectacle of his murdered daughter for ever -haunts him, and horror and despair darken his soul. The tragedy opens, -fifteen years after these events, at the conclusion of a war with -Sparta, with the discussion for a treaty of peace, when the prisoners on -both sides are to be given up. Among those taken by Aristodemo is a -girl, to whom he has attached himself with paternal fondness, and who -devotes herself to mitigating his sufferings. She, of course, is -discovered to be his long lost daughter; but this is not made known to -him till the last scene, when the agonies of remorse, joined to sorrow -at losing his last consolation, have driven him to destroy himself. The -pure but warm attachment between him and his unknown child is delicately -and sweetly described, while his passionate and remorseful ravings, -though they rise to sublimity, shock us by going beyond ideal terrors -into images palpably disagreeable. From this sketch it may be seen how -deficient in action the piece is. Aristodemo comes before us to lament -and to rave. Still, despite his woe, he is a hero and a king; and, when -the interests of his country require it, he can dismiss his private -griefs, and assert the majesty of the crown. His character is conceived -in the truth and sublimity of tragic nature; and the interest that -hovers over him, the dim but harrowing horrors of his spectral visions, -the mingled remorse, terror, and love that tear his heart, and the -poetry in which these overpowering passions are expressed, take -absolutely from the languor which the want of action might otherwise -impart. - -The success of "Aristodemo" induced Monti to write another drama. -"Galeotto Manfredi" is, however, a failure. It is founded on the passion -of jealousy. In his preface the poet mentions that it is wanting in -tragic dignity: such is not of necessity the fault of his subject, but -it decidedly is of his method of treating it, and there is no poetry to -redeem it from the charge of mediocrity. - -He married, about this period, the daughter of the celebrated cavaliere -Giovanni Pickler, who had died a short time before. It is a singular -fact, that he made choice of his wife without having seen her, and not -on account of her extraordinary beauty, of which he was ignorant, but -from respect for the reputation of her father, and a wish to console his -afflicted family; while she accepted him on account of her admiration -for the author of "Aristodemo." And now we enter on a new epoch of -Monti's life, when he composed his most celebrated poem, and at the same -time gave to his productions that political groundwork which, from his -vacillation of principle, has not redounded to his honour. - -The French revolution was at its height; and the time-worn and absolute -governments of every country of Europe were shaken, as by an earthquake, -by the mere echo of the Parisian tocsin. The French, drunk with -enthusiasm, were eager to call the whole world into a fraternity of -liberty and equality; and many were the warm young hearts, long bowed -down by the yoke of the continental systems of slavery, that beat -responsive to the call. One of the persons sent by the French to spread -their revolutionary tenets beyond the Alps was Hugh Basseville. He was -the son of a dyer at Abbeville; the talents he early displayed induced -his father to wish him to pursue a more dignified career, and he -educated him for the church, as the only profession then open to the -lowly born. But Basseville studied theology only to find doubts as to -his creed; he soon abandoned the clerical profession, and, going to -Paris, gave himself up entirely to literature. He here fell in with two -Americans, who engaged him as their companion, or tutor, in a journey -they made through Germany. At Berlin, Basseville became acquainted with -Mirabeau. Leaving his Americans he visited Holland, and wrote a work on -the Elements of Mythology, and a volume of amatory poems. When the -revolution began, he attached himself to the royal, or rather -constitutional, party, and instituted a journal which took that side. He -wrote also a "History of the French Revolution," dedicated to La -Fayette, with whom he was intimately acquainted; and the views he -developes are moderate and rational. He was naturally eloquent, and his -manners were agreeable, while he joined to these fascinating qualities -the more solid ones of industry, intelligence, and boldness, so that he -acquired the confidence and friendship of several of the Girondist -leaders. General Demourier named him secretary to the embassy at Naples; -and while there he visited Rome, for the purpose of secretly propagating -revolutionary doctrines. This imprudence cost him his life. On the night -of the 13th of January, 1793, he was assailed by the populace, and -received a stab, of which he died thirty-four hours after. In his last -moments, it is said that he was induced to regard his conduct, in -endeavouring to raise sedition against the pope, as criminal, and to -have exclaimed several times that he died the victim of folly. - -Monti, who lived in the service of the pope's nephew, and was thus -attached to the papal court, and without that ardour for liberty which -is so natural to many hearts, and which appears at once senseless and -even wicked to those who do not feel independence of thought to be the -greatest of human blessings, of course looked on the French revolution -as a series of crimes, and saw no redeeming good in the madness that -urged a whole nation to so terrific a mixture of heroism and guilt. He -was acquainted with Basseville, and, hearing the recantations of his -dying moments, celebrated at once the repentance of his friend, and the -awful tragedy acted almost at the same moment (Louis XVI. was beheaded -on the 19th of January, 1793), in a poem entitled the "Basvilliana." In -this he feigns that the great enemy of mankind contended with the angel -of God for the soul of the murdered man. His death-bed remorse caused -the good spirit to remain triumphant; but as the crime-tainted soul -could not, according to the tenets of Catholicism, be received at once -into Paradise, the disembodied spirit of Basseville was condemned to -visit once more the banks of the Seine, and to view the horrors there -perpetrated, as the consequence of his guilty and impracticable -theories. The imagination of Monti developed itself in the happiest -manner in treating this theme; and the mingled emotions of horror and -grief that pervade the poem take a shape at once sublime and pathetic. -The soul of Basseville hovers over Paris at the moment that Louis XVI. -loses his head by the guillotine. The imagery with which he adorns the -scene is original and majestic. Four mighty shadows rush on the -scaffold, and hover over the dying monarch; shadows of former regicides, -who glory in the companionship of crime. Ravaillac, Ankerstrom, Damiens, -and one (the executioner of our Charles I.) who veils his face with his -hand, proudly assist in giving the fatal blow. Louis dies, and before -his beatified ghost Basseville prostrates himself; but his penance is -not got over, and he is forced to view other scenes of greater bloodshed -and more frightful violence; but as the poem enters upon these, it -breaks off abruptly, and is left unfinished. - -The style of this poem does not resemble modern Italian poetry, but is -modelled on that of Dante; so faithfully modelled, that many -expressions, ideas, and even whole lines are, as it were, transfused, -into Monti's verses. It is a singular fact that no poet was ever a -greater plagiarist than the author of the "Basvilliana;" but the verses -of others, which he thus employs, are framed, as it were, so -magnificently by original ones, and are placed with such propriety, and -acknowledged with such frankness, that, as an English author observes, -"so far from accusing him of plagiarism, we are agreeably surprised by -the new aspect which he gives to beauties already familiar to every -reader." And thus transfusion expresses his imitations better than the -word borrowing: for though the form of expression is the same, a new -soul and a new sense--not better, certainly, but different from their -former one--are breathed into them. In some sort Dante and Monti -resembled each other in the cast of their ideas. They were both painters -of the mind's images. Dante was the more faithful, delicate, and -heartfelt; but there is a shadowy grandeur joined to a perfection of -taste and fire of sentiment in Monti, which renders his poetry highly -fascinating and beautiful. - -The "Basvilliana" at once raised Monti's reputation higher than that of -any poet who had for centuries appeared in Italy; and he might have been -considered the laureate of royalty, but that his character was not -adorned by that sincere and exalted enthusiasm, without which no man -can, with any success, advocate any cause which embraces the interests -of human nature. - -The tide of French republicanism, checked a little in its first -advances, now swelled by Bonaparte's victories, overflowed the Alps and -deluged Italy. The Austrians, defeated at Montenotte, Lodi, and Arcoli, -were driven from Lombardy: and the Italians hoped to exchange servitude -to a foreign power for national independence; forgetting that liberty, -when given, may also be withdrawn, and that it is only by force that any -real freedom can be acquired. While resistance was made to the French -arms, the requisitions of the victor, and the seizure of the finest -works of art, might have opened their eyes to the real views of their -_soi-disant_ deliverers. Napoleon himself had but one idea with -regard to liberty, which was a free scope to the exercise of his own -will. When that was given him, he could be generous, magnificent, and -useful; but when his measures were obstructed, no tyrant ever exceeded -him in the combinations of a despotism which at once crushed a nation, -and bore down with an iron hand every individual that composed it. -Bonaparte's ambition, however, could only be gratified in France, and -the conquest of Italy was but the stepping-stone to the French empire. -Still, when all the north of the peninsula was subjected to him, when -the pope had submitted to his terms, and the haughty queen of Naples had -been induced to enter into a treaty with her sister's destroyers, he -could no longer with any grace refuse the shows of freedom so often -promised. On the 3d of January, 1797, the Cisalpine republic was -erected. - -Monti had been before invited to accept a professor's chair in the -university of Pavia, which he had refused. In the month of February -1797, general Marmont was sent to Rome on occasion of the treaty of -Tolentino, to carry letters from Bonaparte to the pope. Monti became -acquainted with him; being then in a bad state of health, and advised to -change the air of Rome for that of Tuscany, he accepted Marmont's -invitation, who offered him a seat in his carriage, and proceeded to -Florence. It may be imagined, that familiar intercourse with one of -Napoleon's generals was the foundation of Monti's admiration for the -French hero, and the cause of his opening his eyes to the good to be -derived from adhering to the new order of things in his native country. -At first he entertained the delusive hope that the blessing of liberty -had really been conferred on Italy by the French arms, and that his -countrymen would rise from chains and slavery to the enjoyment of -national independence under national institutions; and yet the -extravagant praise of Napoleon, which he indulges in, in all his poems -written at this time, does not bear the marks of a sincere patriotism. -Besides this, he had to struggle with many personal mortifications. The -"Basvilliana" was not forgotten. French exactions and French assumptions -had already alienated the minds of the noble born among the Italians. -They feared the conqueror, but disdained the masquerade of liberty in -which they were invited to play a part: thus the better classes shrunk -from forming a part of the new governments, and the offices devolved -upon men who had little to lose either in possessions or character. They -regarded Monti with envy and aversion, and, instead of receiving him as -a convert with open arms, his superior claims as a man of talent caused -them to persecute him as an interloper and almost as a spy. The heads of -the government, indeed, at first favoured him: he was invited to Milan, -and elected central secretary of foreign affairs; but he was soon -disturbed by persecutions. "My arrival," he writes several years -afterwards, "was hailed by the usual abuse of the republican journals, -who censured the directory for employing an enemy of the republic. I -loved liberty; but the object of my love was the freedom described in -the writings of Cicero and Plutarch: that which was adored on the altars -of Milan appeared to me a prostitute, and I refused to worship her. -Hence my excommunication,--hence the public burning of the -'Basvilliana.' On this I was obliged to prostrate myself before the -idol. I sang her virtues, and became a revolutionary poet: I grew insane -with the rest, and my conversion procured me patronage and grace." - -It was not without a struggle that he stooped to these abject -submissions, and several events first intervened. The hatred of the -democrats, then the rulers of the Cisalpine republic, caused them to -pass a law which decreed that no one should be permitted to hold any -public employment who, since the year 1 of the French republic, had -published any books tending to throw odium on democracy. Monti's poem -was the principal object of this law; and one of his adversaries -exclaimed, "Let us get rid, not of the author of some foolish sonnet in -praise of kings, but of those who, with powerful enthusiasm and -Dantesque imagination, have inspired a hatred for democracy." This law -being passed, Monti lost his situation. He had published other poems -since the "Basvilliana;" but even these were not considered sufficiently -democratic. - -The "Musogonia," or Birth of the Muses, is almost entirely mythological; -but, in the concluding verses, he apostrophises Bonaparte. He implores -him to be at once the Alexander and Numa of Italy: he beseeches him to -bestow laws upon her, and to unite her scattered members; and, with a -noble voice, he calls upon the Italians to cultivate concord and -unanimity. "Brothers!" he exclaims, "bear the voice of your brother! -What do you hope from divided opinions and counsels? Ah, let there be in -our country, in its danger, one mind, one courage, one soul, one life!" -The republicans perceived a hankering for royalty and tyranny in his -dislike of their measures. - -The "Prometeo" is a finer poem, or rather fragment, for but few of the -cantos are written. The subject of it is the history of Prometheus; but -we have only a small portion of it in the poem as it stands. It opens -with the foolish act of Epimetus. Jupiter had sent to him a casket -containing the various intellectual attributes and moral qualities, to -be distributed among the new creation on earth. Epimetus begins by -bestowing various qualities on animals, and is so prodigal of his gifts, -that when he comes to man he finds the casket empty. On this, he has -recourse to his wiser brother Prometheus, who reprimands him for his -folly. This opening is the weaker part of the poem. Lyrical outbursts -were more accordant to Monti's genius. The appearance of Constancy -before Prometheus is sublime, and the hero's prophecy of the future -state of man is full of fire and grandeur. It ends, however, by a -prophecy of Napoleon, on whom is heaped every epithet that admiration or -adulation could suggest. Jupiter gives him his lightning, which loses -none of its terrors in the young hero's hands. He shakes the bolts over -Germany, and the Rhetian Alps resound with the hoofs of the Gallic -cavalry. One after the other, Prometheus celebrates the glorious -victories achieved in Italy, and hails with enthusiasm French Liberty, -as the mother of heroes who shiver the chains that bound Ausonia, and -wipe the tears from universal Europe--obstructed in its beneficent -career only by the English robber. Bonaparte must have exulted in the -bitter and venomous abuse that Monti never fails to heap upon England. -He tells us, in the preface to this poem, that its scope is to bring -into favour the neglected literature of Greece and Rome, and to merit -well from a free country by speaking in the accents of freedom. There is -something in the applause heaped on the conqueror that jars with our -notions of real independence and patriotism. - -Monti, at this time, entertained the idea of returning to republicanised -Rome. But his friends dissuaded him; and his reputation, and probably -his adulation of the victor, caused him soon after to be named -commissary of the province of the Rubicon. But a poet makes a bad -politician; and Monti's integrity stood in the way of his success, and -he was obliged to give up his office. He made many enemies, and, -naturally timid and fearful for the welfare of his family, he was -terrified into making a complete _amende_ to the democrats of his -country by writing odes, whose violent sentiments went beyond those of -the most furious demagogues: and it is to these poems that he alludes -when he speaks of the worship he was forced to pay to the mockery of -liberty; and ever after he regretted his pusillanimity, and despised -himself for his concessions. - -At the time they gained this point, his enemies were pacified; and the -survivorship of the professor's chair of belles lettres in Brera, then -occupied by Parini, was bestowed on him. But scarcely had he overcome -the enmity of the friends of liberty and equality, than their star was -eclipsed, and their reign came to an end. -[Sidenote: 1799. -Ætat. -45.] -During the absence of Bonaparte in Egypt, Suvaroff and the Austrians -crossed the Alps, and the French were driven from Italy. Her republics -vanished like a forgotten dream; and their partisans, Monti among them, -were forced to follow the retreating army of France, and to take refuge -beyond the Alps. - -Monti fell into a state of deplorable destitution. He had left his wife -and young daughter in Italy, and he roamed alone and friendless among -the mountains of Savoy. His sufferings during the brief period of his -exile were frightful. He wandered about, subsisting on the fruit he -picked up under the trees. Often seated on the rugged banks of a -torrent, he satisfied his hunger with roots and nuts, and wept as he -thought of Italy and his ruined fortunes. The benevolence of his heart -manifested itself in the midst of this adversity. It is related of him, -that, as he was wandering one evening in a narrow lane, near Chamberi, a -stranger accosted him and asked charity, relating that he had a sick -mother and five children. Monti's heart was moved: two sequins was all -that he possessed in the world; he gave one of them to the suppliant. -His health failed through the hardships that he endured; the labour of -collecting his food became intolerable, and he forced himself to gather -at one time sufficient for two days, so as to secure himself one of -uninterrupted rest. His wife, who had remained to put their affairs in -some order, now joined him. She found him stretched on a wretched bed, -weak from inanition, but disdaining to apply to any one for relief in -his need. She brought money with her, and proper food soon restored his -strength; nor did he again fall into such an extremity of disaster, -though it was long before the fickle goddess smiled upon him. - -The minister, Mareschalchi, invited him to Paris; and the new victories -of Bonaparte in Italy, on his return from Egypt in the following year, -revived his hopes of better times. Mareschalchi obtained that he should -be employed to write a hymn and an ode in celebration of the victory of -Marengo, which had driven the allies from Italy and restored it to the -French. He was to have been paid 1500 francs for these two poems, with -the further reward of the professorship of Italian literature in the -French university. But fortune was not weary of persecuting him; and -this remuneration was withheld, on its being represented to government -that he was, at heart, inimical to the French. Mareschalchi continued to -befriend him, and obtained 500 francs, or about 20_l_. "No small relief -to me," he writes, "in my necessitous circumstances." He was very eager -to return to Italy, and he writes to his brother,--"Of the many thousand -refugees who were here, almost all have returned to their country, -because all have instantly received the necessary succour from home. I -alone find myself abandoned by my relations, in a strange country, -without friends, and without resources; unless, indeed, I can make up my -mind to renounce my country for the sake of earning my bread in some -office. But an irresistible sentiment is linked to the name of my native -land. I possess in Italy the objects dearest to my heart--my child, my -mother, brothers, friends, studies, habits; all, in short, that renders -life dear. I pant, therefore, to return; and I implore you to send me -assistance in the shape of a remittance for my journey, and to discharge -my debts here. Every delay injures my interests, particularly at this -moment. Direct to 'Citizen Vincenzo Monti, Post-office, Paris.' I shall -count the days and moments--make my account short, if my happiness is -dear to you." - -Soon after his wishes were fulfilled, and he celebrates his return to -his beloved Italy by a beautiful hymn, which begins-- - - -"Bella Italia, amate sponde, -Pur vi torno a riveder, -Trema il petto, e si confonde -L' alma oppressa di piacer." - - -He does not forget the victor in this song of joy and triumph. Marengo -is mentioned with exultation; and Bonaparte celebrated with enthusiasm, -as liberating Italy from the barbarians, and again bestowing upon her -the blessings of freedom. - -On his arrival at Milan, Monti employed himself in correcting his poem, -entitled the "Mascheroniana," which he had begun amidst the Alps, when -overwhelmed by misery, an exile, weeping over the disasters of his -country and his own wrongs. Lorenzo Mascheroni, a celebrated -mathematician as well as an elegant poet, was forced to quit Italy at -the same time as Monti, and died in France shortly after. In this poem -the poet vents all his spleen against his democratic enemies. In his -preface he exclaims, "Reader, if you really love your country, and are a -true Italian, read! but throw aside the book if, for your and our -misfortune, you are an insane demagogue, or a cunning trafficker in the -cause of liberty." The poem opens with the death of Mascheroni, and the -ascent of his soul to heaven. He here meets Parini, who laments the -unhappy condition of Italy. "When I saw her misery," he cries, "I -desired to die, and my wish was fulfilled. I first beheld her woe when -dressed in her new freedom, which was called liberty, but which, in -truth, was rapine. I then beheld her a slave, alas! a despised slave, -covered with wounds and blood, complaining to heaven that she was -betrayed by her own children--by the many foolish, base, and perverse -tyrants, not citizens; while the few remained mute or were destroyed. -Iniquitous law's were given her; discord waited on her, and pride, and -hate, and madness, ignorance and error; while the tears and sighs of the -people remained unheard. O, wretches! who spoke of virtue in -high-sounding words, and called themselves Brutus and Gracchus, while -they proved themselves traitors and monsters. But short-lived was their -joy. I saw the Russian and the Austrian swords destroy the hopes of the -fields of Italy, and the armed people commit crimes exceeding the supper -of Atreus and the vengeance of Theseus!" While Parini is thus pouring -out his angry and bitter denunciations, Mascheroni interrupts him. -"Peace, austere spirit!" he exclaims, "your country is again saved. A -deity has caught her by the hair, and drawn her from the abyss: -Bonaparte!" At this name, the frowning Parini raises his head, and a -smile illuminates his countenance. The victories of Egypt, of Marengo, -and Hohenlinden, are commemorated; and the "British felon" assailed with -the usual violence of hate. In the midst of the conversation of the -friends, God appears with his cherubim,--one the herald of peace and -pardon, the other of war and vengeance: they are sent out on the earth -to assist and wait on the Gallic hero. This poem, like so many others of -Monti, which celebrated what was then the present, and is therefore -truncated of its catastrophe, is a fragment. Such praise, dressed in all -the magnificence of poetry, must have sounded sweetly in Napoleon's ear. -The "Mascheroniana," whose chief object is to bestow on him new wreaths -of victory, is one of Monti's finest compositions. It is full of -strength, vehemence, and beauty. His imitation of Dante is even more -apparent than in the "Basvilliana." The machinery of the poem, and the -peculiar versification, are borrowed from the "Divina Commedia." But, as -we have before observed, Monti's was too original a mind to be a -plagiarist. What he took from another, he remoulded and brought forth in -a new form, in fresh and brilliant hues, all his own. He has not the -sublimity, the sweetness and pathos, nor the distinct yet delicate -painting, of his prototype; but no one can read his verses without -feeling that the true spirit of poetry breathes in every line, and that -the author pours out the overflowings of a genuine and rapt inspiration. - -His third tragedy of "Caius Gracchus" had been written at Paris, and he -occupied himself in finishing and correcting it on his return to Milan. -This tragedy has been praised by some as superior to "Aristodemo," but -it is difficult to coincide in this opinion. It possesses fine passages -and some energy, but it is wanting in poetry; and the characters want -the simple heroism of antiquity, and resemble rather violent Italians of -modern days. The defects of monotonous dialogue and often repeated -situations flow also from an observation of the unities, which, by -confining the subject in narrow limits, permit no variety of action, -and, except in peculiar instances, force the poet to repeat himself; -making one scene frequently little else than a repetition of what had -gone before. - -Monti had begun his literary and poetic life by servitude, when he -became secretary of the duke of Braschi. In his present desperate -circumstances he saw no hope, except in conciliating the ruling power of -the continent, and entering on the service of the man who looked on all -men as merely engines to fulfil his vast and illimitable projects. -[Sidenote: 1802. -Ætat. -48.] -Napoleon had by fresh victories driven the Austrians from Italy; and a -congress, called the Cisalpine, was held at Lyons, to fix on a form of -government for the north of the peninsula. This was a kind of mockery -that Bonaparte was fond of encouraging in the early days of his -elevation, since, under some of the forms of popular election, new -powers were, with a show of legality, bestowed on him. The Italians of -the congress fixed on a plan of government, at the head of which was to -be a president: they entreated Napoleon to accept this office, as the -disunited state of the country rendered ii unadvisable to elect an -Italian to it. Napoleon consented. This was a happy moment to bring -himself before the supreme power, and Monti seized on it. He wrote an -ode to Bonaparte, in the name of the Cisalpine congress; he chose the -motto from Virgil, and it was a happy one,-- - - -"Victorque volentes -Per populos dat jura." - - -The verses are very beautiful, and worthy of a better cause than laying -the liberties of his country prostrate at the first consul's feet. Still -Monti was aware that, degraded by long servitude and disunited by petty -passions, the Italians were ignorant of the nature of true liberty. He -saw party spirit, oppression, and rapine as the result of any attempt on -the part of his countrymen to govern themselves; he knew also how vain -it was to contend with the conqueror, and he was very probably sincere -in his belief that the welfare of his country was safest in his hands. -Still, while we admire the harmony of the verses and the beauty of the -imagery, we repine at the slavish spirit that lurks within them. -Bonaparte, who loved to be borne up by the wings of men's imaginations -into a superior sphere of glory and success, must have been pleased by -the halo of poetry with which Monti stooped to adorn his name. - -He did not go unrewarded. When peace was restored to Italy, the -institutions for public education became objects of interest to the -government; and a professorship was offered Monti; either at Milan or -Pavia, at his choice. Monti preferred the latter, for the sake of -enjoying the society of the able professors who filled the chairs of -that university. He was diligent and conscientious in his attendance to -the duties of his situation, and his lectures were fully attended: the -best of his prose writings being his inauguration lecture, which had for -its subject the praise of the literary men of Italy, and the claiming -for them the merit of many discoveries usually attributed to the natives -of other countries. After three years spent at Pavia, he was invited by -the governor to Milan, and a number of offices and honours were bestowed -on him. He was made assessor to the minister of the interior for the -department of literature and the fine arts; he was named court poet and -historiographer, and made cavalier of the iron crown, member of the -institute, and of the legion of honour. Monti was no laggard in -fulfilling the duties of the first of these places. He wrote a variety -of poems in praise of Napoleon, and in celebration of his victories. In -the "Bard," a fictitious personage, Ullino, attended by the maiden -Malvina, while watching with enthusiastic admiration the advance of the -French arms, falls in with a young wounded warrior; they, of course, -take him home, and watch over his recovery, when he relates, at their -request, the events of the expedition to Egypt and the battles that -illustrated Napoleon's return to Europe. There is the merit of -enthusiasm and glowing description in portions of this poem. The canto -on the expedition to Egypt contains the best passages. - -[Sidenote: 1805. -Ætat. -51.] - -When Napoleon was crowned king of Italy, Monti was commanded to -celebrate the event. He writes to Cesarotti,--"While you are robing the -magnificent spleen of Juvenal in beautiful and dignified Italian, I am -sounding the Pindaric harp for the emperor Napoleon. The government has -commanded me, and I must obey. I hope that love of my country will not -make my thoughts too free; and that I may respect the hero, without -betraying my duty as a citizen. I am in a path where the wishes of the -nation do not accord with its political necessities, and I fear to lose -myself. St. Apollo help me! and do you pray that I may be endowed with -sagacity and prudence." This poem, in which he tries to trim his sail so -nicely between patriotism and servitude, is called "Il Benificio;" or -The Benefaction, a vision. It has great merit. All that Monti ever wrote -is graced with such a happy flow, and with so much beauty of imagery and -expression, that it is impossible not to admire as we read. He describes -Italy as appearing to him in a vision; she is personified by a woman, -wounded and drooping, the victim of grief and slavery. The poet, struck -with compassion and horror, evokes the shades of mighty Romans from -their tombs to assist the degraded queen of the world; but they turn in -scorn from the fallen and lost one. Then a warrior, godlike and -majestic, descends from the Alps,--Victory attends him,--yet he -disregards her, and prefers the olive to the laurel (a most unfortunate -compliment to a man whose whole soul was war). He approaches the -unfortunate prostrate being,--raises her, and bids her reign; nor could -the livid glare cast by the British cannon over the Tyrrhene sea avail -against him. The warrior smiles, and at his smile all danger vanishes. -Then the austere and noble spirit of Dante arises and apostrophises -Italy, telling her that the regal power of Napoleon was exactly the -restraint and law he had wished her to fall under; and, taking the crown -from her head, places it on that of the French emperor. Spain salutes -the new diadem. The German, still crimson with his own blood, -acknowledges the victor, and bends his eyes to earth; while the British -pirate, powerful in fleets and fraud, curses aloud. "I send you a copy -of the Vision," Monti writes to a friend, "which I have written for the -coronation of our king: it has succeeded perfectly, and no work of mine, -since I began to write verses, has prospered so well." It is impossible -not to congratulate him on his success in attaining prudence. Assuredly -there was nothing too free in these verses; and Napoleon might accept -them without an unpleasant thought being awakened as to his usurpation, -tyranny, and rapacious, unbounded ambition. - -Every fresh victory, every new conquest, was a theme for the venal muse -of Monti; venal we have a right to call it, since he acknowledges the -bond of a salary and the necessity of obedience. Thus, on occasion of -the battle of Jena, he brought out the "Spada di Federico;" or, the -Sword of Frederic,--the most popular of his odes of triumph. In this -poem he images the spectral hand of the warrior king of Prussia -disputing with Napoleon the possession of his sword, and yielding to the -proud assumptions and tenacious grasp of the Gallic victor. Ten editions -of this work were sold in the space of five months, and it was -translated into the French and Latin languages. - -The attempted usurpation of the Spanish throne did not go uncelebrated. -The "Palingenesi" has for its subject the regeneration of mind and of -political institutions wrought in Spain, under the auspices of the -French emperor and his brother Joseph. If we could dismiss from our -minds the truth, and fancy, as Monti assumes, that a great and generous -nation had sunk into the depths of slavery and degradation through the -evil influence of a corrupt government, and that Napoleon was bent on -loosening its fetters and raising it to freedom and knowledge, it would -be impossible not to be filled with enthusiasm by the noble ideas and -grand imagery of this poem. But the taint of falsehood prevents any -sympathy, and our admiration of the imagination displayed is checked by -our contempt of the flatterer; while we smile at the bitter and violent -curses poured upon the English, whose motives for assisting the -Spaniards in resisting the French are painted in the most odious -colours. - -We wonder as we read. There is fire, sublimity, and power in every line. -Can these be inspired, as we are assured by Monti's friends, by the mere -desire of acquiring the loaves and fishes, if not for himself -individually, for his wife and daughter? Are the shadowy forms which he -invests with so much beauty--the conceptions into which he infuses so -much energy and seeming sincerity--the mere playthings of his thought, -and not the genuine offspring of a mind teeming and overflowing with a -sense of usefulness and truth? We cannot believe it; we are so apt to -forget what our feelings were when the occasion that called them forth -has vanished like morning mist. When Napoleon fell, men forgot the -wonder and admiration with which they had regarded him during his -prosperity. He had come on the time-worn world like an incarnation of -the memories of antiquity. The greatest sovereigns, who traced their -descent from the middle ages--the thrones of the world, so long the -objects of worship and fear--the crowns and sceptres which had been -looked upon as the sacred and inviolable symbols of divine right--were -all at his feet, dispossest, transferred, and broken. It could be no -wonder that men looked upon the cause of these things as something -prodigious and superhuman. Monti may be excused that he joined in the -common feeling of awe and admiration; while, afterwards, seeing how -little good arose from the breaking up of the ancient tyrannies, and how -the indomitable will of one man was enforced by means of treachery and -slaughter, he might forget that he could ever have been so blinded, and -fancy that acknowledged fear was the cause of an inspiration which -really sprung from the slavish worship of success, which is too -naturally inherent in human beings. - -Although Monti brought forward this disingenuous plea to excuse his -celebration of the hero of the age, he was sincere in one feeling,--an -attachment to the offspring of his brain, and in the indignation he felt -against those who depreciated his poetic merits. The "Sword of Frederic" -was attacked by the critics with great asperity, and he replied with -still greater acrimony. He had been charged with mannerism and sameness, -especially in the machinery of his poems, in which visions, spectres, -and cloudy spiritual essences play for ever a principal part. He would -not allow this to be a defect, and railed at the unimaginative minds who -conceived it to be such. He tries to be jocose in his indignation, but -his laugh is bitter; and he heaps the accusations of ill faith and envy, -as well as of ignorance and bad taste, on those who attack him. There -may be justice in this, but there is no dignity. There is always a -degree of degradation in noticing the enmity of a race of ephemera, and -not calmly relying on the award of the public. - -Besides the poems above mentioned, Monti wrote several other poems in -praise of the conqueror. "The Jerogamia" and the "Api Panacridi" were -compositions which, whatever their apparent subject might be, turned, -after all, on the praise of the emperor. They maintained, if they did -not increase, the poet's fame. His best works were already written; and -these may be named to be the "Aristodemo," the "Basvilliana," passages -in the "Prometèo," the "Mascheroniana," and the "Palingenesi" and of his -shorter odes, that to Bonaparte, on occasion of the Cisalpine congress, -and his hymn on his return to Italy. - -Years began to tame the fire of his imagination, and he felt the spirit -of original composition fail him. His active mind turned to other -subjects on which to exercise it: his love of classical learning led him -to works of criticism and erudition, and he wrote "Remarks on the Winged -Horse of Arsinoe." A want of knowledge of the Greek language must, -however, have been a great drawback to this species of study; but we -must regard with still greater wonder, considering this defect, his next -enterprise, which was the translation of the Iliad. He had been looking -out for a subject, and meditating in what way he could employ his -powers, when a word, spoken by chance by Ugo Foscolo, at once awoke in -his mind the desire and the energy requisite for so arduous a task. Not -being acquainted with Greek, he applied himself to every kind of literal -translation, and was, besides, mainly assisted by his friend Mustoxidi, -who explained passages, compared his version with the original, and -bestowed a degree of labour which, barren as it was of reputation to -himself, must be regarded as a singular proof of disinterested -attachment. Monti applied himself so vigorously to the task, that, in -spite of all his disadvantages, in less than two years he brought it to -a conclusion. - -This new labour yielded him a large harvest of reputation. Other Italian -translations of the Iliad already existed: that of Salvini is valuable, -from his profound knowledge of the Greek and Italian languages. It is -elegantly and faithfully translated, but it wants spirit; and the -sublime Homeric fire, which renders the Iliad the greatest of human -works, glimmers feebly in his version. The translation of Ceruti is as -faithful as is compatible with his ignorance of Greek; but, besides the -want of the true spirit of the original, his style, modelled on that of -Metastasio and Rolli, wants vigour and versatility. - -Monti possessed, beyond any other poet, the faculty of warming himself -with his subject, of penetrating himself with its soul, and imparting, -by the vivacity of his language and the glowing brightness of his -imagination, his own sentiments to the reader. The very act of -versifying seemed to be to him what the sound of song is to the -sensitive, in elevating and moving the soul. His mind possessed the -qualities of the harp, which gives forth sweet music when swept by the -breezes: thought with him was always pregnant with harmonious and -animated expression, with glowing and various imagery. On this has been -founded his excuse for writing with such apparent fervour on subjects -that did not really interest his feelings; and this facility is a good -quality in a translator. Monti could conceive and imbibe the spirit of -the original, and give it out, in his own language, with vigour and -life. Visconti, in waiting to the poet, says, "The choice and variety of -diction and phrases, the equal and sustained tone of the verses, and the -noble simplicity of the style, place your work among the few that -transmit the poetic name with honour to posterity." This praise was -accompanied by a few judicious criticisms which showed the care and zeal -with which he had examined the translation. Monti paid attention to -them, and endeavoured to amend all the errors pointed out in the -subsequent editions of his work. - -[Sidenote: 1814. -Ætat. -60.] - -When Napoleon was overthrown, and the north of Italy fell under the yoke -of the Austrians, Monti of course lost all his public employments, and -he was menaced in his old age by the miseries of hopeless poverty. But -his submissive disposition and plastic opinions were just of that sort -which kings delight to honour; and the emperor of Austria bestowed such -pensions on him as enabled him to pursue his studies in leisure and -competence. No doubt Monti felt glad, in common with all his countrymen, -to get rid of the antinational sway of the French, and hoped that a -better state of things would result from any change. His experience of -popular rule in Italy had disgusted him with it. He had not that zeal -and ardour of feeling resulting from a conviction that, however perilous -the passage from slavery to liberty, it must be attempted and persevered -in, with all its attendant evils, if men are to be brought back from -that cowardice, indolence, and selfishness which mark the slave, to the -heroism, patience, and intellectual activity which characterise the -freeman. Besides this, the armies of Austria admitted of no reply from -the unwarlike Italians. The remnants of their army which had returned, -wasted and broken, from the Russian campaign had been forced, after some -show of resistance, to capitulate: submission was their only resource, -and submission was in accordance with Monti's disposition. Nor did he -afterwards ever give umbrage to the jealous and revengeful government -whose pay he received, when hopes of better times and of redemption -warmed the hearts of all the nobler Italians to attempt the destruction -of their tyrants. He was acquainted with many of the Austrian victims; -and when we find in his letters complaints of sorrows and misfortunes, -we must attribute these to the real sympathy he felt for these unhappy -martyrs: but, though he sympathised with the men, it is probable that he -disapproved of their attempts. He was hopeless, and a hopeless struggle -presented to him only the too real picture of aggravated oppression in -general, and frightful individual suffering; he did not feel that -boiling of the heart, that fire of the spirit, which makes the great and -good risk all, rather than live subject to a power which exerted all its -leaden strength to press down genius, crush every exertion of mind, and -to reduce men as nearly as possible to the condition of the herds who -graze in the fields, without a thought beyond the food and rest which -the fertility of the soil and the beauty of the climate afford. Monti -was not one of these: his mind was active, and, in his way, he wished to -benefit his country. So when a thousand hearts were convulsed by the -throes arising from all the hopes and fears of a just rebellion, he -turned his attention to the study of the Italian language, to the task -of freeing it from the shackles which critics had thrown over it, and of -gifting it with the new spirit and animation which must arise from the -introduction of living forms of speech, instead of the classic and -restricted limitations imposed by the Della Crusca society. - -He composed few poems after the fall of Napoleon. When the emperor of -Austria sent the archduke John to receive the oath of fealty from the -provinces of Lombardy, he wrote, by command, a cantata, entitled -"Mistico Omaggio," or the Mystic Homage, which was brought out at the -principal theatre at Milan. When the emperor himself visited Italy he -celebrated the event by a poem, called "The Return of Astrea," and -another, named "The Invitation to Pallas." His style in these later -compositions joins harmony to dignity, and forms that mixture of -strength and sweetness which is so delightful in Metastasio. His last -poetic compositions were written at Pesaro, where he was debarred from -his usual occupations, and dispirited by a disease that attacked one of -his eyes; and he solaced himself by dictating various poems full of -grace and beauty, which he afterwards published under the title of -"Sollievo nella Malinconia," or "Relief of Melancholy." - -[Sidenote: 1812.] - -One of the most fortunate incidents of his life was the marriage of his -daughter to a man of singular merit. Costanza Monti was (is, we should -rather say) remarkable for her beauty and her talents; her poetry, -though there is little of it, is of a very high grade, and one poem, "On -a Rose," has sufficed to establish her fame in Italy. Count Giulio -Perticari sprung from a noble family of Romagna. His residence was at -Pesaro, and he there filled successively the offices of podestà and -judge. He devoted himself to literature, and had published works both in -prose and verse, by which he acquired considerable reputation. It must -be in the memory of all Italians, and all those strangers who visited -Italy during his lifetime, how he was beloved by every one who knew him. -No man was ever more popular, more universally pronounced the best of -men; and this praise resulted from the goodness and singleness of his -heart, the sweetness of his disposition, and his unpretending but -attractive manners. Writing concerning this marriage to his friends, -Monti speaks of it with pride and pleasure. He says, "Count Giulio -Perticari, of Pesaro, is a young man well cultivated in literature. I -say nothing of his moral qualities, which render him dear to all. It is -the most delightful match that paternal love can desire." - -After this period Monti's labours were chiefly confined to prose, and he -is considered in this manner to have greatly benefited the literature of -his country. The chief among these are the considerations on the -difficulty of well translating the poetry of the Iliad, and several -dialogues on the Italian language, full of acute criticism and wit. A -circumstance turned his attention still more entirely to the subject of -language. The government of Lombardy, wishing to show some encouragement -to literature, had ordered the Royal Institute of Milan to occupy itself -in the reform of the national dictionary; and Monti was requested by his -colleagues to publish his observations on the subject. He obeyed with -alacrity. His son-in-law, count Perticari, had devoted much attention to -this subject, and he became Monti's associate in the task. - -The great question in Italy is, whether the pure and classical language, -the only one not wholly barbarous and vulgar, is Italian or Tuscan; a -mixture drawn from the various dialects of the peninsula, or solely -founded on Petrarch, Dante, and Boccaccio, and other early Tuscan -authors. The academy Della Crusca espoused the latter side of the -question, and, forming a dictionary, expunged every word not to be found -in the authors named the Trecentisti. Monti, on the contrary, attacked -the _ipse-dixits_ of this academy, and, pointing out innumerable errors -in their dictionary, undertook, as he called it, a crusade against the -Della Crusca. - -This is a question that has divided all the talents of Italy, and in -which it appears presumptuous in a foreigner to express any decision. -Still we may reason from general grounds, and from analogy. Every -portion of Italy has a distinct dialect. Immediately on leaving the -precincts of any town, an acute ear will detect in the person who lives -outside the gate a difference in the form of speech and pronunciation. -Many of the towns use a mere _patois_, which has never been written. The -Neapolitan, Romagnole, Genoese, and Milanese, each have a dialect, -devoid of grace, cacophonous, truncated of vowels, and unintelligible to -any but themselves; the Venetian being the only one distinguished for -its own peculiar charms. To a stranger the language of the Romans has a -great charm: the _bocca Romana_, or Roman pronunciation, is clear, soft, -and yet emphatic. Their language is unidiomatic, and therefore easily -comprehended. You enter Tuscany, and come upon those terse and idiomatic -forms of speech which enraptured Alfieri, and which give so much energy -and animation to the expression of sentiment, so much clearness and -precision to narration or reasoning. But even these are not admitted by -the Della Crusca. The Florentine is still a dialect--the Pisan and the -Siennese fall under the same denomination: the principal difference is -that the grammar of all the Tuscans is pure, and that you may form your -speech on that of the peasantry and servants, without running any risk -of falling into errors and vulgarisms. Alfieri used to mingle in the -crowds assembled in the market-place of Sienna, there to imbibe from -unlearned lips the purest modes of the Italian language. The dictionary -Della Crusca was founded therefore on Tuscan, omitting its -peculiarities, and carefully registering any innovations that had crept -in since the era of the Trecentisti. It is obvious, under this tutelage, -that the Italian became, when written, virtually a dead language. No -author could adopt the forms of speech he made use of in the common -conversation. The language that they heard and spoke when moved by joy, -by grief, by love, or anger, was to be modified, corrected, and, so to -speak, translated, before it could be put in a book. The living impress -of the soul was to be taken from it, and, instead of putting down the -word that rose spontaneously to the lips, and ought to have flowed as -easily from the pen, the author hunted in the Della Crusca dictionary -for authorities, which shackled the free spirit of inspired genius with -chains and bolts forged from the works of the old writers, who -themselves wrote as they spoke, and created a language, simply by -putting down the forcible and graceful expressions then in colloquial -use. - -Still a great difficulty arises from any deviation from these rules. Was -then the Florentine dialect, or the Siennese, or the Pisan, to be the -written language of the country? Each city would have rejected its -neighbour's, and still more would Lombardisms be regarded with disdain -by the inhabitants of the south. Language, pronunciation, idiom, all -form a habit to the eye and ear, which, beginning with our very birth, -cannot be afterwards discarded. No Tuscan ever would or even could -tolerate the introduction of any of the words or phrases belonging to -other dialects; and they endure the mistakes of foreigners with less -disgust than the uncouth pronunciation of their countrymen of the north -and east of the peninsula. Nor will they allow that even the well -educated among these use classic modes of speech. This is the point of -contention; for their antagonists insist, that they are in as full -possession as the Tuscans of pure Italian, drawing it from the same -sources— namely, the best writers of the country; and assert that they -are as well able to originate new modes of expression, and to turn with -as much elegance and force those already in use. - -Monti and Perticari both entered heart and soul into this dispute, which -speedily roused every literary person in Italy to take one side or the -other. The Tuscans, headed by the Della Crusca, were furious that their -long-acknowledged supremacy should be questioned; while Monti, resting -the merits of his opinion on the great authority of Dante, did not -hesitate in his attack. Several letters to his friend Mustoxidi display -his earnestness and sincerity in the cause. We extract passages from -them, as explanatory of his ideas and characteristic of the man. - -"The necessity of relaxing a little the intensity of the labour I have -in hand, led me for a few days among these mountains, where yours of the -2d found me. To fulfil my duty towards government, I have been obliged -to publish my remarks on the Della Crusca vocabulary, and the great -distinction of which it is necessary to remind the Italians; the -distinction I mean between the plebeian dialects, and that dignified -language spoken by all the well educated in the country, from the summit -of the Alps to the Lilybæum promontory. Founding my opinion on the -authority of Dante, in which both Petrarch and Boccaccio concur in a -surprising manner, I have undertaken to advocate that dignified Italian -which is not spoken but written; and to vindicate the rights of fourteen -provinces of Italy against the pretensions of a single one, which, -contrary to the principles of the great father of Italian literature, -has endeavoured to substitute the language in use in a single city, in -short a peculiar dialect, which, however beautiful, is only a dialect, -and can never fill the place of that universal language of which the -country has need. I do not know whether I shall treat this great cause -worthily; but I am convinced that whoever impugns the principles which I -establish, must begin by proving that Dante and the other two were mad. -I dare not believe that I have obtained a complete victory; but I have -laid the foundation-stones on which others of greater talent may one day -erect and finish the edifice." - -To another friend he writes:--"The treatise of Perticari on the language -of the Trecentisti, which will soon be published, is a _chef-d'oeuvre_, -displaying great philosophy and acute criticism. I promise you that it -will make a great sensation, and that the Crusca with drooping head, -_caudamque remulcens_, will not know what to answer." - -"Grassi has written an excellent parallel of the Della Crusca dictionary -with that of Johnson and the Spanish academy, which are similar in their -plan; and you will perceive the Gothic condition of our vocabulary in -comparison with others. Assistance and support reach me from all parts -of Italy, even from Tuscany; so that I may say that the whole nation -sides with me." - -With more moderation he writes afterwards,--"We do not wish to rule; but -neither reason nor honour permit us to continue slaves. We only desire -the right to have a voice in the defence of national rights against -municipal pretensions: for the rest, we will take the law from them." - -In fact, Monti must have felt the extreme difficulty of the question. In -England and France it is just to say, that the language of the well -educated all over the country may serve for authority as to language. -But the nobility and higher classes in Lombardy and Romagna all speak -their unintelligible dialects among themselves; it is only with -strangers, and when they write, that they have recourse to Italian. It -is impossible, therefore, that what they compose by rule, after study -and practice, can be the living language of a people in opposition to a -dialect, if you will, which, with few omissions and some change of -pronunciation, is the admiration of all who can appreciate the true -beauties of style; which is remarkable for passion and fervour combined -with concision and sweetness; for idiomatic phrases that realise and -stamp as it were the thought, instead of a periphrastic expression which -speaks of an idea or notion rather than giving expression to these -themselves. Monti was right in throwing aside the classical shackles of -the Della Crusca; but there is token in his letters that, in his heart, -he at last acknowledged that there was more of the living spirit of true -Italian abroad in the colloquial idiom of Tuscany, than in all the -well-turned sentences and set phrases of the well educated of the rest -of Italy. - -We cannot help thinking that Monti must have been very happy during the -prosecution of these labours. An active mind abhors repose, when it must -"cream and mantle like a standing pool." The aid and sympathy of his -amiable and cultivated son-in-law must have shed an infinite charm over -his labours, the zeal of his partisans have flattered, the attacks of -his enemies have animated him. He believed that he was delivering his -country from a superstition which clogged the springs of her literature, -and choked up its free course. To a great degree he was in the right, -and the proof is in the original and beautiful use made of his theory by -the Italian authors of the present day. - -Monti, loudly acknowledged to be the first Italian poet of his day, -continued to reside at Milan, devoted to literary pursuits, surrounded -by a circle of admirers, the chief not so much of a sect, as of Italian -literature. Yet he was often attacked, and was by no means tolerant of -criticism. His heart, however, was of better grain than his temper, and -his violent literary disputes with distinguished contemporaries, with -Mazza, Cesarotti, and Bettinelli, terminated in mutual friendship and -esteem. Angry when offended, and unmeasured in his expressions of -offence, yet the desire of reconciliation on the part of others was -always met by him with cordiality and ready forgiveness. He was the more -loved and admired the more he was known; one of the charms that attended -his intercourse was the beauty of his recitation. To hear him read -Virgil or Dante, was to find a deeper pathos in the laments of Dido, new -energy in the complaints of Ugolino. Fond of, devoted to his art, there -was no pedantry about him: he never thrust it upon the ignorant or -frivolous; but with his friends he loved to analyse the essence of -poetry, and to discuss the great question then in vogue in Italy of the -classic and romantic schools. There is a letter of his to a friend on -this subject, passages of which may be quoted as showing his opinions on -this subject, opinions which bear the stamp of truth. - -"A poet," he writes, "ought to paint the nature which he beholds. I -applaud the poetry of the North, which is in perfect accord with the -gloomy atmosphere from which it receives its inspiration. But Italian -poetry, born of a glad and happy sky, is mad when she would robe herself -in clouds, and study to paint a nature of which she can form no idea -except from imagination. And besides, should poetry, whose chief use is -to delight (and, in the miserable state of human beings, to delight is -to serve), ought she to appear rough and frowning, ruled by pedantry and -crabbed philosophy? Is it possible that no one knows how to distinguish -the office of poet from that of philosopher? It is one thing to speak to -the senses, another to speak to the intellect. Naked and dry truth is -the death of poetry; for poetry and fiction are the same, and fable -being only truth disguised, this truth must be ornamented by flowers to -be gladly received. You scattered fresh and beautiful roses over your -poetic meditations when you speak of Greece and Rome; but, when you -leave these fields of perennial poetic beauty, and say that the thoughts -of the Greeks ran around in a narrow circle of images, and after -uttering this falsehood, you throw yourself with loosened reins into the -praise of the romantic school, then, my noble friend (pardon me if I -frankly declare my opinion), you are no longer the same. Had I been at -your side when you wrote your tender adieu to the gods of Greece, I -should have persuaded you not to continue it--nor to irritate the shade -of Schiller--of that Schiller whom, next to Shakspeare, I admire. Do you -not know that his best and favourite ode is entitled the 'Gods of -Greece?' in which he manifests his indignation against those who have -expelled them from the kingdom of the muses, and prays that they may be -recalled to adorn life and poetry. I conversed much with lord Byron -during the fifteen days' stay which he made at Milan. Do you know that -he trembled with rage when any one chanced, fancying that they paid him -a compliment, to praise the romantic school. Yet, in the sense in which -we understand it, no one was more romantic than he. But he disdained the -name, hating to find himself mixed up with the crowd of fools who -dishonour that noble school. I do not wish to play the preceptor with -you, but allow the true friendship that binds me to you to conclude with -a counsel which for many years I have myself followed, _inter utrumque -vola_; and, leaving the squabbles of party, let us use our best -endeavours to write good verses." - -We may add to this profession of the poet's faith with regard to the -classic and romantic schools, that Monti considered Homer, Dante, and -Shakspeare as the first poets of the world; thus giving proof of the -justness of his taste, and demonstrating that originality and truth were -appreciated by him at their just value. Next to these three kings of the -art he placed Virgil, whom he loved as the friend of his boyhood. He -preferred Tacitus and Livy among the Latin prose writers, and -Machiavelli among the Italians. His opinions on these subjects were -delivered without arrogance, and without presuming to institute an -unappealable decision. - -The count and countess Perticari resided principally at Pescara; but -they held frequent intercourse with Monti at Milan. In the winter of -1821-22, Perticari having made some stay at Milan, Monti accompanied -him on his return home. Several of his letters to his wife written -during this excursion are published; and we cannot resist the temptation -of giving them to the reader, affording as they do demonstrations of his -affectionate heart, and of the pleasure he took in the society of his -amiable relative. The first of these is dated from Verona, 7th October, -1821. - -"I never made a merrier journey. We were six in company: a Brescian, a -Veronese, a Paduan, Mercandante, and us two. Day had scarcely dawned, -when we began to examine each other, and snuff-boxes went their amicable -round. An instant confidence sprung up among us, which led to much chat -and pleasantry. So gay were we, that we did nothing but laugh in chorus -till we arrived at the gates of Verona. Perticari and I ordered that our -luggage should be carried to the inn; being determined to remain free. -But the signore Mosconi, and Persica, had already left word at the best -inns that there was no room for Perticari and Monti; and, at the moment -when we arrived in the diligence, the countess Clarina and her daughter, -and the count, got into their carriage to meet and run away with us, as -if we had been two beautiful birds. Poor Mariano, who was accompanying -the porter with our luggage to the hotel, was pounced upon by the son of -the countess, ordered to turn right about and to follow him, he knew not -whither; not daring to resist, and fearing that his commander was a -custom-house officer. In short, it was not possible to resist the gentle -violence put upon us, and the cordial entreaties of my dear friend the -countess; and here we are welcomed, feasted, and honoured beyond -measure. - -"It was our intention only to remain three days at Verona, but we have -been obliged to promise not to go till Sunday. The countess means to -accompany us half-way on the road to Vicenza, where we shall arrive by -noon, and on Monday evening we shall be at Bassano, three hours' journey -only from Vincenza; thence to Passagno, and on to Padua, whence you -shall hear from us." - - -"Venice, November 20. 1821. - -"Not to leave you any longer waiting for news of us, I seize a moment -when every one is asleep (it being only five in the morning) to tell you -that yesterday we arrived safely at Venice. It would be a too -long-winded egotism to relate to you the kindness, the politeness, the -friendly contests, with which we have been every where welcomed. We had -been expected here for several days with impatience, and, at the moment -of our arrival, chance brought us into immediate contact with the baron -Tordero, who embraced us with indescribable delight. It being known that -we were going to call on the countess Albrizzi, an assembly gathered -together there; nor can I describe to you the demonstrations of joy with -which we were welcomed by that celebrated lady, and all her agreeable -friends. We remained till eleven, and should have staid longer had not -hunger (for we had not dined) recalled us to our inn; that, and the -circumstance that our friends, who had accompanied us from Padua, were -waiting for us. The merriment at table was prolonged till one in the -morning; so you see I have barely had three hours' sleep, and yet I -never was so well in my life." - - -"Pesaro, December 7. 1821. - -"At length, yesterday, at the stroke of the ave-maria, we arrived, safe -and sound, at Pesaro, to the immense joy of our Constance; a joy, -nevertheless, mingled with bitterness, because her mother had not chosen -to accompany us: a circumstance which grieves me also, because I fear -that the severity of the winter, at Milan, which is here mild, may be -injurious to you. But, since you have been pleased to disappoint our -hopes, at least take particular care of your health, and do not expose -yourself to cold. - -"Surrounded by visits and compliments, I have no time at present for -more. Let it suffice that my health is flourishing, and that I hope that -yours is the same. Constance and Giulio embrace you fondly. Addio, -addio!" - - -The following letter does not concern personal topics; but gives so -lively a picture of Italian manners, that it is well worthy to be -extracted:-- - - -"Pesaro, January 12. 1822. - -"You have reason to complain of the infrequency of my letters, but I -study and write continually; and when I am buried among my books, with a -pen in my hand, you know how difficult it is to draw me away, and ought -to forgive me. - -"I am delighted to hear that, notwithstanding the clouds and snow that -infest Milan at this season, your health had not yet suffered. I entreat -you to take the greatest care of it. Mine is perfect. I never enjoyed so -benignant a winter. It is so mild, that I am dressed now as I am -accustomed to do at Milan in October. - -"For the sake of making a longer letter, I will relate an anecdote which -will make you laugh. - -"There is an ancient custom still existing at Fano, ten miles from -Pesaro, of celebrating a bull-fight at this season; to which a great -concourse of people resort from the surrounding towns. A few days ago -the first celebration took place. A truly ferocious bull was turned into -the arena. It is a law, that whoever chooses to attack the animal may -descend into the lists. No one dared expose himself to this infuriated -creature, and all the dogs who ventured to assail him were tossed and -killed. At length a peasant presented himself, and, to the wonder of -all, approached the tremendous animal. He boldly went close to him; and -the bull became quite mild, allowing himself to be patted and stroked, -while he licked the hand that caressed him; every one was astonished, -when, all of a sudden, a fellow among the spectators starts up, and -calls out, 'The man is a sorcerer!' 'A sorcerer! a magician!' exclaimed -several others in a fury. 'Burn the magician! burn the magician!' every -one exclaims. The president of the games is also persuaded that this -prodigy can only be the work of the devil; and he sends four soldiers, -who seize on the magician, drag him from the lists, and throw him into -prison. The poor fellow asked the cause of this violence; he was told, -'You are a magician; you will be hanged and burnt!' 'What are you saying -about a magician?' cried the man; 'does not his excellency and his -reverence know that the bull let me touch him because he knew me? I am -his master.' This testimony, being confirmed by several who knew the man -to be the master of the bull, and who took oaths to this effect, ought -to have cured the president of his folly; but the poor magician is still -in prison, and they are still disputing what to do with him." - -At the same time that Monti writes thus to his wife, his letters to his -other friends are equally full of the pleasure he enjoyed at this time. -"You will like to know," he writes to one, "how I am passing my life. -Most happily; but not in idleness. Happily, because I am with my -children; and enjoy a season so mild and serene, that winter resembles -the opening of spring. Not in idleness, because I pursue my studies, and -mean to give a last, short, critical treatise." - -But a few months after, in the July of the same year, 1822, Monti again -visited Pesaro, in circumstances that form a painful contrast with the -tranquil and domestic happiness that occasioned him so much pleasure -during his former one. Perticari had died, suddenly, and Monti went to -assist and console his sorrowing daughter. He thus writes, on this -occasion, to his friend Mustoxidi, in a letter dated Pesaro, 30th July, -1822:-- - -"You will have heard from my wife the pitiable state in which I found my -poor Constance. My arrival has produced a happy change in this -unfortunate creature: my coming was like a sunbeam on a flower beaten -down by the tempest. But, again, her mind is distracted, sleep flies -from her eyes, and her health suffers dreadfully. I must applaud the -kind attentions of her mother-in-law, who is an angel of goodness. But I -perceive that the only way to preserve her from the most dangerous -consequences of excessive grief, is to take her from a place too full of -shocking associations. And I would not delay my journey, but for the new -regulation of the pontifical police, which does not permit any one to -leave these states without a passport countersigned by the Austrian -ambassador at Rome. As soon as I obtain this I shall set out, and -conduct this dear object of my compassion to the arms of her mother." - -This was a wound not easily healed, and never to be forgotten. In the -spring of the following year Monti still alludes to his loss with the -keenest grief. "Your letter," he writes to a friend, "afforded me -infinite pleasure and consolation. For a long time I have lived a -wretched life under the rod of adversity; and it is only when I enjoy -the society of some person dear to me, or hear from them, that I become -a little cheerful, and my spirits revive. Such has been the effect, dear -friend, of your letter to your poor Monti--poor indeed in every way, and -very unhappy. Unhappy in the death of Giulio; unhappy in the ill health -of Constance, who is wasting away with grief; unhappy in myself, as I am -deaf, old, and almost blind. For my eyes, owing to my over-use of them -in reading and writing by candle-light, are fallen into their old -state." - -The last volume of the "Proposta" was published in July, 1823; and, this -last prosaic labour finished, the imagination of Monti awoke again, and -he turned his thoughts once more to the composition of poetry. He -restored the true reading to the "Convito" of Dante, which he prized as -the basis and authority of his own theories concerning the Italian -language. He wrote, also, the idyl on the nuptials of Cadmus; and then -contemplated the completion of his poem of the "Feroniade," which he had -begun many, many years ago at Rome. When he was secretary to don Luigi -Braschi, duke of Nemi, and nephew of Pius VI., he was accustomed to -accompany his patron in his hunting expeditions: the usual course of -these excursions was the Pontine marshes, near Terracina, a spot -abundant in game. There is a fountain in that neighbourhood, supposed to -be that anciently dedicated to the Diva Ferronia, at which the hunters -were accustomed to drink to refresh themselves. The sight of that -insalubrious marshy tract of land, the drainage of which had just been -undertaken by the pope, for the purpose of restoring it to agriculture, -awoke in Monti the idea of paying his debt of gratitude to the house of -Braschi, by commemorating this munificent work; he instantly began his -task, and named his poem from the guardian genius of the place. The -circumstances of the times interrupted his design: it became more -profitable to celebrate the ambition of Napoleon than the piety of a -captive priest; and the work was neglected, thrown aside, and almost -forgotten. During the last years of the poet's life, his friends -solicited him to finish it. Perhaps, when many years and many changes -had made much of his past life appear like an unconnected dream, the -memory of his early years came before him with all that charm and -vividness which youth often assumes in the eyes of age; and he was glad -to recur to a forgotten monument of bygone times. He yielded, therefore, -to the request of those about him, and had almost finished, when first -disease, and afterwards death, put an end to all his designs. It was -early in the year 1826 that he had thus renewed his poetic existence, -resolving not again to abandon it while his imagination remained -vigorous; but in the very opening of this enthusiasm, while every fear -was distant, and his active mind gladly met, each morning, the series of -duties and labour which he imposed on himself, he was seized by an -illness, through which every scheme and every hope was calamitously -overthrown. - -On the 9th of April, at about eleven o'clock, when he had retired, -rather to study than repose, a sudden apoplexy attacked him; and no -medical aid, nor any care, could restore him again to health. He lost -the use of his left side, and the vital powers appeared mortally -attacked. The news spread through Milan, and struck every one with -grief; the population crowded round his door, and this public -demonstration of kindness sensibly affected him. His mind remained clear -and strong throughout the attack, nor was he without sanguine hopes of -recovery. In the April succeeding his first seizure, we find him writing -to a friend: "I burn with a desire to revisit Florence before I die; -consequently I have resolved, next June, to go to the mud baths of -Albano, near Padua, whence I hope to receive a renewal of my strength -sufficient for my journey." These mud baths, however, were pronounced -hurtful instead of beneficial to his disorder, and he never went. Still -hope was alive, and he lingered on until the autumn of 1828, his life -being consumed in a slow martyrdom: his death-bed was attended by his -wife and disconsolate daughter, whom, even to the last, he sought to -cheer by words of affection, and by smiles when he could not speak. He -expired on the 13th of October, 1828, at the age of seventy-four. - -The genius of Monti would, in times of less public excitement, have -adorned his name with the highest praise; and his faults would never -have been called into view. The studious and imaginative bent of his -mind would have led him to cultivate letters and poetry; and we should -glory in the exalted fancy of a creative poet, without any shame for the -man. His domestic character was amiable; he was zealous for his friends, -grateful for benefits; generous, kind, and true in all the ordinary -intercourse of life: but neither reverence for genius, nor attachment to -the man, ought to blind us to his political tergiversation, or to -suppose that there is virtue in that inborn slavishness of spirit that -could see no degradation in praising those whom he reprobated in his -heart, and in commemorating with applause acts the most injurious to the -common cause of humanity. There is retribution in our own consciences -for all our faults, and Monti felt this: his love of glory was great, -and he was often pained by being reminded of his political apostacies; -but too often, when irritated by censure, he was willing to cast the -blame upon others, instead of admitting his own want of rigid public -integrity. - -But take away this error, and, as a private character, Monti merited the -affection and esteem of all. The only fault of his disposition was -irritability and an inclination to anger; but he redeemed it by the -candour of his acknowledgments, and the uprightness of his conduct. -Warmth of heart and warmth of temper are too apt to be united in the -same disposition; but the kindness of his nature was rendered even more -apparent by this defect of temperament. He was sensitive to injury, and -his indignation was proportionate to his quick sense of injustice; but, -though his anger took the appearance of sternness and severity, it never -led him to injure another, but evaporated in words, and might be said to -agitate the surface, but never penetrated into the depths, of his mind. -He was never guilty of an act of revenge,--on the contrary, he often -benefited those who injured him. His mind was, in short, of a uniform -texture; and what it wanted in dignity and grandeur was compensated for -by gentleness, tenderness, and ready sympathy with the sufferings of -others. He was beyond measure charitable to those in distress; and -infinite and unwearied compassion, we are told by one who knew him well, -was his prominent characteristic. The poor gladly celebrated the -charities he strove to conceal. This virtue sprung, doubtless, from -early habits acquired under the roof of his benevolent parents. He was -simple as a child in the midst of worldliness, and the good faith and -sincerity of his friendships were without a flaw. - -"In person," the same friend informs us who has furnished the public -with the principal documents on which this memoir is founded, "he was -tall and handsome: his forehead ample; the shape of his face regular; -and his eyes, gleaming from beneath his arched and full brows, shone at -once with a vivacious and soft light, which commanded both affection and -respect. An air of melancholy was diffused over his countenance, to -which the habits of reflection would have given a severe and even -disdainful expression, had not the sweetest smile illuminated it with -the gracious light of love. His carriage was dignified, his mien -serious, and his whole aspect was that of a man of talent, and of one -warmed and softened by the benevolence and affectionateness of his -disposition." - -We may conclude with this description of the outward man, emanating from -one who revered and loved him as a preceptor and a friend. The world, in -the days succeeding to those of revolution and preceding those of -reform, was much divided between those who despaired and those who -hoped. The latter now triumph; but Monti died before the milder light -dawned on the world, and while change appeared inevitably accompanied by -bloodshed and misery. His compassionate heart preferred the peace of -submission, both for himself and others, to the suffering attendant on -defeated struggles; and errors springing from so humane a source may be -forgiven, even by those whose ardent natures lead them to overlook the -toil and danger of the journey, in the hope of attaining the -accomplishment of their desires. - - -[Footnote 52: Maffei; Storia della Litteratura Italiana.] - -[Footnote 53: Bonetti.] - - - - -UGO FOSCOLO - -1778-1827. - - -The most necessary quality of an author is, that he should impress us -with the conviction that he has something to say. In reading his pages, -we ought to feel that he puts down the overflowing of his mind--ideas -and notions which, springing up spontaneously, force a birth for -themselves from the womb of silence, and acquire an existence through -their own native energy and vitality. An author, therefore, is a human -being whose thoughts do not satisfy his mind, ruminated on merely in his -own isolated bosom: he requires sympathy, a world to listen, and the -echo of assent from his fellow-creatures. But this is not all. Few men -can be excited by a mere abstraction, by the images of their own mind, -and the desire of communicating them for the benefit of their -fellow-creatures. Pride or vanity mingle essentially in the fabric of a -writer's mind: the pride which leads him to desire to build up an -enduring monument for his name, formed from his own compositions; or the -vanity that leads him to introduce himself to the reader, and to court -the notoriety which usually attends those who let the public into the -secret of their individual passions or peculiarities. - -The three great authors of modern Italy form a singular contrast to each -other, as to their apparent motives for authorship. Alfieri, proud, -independent, and gloomy, sought at once to honour his own name, to exalt -and refine his countrymen, and to produce such works as would benefit -his species; while the vehement passions of his own soul were their -primal source and inspiration. Monti was a poet of the imagination. He -wrote because the imagery, the melody, the aerial fabric of poesy were a -part of his essence. The subjects of his poems were of less consequence, -in his eyes, than the well treating them, or the variety, grandeur, and -fantastic ideality displayed in his verses. Thus, at the word of -command, he could celebrate the usurper, taint the struggles of a noble -and free nation, and adorn the naked form of despotism with garments of -beauty. Foscolo, on the contrary, was impelled to produce and reproduce -himself: and yet to this assertion we must put some limit, for Foscolo -was a man of learning and taste, and he was capable of giving light to -compositions formed by the rules of art, and adorned by the graces -culled from an intimate knowledge of the finest of human works. But -vanity was still the mainspring,--a vanity accompanied by honesty of -principle and independence of soul, and yet which was vanity--the -worship of self--the making his own individuality the mirror in which -the world was reflected. - -Ugo Foscolo was born in the island of Zante, about the year 1778. The -Ionian isles had long been under the dominion of Venice. The family of -Foscolo was of Venetian origin; and his father was a surgeon in the navy -of the republic. Little is known of his early years. He seldom mentioned -them in conversation, though his imagination sometimes delighted to -recur to the sunny land of his birth, and to regret it. In one of his -sonnets he exclaims,-- - - -Ne più mai toccherò le sacre sponde -Ove il mio corpo fanciulletto giacque -Zacinto mia, che te specchi nell' onde -Del Greco mar. - -Tu non altro che il canto avrai del figlio, -O materna mia terra; a noi prescrisse -Il fato illacrimata sepoltura. - -O! never more shall I thy sacred shores -Approach, where my young limbs first sprung to life, -Beloved Zante! who look'st upon the waves -Of the Greek sea; and thou the song alone -May'st claim of thy lost son, maternal land! -For fate to him decrees an unwept tomb. - - -The Ionian islands were at that time held as colonies of the Venetian -government, and tyrannised over by the most odious and oppressive laws. -Among others, no schools nor colleges were allowed to exist, and the -youth of the islands were sent to Venice for the purposes of education. -At an early age, therefore, Foscolo repaired to the parent city. His -father, it would seem, was at this time dead, for we hear only of his -mother, to whom he was always tenderly attached; and it appears that -she, also, transferred herself to Venice at the same period. Foscolo -seldom mentioned his family, with the exception of his mother. He had -two brothers, one who died, it is reported by his own hand, about the -year 1797; the other enlisted as a soldier, and rose, from his good -conduct and valour, to the rank of captain of dragoons. - -When boyhood was passed, Foscolo was sent to the university of Padua, -and studied under Cesarotti. There was great dissimilarity in the tastes -and literary opinions of the master and pupil; and thus Foscolo soon -displayed his original and independent turn of mind. Cesarotti explained -and commented upon Homer, and undertook at the same time to emend and -improve the verses of the father of poetry. He preferred Voltaire to -Euripides, and Ossian to Homer. While a great portion of ridicule -attaches itself to such paradoxes, the real learning and extensive -reading of the professor benefited his scholars; and by liberating them -from the narrow system of instruction which had subsisted for many -years, he introduced them, as it were, from the paled and guarded park -of classical literature, to the wilds, the moors, the incult mountains, -in short, to all the vast variety of unfettered nature. - -Foscolo, though taught by the advocate of Ossian, was all his life a -worshipper of Homer. Studious, as well as ardent in his literary -pursuits, he became a critical scholar; and, admiring not only Greek -poetry, but the fabric and machinery which constitute its structure, he -modelled his own poetic productions on them, and made ancient mythology, -and allusions to classical history, the props as well as the ornaments -of his verses. At the same time he admitted Cesarotti's rules with -regard to the Italian language, and abandoned the dialect of the -Trecentisti,--so long held up as a model, and yet which had become a -dead tongue,--to form an animated, simple, living language, introducing -into it phrases and words of modern use; expressions for ever on the -lips of the Italians, though heretofore banished from their pens. - -We are told that, on leaving college, Foscolo hesitated whether to enter -the clerical profession, which held out the prospect of competency to -its followers; but he was fortunately turned aside from a profession -whose narrow rules and arbitrary laws were in direct opposition to his -impetuous and independent disposition. Instead of assuming the tonsure, -Foscolo resolved to follow in the steps of Alfieri, and to acquire fame -as a tragedian. -[Sidenote: 1797. -Ætat. -19.] -He produced his drama of "Thyestes" at the early age of nineteen; and it -may be said to be a creditable production for a youth. It is from his -after works that we judge that it was not inexperience, but an absolute -defect of a certain species of talent, that made this boy's tragedy a -mere bald imitation of those of his illustrious predecessor. Alfieri was -not a fanciful poet; his talent lay in developing plot, animating -dialogue, and interesting the reader by the clash of passion, or the -concentrated feelings of a single person. Foscolo possessed far more of -the peculiar spirit of poetry; but it was of didactic poetry. He could -not invent incident, nor describe any feelings but such as originated in -his own heart. "Thyestes," founded on one of the domestic crimes of the -unfortunate house of Pelops, possesses all the faults of Alfieri's -tragedies. He imitated him in producing only a few personages on the -scene; so that, as a critic observes, it seems as if it were written -just after the deluge, when the human race congregated by threes and -fours: obscurity of plot is added to this simplicity of action, and the -purpose and aim of the poet is never clearly discerned. One scene -follows another, not because produced by the antecedent one, but because -it is necessary that something should be said and done, or all would be -at a full stop. The language is clear and energetic; but, as we are -uninterested by the ideas which it conveys, this must appear a very -secondary merit. - -"Thyestes," however, succeeded in the theatre; and, as success in -representation is certainly the test of dramatic merit, we might suppose -some latent energy in its concoction, unapparent to the reader, but that -its success appears to have arisen from political feeling. It was acted -for the first time on January 4. 1797, in the theatre of St. Angelo at -Venice, to a vast concourse of spectators, and was repeated with -applause for nine consecutive nights. The extreme youth of the author -filled the audience with admiration, and he was called for after the -representation. We cannot well discern the political allusions that gave -it its chief interest, except that the name of king and tyrant are made -synonymous; a style, it might be imagined, neither distasteful nor -injurious to a republican government, however aristocratic. It would -appear, however, that this avidity for liberal sentiments was the cause -of its temporary success; for it was never again acted on any stage in -Italy. - -Adversity meanwhile was hanging over the head of the poet. The fall of -Venice, which occurred in the autumn of the same year, deprived him of -the very name of country. Hatred of the Austrian is a sentiment -profoundly engraved in every Italian heart; and when Venice was made -over by treaty to the German despot, Foscolo became a voluntary exile. -Whether he was in danger of being marked out in any of the lists of -proscription does not appear; but as it is evident that he is the hero -of his "Letters of Jacopo Ortis," we gather from that book, that his -friends feared for his personal liberty if he remained, and besought him -to shelter himself, while there was yet time, from the enmity of the new -government. "I have left Venice," Ortis writes, "to avoid the first and -most violent persecutions. How many victims remain! We Italians -ourselves bathe our hands in Italian blood. Let what will happen to me! -Since I despair of good, either for myself or my country, I can await in -tranquillity a prison or death." - -All these letters are full of the indignant struggles, and the sorrow, -as well as of the opinions which ruled the heart of Foscolo, as he found -himself driven a wanderer from his home, sometimes lamenting his own -misfortunes, sometimes those of his country. - -"How many of our fellow-citizens repent their flight from home," he -writes, "and mourn! for what can we expect except indigence and -indignity--or, at the best, that brief and sterile compassion which -uncivilised nations offer to the stranger exile? And where shall I seek -an asylum--in Italy? Unhappy land! and can I behold those who have -robbed, scorned, and sold us, and not weep with rage? Oh! if the tyrants -were one only, and if the slaves were less abject, my hand would -suffice. But those who now blame me for cowardice would then accuse me -of crime; and the prudent would lament over, not the heroism of one -resolved, but the frenzy of a desperate man. What can be done between -two powerful nations, who, from being sworn, ferocious, and eternal -enemies, colleague to enslave us? and where force alone does not avail, -the one cajoles us with the name of liberty, the other with that of -religion; and we, debased by ancient servitude and new-born licence, -groan, betrayed, enslaved, famished, and yet not roused, either by -treason or famine. Ah! if I could, I would destroy my house and all dear -to me, and myself with them; I would leave nothing for the tyrants to -triumph over. Were there not people who, to escape the Romans, robbers -of the world, gave to the flames their dwellings, their wives, their -children, and themselves, burying their sacred independence among the -glorious ashes of their country?" - -Thus passionately attached to liberty, Foscolo was not to be deluded by -the false halo that then surrounded the name of Bonaparte, or by the -fallacious promises of the French republican crusaders. "Another set of -lovers of their country," he writes, "lament loudly. They exclaim that -they are betrayed and sold; but, if they had armed themselves, they -might have been conquered, but never had been betrayed; and if they had -defended themselves to the last drop of blood, the conquerors could not -have sold, nor would the conquered have sought to buy, them. Many of our -countrymen imagine that freedom can be bought with money. They fancy -that foreign nations come from a disinterested love of justice to -slaughter each other mutually on our fields, for the sake of liberating -Italy. But will the French, who have rendered the divine theory of -public liberty execrable, become Timoleons for our sakes? Many, -meanwhile, confide in the young hero, sprung from Italian blood, born -where our language is spoken. But I expect nothing useful or noble from -a cruel and base mind. What is it to me that he has the strength and -roar of the lion, if he have the soul of a fox--and glories in it? Yes! -base and cruel; nor are these epithets exaggerated. Has he not sold -Venice, with open and boasted barbarity? Selim I., who caused 30,000 -Circassian warriors, who had surrendered, confiding in his faith, to be -massacred on the shores of the Nile; and Nadir Shah, who, in our time, -massacred 300,000 Indians, are more atrocious, but less contemptible. -With these eyes I saw a democratic constitution signed by the young -hero; yes, it was subscribed by his own hand, and sent by Passeriano to -Venice for acceptance; and at that very time the treaty of Campo Formio -was already confirmed and ratified: Venice was sold; and the confidence -which the hero fostered in us all, has filled Italy with proscriptions -and exiles. I do not blame the reasons of state, through which nations -are sold like flocks of sheep; it was ever so, and so will it ever be: -but I grieve for my country, which I have lost. '_He was born Italian, -and will one day regenerate his country_:' others may believe this,--I -never can. I replied, and shall always reply, 'Nature made him a tyrant, -and a tyrant cares not for his country, nor does he possess one.'" - -Ruminating on all these violent and bitter feelings, the offspring of -patriotism and adversity, Foscolo took the road to Tuscany. "In this -blessed land," he writes, "poetry and letters first awoke from -barbarism. Wherever I turn, I behold the houses where were born, and the -turf that covers, those renowned Tuscans; and I fear at every step to -tread on their remains. Tuscany is a garden, its inhabitants are -naturally courteous, the sky serene, and the air full of life and -health; but I am not happy here. I hope always for better things on the -morrow, when I shall reach another town: but to-morrow arrives, and I -pass from city to city; and this state of exile and solitude grows each -day more unendurable. We Italians are foreigners and exiles even in -Italy; and scarcely do we leave our little native territory, than -neither understanding, nor fame, nor blameless habits can shelter us; -and we are lost if we endeavour to distinguish ourselves. Our very -fellow-citizens look upon all Italians who are not natives of their own -town, and on whose limbs the same chains do not hang, as strangers." -Thus Tuscany afforded no asylum to the fugitive. He desired to see no -one in Florence except Alfieri; and the retired and reserved habits of -the count prevented his seeking his acquaintance. He saw him, as he -describes in one of his poems, wandering silently along the most -solitary bank of the Arno, gazing anxiously on earth and heaven; but, -finding nothing living that could warm his heart, he took refuge in the -aisles of Santa Croce, while wished-for death overspread his countenance -with pallid hues."[54] The silence and the concentrated melancholy of -Alfieri made a deep impression on the mind of his admirer; and Foscolo -sought afterwards to imitate it in his own person, forgetful that his -natural impetuosity and vehemence were very dissimilar to the gloom and -pride of his model. - -From Florence, Foscolo pursued his way to Milan, which was then the -capital of the Cisalpine republic, and imparted its rights of -citizenship to all the wandering patriots of Italy. The new republic -afforded a strange spectacle: formed upon notions of Greek and Roman -liberty, picked up from learned priests, mingled with modern notions of -freedom, it displayed the most ridiculous anachronisms; and its members, -all Italians, yet strangers to each other, and regarding with oblique -looks all those born in a different city, met without amalgamating. The -young found hope and life in the new stage on which they were permitted -to act a part; and though ridicule and blame might be attached to many -of their public actions, still the more sanguine lovers of their country -hoped that, when the first springtide of enthusiasm should ebb, -prudence, unanimity, and strength would be the first born of national -independence. Foscolo, however, was not among those. Irascible and -misanthropic, and sensitively alive to the sufferings of his -fellow-creatures, he saw the evils around him, and desponded. - -One of the advantages derived from this new capital was, that it served -to draw together the most distinguished Italians within the walls of the -same city. Each town of the peninsula sent some man esteemed for his -talents; and names, scattered before over the surface of the country, -now congregated together. Foscolo had thus an opportunity of becoming -acquainted with all his more illustrious countrymen. In his "Letters of -Jacopo Ortis," he mentions Parini especially with reverence and -affection; and he became intimate also with Monti, who then displayed -fervour in the cause of liberty, while his inward dislike for the -members of the actual government must have accorded with the sentiments -of Foscolo. Two decrees, passed at that time, served, indeed, to show -that blame deservedly attached itself to them: one was the law enacted -to deprive of office all those who had formerly written against -liberty--an act of despotism levelled expressly against Monti; the other -was the sentence passed by the great council against the Latin language: -whether it was because Latin was the language of their religion and the -priests, or from mere stupid barbarism, they passed a decree to prohibit -its being taught in the public schools. Foscolo saw, in the languages of -the ancient world, not only the root of all our knowledge, but also the -most splendid monuments of human intellect: he knew how fallacious and -trivial all translations are; he was imbued to the heart with a love of -classic lore; and he saw, in the suppression of the Latin, the paramount -influence of the French language. No wonder that he, as well as every -well-educated man, regarded such a law and its promulgators with mingled -scorn and disgust. - -To make the resemblance between Foscolo and his imaginary hero, Jacopo -Ortis, the more exact, we are told that, at this very time, he fell in -love with a young lady of Pisa: his passions, naturally vehement, were -inflamed to their utmost by the influence of the most engrossing of them -all. The object of his attachment was singularly beautiful; her large -black eyes, rich raven hair, her dignified stature and noble carriage, -her whole person, in short, cast in the very mould of majestic beauty, -was formed to inspire admiration and love. She possessed also all that -natural talent which so usually falls to the lot of Italian women: her -voice was harmonious, and her proficiency in music great. She was known -afterwards to several of the biographers of her lover; and, with the -simplicity and frankness usual to the Italians, spoke openly of their -mutual attachment. One among them, after calling the lady "the flower of -all loveliness," adds, "We heard from her--for she yet lives--that the -few lines cited as being written by Teresa, in a letter of Ortis, dated -17th September, 1798, were a part of a letter which she wrote to -Foscolo."[55] Giuseppe Pecchio, in his Life of Foscolo, speaks of her -with great enthusiasm: "I saw her," he writes, "several times after she -was married, when, at a private theatre, she took the part of Isabella -in the 'Filippo' of Alfieri; and I still remember, with pleasure, her -dignified action and her expressive countenance, which filled the -audience with enthusiasm, and carried their feelings along with her." - -This attachment was not fortunate; and Foscolo suffered all the throes -of disappointment and grief. Violent in all his feelings, love possessed -his heart like a burning fire; he grew sullen and gloomy, only breaking -silence by muttering a few sentences indicative of his ardent desire for -self-destruction. He did not openly speak of his passion; but his -feelings overflowed on paper, and he wrote and published "The Letters of -Two Lovers," a sort of novel, which afterwards served as a foundation to -the "Letters of Ortis." While thus occupied by literature and love, he -added the duties of a more laborious profession. Bonaparte, having -created the Cisalpine republic, strove to raise an Italian army for its -defence. The Lombard legion formed the nucleus of these troops, and the -sons of the noblest families in Italy accepted commissions: among -others, Foscolo became an officer. - -[Sidenote: 1800. -Ætat. -22.] - -The absence, however, of Bonaparte in Egypt, and the invasion of the -Austrio-Russian army, put a sudden end to the existence of the new -republic. At the same time that Monti fled across the Alps, and -wandered, a famished exile, among the ravines and woods of Savoy, -Foscolo, forced also to provide for his own safety, took refuge in -Genoa, and joined the French garrison commanded by Massena. It was here -that the French made a last stand, endeavouring to stop the progress of -the invading army. The siege of Genoa was formed; and Foscolo, serving -under the French banners, had an opportunity of studying at once the -military art and the science of government during the various chances of -a long and arduous struggle. While day lasted, there were perpetual -combats along the whole line of mountains which surround Genoa to the -north; and the night was spent in popular assemblies, in which the -leaders strove to inspire the citizens with resolution to endure the -evils of the siege. These soon grew intolerable; and famine, and -consequent disease, made frightful ravages. Foscolo sometimes collected -the people together in a spot of the city made famous by the act of an -Austrian corporal, who (1748) struck with his cane a Genoese, who was -striving in vain to move a cannon: he endeavoured to animate his -audience to heroic deeds, by describing the magnanimous vengeance with -which their ancestors had vindicated the insult. Nor was he less forward -in the performance of his military duties; and his name occurs in the -lists of those who were most distinguished for their bravery. - -During the siege, on occasion of Napoleon's return from Egypt, and being -named consul, Foscolo addressed a letter to him from Genoa, which -prophesied the height to which he would hereafter rise, and besought him -to rest content with his present exaltation, nor to taint his -well-merited renown by schemes of unmeasured ambition. This letter, -which is of two pages only, is written with the freedom of a patriot and -the dignity of a disinterested and noble mind. He incurred no danger by -this address, but he displeased the ear of power; and the truth and -frankness of his representations form an honourable contrast with the -general adulation, and the barefaced flatteries, which other writers -addressed to the victor. - -The energetic mind of Foscolo was not satisfied by the arduous duties of -his profession, to which were added the not less exciting task of -guiding and animating the minds of the citizens of Genoa, when they -flagged under the visitation of the most frightful calamities. It was at -this period that he wrote an ode to Luigia Pallavicini, on her falling -from her horse, which betrays no signs of the sufferings which he was -enduring, except its motto, taken from Horace: "Sollicitæ oblivia -vitæ." This poem is all grace, elegance, and classic allusion; but -there is no originality nor poetic fire. The machinery is mythological, -the imagery drawn from the same source; and it is rather the work of one -imbued with the poetry of the ancients, and translating remembered ideas -into his native language, than the outpourings of a mind inspired by -passion and nature. It is strange that Foscolo should have found time to -compose verses at a period when the town he inhabited was being -bombarded by the English fleet, when the Austrians were making daily -assaults, and the streets were filled by a famished and dying multitude. -But while Foscolo shared the labours and dangers of the garrison, he did -not partake their amusements; and while they were immersed in the -grosser pleasures of the bottle, of cards, and smoking, he took refuge -in his imagination, and found relief in the soothing and refined -feelings generated by study and poetry. - -Meanwhile Genoa, reduced by famine, surrendered on the 4th of June, -1800, with the condition that the garrison should be conveyed to France -by the English fleet. Foscolo accompanied his fellow-soldiers, but he -endured only a brief exile from his country. The battle of Marengo drove -the Austrians from Italy; the Cisalpine republic was restored; and -Foscolo, together with the rest of the Italian fugitives, returned to -Milan. - -Already known as an author and a man of letters, he increased his fame -at this period by the publication of the "Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis," -a romance which at once acquired great popularity, and, as being the -first that had been written in the Italian language, demanded the praise -of some sort of originality. Yet its chief fault is, that it is an -imitation. Foscolo could not invent incidents, nor weave the artful -texture of a well-told story. The plot of "Ortis" is similar to that of -Goethe's more celebrated romance of "Werter." A youth of disappointed -expectations, and devoured by a morbid melancholy, falls in love with a -girl who is already betrothed to another. He resolves to die as soon as -the marriage shall take place; but, meanwhile, fosters his passion by -frequenting the society of the young lady. She had never been attached -to her intended husband, and is the victim of obedience to her father's -will, who, besides that his honour is engaged, would have found an -insuperable obstacle to the pretensions of Ortis in his plebeian birth. -His sorrowing daughter, while she obeys, returns the affection of her -passionate, adoring lover; her destined husband become jealous, her -father uneasy; and Ortis, called upon by duty and friendship, absents -himself from her society: he travels to Florence, to Milan, to Genoa; -and then, hearing of Teresa's marriage, retraces his steps to the -Euganean hills, the abode of his mistress, and fulfils his long-nurtured -intention of putting an end to his existence. The slight differences -between this story and "Werter" are founded on Foscolo's own attachment, -before alluded to. - -There is, indeed, this main difference between the work of Goëthe and -that of Foscolo,--that the former is, so to speak, a dramatic, and the -latter a didactic, author. Goëthe founded his story on the feelings of -another. He delineated the sentiments and passions of his unfortunate -young friend Jerusalem; and, putting himself in his place, filled out, -from his own experience and imagination, the various portions of a -picture, the most highly wrought, refined, and true that, perhaps, -exists in the world of fictitious portraits. Foscolo painted a _beau -ideal_ of himself. So full was his mind of his own idea, that he -prefixed a portrait of Ortis, which was only a favoured likeness of -himself. Like the author, Ortis fled from Venice when it was made over -to the Austrians. Like the author, his heart was tortured by patriotic -sufferings, and his soul was in arms against the oppressor. Ortis, like -Foscolo, saw misery and evil rife around him: compassion rose with him -into a passion; and his heart bled and burnt alternately, as he pitied -the victim, and abhorred the tyrant. Ortis, like Foscolo, meditated -suicide as the cure for all evils, and regarded death as a harbour -whence to retreat from the tempests of life. Yet Foscolo did not, like -Ortis, destroy himself; because, we are apt to say, he is in this -greater than his prototype, since he felt powers and capacities within -him that led him to continue to endure the evils of life, to raise for -himself a name among his fellow-creatures, to benefit and to exhort -them; while Ortis, like a weak plant that wants all self-erecting power, -fell prostrate, and was trampled on by the iron heels of destiny. -Egotists, perhaps, are, of all people, the least likely to put an end to -themselves; yet they like to dwell on their own deaths, and, feeling -that the drama of their lives is incomplete without a striking -catastrophe, they ponder on it, and, if led to bring themselves forward, -are pretty sure to adorn their lives by describing its disastrous -conclusion. - -This morbid shrinking from the woes of existence, this total want of -fortitude, added to a lively sensibility, presents a picture which, a -few years ago, was the model by which the youth of Europe delighted to -dress their minds. Men need a career--an hope, an aim: the French -revolution first gave new life to these natural instincts, and then, -aided by Napoleon's despotism, blighted and tore them up. Since then, a -better day has dawned, and men are glad to live for the morrow, since -each day is full of spirit-stirring expectation. The influence of a book -like "Ortis" is null now: it was pernicious at the time when it was -written. And yet, in representing his hero as a self-destroyer, Foscolo -was not without moral aim. The Italians fear death to the extent of the -most contemptible cowardice; they consider any one insane who engages in -any actions that even remotely endanger his life; and Foscolo was -earnest to prove that death was not the worst of evils, but that it -might be sought voluntarily as a refuge from slavery or woe. We find, -therefore, conjoined to intolerance of personal suffering, the most -ardent patriotism, integrity, and independence of spirit; lively -compassion for the physical evils of the poor, which are too often -disregarded; and observations on life and our natural feelings, full of -delicacy and profound truth. What more true than the remark, "that we -are too proud to give our compassion, when we feel that we can give -nothing else?" What can come more home to a man of sensibility than the -exclamation of Ortis,--"I am always in perfect harmony with the unhappy, -for indeed I always find something wicked in the prosperous?" And, -again, when he says, "Let us gather up a treasure of dear and soothing -feelings, which, during the course of years, destined, perhaps, to be -sad and persecuted, may awaken the memory that we have not always been -unhappy." Another merit which these letters have may be mentioned, which -an Italian author has also discovered: they display a love for, and an -observation of, nature, seldom found among their greatest writers. The -Italians, generally speaking, are not lovers of nature: full of passion -and talent, yet they do not ally themselves to the mighty mother, nor do -their pulses beat responsive to her varied and living phenomena. Dante -alone, perhaps, displays a true feeling for external objects, describing -them as they are, and as they may be supposed to feel; while the others -dilate rather on their beauty, as if they presented a scenic exhibition, -than were in themselves animated beings to feel and have existence. The -rambles of Ortis amidst the Euganean hills; the sentiments with which he -contemplates a tempest and the succeeding calm; the glories of summer, -or tyranny of winter; resemble those so often to be found in English -authors, and give the work a charm peculiar to itself. The style, also, -of these letters (and the Italians make style a chief merit) is pure, -elegant, and forcible. It created a language hitherto unknown to his -countrymen, uniting the familiar and colloquial with the tasteful and -the expressive. It is too rhetorical, even thus, for our ears; but the -Italians easily pardon inflation. - -The success of "Ortis" was immediate and striking. The Italians usually -love to be amused and made laugh; but they were caught by the charm, and -content to weep over the misfortunes of the victim of love. The author -had artfully contrived to mingle himself inextricably with the image of -his hero; and the ladies of Italy were interested by his appearance, -uncouth as it was, and his manners, dissimilar to the inanity of their -usual companions. He became what we call "a lion," and he himself fell -in love with one of his fair admirers; but, as is too often the case -where the author is more thought of than the man, this lady's love was -more of the head than the heart, and Foscolo, after a short period, was -dismissed. We are told that this lady was the daughter of the courteous -Marchesa F., mentioned by Sterne in his "Sentimental Journey." True -passion often enforces sympathy; otherwise, we cannot wonder that -Foscolo did not create a sentiment in another as strong as that which he -himself felt. In personal appearance he was not formed to excite tender -admiration. Pecchio, who knew him at this time, describes him in vivid -but no attractive colours. According to him, Foscolo was of middle -stature, rather strong and muscular of frame; he had thick, reddish, -rough hair, which added to his expression of wild vehemence, and -rendered his fits of gloomy silence, or transports of rage, more -horrible. His eyes were of a blueish grey, small, deep set, and -intensely sparkling. His complexion was ruddy; his features well formed, -except that his lips, though thin, protruded, having that animal-look -about the jaw which is the opposite of the _beau idéal_ of the human -countenance: he wore his chin thickly covered with hair, which gave him -a sort of resemblance to an oran-outang. There is a story told of him -that a Frenchman said to him one day, "Vous êtes bien laid, monsieur;" -to which Foscolo wittily replied, "Oui, monsieur, à faire peur." On -another occasion he was engaged in a duel with a friend, who -impertinently compared him to the animal above mentioned. To add to the -wildness and singularity of his appearance, he was fond, in an awkward -sort of imitation of Alfieri, of appearing immersed in thought, -maintaining a gloomy silence, interrupted only as he muttered, or rather -growled forth, various quotations or verses, in a voice which made an -Italian young lady once name him "a sentimental clap of thunder." Such -was the outward appearance and manners of the Italian Werter; and if he -met with success among the fair sex, it must be attributed to the ready -sympathy they are apt to afford to sincere feeling, and to a generous, -independent spirit. - -[Sidenote 1802. -Ætat. -24.] - -When Bonaparte, under the name of first consul, rose to supreme power in -France, it became necessary to remodel the Cisalpine republic; and a -congress of 450 deputies was held at Lyons, to decide on the new form of -government. On this occasion Foscolo published an "Oration to -Bonaparte." A good deal of uncertainty exists as to the exact -circumstances under which this oration was composed. It has been -supposed that it was delivered publicly at the congress; but there is no -foundation for this idea, as Foscolo was not one of the deputies, and -did not accompany them to Lyons. It is said, on one hand, that he wrote -it at the desire of Bonaparte himself; and on the other, that the task -was entrusted to him by the triumvirate, who, under the title of -committee of government, were placed at the head of the Cisalpine -republic; and it is said that the oration was delivered before the -committee itself[56], which, considering its nature, can hardly be -believed. It commences with a grandiloquent eulogium of Napoleon; it -then diverges into indignant and sarcastic representations of the -mal-conduct of the heads of the republic. "Men," he describes them, "who -are neither statesmen nor warriors, formerly slaves, now tyrants, and -for ever slaves of themselves, and of circumstances, which they neither -will nor can command; conscious of their own vices, and therefore timid -and discordant; cowardly with the bold, bold with the cowardly, they -crush accusations by bribery, and complaints by menaces. Men who took -the arms out of the hands of the militia soldiery, an army formed of -citizens, to give them to bands of runaway felons and deserters." He -then dilates on the miseries endured in Italy during the period of the -success of the Austrians and Russians, and describes Bonaparte's return -as the advent of a demigod; and he calls on him to complete his work by -assuming the supreme command, instead of leaving it to the triumvirate, -who betrayed the cause of liberty and oppressed their countrymen. -Independent as Foscolo was, we are surprised when he goes on to say, -that every patriotic Italian would elect Bonaparte for their legislator, -captain, father, and perpetual prince. But this surprise diminishes when -we read on, and find that he expects this supreme ruler to gift the -subject country with liberty. He entreats him not to entrust the state -to men, but to laws; not to the generosity of other nations, but to its -own force. "Let such be your institutions," he exclaims, "such your -example, such our strength, that no one shall dare rule us after you. -Who, indeed, would be worthy to succeed to Bonaparte? As you cannot live -for ever for us, let the seal of our liberty be set; you yourself -leaving it inviolate: and, with the whole nation, I call freedom our not -having (with the exception of Bonaparte) any magistrate who is not -Italian, nor any general who is not our fellow-citizen. If, while you -live, our liberty totters, what hope have we that it will endure after -you are withdrawn from the earth? No! there is no liberty, no property, -no life, no soul in any country, and under whatever form of government, -when national independence is fettered!" - -It is impossible that Foscolo, despite his assertions, and despite, -perhaps, his hopes, should not have been aware that the strongest chain -that can be imposed on the freedom of a nation is its having a foreign -prince at the head of government. Still he vindicated the cause he -espoused, by demanding national institutions and a national army. The -style of the oration is forcible, but too rhetorical; and, though full -of truths that intimidated the oppressors and did honour to the free -spirit of the writer, calmer representations and closer reasoning would -command more of our admiration. Not that such would have availed with -the conqueror: Italy was, to him, only one other lever added to the vast -engine of military force which was to raise him to the throne of the -world. - -Yet, though not gifted with liberty, the present epoch was a happy one -for the north of Italy. After suffering from the persecutions of -demagogues, and from the devastations of war, it reposed contentedly -under the wise and liberal administration of Melzi. Foscolo continued to -inhabit Milan: by day immersed in study, his evenings were spent in -amusements. His sanguine disposition often led him to try the chances of -a gambling table: when he won, he launched out into extravagant -expenses; he bought horses and dress, and hired the most magnificent -apartments. When Fortune turned her back, all this show of prosperity as -suddenly disappeared; and he retired into a corner to study.[57] In one -of these intervals of seclusion, he wrote a translation of the Hymn of -Callimachus on the Hair of Berenice, accompanied by a whole volume of -comments. The sort of learning which he here displayed obtained no -applause; but we are told that the erudition thus made show of had for -its aim, not the instructing the ignorant, but the ridicule of pedants -and book-worms. It is difficult, however, to cull wit from the dry bones -of verbal criticism. - -Under the presidency of Melzi, an Italian legion had been formed in -which Foscolo held a commission. When Bonaparte formed the camp at -Boulogne, for the avowed purpose of invading England, the division of -the Italian army to which the poet belonged made part of the vast -assemblage of troops called together. He held the rank of captain, and -was attached to the staff of general Tulliè. The Italian troops were -stationed at St. Omer and Calais, at which latter place Foscolo entered -on the study of the English language. The spot which he selected for the -purpose of study was curiously chosen: he was often seen writing with -eagerness by the light of the lamp of the billiard-table, while his -fellow-officers were playing, drinking, and conversing around. - -To exercise himself in English, he undertook the translation of Sterne's -"Sentimental Journey;" and it is much praised for the purity of its -style. But the most curious part of the publication is a disguised -account of the translator. Foscolo's excessive vanity shines very -apparent in this account of himself, in which he indulges in an -egotistical description of his own singularities; and, according to his -old fancy, conducts himself to the grave, and writes his own epitaph. -The title-page of the translation declares the translator to be one -Didimo Chierico; and on the character of this Didimo (being himself) -Foscolo fondly dilates; mentions various works of his, the manuscripts -of which he says that he possesses; and records his eccentricities and -opinions in a manner which excites a smile, when we remember that he is -his own memorialist of trifles, which it would be hardly worth -mentioning when appertaining to the greatest men. "Didimo entertained," -he tells us, "strange systems, which, nevertheless, he did not defend by -argument; and, as apology to those who brought forward irresistible -reasons, he replied by the single word 'opinions.' He respected, also, -the systems of others, and, from carelessness or some other motive, -never tried to refute them; but always remained silent, without making -sign of dissent, except that he uttered the word 'opinions' with -religious seriousness. On these systems or notions he founded actions -and words worthy of laughter. He called don Quixote happy, because he -deluded himself with glory and love. He drove away cats, because they -appeared to him the most silent of all animals; at the same time he -praised them, because, like dogs, they took advantage of society, and -enjoyed their liberty like owls. He did not believe that you could trust -any one who lived next door to a butcher, or near the place destined for -public executions. He believed in prophetic inspiration, and fancied -that he was acquainted with its source. He accused the nightcap, -dressing-gown, and slippers of husbands, as the cause of a wife's first -infidelity. He gave no better specimen of his knowledge: asserting that -the sciences were a series of propositions which had need of -demonstrations apparently self-evident, but substantially uncertain; and -that geometry, in spite of algebra, would remain an imperfect science, -until the incomprehensible system of the universe was known: and he -maintained that the arts could render truth more useful to men than the -sciences." - -"When travelling, he dined at the public tables: he easily became -familiar, though he spoke dryly to the ceremonious, proudly to the rich, -and avoided all sects and confraternities. He frequented mostly the -society of women; because he thought them more richly endowed by nature -with pity and modesty, two pacific qualities which, he said, alone -temper the combative propensities of human beings. He was listened to -readily; though I know not where he found matter of discourse, since he -would talk a whole evening without uttering a word concerning politics, -religion, or scandal. He never asked questions, that he might not lead -others to answer falsely. He was glad to receive his acquaintances at -home; but when walking he liked to be alone, or with strangers to whom -he took a fancy; and if any of his acquaintance approached, he took a -book from his pocket, and, in room of salutation, recited scraps from a -modern translation of the Greek poets; on which he was left alone." - -And thus he goes on, for several pages, describing eccentricities, -partly natural, partly assumed, which he wished should attract -attention, as is evident by his thus introducing them to the public, who -would otherwise have been ignorant of their existence. - -[Sidenote: 1805.] - -On his return to Italy, he became intimate with general Caffarelli, -minister of war of the kingdom of Italy. Warmed by the recent sight of -the encampment of Boulogne, he proposed to the general to make a new -edition of the military works of Montecucoli, with notes. The text was -furnished him by the marchese Trivulzio, and the edition was brought out -with great splendour; but Foscolo is accused of having used his -imagination, rather than critical acumen, in the emendation of his -author. - -The north of Italy was enjoying a great degree of prosperity at this -time. Melzi gave encouragement to all undertakings that tended to -elevate the Italian character; and literary men were held in that esteem -which ensures their exerting themselves to bestow on their country the -richest harvest of their talents. Foscolo, though he still held his -captain's commission, was, in honour of his literary character, exempted -from the toils of service; and, taking advantage of the liberty allowed -him, he left Milan for a time, and took up his residence at Brescia. He -resided in a small house, situated on an open hill, not far from the -city. Here he was accustomed to study till sunset; and, whether alone or -in company, he would recite the poetry of the ancients, or his own, -which he was then occupied in composing. The Brescians are a happy, gay -people; they live less in the town than the inhabitants of the rest of -Italy, and take peculiar pleasure in rural amusements; they are -hospitable and fond of festivity; not very refined, they are yet -open-hearted and cordial, and noted for bravery when in the field. -Foscolo's neighbours admired and visited him; persons of every sect and -opinion, even the priests, flocked to his house; and often seated under -a wide-spreading fig tree which was in his garden, he held forth to a -numerous audience. The Brescians are naturally enthusiastic: he had the -art of inflaming the souls of the young, and they crowded round him as, -with stentorian voice, he uttered his moral apophthegms. When night -closed in, he left his rustic drawing room, and visited the theatres; -and was often seen paying homage to the dark eyes of some Brescian -beauty.[58] - -It was here that he wrote the most perfect of his poems--his "Ode on -Sepulchres." The elegance and pure taste of this composition have caused -it to be compared to Gray's well-known "Elegy;" but it is more classical -in its ideas and construction, and would rather remind the reader of -Milton's "Lycidas." Every verse is harmonious music; and the melancholy -that is cast over it is graceful and touching, not harrowing and sombre. -A law had been passed at Milan instituting a public cemetery without the -walls of the city, in which all the dead were to be promiscuously -buried, without marks of distinction. The poet, addressing Pindemonte, -begins by commenting upon the notion that funeral pomp and an honourable -tomb are of no avail to the dead; and then he speaks of the sacred -sentiment that leads us to live still with our lost friends, and makes -the spot of their interment precious in our eyes. Alluding to the new -law, he apostrophises the muse, asking her if she does not love to -linger near the desecrated tomb of her Parini, whose venerated remains, -cast among the bodies of criminals, are scarcely protected from the -assaults of the houseless dog, while night birds hover, screaming, over -it. He speaks of the pious sentiments with which the sad relics of -mortality have ever been regarded since religion first instituted sacred -and social laws; and describes, in heartfelt but poetic language, the -various ways in which survivors love to pay homage to the beloved dead. -From tender and pathetic pictures of domestic bereavement, he then rises -to describe the ennobling sentiment inspired by a sight of the tombs of -the great and good. He apostrophises Florence, and gracefully brings in -the well-known predilection of Alfieri for the aisles of Santa Croce; -and then, taking a still higher flight, he describes Providence and -destiny as presiding over the graves of the worthy, and vindicating -their unforgotten names, even from the silent turf that covers them; -and, carried away by his love for classic lore, with no forced -digression, he concludes by speaking of the mounds that still mark the -spot where the warriors of Greece died on the Trojan shore, and -describes Homer, the poet blind and old, wandering around, and bestowing -on them the immortal fame of which they would otherwise have been -deprived. - -This anatomy of a poem can convey but a slight and incomplete idea of -its merits. The harmony of the versification--the tender and soft -melancholy diffused throughout--the grace of the transitions--and the -continual rising in his subject to the end, are all lost. Nor could a -translation do justice to these, since, as evanescent as they are -delicate, they would be lost in another language. The whole poem is -Foscolo's masterpiece. - -He also published at this time his translation of the first book of the -Iliad. Monti was bringing out his version, and there was much hardihood -in Foscolo's rivalship. His knowledge of Greek, contrasted with the -other's ignorance, no doubt instigated him. To remove any unpleasant -feeling, he dedicated it to Monti; in which he speaks at once with -modesty of his own attempt, and in high praise of Monti's genius. It is -difficult for a stranger to judge between the merits of the translators; -but even if Foscolo's is the best, it is a mere fragment. He never -published more than the first and third books; while Monti went through -the labour of the entire translation, and bestowed a complete work on -his country. - -In 1808, Foscolo was installed professor of eloquence in the university -of Pavia--a chair formerly filled by Monti and Cesarotti. The choice was -universally popular; and his introductory oration, "On the Origin and -Use of Letters," was listened to with enthusiasm. He had refused to -introduce any praise of Napoleon into it, and the whole was conceived in -the spirit of personal and political independence. This fault was -visited with singular severity; since, after a short time, the -professorship of eloquence at Pavia was entirely suppressed, under the -pretence of a reform in the plan of studies, but in reality as a mark of -disapprobation. Petty jealousy and the vain desire of ruling even the -thoughts of the subject world, induced Napoleon on all occasions to -punish severely any demonstration of independence. Nor was the vengeance -confined to Foscolo and Pavia alone. The literary professorships at -Bologna and Padua were also abolished, as well as those for the Greek -and oriental languages; for history, and, in short, all except those -instituted to teach law, medicine, and the sciences. Several learned and -excellent men were thus deprived of an honourable living. The nation was -at once robbed of all easy access to a liberal education, and to the -inappreciable knowledge of those languages which contain the most -glorious monuments of man's genius: and thus Napoleon gave testimony to -the Italians of the truth of Alfieri's axiom, that absolute monarchs -hate the historian, the poet, and the orator, and give the preference to -the sciences.[59] - -Foscolo retreated from the university to the seclusion of the Lake of -Como; giving proof of his pure and ardent love of nature, so rare among -Italians, by his retirement from cities to the sublime and luxuriant -scenery of this lake. He took up his residence at a villa named the -Pliniana, built on the site of the fountains whose periodical ebb and -flow the younger Pliny records in his letters. The lake, paled in by -mountains, bathes the walls of the villa; and the neighbouring banks, -clothed with myrtle and arbutus, overhang the waters, and cast their -deep shade on the clear depths: the precipitous mountain rises behind, -diversified by chestnut woods; and here and there are seen huge -cypresses, whose spires seem to pierce the skies, when regarded from the -terraced garden of the villa. The flowing fountains keep up a perpetual -murmur; and, perhaps, in all the varied earth there is no spot which -affords such a combination of the picturesque, the beautiful, the rich, -the balmy, and the sublime. The house itself, without being ruinous, is -huge and desolate; but its vast cool halls are a pleasant refuge against -the heats of mid-day. Here Foscolo studied through the morning, varying -his life by spending his evenings with the family of count Giovio, a man -of education and learning, whose young and gay family served to -dissipate the fumes of melancholy in which the poet was rather fond of -indulging.[60] - -He here commenced his "Ode to the Graces:" this was a favourite -composition, yet left unfinished. He was never weary of altering or -improving--of softening its language, or adding new melody to the -versification. It is purely classical in its idea, yet varied by the -most beautiful touches of natural beauty. He occupied himself also by -finishing his tragedy of "Ajax." The same faults are discoverable in -this drama as in his juvenile production of "Thyestes." It is founded on -the dispute between Ulysses and Ajax for the arms of Achilles, and the -self-destruction of the latter. The action ends almost before it begins; -the scenes are frigid, the interest null; still it excited a good deal -of expectation; and reading, as he did, speeches and scenes to various -friends, its representation on the stage was looked forward to with -eagerness at Milan. The theatre was crowded on the first night, and the -audience sat patiently and listened for a long time to scene following -scene, of sonorous words, high-sounding declamations, and vehement -apostrophes, all leading to nothing, ending in nothing--exciting no -sympathy, but wearying the ear. At length they grew tired; and though -they listened to the conclusion, it was evident that they were delighted -to be dismissed. - -It was a strange accident, that a drama which thus failed of eliciting -any interest in the audience, and the great fault of which was dulness, -should have excited a persecution against its author. His enemies spread -the report that the tragedy had a political aim; that Napoleon was -symbolised in Agamemnon, the king of kings; and that general Moreau was -pictured in Ajax, who deserved, but did not obtain, the arms of -Achilles. There seems to have been no real foundation for this -supposition, but Foscolo did not deny it: he preserved a mysterious -silence; whether from disdain, or from a covert pleasure in the -annoyance of government, is uncertain. The ministers of Napoleon were -inquisitorial and revengeful; not to praise their emperor was sin -sufficient to render any author obnoxious, and any expressions that -could be distorted into blame were criminal. The cities of Italy, whose -inhabitants are forbidden all political discussions, and who are shut -out from the pursuits that naturally excite ambition, are singularly apt -to diversify the monotony of their lives by gossiping. Such a -supposition as the one above mentioned spread rapidly through Milan: men -met together to wonder and dispute; they worked themselves up into an -idea that something had been done, and that something would ensue; while -the spies of the police excited and reported each unguarded expression. -The city became disturbed by the notion of Foscolo's attempt to bring -Napoleon on the stage as an object of censure, and in expectation of the -punishment with which his boldness would be visited; while he, silent -and mysterious, refused to offer any explanation. It was intimated -accordingly to him, that he would do well to change the air; and, -submitting to an exile from Milan, he again visited Tuscany. - -He took the house at Camaldoli, near Florence, which had, in ages gone -by, been inhabited by Galileo. He alludes to this in his "Ode to the -Graces," in some verses which describe the nocturnal murmur of the -distant Arno, which flowed clear yet hid beneath its willows, and -visited the ear of the astronomer as he watched the star of eve. It was -here, he records, that dawn, and the moon, and the sun displayed to him, -with various tints, the serene clouds that hung below the Alps, or -illumined the plain which stretches to the Tyrrhene sea; a wide-spread -scene of cities and woods, diversified by the labours of the happy -husbandman, by temples; or the hundred hills with which, adorned by -caverns, and olive groves, and marble palaces, the Apennines encircle -the lovely city, where Flora and the Graces have garlands.[61] In one -point, the poetry of Foscolo may be compared to the more didactic parts -of Milton. He never omits a romantic or classical allusion; and, -bringing forward all that ennobles and animates his subject, adorns it -with human interest. Whoever reads in the original the verses I have so -lamely translated into prose, cannot help remembering various passages -inspired by the memory of Tuscany, which show like pictures of Claude in -the pages of the most graceful as well as the most sublime of our poets. - -We cannot refrain from observing, in this place, that we possess a -proof, in the bent of Foscolo's genius, of how little the intellect is -often in accord with the heart. Wild, vehement, gloomy almost to -savageness, independent even to an incapacity of yielding to the common -rules of society, he could not depict the wild furies of Ajax, nor, -indeed, the more burning throes that often tore his own heart. His best -compositions, on the contrary, seem to emanate from an impassioned but -brooding spirit, nursed in soft melancholy and elegant and fanciful -reverie. As we have before mentioned, he was purely a didactic writer; -but perhaps no modern poet ever displayed so much harmony, grace, and -truth of description. We have not the fantastic imagery nor the fire of -Monti; neither the storms of the deep, nor the thunders of the sky; but -an inland landscape, where the balmy air broods over waving forest and -murmuring stream, and the heart of man reposing seems to take refuge - - -"In that sweet mood where pleasant thoughts -Bring sad thoughts to the mind." - - -[Sidenote:1813. -Ætat. -35.] - -When the result of his Russian invasion shook Napoleon's throne, Foscolo -returned to Milan. Public events were undergoing a vast change. -Napoleon, defeated by his own ambition, retired to what seemed to him -the narrow circle of France, and appeared for a while to stand at bay, -while a universal attack was made on him. His authority, every where -shaken, tottered in Italy. The English, who had assisted so gloriously -in the emancipation of Spain, sent emissaries to Italy, to invite the -people to throw off the French yoke. It would have been of no avail to -have invited them to exchange servitude under France for that under -Austria, and the words liberty and national independence were pronounced -as a spell to rouse them. Lord William Bentinck published a manifesto -calling on them to assert their freedom; he conjured the soldiers to -vindicate their country's rights, and to acquire for it that liberty -which Spain, Portugal, and Holland reaped from the fall of Napoleon. His -voice found an echo in every heart. "We are told that the name of -independence was on the lips of all; nor at any crisis of any nation in -the world were so much ardour and unanimity shown, as by the Italians at -this moment."[62] While thus the allies tried to win the Italians to -their side, the treaty of Fontainebleau and the abdication of the French -emperor placed the peninsula at their feet. The viceroy of Italy, prince -Eugêne, crossed the Alps; the south of Italy fell into the hands of its -old rulers; while Milan, left to itself, assembled a senate to discuss a -new form of government. The point disputed was, whether prince Eugêne -or a prince of the house of Austria should preside over them; but they -fancied that their independence was secure under the one or the other. -The latter proposition carried the day; for when the senate, recording -the virtues of the viceroy, was about to solicit the allies to set him -over them, a vast multitude surrounded their house, composed of every -class--nobles, commonalty, artificers, rich and poor--even women of -rank joined in the tumult--crying out for the independence of their -country, and "No viceroy! No France!" A placard went about, saying, -"Spain and Germany have cast away the yoke of France from their -necks--Italy must imitate them;" while magistrates and people called -aloud, "We will have electoral colleges, and no Eugêne." The senate -fled--the people, roused to violence, rushed to destroy the partisans of -the French, and the unfortunate Prini was torn to pieces. Liberty (alas! -blood-stained) seemed to win the day; but it was a mock victory. The -electoral colleges were convened, and they created a regency; it was -decreed that the allies should be solicited to grant the independence of -the kingdom, and a free constitution with an Austrian but independent -prince at its head. Legates were sent to the emperor Francis, at Paris, -with these demands. He replied, that he also was Italian--that his -soldiers had conquered Lombardy, and that the answer would be given at -Milan. The Austrians entered Milan on the 28th of April. Bellegarde took -possession of it in the name of Austria on the 23d of May. The kingdom -of Italy was at an end; its independence was crushed and exchanged for -an ignominious and cruel servitude.[63] - -At the commencement of these changes Foscolo remained unmoved. He -pursued his studies in silence and seclusion, and seemed to forget the -political crisis among his literary occupations. But when Napoleon fell, -he sided with the independents against the French party; though at the -same time he gave proof of his courage and humanity by exerting himself -vigorously, though vainly, to save the unfortunate Prini. At the same -time he resumed his military duties; and when the regency was -established, he was promoted to the rank of _capo squadrone_, or -colonel. To the last he took an active part in asserting the liberty of -his country. When the Austrian soldiers entered Milan, the city -submitted peacefully, but not silently. Six thousand soldiers of the -civic guard assembled, and, in presence of the occupying army, placed in -the hands of the English general, Macfarlane, an address which they -begged might be laid before the allies, claiming national independence -and a constitution. Foscolo drew up this address. We are told that it -was brief, energetic, and dignified[64]; a precious monument of the -author's patriotism. - -But Foscolo was not allowed to reap any good from his firm adherence to -the cause of liberty. The Austrians looked on him with suspicious eyes, -and he was not popular among his countrymen. He had quarrelled with -Monti, and had many enemies. He saw no mode of maintaining himself: he -foresaw that he should be persecuted, and perhaps entered into plots for -the subversion of government. At this moment, some member of the -Austrian government, knowing the benefit that would accrue to their -cause if they could win Foscolo as a writer, asked him to furnish a plan -for a public journal. He consented, refusing at the same time to write -in it; but this slender act of civility was tortured into one of -apostacy by his enemies, and too late he found that he had given room to -calumny. Pecchio relates a conversation which he had with him, which, if -he did not suspect Foscolo of treason to his country, was unkindly -carried on by him. They met without the eastern gate of the city, and -Foscolo walked on for some time without speaking. At length he suddenly -addressed his companion, saying, "You, who are accustomed to speak the -truth both to friends and enemies, tell me what is said of me in -public." Pecchio replied, "If you continue your intercourse with -Austrians, your enemies will assert that you are their spy." This answer -was as a thunderbolt to Foscolo--his countenance darkened--he quickened -his steps, and said no more. The next day, without taking leave of any -one, without passport, and without money, he set out in disguise for -Switzerland. Whether his proud heart rebelled against continuing any -longer among his suspicious countrymen, or whether, as some said, he was -implicated in a plot among the soldiers, which was just then discovered, -or whether, hopeless and sick at heart, he yearned for new scenes and a -new life; whatever his motive was, he became henceforth a voluntary -exile, and, leaving friends and country, began an untried career; adding -one more to the number of unfortunate wanderers whom political changes -had driven from their homes abroad on the earth. - -At first Foscolo took refuge in Switzerland, and remained for two years -in the city of Zurigo. He did little during that interval, except -publish a sort of unintelligible Latin satire, called "Dydymi Clerici -Prophetæ Minimi Hypercalypseos, Liber singularis;" which is written in -imitation of the prophecies of the Bible, and satirises Paradisi and -others who enjoyed offices in the fallen kingdom of Italy. Without a key -it is impossible to understand it--alluding, as it does, to people -little known, and to facts still more obscure; and when understood is -not praised, even by his countrymen, who might be supposed to take some -interest in a personal satire on men with whom they were acquainted. - -Foscolo found tranquillity at Zurigo; and his disposition, not being -inclined to intrigue, would have permitted him to remain there in peace; -but he was poor, and obliged to seek a country where he could turn his -talents to some account. England, the refuge of exiles, was the place to -which he repaired. There were liberal men there, who, ashamed of the -part which the country had permitted lord Castlereagh to play, in -sacrificing to despotism the very men whose desire of freedom he had -sought to excite, readily and generously welcomed the victims of our -foreign secretary's cruel policy. Foscolo, on his arrival, was visited -by the most distinguished men of the country; the Whig party received -him with open arms, and he made one of the circle assembled at Holland -House. He was treated with all the cordiality considered due to a man of -integrity and a patriot, banished by a foreign despot, and refusing to -become the pensioner of the oppressors of his country; while, at the -same time, he met with the mingled respect and curiosity which an author -of acknowledged talents excites: and even lord Sidmouth, armed with the -terrors of the alien act, assured him that he should remain unmolested -during his sojourn. - -A little time somewhat destroyed the illusion which first adorned his -name. The English are very ready to receive any one as a lion, but not -fond of fostering intimacies with any whose habits and manners do not -perfectly assimilate with their own. The vehement gestures, wild looks, -and loud voice of the Italian, were all in contradiction to the -etiquette of English society; and no foreigner is capable of perceiving -any thing but dulness and ice in the mild, high-bred, and unpretending -manners of the aristocracy of this country. The English enjoy society in -their own way; and there is a charm to us in the perfect liberty each -one enjoys--no one encroaching, or being encroached upon. But the -sensitiveness which leads us to give freedom to others, renders us -jealous of any assumption of it on their part. Foscolo had no real hold -on the society of which he made a part, except through his talents, and -the respect his independence and integrity commanded: but respect is a -cold feeling, and can be indulged while we keep the object of it at a -distance. His talents ceased to amuse, joined as they were to pride, to -vehemence, and to habits which would not alter, but could not please. - -Foscolo ceased to be a lion; and he retired to the neighbourhood of St. -John's Wood, near the Regent's Park; and, surrounding himself by his -books, and visited by a few friends, he led a life at once retired and -eccentric. When Pecchio visited his friend in this retreat, in 1822, he -was struck by the apparent desolation of the spot (South Bank) in which -his house was situated; and at the same time by the appearance of three -lovely sisters, who were the household servants of the poet,--named by -his visiters the three Graces; in allusion at once to their beauty and -Foscolo's poem.[65] He supported himself chiefly by writing in the -Quarterly Review; and we owe to this mode of exercising his pen one of -the most delightful of his productions, the "Essays on Petrarch." These -are four in number: on the Love of Petrarch,--on his Poetry,--on his -Character,--and a Parallel between him and Dante. On the whole, we are -almost inclined to say that Foscolo scarcely does justice to the -generous, amiable, and faithful lover of Laura. The pride and unbending -disposition of Dante were more in accordance with his own character. But -the discrimination, the taste, and enthusiasm of these Essays render -them one of the most delightful books in the world. The volume in which -they are collected is enriched, also, by several of lady Dacre's -translations from Petrarch, which are unequalled for fidelity and grace; -preserving the spirit and feeling of the original, and yet arraying them -in flowing and melodious English verse. - -Foscolo published also a translation of the third book of the Iliad; and -his tragedy of "Ricciarda." Though founded on a story of the middle -ages, there is no more interest in this last drama than his preceding -ones: the feelings and situations are forced and unnatural. Fraternal -hatred is the mainspring of the plot: Guelfo detests his half-brother, -Averardo; and, on the death of their father Tancred, goes to war with -him, to deprive him of his portion of their common heritage. As a -further mark of hate, he betroths his daughter Ricciarda to Guido, the -son of Averardo, merely to discover whether she loves her cousin or not; -and, finding that she does, separates them with violent denunciations, -and resolves to marry her to another. The drama opens while the brothers -are at war. On account of the unfortunate unities--which force the -author to bring all the persons together in one place, however -improbable it may be that they should there meet--the poet causes Guido -to leave his father's camp, and to secrete himself in Guelfo's palace, -for the sake of watching over Ricciarda's safety, whose life he imagines -to be menaced by her father. The action chiefly turns on Averardo first -sending a friend, and then coming himself in disguise, to induce Guido -to return to him; in Guelfo's denunciations against his daughter; and in -scenes between the lovers. At length Averardo assaults and enters his -brother's palace; and Guelfo, finding himself defeated, first kills -Ricciarda, to prevent her marrying Guido, and then stabs himself; while -Guido swears that he will soon follow his mistress to the tomb. The only -beauty of the tragedy consists in the character of Ricciarda, her -struggles between filial piety and love, her obedience to her father, -and her devotion to her lover. But the whole is conceived in one -unvaried tone of hate and unhappy love--of meditated murder and suicide. -You neither perceive the end that the author has in view, nor that there -can be any end except by their all dying. Foscolo dedicated this tragedy -to lord William Russell. His politics naturally brought him into contact -with what was then the opposition party; and this alliance was drawn -closer when the exiles of Parga applied to him to draw up the petition -to be presented to parliament. He assented gladly, and wrote four -hundred pages without avail; former treaties preventing the English from -interference in behalf of the Pargiotes. - -Foscolo found difficulty in obtaining the means of life, and lady Dacre -in particular interested herself in pointing out some method by which he -might turn his talents to account. She proposed, and zealously promoted, -the course of lectures on Italian literature which Foscolo delivered in -1823. Mr. Stewart Rose was another of his real and anxious friends; and -Foscolo's acknowledged talents, and the interest excited by his exile, -facilitated their endeavours. His lectures were numerously attended, and -brought him a thousand pounds;--a small sum, if on it he was to found a -sufficient income to maintain him for the rest of his life; a large one -to an Italian, accustomed to look on a few hundred crowns as riches. And -thus it was that the success that attended his undertaking was, in the -end, fruitful of annoyance and disaster. The poet's head was turned--he -fancied his treasure inexhaustible, and he set about spending it with as -much knowledge as a child would have had of its real quantity and value. -He built a house, furnished it expensively, and adorned it with all -those luxuries that cost largely and are of least intrinsic value. His -entrance hall was adorned by statues, and he had a conservatory filled -with the rarest flowers; while the three Graces still waited on him, and -did not contribute to the economy of his household. As all the houses in -the suburb of St. John's Wood, which he continued to inhabit, are -distinguished by a name, he, to the no small puzzle of the common -people, christened his Digamma Cottage; in commemoration of a literary -victory which he believed achieved by his "Essay on the Digamma." "I -went to see him," Pecchio writes, "on my return from Spain, in August, -1823. I found him inhabiting a new house, surrounded by all the luxury -of a financier suddenly become rich. I was astonished, and could not -account for this sort of theatrical change; it appeared to me a dream. -I thought to myself, Ugo Foscolo has followed in the steps of doctor -Faustus, and has entered into some compact with the fiend -Mephistopheles. He certainly displays good taste; and if he be not rich, -he deserves to be so; and if all I see is not a vision, he deserves that -it should be real. But too truly it was a vision: little or nothing of -what I saw was paid for; it was the palace of king Theodore, tapestried -with promises to pay. His destiny was similar to that of him of whom -Young says--" - - -"A man who builds, and wants wherewith to pay, -Provides a home from which to run away."[66] - - -Poor Foscolo too soon paid the penalty of his inexplicable want of -common sense; he became pressed by his creditors, his goods were seized, -and he, threatened by arrests, was obliged to leave his villa, which so -resembled a castle in the air, and to hide in a lodging in an obscure -corner of London. He was now obliged to provide for his daily -necessities by writing articles for various reviews and magazines. The -merit and success of his "Essays on Petrarch" suggested to Mr. -Pickering, a London bookseller, the idea of an edition of Dante, -Petrarch, Boccaccio, and Tasso, with preliminary notices and critical -notes by Foscolo. The offer was tolerably liberal, being 600_l_. for the -whole work, if completed in two years. But even now Foscolo was ruined -by another mistake. Had he provided Essays similar to the admired ones -already written, adding a few critical and historical observations, it -had been well; he would have produced, at no great cost to himself, a -popular work that had repaid the bookseller for his speculation. But -Foscolo had already given token of a predilection for verbal and minute -criticism. His prefatory notice to Boccaccio consisted of a critical -history of editions, totally uninteresting to the general reader, and of -no value except to book collectors. The commentary on Dante is somewhat -less confined in its topics; and, with great subtlety and talent, he -compares various readings, and gives reasons for his own selection. But -even in this his observations are almost entirely grammatical and -verbal, though interspersed by others of great acuteness on the meaning -and intentions of Dante. Still his work, altogether, bore no similarity -to his delightful Essays, which portray the character, spirit, and -history of Petrarch and Dante in so new and attractive a manner. - -Unfortunately, intense labour was required for a work so little alluring -or profitable; and Foscolo spent months collating, consulting, and -emending: producing, in the end, a work to be read with tedium and -fatigue. While thus diligently occupied, and at the same time harassed -by many cares, ill lodged, and full of chagrin and mortification, he -fell ill. He grew thin, and a tendency to dropsy manifested itself; the -consequence of an affection of the liver, from which he had long -suffered. A few friends visited him; and, dividing his time between them -and his literary labours, he never left the house. Yet his work did not -advance. He and his bookseller were at cross purposes. Mr. Pickering -desired a popular and saleable publication, which he supposed would cost -not much more time than the author's celebrated articles in the reviews. -Foscolo wished to immortalise himself by a work of labour and erudition, -which should become a text book and authority to all who hereafter read -or wrote upon the poets in question. - -Anxieties thus grew upon him. Economy, and a desire for tranquillity and -better air, induced him to leave London; and he hired a small house at -Turnham Green. Here the last months of his life were spent A few friends -visited him: some of these were English; but they consisted mostly of -the exiles driven from the south of Europe by the ill success of the -attempted revolutions of 1820-21. The canon Riego was one among them, -who attached himself warmly to Foscolo, admiring his independence and -consistency. Meanwhile his disease gained ground, and it became publicly -known that small hopes were entertained for his recovery. This -announcement excited universal sympathy; and his rich or noble English -friends, who, from incompatibility of manners and character, had fallen -from him, came forward to offer assistance. The friends around him -declined receiving more than fifty pounds to meet the exigencies of the -moment; and even this supply was concealed from Foscolo, whose pride -would have been deeply and uselessly mortified by the sense of pecuniary -obligation. Money, indeed, was not the only kindness proffered: lord -Holland sent wine, the duke of Devonshire, game; but the kindness and -services most deeply felt, were those of the canon Riego, who spared no -trouble to assist and comfort his dying friend. Foscolo was sensible of -his friendship, but feared that it might become officious; and he wrote -to him, thanking him warmly, but entreating him to do no more. "I beg of -you," he writes, "and it is my most earnest prayer, that you do not -inform any one, man or woman, of my situation, for the purpose of -obtaining assistance. I make this fervent request, because I heard of -something of the kind from miss Florida. But your kindness on this point -would only cruelly torture my heart, increase the sufferings of my mind, -and the sickness of my body." - -He lingered two months after this letter. On the day of his death he was -visited by his noble countryman, count Capo d'Istria, who, passing -through London to assume the presidentship of Greece, paid the homage of -a visit to the most renowned author of modern Greece. Foscolo was now in -a state of torpor, and unconscious of the honour done him. - -To the last he was patient, submissive to his medical attendants, and -courageous; commenting on the inevitable advances of death with -fortitude and calmness. He died on the 10th of October, 1827. His -funeral was private and modest; his remains were followed to the grave -by five friends, and they were buried in the neighbouring churchyard of -Chiswick, where, a little to the left of the church, amidst a crowd of -tombstones, is to be found one, inscribed simply: - - -Ugo Foscolo, -Obiit XIV. Die Septembris, -A. D. 1827. -Ætatis 52.[67] - - -The character of Foscolo, and his literary merits, may be gathered from -the foregoing biography. Consistency was among his most prominent -virtues, for his writings and actions were in strict accordance one with -the other. He always rose superior to the blows of fortune, and -preserved his independence in the midst of the disasters brought on him, -either by the misfortunes of his country or his own imprudences. Vanity, -that assumed the appearance of disdain, rendered him difficult of -access, but compassion and warmth of heart were hidden by this outside. -Fearful of being thought servile, he ran into the opposite extreme, and -was little apt to praise even those to whom praise was due. Vehement in -his opinions, yet he disliked dispute; and if ever led into it, in a few -minutes sheltered himself again in silence. His heart was a stranger to -the feeling of hatred, but neither was he very open to friendship; he -was intimate but with few, and even with these he was reserved. He -preferred the society of women, and in early life loved with sincerity -and passion; and there was delicacy and refinement in all his feelings -with regard to the fair sex. As he expresses himself, in Ortis, "I have -been taught by some how to seduce and betray, and I might perhaps have -seduced and betrayed, but the pleasure I anticipated fell coldly and -bitterly on my heart, which has never been tamed either by time or -reason; and thus you have often heard me exclaim, that all depends on -the heart, which neither heaven, men, nor we ourselves can ever change." -The sincerity of his feelings had their reward--since his affections had -on some occasions met a return, which his uncouth appearance and strange -manners would never have commanded, and which was due only to his truth. -He loved solitude and study, was abstemious in his habits, but not of -strong health, and was often devoured by the deepest gloom. He spoke -well, and detested all artifice and deceit. To these virtues we may add -his constant attention to and affection for his mother. Strange, wild, -and imprudent, his faults chiefly hurt himself; and even the impetuosity -of his character seldom led him into any acts that injured or annoyed -others. - -As an author, he may be said to be a bad tragedian, and not a good -novelist; but he was an elegant writer, conversant with the depths and -the refinements of the human heart. His subtle turn of mind led him too -much to verbal and minute criticism--his love of the ancients sometimes -injured the warmth and originality of his productions; but we may name -two among them as nearly perfect in their several species;--the "Essays -on Petrarch," in prose; and, in verse, his "Ode on Sepulchres," which, -for harmony, grace, sweetness, and pure taste, is perhaps unequalled by -any other poem in the world. - - -[Footnote 54: Dei Sepolcri di Ugo Foscolo.] - -[Footnote 55: See the biographical notice of Foscolo, prefixed to the -"Ultime Lettere di Jacopo Ortis. Londra, 1829."] - -[Footnote 56: Pecchio, "Vita di Ugo Foscolo."] - -[Footnote 57: Pecchio.] - -[Footnote 58: Pecchio.] - -[Footnote 59: Hobhouse's Illustrations of the Fourth Canto of -Childe Harold.] - -[Footnote 60: Pecchio.] - -[Footnote 61: "Con elle (le Grazie) -Qui dov' io canto Galileo sedea -----a spiar l' astro -Della loro regina, e il desviava -Col notturno rumor l' acqua remota -Che sotto ai pioppi della riva d' Arno -Furtiva e argentea gli volava al guardo, -Qui a lui l' Alba, la Luna e il Sol mostrava -Gareggianti di tinte, or le serene -Nubi sulle cerulee Alpe sedente -Ora il piano che----alle tirrene -Nereidi, immensa di città e di selve -Scena--e di templi e d' arator beati, -Or cento colli, onde Appenin corona -D' ulivi e d'antri, e di marmoree ville -L' elegante città, dove con Flora -Le Grazie han serti, e amabile idioma."] - -[Footnote 62: Storia d' Italia, scritta da Carlo Botta.] - -[Footnote 63: Carlo Botta.] - -[Footnote 64: Pecchio.] - -[Footnote 65: It was on account of one of these Graces that Foscolo -believed himself obliged to challenge one Graham, an American. When they -met in the field, the poet received, but did not return, his adversary's -fire, and the affair terminated without a reconciliation.. Graham was at -that time a reporter to a newspaper, and had served Foscolo as -translator of his works. He afterwards got into difficulties, committed -a forgery, and was obliged to leave this country. Soon after, he fell in -a duel in America.] - -[Footnote 66: Pecchio, Vita di Ugo Foscolo.] - -[Footnote 67: There is an error in this inscription with regard to the -day of Foscolo's death, and also probably of his age, since it is -supposed that he was not more than forty-nine when he died. His -countrymen also regret that instead of the above inscription, that was -not adopted which he wrote for himself, under the feigned name of Didimo -Chierico, which runs thus:-- - -Didymi Clerici -Vitia: virtus: ossa -Hic: post: annos . . . -Conquiescere cœpere.] - - - - -END OF THE SECOND VOLUME. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMINENT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC MEN -OF ITALY, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL VOL. 2 (OF 3) *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where - you are located before using this eBook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that: - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without -widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/old/65110-0.zip b/old/65110-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0eb8ce1..0000000 --- a/old/65110-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/65110-h.zip b/old/65110-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index be39ca6..0000000 --- a/old/65110-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/65110-h/65110-h.htm b/old/65110-h/65110-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index f78f4b9..0000000 --- a/old/65110-h/65110-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15483 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> - <title> - The Project Gutenberg eBook of Eminent literary and scientific men of - Italy, Spain and Portugal, Vol. 2 (of 3), by James Montgmery and - Mary Shelley. - </title> - <style type="text/css"> - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; -} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; -} - -p.indent { text-indent: 1.5em;} - -.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.p4 {margin-top: 4em;} -.p6 {margin-top: 6em;} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - clear: both; -} - -hr.tb {width: 45%;} -hr.chap {width: 65%} -hr.full {width: 95%;} - -hr.r5 {width: 5%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;} -hr.r65 {width: 65%; margin-top: 3em; margin-bottom: 3em;} - -ul.index { list-style-type: none; } -li.ifrst { margin-top: 1em; } -li.indx { margin-top: .5em; } -li.isub1 {text-indent: 1em;} -li.isub2 {text-indent: 2em;} -li.isub3 {text-indent: 3em;} - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; -} - - .tdl {text-align: left;} - .tdr {text-align: right;} - .tdc {text-align: center;} - -.pagenum { position: absolute; - left: 1%; - font-size: 90%; - text-align: left; - text-indent: 0; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; } - -.linenum { - position: absolute; - top: auto; - right: 10%; -} /* poetry number */ - -.blockquot { - margin-left: 5%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - -.blockquot-half { - padding-top: 2em; - padding-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 50%; -} - -.sidenote1 { - width: 5%; - padding-bottom: 0em; - padding-top: 0em; - padding-left: .5em; - padding-right: .5em; - margin-left: .5em; - float: left; - clear: left; - margin-top: .1em; - font-size: smaller; - color: black; - background: #eeeeee; - border: dashed 1px; - -} - -.sidenote2 { -width: 5%; - padding-bottom: 0em; - padding-top: 0em; - padding-left: .5em; - padding-right: .5em; - margin-right: .5em; - float: right; - clear: right; - margin-top: .1em; - font-size: smaller; - color: black; - background: #eeeeee; - border: dashed 1px; - -} - -.bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} - -.bl {border-left: solid 2px;} - -.bt {border-top: solid 2px;} - -.br {border-right: solid 2px;} - -.bbox {border: solid 2px;} - -.center {text-align: center;} - -.right {text-align: right;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -.u {text-decoration: underline;} - - -.caption {font-weight: bold;} - -/* Images */ -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; -} - -/* Notes */ -.footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} - -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -.hangindent {text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em;} -.direction {text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em; - margin-left: 30%; -} - - -/* Poetry */ -.poem { - margin-left:10%; - margin-right:10%; - text-align: left; -} - -.poem br {display: none;} -.poetry-container { text-align: center; } -.poem { display: inline-block; text-align: left; } -.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} - .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i1 {display: block; margin-left: 0.5em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 1em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i3 {display: block; margin-left: 1.5em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i5 {display: block; margin-left: 2.5em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i6 {display: block; margin-left: 3em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i7 {display: block; margin-left: 3.5em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i8 {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i9 {display: block; margin-left: 4.5em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i10 {display: block; margin-left: 5em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i11 {display: block; margin-left: 5.5em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i12 {display: block; margin-left: 6em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i13 {display: block; margin-left: 6.5em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i14 {display: block; margin-left: 7em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i15 {display: block; margin-left: 7.5em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i16 {display: block; margin-left: 8em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i17 {display: block; margin-left: 8.5em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i18 {display: block; margin-left: 9em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i20 {display: block; margin-left: 10em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - </style> - </head> -<body> - -<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Eminent literary and scientific men of Italy, Spain, and Portugal Vol. 2 (of 3), by James Montgomery</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Eminent literary and scientific men of Italy, Spain, and Portugal Vol. 2 (of 3)</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: James Montgomery and Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Editor: Dionysius Lardner</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: April 19, 2021 [eBook #65110]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Laura Natal Rodrigues at Free Literature (Images generously made available by The Internet Archive.)</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMINENT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC MEN OF ITALY, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL VOL. 2 (OF 3) ***</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/eminent02_italy_cover.jpg" width="500" alt="" /> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<h4>THE</h4> - -<h2>CABINET CYCLOPÆDIA.</h2> - - - -<h5>CONDUCTED BY THE</h5> - -<h4>REV. DIONYSIUS LARDNER, LL.D. F.R.S. L. & E.</h4> - -<h5>M.R.I.A. F.R.A.S. F.L.S. F.Z.S. Hon. F.C.P.S. &c. &c.</h5> - - - -<h5>ASSISTED BY</h5> - -<h3>EMINENT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC MEN.</h3> - - - - - -<h3>EMINENT<br /> -LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC MEN<br /> -OF ITALY, SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.</h3> - - - -<h4>VOL. II.</h4> - - - -<h5>LONDON:<br /> - -PRINTED FOR<br /> - -LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, GREEN, & LONGMAN,<br /> - -PATERNOSTER-ROW;<br /> - -AND JOHN TAYLOR,<br /> - -UPPER GOWER STREET.</h5> - -<h5>1835.</h5> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p><br /></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/figure01.jpg" width="500" alt="" /> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p><br /></p> - - -<h4>CONTENTS</h4> -<p><a href="#GALILEO">GALILEO</a><br /> -<a href="#GUICCIARDINI">GUICCIARDINI</a><br /> -<a href="#VITTORIA_COLONNA">VITTORIA COLONNA</a><br /> -<a href="#GUARINI">GUARINI</a><br /> -<a href="#TASSO">TASSO</a><br /> -<a href="#CHIABRERA">CHIABRERA</a><br /> -<a href="#TASSONI">TASSONI</a><br /> -<a href="#MARINI">MARINI</a><br /> -<a href="#FILICAJA">FILICAJA</a><br /> -<a href="#METASTASIO">METASTASIO</a><br /> -<a href="#GOLDONI">GOLDONI</a><br /> -<a href="#ALFIERI">ALFIERI</a><br /> -<a href="#MONTI">MONTI</a><br /> -<a href="#UGO_FOSCOLO">UGO FOSCOLO</a></p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<h4>LIVES<br /> -<br /> -OF<br /> -<br /> -EMINENT<br /> -<br /> -LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC MEN.</h4> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p><br /></p> - - -<h4><a id="GALILEO">GALILEO</a></h4> - -<h4>1564-1642.</h4> - -<p> -The history of the life and labours of Galileo is pregnant with a -peculiar interest to the general reader, as well as to the philosopher. -His brilliant discoveries, the man of science regards as his peculiar -property; the means by which they were made, and the developement of his -intellectual character, belong to the logician and to the philosopher; -but the triumphs and the reverses of his eventful life must be claimed -for our common nature, as a source of more than ordinary instruction. -</p> - -<p> -The lengthened career which Providence assigned to Galileo was filled up -throughout its rugged outline with events even of dramatic interest. But -though it was emblazoned with achievements of transcendent magnitude, -yet his finest discoveries were the derision of his contemporaries, and -were even denounced as crimes which merited the vengeance of Heaven. -Though he was the idol of his friends, and the favoured companion of -princes, yet he afterwards became the victim of persecution, and spent -some of his last hours within the walls of a prison; and though the -Almighty granted him, as it were, a new sight to descry unknown worlds -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">{Pg 1}</a></span> -in the obscurity of space, yet the eyes which were allowed to witness -such wonders, were themselves doomed to be closed in darkness. -</p> - -<p> -Such were the lights and shadows in which history delineates -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"The starry Galileo with his woes."<a name="NoteRef_1_1" id="NoteRef_1_1"></a><a href="#Note_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></span> -</div></div> - -<p> -But, however powerful be their contrasts, they are not unusual in their -proportions. The balance which has been struck between his days of good -and evil, is that which regulates the lot of man, whether we study it in -the despotic sway of the autocrat, in the peaceful enquiries of the -philosopher, or in the humbler toils of ordinary life. -</p> - -<p> -Galileo Galilei was born at Pisa, on the 15th of February, 1564, and was -the eldest of a family of three sons and three daughters. Under the name -of Bonajuti, his noble ancestors had filled high offices at Florence; -but about the middle of the 14th century they seem to have abandoned -this surname for that of Galileo. Vincenzo Galilei, our author's father, -was himself a philosopher of no mean powers; and though his talents seem -to have been applied only in the composition of treatises on the theory -and practice of music, yet he appears to have anticipated even his son -in a just estimate of the philosophy of the age, and in a distinct -perception of the true method of investigating truth.<a name="NoteRef_2_2" id="NoteRef_2_2"></a><a href="#Note_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> -</p> - -<p> -The early years of Galileo were, like those of almost all great -experimental philosophers, spent in the construction of instruments and -pieces of machinery, which were calculated chiefly to amuse himself and -his school-fellows. This occupation of his hands, however, did not -interfere with his regular studies; and though, from the straitened -circumstances of his father, he was educated under considerable -disadvantages, yet he acquired the elements of classical literature, and -was initiated into all the learning of the times. Music, drawing, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">{Pg 2}</a></span> -painting were the occupations of his leisure hours; and such was his -proficiency in these arts, that he was reckoned a skilful performer on -several musical instruments, especially the lute; and his knowledge of -pictures was held in great esteem by some of the best artists of his -day. -</p> - -<p> -Galileo seems to have been desirous, of following the profession of a -painter: but his father had observed decided indications of early -genius; and, though by no means able to afford it, he resolved to send -him to the university to pursue the study of medicine. He accordingly -enrolled himself as a scholar in arts at the university of Pisa, on the -5th of November, 1581, and pursued his medical studies under the -celebrated botanist Andrew Cæsalpinus, who filled the chair of medicine -from 1567 to 1592. -</p> - -<p> -In order to study the principles of music and drawing, Galileo found it -necessary to acquire some knowledge of geometry. His father seems to -have foreseen the consequences of following this new pursuit, and though -he did not prohibit him from reading Euclid under Ostilio Ricci, one of -the professors at Pisa, yet he watched his progress with the utmost -jealousy, and had resolved that it should not interfere with his medical -studies. The demonstrations, however, of the Greek mathematician had too -many charms for the ardent mind of Galileo. His whole attention was -engrossed with the new truths which burst upon his understanding; and -after many fruitless attempts to check his ardour and direct his -thoughts to professional objects, his father was obliged to surrender -his parental control, and allow the fullest scope to the genius of his -son. -</p> - -<p> -From the elementary works of geometry, Galileo passed to the writings of -Archimedes; and while he was studying the hydrostatical treatise<a name="NoteRef_3_3" id="NoteRef_3_3"></a><a href="#Note_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> of -the Syracusan philosopher, he wrote his essay on the hydrostatical -balance<a name="NoteRef_4_4" id="NoteRef_4_4"></a><a href="#Note_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>, in which he describes the construction of the instrument, -and the method by which Archimedes detected the fraud committed by the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">{Pg 3}</a></span> -jeweller in the composition of Hiero's crown. This work gained for its -author the esteem of Guido Ubaldi, who had distinguished himself by his -mechanical and mathematical acquirements, and who engaged his young -friend to investigate the subject of the centre of gravity in solid -bodies. The treatise on this subject, which Galileo presented to his -patron, was the source of his future success. -</p> - -<p> -Through the cardinal del Monte, the brother-in-law of Ubaldi, the -reigning duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand de' Medici, was made acquainted with -the merits of our young philosopher; and, in 1589, he was appointed -lecturer on mathematics at Pisa. By the drudgery of private teaching he -was obliged to add to the small salary of sixty crowns which was -attached to the office. -</p> - -<p> -With this moderate Competency, Galileo commenced his philosophical -career. At the early age of eighteen, when he had entered the -university, he displayed his innate antipathy to the Aristotelian -philosophy. This feeling was strengthened by his earliest inquiries; and -upon his establishment at Pisa, he seems to have regarded the doctrines -of Aristotle as the intellectual prey which, in his chace of glory, he -was destined to pursue. Nizzoli, who flourished near the beginning of -the sixteenth century, and Giordano Bruno, who was burned at Rome in -1600, led the way in this daring pursuit; but it was reserved for -Galileo to track the Thracian boar through its native thickets, and, at -the risk of his own life, to strangle it in its den. -</p> - -<p> -With the resolution of submitting every opinion to the test of -experiment, Galileo's first inquiries at Pisa were directed to the -mechanical doctrines of Aristotle. Their incorrectness and absurdity -soon became apparent; and with a zeal, perhaps, bordering on -indiscretion, he denounced them to his pupils with an ardour of manner -and of expression proportioned to his own conviction of the truth. The -detection of long-established errors is apt to inspire the young -philosopher with an exultation which reason condemns. The feeling of -triumph is apt to clothe itself in the language of asperity; and the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">{Pg 4}</a></span> -abettor, of erroneous opinions is treated as a species of enemy to -science. Like the soldier who fleshes his first spear in battle, the -philosopher is apt to leave the stain of cruelty upon his early -achievements. It is only from age and experience, indeed, that we can -expect the discretion of valour, whether it is called forth in -controversy or in battle. Galileo seems to have waged this stern warfare -against the followers of Aristotle; and such was the exasperation which -was excited by his reiterated and successful attacks, that he was -assailed, during the rest of his life, with a degree of rancour which -seldom originates in a mere difference of opinion. Forgetting that all -knowledge is progressive, and that the errors of one generation call -forth the comments, and are replaced by the discoveries, of the next, -Galileo did not anticipate that his own speculations and incompleted -labours might one day provoke unmitigated censure; and he therefore -failed in making allowance for the prejudices and ignorance of his -opponents. He who enjoys the proud lot of taking a position in advance -of his age, need not wonder that his less gifted contemporaries are left -behind. Men are not necessarily obstinate because they cleave to deeply -rooted and venerable errors, nor are they absolutely stupid when they -are long in understanding and embracing newly discovered truths. -</p> - -<p> -It was one of the axioms of the Aristotelian mechanics, that the heavier -of two falling bodies would reach the ground sooner than the other, and -that their velocities would be proportional to their weights. Galileo -attacked the arguments by which this opinion was supported; and when he -found his reasoning ineffectual, he appealed to direct experiment. He -maintained, that all bodies would fall through the same height in the -same time, if they were not unequally retarded by the resistance of the -air: and though he performed the same experiment with the most -satisfactory results, by letting heavy bodies fall from the leaning -tower of Pisa; yet the Aristotelians, who with their own eyes saw the -unequal weights strike the ground at the same instant, ascribed the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">{Pg 5}</a></span> -effect to some unknown cause, and preferred the decision of their master -to that of nature herself. -</p> - -<p> -Galileo could not brook this opposition to his discoveries; and the -Aristotelians could not tolerate the rebukes of their young instructor. -The two parties were, consequently, marshalled in hostile array; when, -fortunately for both, an event occurred, which placed them beyond the -reach of danger. Don Giovanni de' Medici, a natural son of Cosmo, had -proposed a method of clearing out the harbour of Leghorn. Galileo, whose -opinion was requested, gave such an unfavourable report upon it, that -the disappointed inventor directed against him all the force of his -malice. It was an easy task to concentrate the malignity of his enemies -at Pisa; and so effectually was this accomplished, that Galileo resolved -to accept another professorship, to which he had been previously -invited. -</p> - -<p> -The chair of mathematics in the university of Padua having been vacant -for five years, the republic of Venice had resolved to fill it up; and, -on the recommendation of Guido Ubaldi, Galileo was appointed to it, in -1592, for a period of six years. -</p> - -<p> -In 1591, Galileo lost his father, who died at an advanced age, and -devolved upon his eldest son the support of the family. This event, -probably, increased his anxiety to better his situation, and must have -added to his other inducements to quit Pisa. In September, 1592, he -removed to Padua, where he had a salary of only 180 florins, and where -he was obliged to add to his income by the labours of tuition. -Notwithstanding this fruitless occupation of his time, he appears to -have found leisure for composing several of his works, and completing -various inventions, which will be afterwards described. His manuscripts -were circulated privately among his friends and pupils; but some of them -strayed beyond this sacred limit, and found their way into the hands of -persons who did not scruple to claim and publish, as their own, the -discoveries and inventions which they contained. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">{Pg 6}</a></span> -</p> - -<p> -It is not easy to ascertain the exact time when Galileo became a convert -to the doctrines of Copernicus, or the particular circumstances under -which he was led to adopt them. It is stated by Gerard Voss, that a -public lecture of Mæstlin, the instructor of Kepler, was the means of -making Galileo acquainted with the true system of the universe. This -assertion, however, is by no means probable; and it has been ably shown, -by the latest biographer of Galileo<a name="NoteRef_5_5" id="NoteRef_5_5"></a><a href="#Note_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>, that, in his dialogues on the -Copernican system, our author gives the true account of his own -conversion. This passage is so interesting, that we shall give it -entire. -</p> - -<p> -"I cannot omit this opportunity of relating to you what happened to -myself at the time when this opinion (the Copernican system) began to be -discursed. I was then a very young man, and had scarcely finished my -course of philosophy, which other occupations obliged me to leave off, -when there arrived in this country, from Rostoch, a foreigner, whose -name, I believe, was Christian Vurstisius (Wurteisen), a follower of -Copernicus. This person delivered, on this subject, two or three -lectures in a certain academy, and to a crowded audience. Believing that -several were attracted more by the novelty of the subject than by any -other cause, and being firmly persuaded that this opinion was a piece of -solemn folly, I was unwilling to be present. Upon interrogating, -however, some of those who were there, I found that they all made it a -subject of merriment, with the exception of one, who assured me that it -was not a thing wholly ridiculous. As I considered this individual to be -both prudent and circumspect, I repented that I had not attended the -lectures; and, whenever I met any of the followers of Copernicus, I -began to inquire if they had always been of the same opinion. I found -that there was not one of them who did not declare that he had long -maintained the very opposite opinions, and had not gone over to the new -doctrines till he was driven by the force of argument. I next examined -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">{Pg 7}</a></span> -them one by one, to see if they were masters of the arguments on the -opposite side; and such was the readiness of their answers, that I was -satisfied they had not taken up this opinion from ignorance or vanity. -On the other hand, whenever I interrogated the Peripatetics and the -Ptolemeans (and, out of curiosity, I have interrogated not a a few), -respecting their perusal of Copernicus's work, I perceived that there -were few who had seen the book, and not one who understood it. Nor have -I omitted to enquire among the followers of the Peripatetic doctrines, -if any of them had ever stood on the opposite side; and the result was, -that there was not one. Considering, then, that nobody followed the -Copernican doctrine, who had not previously held the contrary opinion, -and who was not well acquainted with the arguments of Aristotle and -Ptolemy; while, on the other hand, nobody followed Ptolemy and -Aristotle, who had before adhered to Copernicus, and had gone over from -him into the camp of Aristotle; weighing, I say, these things, I began -to believe that, if any one who rejects an opinion which he has imbibed -with his milk, and which has been embraced by an infinite number, shall -take up an opinion held only by a few, condemned by all the schools, and -really regarded as a great paradox, it cannot be doubted that he must -have been induced, not to say driven, to embrace it by the most cogent -arguments. On this account, I have become very curious to penetrate to -the very bottom of the subject."<a name="NoteRef_6_6" id="NoteRef_6_6"></a><a href="#Note_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> -</p> - -<p> -It appears, on the testimony of Galileo himself, that he taught the -Ptolemaic system, out of compliance with the popular feeling, after he -had convinced himself of the truth of the Copernican doctrines. In the -treatise on the sphere, indeed, which bears his name<a name="NoteRef_7_7" id="NoteRef_7_7"></a><a href="#Note_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>, and which must -have been written soon after he went to Padua, and subsequently to 1592, -the stability of the earth, and the motion of the sun, are supported by -the very arguments which Galileo afterwards ridiculed; but we have no -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">{Pg 8}</a></span> -means of determining whether or not he had then adopted the true system -of the universe. Although he might have taught the Ptolemaic system in -his lectures, after he had convinced himself of its falsehood; yet it is -not likely that he would go so far as to publish to the worlds as true, -the very doctrines which he despised. In a letter to Kepler, dated in -1597, he distinctly states that he <i>had, many years ago, adopted the -opinions of Copernicus; but that he had not yet dared to publish his -arguments in favour of them, and his refutation of the opposite -opinions.</i> These facts would leave us to place Galileo's conversion -somewhere between 1593 and 1597; although <i>many</i> years cannot be said -to have elapsed between these two dates. -</p> - -<p> -At this early period of Galileo's life, in the year 1593, he met with an -accident; which had nearly proved fatal. A party at Padua; of which he -was one, were enjoying; at an open window; a current of air, which was -artificially cooled by a fall of water. Galileo unfortunately fell -asleep under its influence; and so powerful was its effect upon his -robust constitution; that he contracted a severe chronic disorder, -accompanied with acute pains in his body, and loss of sleep and -appetite, which attacked him at intervals during the rest of his life. -Others of the party suffered still more severely, and perished by their -own rashness. -</p> - -<p> -Galileo's reputation was now widely extended over Europe; and the -archduke Ferdinand (afterwards emperor of Germany), the landgrave of -Hesse, and the princes of Alsace and Mantua honoured his lectures with -their presence. Prince Gustavus of Sweden also received instructions -from him in mathematics, during his sojourn in Italy; and it has been -supposed that this was the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus. -</p> - -<p> -When Galileo had completed the first period of his engagement at Padua, -he was re-elected for other six years, with an increased salary of 320 -florins. This liberal addition to his income is ascribed by Fabbroni to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">{Pg 9}</a></span> -the malice of one of his enemies, who informed the senate that Galileo -was living in illicit intercourse with Marina Gamba. Without inquiring -into the truth of the accusation, the senate is said to have replied, -that if "he had a family to support, he had the more need of an -increased salary." It is more likely that the liberality of the republic -had been called forth by the high reputation of their professor, and -that the terms of their reply were intended only to rebuke the malignity -of the informer. The mode of expression would seem to indicate that one -or more of Galileo's children had been born previous to his re-election -in 1598; but as this is scarcely consistent with other facts, we are -disposed to doubt the authenticity of Fabbroni's anecdote. -</p> - -<p> -The new star, which attracted the notice of astronomers in 1604, excited -the particular attention of Galileo. The observations which he made upon -it, and the speculations which they suggested, formed the subject of -three lectures, the beginning of the first of which only has reached our -times. From the absence of parallax, he proved that the common -hypothesis of its being a meteor was erroneous, and that, like the fixed -stars, it was situated far beyond the bounds of our own system. The -popularity of the subject attracted crowds to his lecture-room; and -Galileo had the boldness to reproach his hearers for taking so deep an -interest in a temporary phenomenon, while they passed unnoticed the -wonders of creation which were daily presented to their view. -</p> - -<p> -In the year 1606, Galileo was again appointed to the professorship at -Padua, with an augmented stipend of 520 florins. His popularity had now -risen so high, that his audience could not be accommodated in his -lecture-room; and even when he had assembled them in the school of -medicine, which contained 1000 persons, he was frequently obliged to -adjourn to the open air. -</p> - -<p> -Among the variety of pursuits which occupied his attention, was the -examination of the properties of the loadstone. In 1607, he commenced -his experiments; but, with the exception of a method of arming -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">{Pg 10}</a></span> -loadstones, which; according to the report of Sir Kenelm Digby, enabled -them to carry twice as much weight as others, he does not seem to have -made any additions to our knowledge of magnetism. He appears to have -studied with care the admirable work of our countryman; Dr. Gilbert; "De -Magnete," which was published in 1600; and he recognised; in the -experiments and reasonings of the English philosopher; the principles of -that method of investigating truth which he had himself adopted. Gilbert -died in 1603; in the 63d year of his age, and probably never read the -fine compliment which was paid to him by the Italian philosopher:—"I -extremely praise, admire, and envy this author." -</p> - -<p> -In the preceding pages we have brought down the history of Galileo's -labours to that auspicious year in which he first directed the telescope -to the heavens. No sooner was that noble instrument placed in his hands, -than Providence released him from his professional toils, and supplied -him with the fullest leisure and the amplest means for pursuing and -completing the grandest discoveries. -</p> - -<p> -Although he had quitted the service and the domains of his munificent -patron; the grand duke of Tuscany, yet he maintained his connection with -the family, by visiting Florence during his academic vacations, and -giving mathematical instruction to the younger branches of that -distinguished house. Cosmo, who had been one of his pupils, now -succeeded his father Ferdinand; and having his mind early imbued with a -love of knowledge, which had become hereditary in his family, he felt -that the residence of Galileo within his dominions—and still more his -introduction into his household—would do honour to their common -country, and reflect a lustre upon his own name. In the year 1609, -accordingly, Cosmo made proposals to Galileo to return to his original -situation at Pisa. These overtures were gratefully received; and in the -arrangements which Galileo on this occasion suggested, as well as in the -manner in which they were urged, we obtain some insight into his temper -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">{Pg 11}</a></span> -and character. He informs the correspondent through whom Cosmo's offer -was conveyed, that his salary of 520 florins at Padua would be increased -to as many crowns at his re-election; and that he could enlarge his -income to any extent he pleased, by giving private lectures, and -receiving pupils. His public duties, he stated, occupied him only sixty -half-hours in the year; but his studies suffered such interruptions from -the domestic pupils and private lectures, that his most ardent wish was -to be relieved from them, in order that he might have sufficient rest -and leisure, before the close of his life, to finish and publish those -great works which he had in hand. In the event, therefore, of his -returning to Pisa, he hoped that it would be the first object of his -serene highness to give him leisure to complete his works without the -drudgery of lecturing. He expresses his anxiety to gain his bread by his -writings, and he promises to dedicate them to his serene master. He -enumerates, among these books, two on the system of the universe; three -on local motion; three books of mechanics; two on the demonstration of -principles, and one of problems; besides treatises on sound and speech, -on light and colours, on the tides, on the composition of continuous -quantity, on the motions of animals, and on the military art. On the -subject of his salary, he makes the following curious observations:— -</p> - -<p> -"I say nothing," says he, "on the amount of my salary; being convinced -that, as I am to live upon it, the graciousness of his highness would -not deprive me of any of those comforts, of which, however, I feel the -want of less than many others; and, therefore, I say nothing more on the -subject. Finally, on the title and profession of my service, I should -wish that, to the title of mathematician, his highness would add that of -philosopher, as I profess to have studied a greater number of years in -philosophy, than months in pure mathematics; and how I have profited by -it, and if I can or ought to deserve this title, I may let their -highnesses see, as often as it shall please them to give me an -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">{Pg 12}</a></span> -opportunity of discussing such subjects in their presence with those who -are most esteemed in this knowledge." -</p> - -<p> -During the progress of this negotiation, Galileo went to Venice, on a -visit to a friend, in the month of April or May, 1609. Here he learned, -from common rumour, that a Dutchman, of the name of Jansen, had -presented to prince Maurice of Nassau an optical instrument, which -possessed the singular property of causing distant objects to appear -nearer and larger to the observer. A few days afterwards, the truth of -this report was confirmed by a letter which he received from James -Badovere at Paris, and he immediately applied himself to the -consideration of the subject. On the first night after his return to -Padua, he found, in the doctrines of refraction, the principle which he -sought. He placed at the ends of a leaden tube two spectacle glasses, -both of which were plain on one side, while one of them had its other -side convex, and the other its second side concave, and having applied -his eye to the concave glass, he saw objects pretty large and pretty -near him. This little instrument, which magnified only three times, he -carried in triumph to Venice, where it excited the most intense -interest. Crowds of the principal citizens flocked to his house to see -the magical toy; and after nearly a month had been spent in gratifying -this epidemical curiosity, Galileo was led to understand from Leonardo -Deodati, the doge of Venice, that the senate would be highly gratified -by obtaining possession of so extraordinary an instrument. Galileo -instantly complied with the wishes of his patrons, who acknowledged the -present by a mandate conferring upon him for life his professorship at -Padua, and generously raising his salary from 520 to 1000 florins. -</p> - -<p> -Although we cannot doubt the veracity of Galileo, when he affirms that -he had never seen any of the Dutch telescopes, yet it is expressly -stated by Fuccarius, that one of these instruments had at this time been -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">{Pg 13}</a></span> -brought to Florence. In a letter from Lorenzo Pignoria to Paolo Gualdo, -dated from Padua, on the 31st of August, 1609, it is expressly said, -that, at the re-election of the professors, Galileo had contrived to -obtain 1000 florins for life, which was alleged to be on account of an -eye-glass like the one which was sent from Flanders to the Cardinal -Borghese. -</p> - -<p> -In a memoir so brief and general as the present, it would be out of -place to discuss the history of this extraordinary invention. We have no -hesitation in asserting that a method of magnifying distant objects was -known to Baptista Porta and others; but it seems to be equally certain -that an <i>instrument</i> for producing these effects was first constructed -in Holland, and that it was from that kingdom that Galileo derived the -knowledge of its existence. In considering the contending claims, which -have been urged with all the ardour and partiality of national feeling, -it has been generally overlooked, <i>that a single convex lens</i>, whose -focal length exceeds the distance at which we examine minute objects, -performs the part of a telescope, when an eye, placed behind it, sees -distinctly the inverted image which it forms. A lens, twenty feet in -focal length, will in this manner magnify twenty times; and it was by -the same principle that Sir William Herschel discovered a new satellite -of Saturn, by using only the mirror of his forty-feet telescope. The -instrument presented to prince Maurice, and which the marquis Spinola -found in the Dutch optician's shop, performing the part of a -philosophical toy, by exhibiting a magnified and inverted image of a -distant weathercock, must have been a single lens such as we have -mentioned, or an astronomical telescope consisting of two convex lenses. -Upon either of these suppositions, it differed entirely from that which -Galileo constructed; and the Italian philosopher will be justly entitled -to the honour of having invented that form of the telescope which still -bears his name. -</p> - -<p> -The interest which the exhibition of the telescope excited at Venice did -not soon subside: Serturi describes it as amounting almost to phrensy. -When he himself had succeeded in making one of these instruments, he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">{Pg 14}</a></span> -ascended the tower of St. Mark, where he might use it without -molestation. He was recognised, however, by a crowd in the street; and -such was the eagerness of their curiosity, that they took possession of -the wondrous tube, and detained the impatient philosopher for several -hours, till they had successively witnessed its effects. Desirous of -obtaining the same gratification for their friends, they endeavoured to -learn the name of the inn at which he lodged; but Serturi fortunately -overheard their inquiries, and quitted Venice early next morning, in -order to avoid a second visitation of this new school of philosophers. -The opticians speedily availed themselves of this new instrument. -Galileo's tube,—or the double eye-glass, as it was then -called, for Demisiano had not yet given it the appellation of a -<i>telescope</i>,—was manufactured in great quantities, and in a -very superior manner. The instruments were purchased merely as -philosophical toys, and were carried by travellers into every corner -of Europe. -</p> - -<p> -The art of grinding and polishing lenses was at this time very -imperfect. Galileo, and those whom he instructed, were alone capable of -making tolerable instruments. It appears, from the testimony of Gassendi -and Gærtner, that, in 1634, a good telescope could not be procured in -Paris, Venice, or Amsterdam; and that, even in 1637, there was not one -in Holland which could show Jupiter's disc well defined. -</p> - -<p> -After Galileo had completed his first instrument, which magnified only -<i>three</i> times, he executed a larger and more accurate one, with a -power of about eight. "At length," as he himself remarks, "sparing neither -labour nor expense," he constructed an instrument so excellent, that it -magnified more than thirty times. -</p> - -<p> -The first celestial object to which Galileo applied his telescope was -the moon, which, to use his own words, appeared as near as if it had -been distant only two semidiameters of the earth. He then directed it to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">{Pg 15}</a></span> -the planets and the fixed stars, which he frequently observed with -"incredible satisfaction."<a name="NoteRef_8_8" id="NoteRef_8_8"></a><a href="#Note_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> -</p> - -<p> -The observations which he made upon the moon possessed a high degree of -interest. The general resemblance of its surface to that of our own -globe naturally fixed his attention; and he was soon able to trace, in -almost every part of the lunar disc, ranges of mountains, deep hollows, -and other inequalities, which reflected from their summits the rays of -the rising sun, while the intervening hollows were still buried in -darkness. The dark and luminous spaces he regarded as indicating seas -and continents, which reflected, in different degrees, the incident -light of the sun; and he ascribed the phosphorescence, as it has been -improperly called, or the secondary light, which is seen on the dark -limb of the moon in her first and last quarters, to the reflection of -the sun's light from the earth. -</p> - -<p> -These discoveries were ill received by the followers of Aristotle. -According to their preconceived opinions, the moon was perfectly -spherical, and perfectly smooth; to cover it with mountains, and to -scoop it out into valleys, was an act of impiety which defaced the -regular forms which nature herself had imprinted. It was in vain that -Galileo appealed to the evidence of observation, and to the actual -surface of our own globe. The very irregularities on the moon were, in -his opinion, the proof of divine wisdom: and had its surface been -perfectly smooth, it would have been "but a vast unblessed desert, void -of animals, of plants, of cities, and of men; the abode of silence and -inaction; senseless, lifeless, soulless, and stripped of all those -ornaments which now render it so various and so beautiful." -</p> - -<p> -In examining the fixed stars, and comparing them with the planets, -Galileo discovered a remarkable difference in the appearance of their -discs. All the planets appeared with round globular discs like the moon; -whereas the fixed stars never exhibited any disc at all, but resembled -lucid points sending forth twinkling rays. Stars of all magnitudes he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">{Pg 16}</a></span> -found to have the same appearance; those of the fifth and sixth -magnitude having the same character when seen through a telescope, as -Sirius, the largest of the stars, when seen by the naked eye. Upon -directing his telescope to nebulæ and clusters of stars, he was -delighted to find that they consisted of great numbers of stars which -could not be recognised by unassisted vision. He counted no fewer than -<i>forty</i> in the cluster called the <i>Pleiades</i>, or <i>Seven -Stars</i>; and he has given us drawings of this constellation, as well as -of the belt and sword of Orion, and of the nebula of Præsepe. In the great -nebula of the Milky Way, he descried crowds of minute stars; and he -concluded that this singular portion derived its whiteness from still -smaller stars, which his telescope was unable to separate. -</p> - -<p> -Important and interesting as these discoveries were, they were thrown -into the shade by those to which he was led during an accurate -examination of the planets with a more powerful telescope. On the 7th of -January, 1610, at one o'clock in the morning, when he directed this -telescope to Jupiter, he observed three stars near the body of the -planet; two being to the east and one to the west of him. They were all -in a straight line, and parallel to the ecliptic, and appeared brighter -than other stars of the same magnitude. Believing them to be fixed -stars, he paid no great attention to their distances from Jupiter and -from one another. On the 8th of January, however, when, from some cause -or other<a name="NoteRef_9_9" id="NoteRef_9_9"></a><a href="#Note_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>, he had been led to observe the stars again, he found a very -different arrangement of them: all the three were on the west side of -Jupiter, <i>nearer one another than before</i>, and almost at equal -distances. Though he had not turned his attention to the extraordinary -fact of the mutual approach of the stars, yet he began to consider how -Jupiter could be found to the east of the three stars, when only the day -before he had been to the west of two of them. The only explanation -which he could give of this fact was, that the motion of Jupiter was -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">{Pg 17}</a></span> -<i>direct</i> contrary to astronomical calculations; and that he had got -before these two stars by his own motion. -</p> - -<p> -In this dilemma between the testimony of his senses and the results of -calculation, he waited for the following night with the utmost anxiety: -but his hopes were disappointed; for the heavens were wholly veiled in -clouds. On the tenth, two only of the stars appeared, and both on the -east of the planet. As it was obviously impossible that Jupiter could -have advanced from west to east on the 8th of January, and from east to -west on the 10th, Galileo was forced to conclude that the phenomenon -which he had observed, arose from the motion of the stars, and he set -himself to observe diligently their change of place. On the 11th, there -were still only two stars; and both to the east of Jupiter; but the more -eastern star was now <i>twice as large as the other one</i>, though on the -preceding night they had been perfectly equal. This fact threw a new -light upon Galileo's difficulties, and he immediately drew the -conclusion, which he considered to be indubitable—"that there were in -the heavens three stars which revolved round Jupiter, in the same manner -as Venus and Mercury revolve round the sun." On the 12th of January, he -again observed them in new positions, and of different magnitudes; and, -on the 13th, he discovered a fourth star, which completed the four -secondary planets with which Jupiter is surrounded. -</p> - -<p> -Galileo continued his observations on these bodies every clear night -till the 22d of March, and studied their motions in reference to fixed -stars that were at the same time within the field of his telescope. -Having thus clearly established that the four new stars were satellites -or moons, which revolved round Jupiter in the same manner as the moon -revolves round our own globe, he drew up an account of his discovery, in -which he gave to the four new bodies the names of the <i>Medicean -Stars</i>, in honour of his patron, Cosmo de' Medici, grand duke of -Tuscany. This work, under the title of "Nuncius Sidereus," or the "Sidereal -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">{Pg 18}</a></span> -Messenger," was dedicated to the same prince; and the dedication bears -the date of the 4th of March, only two days after he concluded his -observations. -</p> - -<p> -The importance of this great discovery was instantly felt by the enemies -as well as by the friends of the Copernican system. The planets had -hitherto been distinguished from the fixed stars only by their relative -change of place; but the telescope proved them to be bodies so near to -our own globe as to exhibit well-defined discs; while the fixed stars -retained, even when magnified, the minuteness of remote and lucid -points. The system of Jupiter, illuminated by four moons performing -their revolutions in different and regular periods, exhibited to our -proud reason the comparative insignificance of the globe we inhabit, and -proclaimed in impressive language that globe was not the centre of -the universe. -</p> - -<p> -The reception which these discoveries met with from Kepler is highly -interesting, and characteristic of the genius of that great man. He was -one day sitting idle, and thinking of Galileo, when his friend -Wachenfels stopped his carriage at his door, to communicate to him the -intelligence. "Such a fit of wonder," says he, "seized me at a report -which seemed to be so very absurd, and I was thrown into such agitation -at seeing an old dispute between us decided in this way, that between -his joy, my colouring, and the laughter of both, confounded as we were -by such a novelty, we were hardly capable, he of speaking, or I of -listening. On our parting, I immediately began to think how there could -be any addition to the number of the planets, without overturning my -'Cosmographic Mystery,' according to which Euclid's five regular solids -do not allow more than six planets round the sun. * * * I am so far from -disbelieving the existence of the four circumjovial planets, that I long -for a telescope, to anticipate you, if possible, in discovering <i>two</i> -round Mars, as the proportion seems to require, <i>six</i> or <i>eight</i> -round Saturn, and perhaps one each round Mercury and Venus." -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">{Pg 19}</a></span> -</p> - -<p> -In a very different spirit did the Aristotelians receive the "Sidereal -Messenger" of Galileo. The principal professor of philosophy at Padua -resisted Galileo's repeated and urgent entreaties to look at the moon -and planets through his telescope; and he even laboured to convince the -grand duke that the satellites of Jupiter could not possibly exist. -Sizzi, an astronomer of Florence, maintained, that as there were only -<i>seven</i> apertures in the head—<i>two</i> eyes, <i>two</i> -ears, <i>two</i> nostrils, and <i>one</i> mouth—and as there were -only <i>seven</i> metals, and <i>seven</i> days in the week, so there -could be only <i>seven</i> planets. He seems, however, to have admitted -the visibility of the four satellites through the telescope; but he -argues, that as they are invisible to the naked eye, they can exercise -no influence on the earth; and being useless, they do not therefore -exist. -</p> - -<p> -A <i>protégé</i> of Kepler's, of the name of Horky, wrote a volume against -Galileo's discovery, after having declared, "that he would never concede -his four new planets to that Italian from Padua, even if he should die -for it." This resolute Aristotelian was at no loss for arguments. He -asserted that he had examined the heavens <i>through Galileo's own -glass</i>, and that no such thing as a satellite existed round Jupiter. He -affirmed, that he did not more surely know that he had a soul in his -body, than that reflected rays are the sole cause of Galileo's erroneous -observations; and that the only use of the new planets was to gratify -Galileo's thirst for gold, and afford himself a subject of discussion. -</p> - -<p> -When Horky first presented himself to Kepler, after the publication of -this work, the opinion of his patron was announced to him by a burst of -indignation which overwhelmed the astonished author. Horky supplicated -mercy for his offence; and, as Kepler himself informed Galileo, he took -him again into favour, on the condition that Kepler was to show him -Jupiter's satellites; and that Horky was not only to see them, but to -admit their existence. -</p> - -<p> -When the spirit of philosophy had thus left the individuals who bore her -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">{Pg 20}</a></span> -sacred name, it was fortunate for science that it found a refuge in the -minds of princes. Notwithstanding the reiterated logic of his -philosophical professor at Padua, Cosmo de' Medici preferred the -testimony of his senses to the syllogisms of his instructor. He observed -the new planets several times, along with Galileo, at Pisa; and when he -parted with him, he gave him a present worth more than 1000 florins, and -concluded that liberal arrangement to which we have already referred. -</p> - -<p> -As philosopher and principal mathematician to the grand duke of Tuscany, -Galileo now took up his residence at Florence, with a salary of 1000 -florins. No official duties, excepting that of lecturing occasionally to -sovereign princes, were attached to this appointment; and it was -expressly stipulated that he should enjoy the most perfect leisure to -complete his treatises on the constitution of the universe, on -mechanics, and on local motion. The resignation of his professorship at -Padua, which necessarily followed his new appointment, created much -dissatisfaction in that university: but though many of his former -friends refused at first to hold any communication with him, this -feeling gradually subsided; and the Venetian senate at last appreciated -the views, as well as the powerful motives, which induced a stranger to -accept of promotion in his native land. -</p> - -<p> -While Galileo was enjoying the reward and the fame of his great -discovery, a new species of enmity was roused against them. Simon Mayer, -an astronomer of no character, pretended that he had discovered the -satellites of Jupiter before Galileo, and that his first observation was -made on the 29th of December, 1609. Other astronomers announced the -discovery of new satellites: Scheiner reckoned five, Rheita nine, and -others found even so many as twelve: these satellites, however, were -found to be only fixed stars. The names of <i>Vladislavian, Agrippine, -Uranodavian</i>, and <i>Ferdinandotertian</i>, which were hastily given to -these common telescopic stars, soon disappeared from the page of science, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">{Pg 21}</a></span> -and even the splendid telescopes of modern times have not been able to add -another gem to the diadem of Jupiter. -</p> - -<p> -A modern astronomer of no mean celebrity has, even in the present day, -endeavoured to rob Galileo of this staple article of his reputation. -From a careless examination of the papers of our celebrated countryman, -Thomas Harriot, which baron Zach had made in 1784, at Petworth, the seat -of lord Egremont, this astronomer has asserted<a name="NoteRef_10_10" id="NoteRef_10_10"></a><a href="#Note_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> that Harriot first -observed the satellites of Jupiter on the 16th of January, 1610; and -continued his observations till the 25th of February, 1612. Baron Zach -adds the following extraordinary conclusion:—"Galileo pretends to -have discovered them on the 7th of January, 1610; so that it is not -improbable that Harriot was likewise the first discoverer of these -attendants of Jupiter." In a communication which I received from Dr. -Robertson, of Oxford, in 1822<a name="NoteRef_11_11" id="NoteRef_11_11"></a><a href="#Note_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>, he informed me that he had examined a -class of Harriot's papers, entitled, "De Jovialibus Planetis;" and that -it appears, from two pages of these papers, <i>that Harriot first observed -Jupiter's satellites on the 17th of October</i>, 1610. These observations -are accompanied with rough drawings of the positions of the satellites, -and rough calculations of their periodical revolutions. My friend, -professor Rigaud<a name="NoteRef_12_12" id="NoteRef_12_12"></a><a href="#Note_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>, who has very recently examined the Harriot MSS., -has confirmed the accuracy of Dr. Robertson's observations, and has thus -restored to Galileo the honour of being the first and the sole -discoverer of these secondary planets. -</p> - -<p> -The great success which attended the first telescopic observations of -Galileo, induced him to apply his best instruments to the other planets -of our system. The attempts which had been made to deprive him of the -honour of some of his discoveries, combined, probably, with a desire to -repeat his observations with better telescopes, led him to announce his -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">{Pg 22}</a></span> -discoveries under the veil of an enigma; and to invite astronomers to -declare, within a given time, if they had observed any new phenomena in -the heavens. -</p> - -<p> -Before the close of 1610, Galileo excited the curiosity of astronomers, -by the publication of his first enigma. Kepler and others tried in vain -to decipher it; but in consequence of the emperor Rodolph requesting a -solution of the puzzle, Galileo sent him the following clue:— -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"Altissimam planetam tergeminam observavi."</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">I have observed that the most remote planet is triple.</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -In explaining more fully the nature of his observation, Galileo remarked -that Saturn was not a single star, but three together, nearly touching -one another: he described them as having no relative motion, and as -having the form of three o's, namely, oOo, the central one being larger -than those on each side of it. -</p> - -<p> -Although Galileo had announced that nothing new appeared in the other -planets, yet he soon communicated to the world another discovery of no -slight interest. The enigmatical letters in which it was concealed, -formed the following sentence:— -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"Cynthia figuras æmulatur mater Amorum."</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">Venus rivals the phases of the moon.</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -Hitherto, Galileo had observed Venus when her disc was largely -illuminated; but having directed his telescope to her when she was not -far removed from the sun, he saw her in the form of a crescent, -resembling exactly the moon at the same elongation from the sun. He -continued to observe her night after night, during the whole time that -she could be seen in the course of her revolution round the sun, and he -found that she exhibited the very same phases which resulted from her -motion round that luminary. -</p> - -<p> -Galileo had long contemplated a visit to the metropolis of Italy, and he -accordingly carried his intentions into effect in the early part of the -year 1611. Here he was received with that distinction which was due to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">{Pg 23}</a></span> -his great talents and his extended reputation. Princes, cardinals, and -prelates hastened to do him honour; and even those who discredited his -discoveries, and dreaded their results, vied with the true friends of -science in their anxiety to see the first wonder of the age. -</p> - -<p> -In order to show the new celestial phenomena to his friends at Rome, -Galileo took with him his best telescope; and as he had discovered the -spots on the sun's surface in the month of March, 1611, he had the -gratification of exhibiting this new wonder to his admiring disciples. -He accordingly erected his telescope in the Quirinal garden, belonging -to cardinal Bandini; and in April, 1611, he exhibited them to his -friends in many of their most interesting variations. From their change -of position on the sun's disc, Galileo at first inferred, either that -the sun revolved about an axis; or that other planets, like Venus and -Mercury, revolved so near the sun as to appear like black spots when -they were opposite to his disc. Upon continuing his observations, -however, he saw reason to abandon this last opinion. He found, that the -spots must be in contact with the surface of the sun; that their figures -were irregular; that they had different degrees of darkness; that one -spot would often divide itself into three or four; that three or four -spots would often unite themselves into one; and that all the spots -revolved regularly with the sun, which appeared to complete its -revolution in about twenty-eight days. -</p> - -<p> -Previous to the invention of the telescope, spots had been more than -once seen on the sun's disc with the unassisted eye. But even if these -were of the same character as those which Galileo and others observed, -we cannot consider them as anticipations of their discovery by the -telescope. As the telescope was now in the possession of several -astronomers, Galileo began to have many rivals in discovery; and it is -now placed beyond the reach of doubt, that he was not the first -discoverer of the solar spots. From the communication which I received -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">{Pg 24}</a></span> -from the late Dr. Robertson, of Oxford<a name="NoteRef_13_13" id="NoteRef_13_13"></a><a href="#Note_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>, it appears that Thomas -Harriot had discovered the solar spots on or before the 8th of December, -1610. His manuscripts, in lord Egremont's possession, incontestably -prove that his regular observations on the spots commenced on the 8th of -December, 1610,—at least three months before Galileo discovered them; -and that they were continued till the 18th of January, 1613. The -observations which he has recorded are 199 in number; and the accounts -of them are accompanied with rough drawings representing the number, -position, and magnitude of the spots.<a name="NoteRef_14_14" id="NoteRef_14_14"></a><a href="#Note_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> -</p> - -<p> -Another candidate for the honour of discovering the spots of the sun, -was John Fabricius, who undoubtedly saw them previous to June, 1611. The -dedication of the work<a name="NoteRef_15_15" id="NoteRef_15_15"></a><a href="#Note_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> in which he has recorded his observation, -bears the date of the 13th of June, 1611; and it is obvious, from the -work itself, that he had seen the spots during the year 1610: but as -there is no proof that he saw them before the 8th of December, 1610, and -as it is probable that Harriot had seen them before that date, we are -compelled to assign the priority of the discovery to our distinguished -countryman. -</p> - -<p> -The claim of Scheiner, professor of mathematics at Ingolstadt, is more -intimately connected with the history of Galileo. This learned -astronomer having, early in 1611, turned his telescope to the sun, -necessarily discovered the spots which at that time covered his disc. -Light flying clouds happened, at the time, to weaken the intensity of -his light, so that he was able to show the spots to his pupils. These -observations were not published till January, 1612; and they appeared in -the form of three letters, addressed to Mark Velser, one of the magistrates -of Augsburg, under the signature of <i>Apelles post Tabulam</i>. -Scheiner, who, many years afterwards, published an elaborate work on the -subject, adopted the same idea which had at first occurred to -Galileo,—that the spots were the dark sides of planets revolving -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">{Pg 25}</a></span> -round and near the sun.<a name="NoteRef_16_16" id="NoteRef_16_16"></a><a href="#Note_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> -</p> - -<p> -On the publication of Scheiner's letters Velser transmitted a copy of -them to his friend Galileo, with the request that he would favour him -with his opinion of the new phenomena. After some delay, Galileo -addressed three letters to Velser, in which he combated the opinions of -Scheiner on the cause of the spots. These letters were dated the 4th of -May, 1612; but though the controversy was carried on in the language of -mutual respect and esteem, it put an end to the friendship which had -existed between the two astronomers. In these letters, Galileo showed -that the spots often dispersed like vapours or clouds; that they -sometimes had a duration of only one or two days, and at other times of -thirty or forty days; that they contracted in their breadth when they -approached the sun's limb, without any diminution of their length; that -they describe circles parallel to each other; that the monthly rotation -of the sun again brings the same spots into view; and that they are -seldom seen at a greater distance than 30° from the sun's equator. Galileo, -likewise, discovered on the sun's disc <i>faculœ</i>, or <i>luculi</i>, -as they were called, which differ in no respect from the common ones but -in their being brighter than the rest of the sun's surface.<a name="NoteRef_17_17" id="NoteRef_17_17"></a><a href="#Note_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">{Pg 26}</a></span> -</p> - -<p> -In the last of the letters which our author addressed to Velser, and -which was written in December, 1612, he recurs to his former discovery -of the elongated shape, or rather the triple structure, of Saturn. The -singular figure which he had observed in this planet had entirely -disappeared; and he evidently announces the fact to Velser, lest it -should be used by his enemies to discredit the accuracy of his -observations. "Looking on Saturn," says he, "within these few days, I -found it solitary, without the assistance of its accustomed stars, and, -in short, perfectly round and defined like Jupiter; and such it still -remains. Now, what can be said of so strange a metamorphosis? Are the -two smaller stars consumed like the spots on the sun? Have they suddenly -vanished and fled? or has Saturn devoured his own children? or was the -appearance indeed fraud and illusion, with which the glasses have for so -long a time mocked me, and so many others who have often observed with -me? Now, perhaps, the time is come to revive the withering hopes of -those who, guided by more profound contemplations, have followed all the -fallacies of the new observations, and recognised their impossibilities. -I cannot resolve what to say in a chance so strange, so new, and so -unexpected; the shortness of the time, the unexampled occurrence, the -weakness of my intellect, and the terror of being mistaken, have greatly -confounded me." Although Galileo struggled to obtain a solution of this -mystery, yet he had not the good fortune of succeeding. He imagined that -the two smaller stars would reappear, in consequence of the supposed -revolution of the planet round its axis; but the discovery of the ring -of Saturn, and of the obliquity of its plane to the ecliptic, was -necessary to explain the phenomena which were so perplexing to our -author. -</p> - -<p> -The ill health to which Galileo was occasionally subject, and the belief -that the air of Florence was prejudicial to his complaints, induced him -to spend much of his time at Selve, the villa of his friend Salviati. -This eminent individual had ever been the warmest friend of Galileo, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">{Pg 27}</a></span> -seems to have delighted in drawing round him the scientific genius of -the age. He was a member of the celebrated Lyncæan Society, founded by -Prince Frederigo Cesi; and though he is not known as the author of any -important discovery, yet he has earned, by his liberality to science, a -glorious name, which will be indissolubly united with the immortal -destiny of Galileo. -</p> - -<p> -The subject of floating bridges having been discussed at one of the -scientific parties which had assembled at the house of Salviati, a -difference of opinion arose respecting the influence of the shape of -bodies on their disposition to float or to sink in a fluid. Contrary to -the general opinion, Galileo undertook to prove that it depended on -other causes: and he was thus led to compose his discourse on floating -bodies<a name="NoteRef_18_18" id="NoteRef_18_18"></a><a href="#Note_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>, which was published in 1612, and dedicated to Cosmo de' -Medici. This work contains many ingenious experiments, and much acute -reasoning in support of the true principles of hydrostatics; and it is -now chiefly remarkable as a specimen of the sagacity and intellectual -power of its author. Like all his other works, it encountered the most -violent opposition; and Galileo was more than once summoned into the -field to repel the aggressions of his ignorant and presumptuous -opponents. The first attack upon it was made by Ptolemy Nozzolini, in a -letter to Marzemedici, archbishop of Florence<a name="NoteRef_19_19" id="NoteRef_19_19"></a><a href="#Note_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>; and to this Galileo -replied in a letter addressed to his antagonist.<a name="NoteRef_20_20" id="NoteRef_20_20"></a><a href="#Note_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> A more elaborate -examination of it was published by Lodovico delle Colombe, and another -by M. Vincenzo di Grazia. To these attacks, a minute and overwhelming -answer was printed in the name of Benedetti Castelli, the friend and -pupil of Galileo; but it was discovered, some years after Galileo's -death, that he was himself the author of this work.<a name="NoteRef_21_21" id="NoteRef_21_21"></a><a href="#Note_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">{Pg 28}</a></span> -</p> - -<p> -The current of Galileo's life had hitherto flowed in a smooth and -unobstructed channel. He had now attained the highest objects of earthly -ambition. His discoveries had placed him at the head of the great men of -his age; he possessed a professional income far beyond his wants, and -even beyond his anticipations; and, what is still dearer to a -philosopher, he enjoyed the most perfect leisure for carrying on and -completing his discoveries. The opposition which these discoveries -encountered, was to him more a subject for triumph than for sorrow. -Prejudice and ignorance were his only enemies; and if they succeeded for -a while in harassing his march, it was only to give him occasion for -fresh achievements. He who contends for truths which he has himself been -permitted to discover, may well sustain the conflict in which -presumption and error are destined to fall. The public tribunal may -neither be sufficiently pure nor enlightened to decide upon the issue; -but he can appeal to posterity, and reckon with confidence on "its sure -decree." -</p> - -<p> -The ardour of Galileo's mind, the keenness of his temper, his clear -perception of truth, and his inextinguishable love of it, combined to -exasperate and prolong the hostility of his enemies. When argument -failed to enlighten their judgment, and reason to remove their -prejudices, he wielded against them his powerful weapons of ridicule and -sarcasm; and in this unrelenting warfare, he seems to have forgotten -that Providence had withheld from his enemies those very gifts which he -had so liberally received. He who is allowed to take the start of his -species, and to penetrate the veil which conceals from common minds the -mysteries of nature, must not expect that the world will be patiently -dragged at the chariot wheels of his philosophy. Mind has its inertia, -as well as matter; and its progress to truth can only be insured by the -gradual and patient removal of the obstructions which surround it. -</p> - -<p> -The boldness—may we not say the recklessness?—with which -Galileo insisted upon making proselytes of his enemies, produced the very -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">{Pg 29}</a></span> -opposite effect. Errors thus assailed, entrenched themselves in general -feelings, and were embalmed in the virulence of the passions. The -various classes of his opponents marshalled themselves for their mutual -defence. The Aristotelian professors, the temporising Jesuits, the -political churchmen, and that timid but respectable body who at all -times dread innovation, whether it be in religion or in science, entered -into an alliance against the philosophical tyrant who threatened them -with the penalties of knowledge. -</p> - -<p> -The party of Galileo, though weak in numbers, was not without power and -influence. He had trained around him a devoted band, who idolised his -genius and supported his views. His pupils had been appointed to several -of the principal professorships in Italy. The enemies of religion were -on this occasion united with the Christian philosopher; and there were, -even in these days, many princes and nobles who had felt the -inconvenience of ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and who secretly abetted -Galileo in his crusade against established errors. -</p> - -<p> -Although these two parties had been long dreading each other's power, -and reconnoitring each other's position, yet we cannot exactly determine -which of them hoisted the first signal for war. The church party, -particularly its high dignitaries, were certainly disposed to rest on -the defensive. Flanked on one side by the logic of the schools, and on -the other by the popular interpretation of Scripture, and backed by the -strong arm of the civil power, they were not disposed to interfere with -the prosecution of science, however much they may have dreaded its -influence. The philosophers, on the contrary, united the zeal of -innovators with the firmness of purpose which truth alone can inspire. -Victorious in every contest, they were flushed with success, and they -panted for a struggle in which they knew they must triumph. -</p> - -<p> -In this state of warlike preparation Galileo addressed a letter, in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">{Pg 30}</a></span> -1613, to his friend and pupil, the abbé Castelli, the object of which -was to prove that the Scriptures were not intended to teach us science -and philosophy. Hence he inferred, that the language employed in the -sacred volume in reference to such subjects should be interpreted only -in its common acceptation; and that it was in reality as difficult to -reconcile the Ptolemaic as the Copernican system to the expressions -which occur in the Bible. -</p> - -<p> -A demonstration was about this time made by the opposite party, in the -person of Caccini, a Dominican friar, who made a personal attack upon -Galileo from the pulpit. This violent ecclesiastic ridiculed the -astronomer and his followers, by addressing them in the sacred language -of Scripture; "Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye here looking up into -heaven?" But this species of warfare was disapproved of even by the -church; and Luigi Maraffi, the general of the Dominicans, not only -apologised to Galileo, who had transmitted to him a formal complaint -against Caccini, but expressed the acuteness of his own feelings on -being implicated in the "brutal conduct of thirty or forty thousand -monks." -</p> - -<p> -From the character of Caccini, and the part which he afterwards played -in the persecution of Galileo, we can scarcely avoid the opinion that -his attack from the pulpit was intended as a snare for the unwary -philosopher. It roused Galileo from his wonted caution; and stimulated, -no doubt, by the nature of the answer which he received from Maraffi, he -published a longer letter of seventy pages, defending and illustrating -his former views respecting the influence of scriptural language on the -two contending systems. As if to give the impress of royal authority to -this new appeal, he addressed it to Christian, grand-duchess of Tuscany, -the mother of Cosmo; and in this form it seems to have excited a new -interest, as if it had expressed the opinion of the grand-ducal family. -These external circumstances gave additional weight to the powerful and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">{Pg 31}</a></span> -unanswerable reasoning which this letter contains; and it was scarcely -possible that any man, possessed of a sound mind, and willing to learn -the truth, should refuse his assent to the judicious views of our -author. He expresses his belief that the Scriptures were given to -instruct mankind respecting their salvation, and that the faculties of -our minds were given us for the purpose of investigating the phenomena -of nature. He considers Scripture and nature as proceeding from the same -divine author, and, therefore, incapable of speaking a different -language; and he points out the absurdity of supposing that professors -of astronomy will shut their eyes to the phenomena which they discover -in the heavens, or will refuse to believe those deductions of reason -which appeal to their judgment with all the power of demonstration. He -supports these views by quotations from the ancient fathers; and he -refers to the dedication of Copernicus's own work to the Roman pontiff, -Paul III., as a proof that the pope himself did not regard the new -system of the world as hostile to the sacred writings. Copernicus, on -the contrary, tells his holiness, that the reason of inscribing to him -his new system was, that the authority of the pontiff might put to -silence the calumnies of some individuals, who attacked it by arguments -drawn from passages of Scripture twisted for their own purpose. -</p> - -<p> -It was in vain to meet such arguments by any other weapons than those of -the civil power. His enemies saw that they must either crush the -dangerous innovation, or allow it the fullest scope; and they determined -upon an appeal to the inquisition. Lorini, a monk of the Dominican -order, had already denounced to this body Galileo's letter to Castelli; -and Caccini, bribed by the mastership of the convent of St. Mary of -Minerva, was invited to settle at Rome for the purpose of embodying the -evidence against Galileo. -</p> - -<p> -Though these plans had been carried on in secret, yet Galileo's -suspicions were excited; and he obtained leave from Cosmo to go to Rome -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">{Pg 32}</a></span> -about the end of 1615.<a name="NoteRef_22_22" id="NoteRef_22_22"></a><a href="#Note_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> Here he was lodged in the palace of the grand -duke's ambassador, and kept up a constant correspondence with the family -of his patron at Florence; but, in the midst of this external splendour, -he was summoned before the inquisition to answer for the heretical -doctrines which he had published. He was charged with maintaining the -motion of the earth, and the stability of the sun, with teaching this -doctrine to his pupils, with corresponding on the subject with several -German mathematicians, and with having published it, and attempted to -reconcile it to Scripture, in his letters to Mark Velser in 1612. The -inquisition assembled to consider these charges on the 25th of February, -1615; and it was decreed that Galileo should be enjoined by cardinal -Bellarmine to renounce the obnoxious doctrines, and to pledge himself -that he would neither teach, defend, nor publish them in future. In the -event of his refusing to acquiesce in this sentence, it was decreed that -he should be thrown into prison. Galileo did not hesitate to yield to -this injunction. On the day following, the 26th of February, he appeared -before cardinal Bellarmine, to renounce his heretical opinions; and, -having declared that he abandoned the doctrine of the earth's motion, -and would neither defend nor teach it, in his conversation or in his -writings, he was dismissed the court. -</p> - -<p> -Having thus disposed of Galileo, the inquisition conceived the design of -condemning the whole system of Copernicus as heretical. Galileo, with -more hardihood than prudence, remained at Rome for the purpose of giving -his assistance in frustrating this plan; but there is reason to think -that he injured by his presence the very cause which he meant to -support. The inquisition had determined to put down the new opinions; -and they now inserted among the prohibited books Galileo's letters to -Castelli and the grand duchess, Kepler's epitome of the Copernican -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">{Pg 33}</a></span> -theory, and Copernicus's own work on the revolutions of the heavenly -bodies. -</p> - -<p> -Notwithstanding these proceedings, Galileo had an audience of the pope, -Paul V., in March, 1616. He was received very graciously, and spent -nearly an hour with his holiness. When they were about to part, the pope -assured Galileo, that the congregation were not disposed to receive upon -light grounds any calumnies which might be propagated by his enemies, -and that, as long as he occupied the papal chair, he might consider -himself as safe. -</p> - -<p> -These assurances were no doubt founded on the belief that Galileo would -adhere to his pledges; but so bold and inconsiderate was he in the -expression of his opinions, that even in Rome he was continually engaged -in controversial discussions. The following very interesting account of -these disputes is given by Querenghi, in a letter to the cardinal -D'Este:— -</p> - -<p> -"Your eminence would be delighted with Galileo if you heard him holding -forth, as he often does, in the midst of fifteen or twenty, all -violently attacking him, sometimes in one house, sometimes in another. -But he is armed after such fashion that he laughs all of them to -scorn,—and even if the novelty of his opinions prevents entire -persuasion, at least he convicts of emptiness most of the arguments with -which his adversaries endeavour to overwhelm him. He was particularly -admirable on Monday last in the house of signor Frederico Ghisilieri; -and what especially pleased me was, that before replying to the contrary -arguments, he amplified and enforced them with new grounds of great -plausibility, so as to leave his adversaries in a more ridiculous -plight, when he afterwards overturned them all." -</p> - -<p> -The discovery of Jupiter's satellites suggested to Galileo a new method -of finding the longitude at sea. Philip III. had encouraged astronomers -to direct their attention to this problem, by offering a reward for its -solution; and in those days, when new discoveries in science were -sometimes rejected as injurious to mankind, it was no common event to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">{Pg 34}</a></span> -see a powerful sovereign courting the assistance of astronomers in -promoting the commercial interests of his empire. Galileo seems to have -regarded the solution of this problem as an object worthy of his -ambition; and he no doubt anticipated the triumph which he would obtain -over his enemies, if the Medicean stars, which they had treated with -such contempt, could be made subservient to the great interests of -mankind. During his residence at Rome in 1615 and 1616, Galileo had -communicated his views on this subject to the comte di Lemos, the -viceroy of Naples, who had presided over the council of the Spanish -Indies. This nobleman advised him to apply to the Spanish minister, the -duke of Lerma; and, through the influence of the grand duke Cosmo, his -ambassador at the court of Madrid was engaged to manage the affair. The -anxiety of Galileo on this subject was singularly great. He assured the -Tuscan ambassador that, in order to accomplish this object, "he was -ready to leave all his comforts, his country, his friends, and his -family, to cross over into Spain, and to stay as long as he might be -wanted at Seville or at Lisbon, or wherever it might be convenient to -communicate a knowledge of his method." The enthusiasm of Galileo seems -to have increased the lethargy of the Spanish court; and though the -negotiations were occasionally revived for ten or twelve years, yet no -steps were taken to bring them to a close. This strange procrastination -has been generally ascribed to jealousy or indifference on the part of -Spain; but Nelli, one of Galileo's biographers, declares, on the -authority of Florentine records, that Cosmo had privately requested from -the government the privilege of sending annually t to the Spanish Indies -two Leghorn merchantmen free of duty, as a compensation for the loss of -Galileo! -</p> - -<p> -The failure of this negotiation must have been a source of extreme -mortification to the high spirit and sanguine temperament of Galileo. He -had calculated, however, too securely on his means of putting the new -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">{Pg 35}</a></span> -method to a successful trial. The great imperfection of the time-keepers -of that day, and the want of proper telescopes, would have baffled him -in all his efforts, and he would have been subject to a more serious -mortification from the failure and rejection of his plan, than that -which he actually experienced from the avarice of his patron, or the -indifference of Spain. Even in the present day, no telescope has been -invented which is capable of observing at sea the eclipses of Jupiter's -satellites; and though this method of finding the longitude has great -advantages on shore, yet it has been completely abandoned at sea, and -superseded by easier and more correct methods. -</p> - -<p> -In the year 1618, when no fewer than three comets visited our system, -and attracted the attention of all the astronomers of Europe, Galileo -was unfortunately confined to his bed by a severe illness; but, though -he was unable to make a single observation upon these remarkable bodies, -he contrived to involve himself in the controversies which they -occasioned. Marco Guiducci, an astronomer of Florence, and a friend of -Galileo's, had delivered a discourse on comets before the Florentine -Academy, which was published in 1619.<a name="NoteRef_23_23" id="NoteRef_23_23"></a><a href="#Note_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> The heads of this discourse -were supposed to have been communicated to him by Galileo, and this -seems to have been universally admitted during the controversy to which -it gave rise. The opinion maintained in this treatise, that comets are -nothing but meteors which occasionally appear in our atmosphere, like -halos and rainbows, savours so little of the sagacity of Galileo that we -should be disposed to question its paternity. His inability to partake -in the general interest which these three comets excited, and to employ -his powerful telescope in observing their phenomena and their movements, -might have had some slight share in the formation of an opinion which -deprived them of their importance as celestial bodies. But, however this -may have been, the treatise of Guiducci afforded a favourable point of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">{Pg 36}</a></span> -attack to Galileo's enemies, and the dangerous task was entrusted to -Oratio Grassi, a learned Jesuit, who, in a work entitled <i>The -Astronomical and Philosophical Balance</i>, criticised the discourse on -comets, under the feigned name of Lotario Sarsi. -</p> - -<p> -Galileo replied to this attack in a volume entitled <i>Il Saggiatore</i>, -or <i>The Assayer</i>, which, owing to the state of his health, was not -published till the autumn of 1623.<a name="NoteRef_24_24" id="NoteRef_24_24"></a><a href="#Note_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> This work was written in the form -of a letter to Virginio Cæsarini, a member of the Lyncæan Academy, and -master of the chamber to Urban VIII.<a name="NoteRef_25_25" id="NoteRef_25_25"></a><a href="#Note_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>, who had just ascended the -pontifical throne. It has been long celebrated among literary men for -the beauty of its language, though it is doubtless one of the least -important of Galileo's writings. -</p> - -<p> -The succession of the cardinal Maffeo Barberini to the papal throne, -under the name of Urban VIII., was hailed by Galileo and his friends as -an event favourable to the promotion of science. Urban had not only been -the personal friend of Galileo and of prince Cesi, the founder of the -Lyncæan Academy, but had been intimately connected with that able and -liberal association; and it was, therefore, deemed prudent to secure his -favour and attachment. If Paul III. had, nearly a century before, -patronised Copernicus, and accepted of the dedication of his great work, -it was not unreasonable to expect that, in more enlightened times, -another pontiff might exhibit the same liberality to science. -</p> - -<p> -The plan of securing to Galileo the patronage of Urban VIII. seems to -have been devised by prince Cesi. Although Galileo had not been able for -some years to travel, excepting in a fitter, yet he was urged by the -prince to perform a journey to Rome, for the express purpose of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">{Pg 37}</a></span> -congratulating his friend upon his elevation to the papal chair. This -request was made in October, 1623; and, though Galileo's health was not -such as to authorise him to undergo so much fatigue, yet he felt the -importance of the advice; and, after visiting Cesi at Acqua Sparta, he -arrived at Rome in the spring of 1624. The reception which he here -experienced far exceeded his most sanguine expectations. During the two -months which he spent in the capital he was permitted to have no fewer -than six long and gratifying audiences of the pope. The kindness of his -holiness was of the most marked description. He not only loaded Galileo -with presents<a name="NoteRef_26_26" id="NoteRef_26_26"></a><a href="#Note_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>, and promised him a pension for his son Vincenzo, but -he wrote a letter to Ferdinand, who had just succeeded Cosmo as grand -duke of Tuscany, recommending Galileo to his particular patronage. "For -we find in him," says he, "not only literary distinction, but the love of -piety; and he is strong in those qualities by which pontifical good-will -is easily obtained. And now, when he has been brought to this city to -congratulate us on our elevation, we have very lovingly embraced him; -nor can we suffer him to return to the country whither your liberality -recalls him, without an ample provision of pontifical love. And that you -may know how dear he is to us, we have willed to give him this -honourable testimonial of virtue and piety. And we further signify, that -every benefit which you shall confer upon him, imitating or even -surpassing your father's liberality, will conduce to our gratification." -</p> - -<p> -Not content with thus securing the friendship of the pope, Galileo -endeavoured to bespeak the good-will of the cardinals towards the -Copernican system. He had, accordingly, many interviews with several of -these dignitaries; and he was assured, by cardinal Hohenzoller, that in -a representation which he had made to the pope on the subject of -Copernicus, he stated to his holiness, "that as all the heretics -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">{Pg 38}</a></span> -considered that system as undoubted, it would be necessary to be very -circumspect in coming to any resolution on the subject." To this remark -his holiness replied,—"that the church had not condemned this system; -and that it should not be condemned as heretical, but only as rash;" and -he added, "that there was no fear of any person undertaking to prove -that it must necessarily be true." -</p> - -<p> -The recent appointment of the abbé Castelli, the friend and pupil of -Galileo, to be mathematician to the pope, was an event of a most -gratifying nature; and when we recollect that it was to Castelli that he -addressed the famous letter which was pronounced heretical by the -inquisition, we must regard it also as an event indicative of à new and -favourable feeling towards the friends of science. The opinions of -Urban, indeed, had suffered no change. He was one of the few cardinals -who had opposed the inquisitorial decree of 1616, and his subsequent -demeanour was in every respect conformable to the liberality of his -early views. The sincerity of his conduct was still further evinced by -the grant of a pension of one hundred crowns to Galileo, a few years -after his visit to Rome; but there is reason to think that this -allowance was not regularly paid. -</p> - -<p> -The death of Cosmo, whose liberality had given him both affluence and -leisure, threatened Galileo with pecuniary difficulties. He had been -involved in a "great load of debt," owing to the circumstances of his -brother's family; and, in order to relieve himself, he had requested -Castelli to dispose of the pension of his son Vincenzo: but he was now -alarmed at the prospect of losing his salary as an extraordinary -professor at Pisa. The great youth of Ferdinand, who was scarcely of -age, induced Galileo's enemies, in 1629, to raise doubts respecting the -payment of a salary to a professor who neither resided nor lectured in -the university; but the question was decided in his favour, and we have -no doubt that the decision was facilitated by the friendly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">{Pg 39}</a></span> -recommendation of the pope, to which we have already referred. -</p> - -<p> -Although Galileo had made a narrow escape from the grasp of the -inquisition, yet he was never sufficiently sensible of the lenity which -he experienced. When he left Rome in 1616, under the solemn pledge of -never again teaching the obnoxious doctrine, it was with an hostility -against the church, suppressed but deeply cherished; and his resolution -to propagate the heresy seems to have been coeval with the vow by which -he renounced it. In the year 1618, when he communicated his theory of -the tides to the archduke Leopold, he alludes in the most sarcastic -manner to the conduct of the church. The same hostile tone, more or -less, pervaded all his writings, and, while he laboured to sharpen the -edge of his satire, he endeavoured to guard himself against its effects, -by an affectation of the humblest deference to the decisions of -theology. Had Galileo stood alone, his devotion to science might have -withdrawn him from so hopeless a contest; but he was spurred on by the -violence of a party. The Lyncæan Academy never scrupled to summon him -from his researches. They placed him in the forlorn hope of their -combat, and he at last fell a victim to the rashness of his adventure. -</p> - -<p> -But, whatever allowance we may make for the ardour of Galileo's temper, -and the peculiarity of his position; and however we may justify and even -approve of his past conduct, his visit to Urban VIII., in 1624, placed -him in a new relation to the church, which demanded on his part a new -and corresponding demeanour. The noble and generous reception which he -met with from Urban, and the liberal declaration of cardinal Hohenzoller -on the subject of the Copernican system, should have been regarded as -expressions of regret for the past, and offers of conciliation for the -future. Thus honoured by the head of the church, and befriended by its -dignitaries, Galileo must have felt himself secure against the indignity -of its lesser functionaries, and in the possession of the fullest -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">{Pg 40}</a></span> -licence to prosecute his researches and publish his discoveries, -provided he avoided that dogma of the church which, even in the present -day, it has not ventured to renounce. But Galileo was bound to the -Romish hierarchy by even stronger ties. His son and himself were -pensioners of the church, and, having accepted of its alms, they owed to -it, at least, a decent and respectful allegiance. The pension thus given -by Urban was not a remuneration which sovereigns sometimes award to the -services of their subjects. Galileo was a foreigner at Rome. The -sovereign of the papal state owed him no obligation; and hence we must -regard the pension of Galileo as a donation from the Roman pontiff to -science itself, and as a declaration to the Christian world, that -religion was not jealous of philosophy, and that the church of Rome was -willing to respect and foster even the genius of its enemies. -</p> - -<p> -Galileo viewed all these circumstances in a different light. He resolved -to compose a work in which the Copernican system should be demonstrated; -but he had not the courage to do this in a direct and open manner. He -adopted the plan of discussing the subject in a dialogue between three -speakers, in the hope of eluding by this artifice the censure of the -church. This work was completed in 1630, but, owing to some difficulties -in obtaining a licence to print it, it was not published till 1632. -</p> - -<p> -In obtaining this licence, Galileo exhibited considerable address, and -his memory has not escaped from the imputation of having acted unfairly, -and of having involved his personal friends in the consequences of his -imprudence. -</p> - -<p> -The situation of master of the palace was, fortunately for Galileo's -designs, filled by Nicolo Riccardi, a friend and pupil of his own. This -officer was a sort of censor of new publications, and when he was -applied to on the subject of printing his work, Galileo soon found that -attempts had previously been made to thwart his views. He instantly set -off for Rome, and had an interview with his friend, who was in every -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">{Pg 41}</a></span> -respect anxious to oblige him. Riccardi examined the manuscript, pointed -out some incautious expressions which he considered it necessary to -erase, and returned it with his written approbation, on the -understanding that the alterations he suggested would be made. Dreading -to remain in Rome during the unhealthy season, which was fast -approaching, Galileo returned to Florence, with the intention of -completing the index and dedication, and of sending the MS. to Rome, to -be printed under the care of prince Cesi. The death of that -distinguished individual, in August 1630, frustrated Galileo's plan, and -he applied for leave to have the book printed in Florence. Riccardi was -at first desirous to examine the MS. again, but after inspecting only -the beginning and the end of it, he gave Galileo leave to print it -wherever he chose, providing it bore the licence of the -inquisitor-general of Florence, and one or two other persons whom he -named. Having overcome all these difficulties, Galileo's work was -published in 1632, under the title of "The System of the World of -Galileo Galilei, &c., in which, in four dialogues concerning the two -principal systems of the World,—the Ptolemaic and the -Copernican,—he discusses, indeterminately and firmly, the arguments -proposed on both sides." It is dedicated to Ferdinand, grand duke of -Tuscany, and is prefaced by an "Address to the prudent reader," which is -itself characterised by the utmost imprudence. He refers to the decree of -the inquisition in the most insulting and ironical language. He attributes -it to passion and to ignorance, not by direct assertion, but by -insinuations ascribed to others; and he announces his intention to -defend the Copernican system, as a pure mathematical hypothesis, and not -as an opinion, having an advantage over that of the stability of the -earth absolutely. The dialogue is conducted by three persons, Salviati, -Sagredo, and Simplicio. Salviati, who is the true philosopher in the -dialogue, was the real name of a nobleman whom we have already had -occasion to mention. Sagredo, the name of another noble friend of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">{Pg 42}</a></span> -Galileo's, performs a secondary part under Salviati. He proposes doubts, -suggests difficulties, and enlivens the gravity of the dialogue with his -wit and pleasantry. Simplicio is a resolute follower of Ptolemy and -Aristotle, and with a proper degree of candour and modesty, he brings -forward all the common arguments in favour of the Ptolemaic system. -Between the wit of Sagredo, and the powerful philosophy of Salviati, the -peripatetic sage is baffled in every discussion; and there can be no -doubt that Galileo aimed a more fatal blow at the Ptolemaic system by -this mode of discussing it, than if he had endeavoured to overturn it by -direct arguments. -</p> - -<p> -The influence of this work on the public mind was such as might have -been anticipated. The obnoxious doctrines which it upheld were eagerly -received, and widely disseminated; and the church of Rome became -sensible of the shock which was thus given to its intellectual -supremacy. Pope Urban VIII., attached though he had been to Galileo, -never once hesitated respecting the line of conduct which he felt -himself bound to pursue. His mind was, nevertheless, agitated with -conflicting sentiments. He entertained a sincere affection for science -and literature, and yet he was placed in the position of their enemy. He -had been the personal friend of Galileo, and yet his duty compelled him -to become his accuser. Embarrassing as these feelings were, other -considerations contributed to soothe him. He had, in his capacity of a -cardinal, opposed the first persecution of Galileo. He had, since his -elevation to the pontificate, traced an open path for the march of -Galileo's discoveries; and he had finally endeavoured to bind the -recusant philosopher by the chains of kindness and gratitude. All these -means, however, had proved abortive, and he was now called upon to -support the doctrine which he had subscribed, and administer the law of -which he was the guardian. -</p> - -<p> -It has been supposed, without any satisfactory evidence, that Urban may -have been influenced by less creditable motives. Salviati and Sagredo -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">{Pg 43}</a></span> -being well-known personages, it was inferred, that Simplicio must also -have a representative. The enemies of Galileo are said to have convinced -his holiness that Simplicio was intended as a portraiture of himself; -and this opinion received some probability from the fact, that the -peripatetic disputant had employed many of the arguments which Urban had -himself used in his discussions with Galileo. The latest biographer of -Galileo<a name="NoteRef_27_27" id="NoteRef_27_27"></a><a href="#Note_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> regards this motive as necessary to account for "the -otherwise inexplicable change which took place in the conduct of Urban -to his old friend;"—but we cannot admit for a moment the truth, of -this supposition. The church had been placed in hostility to a powerful and -liberal party, which was adverse to its interests. The dogmas of the -Catholic faith had been brought into direct collision with the -deductions of science. The leader of the philosophic band had broken the -most solemn armistice with the inquisition: he had renounced the ties of -gratitude which bound him to the pontiff; and Urban was thus compelled -to intrench himself in a position to which he had been driven by his -opponents. -</p> - -<p> -The design of summoning Galileo before the inquisition, seems to have -been formed almost immediately after the publication of his book; for -even in August, 1632, the preliminary proceedings had reached the ears -of the grand duke Ferdinand. The Tuscan ambassador at Rome was speedily -acquainted with the dissatisfaction which his sovereign felt at these -proceedings; and he was instructed to forward to Florence a written -statement of the charges against Galileo, in order to enable him to -prepare for his defence. Although this request was denied, Ferdinand -again interposed; and transmitted a letter to his ambassador, -recommending the admission of Campanella and Castelli into the -congregation of ecclesiastics by which Galileo was to be judged. -Circumstances, however, rendered it prudent to withhold this letter. -Castelli was sent away from Rome, and Scipio Chiaramonte, a bigotted -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">{Pg 44}</a></span> -ecclesiastic, was summoned from Pisa to complete the number of the -judges. -</p> - -<p> -It appears from a despatch of the Tuscan minister, that Ferdinand was -enraged at the transaction; and he instructed his ambassador, Niccolini, -to make the strongest representations to the pope. Niccolini had several -interviews with his holiness; but all his expostulations were fruitless. -He found Urban highly incensed against Galileo; and his holiness begged -Niccolini to advise the archduke not to interfere any farther, as he -would not "get through it with honour." On the 15th of September the -pope caused it to be intimated to Niccolini, as a mark of his especial -esteem for the grand duke, that he was obliged to refer the work to the -inquisition; but both the prince and his ambassador were declared liable -to the usual censures if they divulged the secret. -</p> - -<p> -From the measures which this tribunal had formerly pursued, it was not -difficult to foresee the result of their present deliberations. They -summoned Galileo to appear before them at Rome, to answer in person the -charges under which he lay. The Tuscan ambassador expostulated warmly -with the court of Rome on the inhumanity of this proceeding. He urged -his advanced age, his infirm health, the discomforts of the journey, and -the miseries of the quarantine<a name="NoteRef_28_28" id="NoteRef_28_28"></a><a href="#Note_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>, as motives for reconsidering their -decision: but the pope was inexorable; and though it was agreed to relax -the quarantine as much as possible in his favour, yet it was declared -indispensable that he should appear in person before the inquisition. -</p> - -<p> -Worn out with age and infirmities, and exhausted with the fatigues of -his journey, Galileo arrived at Rome on the 14th of February, 1633. The -Tuscan ambassador announced his arrival in an official form to the -commissary of the holy office, and Galileo awaited in calm dignity the -approach of his trial. Among those who proffered their advice in this -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">{Pg 45}</a></span> -distressing emergency, we must enumerate the cardinal Barberino, the -pope's nephew, who, though he may have felt the necessity of an -interference on the part of the church, was yet desirous that it should -be effected with the least injury to Galileo and to science. He -accordingly visited Galileo, and advised him to remain as much at home -as possible, to keep aloof from general society, and to see only his -most intimate friends. The same advice was given from different -quarters; and Galileo felt its propriety, and remained in strict -seclusion in the palace of the Tuscan ambassador. -</p> - -<p> -During the whole of the trial which now commenced, Galileo was treated -with the most marked indulgence. Abhorring, as we must do, the -principles and practice of this odious tribunal, and reprobating its -interference with the cautious deductions of science, we must yet admit -that, on this occasion, its deliberations were not dictated by passion, -nor its power directed by vengeance. Though placed at their -judgment-seat as a heretic, Galileo stood there with the recognised -attributes of a sage; and though an offender against the laws of which -they were the guardian, yet the highest respect was yielded to his -genius, and the kindest commiseration to his infirmities. -</p> - -<p> -In the beginning of April, when his examination in person was to -commence, it became necessary that he should be removed to the holy -office; but instead of committing him, as was the practice, to solitary -confinement, he was provided with apartments in the house of the fiscal -of the inquisition. His table was provided by the Tuscan ambassador, and -his servant was allowed to attend him at his pleasure, and to sleep in -an adjoining apartment. Even this nominal confinement, however, -Galileo's high spirit was unable to brook. An attack of the disease to -which he was constitutionally subject contributed to fret and irritate -him, and he became impatient for a release from his anxiety as well as -from his bondage. Cardinal Barberino seems to have received notice of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">{Pg 46}</a></span> -the state of Galileo's feelings; and with a magnanimity which posterity -will ever honour, he liberated Galileo on his own responsibility; and in -ten days after his first examination, and on the last day of April, he -was restored to the hospitable roof of the Tuscan ambassador. -</p> - -<p> -Though this favour was granted on the condition of his remaining in -strict seclusion, Galileo recovered his health, and to a certain degree -his usual hilarity, amid the kind attentions of Niccolini and his -family; and when the want of exercise had begun to produce symptoms of -indisposition, Niccolini obtained for him leave to go into the public -gardens in a half-closed carriage. -</p> - -<p> -After the inquisition had examined Galileo personally, they allowed him -a reasonable time for preparing his defence. He felt the difficulty of -adducing any thing like a plausible justification of his conduct; and he -resorted to an ingenious, though a shallow artifice, which was regarded -by the court as an aggravation of the crime. After his first appearance -before the inquisition in 1616, he was publicly and falsely charged by -his enemies with having then abjured his opinions; and he was taunted as -a criminal who had been actually punished for his offences. As a -refutation of these calumnies. Cardinal Bellarmine had given him a -certificate in his own handwriting, declaring that he neither abjured -his opinions, nor suffered punishment for them; and that the doctrine of -the earth's motion, and the sun's stability, was only denounced to him -as contrary to scripture, and as one which could not be defended. To -this certificate the cardinal did not add, because he was not called -upon to do it, that Galileo was enjoined not <i>to teach in any manner</i> -the doctrine thus denounced; and Galileo ingeniously avails himself of -this supposed omission, to account for his having, in the lapse of -fourteen or sixteen years, forgotten the injunction. He assigned the -same excuse for his having omitted to mention this injunction to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">{Pg 47}</a></span> -Riccardi, and to the inquisitor-general at Florence, when he obtained -the licence to print his dialogues. The court held the production of -this certificate to be at once a proof and an aggravation of his -offence; because the certificate itself declared that the obnoxious -doctrines had been pronounced contrary to the Holy Scriptures. -</p> - -<p> -Having duly weighed the confessions and excuses of their prisoner, and -considered the general merits of the case, the inquisition came to an -agreement upon the sentence which they were to pronounce, and appointed -the 22d of June as the day on which it was to be delivered. Two days -previous to this, Galileo was summoned to appear at the holy office; and -on the morning of the 21st, he obeyed the summons. On the 22d of June he -was clothed in a penitential dress, and conducted to the convent of -Minerva, where the inquisition was assembled to give judgment. A long -and elaborate sentence was pronounced, detailing the former proceedings -of the inquisition, and specifying the offences which he had committed -in teaching heretical doctrines, in violating his former pledges, and in -obtaining by improper means a licence for the printing of his Dialogues. -After an invocation of the name of our Saviour, and of the Holy Virgin, -Galileo is declared to have brought himself under strong suspicions of -heresy, and to have incurred all the censures and penalties which are -enjoined against delinquents of this kind; but from all these -consequences he is to be held absolved, provided that with a sincere -heart, and a faith unfeigned, he abjures and curses the heresies he has -cherished, as well as every other heresy against the Catholic church. In -order that his offence might not go altogether unpunished, that he might -be more cautious in future, and be a warning to others to abstain from -similar delinquencies, it was also decreed that his Dialogues should be -prohibited by public edict; that he himself should be condemned to the -prison of the inquisition during their pleasure, and that during the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">{Pg 48}</a></span> -next three years he should recite once a week the seven penitential -psalms. -</p> - -<p> -The ceremony of Galileo's abjuration was one of exciting interest, and -of awful formality. Clothed in the sackcloth of a repentant criminal, -the venerable sage fell upon his knees before the assembled cardinals; -and laying his hands upon the Holy Evangelists, he invoked the divine -aid in abjuring and detesting, and vowing never again to teach, the -doctrine of the earth's motion, and of the sun's stability. He pledged -himself that he would never again, either in words or in writing, -propagate such heresies; and he swore that he would fulfil and observe -the penances which had been inflicted upon him.<a name="NoteRef_29_29" id="NoteRef_29_29"></a><a href="#Note_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> At the conclusion of -this ceremony, in which he recited his abjuration word for word, and -then signed it, he was conveyed, in conformity with his sentence, to the -prison of the inquisition. -</p> - -<p> -The account which we have now given of the trial and the sentence of -Galileo, is pregnant with the deepest interest and instruction. Human -nature is here drawn in its darkest colouring; and in surveying the -melancholy picture, it is difficult to decide whether religion or -philosophy has been most degraded. While we witness the presumptuous -priest pronouncing infallible the decrees of his own erring judgment, we -see the high-minded philosopher abjuring the eternal and immutable -truths which he had himself the glory of establishing. In the ignorance -and prejudices of the age,—in a too literal interpretation of the -language of Scripture,—in a mistaken respect for the errors that had -become venerable from their antiquity,—and in the peculiar position -which Galileo had taken among the avowed enemies of the church, we may -find the elements of an apology, however poor it may he, for the conduct -of the inquisition. But what excuse can we devise for the humiliating -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">{Pg 49}</a></span> -confession and abjuration of Galileo? Why did this master-spirit of the -age—this high-priest of the stars—this representative of -science—this hoary sage, whose career of glory was near its -consummation,—why did he reject the crown of martyrdom which he had -himself coveted, and which, plaited with immortal laurels, was about to -descend upon his head? If, in place of disavowing the laws of nature, and -surrendering in his own person the intellectual dignity of his species, he -had boldly owned the truth of his opinions, and confided his character to -posterity, and his cause to an all-ruling Providence, he would have strung -up the hair-suspended sabre, and disarmed for ever the hostility which -threatened to overwhelm him. The philosopher, however, was supported -only by philosophy; and in the love of truth he found a miserable -substitute for the hopes of the martyr. Galileo cowered under the fear -of man, and his submission was the salvation of the church. The sword of -the inquisition descended on his prostrate neck; and though its stroke -was not physical, yet it fell with a moral influence fatal to the -character of its victim, and to the dignity of science. -</p> - -<p> -In studying with attention this portion of scientific history, the -reader will not fail to perceive that the church of Rome was driven into -a dilemma from which the submission and abjuration of Galileo could -alone extricate it. He who confesses a crime and denounces its atrocity, -not only sanctions but inflicts the punishment which is annexed to it. -If Galileo had declared his innocence, and avowed his sentiments; and if -he had appealed to the past conduct of the church itself, to the -acknowledged opinions of its dignitaries, and even to the acts of its -pontiffs, he would have at once confounded his accusers, and escaped -from their toils. After Copernicus, himself a catholic priest, had -<i>openly</i> maintained the motion of the earth, and the stability of the -sun: after he had dedicated the work which advocated these opinions to -pope Paul III., on the express ground that the <i>authority of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">{Pg 50}</a></span> -pontiff</i> might silence the calumnies of those who attacked these -opinions by arguments drawn from Scripture: after the cardinal Schonherg -and the bishop of Culm had urged Copernicus to publish the new -doctrines; and after the bishop of Ermeland had erected a monument to -commemorate his great discoveries; how could the church of Rome have -appealed to its pontifical decrees as the ground of persecuting and -punishing Galileo? Even in later times, the same doctrines had been -propagated with entire toleration; nay, in the very year of Galileo's -first persecution, Paul Anthony Foscarinus, a learned Carmelite monk, -wrote a pamphlet, in which he illustrates and defends the mobility of -the earth, and endeavours to reconcile to this new doctrine the passages -of Scripture which had been employed to subvert it. This very singular -production was dated from the Carmelite convent at Naples; was dedicated -to the very reverend Sebastian Fantoni, general of the Carmelite order; -and, sanctioned by the ecclesiastical authorities, it was published at -Florence, three years before the second persecution of Galileo. -</p> - -<p> -By these acts, tolerated for more than a century, the decrees of the -pontiffs against the doctrine of the earth's motion were virtually -repealed; and Galileo might have pleaded them with success in arrest of -judgment. Unfortunately, however, for himself and for science, he acted -otherwise. By admitting their authority, he revived in fresh force these -obsolete and obnoxious enactments; and, by yielding to their power, he -riveted for another century the almost broken chains of spiritual -despotism. -</p> - -<p> -Pope Urban VII. did not fail to observe the full extent of his triumph; -and he exhibited the utmost sagacity in the means which he employed to -secure it. While he endeavoured to overawe the enemies of the church by -the formal promulgation of Galileo's sentence and abjuration, and by -punishing the officials who had assisted in obtaining the licence to -print his work, he treated Galileo with the utmost lenity, and yielded -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">{Pg 51}</a></span> -to every request that was made to diminish, and almost to suspend, the -constraint under which he lay. The sentence of abjuration was ordered to -be publicly read at several universities. At Florence the ceremonial was -performed in the church of Santa Croce, and the friends and disciples of -Galileo were especially summoned to witness the public degradation of -their master. The inquisitor at Florence was ordered to be reprimanded -for his conduct; and Riccardi, the master of the sacred palace, and -Ciampoli, the secretary of pope Urban himself, were dismissed from their -situations. -</p> - -<p> -Galileo had remained only four days in the prison of the inquisition, -when, on the application of Niccolini, the Tuscan ambassador, he was -allowed to reside with him in his palace. As Florence still suffered -under the contagious disease which we have already mentioned, it was -proposed that Sienna should be the place of Galileo's confinement, and -that his residence should be in one of the convents of that city. -Niccolini, however, recommended the palace of the archbishop Piccolomoni -as a more suitable residence; and though the archbishop was one of -Galileo's best friends, the pope agreed to the arrangement, and in the -beginning of July Galileo quitted Rome for Sienna. -</p> - -<p> -After having spent nearly six months under the hospitable roof of his -friend, with no other restraint than that of being confined to the -limits of the palace, Galileo was permitted to return to his villa near -Florence under the same restrictions; and as the contagious disease had -disappeared in Tuscany, he was able in the month of December to re-enter -his own house at Arcetri, where he spent the remainder of his days. -</p> - -<p> -Although Galileo had now the happiness of rejoining his family under -their paternal roof, yet, like all sublunary blessings, it was but of -short duration. His favourite daughter Maria, who along with her sister -had joined the convent of St. Matthew in the neighbourhood of Arcetri, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">{Pg 52}</a></span> -had looked forward to the arrival of her father with the most -affectionate anticipation: she hoped that her filial devotion might form -some compensation for the malignity of his enemies; and she eagerly -assumed the labour of reciting weekly the seven penitentiary psalms -which formed part of her father's sentence. These sacred duties, -however, were destined to terminate almost at the moment they were -begun. She was seized with a fatal illness in the same month in which -she rejoined her parent, and before the month of April she was no more. -This heavy blow, so suddenly struck, overwhelmed Galileo in the deepest -agony. Owing to the decline of his health, and the recurrence of his old -complaints, he was unable to oppose to this mental suffering the -constitutional energy of his mind. The bulwarks of his heart broke down, -and a flood of grief desolated his manly and powerful mind. He felt, as -he expressed it, that he was incessantly called by his daughter,—his -pulse intermitted,—his heart was agitated with unceasing -palpitations,—his appetite entirely left him, and he considered his -dissolution so near at hand, that he would not permit his son Vicenzo to -set out upon a journey which he had contemplated. -</p> - -<p> -From this state of melancholy and indisposition, Galileo slowly, though -partially, recovered; and, with the view of obtaining medical -assistance, he requested leave to go to Florence. His enemies, however, -refused this application, and he was given to understand that any -additional importunities would be visited with a more vigilant -surveillance. He remained, therefore, five years at Arcetri, from 1634 -to 1638, without any remission of his confinement, and pursuing his -studies under the influence of a continued and general indisposition. -</p> - -<p> -There is no reason to think that Galileo or his friends renewed their -application to the church of Rome; but, in 1638, the pope transmitted, -through the inquisitor Fariano, his permission that he might remove to -Florence for the recovery of his health, on the condition that he should -present himself at the office of the inquisitor to learn the terms upon -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">{Pg 53}</a></span> -which this indulgence was granted. Galileo accepted of the kindness thus -unexpectedly proffered; but the conditions upon which it was given were -more severe than he expected: he was prohibited from leaving his house, -or admitting his friends; and so sternly was this system pursued, that -he required a special order for attending mass during Passion week. -</p> - -<p> -The severity of this order was keenly felt by Galileo. While he remained -at Arcetri, his seclusion from the world would have been an object of -choice, if it had not been the decree of a tribunal; but to be debarred -from the conversation of his friends in Florence,—in that city where -his genius had been idolised, and where his fame had become immortal, -was an aggravation of punishment which he was unable to bear. With his -accustomed kindness, the grand duke made a strong representation on the -subject to his ambassador at the court of Rome. He stated that, from his -great age and infirmities, Galileo's career was near its close; that he -possessed many valuable ideas, which the world might lose if they were -not matured and conveyed to his friends; and that Galileo was anxious to -make these communications to father Castelli, who was then a stipendiary -of the court of Rome. The grand duke commanded his ambassador to see -Castelli on the subject; to urge him to obtain leave from the pope to -spend a few months in Florence, and to supply him with money, and every -thing that was necessary for his journey. Influenced by this kind and -liberal message. Castelli obtained an audience of the pope, and -requested leave to pay a visit to Florence. Urban instantly suspected -the object of his journey; and, upon Castelli's acknowledging that he -could not possibly refrain from seeing Galileo, he received permission -to visit him in the company of an officer of the inquisition. Castelli -accordingly went to Florence; and, a few months afterwards, Galileo was -ordered to return to Arcetri. -</p> - -<p> -During Galileo's confinement at Sienna and Arcetri, between 1633 and -1636, his time was principally occupied in the composition of his -"Dialogues on Local Motion." This remarkable work, which was considered -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">{Pg 54}</a></span> -by its author as the best of his productions, was printed by Louis -Elzevir, at Amsterdam, and dedicated to the count de Noailles, the -French ambassador at Rome. Various attempts to have it printed in -Germany had failed; and, in order to save himself from the malignity of -his enemies, he was obliged to pretend that the edition published in -Holland had been printed from a MS. entrusted to the French ambassador. -</p> - -<p> -Although Galileo had for a long time abandoned his astronomical studies, -yet his attention was directed, about the year 1636, to a curious -appearance in the lunar disc, which is known by the name of the moons -libration. When we examine with a telescope the outline of the moon, we -observe that certain parts of her disc, which are seen at one time, are -invisible at another. This change or libration is of four different -kinds; viz. the diurnal libration, the libration in longitude, the -libration in latitude, and the spheroidal libration. Galileo discovered -the first of these kinds of libration, and appears to have had some -knowledge of the second; but the third was discovered by Hevelius, and -the fourth by Lagrange.<a name="NoteRef_30_30" id="NoteRef_30_30"></a><a href="#Note_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> -</p> - -<p> -This curious discovery was the result of the last telescopic -observations of Galileo. Although his right eye had for some years lost -its power, yet his general vision was sufficiently perfect to enable him -to carry on his usual researches. In 1636, however, this affection of -his eye became more serious; and, in 1637, his left eye was attacked -with the same disease. His medical friends at first supposed that -cataracts were formed in the crystalline lens, and anticipated a cure -from the operation of couching. These hopes were fallacious. The disease -turned out to be in the cornea, and every attempt to restore its -transparency was fruitless. In a few months the white cloud covered the -whole aperture of the pupil, and Galileo became totally blind. This -sudden and unexpected calamity had almost overwhelmed Galileo and his -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">{Pg 55}</a></span> -friends. In writing to a correspondent he exclaims, "Alas! your dear -friend and servant has become totally and irreparably blind. These -heavens, this earth, this universe, which by wonderful observation I had -enlarged a thousand times beyond the belief of past ages, are henceforth -shrunk into the narrow space which I myself occupy. So it pleases God; -it shall, therefore, please me also." His friend, father Castelli, -deplores the calamity in the same tone of pathetic sublimity:—"The -noblest eye," says he, "which nature ever made, is darkened; an eye so -privileged, and gifted with such rare powers, that it may truly be said -to have seen more than the eyes of all that are gone, and to have opened -the eyes of all that are to come." -</p> - -<p> -Although Galileo had been thwarted in his attempt to introduce into the -Spanish marine his new method of finding the longitude at sea, yet he -never lost sight of an object to which he attached the highest -importance. As the formation of correct tables of the motion of -Jupiter's satellites was a necessary preliminary to its introduction, he -had occupied himself for twenty-four years in observations for this -purpose, and he had made considerable progress in this laborious task. -After the publication of his "Dialogues on Motion," in 1636, he renewed -his attempts to bring his method into actual use. For this purpose he -addressed himself to Lorenzo Real, who had been the Dutch -governor-general in India, and offered the free use of his method to the -states-general of Holland.<a name="NoteRef_31_31" id="NoteRef_31_31"></a><a href="#Note_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> The Dutch government received this -proposal with an anxious desire to have it carried into effect. At the -instigation of Constantine Huygens, the father of the illustrious -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">{Pg 56}</a></span> -Huygens, and the secretary to the prince of Orange, they appointed -commissioners to communicate with Galileo; and while they transmitted -him a gold chain as a mark of their esteem, they at the same time -assured him, that if his plan should prove successful it should not pass -unrewarded. The commissioners entered into an active correspondence with -Galileo, and had even appointed one of their number to communicate -personally with him in Italy. Lest this, however, should excite the -jealousy of the court of Rome, Galileo objected to the arrangement, so -that the negotiation was carried on solely by correspondence. -</p> - -<p> -It was at this time that Galileo was struck with blindness. His friend -and pupil, Renieri, undertook, in this emergency, to arrange and -complete his observations and calculations; but before he had made much -progress in the arduous task, each of the four commissioners died in -succession, and it was with great difficulty that Constantine Huygens -succeeded in renewing the scheme. It was again obstructed, however, by -the death of Galileo; and when Renieri was about to publish, by the -order of the grand duke, the "Ephemeris," and "Tables of the Jovian -Planets," he was attacked with a mortal disease, and the manuscripts of -Galileo, which he was on the eve of publishing, were never more heard -of. By such a series of misfortunes were the plans of Galileo and of the -states-general completely overthrown. It is some consolation, however, -to know that neither science nor navigation suffered any severe loss. -Notwithstanding the perfection of our present tables of Jupiter's -satellites, and of the astronomical instruments by which their eclipses -may be observed, the method of Galileo is still impracticable at sea. -</p> - -<p> -In consequence of the strict seclusion to which Galileo had been -subjected, he was in the practice of dating his letters from his prison -at Arcetri: but after he had lost the use of his eyes, the Inquisition -seems to have relaxed its severity, and to have allowed him the freest -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">{Pg 57}</a></span> -intercourse with his friends. The grand duke of Tuscany paid him -frequent visits; and among the celebrated strangers who came from -distant lands to see the ornament of Italy, were Gassendi, Deodati, and -our illustrious countryman Milton. During the last three years of his -life, his eminent pupil Viviani formed one of his family; and in -October, 1611, the celebrated Torricelli, another of his pupils, was -admitted to the same distinction. -</p> - -<p> -Though the powerful mind of Galileo still retained its vigour, yet his -debilitated frame was exhausted with mental labour. He often complained -that his head was too busy for his body; and the continuity of his -studies was frequently broken with attacks of hypochondria, want of -sleep, and acute rheumatic pains. Along with these calamities, he was -afflicted with another still more severe—with deafness almost total; -but though he was now excluded from all communication with the external -world, yet his mind still grappled with the material universe, and while -he was studying the force of percussion, and preparing for a -continuation of his "Dialogues on Motion," he was attacked with fever -and palpitation of the heart, which, after continuing two months, -terminated fatally on the 8th of January, 1642, in the 78th year of his -age. -</p> - -<p> -Having died in the character of a prisoner of the Inquisition, this -odious tribunal disputed his right of making a will, and of being buried -in consecrated ground. These objections, however, were withdrawn; but -though a large sum was subscribed for erecting a monument to him in the -church of Santa Croce, in Florence, the pope would not permit the design -to be carried into execution. His sacred remains were, therefore, -deposited in an obscure corner of the church, and remained for more than -thirty years unmarked with any monumental tablet. The following epitaph, -given without any remark in the Leyden edition of his Dialogues, is, we -presume, the one which was inscribed on a tablet in the church of Santa -Croce:— -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">{Pg 58}</a></span> -</p> - -<blockquote><p class="center"> -GALILÆO GALILÆI FIORENTINO,<br /> -Philosopho et Geometræ vere lynceo,<br /> -Natura Œdipo,<br /> -Mirabilium semper inventorum machinatori,<br /> -Qui inconcessa adhuc mortalibus gloria<br /> -Cælorum provincias auxit<br /> -Et universo dedit incrementum:<br /> -Non enim vitreos spherarum orbes<br /> -Fragilesque stellas conflavit:<br /> -Sed æterna mundi corpore<br /> -Mediceæ beneficentiae dedicavit,<br /> -Cujus inextincta gloriæ cupiditas<br /> -Ut oculos nationum<br /> -Sæculorumque omnium<br /> -Videre doceret,<br /> -Proprios impendit oculos.<br /> -Cum jam nil amplius haberet natura<br /> -Quod ipse videret.<br /> -Cujus inventa vix intra rerum limites comprehensa<br /> -Firmamentum ipsum non solum continet,<br /> -Sed etiam recipit.<br /> -Qui relictis tot scientiarum monumentis<br /> -Plura secum tulit, quam reliquit.<br /> -Gravi enim<br /> -Sed nondum affecta senectute,<br /> -Novis contemplationibus<br /> -Majorem gloriam affectans<br /> -Inexplebilem sapientiæ animam<br /> -Immaturo nobis obi tu<br /> -Exhalavit<br /> -Anno Domini<br /> -MCXLII.<br /> -Ætatis suæ<br /> -LXXVIII.</p></blockquote> - -<p> -At his death, in 1703, Viviani purchased his property, with the charge -of erecting a monument over Galileo's remains and his own. This design -was not carried into effect till 1737, at the expense of the family of -Nelli, when both their bodies were disinterred, and removed to the site -of the splendid monument which now covers them. This monument contains -the bust of Galileo, with figures of Geometry and Astronomy. It was -designed by Giulio Foggini. Galileo's bust was executed by Giovanni -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">{Pg 59}</a></span> -Battista Foggini; the figure of Astronomy by Vincenzio Foggini, his son; -and that of Geometry by Girolamo Ticciati. -</p> - -<p> -Galileo's house at Arcetri still remains. In 1821 it belonged to one -Signor Alimari, having been preserved in the state in which it was left -by Galileo; it stands very near the convent of St. Matthew, and about a -mile to the S. E. of Florence. An inscription by Nelli, over the door of -the house, still remains. -</p> - -<p> -The character of Galileo, whether we view him as a member of the social -circle, or as a man of science, presents many interesting and -instructive points of contemplation. Unfortunate, and to a certain -extent immoral, in his domestic relations, he did not derive from that -hallowed source all the enjoyments which it generally yields; and it was -owing to this cause, perhaps, that he was more fond of society than -might have been expected from his studious habits. His habitual -cheerfulness and gaiety, and his affability and frankness of manner, -rendered him an universal favourite among his friends. Without any of -the pedantry of exclusive talent, and without any of that ostentation -which often marks the man of limited though profound acquirements, -Galileo never conversed upon scientific or philosophical subjects except -among those who were capable of understanding them. The extent of his -general information, indeed, his great literary knowledge, but, above -all, his retentive memory, stored with the legends and the poetry of -ancient times, saved him from the necessity of drawing upon his own -peculiar studies for the topics of his conversation. -</p> - -<p> -Galileo was not less distinguished for his hospitality and benevolence; -he was liberal to the poor, and generous in the aid which he -administered to men of genius and talent, who often found a comfortable -asylum under his roof. In his domestic economy he was frugal without -being parsimonious. His hospitable board was ever ready for the -reception of his friends; and, though he was himself abstemious in his -diet, he seems to have been a lover of good wines, of which he received -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">{Pg 60}</a></span> -always the choicest varieties out of the grand duke's cellar. This -peculiar taste, together with his attachment to a country life, rendered -him fond of agricultural pursuits, and induced him to devote his leisure -hours to the cultivation of his vineyards. -</p> - -<p> -In his personal appearance Galileo was about the middle size, and of a -square-built, but well-proportioned, frame. His complexion was fair, his -eyes penetrating, and his hair of a reddish hue. His expression was -cheerful and animated, and though his temper was easily ruffled, yet the -excitement was transient, and the cause of it speedily forgotten. -</p> - -<p> -One of the most prominent traits in the character of Galileo was his -invincible love of truth, and his abhorrence of that spiritual despotism -which had so long brooded over Europe. His views, however, were too -liberal, and too far in advance of the age which he adorned; and however -much we may admire the noble spirit which he evinced, and the personal -sacrifices which he made, in his struggle for truth, we must yet lament -the hotness of his zeal and the temerity of his onset. In his contest -with the church of Rome, he fell under her victorious banner; and though -his cause was that of truth, and hers that of superstition, yet the -sympathy of Europe was not roused by his misfortunes. Under the -sagacious and peaceful sway of Copernicus, astronomy had effected a -glorious triumph over the dogmas of the church; but under the bold and -uncompromising sceptre of Galileo all her conquests were irrecoverably -lost. -</p> - -<p> -The scientific character of Galileo, and his method of investigating -truth, demand our warmest admiration. The number and ingenuity of his -inventions; the brilliant discoveries which he made in the heavens, and -the depth and beauty of his researches respecting the laws of motion, -have gained him the admiration of every succeeding age, and have placed -him next to Newton in the lists of original and inventive genius. To -this high rank he was doubtless elevated by the inductive processes -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">{Pg 61}</a></span> -which he followed in all his inquiries. Under the sure guidance of -observation and experiment, he advanced to general laws; and if Bacon -had never lived, the student of nature would have found, in the writings -and labours of Galileo, not only the boasted principles of the inductive -philosophy, but also their practical application to the highest efforts -of invention and discovery. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">{Pg 62}</a></span> -</p> - -<p><br /></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_1_1" id="Note_1_1"></a><a href="#NoteRef_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>Childe Harold, canto IV. stanza LIV.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_2_2" id="Note_2_2"></a><a href="#NoteRef_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>Life of Galileo, Library of Useful Knowledge, p. 1.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_3_3" id="Note_3_3"></a><a href="#NoteRef_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>De Insidentibus in Fluido.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_4_4" id="Note_4_4"></a><a href="#NoteRef_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>Opere di Galileo. Milano, 1810, vol. IV. p. 248.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_5_5" id="Note_5_5"></a><a href="#NoteRef_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>Life of Galileo, in Library of Useful Knowledge, p. 9.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_6_6" id="Note_6_6"></a><a href="#NoteRef_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>Systema Cosmicum, Dial. II. p. 121.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_7_7" id="Note_7_7"></a><a href="#NoteRef_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>The authenticity of this work has been doubted. It was -printed at Rome, in 1656, from a MS. in the library of Somasohi, at -Venice. See Opere di Galileo, tom. VII. p. 427.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_8_8" id="Note_8_8"></a><a href="#NoteRef_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>Incredibili animi jucunditate.—<i>Sid.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_9_9" id="Note_9_9"></a><a href="#NoteRef_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a>Nescio quo fato ductus.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_10_10" id="Note_10_10"></a><a href="#NoteRef_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>Berlin Ephemeris, 1788.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_11_11" id="Note_11_11"></a><a href="#NoteRef_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a>Edin. Phil. Journ. vol. VI. p. 313.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_12_12" id="Note_12_12"></a><a href="#NoteRef_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a>Life and Correspondence of Dr. Bradley. Oxford, 1832, p. -523.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_13_13" id="Note_13_13"></a><a href="#NoteRef_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a>See page 22.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_14_14" id="Note_14_14"></a><a href="#NoteRef_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a>Edin. Phil. Journ. 1822, vol. VI. p. 317.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_15_15" id="Note_15_15"></a><a href="#NoteRef_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a>Joh. Fabricii Phrysii de Maculis in Sole observatis, et -apparente earum cum Sole conversione, Narratio. Wittemb. 1611.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_16_16" id="Note_16_16"></a><a href="#NoteRef_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a>It does not appear from the history of solar observations, -at what time, and by whom, coloured glasses were first introduced for -permitting the eye to look at the sun with impunity. Fabricius was -obviously quite ignorant of the use of coloured glasses. He observed the -sun when he was in the horizon, and when his brilliancy was impaired by -the interposition of thin clouds and floating vapours; and he advises -those who may repeat his observations, to admit at first to the eye a -small portion of the sun's light, till it is gradually accustomed to its -full splendour. When the sun's altitude became considerable, Fabricius -gave up his observations; which he often continued so long, that he was -scarcely able, for two days together, to see objects with their usual -distinctness. -</p> - -<p> -Scheiner, in his "Apelles post Tabulanti," describes four different ways -of viewing the spots: one of which is by the <i>interposition of blue or -green glasses.</i> His first method was to observe the sun near the -horizon; the second was to view him through a transparent cloud; the -third was to look at him through his telescope with a blue or a green -glass of a proper thickness, and plane on both sides, or to use a thin -blue glass when the sun was covered with a thin vapour or cloud; and the -fourth method was to begin and observe the sun at his margin, till the -eye gradually reached the middle of his disc.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_17_17" id="Note_17_17"></a><a href="#NoteRef_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a>See Istoria e Demostrazioni, intorna alle macchie solari. -<i>Roma</i>, 1613. See Opere di Galileo, vol. V. p. 131-293.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_18_18" id="Note_18_18"></a><a href="#NoteRef_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a>Discorso intorno alle cose che stanno in sa l'acqua, o che -in quella si muovono. Opere di Galileo, vol. II. pp. 165-311.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_19_19" id="Note_19_19"></a><a href="#NoteRef_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a>Opere di Galileo, vol. II. pp. 355-367.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_20_20" id="Note_20_20"></a><a href="#NoteRef_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a>Ibid. 367-390.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_21_21" id="Note_21_21"></a><a href="#NoteRef_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a>These three treatises occupy the whole of the third volume -of the Opere di Galileo.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_22_22" id="Note_22_22"></a><a href="#NoteRef_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a>It is said that Galileo was cited to appear at Rome on -this occasion; and the opinion is not without foundation.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_23_23" id="Note_23_23"></a><a href="#NoteRef_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a>Printed in the Opere di Galileo, vol. VI. pp. 117-191.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_24_24" id="Note_24_24"></a><a href="#NoteRef_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a>Printed in the Opere di Galileo, vol. VI. pp. 191-571.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_25_25" id="Note_25_25"></a><a href="#NoteRef_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a>This work is said to have been dedicated to Urban VIII. -himself (Lib. U. Knowledge, Life of Galileo, chap, VII.), but there is -no dedication prefixed to the edition we have referred to; and it is, -besides, unusual to dedicate a volume to any person when that volume has -the form of a letter to another.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_26_26" id="Note_26_26"></a><a href="#NoteRef_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a>A fine painting in gold, and a silver medal, and "a good -quantity of agnus dei."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_27_27" id="Note_27_27"></a><a href="#NoteRef_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a>Library of Useful Knowledge, Life of Galileo, chap. VIII.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_28_28" id="Note_28_28"></a><a href="#NoteRef_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a>The communication between Florence and Rome was at this -time interrupted by a contagious disease which had broken out in -Tuscany.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_29_29" id="Note_29_29"></a><a href="#NoteRef_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a>It has been said, but upon what authority we cannot find, -that when Galileo rose from his knees, he stamped on the ground, and -said in a whisper to one of his friends, "<i>E pur si muove.</i>" "It does -move, though."—Life of Galileo, Lib. Use. Knowledge, part II. -p. 63.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_30_30" id="Note_30_30"></a><a href="#NoteRef_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a>These phenomena are explained in the volume on -"Astronomy."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_31_31" id="Note_31_31"></a><a href="#NoteRef_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a>It is a curious fact, that Morin had about this time -proposed to determine the longitude by the moon's distance from a fixed -star, and that the commissioners assembled in Paris to examine it, -requested Galileo's opinion of its value and practicability. Galileo's -opinion was highly unfavourable. He saw clearly, and explained -distinctly, the objection to Morin's method, arising from the -imperfection of the lunar tables, and the inadequacy of astronomical -instruments; but he seemed not to be conscious that the very same -objections applied, with even greater force, to his own method, which -has since been supplanted by that of the French savant. See life of -Galileo, Library of Useful Knowledge, p. 94.</p></div> - -<p><br /><br /><br /></p> - -<h4><a id="GUICCIARDINI">GUICCIARDINI</a></h4> - -<h4>1482-1540.</h4> - -<p> -Guicciardini was the contemporary and intimate friend of Machiavelli, -but their several careers bore small similitude; for worldly prosperity -attended the first, while the other was depressed by neglect and penury; -and while his intellect struggled with these chains, the nobler parts of -his disposition yielded to them. Machiavelli was a republican in -principle, of humble for tunes, and dependent on his friends for their -favour and encouragement. Guicciardini was a courtier; he was the -servant of a prince, not of a state; in birth and position in life he -had the advantage of his friend; and these combining circumstances -rendered him more confident in himself, while at the same time it -inspired him with an avowed dislike for popular governments. -</p> - -<p> -The Guicciardini formed one of the noblest families of Florence: it was -of ancient origin, and possessed several magnificent mansions in -Florence. One of the streets is named de' Guicciardini, from containing -a palace belonging to them; and they had large possessions in the Val di -Pesa. -</p> - -<p> -Francesco, the subject of this memoir, was the son of Piero de' -Guicciardini, a celebrated advocate, and at one time commissary-general -to the Florentine army. Francesco was one of eight children. His mother -was Simona, daughter of the cavaliere Bongiani Gianfigliazzi, a noble -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">{Pg 63}</a></span> -Florentine. He was born on the 6th of March, 1482.<a name="NoteRef_32_32" id="NoteRef_32_32"></a><a href="#Note_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> He was educated -with care by the best masters, and taught Greek and Latin. He applied -himself, as he grew up, to the study of logic and of civil law, as he -was destined for the robe. He was sent to Ferrara by his father, not -merely for the sake of attending the teachers there, but that his parent -might have a place of refuge, where to send his property, in the event -of civil disturbance or external attack upon Florence. Large sums of -money were remitted to him, and he boasts of the trustworthiness of his -conduct on this occasion, despite his extreme youth. It was in agitation -at one time to make him a priest, as, through the interest of an uncle, -who was rich in benefices, a prosperous career was opened to him in the -church. He was himself inclined towards the clerical profession, as one -full of honour and dignity; but his father decided against it, and -resolved that none of his five sons should enter the priesthood; partly -induced by the notion that the papal power was on the decline, and -partly from a conscientious feeling of the impropriety of adopting the -sacred calling, merely for the sake of temporal advantages. Instead, -therefore, of assuming the sacerdotal garb, Francesco took a doctor's -degree in law, and at an early age was appointed by the government to -read the Institute in the university of Florence. He married the -following year. His wife was Maria, daughter of Alamanno di Averardo -Salviati, one of the first men of the city. Several law offices were -bestowed on him, and he prides himself at this success in early life. -But he felt himself still more honoured, when he was sent by the -republic as ambassador to Ferdinand, king of Aragon. Italy was then the -arena on which the adverse powers of France, Germany, and Spain -contended for mastery. Florence adhered to the French party, but the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">{Pg 64}</a></span> -timid gonfaloniere Soderini, desirous of currying favour on all sides, -thought it right to preserve a good understanding with Ferdinand. -Francesco, feeling his inexperience, shrunk from the responsibility of -this mission, and did not accept it, till his father added his commands -to those of the state. -</p> - -<p> -He remained two years at Burgos, in attendance on the Spanish court, -conducting himself in such a way as to acquire the esteem of Ferdinand, -who presented him with a number of silver vessels of great value on his -departure. This was no good school for the acquirement of political -integrity. The Italians were proverbially treacherous, but Ferdinand -emulated them in the arts of deception. It is related of this monarch, -that when he heard that Louis XII. complained of having been twice -deceived by him, he exclaimed, "The fool lies, I have tricked him above -ten times." -</p> - -<p> -Meanwhile the aspect of affairs changed at Florence. The French were -driven from Italy, and the republic paid the penalty of the weak and -disarmed neutrality which it had preserved, by being forced by the -allied armies to receive back the exiled Medici. The consequence of this -return was a change of government, from that of a free state, to -subjection to the will of a single family. Guicciardini acted with a -prudence that acquired for him the favour of the new rulers; and, on his -return from Spain, was received with every suitable mark of distinction. -His joy, however, on returning to his native town, was clouded by the -recent death of his father. -</p> - -<p> -On the event of the visit of Leo X. to Florence, attended by a numerous -retinue of cardinals, Guicciardini, who had lately filled the office of -magistrate, was sent, with others, to receive the pope at Cortona. Leo -was so struck by him, that the next day he named him his consistorial -advocate, of his own accord, without solicitation: nor did his patronage -stop here; he soon after took him entirely into his service, and finding -that his prudence and sagacity were equal to the good opinion he had -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">{Pg 65}</a></span> -formed of him, he made him governor of Reggio and Modena. He acquitted -himself with great credit in this high office. Having been educated for -the robe, instead of the career of arms, the enemies of the pope -cherished the notion, that he might be surprised and frightened in his -government; but his firmness and judgment disconcerted all their -stratagems. -</p> - -<p> -When Leo X. died, the merits of Guicciardini became yet more -conspicuous. The papal power was very infirmly established in Lombardy, -and the duke of Ferrara, who claimed Modena and Reggio as his own, was -on the alert to take advantage of the interval of weakness caused by a -delay in the election of a new pope; but Guicciardini foiled him in all -his attempts. His most memorable action on this occasion was his defence -of Parma. He relates it with conscious pride in his history. He had been -sent by cardinal Julius de' Medici to defend Parma from an attack made -by the French. Guicciardini's chief difficulty was, to inspire the -citizens with resolution and martial enthusiasm. He convoked them -together, distributed pikes among them, and causing the defenceless part -of the town, on one side of the river, to be abandoned, made strenuous -efforts to intrench the other. The enemy entered the deserted portion, -and the people were eager to surrender. Guicciardini pointed out to them -the fact, that the hostile forces were unprovided with artillery, and so -succeeded in inspiring them with some degree of resolution: he led the -attack himself, and the success that attended their sortie increasing -their courage, the enemy was driven, off and the siege raised. Federigo -da Bozzole, who commanded the attack, had made sure of success, and -declared that he had been deceived in nothing during the expedition, -except in the notion that a governor, who was not a soldier, and who had -newly come to the city, should carry on the defence at his own peril, -when he might have saved himself without dishonour. -</p> - -<p> -When cardinal Julius became pope, under the name of Clement VII., he -showed his approbation of Guicciardini, by naming him president of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">{Pg 66}</a></span> -Romagna, with greater powers than had been enjoyed by any predecessor in -that office: thus, a large portion of Italy north of the Apennines was -under his rule. It was a situation of honour, but attended with an equal -portion of difficulty and labour, from the unsettled state of the -country. Prudence and firmness, and even severity, were the -characteristics of Guicciardini's administration; he was unrelenting -towards criminals, but at the same time became very popular, in Modena -especially, by the attention he paid to the comfort and pleasures of the -people, and the embellishments he bestowed on the city. -</p> - -<p> -At this time the French were again, after the battle of Pavia, driven -from Italy, and Clement VII., afraid of the overweening power of Charles -V., formed a league against him. The duke of Urbino was chief over the -army of the league, and Guicciardini was named lieutenant-general of the -pontifical army in the ecclesiastical states. The choice that had been -made of the duke of Urbino, as chief leader, was injudicious. He had -been driven from his states by Leo X.; Lorenzo de' Medici had been -gifted with his duchy, and he naturally was inimical to his rival's -family. His irresolute, shuffling conduct during the disastrous advance -of the constable Bourbon on Rome, was doubtless a principal cause of the -sack of that city. Guicciardini, as general of the papal army, exerted -himself in vain to induce him to more energetic measures: instead of -throwing himself before the advancing army of the imperialists, he -slowly followed it. When Bourbon was in the neighbourhood of Arezzo, the -duke of Urbino entered Florence. -</p> - -<p> -The power of the Medici was odious in that city. A formidable party, -whose watchword was liberty, regarded with triumph the dangers to which -Clement VII. was exposed. A number of the younger nobility among them -took occasion of the alarm excited, to seize on the palace of -government. The duke of Urbino prepared to attack it, but first sent -Federigo da Bozzole to treat with the party who held it. Full of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">{Pg 67}</a></span> -enthusiasm and courage, the young men refused all terms, and Bozzole -left them, enraged at their obstinacy and their personal ill-treatment -of himself. Guicciardini perceived the dangers that threatened his -country. It was an easy task for the duke of Urbino to attack the palace -of government, to destroy it and all those within; but an act of -violence and bloodshed was to be avoided. Guicciardini hastened forward -to meet Bozzole as he left the palace, and represented to him briefly -how displeasing such a contest would be to the pope, and how detrimental -to the confederates; and how much better it would be to calm, instead of -exasperating, the mind of the duke of Urbino. Bozzole yielded, and gave -hope to the duke that quiet might be restored without recourse being had -to arms; pacific means were in consequence resorted to, and the -insurgents induced to quit the palace. Guicciardini relates this -circumstance and his interference with pride, in the belief that he had -done his country as well as the pope good service, but he adds, that he -got no thanks from either side; the Medici party accusing him of -preferring the lives and safety of the citizens to the firm -establishment of that family; while the other party declared that he had -exaggerated their difficulties, and caused them needlessly to yield -their advantages. -</p> - -<p> -It had been well for the fame of Guicciardini, if he had submitted to -the blame of his contemporaries, and secured the approbation of -posterity, by adhering to a line of conduct so impartial and patriotic. -Although the fall of the Medici was suspended for a short time on this -occasion, the taking of Rome decided their expulsion. When the duke of -Urbino went southward to deliver the pope, besieged in the Castel Sant' -Angelo, the Florentines seized the opportunity to drive out the Medici, -and to restore the freedom of their government. The wars carried on by -Clement VII. had weighed heavily on the republic, since he drew from it -his chief resources; the people were thus exasperated against his rule, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">{Pg 68}</a></span> -and now that they possessed the power, displayed their hatred of his -family by many acts of outrage. To have served them was to share their -disgrace, and the odium with which they were regarded. It has been -related how Machiavelli, republican as he was, and personally attached -to many of the leaders of the popular party, was unable to overcome the -prejudice excited by his having entered the service of the Medici. -Guicciardini was visited by more open marks of the dislike of the new -leaders; and he was the more angry because he had displayed a wish to -join them. He neither loved nor esteemed Clement; whom he represents as -timid; avaricious, and ungracious. He regarded his imprisonment by the -imperialists with very lukewarm interest, and even raised soldiers for -the defence of Florence: but these demonstrations did not avail to -acquire for him the confidence of his countrymen, and he was forced to -fly the town during a popular tumult. Hence seems to spring his hatred -of free institutions, and his subsequent conduct in aiding in the -destruction of the liberties of his country. From this time he entered -with all the zeal of personal resentment into the cause of the Medici. -His name has thus received a taint never to be effaced. He became the -abettor of tyrants, the oppressor of his fellow citizens; and that -equity and firmness which he before exercised; by establishing order in -the districts over which he presided, were changed to the persecution of -the martyrs of liberty.<a name="NoteRef_33_33" id="NoteRef_33_33"></a><a href="#Note_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> It is impossible to slur over this portion -of his life as he does himself. For it is remarkable that the only -events recorded in his history, which are narrated in a slovenly and -confused manner, are those in which he took a principal share,—the -second restoration of the Medici, and the final overthrow of the -liberties of Florence. -</p> - -<p> -When a reconciliation had been patched up between Charles V. and Clement -VII., the force of their united arms was turned against Florence. The -republic was headed by gallant spirits, who, seeing their last hope of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">{Pg 69}</a></span> -freedom in a successful resistance, exerted every nerve to defend -themselves. They were willing to suffer any extremity, rather than -submit to a slavery which must crush for ever the proud independence and -free institutions of their native city. Guicciardini had been named by -the pope, governor of Bologna, and took no part in the war against his -country; but he is accused of participating in the iniquitous -proceedings which followed the surrender of the city. The pope acted -with the utmost treachery. He granted generous terms; but when in -possession, held a mock assembly of the people, keeping off, by means of -the troops he introduced, all the citizens, except those prepared to -receive law at his hands. He thus, as it were, obtained a legal decree, -which changed the form of government, and denounced its late leaders. -Executions and confiscations became the order of the day; the chief -power was placed in the hands of Vettori, Guicciardini, and two others, -and their conduct entailed on them the execration of their fellow -citizens. -</p> - -<p> -So zealous did Guicciardini show himself, that the pope entrusted him -with the office of reforming and restricting the list of candidates, who -were selected to be members of government, and he displayed his prudence -and sagacity for the reigning family at the expense of the lives and -liberties of the most virtuous among his fellow citizens. Under his -auspices, the office of gonfaloniere, which had subsisted for 250 years, -was abolished, and Alessandro de' Medici was named duke, which title was -to descend in perpetuity to his successors. This miserable man was the -son of a negro woman, and regarded as the offspring of Lorenzo, the son -of Piero de' Medici: but it was more probable that he owed his existence -to Clement VII.; at least the latter claimed the honour of paternity. -His disgraceful birth stamped him with contempt; his profligacy and -cruelty acquired the hatred of the people over whom he ruled. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">{Pg 70}</a></span> -</p> - -<p> -Guicciardini endeavoured to restrain him in the indulgence of his vices, -but without avail. He was now wholly devoted to his service. When -Clement VII. died, his successor wished him to continue governor of -Bologna, but he refused. While the see was vacant, he had yielded to the -entreaties of the senators, and remained to prevent popular -disturbances. They promised him every assistance to maintain his -authority; but his enemies took occasion to display their disrespect. -Geronimo Pepoli, and others, who some years before had retired from -Bologna in distaste, took this occasion to return, accompanied by armed -followers and public bandits. Guicciardini's haughty spirit was in arms -against the insult. Among the followers of Pepoli were two outlaws under -sentence of death; these he caused to be seized, led to prison, and put -to death. Pepoli manifested the utmost indignation, and was only -restrained by the authority of the senators from giving public token of -his resentment. When the new pope was elected, and another governor -appointed, Guicciardini prepared to quit the city. Pepoli threatened to -attack him on his departure; but he, undismayed, set out at noon-day, -accompanied only by a few attendants on horseback. His road led him past -the palace of the Pepoli, nor would he diverge from it on this account, -but passed under their windows with a firm and intrepid countenance, and -was permitted to pursue his way unmolested. -</p> - -<p> -He soon after displayed this energy and firmness of character in a very -bad cause. The Florentines, unable any longer to endure the tyranny and -vices of duke Alexander, appealed to Charles V., whom they regarded as -lord paramount of their state. The emperor summoned Alexander to Naples, -where he then was, to answer the charges made against him. He obeyed: -but the emperor was so incensed that he began to fear the result, and -was on the point of retreating, had not Guicciardini exhorted him to -remain. He drew up a defence for him, and by a judicious distribution of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">{Pg 71}</a></span> -bribes, succeeded in obtaining his acquittal; and Florence was again -subjected to his yoke. -</p> - -<p> -Two years after, Alexander was murdered by Lorenzino de' Medici, who -considered that he had a better right to be considered the head of the -family. But this act, undertaken without the participation of any -accomplice, was not followed by the results that might have been -anticipated. Lorenzino, frightened by his very success, fled the city, -and his cousin Cosmo was raised to the supreme power, and afterwards -named grand duke of Tuscany. Guicciardini assisted materially in his -elevation, and hoped to be real chief of the state, while the other held -the nominal rank. But Cosmo was of a crafty, cold, and ungrateful -disposition, and treated his benefactor with such neglect, that he -withdrew himself from public life, and retired to his country seat at -Montici, in the neighbourhood of Florence. -</p> - -<p> -From this time he occupied himself wholly in the composition of his -history. It is a fine monument of his genius and industry. It commences -with the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII., and goes down to the -exaltation of Cosmo. The fault attributed to him as an author is -prolixity, and to this he must plead guilty. He dwells with the most -tiresome and earnest minuteness on the most trivial incidents; and the -taking of an insignificant castle, followed by no important results, is -attended by the same diffuseness and exactitude of detail as events of -the greatest magnitude. But no historian surpasses Guicciardini when the -subject is worthy of his pen. His animated descriptions of battles, the -chances of war, and conduct of princes and leaders; his delineations of -character, and masterly views of the course of events, all claim the -highest admiration. The orations, which he intersperses, have been -cavilled at, but they are eloquent, full of dignified exhortation, or -sagacious reasoning. His account of the rise and formation of the -temporal power of the popes excited great censure in catholic countries; -and throughout he is accused of showing himself the enemy of the Roman -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">{Pg 72}</a></span> -church. It is true, that the pages of no other historian afford such -convincing proofs of the pernicious effects resulting from the union of -spiritual supremacy and temporal possessions. His powerful character of -the infamous pope Borgia; his description of the fiery vehemence of -Julius II.; his unveiling of the faults of Leo X., and the exposure he -makes of the mistakes and weakness of Clement VII., present the very men -and times to our eyes, and form as it were a school in which to study -the philosophy of history. We perceive no partiality till the last few -pages, which record the downfall of the republic of Florence. His -language is, in the eyes of Italian critics, nearly pure; it is -forcible, without being concise; and the clearness and majesty of the -expressions in his best passages carry the reader along with him. -</p> - -<p> -Guicciardini was solicited by pope Paul III. to leave his retreat, and -to enter again on public life, but he refused. The disappointment of his -ambitious views on the exaltation of Cosmo, and the duke's ingratitude, -struck him to the heart. He did not live to complete his history, and -died on the 27th of May, 1540, in the fifty-eighth year of his age. He -expressly ordered that his funeral should be unattended by any pomp; and -his directions were so strictly followed, that for some time no stone -even commemorated the spot of his sepulture. -</p> - -<p> -Little is known of his private life. His letters have all perished, -except a few addressed to Machiavelli. They are lively in their style, -and very friendly. He had no son, and seven daughters, and wrote to the -secretary to ask his advice in settling them in marriage. Machiavelli -advised his applying to the pope for a dowry; counselling him by all -means to marry the eldest well, as the others would follow her example; -and he quotes a passage from Dante, referring to a duke of Provence, -"who had three daughters and each a queen. And the cause of this thing, -was Romeo, a poor wandering man," who had advised the duke to be -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">{Pg 73}</a></span> -unsparing in his dowry to his eldest daughter, so to command a splendid -alliance, as the best means to advance her sisters also. He gave her -half his duchy, and she married the king of France. Guicciardini in -reply says, "You have set me on ransacking Romagna for a copy of Dante, -and at last I have found one." But he was too high-spirited to apply for -a gift from the pope. -</p> - -<p> -Guicciardini was tall and of commanding aspect; rather squarely made, -and not handsome; but robust, and with an animated, intelligent -countenance. He was ambitious, and even haughty, so that he could endure -neither contradiction nor advice. Prudence, industry, sagacity, and a -penetrating understanding, recommended him to his employers; and he was -frequently entrusted with carrying on and correcting the correspondence -of the pope and other princes. -</p> - -<p> -The last six books of his history are considered unfinished. No portion -of it was published till some years after his death, and then the -passages considered injurious to papacy were omitted. A complete edition -was first printed at Basle; but, even in this, the objectionable -passages appeared under the disguise of Latin. His first idea had been -to write only memoirs of his own life; and it was by the advice of -Nardi, it is said, that he enlarged his plan into a history of Italy -during his own times. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">{Pg 74}</a></span> -</p> - -<p><br /></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_32_32" id="Note_32_32"></a><a href="#NoteRef_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a>It was a habit among the Florentines to keep memoranda of -the principal events of their lives, which they called Ricordi. The date -of the birth of Guicciardini has been disputed, but it is ascertained -from a MS. book of his ricordi, or records, which Manni cites. He thus -writes concerning himself:—"I record that I, Francesco di Piero -Guicciardini, now doctor of civil and canon law, was born on the 6th -March, 1482, at ten o'clock. I was baptised Francesco, from Francesco de -Nerli, my maternal grandfather, and Tommaso, out of respect for St. -Thomas Aquinas, on whose festival I was born. Messer Marsiglio Ficino -held me at the baptismal font, who was the greatest platonic philosopher -then existing in the world, and by Giovanni Canacci and Piero del Nero, -both philosophers also."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_33_33" id="Note_33_33"></a><a href="#NoteRef_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a>See a clever pamphlet, entitled "Saggio sulla Vita e sulle -Opere di Francesco Guicciardini," by Rosini, a professor of the -University of Pisa.</p></div> - -<p><br /><br /><br /></p> - -<h4><a id="VITTORIA_COLONNA">VITTORIA COLONNA</a></h4> - -<h4>1490-1547.</h4> - -<p> -It would be giving a very faint idea of the state of Italian literature, -or even of the lives led by the learned men of those times, if all -mention were omitted of the women who distinguished themselves in -literature. No slur was cast by the Italians on feminine -accomplishments. Where abstruse learning was a fashion among men, they -were glad to find in their friends of the other sex, minds educated to -share their pursuits and applaud their success. In those days learning -was a sort of wealth; men got as much as they could, and women, of -course, were led to acquire a portion of such a valuable possession. -</p> - -<p> -The list of women who aspired to literary fame in Italy is very long. -Even in Petrarch's time, the daughter of a professor of Bologna, gave -lectures in the university behind a veil, which has been supposed was -used to hide her beauty, and which at least is a beautiful trait of -modesty, where a young girl was willing to impart her knowledge to the -studious, but shrunk from meeting the public gaze. The mother of Lorenzo -de' Medici is celebrated for her sacred poems, and her patronage of -literature. Ippolita Sforza, daughter of the duke Francesco, and married -to Alfonso II., king of Naples, was learned in Greek and many other -languages. A manuscript copy of a translation of Tully's <i>de -Senectute</i> is preserved of hers at Rome, and marked as having been -written in her youth; and two of her Latin orations are to be seen in the -Ambrosian Library at Milan. Alessandra Scala, to whom Politian was -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">{Pg 75}</a></span> -attached, wrote Greek verses, which have been printed, appended to the -Latin poetry of her learned lover. There was an Isotta of Padua, whose -letters are models of elegance, and who composed various poems of merit. -The noble house of Este boasted of a learned princess. Bianca d'Este has -been celebrated by one of the Strozzi in Latin verses; he speaks of her -Greek and Latin compositions with great praise. Damigella Torcila, we are -told, was numbered among the most distinguished women of her time. She -was profoundly versed in the learned languages, particularly in Greek; -she was an admirable musician, and as beautiful as she was wise. -Cassandra Fedele, however, excelled all her sex in her acquirements. She -was of a noble family, originally of Milan; born at Venice in 1465: she -was, by her father's desire, instructed in all the abstruse -studies—Greek, Latin, philosophy, and music—with such success, -that even in girlhood she was the admiration of all the learned men of the -age. There is a letter from Politian to her, which praises her Latin -letters, not only for their cleverness and elegance of style, but "for -the girlish and maiden simplicity" which adorned them. "I have read -also," he says, "your learned and eloquent oration, which is harmonious, -dignified, and full of talent. I am told that you are versed in -philosophy and dialectics, that you entangle others by the most serious -difficulties, and make all plain yourself with admirable ease; and while -every one loads you with praise, you are gentle and humble." This kind -of knowledge would not suit these days: but those were times when men -tried to puzzle themselves by scholastic learning, and when the noble -Pico della Mirandola took pleasure in disputing on nine hundred -questions. Isabella of Spain, Louis XII. of France, and pope Leo X. all -warmly solicited Cassandra to take up her abode at their several courts. -She showed willingness to accept the queen's invitation; but the -Venetian republic set so high a value upon her, that they would not -permit her to leave their state. She married Mapelli, a physician, who -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">{Pg 76}</a></span> -was sent to Candia by the republic, and Cassandra accompanied him. She -became a widow late in life, and lived to extreme old age. She was -elected when ninety years old to be the superior of a religious house in -Venice; and died at the age of one hundred and two. -</p> - -<p> -This list might easily be much enlarged; but we have no space for -further dilation; and therefore turn from names less illustrious, to -Vittoria Colonna, the woman of all others who conferred, by her virtues, -talents, and beauty, honour on her sex. -</p> - -<p> -Vittoria Colonna was the daughter of Fabrizio Colonna, grand constable -of the kingdom of Naples, and of Anna di Montefeltro, daughter of -Frederic duke of Urbino. She was born at Marino, a castle belonging to -her family, about the year 1490. At the infantine age of four she was -betrothed to Ferdinando Francesco d'Avolos, marquess of Pescara, who -was not older than his baby bride. She was educated with the most -sedulous care, and was sought in marriage by various princes—but that -fidelity of disposition which was her beautiful characteristic through -life, prevented her from breaking her contract with her young lover. -They were married at the age of seventeen. He competed with her in -talents and accomplishments. They loved each other with the utmost -tenderness, and lived for four years succeeding to their marriage, in -solitude, in the island of Ischia, where Pescara had a palace. -</p> - -<p> -But this happiness was of short duration; at the time when Julius II. -leagued all Italy against Louis XII., the marquess of Pescara joined the -army of the emperor. Vittoria was full of chivalric feelings; her -enthusiasm, as well as her tenderness, were gratified by the occupation -of embroidering banners for her hero, who, at the early age of -one-and-twenty, was made general of cavalry at the battle of Ravenna. -That disastrous day was adverse to him. He was taken prisoner and sent -to Milan, where he remained a year, and wrote a dialogue on love, -addressed to his wife, in a dedication in which he laments that he can -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">{Pg 77}</a></span> -no longer visit her as he was used, whenever the duties of his station -permitted his absence. As a kind of answer to this testimony of his -affection, Vittoria designed an emblem—Cupid within a circle, formed -by a serpent, with the motto "<i>Quem peperit virtus, prudentia servet -amorem</i>"—"May prudence preserve the love, which originated in -virtue." -</p> - -<p> -After the French were driven from Italy, that unhappy country enjoyed a -short interval of peace, interrupted by the invasion of Francis I. -Pescara was present at the battle of Pavia, and distinguished himself by -his intrepidity, and mainly contributed to the success of the emperor's -arms. He was not rewarded as he deserved, and the opposite or French -party thought that his consequent discontent afforded an opening for a -reconciliation with them. Geronimo Morone was employed by them to seduce -him from his fidelity to Charles V. He was offered the kingdom of Naples -as a reward, and every argument was used that might have most -weight;—the honour he would acquire by driving the barbarous nations -from Italy, and the favours which the pope and other princes would -shower upon him. These were, however, but specious reasonings. Pescara -lent too ready an ear to them; but Vittoria at once detected their -fallacy, and the disgrace that would befall her husband if he abandoned -his imperial master. She wrote him a letter full of earnest persuasion -to refuse the dazzling offers of Morone. She spoke of the glory acquired -by fidelity and unblemished honour, as far outweighing any that a crown -could bestow, saying, that for herself, she desired to be called the -wife, not of a king, but of that great and glorious soldier, whose -valour and generosity of soul had vanquished the greatest kings. -Pescara's conduct on this occasion is wholly unworthy of the precepts of -his admirable wife. He continued faithful to the emperor, but acted the -base part of a spy and informer: by his means Morone's designs were -betrayed, and he was thrown into prison. There is no doubt that the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">{Pg 78}</a></span> -high-minded Vittoria continued to the last entirely ignorant of this -ignoble action; and praised her husband for having listened to her -exhortations, and rejected a crown. -</p> - -<p> -But while the marquess was acting so as to cast an eternal stigma on his -honour, death was at hand to terminate every ambitious project. His many -wounds, and the fatigues he had endured during the long wars, had so -shaken his health, that neither his good constitution nor the skill of -physicians were any longer able to afford relief. While preparing to -die, he desired to take leave of his wife, and sent for her to join him -at Milan; but when he found that he should not survive long enough to -see her, he sent for his cousin, the marchese del Vasto, and recommended -Vittoria to him with the warmest affection. Vittoria, on hearing of her -husband's illness, had left Naples to join him. She passed through Rome, -where she was received with the greatest honours, but on arriving at -Viterbo, she received intelligence of Pescara's death: her grief caused -her to forget her religious resignation and fortitude; its excess -overwhelmed her with tears and the bitterest anguish. -</p> - -<p> -From that time this illustrious lady never ceased to spend every faculty -of her soul in lamenting her lost husband. They had been married -seventeen years, but had no child; she gave herself up entirely to -sorrow; and her faithful heart, incapable of a second attachment to -replace one which had begun with her life, cherished only the image of -her past happiness, and the hope of its renewal in another life. Her -active mind could not repose tranquilly on its misery; she continued to -cultivate it, so to render it more worthy of Pescara, and she exercised -and amused it by the many sonnets she wrote in his honour. An Italian -author has named her second only to Petrarch. Her verses are full of -tenderness, of absorbing passion, of truth and life. They fail in poetic -fancy; and yet, so much does the reader sympathise in the intense and -fond sorrows of this extraordinary woman, that none can criticise, while -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">{Pg 79}</a></span> -all are touched by her laments. The best poem in her volume has been -attributed to Ariosto, I do not know on what authority; but if written -by her, has that elegance of style and concentration of expression, -which characterises true poetry. It begins with the affecting -exclamation, "I am indeed her you loved! Behold how bitter and eating -grief has changed me!—Scarcely could you recognise me by my voice. On -your departure, that charm which you called beauty, and of which -I was proud, since it was dear to you, left my cheeks, my eyes, my -hair!—Yet, ah! how can I live, when I remember that the impious tomb -and envious dust contaminates and destroys thy dear and beautiful limbs!" -These verses may in their original be very justly compared in pathos and -grace to Petrarch:— -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">Io sono, io son ben dessa! or vedi come</span><br /> -<span class="i2">M' ha cangiata il dolor fiero ed atroce</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Ch' a fatica la voce</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Può di me dar la conoscenza vera.</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Lassa! ch' al tuo partir partì veloce</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Dalle guancie, dagli occhi, e dalle chiome</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Questa a cui davi come</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Tu di beltade, ed io n' andava altera,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Che me 'l credea, perchè in tal pregio t' era.</span><br /> -<span class="i14">* * * *</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Com' è ch' io viva, quando mi rimembra,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Ch' empio sepolcro, e invidiosa polve</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Contamina e dissolve</span><br /> -<span class="i2">La delicate alabastrine membra?</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -For seven years she gave up her whole heart to sorrow. Her relations, -thinking her too young at the age of thirty-five to continue unmarried, -pressed her to accept one of the many offers of marriage which she -received. But, wedded as all her thoughts had been since her earliest -infancy to one object, she felt unconquerably averse to any second -nuptials. She lived in retirement either at Ischia or Naples, dedicating -herself wholly to memory. Her active mind, refusing to find comfort in -any sublunary blessing, had recourse to religion for consolation. She -now employed herself in writing sacred poetry, and her enthusiastic -disposition led her to project a pilgrimage to Jerusalem; but the -marchese del Vasto opposed her putting it into execution. -</p> - -<p> -She now left Naples on a tour to the north of Italy, and visited Lucca -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">{Pg 80}</a></span> -and Ferrara. She afterwards took up her residence at Rome, and became -the intimate friend of the cardinals Bembo, Contarini, and Pole, and -various distinguished prelates. A love of yet greater retirement induced -her a few years after to retreat to a convent at Orvieto; from whence -she removed, after a short time, to the convent of Santa Caterina, at -Viterbo. Our countryman, cardinal Pole, resided in this town, and an -intimate friendship subsisted between him and Vittoria. There is a -resemblance in their characters that renders this intercourse -interesting; they were both singleminded, enthusiastic, and noble. -Vittoria added feminine tenderness to these qualities, while religious -fervour formed a bond of sympathy between them. The companions of -cardinal Pole were Flaminio and Pietro Carnescecchi: the latter having -afterwards become a protestant, doubts have been raised concerning the -orthodoxy of Vittoria; but there is every evidence that she never fell -off from her adherence to the catholic church. -</p> - -<p> -A short time before her death she returned to Rome, and took up her -abode in the Palazzo Cesarini; where she died, in the year 1547, at the -age of fifty-seven. During her last moments her attached friend, Michael -Angelo, stood beside her. He was considerably her junior, and looked up -to her as something superior to human nature, and entitled to his most -fervent admiration. He has written many sonnets in her praise; and there -is extant a letter, in which he states how he stood beside her lifeless -remains, and kissed her cold hand, lamenting afterwards that the -overwhelming grief and awe of the moment, had prevented him from -pressing her lips for the first and last time. -</p> - -<p> -This almost divine woman was held by her contemporaries in enthusiastic -veneration. Her name is always accompanied by glowing praises and -expressions of heartfelt respect. Ariosto joined with all Italy in -celebrating her virtues and talents, and has addressed several stanzas -to her in his Orlando Furioso. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">{Pg 81}</a></span> -</p> - -<p><br /><br /><br /></p> - -<h4><a id="GUARINI">GUARINI</a></h4> - -<h4>1537-1612.</h4> - -<p> -Battista Guarani was descended from a family illustrious for its -literary merits. One of his ancestors, known as Guarino of Verona, was -conspicuous among the restorers of learning of the fifteenth century; -and his descendants emulated his labours. Battista was born at Ferrara, -in 1537. His mother was Orsolina, the daughter of count Baldassare -Machiavelli. We are nearly in ignorance with regard to any of the -circumstances of the early youth of Guarini. He studied at Pisa and -Padua, and visited Rome while very young. On his return to Ferrara, he -gave lectures on Aristotle in the university. He was made professor of -belles lettres, and was already known to his friends as a poet. He -married young, Taddea Bendedei, of a noble Ferrarese family. -</p> - -<p> -But Guarini was not contented with a life of literary labour, and -preferred the distinction of a court to poetic fame. There is a letter -of his, dated 1565, which gives token that he had already made the -paltry ambition of serving a prince the aim of his life. This letter is -written to a friend at Pisa, who had asked his advice on the subject of -whether he should enter on the service of his sovereign. Guarini -establishes the doctrine, that in private life a man is as far from -tranquillity as in public; he is equally pursued by envy and pride, -without the compensation he might find in courtly favour. In his own -person he acted on these ideas, and reaped the usual harvest of -disappointment and mortification. His wishes were, however, at first -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">{Pg 82}</a></span> -gratified. He was sent, by the duke Alfonso, to Venice, about this very -time, to congratulate the new doge, Pietro Loredano; and, his oration -being printed, he acquired a reputation for talent and learning. He was -for some time resident at Turin, as ambassador to Emanuel Philibert, -duke of Savoy. In 1573, he was sent to Rome, to pay homage to Gregory -XIII., who had succeeded to Pius V. He arrived in the evening, after a -hasty journey, and passed the night in composing his speech, which he -delivered the next morning in consistory. Two years afterwards, the duke -sent him to Poland, to congratulate Henry of Valois on his accession to -the throne. On his return, he was named counsellor and secretary of -state. After an interval, he was a second time sent to Poland, on a -mission of the highest importance. Henry of Valois succeeded to the -crown of France, and Alfonso was desirous of being chosen in his room to -the Polish throne. Guarini was sent to negotiate his election. He felt -the weight and responsibility of his errand fall heavily on him. His -letter to his wife during the journey has been several times quoted, but -it is too interesting to be omitted here. It is dated from Warsaw, -November 25. 1575, and is as follows:— -</p> - -<p> -"This which you read is my letter and not my letter; it is mine, for I -dictate it,—it is not mine, because I do not write it. But you must -not so much grieve that I have not a hand to write with, as rejoice that I -have a tongue to recount that which, from vain compassion or negligence, -another might conceal. I know you must have been complaining of my -dilatoriness in writing, but I shall find no difficulty in excusing -myself, since the cause has been worse than the effect; and, instead of -lamenting my silence, you may thank God that you at last hear from me. I -set out, as you know, more in the fashion of a courier than an -ambassador; and it would have been well if my body alone had laboured, -while my mind reposed. But the hand used by day to whip on my horses, -was put to service at night in turning over papers. Thus, formerly, I -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">{Pg 83}</a></span> -arrived at Rome in the evening by post, and the next day presented -myself at the consistory. Nature gave way under the double fatigue of -body and mind, especially as I travelled by the road that passes through -Saravalle and Ampez, which is inexpressibly disagreeable and -incommodious, as well from the rudeness of the inhabitants as the state -of the country; the want of horses, scarcity of provisions, and, in -short, of every necessary of life; so that, on my arrival at Hala, I -fell ill of a fever, in spite of which I hurried on to Vienna. I leave -you to imagine what I suffered from fever, weariness, and thirst: unable -to procure remedies or medical treatment; cast upon bad lodgings, bad -food, and into beds that smothered me with their feathers; devoid of all -those conveniences and comforts which are necessary to the sick. My -malady increased, and my strength grew less; and every thing, except -wine, became distasteful to me, so that I had small hopes of life, and -turned with disgust even from the few days I expected to live. While I -navigated the Danube, we were nearly overwhelmed by a rapid and -dangerous stream, and should not have escaped had not the sailors made -use of the assistance of the strong and active men of the country, who -are accustomed to contend with this danger, being always on the spot to -give aid, and who, by force of oars, stemmed the torrent. But for their -help no vessel could escape wreck; and the place is worthy of the -infamous reputation it has gained, and the name of the Pass of Death, -which is bestowed on it. The boldest travellers fear the passage, and -disembark, and proceed by land, till the boat has got beyond the danger, -for it is really frightful; but I was so ill, that I had lost all sense -of peril, and remained on board with the brave boatmen,—I will not -say whether from stupidity or intrepidity,—yet I may say that I was -intrepid, since I felt no fear when but two steps from certain death. -</p> - -<p> -"I arrived at last at Vienna, where a physician, without considering the -symptoms of my illness, gave me a medicine that poisoned me, and my -malady grew worse. You will all say that I ought to have stopped short, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">{Pg 84}</a></span> -and taken care of my life: my common sense, my sufferings, the failure -of strength, and a natural wish to live, love for my fellow creatures -and my family, suggested the same counsel; but my honour forced me to -proceed, and obliged me, since I was at the head of this embassy, and as -the whole weight of so important a negotiation rested on me, to prefer -the interests of my prince to my own safety; and I acted so that I might -testify to all Poland my fidelity to my sovereign by my death, rather -than, by preserving my life, give room to the suspicion that I feigned -an illness so to break my promises, the fulfilment of which was expected -with anxiety; which false notion among those selfish and distrustful men -would at once have discredited our negotiation, and deprived our prince -of the crown which we are endeavouring to place on his head. -</p> - -<p> -"It is impossible to form an idea of what I suffered during a journey of -more than 600 miles, from Vienna to Warsaw; dragged and torn along, -rather than conveyed, by my incommodious carriage. I do not know how I -survived: beset by continual fever, without rest, or food, or remedies; -enduring excessive cold and infinite inconveniences, while I passed -through an uninhabited country, where I often found it better to remain -for the night in my uncomfortable carriage, than to expose myself to the -stench of the inns or, rather, stables, where the dog, the cat, the -fowls, the geese, the pigs, the calves, and sometimes squalling -children, kept me awake all night. The difficulties of the journey were -increased also by the robbers, who, during this interregnum, infest the -country, robbing whatever they can; so that it was impossible to proceed -without a strong escort; and, although I took infinite pains to avoid -them, I had twice nearly fallen into their hands, escaping rather -through Divine Providence than human foresight. I arrived at last at -Warsaw, a great deal more dead than alive; nor have I gained any relief -to my sufferings by being here, except that I am no longer in movement, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">{Pg 85}</a></span> -nor dragged along by my carriage; for the rest, I enjoy no repose, -either night or day. My fever is now my least evil; the objects by which -I am surrounded are worse: the place, the season, the food, the drink, -the medicines, the physicians, the servants, the inquietude of my mind, -and other troubles, are greater ills than the fever, which would soon -quit me but for these annoyances. Indeed, I have not yet discovered -whether my sleepless nights arise from illness, or the constant noise -around me. Imagine a whole nation assembled in a little village, and I -lodged in the middle of it. There is no spot above, below, to the right -nor to the left,—there is no room by day or by night, that is not -full of noise and disturbance. No particular time is set apart for business -here; they are always at work, because they are always drinking, and -without wine all transactions grow cold. When business is ended visits -begin, and when these are over, drums, trumpets, cannons, shouts, cries, -quarrels, and every other species of tumult, fill up the interval till I -am distracted. If I suffered these things for the glory and love of God, -it would be called a martyrdom; and yet, to render service without hope -of reward, almost deserves the same name. God knows what is to become of -me! I should feel that my life was no longer in danger if I could take -any care of myself. Prepare your mind for every evil. It is the part of -a silly woman to lament a husband who is content to die. Let others -honour my memory with their tears; do you honour it by your courage. I -recommend our children to you; for if I die, you must be a father as -well as a mother to them. Arm yourself with reflection and manly -fortitude; guarding them from those who have reduced me to this state, -and teaching them to imitate their father in any thing rather than in -his fortunes."<a name="NoteRef_34_34" id="NoteRef_34_34"></a><a href="#Note_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">{Pg 86}</a></span> -</p> - -<p> -This letter presents a lively picture of Guarini's disposition;—his -energy in struggling with evils; his ambition to please his prince, and -his fears lest he should not be fitly recompensed; the fervour of -imagination, which magnified ill fortune, and which, while it gave him -strength to meet it, yet doubled its power over him. Although he failed -in the object of the embassy, yet, after all the dangers to which he had -exposed himself, he felt that he had sacrificed his life to his prince, -and yet that he should go unrewarded. He was not deceived; but he was -incapable of meeting the fulfilment of his anticipations with any -patience or fortitude. -</p> - -<p> -His mind was naturally turned to poetry; but he pretended to disdain -such occupation. On the subject of his Pastor Fido, he writes to a -friend:—"This is the work of one who does not profess the poetic art, -but writes for his own amusement, as a recreation from more serious -studies; and who would willingly burn his works when they do not appear -good to good judges." The fame and favour which Tasso was enjoying made -him depreciate himself, since he could not excel his rival. Tasso and he -had been friends for many years; they quarrelled at this time, but the -discord did not result from any literary contest, but from rivalship in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">{Pg 87}</a></span> -the favour of a lady. They both loved the countess of Scandiano. Tasso -wrote a sonnet, accusing Guarini of lightness and inconstancy in his -passion, as well as of the greater sin of boasting of his triumphs over -the ladies of his love. Guarini replied, with bitterness, in another -sonnet, accusing his rival of uttering falsehoods that mirrored his own -faithlessness, which enabled him to nourish love for two objects at the -same time.<a name="NoteRef_35_35" id="NoteRef_35_35"></a><a href="#Note_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> This contention broke off their friendship; but Guarini -was no ungenerous enemy; he possessed a loyal and noble spirit, and -never did any thing to injure his unfortunate rival. On the contrary, -some years after, when the Gerusalemme Liberata of Tasso was about to be -published in a very defective and erroneous state, he took great pains -to furnish a correct copy. -</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote1">1582.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -45.</span></p> - -<p> -After struggling with his discontents at court for some time, he -requested his dismissal from the duke; and retired to his villa in the -Polesine of Rovigo, named La Guarina, having been bestowed upon an -ancestor by a former duke of Ferrara. He now congratulated himself on -having escaped from the tempests of public life into port; yet his -disappointments, and the duke's ingratitude, rankled at his heart, and -overflowed upon paper, even when the subject immediately before him was -not in accord with the pervading feeling of his mind. He occupied -himself at La Guarina by writing the Pastor Fido; and he makes one of -the characters of the pastoral complain of wrongs similar to his own. -Carino, narrating his story, says,— -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i18">How I forsook</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Elis and Pisa after, and betook</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Myself to Argos and Mycene, where</span><br /> -<span class="i2">An earthly God I worshipped, with what there</span><br /> -<span class="i2">I suffered in that hard captivity,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Would be too long for thee to hear, for me</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Too sad to utter. Only thus much know;—</span><br /> -<span class="i2">I lost my labour, and in sand did sow:</span><br /> -<span class="i2">I writ, wept, sung; hot and cold fits I had;</span><br /> -<span class="i2">I rid, I stood, I bore, now sad, now glad,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Now high, now low, now in esteem, now scorn'd;</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And as the Delphic iron, which is turned</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Now to heroic, now to mechanic use,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">I fear'd no danger—did no pains refuse;</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Was all things—and was nothing; changed my hair,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Condition, custom, thoughts, and life—but ne'er</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">{Pg 88}</a></span><br /> -<span class="i2">Could change my fortune. Then I knew at last,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And panted after my sweet freedom past.</span><br /> -<span class="i2">So, flying smoky Argos, and the great</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Storms that attend on greatness, my retreat</span><br /> -<span class="i2">I made to Pisa—my thought's quiet port.</span><br /> -<span class="i14">* * * *</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Who would have dreamed 'midst plenty to grow poor?</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Or to be less, by toiling to be more?</span><br /> -<span class="i2">I thought, by how much more in prince's courts</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Men did excel in titles and supports,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">So much the more obliging they would be,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">The best enamel of nobility.</span><br /> -<span class="i2">But now the contrary by proofs I've seen:</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Courtiers in name, and courteous in their mien</span><br /> -<span class="i2">They are; but in their actions I could spy</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Not the least transient spark of courtesy.</span><br /> -<span class="i2">People, in show smooth as the calmed waves,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Yet cruel as the ocean when it raves:</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Men in appearance only did I find,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Love in the face, but malice in the mind:</span><br /> -<span class="i2">With a straight look and tortuous heart, and least</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Fidelity where greatest was protest.</span><br /> -<span class="i2">That which elsewhere is virtue, is vice there:</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Plain truth, fair dealing, love unfeign'd, sincere</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Compassion, faith inviolable, and</span><br /> -<span class="i2">An innocence both of the heart and hand,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">They count the folly of a soul that's vile</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And poor,—a vanity worthy their smile.</span><br /> -<span class="i2">To cheat, to lie, deceit and theft to use,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And under show of pity to abuse;</span><br /> -<span class="i2">To rise upon the ruins of their brothers,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And seek their own by robbing praise from others,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">The virtues are of that perfidious race.</span><br /> -<span class="i2">No worth, no valour, no respect of place,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Of age, or law—bridle of modesty,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">No tie of love, or blood, nor memory</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Of good received; nothing's so venerable,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Sacred, or just, that is inviolable</span><br /> -<span class="i2">By that vast thirst of riches, and desire</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Unquenchable of still ascending higher.</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Now I, not fearing, since I meant not ill,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And in court-craft not having any skill,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Wearing my thoughts charactered on my brow,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And a glass window in my heart—judge thou</span><br /> -<span class="i2">How open and how fair a mark my heart</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Lay to their envy's unsuspected dart.</span><br /> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i14">FANSHAWE's <i>Trans. of Pastor Fido.</i><a name="NoteRef_36_36" id="NoteRef_36_36"></a><a href="#Note_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></span> -</div></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">{Pg 89}</a></span></p> - -<p> -The Pastor Fido is the principal monument of Guarini's poetic genius. -Despite his pretended carelessness, he was animated by the spirit of -poetry, and emulation spurred him on to surpass the Aminta of Tasso; and -he took pains even to compose whole passages in opposition, and manifest -rivalship, of that drama. A pastoral presents in its very nature a -thousand difficulties. It has for its subject the passions in their -primitive simplicity, and the manners are deprived of all factitious -refinement; and yet the most imaginative thoughts and the softest and -noblest sentiments are to flow from the lips of the untaught shepherds -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">{Pg 90}</a></span> -and shepherdesses. Thus its foundation being purely ideal, our chief -pleasure must be derived from the poetry in which it is clothed. Guarini -endeavoured to overcome the want of interest inherent in this species of -composition, by a plot more complex than that usually adopted. A portion -of this is sufficiently clumsy, and the bad character of the piece, the -coquette Corisca, is managed with very little art or probability. There -is much spirit and beauty, however, in the final developement,—in the -discovery that the priest makes that he is about to sacrifice his own -son, and the joy occasioned by the conviction suddenly flashing on his -mind, that the oracle, on which the whole depends, is happily fulfilled. -Still the chief charm of the Pastor Fido is derived from its poetry; the -simplicity and clearness of its diction, the sweetness and tenderness of -the sentiments, and the vivacity and passion that animate the whole. No -doubt he was satisfied with the result of his labours, and found pride -in communicating it. While affecting to despise his poetic productions, -their genuine merit, and his own vanity, which was great, caused him to -collect with pleasure the applauses which his Pastor Fido naturally -acquired for him. He read it at the court of the duke Ferrante di -Gonzaga, to a society composed of courtiers, ladies, and eminent men. -<span class="sidenote2">1585.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -48.</span> -It was acted at Turin on occasion of the festivals to celebrate the -nuptials of Charles Emanuel, prince of Savoy, with Catherine, daughter -of Philip II., king of Spain. The drama excited the greatest admiration; -and Guarini was looked on henceforth with justice, as second only to -Tasso among the poets of the age. -</p> - -<p> -But he was not fortunate enough to be allowed to dedicate his whole time -and thoughts to poetry; and he might bring forward his own experience in -proof of his assertion, that private life is not more exempt than -public, from cares and the influence of evil passions. He was -perpetually plunged in lawsuits, his first being against his father, who -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">{Pg 91}</a></span> -had married a second time, it was said out of spite, and disputed his -just inheritance. He had a family of eight children to provide for; and -unrewarded by his prince, he found himself, after struggling for -fourteen years to advance himself at court, overwhelmed by debt and -embarrassment. His time and attention were taken up by exertions to -extricate himself, and to settle his affairs; while his warm, impatient -disposition ill endured the delays and disappointments, and the contact -with selfish or dishonest men, which are the necessary concomitants of -pecuniary difficulties. -</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote1">1586.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -49.</span></p> - -<p> -Perhaps these annoyances rendered him less unwilling to accept the -invitation, or rather to obey the commands, of the duke of Ferrara, and -to return to his post at his court. Alfonso, perceiving the esteem in -which he was held by other princes, with his usual selfishness resolved -to appropriate the services of a man, which others also were desirous of -obtaining: he made him secretary of state, and sent him on missions to -Umbria and Milan. His stay, however, was short: very soon after his -children had advanced to manhood, those dissensions occurred between -them and him, which form a painful portion of Guarini's life. It is -difficult to say who was most to blame. The poet's temper was impetuous, -and he perhaps showed himself tyrannical in his domestic circle, at the -same time that his nature was without doubt, on most occasions, generous -and artless. His son had married a lady named Virginia Palmiroli, and -continued, as is so usual in Italy, to reside with his wife under the -paternal roof. But this arrangement became, it is conjectured, from the -pride and imperiousness of the father, quite intolerable; and the young -pair left the house, and instituted a suit at law to obtain such a -provision as would enable them to live in independence. The suit was -decided against Guarini; and his indignation, and assertion that his -defeat was occasioned by the partiality of the duke towards his son, -seem to evince that he had more justice on his side than we are enabled -to discover. However this may be, he was so angry at what he considered -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">{Pg 92}</a></span> -the injustice of the sentence pronounced against him, that he again -requested permission to retire from Alfonso's court. The duke granted -his request, but not without such tokens of displeasure, as induced -Guarini to leave Ferrara privately and in haste. He betook himself to -the court of Savoy, where the prince willingly took him into his -service; but the poet found that the change of masters benefited him -little, and he was so constantly employed, that he had not even time to -write a letter. Alfonso also set on foot some intrigues against him, -disliking that any dependant of his should find protection elsewhere. -<span class="sidenote2">1590.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -53.</span> -His tranquillity being thus disturbed, he hastily quitted Savoy and took -up his abode at Padua. He here lost his wife, whom he affectionately -names in his letters as the better part of himself; and, by the -separation of his eldest son, and the absence of his daughters, who were -either married or had places in the palaces of various princesses of -Italy, his family circle was reduced to one son of ten years of age, -whom he calls "the hope of his house, and the consolation in his -solitude." This change gave birth to new projects in his restless mind. -"This sudden alteration and transformation of my life," he writes to the -cardinal Gonzaga, in a letter dated from Padua, the 20th of November, -1591, "appears to me to be brought about by the will of God, who thus -calls me to a new vocation. I am not so old nor so weak as to be unfit -to make use of those talents which God has bestowed on me; and it -appears to me that I act ill in spending without profit those years, -which by the course of nature I could turn to the advantage of my -family, and of my young son, whose inclination for the priesthood I am -desirous of assisting; and I would willingly spend the remnant of my -days at Rome, if I could obtain such preferment, as would enable me to -proceed honourably in the advancement of my moderate expectations." This -idea, however, was but the offspring of disappointed hopes, and it -vanished when other prospects were opened to him; yet these were -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">{Pg 93}</a></span> -variable and uncertain. His life, both from the ingratitude of Alfonso -and his own restlessness, was destined to be passed stormily; discontent -and distrust had taken root in his mind, and existence wore a gloomy -aspect. -</p> - -<p> -At length Alfonso died, and this circumstance, and the death of a -daughter, assassinated by a jealous husband, caused him to quit Ferrara, -and to establish himself at Florence, where he was honourably received -by the grand duke Ferdinand. Here doubtless he might have remained in -peace, but for the irascibility of his temper, the indignation he felt -when his views were thwarted, and his tendency to consider himself an -ill-used man. His younger son, whom he mentions in the letter quoted -above with so much interest, was placed at Pisa for the sake of his -education, where he contracted an imprudent marriage with a young, -beautiful, and dowerless widow. Guarini was transported by rage: he -accused the duke of abetting his son in this act of disobedience, and -indulged in implacable anger against the youth himself, to whom he -refused any assistance, when reduced to the most necessitous -circumstances. Guarini exalted the paternal authority, and exacted -filial obedience, in a manner that displayed more pride than affection. -Now in his old age, he was at variance with nearly all his children; his -violent expressions is a proof that he suffered; but his heart did not -relent nor open towards them, even when death snatched them from him; -and it is impossible to sympathise in passions, which thus centred and -ended in himself. -</p> - -<p> -On leaving Florence, he visited Urbino; but, dissatisfied with his -reception, he retired to Ferrara. The citizens deputed him to Rome to -congratulate Paul Usur on his being created pope. It was on this occasion -that cardinal Bellarmino reproached him for having done more harm to the -Christian world by his Pastor Fido, than Luther and Calvin by their -heresies—a singular denunciation—since, though the softness -and tenderness of love, which pervades the poem, may tend to enervate; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">{Pg 94}</a></span> -yet the fidelity, the devotion, and purity of sentiment, exhibited in -the actions of the chief personages, certainly do not lay it open to -excessive censure. Guarini retorted by a witty reply, which the respect -paid to the cardinal by the historians, has not permitted to be -transmitted to us. -</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote2">1608.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -71.</span></p> - -<p> -This was the last public service of Guarini. A few years after he was -invited to be present at the nuptials of Francesco Gonzaga and -Marguerite of Savoy, during which a comedy of his was represented with -great splendour. Chiabrera wrote the interludes, and the architect -Viamini arranged the scenery and decorations. -</p> - -<p> -The last years of his life were taken up by the lawsuits, which so -strangely chequered his career. He hired a lodging at Venice, where many -of his causes were decided, as near as possible to the courts, and -frequently visited that city to attend the proceedings; and he made a -last journey to Rome at the time that two suits were decided in his -favour. On his return to Venice he was seized by a fever, of which he -died, after an illness of seventeen days, on the 7th of October, 1612, -at the age of seventy-five. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">{Pg 95}</a></span> -</p> - -<p><br /></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_34_34" id="Note_34_34"></a><a href="#NoteRef_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a>There is another letter of Guarini, dated from Cracovy, -during his first visit to Poland, written with less personal feeling, and -greater toleration:—"I have viewed the climate and manners of this -country," he writes, "with infinite pleasure; mitigating the annoyances -resulting from unusual things, by the enjoyment of unusual sights. The -country and its inhabitants are certainly much less barbarous than is -generally supposed; and in my opinion there would be no fault to be -found, if the former was gifted with wine, and if the latter abstained -from it. But I am afraid that my words will scarcely find credit with -you, prejudiced as you are by the accounts given by the French who have -been here. Yet I am sure you would agree with me, if you ever visited the -country. The kingdom is extensive, rich, powerful, united, abundant, and -peopled by a brave population. The senators display great talent during -peace—the cavaliers valour in war: their aim is glory—their -support liberty. The form of the government is mixed, like that of -Sparta, but better than that. For the kingdom is neither oppressed by -the tyranny of one, nor the insolence of a few, nor the baseness of the -many; but having mingled the best parts of all three modes of -government, one has resulted, in which the kingly power cannot intrench -upon liberty, nor licence endanger the monarchy. The nobles cannot -oppress the people, nor the people injure the nobles. Valour holds the -first rank, nobility the second, riches the third; and every one, -however lowly born, may nourish the expectation of rising by merit to -the highest honours. How I wish that you had an opportunity of visiting -it: I am certain that you would be highly pleased. A journey to France -is more fatiguing; and after arriving in Poland, I, to whom an excursion -to Rome used to appeal an arduous undertaking, begin to think that -travelling is a natural state for every man."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_35_35" id="Note_35_35"></a><a href="#NoteRef_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a>Abate Serassi, Vita di Tasso.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_36_36" id="Note_36_36"></a><a href="#NoteRef_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a></p> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Come poi per veder Argo e Micene</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Lasciassi Elide e Pisa, e quivi fussi</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Adorator di deità terrena,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Con tutto quel che in servitù soffersi,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Troppo nojosa istoria a te l' udirlo,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">A me dolente il raccontarlo fora.</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Si dirò sol, che perdei l' opra, e il frutto.</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Scrissi, piansi, cantai, arsi, gelai,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Corsi, stetti, sostenni, or tristo, or lieto,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Or alto, or basso; or vilipeso, or caro.</span><br /> -<span class="i0">E come il ferro Delfico; stromento</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Or d'impresa sublime, or d' opra vile,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Non temei risco e non schivai fatica:</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Tutto fei, nulla fui: per cangiar loco,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Stato, vita, pensier, costumi e pelo,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Mai non cangiai fortuna: alfin conobbi,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">E sospirai la libertà primiera.</span><br /> -<span class="i0">E dopo tanti strazi, Argo lasciando</span><br /> -<span class="i0">E le grandezze di miseria piene,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Tornai di Pisa ai riposati alberghi.</span><br /> -<span class="i8">* * * *</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Ma chi creduto avria di venir meno</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Tra le grandezze, e impoverir nell' oro?</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Io mi pensai che ne' reali alberghi</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Fossero tanto più le genti umane,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Quant' esse han più di tutto quel dovizia</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Ond' ha l' umanità si nobil fregio.</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Ma vi trovai tutto il contrario, Uranio,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Gente di nome e di parlar cortese,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Ma d'opre scarsa e di pietà nemica:</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Gente placida in vista e mansueta,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Ma più del cupo mar tumida e fera;</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Gente sol d' apparenza, in cui se miri</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Viso di carità, mente d'invidia</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Poi trovi, e in dritto sguardo animo bieco,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">E min or fede allor, che più lusinga.</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Quel ch' altrove è virtù, quivi è difetto.</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Dir vero, oprar non torto, amar non finto,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Pietà sincera, inviolabil fede,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">E di core e di man vita innocente;</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Stiman d' animo vii, di basso ingegno</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Sciocchezza e vanità degna di riso.</span><br /> -<span class="i0">L'ingannare, il mentir, la frode, il furto</span><br /> -<span class="i0">E la rapina, di pietà vestita,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Cescer col danno e precipizio altrui,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">E far a sè, dell' altrui biasmo onore,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Son le virtù di quella gente infida:</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Non merto altrui, non valor, non riverenza,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Nè d' età, nè di grado, nè di legge,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Non freno di vergogna, non rispetto</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Nè d' amor nè di sangue, non memoria</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Di ricevuto ben, nè finalmente,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Cosa si venerabile, o si santa</span><br /> -<span class="i0">O si giusta esser può, che a quella vasta</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Cupidigia d' onori, a quella ingorda</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Fame d' avere, inviolabil sia.</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Or io, che incauto e di lor arti ignaro</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Sempre mi vissi, e portai scritto in fronte</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Il mio pensiero, e disvelato il core,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Tu puoi pensar se a non sospetti strali</span><br /> -<span class="i0">D'invida gente fui scoperto segno.</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i12"><i>Pastor Fido</i>, atto V. scena 1.</span> -</div></div></div> - -<p><br /><br /><br /></p> - -<h4><a id="TASSO">TORQUATO TASSO</a></h4> - -<h4>1544-1595.</h4> - - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i8">"Tu che ne vai in Pindo,</span><br /> -<span class="i8">Ivi pende mia cetra ad un cipresso,</span><br /> -<span class="i8">Salutala in inio nome, e dille poi</span><br /> -<span class="i8">Ch' io son dagl' anni e da fortuna oppresso."</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i8">"Thou, who to Pindus tak'st thy way,</span><br /> -<span class="i8">Where hangs my harp upon the cypress tree,</span><br /> -<span class="i8">Salute it in my name, and say,</span><br /> -<span class="i8">I am bow'd down with years and misery."</span> -</div></div></div> - - -<p> -These few lines, which, in the simple and beautiful original, show what -a burthen of thought and power of feeling may be compressed within the -smallest compass that language will allow, were written by Torquato -Tasso, during his second confinement as a lunatic in the hospital of St. -Anne, at Ferrara, by the duke of Alfonso, his patron and his oppressor. -They were written when all Europe was listening to the voice of his -song, but heard not that of his complaint; in the meridian of his glory -as a poet, and in the depth of his humiliation as a man. A spectacle -more deplorable and repulsive could hardly be presented to the eye of -humanity; nor a fame more enviable and attractive be contemplated by -young "spirits of finer mould," to tempt them to hazard all perils of -such suffering for the acquisition of such renown. This fragment—a -specimen of thousands of fancies, no doubt, equally exquisite and -affecting, which were continually passing through the darkened chamber -of his mind, more dreary than the gloom of his prison-house—has been -quoted at the commencement of this memoir, as letting the reader at once -into the whole mystery of the poet's life, by a single flash of his -genius affording a glance at his afflictions. What these were, a long -and melancholy tale must unfold; what their effect was may be painfully -conceived, when we recollect that he was scarcely turned upon <i>forty</i>, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">{Pg 96}</a></span> -at the time that he sends the message to his forlorn harp in -the woods of Pindus, that he is "oppressed with <i>years</i> and ill -fortune,"—"dagl' <i>anni</i> e da fortuna oppresso." -</p> - -<p> -If ever man was born a poet, it might be said so of Tasso; while his -whole manner of life, not less than its remarkable vicissitudes, -exemplified the poetic character, as it has been idealised in our minds -from infancy, by the impressions left upon them, both from fabling -traditions and authentic records, concerning these privileged, but on -the whole (perhaps) unhappy, beings. The price of greatness must be -paid, in labour or suffering, by every man who would distinguish himself -in any way above his fellow-creatures; and the poet (<i>no</i> more, it may -be, though apparently <i>much</i> more, than the prince, the warrior, the -statesman, or the philosopher,) must endure hardships, mental and -personal, in proportion to his enjoyments, and be humbled in the same -degree that he is exalted above the common lot. Among any ten names, -which might be mentioned as having secured an imperishable pre-eminence -beyond the probability of revolution, in the same walk of polite -literature, Tasso's undoubtedly would be one. At what an expense it was -acquired, we proceed to show in a train of events, almost as romantic, -and a thousand times more touching, than any thing in his own -diversified fictions. He was a poet in every thing and at all times, -from infancy (if we may believe his biographers) till he died in extreme -old age (if we measure his life by his own testimony above quoted), in -his fifty-second year! Smiles and tears, rapture and agony, hope and -despondency, a palace and a dungeon, were the alternations frequently -crossing in the course of one who was the companion of princes, the -delight of ladies, the admiration of the world,—an outcast, a -wanderer, clothed in rags and asking bread, or the lonely tenant of a -maniac's cell. Such was he, and such were the changes of his state. -</p> - -<p> -Torquato was the son of Bernardo Tasso, himself a poet of first rank in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">{Pg 97}</a></span> -his generation, and who has left works, both in prose and verse, to -which posterity is yet willing to give honour; but which suffer more -eclipse by proximity to the surpassing splendour of his son's, than -might have been their lot had he appeared by himself, the single one of -his race, who had proved how hard, and yet how possible, it is to climb -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"The steep where Fame's proud temple shines afar."</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -Bernardo was the descendant of an honourable line of ancestors,—one -of whom, nearly two centuries before him, had been a benefactor to the -public, by first introducing the method of epistolary intercourse -through the medium of posts; and, leaving to his children the reputation -which he had acquired in the conduct of these, they became his -successors, not only in establishments for that purpose in their own -country, but some of them in lands beyond the Alps. It is said that -noble alliances were formed by various branches of the Tasso family, in -Spain and in Flanders, while others became sovereign princes in Germany, -that menagerie for potentates of all genera and species, from the -two-headed eagle of Austria to the wren of * * * *. It would be -invidious to set down one out of a hundred who might contend for the -honour of filling up the blank, as the least of the little among the great. -But, whatever were the hereditary glories of a name,—drawn like -a golden chain out of the darkness of the past, and connected, as that -of the obscurest peasant in a civilised country may be presumed to have -been, with all the varieties of rank, all the gradations of intellect, -and all the changes of good and evil fortune,—of all the links which -formed that chain, those of Bernardo and Torquato were and have remained -the most illustrious, though the consecutive or collateral series has -been continued to the present day, when the representatives are still -found at Bergamo. -</p> - -<p> -Bernardo, who was born in 1493, being left an orphan in early youth, -with two dependent sisters to provide for out of a very slender -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">{Pg 98}</a></span> -patrimony, was compelled to quarter himself on the patronage of sundry -princes and prelates, who, according to the fashion of the times—some -from parade, and others from attachment to the noble arts,—loved to -have men of genius and letters in their train. Many of these, indeed, -were kept, not only to adorn their courts and swell their pomp, but were -employed as secretaries and counsellors, as well as occasionally -entrusted with important embassies, which, both in war and peace, were -frequent between the commonwealths and principalities into which Italy -was divided, and by whose conflicting interests, or under the malignant -influence of whose petty intrigues (the rank growth of such a state of -society), it was continually more or less distracted. Bernardo was, -therefore, from the pressure of circumstances, a restless and homeless -man through the principal part of his life, serving the great without -serving himself, for precarious bread; and at once pursuing fortune and -fame, in the vain hope of being at length—and at length—and at -length rewarded for his fidelity to his masters with the former, and -leaving an inheritance of the latter, which should as much exalt his family -by distinction in literature, as others had aggrandised it by the -acquirement of riches and alliances with rank, at home and abroad. -</p> - -<p> -At the age of forty-one, after a youth of liberal study, sanguine -anticipation, and cherished but ill-directed love for a lady of great -beauty and no less celebrity, having been praised by Ariosto—in the -unsuccessful pursuit of which he compensated himself and delighted his -countrymen with the blandishments of poetry,—he was at length -appointed secretary to Ferrante Sanseverino, prince of Salerno. Him -Bernardo accompanied through many strange vicissitudes of prosperity and -misfortune, in the court and in the battle-field; till, at the end of a -few years, he shared so grievously, yet so magnanimously, in the ruin of -his patron, that, the latter being involved in a conspiracy against the -vice-regal government of Naples, and compelled to flee into France, the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">{Pg 99}</a></span> -poet followed him thither at the sacrifice of his small estate, and an -income which had just raised him above want. Before this ebbing in the -tide of his affairs, which, "taken at the flood" (had that not been -arrested in its advance), he might reasonably have expected would have -led on to fortune, he had married a lady of Naples, named Portia Rossi, -an heiress in expectance, and of great personal and mental -accomplishments. This was the golden age of Bernardo's life. After the -revelry of fancy and romance which had carried him away during his -former passion, wherein his heart had little share, the love of -affection endeared him to his home, and he felt the transition like one -who exclaims, "How sweet is daylight and fresh air!" after the midnight -splendour of the ball-room, with the dream-like fascinations of music, -dancing, and spectacle, which vanish as effectually as fairy palaces -conjured up in the wilderness, and leave the heart desolate. -</p> - -<p> -While Bernardo was at Naples, he commenced a poem of the romantic class -on the adventures of Amadis de Gaul, or "Amadigi," as the work is -entitled. This he projected upon the regular plan of a fable, having a -beginning, middle, and end; but he was not of sufficient authority to -establish, by his example, a classical form of epic, though his more -successful and more gifted son seems to have borrowed the idea of doing -that from him. When he read the first cantos of this performance, as -originally constructed, he observed, that though the presence chamber of -the court of Salerno was well filled at first with eager and expecting -auditors, before he had done nearly all of them had disappeared. From -this he concluded (not suspecting any deficiency of power in himself), -that the unity of action prescribed by the severer critics was, in its -very nature, not agreeable to nature in art, knowing that he had -punctiliously observed all the rules of the latter. This failure, -enforced by the persuasions of his friends, and the commands of the -prince, induced him to remodel what he had written, and elaborate the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">{Pg 100}</a></span> -remainder after the precedents of Pulci, Bojardo, and Ariosto. The work -was extended to a hundred cantos, and, when published, was so well -received, that the author had cause to congratulate himself on having -met the public taste and gratified it; but it was the public taste of -the day only, for his poem passed away with the fashion of it, and is -now remembered among "things that were," while the three productions of -his afore-named predecessors still keep their graduated rank of ascent, -and find readers in every age, notwithstanding all the defects and -excesses that may be charged upon them. Bernardo's failed; less, -perhaps, because of its inferiority, than because it did not display the -proportionate superiority which the others had each in turn manifested -over all its respective forerunners. -</p> - -<p> -It was while Bernardo resided at Sorrento, a city in the vicinity of -Naples, where he occupied a palace overlooking the sea, happy in his -home, and prosperous, or rather promising himself prosperity in his -fortune, the prince of Salerno having released him from all burdensome -duties in his service, that his son Torquato, the second of that name -(the first having died young), was born, on the 11th of March, 1544. -Sorrento is here put down as the birth-place of the poet, among other -cities contending for that honour, like those seven -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i12">——"that strove for Homer dead,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Through which the living Homer begg'd his bread."</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i20"><i>Ath. I.</i> 384.</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -For of Tasso, in the sequel, a sarcasm as bitter might be recorded. A -daughter, elder than either of the boys, was at this time growing up -under the eyes of their parents. A letter of the father's (previous to -<i>our</i> Torquato's birth) to his sister Afra, who had retired into a -convent, gives a lively glimpse of Bernardo's affectionate and domestic -character.<a name="NoteRef_37_37" id="NoteRef_37_37"></a><a href="#Note_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> "My young daughter is very beautiful, and affords me -great hopes that she will lead a virtuous and honourable life. My infant -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">{Pg 101}</a></span> -son"—Torquato the first—"is before God our Creator, and prays -for your salvation. My Portia is seven months gone with child; whether a -son or a daughter, it shall be supremely dear to me; only may God, who -gives it me, grant that it may be born with his fear; pray together with -the holy nuns that the Almighty may preserve the mother, who in this world -is my highest joy." It is ludicrous, yet affecting, to observe what little -circumstances are eagerly laid hold upon after death, respecting the -personal history of men who, during their lives, were neglected in their -hardest trials, or oppressed in their helplessness by those who were -bound to protect and foster them. The very hour of Tasso's birth, as -well as the place, has been contested against his own authority: he says -that it was four o'clock in the morning; Serassi, that it was mid-day. -"He ought to have been born at Naples," says Manso, "though he happened -first to appear at Sorrento." It may be settled that he was a native of -Italy rather than of any place where he may first have seen the light, -in a country throughout which he was a stranger and a pilgrim all his -days. Indeed, he ought to have been born on the sea; so little claim, on -the ground of paternal kindness shown to him, had any city in the -peninsula to the glory of his birth. -</p> - -<p> -Scarcely had he been welcomed into the world under auspices so cheering -as those recently mentioned, than the fortunes of his family took an -adverse turn. Bernardo was summoned away from the delightful retirement -of Sorrento, to join his patron in the war which had just broken out -between the emperor Charles V. and Francis I., and in which the prince -brilliantly distinguished himself. Meanwhile, if we are to believe his -nursery traditions, the little Torquato was giving, even from his -cradle, proofs of the spirit that was in him, scarcely less -extraordinary than if, like Hercules, he had strangled serpents, or like -another poet of old, attracted bees to his lips, whether to gather or to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">{Pg 102}</a></span> -deposit sweetness there we need not stay to enquire. Manso, his latest -and most munificent patron, his first and most encomiastic biographer, -(whose memoir, like Boccaccio's of Dante, reads more like romance than -reality in many passages, and no where more than in this instance,) -says, that the child, even during his first year, gave evidence of the -divinity of his genius. For scarcely had he attained his sixth month, -when, contrary to the usage of children, he began not only to let loose -his tongue (or to prattle <i>a snodar la lingua</i>), but even to speak -outright, and that in such a manner that he was never known to lisp (or -clip) his syllables, as all other infants do, but formed his words -complete, and gave them perfect utterance. If this be true, his -marvellous faculty of speech, like the produce of a premature spring, -must have suffered an early blight: for he himself records that, in -speaking, he was little favoured by nature, having an unconquerable -impediment of tongue; whence he preferred to communicate his thoughts -rather in writing than by the audible voice, when he meant to win -attention or produce impression. His own testimony is so far at variance -with the assertion of his friend Manso respecting his early fluency, -that he appeals for confirmation of the fact that he is a stammerer -(probably to no very inconvenient degree) to some of his correspondents. -But we are told, on the same authority, that the infant was equally -precocious in the faculties of the mind; that he could reason, explain -his thoughts, and answer questions with surprising intelligence. -Moreover, to crown the climax, it is said that he seldom cried, and -never laughed; the only exception, it may be presumed, of a healthy -child since the world began; but that he was grave, dignified, and sage, -and announced by his behaviour that he was destined for some great -design. -</p> - -<p> -On the return of Bernardo from the army, he enjoyed a brief prolongation -of his domestic quiet at Sorrento, during which all that a romantic -father and a passionately tender mother could do to awaken, cherish, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">{Pg 103}</a></span> -confirm the early intimations of transcendent intellect in their darling -son, was employed; and such discipline, by its natural effect, no doubt, -coloured and characterised their son's mind, in the sequel, to the end -of life. In one of Bernardo's letters to Portia, during his late -absence, he says, that, while he leaves to her the delicate task to -adorn their daughter Cornelia with every virtue and accomplishment which -becomes a maiden, he intends himself to train up their young Torquato -for his more arduous station in society, when he should be of proper -age. This purpose was never realised. -</p> - -<p> -In 1552, the prince of Salerno and his adherents being declared rebels, -Bernardo, as one of the most attached of his friends, was included in -the proscription: his estate was confiscated, and an income of 900 scudi -lost; leaving him utterly destitute of resources, with the exception of -a few valuable trinkets, and the hope of some time recovering his wife's -dowry—a hope which outlived himself, and which he bequeathed as a -perpetual plague of expectation and disappointment to his son, who, as -will be seen, obtained a decree to have it, against his mother's -brothers, nearly at his own last hour. Bernardo being thus driven into -exile, his wife remained with the children at Naples, in very narrow -circumstances, though amongst wealthy relatives, who seem always to have -treated her and her offspring with unnatural hard-heartedness. Torquato, -meanwhile, under her superintendence, was making progress in the general -rudiments of knowledge; but especially in the acquisition of languages, -in rhetoric, and in poetry, proportioned to the promise of his earlier -years. His principal tutor was one Angeluzzo, at a college of the -Jesuits, recently established in that city. So eager and intent was he -in quest of knowledge (such as lay within his reach), that his mother, -so far from having to urge or bribe him onward, was obliged, for his -health's sake, to restrain him. Early and late he was at his books; and -on the winter's mornings he was sent from his home to the school with a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">{Pg 104}</a></span> -lantern and servant to conduct him. At seven years of age he was already -a considerable proficient in the Greek and Latin tongues, and had begun -to exercise himself in oral eloquence and written composition; but no -genuine specimens of either of these have been preserved. -</p> - -<p> -The following beautiful and touching lines, in which he alludes to the -worst period of his life,—his separation from his mother, when called -away from Naples to join his father at Rome,—have been absurdly -attributed to him as actually penned at this date. Hoole, and even Hunt, -two of his modern translators, have fallen into this error; whereas a -moment's consideration would convince any man, who understood the -difference between adult poetry and puerile attempts at rhyming, that -such verses, at such an age, (nine years!) would have been sufficiently -remarkable to justify belief in the fables of his babyhood, when he sat -talking pretty unbroken Italian on his mother's knee, before he was -twelve months old. -</p> - -<p> -The passage occurs in a figurative canzonet on the river Metauso, but -addressed to the duke of Urbino, imploring refuge and protection in his -adversity. Though left unfinished, the fragment is acknowledged to be -one of the most exquisitely wrought of all the author's lyrics:— -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"Me dal sen della madre empia Fortuna</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Pargoletto divelse: ah! di que' baci,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Ch' ella bagnò di lagrime dolenti,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Con sospir mi rimembra, e degli ardenti</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Preghi, che sen portar l' aure fugaci,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Ch' io giunger non dovea più volto à volto</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Fra quelle braccia accolto</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Con nodi così stretti, e sì tenaci.</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Lasso! e seguii con mal sicure piante,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Qual Ascanio, o Cammilla, il padre errante."</span> -</div></div> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"Me, from a tender mother's breast,</span><br /> -<span class="i4">Stern Fortune, while an infant, tore;</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Ah! I remember how she press'd.</span><br /> -<span class="i4">Press'd me, and kiss'd me, o'er and o'er,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Bathed with her tears, with doleful sighs,</span><br /> -<span class="i4">Breathed for me many a fervent prayer,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Which, ere it reach'd the skies,</span><br /> -<span class="i4">Was scatter'd by the passing air.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">{Pg 105}</a></span></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"For I was nevermore to meet</span><br /> -<span class="i2">That parent face to face,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Clasp'd in her clear embrace,</span><br /> -<span class="i4">With folds so strait, so binding and so sweet.</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Alas! 't was mine thenceforth to roam</span><br /> -<span class="i4">With ill-supporting feet,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And, like Ascanius o'er the trackless floods,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Or young Camilla, cast on wilds and woods,</span><br /> -<span class="i4">Follow a wandering father without home."</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -These lines—breathing forth such grateful recollections of maternal -tenderness, watching, weeping, praying, over a most beloved and -affectionate child, from whom she was parting for ever, and who was -destined to be far greater than even she, in her fondest entrancement, -could have hoped—remind us of our own Cowper's filial reminiscences, -in "words that weep," translating "tears that speak," on receiving, at a -more distant period of a suffering life, his mother's picture: at sight -of which, for a while, he lived over again, with a thousand times more -intense delight, the scenes of infancy, renewed, like a vision of -pre-existence in some happier state than that which had intervened since -he had borne the burthen and heat of a long day of life consumed in -anguish of spirit, for which, on this side of the grave, he found no -solace, and beyond it, no hope for his bewildered mind; dark as Egypt -under the ninth plague in that quarter, though, in every other, light as -the land of Goshen. Between Tasso and Cowper there were many traits of -sad as well as noble resemblance—kindred genius, a kindred malady, -and kindred misfortunes; but not kindred alleviations: the advantage here -was on our countryman's side; but his disease lay deeper than that of -the former, and the symptoms, if not so violent after the first terrible -attack, were more inveterate; so that, contemplating the fate of the -glorious Italian under eclipse, and pitying him with a sympathy which no -man living but himself could feel, Cowper might have drawn the same -comparison between Tasso's case and his own, as he has done in those -heart-wringing verses (the last which he is recorded to have composed) -under the title of "The Castaway." These were founded upon a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">{Pg 106}</a></span> -circumstance mentioned in Anson's Voyage, of a sailor who fell overboard -in a storm, when the ship could not be stayed to rescue him, but who -followed in its wake, crying after it, and being heard by his -companions, while he -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i6">——"lived an hour</span><br /> -<span class="i2">In ocean, self-upheld;</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And ever, as the minutes flew,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Entreated help, or cried 'adieu.'"</span><br /> -<span class="i8">* * * *</span><br /> -<span class="i2">"At length he drank</span><br /> -<span class="i2">The stifling wave, and then he sank."</span> -</div></div> - - -<p>The melancholy poet adds, in reference to himself, that</p> - - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"Misery still delights to trace</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Its semblance in another's case.</span><br /> -<span class="i8">* * * *</span><br /> -<span class="i2">No voice divine the storm allay'd,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">No light propitious shone,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">When snatch'd from all effectual aid,</span><br /> -<span class="i2"><i>We</i> perish'd, <i>each alone</i>;</span><br /> -<span class="i2"><i>But I beneath a rougher sea</i>,</span><br /> -<span class="i2"><i>And 'whelm'd in deeper gulfs than he.</i>"</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -Both of Tasso's parents had early and deeply impressed upon his mind and -his affections veneration and love to God. In his tenth year the Jesuit -fathers, following up the religious instructions of this child of -promise according to their views of the Gospel, admitted him to the -sacrament; on which occasion, though he acknowledges, in one of his -epistles, that he could not enter into the mystery of "the real -presence," according to the Roman interpretation of the true and simple -scripture doctrine of "the <i>communion</i> of the body and the blood of -Christ," yet, impressed with awe by the pomp of the spectacle, and -elevated almost to transport by sympathy of devotion with the -surrounding multitude, he received the symbol, according to his own -ingenuous account, with "a certain indescribable and unwonted -satisfaction." This circumstance deserves particular mention, because, -assuredly, by such a course of domestic and school discipline the boy -was trained up in what he understood to be genuine piety, and of which, -through after life, he became a zealous professor, however lax on some -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">{Pg 107}</a></span> -other subjects his writings, and even his actions, may have been. In the -latter respect, however, he was countenanced by the licentious manners -of the age, and especially of that class of society, refined and exalted -as it was, in which his lot was cast, but in which he was rather -entertained as a guest than recognised as a member of the privileged -order. His father, in one of his letters to his mother, says, "It is of -the utmost importance to impress, with all your influence and authority, -upon the infantine mind the name, the love, and the fear of God, that -the child may learn to love and honour Him from whom he has received, -not life only, but all the benefits and mercies of providence and grace, -which can render man happy in this world, and blessed in that which is -to come." In the same letter he says, "I condemn those who beat their -children, not less than if they should dare to lay hands on the image of -God." -</p> - -<p> -It was after the expatriated party to whom Bernardo belonged had planned -an attack upon Naples, by the combined fleets of France and Turkey, -which miscarried in a miserable piratical descent upon the neighbouring -coast, and a disgraceful re-embarkment, that Portia and her daughter -were received into a convent, and Torquato was sent to his father at -Rome; who, an exile, on a bed of sickness, and in deep poverty, was -solacing himself, amidst his misfortunes, with preparing a volume of his -Rime for the press, and unweariedly labouring to complete his -<i>Amadigi.</i> In "the eternal city," young Tasso prosecuted his studies -with indefatigable assiduity, and having for companion a cousin of his own -name, Christofero Tasso, a lad of indolent habits and slow capacity. He, -by his example and influence, for a while happily stimulated the latter -to become a worthy competitor of himself; but he soon growing tired in -the course, Torquato left him, and every rival beside, far behind in -every learned and liberal accomplishment. -</p> - -<p> -In 1556 Portia died, at Naples, never having seen her husband since his -original proscription. Her illness was so brief and so violent, that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">{Pg 108}</a></span> -Bernardo doubted whether it was poison or a broken heart that had cut -her off in the prime of her years,—most of which, however, had been -so melancholy, since her happiness first seemed consummated by her union -with the man of her choice, and in the children of their love, that -there needed no auxiliary, in this instance, for Nature to do her work -in the shape of death. Meanwhile Bernardo, not being permitted to return -to Naples, was compelled, by the stress of hard circumstances, to leave -his daughter in the hands of those whom he had but too much reason to -call her enemies, though the nearest of kin to her deceased mother. -These—probably from motives of rapacity, though political rancour may -have added its malignity to the cold venom of avarice—instituted a -process against young Torquato, to disinherit him, under a pretence -which a fiend incarnate (had such a wanderer from the abyss of lost -spirits been permitted to darken the earth with his shadow) might have -blushed to advance in a court of justice,—that, having followed his -miserable parent to Rome, the boy (at ten years of age!) had made -himself partaker of his father's imputed treason, and thereby -righteously exposed himself to the same penalties of exile and -confiscation. The issue of this iniquitous proceeding does not appear, -except it may be gathered from the fact, that the uncles contrived to -withhold Torquato's portion of his mother's dowry from him till the last -year of his life: and, further to secure the control, at least, of the -property by themselves, they married her daughter Cornelia, who, at -fifteen years, had grown up into a beauty, to a gentleman of Sorrento, -of narrow fortune, but honourable birth, in spite of the protestations -of her father, whose ambition had destined her for a higher and more -wealthy alliance; his hopes and his plans being even a day's march -beyond his power of overtaking them by performance. There is extant a -letter written on this occasion by Torquato (probably at the dictation -of his father) to Signora Vittoria Colonna, in which the lad bitterly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">{Pg 109}</a></span> -complains against the cruelty of his uncles in forcing this match upon -his sister; and implores her interference to prevent the entailment of -poverty and disgrace upon the young Cornelia, by such a sacrifice of her -person and property to the mercenary views of her relatives. "It is -hard," says the reputed writer, "to lose one's fortune; but the -degradation of blood is much harder to bear. My poor old father has only -us two; and, since fortune has robbed him of his property, and of a wife -whom he loved as his own soul, suffer not rapacity to deprive him of his -beloved daughter, in whose bosom he hoped to finish tranquilly the few -last years of his old age. We have no friends at Naples; our relations -are our enemies, and, on account of the circumstances of my father's -situation, every one fears to take us by the hand." These stern but -tender sentiments, wrung in the agony of heart-sickness from the father, -were written, not only by the hand of the son upon the paper of the -epistle, but on his own heart, and became identified with his personal -feelings through life. Though he never suffered the escutcheon of his -family to be blemished by a humbling connection, yet he paid dearly, -both in his affections and in his pride, to preserve it; and, if the -tradition of his love for a princess of the house of Este be founded in -truth, he must have felt that he was himself, in that case, playing the -part of "some poor gentleman," whose alliance would be a degradation of -the most ancient blood of Italy. Both the father and the son, in the -sequel, were reconciled—first for Cornelia's sake, and afterwards for -his own—to her husband; who proved a worthy and kind consort, with -whom she lived happily, though not long, and by whom she had several -children. -</p> - -<p> -In a letter addressed by Bernardo to his daughter, while she was yet a -girl, occurs the following affecting day-dreams of the comforts of old -age which he hoped to realise in her filial attentions. After exhorting -her to mind her lessons, and promising in due time to provide a husband -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">{Pg 110}</a></span> -worthy of her, with whom she should live near himself, he thus fondly -adverts to that closing scene of a troubled life, to which many a -sufferer like him, to the last moment, looked on as a forlorn -hope—forlorn, yet inexpressibly soothing, and cherished even in the -heart of despair:—"Sweet and tranquil to me will be old age, when I -shall see (as I hope it may be the will of God) myself perpetuated in -your little ones, with my very features impictured on their -countenances. Death will then appear to me less terrible, when, -beholding you in honour and in peace, enjoying the love of your husband, -and the delights derived from the affections of your children, you shall -close with pale hands these eyes of mine. And surely it is due to a dear -father to receive the last kisses, the last tears, and every other pious -and tender office, from a dutiful and loving daughter." -</p> - -<p> -Fresh commotions in Italy rendering Rome an unsafe sojourn for the -homeless Bernardo, he removed his son and his nephew to Bergamo, and -fled himself to Ravenna, with two shirts and his <i>Amadigi</i> yet -uncompleted; as destitute as his contemporary Camoëns, when he escaped -from shipwreck with his <i>Lusiad</i> in one hand, and with the other -buffeting the waves—thus saving at once his life and his immortality! -On as troubled a sea, by land, as any breadth of water between Lisbon -and Canton, not excepting that round the Cape of Storms, Bernardo was -tossed to and fro throughout Italy; and continued to the last as poor, -yet as sanguine, as the only genius that Portugal had hitherto produced, -and proved itself unworthy to give birth to another by its neglect, if -not its ingratitude and inhumanity, to that one. But here a gleam of -sunshine broke upon Bernardo, amidst the darkness of his flight from -Rome. The duke of Urbino invited him to Pesaro, and afforded him a -welcome but temporary asylum there from the persecution of his enemies, -and the pressure of indigence—a retreat, indeed, which he himself -acknowledged was such as might give inspiration to any poet, and where -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">{Pg 111}</a></span> -lie, himself, in quiet and amidst that comfort to which he had lately -been a stranger, might complete his long poem. -</p> - -<p> -Torquato for a little time was pleasantly situated at Bergamo, in the -family of his cousin and fellow-student, where, being a boy of -exceedingly prepossessing appearance, amiable disposition, and -manifestly brilliant talents, he was much noticed and even caressed by -many of the principal persons in the neighbourhood. Bernardo, however, -anxious to have him under his own eye and direction, soon reclaimed him. -At Pesaro, Torquato, as might be expected, won attention from the whole -circle of his father's acquaintance; and the duke d'Urbino himself was -so delighted with his graceful modesty and rare accomplishments, that he -introduced him to his own son as a suitable companion in his studies and -his pleasures. The young noble of fortune at once became attached to the -young noble of genius, and a friendship, so natural to kindred minds -early associated—the dawn of affection preceding the day-star of -passion in the order of Providence—speedily sprang up, and amidst all -the splendour of station which through life distinguished the one, and -the sufferings by adversity which were the subsequent lot of the other, -was never forsworn or forgotten by either. And well was the lustre, so -transiently shed by the prince, in the court of his father, upon the -humble son of the exile there, imperishably reflected upon himself, in -after years, even from the dungeons of Ferrara, by the glory of the -author of "Gerusalemme Liberata." -</p> - -<p> -Bernardo having at length put the finishing stroke to his <i>Amadigi</i>, -looked to the munificence of the king of France and the prince of -Salerno for the means of printing it. In these reliances he was -disappointed; and it appears that his patron, the prince, was himself so -impoverished, that the pension to the poet of 300 crowns (a poor -compensation for all his services and sacrifices) was about this time -withdrawn. So utterly perished were Bernardo's resources, in this -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">{Pg 112}</a></span> -extremity, that, according to his own lamentable statement, had it not -been for the bounty of the duke d'Urbino, he must have been almost -reduced to the necessity of begging bread for himself and his son. The -duke liberally supplied him, not with bread only for himself and his -son, but presented him with 300 ducats, to which were added a hundred -gold crowns by the cardinal de Tournon. Hereupon he repaired to Venice, -to publish his work. Being received with great respect by the literary -characters of that city, then eminent for noble arts as well as -victorious arms and prosperous commerce, he was adopted by them, and -made secretary to their academy. To this office was annexed a salary so -considerable, that, with his wonted improvidence, he immediately -established himself in a handsome house, sumptuously furnished, and -adorned with what seems to have been his delight, rich tapestry, the -poetry of the needle and the shuttle, and which at best is but to -painting what painting itself sometimes is to nature — a copy -reminding the spectator of an original, of which one of the greatest -merits of the imitation is the difficulty overcome in achieving it. -</p> - -<p> -Bernardo's vicissitudes would present a touching but melancholy contrast -to those of Gil Blas of Santillane, if written in a style of seriousness -and sympathy with what is most sacred in suffering, and trying in hope -deferred, equal to the pungent humour and heartless indifference to what -is "virtuosest, discreetest, best," in the characteristic adventures of -that gay footman of fortune. But such transitions as both Bernardo and -Torquato experienced, strange as they seem to us, were events of common -occurrence, arising out of the state of society in the petty -principalities and commonwealths of Italy in the middle ages, and long -after the revival of learning, when those who followed the profession of -letters were too often dependent for the means of subsistence upon the -precarious patronage of haughty nobles and ostentatious ecclesiastics. -The part which Torquato had to bear in the diversities of circumstance, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">{Pg 113}</a></span> -scene, and company, into which he was thrown with his parent, was too -well calculated to cherish and confirm all his natural aspirings; while -those patrician sentiments, which had been instilled into him from his -cradle, amidst poverty, ignominy, and all the wretchedness of ephemeral -favour, ever sustained in him a lofty self-esteem, on the ground of -honourable birth, the consciousness of innate genius, and the pride of -acquired learning, to which had been carefully added those gentlemanly -accomplishments which rendered him a fit companion for people of the -highest rank in an age of extraordinary display of personal conduct and -ceremonial bearing. Tasso, in addition to his peculiar advantages, -excelled in all these conventional ones, except in self-control—that -especially which degenerates into servility—for (though the most -exquisite flatterer in the world, as thousands of panegyrical verses -prove him to have been) he never learned the meaner, but more -profitable, art of being a court-minion. -</p> - -<p> -While he was thus pursuing his studies with in defatigable application, -he was not less diligent in cultivating those talents, which had given -such extraordinary signs of power within him. It is stated that while, -for the latter purpose, he was reading with intense devotion the poets -both of old Italy and new, as well as the relics of the nobler bards of -ancient Greece, like most of his countrymen, (perhaps, from secret -nationality of feeling,) he preferred the Latins to these, and among the -Latins Virgil beyond every other bore the palm in his youthful -imagination. In fact he grew so enamoured of the graces and excellences -of the Æneid, that his own epic became just such a work as, it might be -presumed, Virgil himself would have composed in the same age, and under -the same influences, as Tasso lived; while, on the other hand, had their -births been exchanged, Tasso might have been the glory of the court of -Augustus, and flourished then in splendour amidst the greatest and most -intellectual society of men of talents that were ever contemporary, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">{Pg 114}</a></span> -instead of being an almoner, an exile, a prisoner, beholden for food and -raiment, in his best estate, to the bounty—or rather to the -parsimony—of "the Great Vulgar" of Italy in the sixteenth century, -whose names are more illustrious from having been connected with his, -than for any record of themselves or their ancestors, which could render -their families illustrious beyond the little boundaries of their -domains. This supposition, in reference to Virgil and Tasso, may be -deemed impertinent; hazardous it certainly is, and once would have been -deemed heretical by the idolaters of the Roman poet. Though this is not -precisely the place, yet, in a discursive memoir like the present, it -may be allowable, to remark upon a line of Boileau, which has done more -injury to the reputation of Tasso than all the splenetic criticisms of -Sperone, and the verbal persecutions of the Della Cruscans. Ridiculing -the bad taste of certain personages who haunt courts, and from their -rank and assurance are permitted to judge as foolishly as they please of -the merits of authors with impunity, he says (and in a note gives a -special instance of such aristocratic wrong-headness<a name="NoteRef_38_38" id="NoteRef_38_38"></a><a href="#Note_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>) that these -will prefer "<i>à Malherbe, Théophile</i>," "Théophile to Malherbe,"— -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"Et le clinquant du Tasse à tout l'or de Virgile:"</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"And Tasso's tinsel to all Virgil's gold."</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -This flippant antithesis, which, from its sparkling ambiguity, might itself -be quoted as a specimen of sheer "tinsel" (<i>clinquant</i>), amounts -to no more than that there are "fools," as the satirist calls them, who -prefer what is <i>false</i> in Tasso to what is <i>true</i> in Virgil; but -that the whole, the half, or even a tenth of the "Gerusalemme Liberata," of -which he himself speaks elsewhere with sufficient commendation, is -composed of "<i>clinquant</i>," without a greatly overbalancing weight of -gold even in its worst parts, he has not dared to affirm, though by a -pitiful insinuation, not less unworthy of the author than unjust to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">{Pg 115}</a></span> -object, he has had the left-handed luck to fix a stigma to that effect -upon the fair fame of one, in comparison with whose magnificent -creations of thought his own finely elaborated productions are but as -"French wire" to "solid bullion." The feeble confirmation of Boileau's -equivocal sentence, by the elegant but prejudiced Addison, is of little -weight. The critic, who, in tracing Milton's obligations to some of his -great forerunners, acknowledges that among these he might have included -Tasso, but that he does not deem him "a sufficient voucher," could be -but very imperfectly acquainted with the authority which he affected to -disparage, but which the poet of "Paradise Lost" held in very different -estimation. Try Boileau, when he attempts a strain of heroics, as in the -"Ode on the taking of Namur," or Addison, in his celebrated "Campaign," -by any page that may be first opened in all Tasso's multifarious -compositions in verse, and the "white plume" on the crest of Louis XIV., -which the court poet mistook for a star, and the destroying "angel," -which the court critics of queen Anne's reign hailed as descending from -"the highest heaven of invention," and the feather metamorphosis, in the -first instance, will be pronounced a puerile and pedantic conceit; and -the "angel," in the second, a piece of commonplace machinery, which -scarcely escapes the charge of profaneness in its main attribute. -Marlborough, a mortal man, burning to avenge his country's wrongs, may -well be imagined as slaughtering, with terrible delight, the thousands -and tens of thousands of her enemies; but that an angel should be -"pleased" (as the cold and heartless phrase is) in executing judgments -upon unresisting victims of divine wrath (righteous as the vengeance may -be) is utterly inconceivable; nor can the poet shelter himself under the -doubtful interpretation of the context,— -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"Pleased <i>the Almighty's orders to perform</i>,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Rides on the whirlwind and directs the storm,"—</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -because the first, last, and only impression upon the reader's mind will -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">{Pg 116}</a></span> -be, that the destroyer is "pleased" with the <i>destruction</i>, though the -Almighty himself declares that "<i>He</i> hath no pleasure in the death of -the wicked." Both these passages might have escaped carping criticism; -but, when Boileau and Addison mislead the public to believe that Tasso's -writings are "all tinsel," it is fair to show that their own are not -"all gold."<a name="NoteRef_39_39" id="NoteRef_39_39"></a><a href="#Note_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> -</p> - -<p> -Torquato's mind now feeling strength, and gaining confidence to -undertake things beyond his years, he diligently gave his days and -nights, in the intervals of severer exercises, to reading and meditating -upon the works of his great Italian predecessors, that he might form, -after their models, a style of verse and manner of composition which -should rival theirs, and yet be all his own. Unconsciously, it is -probable, at first, but gradually as he grew up, through an undefined -period, he conceived, and, before he reached the age of eighteen, had -executed, what Dr. Black calls "the most wonderful work that ever was -written by man," when the youth of the author, and the short time in which -it was composed—ten months, it is reported—are taken into the -account. The "Joan of Arc," by our illustrious countryman, Southey, -produced in a less compass of time, and at an age not much more advanced -than Tasso's, may fairly be put in competition with the "Rinaldo," -without disparagement to either. Nothing connected with the existence of -man, in this mysterious world, at once living within and beyond himself, -exceeds, either in purity or intensity, the delight of youth when -framing poetry at first according to the extent of new-formed powers, -and anticipating poetry to come, when years shall have matured his -faculties, and his wings, after their first moulting, shall have -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">{Pg 117}</a></span> -acquired full vigour of plume to bear him "with no middle flight" above -the Aonian mounts while he pursues -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"Things unattempted yet in prose or rhyme."</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -Among real "curiosities of literature" there yet remain copies of Dante -and Petrarch, with marginal notes in Torquato's handwriting, which prove -with what microscopic minuteness he examined and studied the productions -of those masters of that language, to which he himself was destined to -give consummate grace as well as power of expression—the strength of -Dante, modified from the muscular proportions of Hercules to those of -the fine-limbed Apollo,—the delicacy of Petrarch veiled, like the -Medicean Venus, in the mantle of Minerva. It may here be noticed, that -Tasso was no more an expert penman than a fluent speaker; his -manuscripts, according to his own acknowledgment, being very -indifferently recommended either by the fashion of the letters, or the -correctness of the spelling. The numberless erasures, interpolations, -and new readings, with which many of his best works, preserved in the -library of the house of Este, are disfigured to the eye, are interesting -marks of that process of elaboration by which he slowly but as -effectually brought out all the hidden beauty of his thoughts, as though -they had been suddenly conceived and perfectly expressed in the ardour -of inspiration. -</p> - -<p> -During their residence at Venice, Torquato was much employed by his -father in transcribing his own multitudinous poems and letters, as well -as in preparing for the press the enormous length of the "Amadigi." By -this exercise the son himself became daily more familiarised with the -means and artifices by which those who excel others in the productions -of their genius, form their peculiar style according to their peculiar -standard of intellect, and identify their whole cast of thinking with -their whole structure of language. To put a passage of an eloquent -author to the nicest test of <i>touch</i> (if the expression may be allowed -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">{Pg 118}</a></span> -for the intercourse of mind with mind, in the communication and -reception of ideas splendidly conceived and felicitously bodied forth by -the one, and by degrees only apprehended by the other,)—to put to the -nicest test of <i>touch</i>, as it were, any eloquent passage of poet or -orator, let the admirer copy it out at length, and he will find that the -progress of mind, hand, and eye, going all together, and through every -part, will give him the most distinct possible possession of the whole -in its full proportion, minutest details, and utmost effect. -</p> - -<p> -But while thus the amanuensis of his father, Torquato was not less -assiduously cultivating his own talents, and meditating the composition -already alluded to, in which he was soon not only to rival the former, -but even while a boy, and upon the enchanted ground of romance itself, -to prove a greater magician than he. This the sudden and passionate -admiration with which his "Rinaldo" was hailed throughout Italy, and -beyond the Alps and Pyrenees, irreversibly established. The failure of -Bernardo's hopes, in the neglect with which both sovereign princes and -the reading public, after the first effervescence of applause, treated -his "Amadigi," was nearly contemporaneous with the first triumph of his -more fortunate son, who, so far as fame could gratify or reward his -literary labours, may be said to have succeeded in all that he -attempted, either in prose and verse, thenceforward, though some of his -performances had but an ephemeral popularity, being welcomed at first, -and afterwards formally honoured from the courtesy due to their author, -and the measure of kindred excellence by which they were all allied to -the happier offspring of his too prolific mind. Bernardo, after he found -that the stupendous monument of labour in vain, which he had spent so -many years in accumulating, was likely to be left to moulder away and -fall of itself into oblivion,—having at its first appearance excited -neither enough of envy or admiration to render it extensively attractive -to public curiosity,—lay down in despondency at its base, amidst his -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">{Pg 119}</a></span> -perished hopes; and though he made several attempts afterwards to rise, -these were all equally unavailing, and the latest solace of his life was -the contemplation of that glory descending upon his son which had -departed from him. -</p> - -<p> -In considering the fate, by a natural death (so to express it), after a -date somewhat longer than that of a natural life, of those who have been -renowned in their own age, but have dwindled into insignificance, or -become utterly extinct in that which followed, it may be said of the far -greater number of those who flourish among contemporaries, not, indeed, -that they, -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i12">"are born to blush unseen,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And waste their sweetness on the desert air,"</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -but that they are flowers which bloom in their season, and charm with -their fragrance the passers by of one generation, then disappear, and -are remembered no more. This is the order of Providence, and it is wise -and good; for were the Almighty less liberal of his gifts, though the -possessors being "few and far between" might be more admired and longer, -the world would be less benefited than by that perpetual succession and -supply (according to the demand for literature) of minds worthy, -perhaps, of any age, but formed peculiarly to suit the taste, the -manners, and the society of their own. Among Chalmers' "English Poets," -for example, how many names, once illustrious, now merely catalogued, -are prefixed to works, unread though unforgotten, on which talents as -diversified and as well cultivated as the circumstances of the times -would allow were painfully expended, to delight and improve mankind; -each of whose possessors hoped, besides serving his own generation, to -leave something behind which the world would not willingly let die. Yet -it may be questioned whether some of these, had they lived in other -periods, or under different orders of things, might not have taken far -higher rank among the candidates for fame, and established permanent -claims to the veneration of posterity. Is not great genius, as we call -it, when fortunately developed, and favoured by many contingencies, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">{Pg 120}</a></span> -without which it never would have been so developed, more common than is -generally imagined? Is there not at all times and every where a class of -intelligences which may be trained up to become generals and captains in -literature, in comparison with the rank and file out of which they may -be called by peculiar events in their own or their nation's history, and -without which they could not have risen above the ordinary state of -their less distinguished, but, perhaps, equally capable companions; as -the working bees in a hive, as some naturalists tell us, when their -queen is lost or taken away from the little community, by a particular -regimen, may be nourished up into queens, and from labourers become -perpetuators of the race? There seems some probability for this -hypothesis, fanciful as it may be deemed, because in all extraordinary -emergencies, whether in the world of politics or of literature, minds of -the first order are invariably brought into activity from the motives, -the means, and the opportunities then afforded to them, though they -could never have risen above the depression, mediocrity, or neutral -indifference to which they were born, in which they had long lived, and -must assuredly have died, had it not been for those apparently -accidental opportunities which gave them distinction and pre-eminence, -by a change in themselves resembling a new creation, but in reality only -an awakening of latent powers. -</p> - -<p> -While Torquato was thus continually giving new pledges, and redeeming -old ones of equal lustre, or surpassing the proudest names in his -country's literature, the old man, from bitter but unprofitable -experience as regarded himself, having proved the precariousness of the -favour of princes, and the vanity of expecting fortune to follow fame in -verse, determined to indemnify his son for the loss of both his parents' -property by bringing him up to a profession in which wealth and honour -might more readily be acquired by common industry than by idly looking -for the golden rewards of genius at the hands either of aristocratic -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">{Pg 121}</a></span> -patrons, who bestow them as bounties, or of the multitude that compose -the public, and who care little about the good or ill fare of those on -whom their transient applauses are lavished. -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"So praisen babes the peacock's spotted trayne,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And wondren at bright Argus' golden eye:</span><br /> -<span class="i2">But who rewardes him e'er the more for thy,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Or feedes him once the fuller by a graine?"</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i20">SPENSER, <i>Ecl. X.</i></span> -</div></div> - -<p> -In his seventeenth year, therefore, Bernardo placed his son at Padua, to -study jurisprudence, as Petrarch and Ariosto had been condemned to do -before him, by prudent parents, and like each of those hopeful sons, who -were -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i10">"born a father's hopes to cross,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And pen a stanza when he should engross,"</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -Torquato (though it is said that he dutifully and diligently applied -with his head to the study of the law) gave his heart and his hand in -secret to the unportioned muse. The issue of this affiance, while he was -yet embroiled in the nets of legal precedents and practice, was the -"Rinaldo" already mentioned, a romantic poem, in twelve cantos. The hero -is not his own champion of that name, the glory of his later poems, but -one of "the million" that figure in the "Orlando Furioso"—a work -which so possessed the mind of young Tasso, while he was at Venice, that he -tells us he could not sleep for the fame of Ariosto. This juvenile -performance is written more after the manner of that inimitable master -than the "Gerusalemme;" but, though deficient in the humour and vivacity -which constitute the all-binding and assimilating spell of Ariosto's -tissue of episodes, and by which the reader is reconciled to wink at all -the author's incongruities and caprices, Tasso's poem, nevertheless, by -a more serious kind of magic, laid hold upon public feeling and so -happily hit the expiring taste of his countrymen for the extravagances -of chivalrous fiction, that where his father, after years of hard toil -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">{Pg 122}</a></span> -in the same fields had miscarried, the son, in ten months, achieved a -triumph, of which the trophies remain to this day; "Rinaldo" being yet -one of the metrical romances which are interwoven with the party -coloured staple of Italian literature. -</p> - -<p> -Well might Bernardo be astonished and delighted, yet humbled and -chagrined (in some measure), when the manuscript of his son's poem was -presented to him, seeing himself already eclipsed in his meridian -altitude (which he fondly imagined he had attained in the "Amadigi") by -this morning-star of promise just "flaming in the forehead of the orient -sky;" and perceiving, as he must have done, that his purpose was for -ever thwarted, of placing the boy in that path where fortune scatters -her golden apples before the feet of competitors in the race for her -favour, rather than indulging them with golden dreams under the shadows -of laurels planted by the wayside, the most precious rewards which she -bestows on the most successful among poets. The father, however, was too -great a lover of song to ruin a good poet in making a bad lawyer, as -might have been the case had he persevered in his former views with his -son. Wherefore, after some delay, he reluctantly, yet willingly, (a -state of mind perfectly possible, though hard to reconcile,) gave his -consent to the publication of the "Rinaldo." He who in the letter to his -daughter formerly quoted, so tenderly and beautifully anticipated the -happiness of being himself, with his very features, perpetuated in her -infant progeny, could not but be transported to see himself, with the -features of his very soul, perpetuated in the glorious offspring of his -son's congenial yet surpassing mind. With a smile and a sigh, therefore, -he permitted the poem to appear, surrendering at the same time his -cherished expectation of seeing that son as eminent in the law as he was -now likely to be in that which is remotest from law practice and law -profits. "Let who will make the laws," said Fletcher of Saltoun, "let me -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">{Pg 123}</a></span> -make the songs of a people, and by these I will govern them." Tasso's -songs have assuredly had larger dominion, and had deeper, wider, more -enduring influence in modifying the subsequent character of his -countrymen than any legislative enactments, in which it may be imagined -that he would never have been concerned, could have exercised. But then -he might have enriched and ennobled himself; he might have escaped most -of the calamities which hunted him to death in the midst of life; and he -might not only have been happier himself, but a more useful member of -that society in which he was born, which he served in his day, and in -which he died without any monument except some splendid sculpture to -record his name. It came otherwise to pass; and whether the world has -been made better or worse by his labours, it must be acknowledged that -the fame which he sought, and for which he sacrificed all beside, was -dearly purchased to himself by the sufferings which it cost him to win. -It is reported that when Bernardo remonstrated with him on his -indiscreet preference of philosophy (for with him philosophy and poetry -were identified) to jurisprudence, and angrily demanded, "What has your -philosophy done for you?" he replied, "It has taught me to bear with -meekness the reproofs of a father." -</p> - -<p> -The appearance of Torquato's "Rinaldo" was not only the dawn of his own -day of glory, but the dawn of a new day in the literature of his -country. The age of absolute romance was succeeded by one of transition -in public taste, during which what was most truly wonderful and -meritoriously captivating in the wild fictions of knight-errantry was -engrafted upon a stock of classical invention, design, and execution. -This was in fact the nearest recurrence that could be made in epic -poetry to the models of the ancients,—for the mythological machinery -of Greece and Rome could not again be revived in poetry any more than in -religion; Jupiter could never again resume his thunder and his throne; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">{Pg 124}</a></span> -Neptune his trident; Pallas her ægis, or Venus her cestus; nor could -the supernatural interposition of the supreme God, the agency of angels -and sainted spirits, or of Saturn and his legions, be extensively -employed (without constructive irreverence, not to say rank blasphemy) -as auxiliaries in heroic fable, disguised as true history, or true -history disguised as heroic fable. Tasso, Marino, Camoëns, and Milton -have indeed presumed upon the perilous experiment of enlisting the -armies of heaven and hell in conflict with each other, and intermeddling -with earthly affairs; yet, with the exception of our countryman—and -he would be a bold critic who should dare to arraign him for impiety in the -use of what nothing but the most signal, unexampled, and inimitable -felicity of success could justify,—it may be added, that he would be -a critic not less bold, who, as a believer in the Christian faith, should -venture to defend even Milton to the extent in which he has exercised -this questionable, though hitherto unlitigated, license of -fiction;—with the exception of our countryman, the authors aforenamed -have, for the most part, grievously miscarried in the management of -their agents of this class, whether good or evil, these being among the -most indifferent and ineffective personages in their respective poems. -Epic poetry, indeed, either upon classic or romantic precedent, may be -said to have become extinct from the time of Tasso. "Paradise Lost" -cannot be classed with either; he having achieved the only work of the -kind, which, being neither the one nor the other, but combining the -merits of each, touched the point beyond which improvement could not be -carried. He may be said to have lived in the last age in which -supernatural agents and miraculous interventions could be successfully -introduced into narrative verse, as being consistent with popular -credulity or superstitious belief—an absolutely indispensable -requisite for the employment of such means to illustrate human affairs. For -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">{Pg 125}</a></span> -example, a poem equal to Homers or Ariosto's, written now on the plan, -and with the gods of the one or the enchantments of the other, would be -insufferable: no power of genius could create an interest in behalf of -Apollo and Venus, no longer believed in by the poet or by his readers; -nor would the achievements of giants and witches, if celebrated by one -born in this "age of reason," find mercy from criticism, or indulgence -even from the vulgar students of our <i>penny</i> literature. Monk Lewis's -Tales of Wonder, and the monstrosities of the German drama, have been -long ago forgotten; the "Michael Scott" of the great minstrel "of that -ilk!" alone keeps his ground; but all the other preternatural machines -of the same creative hand would have perished utterly, had they not been -associated with records of the doings and sufferings of beings of flesh -and blood like ourselves, though existing in a state of semi-barbarous -society exceedingly different from our own. -</p> - -<p> -The "Rinaldo" was the first form of the abstract conception of a regular -poem, at once to rival Virgil and Ariosto, which originated in the mind -of Torquato while yet a youth of seventeen, but was not wholly developed -till, at twice that age, he had produced the "Gerusalemme Liberata." All -the characteristics of his peculiar genius are perceptible in the -incidents, style, embellishments, and conduct of this juvenile essay; -which, contrasted with the matured form and perfect majesty of that -later offspring of his genius, is, as his own Gabriel, sent to comfort -Godfrey, at the opening of the siege of Jerusalem:—take the image in -Fairfax's version,— -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"A stripling seem'd he, thrice five winter's old,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And radiant beams adorn'd his locks of gold,"—</span> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">{Pg 126}</a></span></p> - -<p> -compared with Milton's "Raphael," "in prime of manhood, where youth -ended," alighting on the eastern cliff of Paradise, where,— -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i17">"like Maia's son he stood,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And shook his wings, that heavenly fragrance fill'd</span><br /> -<span class="i2">The circuit wide."<a name="NoteRef_40_40" id="NoteRef_40_40"></a><a href="#Note_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></span> -</div></div> - -<p> -This prodigy of youthful genius no sooner appeared than it was hailed -with acclamation throughout Italy, and eager inquiries from every -quarter were made concerning the author—that prodigality of praise -might be lavished upon him by the learned, and parsimony of recompence, -doled out to him by princes, ambitious of attaching so great a "natural -curiosity" to the collection of live rarities about their palaces. For -the great of those times coveted the glory, little as they liked the -expense, of retaining men of talents in the train of their sycophants -and dependents, even when they regarded them only as remarkable among -their species, in the same manner as the lions, tigers, eagles, -peacocks, and other strange and beautiful animals in their menageries -were in comparison with the meaner ranks of brutes. Ariosto, who had -experienced all the bitterness of such favour, and felt keenly the -ignominy of such distinction, plainly tells us, that the patrons of his -day loved those of their parasites who would minister to their personal -necessities, pull off and on their boots, share in their orgies, and -pander to their vices,—rather than those, whose proud stomachs -disdained to allow them to be any thing less than themselves within the -precincts of courts,—poets among princes, who could give enduring -lustre to the names of inglorious patrons, which otherwise would have -found no better memorial than the registers of their births, marriages, -and deaths in their family genealogies. -</p> - -<p> -After Torquato's emancipation from the trammels of law by the hand of the -parent who had so carefully involved him in them,—flushed with the -new wine of liberty, obtained at the surrender of every thing else in -prospect, and with nothing but itself in possession,—he repaired to -Bologna, to pursue his philosophical studies and indulge in his poetical -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">{Pg 127}</a></span> -passion;—for poetry was truly to him a passion, and the ruling one of -his existence,—honour, fortune, ease, pleasure, were all in turns but -ministers <i>to</i> this, while <i>by</i> this he aimed at the acquisition -of each of them, as the one or the other were, for the moment, the object -of desire or the subject of lamentation for having lost it. But from -Bologna he was expelled for a literary squib, the only thing of the kind by -which he has gained any celebrity, whether it were his own or not. Some -anonymous censor had been amusing himself with publishing pasquinades, -ridiculing the principal people of the city, as well as the students of -the college, with "much malice and a little wit." Those who were exposed -to these sarcasms were exceedingly galled by the firing from this -ambuscade of the pen, and the more so as they knew not on whom to wreak -their vengeance. Torquato, in the reckless gaiety of a youth of twenty, -on a certain occasion making himself merry among his companions by -repeating one of these, was immediately pounced upon as the author, not -only of the unlucky lines, with which he had been caught in his mouth, -but he was assailed as being the secret manufacturer of all the rest. It -was in vain that he denied the charge indignantly, and challenged his -accusers for the proofs, urging that he himself had been the butt of the -sharp-shooter's shafts, flying out of darkness and hitting in broad day. -His papers were seized and examined before the criminal magistrate; but -nothing being discovered to fix the imputation upon him, he was -nominally acquitted, though the suspicion was not so easily effaced from -the minds of the offended individuals. He took the matter himself in -such dudgeon, that he precipitately left Bologna, and removed to Padua, -whither he had been Invited by his early friend Scipio Gonzaga, who had -lately established in the latter city the academy <i>Degli Eterei</i>, of -which Tasso—certainly one of the most congenial spirits of the -age—was worthily enrolled a member, and, according to the pedantic -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">{Pg 128}</a></span> -fashion of those pompous but puerile institutions, assumed the name of -<i>Pentito</i>—for some fanciful reason not well explained, though -there has been no small wrangling about it. -</p> - -<p> -To enlarge his mind, to exalt his imagination, and to enrich his -eloquence, Torquato now devoted much of his attention to the works of -Aristotle and Plato; but while the former subjected his reason to the -severest discipline in the ascertainment of principles of truth, he gave -his whole soul to the guidance of the latter, whose visionary splendour -and profound speculations, on subjects the highest that created -intelligences can conceive, and of which comparatively so little can be -learned without "light from heaven" to illumine the "light of -nature,"—while infinite space is afforded for everlasting -conjectures, showing at once the capabilities and the limitations of the -human intellect,—these peculiarly suited the young student's cast -of thought and intense delight in contemplating the things that are -invisible and eternal, as associated with things seen and perishable. -Nor was the philosophical poet an unworthy disciple of the poetical -philosopher, even upon his own ground and in his own style. Many of -Tasso's sublimest compositions are in the form of dialogues, in which he -discourses with an elevation of sentiment and a power of diction which -might have gained admiration in the school of his master himself. -</p> - -<p> -Meanwhile the germ of his great poem, which had been quickened, probably -not later than the publication of the "Rinaldo," was growing up in his -thought,—for Tasso, by the necessity of his nature, was ever -ruminating on some premeditated or progressive theme; and some mightier -conception followed the disburdenment of every matured production of his -inexhaustibly inventive genius. While this new and magnificent project -was gradually assuming shape and character before he entered upon the -deliberate execution of it, he prepared himself for the task by -composing his "Discourses on Heroic Poetry," which place him among -critics in as high a rank as that which he holds among poets. The merit -of these essays, indeed, is so remarkable, that his principal English -biographer, Mr. Black, is almost seduced by them to assert the -universality of the author's genius, in the following plausible remark -and happy quotations from high authority concerning another -extraordinary poetic genius, which seemed capable of excelling in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">{Pg 129}</a></span> -whatever it undertook, whether in prose or rhyme:—"Of the 'Discourses -on Heroic Poetry' there appear to have been four, only three of which -have been printed. Though composed at the age of twenty, and published -without the knowledge and corrections of the author, they are -exceedingly valuable; and while they display a most refined taste, -discover also much metaphysical acuteness and geometrical precision. -Indeed, I am more and more of opinion that what Mr. Stewart says of -Burns is true in general of every great poetical genius, 'All the -faculties of Burns's mind,' says he, 'were, as far as I could judge, -equally vigorous; and his predilection for poetry was rather the result -of his own enthusiastic and impassioned temper, than of a genius -exclusively adapted to that species of composition.'" -</p> - -<p> -In this year, 1564, Torquato visited his venerable father, now literally -"<i>dagl' anni e da fortuna oppresso</i>," "borne down by years and evil -fortune." The transport of affection with which two of the greatest men -of their age, in the most seductive walk of human ambition, met at -Mantua, in the relationship of parent and offspring, must have been -chastened, yet rendered more exquisitely endearing, when the father, -from his own sad experience, must have foreseen, by "his prophetic -soul," the sorrows to come which his son would encounter in the course -that he had chosen; while the son, with emotions not less painful, must -have looked upon his father, remembering the sorrows past, which he had -endured in the vain pursuit of fame from the multitude, and fortune from -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">{Pg 130}</a></span> -patrons, in whose cause he had sacrificed two sources of -competence—his own small patrimony, and his wife's dowry. -</p> - -<p> -During this visit the youth was attacked by a dangerous illness, from -which being rescued by the skill of a physician named Coppino, the -grateful father rewarded the doctor with the fee of a stanza to his -honour in a new poem, entitled "Floridante," which the aged minstrel, -whom no medicine could cure of the disease of rhyme, was composing in -his seventy-third year. This daughter, as she might be called, of his -"Amadigi," to which it is a sequel, and his own last child of -imagination, proved as short-lived as its romantic, and almost as its -natural, parent, though the dutiful Torquato endeavoured himself to -revive it, in his own dark days; but "Floridante," of whom it could not -be said that "she had no poet," died though she had two, and those of no -mean name. Bernardo Tasso himself survived for five years, dying in -1669, at the age of seventy-six. However undervalued by posterity, he -was unquestionably the greatest poet who had appeared between Ariosto -and his son Torquato. -</p> - -<p> -About this time Torquato received an intimation that the cardinal -d'Este, brother to the duke of Ferrara, had nominated him one of his -personal attendants, and expected him forthwith in that city. -Notwithstanding the warnings of his father's old friend, Sperone, and -afterwards his own, Zoilus, who, exasperated by the disappointment of -hopes of preferment which he had cherished when he went to Rome, gave -loose to the most violent invectives against courts and courtiers, and -earnestly dissuaded Torquato from trusting himself where nothing but -allurements to ruin would be placed in his way, from which it was hardly -possible for virtue to escape unscathed or uncorrupted, the young poet, -however, determined not to profit by the experience of the old one, but -to learn for himself what experience alone can teach, and what he indeed -learned at an awful cost in the issue. He resolutely, therefore, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">{Pg 131}</a></span> -determined to put both his virtue and his fortune to the hazard of -temptation, not doubting that he could secure the former and advance the -latter, where the most illustrious court in Italy was held by a -descendant of the patron of Ariosto. Accordingly he hastened to Ferrara, -anticipating every thing that <i>never</i> came to pass, except the one -thing on which, indeed, his mind was most bent, that there he should -complete his contemplated epic, and establish a name which should associate -him with the most renowned of his predecessors. What a bright morning was -that, forerunning a day of darkness and despair, on which he entered the -city, happily unsuspecting the troubles that awaited him there! The -kings of England, of the house of Hanover, are lineally descended from -the family of Este. These much celebrated princes, in the best period of -their ascendency, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, were -the magnificent, if not the liberal, patrons of most of the men of -genius in the finer arts who were contemporary with them; and none was -more so than the reigning duke, Alfonso II., under whose benign -influence for a while, but under whose blighting displeasure afterwards, -poor Tasso flourished and faded. -</p> - -<p> -On the last day of October, 1565, Torquato arrived at Ferrara, where the -most superb preparations were making for the nuptials of Alfonso with -Barbara, daughter of the emperor Ferdinand, and sister to Maximilian II. -He was cordially welcomed, and immediately received into the service of -the duke's brother, cardinal Luigi, whose establishment consisted of -nearly 800 persons, ministering to his pleasure or subsisting on his -bounty. This prince was not less dignified than his brother, but -altogether more amiable and engaging. On the 2d of December the queen -(as she was styled from her imperial lineage) entered Ferrara, crowned, -and accompanied by a gorgeous retinue. The marriage was celebrated by a -succession of the most imposing spectacles and profuse festivities, -which continued for six days, when they were suddenly broken off on the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">{Pg 132}</a></span> -arrival of intelligence of the death of the pope, Pius IV. Among the -throng of the great and the small, who had assembled from all parts of -Italy to witness the tournaments, the pantomimes, the balls, and the -banquets given on this occasion, Torquato was but a solitary unit; -observing and treasuring up in his memory all that he saw and heard, as -materials for celebration in another form of the same scenes of luxury -and splendour upon a grander scale, and, though in an ideal field, of -more enduring exhibition. Myriads of eyes may have glanced upon the -contemplative youth, and passed over him as one of the most -insignificant personages in the city; but, after the lapse of nearly -three centuries, even these gorgeous ceremonials are principally -subjects of interest because he was present at them. Not a human being -in existence at this remote period (one might imagine) can feel any -personal sympathy with the bridegroom, the bride, or any other actor or -spectator, native or stranger, upon the spot; yet even "the -representation of the Temple of Love, which was erected in the ducal -gardens, with a stupendous scenery of porticoes and palaces, of woods -and mountains," is worthy of being remembered, because of the -far-surpassing glory of imaginative palaces and gardens which were -suggested to the admiring poet by the tawdry pageant, "which lasted six -hours <i>without appearing tedious to the spectators</i>," as Muratori -states; though, according to the pithy remark of Gibbon, the latter is -"the most incredible circumstance" connected with the whole account. -</p> - -<p> -During the four months which intervened between the demise of Pius IV. -and the election of a new pope, who assumed the name of Pius V., -Torquato's patron, the cardinal Luigi, being absent, he was left at -Ferrara to make his way into favour wherever an opening might be -presented; and it was then that he became more particularly acquainted -with the princesses Lucretia and Leonora of Este, by whom he was brought -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">{Pg 133}</a></span> -under the notice of their brother the duke, who, after all that has been -said and conjectured, seems never to have regarded him otherwise than -with stately or selfish condescension. That a youth so gifted with -genius, so early distinguished among his countrymen, favoured by nature -with more than ordinary personal advantages, and in many other ways -gallantly accomplished, should have attracted the esteem of these -illustrious ladies, who appear to have been more than mere court -beauties, both in intellect and sensibility, delighting in poetry, and -occasionally exercising themselves in it, was almost a necessary -consequence of the parties becoming acquainted. Under such -circumstances, nothing could be more natural than that, on either side, -secret presentiments of the most gratifying kind should unconsciously -spring up and be covertly cherished by the several individuals; never, -indeed, as must be inferred from the sequel, to be fully disclosed, nor -even, perhaps, perfectly understood by themselves. If, in the age of -chivalry, it was imperative upon true knights to assert the beauty and -maintain the honour of their ladies in all due seasons, and in all -proper places, it was, in the seventeenth century, equally the duty of -true poets to celebrate the same virtues and adornments in their verses -upon those of the better sex, who were either their mistresses or their -patronesses. Torquato, dazzled by the transition from schools, law -offices, and colleges of philosophy, to the court region of enchantment, -has described his own emotions and the influence of the change upon him -in the language which he puts into the mouth of <i>Tirsi</i> (the -representative of himself in his "Amintor"), where, after taking -vengeance on his father's friend, but his own very questionable one -(Sperone), for having dissuaded him from going to the city, which, he -assured him, was given up wholly to deceit, voluptuousness, avarice, and -ambition, the shepherd tells his companions how bravely he was disabused -when he beheld the marvellous reality; for there, "as gracious heaven -would have it, I happened to pass near the blissful dwelling, whence -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">{Pg 134}</a></span> -issued sweet, harmonious voices of swans, of nymphs, of -syrens—heavenly syrens! and sounds of music soft and clear, with -other ravishments so strange, that for a while I stood entranced with -joy and admiration." Being courteously invited to enter by one of noble -aspect, who appeared the guardian of the enchanted spot, he exclaims, "O -then what saw, what felt I? I beheld nymphs, goddesses, and -minstrels—luminaries new and beautiful—all without veil or -cloud, as to the immortals, scattering silver dews and golden rays, -Aurora seems; Apollo and the Muses, too, I saw, and in that moment felt -myself as growing greater. Filled with new virtue, new divinity, I sang -of wars and heroes, disdaining my rude pastoral pipe. But though I soon -returned to these calm shades (to please another), I still retained a -portion of that nobler spirit; my simple reed no longer warbled as -before, but, rivalling the trumpet, filled the woods with notes more -lofty and sonorous. Mopso (Sperone) heard it, and, with evil eye, looked -on me and bewitched me, so that I grew hoarse, and long continued mute. -The shepherds thought I had been glared at by a wolf—a wolf, -indeed, he was to me!" The last allusion is to Sperone's savage -criticisms on the "Gerusalemme," when submitted to his examination in -manuscript. Torquato, however, had reason to think, after years of -disappointing experience, that Sperone's notions of courts and courtiers -were quite as near the truth as his own, during his first visit and -sojourn at Ferrara. -</p> - -<p> -Of the duke, his brother the cardinal, and their three sisters, it is -recorded that thirteen years before this date, on a public occasion, in -presence of their father, Hercules II., and pope Paul III., the -"Adelphi" of Terence, in the original, was recited by them with great -spirit and effect, the parts being sustained by the princesses Anna, -aged twelve, Lucretia, eight, Leonora, six, the princes Alfonso, ten, -and Luigi, five years of age. Mr. Black observes, with apparent justice, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">{Pg 135}</a></span> -that the court of Alfonso united, "like the poems of Tasso, classic -elegance with the richness of romance; and every thing conspired to -kindle the fancy and refine the taste of the youthful bard." -</p> - -<p> -Anna, the eldest of the three sisters above named, in 1548 was married -to the celebrated Francis, duke of Guise, and, after his decease, to -James of Savoy, duke of Nemours. Lucretia, some years later than Tasso's -arrival at her brother's court, was married to the prince of Urbino, -only fifteen years old, when she herself was thirty-seven. This was one -of those state alliances which so little resemble treaties of peace, -that they deserve to be branded as treaties of discord, in which royal -and noble parents sacrifice their children, if not to Moloch, at least -to Mammon—nay, too often to both,—for purposes of family -aggrandisement, by adding territory to territory, and confounding blood -with blood. On the occasion of these unhappy nuptials, Tasso, "as in -duty bound," wrote an epithalamium, which had, in its predictions of -felicity, the equivocal qualification for excelling in that kind of -poetry which Waller, with experienced adroitness, hinted to Charles II., -when rallied by his majesty on having composed a far finer panegyric on -Cromwell than on himself—the qualification of fiction; for scarcely -had the ill-paired couple had time to fall out, when the gallant prince -left his bride to volunteer in a crusade against the Turks, with whom -everlasting warfare, in every petty form of hostility, was wont to be -carried on by the states of Italy. The union ultimately was dissolved, -without the intervention of death; and Lucretia, as duchess of Urbino, -returned to Ferrara. For many years afterwards, she was, more openly -than either her brother or her younger sister, the patron of Tasso, and -to her are some of his most graceful lyrics addressed. -</p> - -<p> -Leonora, the third and younger sister, remained unmarried. Being highly -attractive in person, in manner, and in mind, it is no wonder if -Torquato, having many opportunities of ingratiating himself in her -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">{Pg 136}</a></span> -favour, should be gradually betrayed, under the guise of that romantic -strain of adulation to rank and beauty (especially in verse) which the -fashion of the times not only tolerated but sanctioned, to insinuate all -the fervour of a passion which, though hardly aware of it himself, and -altogether unacknowledged by its sensitive object, might yet be -harboured in the bosoms of both, though so secretly, that each more -complacently and jealously watched the symptoms of a tender attachment -in the other, than cared to examine the reality of the same in -themselves. The mystery, thus cherished, for the tantalising delight of -a hope too remote to be fulfilled, except at the sacrifice of every -thing but that love, for which, if true, nothing might be deemed too -much to be sacrificed, has never been cleared up, and all reasoning and -conjecture on the subject, at this distance of time, must be vain. It -has been with equal confidence both affirmed and denied, that the poet -imprudently aspired to the hand of the princess, and that the princess -as imprudently surrendered her heart to the poet, though, from -necessity, she withheld her hand. From the numberless <i>canzoni</i> and -<i>sonetti</i>, of which love is the theme, among the <i>rime</i> of Tasso, -no premises towards the solution of this problem can be drawn. Dante and -Petrarch, in all their effusions of the kind, are constant each to his -respective mistress. Beatrice and Laura are the perpetual idols of their -amorous devotion; but to so many—or, if to one, under so many -different names and characters,—are Tasso's adorations addressed, -that he may have had fifty fits of passion for as many flames, and been as -true in turn to each and equally volatile to all. It is, however, a -remarkable circumstance, that three of the greatest poets of Italy should -owe as much of their posthumous renown to their questionable love as to -their acknowledged genius, having been avowedly attached to ladies whose -very existence is unascertained at this day, though volumes have been -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">{Pg 137}</a></span> -written, proving nothing more than (to borrow the comprehensive judgment -of sir Roger de Coverley) that "much may be said on both sides." -</p> - -<p> -In the mean time, whatever was the subsequent conduct of Alfonso towards -Tasso, there seems to be no doubt that, for a considerable period during -which the poet was engaged upon his great work, the duke countenanced -him in the way most agreeable to his literary ambition and his personal -vanity; for he loved rich apparel, splendid apartments, sumptuous fare, -and to be associated with persons of the highest rank—feeling that he -could adorn and dignify the circle in which he moved, both as a man of -genius exalted above competition by intellectual endowments, and as a -man of the world qualified to shine in external demeanour among -gentlemen and soldiers as well as among students and men of letters. -During this prosperous period—when the smiles of princesses, who were -pleased to receive the homage of his muse, flattered his gentler -affections, and the favour of sovereigns gratified the pride of a heart -easily elevated to an eminence of self-satisfaction, from which the fall -when it came was the more terrible, and the dashing to pieces of its -hopes and its claims the more humiliating and deplorable—Tasso -accompanied the cardinal Luigi as legate to the court of France. Here -his fame had prepared the way for his reception with peculiar honour by -Charles IX., himself both a lover of verse and a versifier. It is said -that the king offered the poet some splendid presents, which the latter -declined to accept, though he was so scantily provided with a wardrobe, -that he left the kingdom, at the end of twelve months, in the same suit -of clothes in which he entered it. The snake has but one skin, but while -that is wearing out another is forming beneath: it would be well for -poets, who live on court expectations, if they were as well provided. -</p> - -<p> -As not many personal anecdotes are related of our poet, two or three -indifferent ones may be given here as specimens of the tone of his -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">{Pg 138}</a></span> -conversation and address in public. A poet of some repute having -committed a crime for which he was condemned to die, Tasso resolved to -obtain, if possible, a mitigation of the punishment. At the palace he -learned that the sentence was about to be executed immediately. -Undiscouraged, however, he pressed forward; and being admitted to the -presence, he thus addressed the king:—"May it please your majesty, I -am come to implore you to put to death a wretch, who has brought disgrace -upon philosophy, by showing that she cannot stand out against human -depravity." The king, struck with the turn of the request, spared the -criminal. Being asked by his majesty one day, "Whether men most -resembled God in happiness, in sovereign power, or in the ability to do -good?" Tasso replied, "Men can resemble God only by their -virtue."—Again, before the same monarch a discussion was held to -determine what condition in life is most unfortunate. "In my opinion," -said Tasso, "the most deplorable condition is that of an impatient old -man, borne down by poverty, who has neither fortune to preserve him from -want, nor philosophy to support himself under suffering." -</p> - -<p> -In the course of this journey, whatever he may have gained in honour at -the French court, gratification in the society of eminent -contemporaries, and knowledge of the country and people of his hero, -Godfrey, Torquato lost the favour of cardinal Luigi, as Ariosto -forfeited that of the cardinals kinsman and predecessor, Hippolyto of Este; -though not for the same reason—want of servility to his highness -(Luigi probably not exacting such base homage as Ariosto's barbarian -patron had done), but for having manifested more zeal for the catholic -faith than, in the opinion of some of his confidants, was deemed politic -at a time, when, for the most treacherous purposes, previous to the -massacre of St. Bartholomew, the protestants were treated with unwonted -indulgence, to throw them off their guard. Hereupon he returned to -Italy, though not immediately to Ferrara; for, travelling in company -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">{Pg 139}</a></span> -with Manzuoli, the secretary of the late embassy, we find that he -arrived at Rome in January, 1572. Here he was cordially welcomed by many -of his father's old acquaintances, as well as greatly distinguished for -his own sake. Pope Pius V. honoured him with an audience, and the -privilege of kissing his foot. -</p> - -<p> -Through the mediation of the duchess of Urbino and Leonora, he was soon -afterwards formally admitted into the service of Alfonso, with a pension -of a hundred and eighty gold crowns a year, and the understanding that -no personal duties would be required of him; but that he should be at -liberty to pursue his studies and finish his poem at his own leisure. -Generous as this provision undoubtedly was, it yet made him a captive in -golden chains, too weak to bind the limbs, but strong enough to enthral -the soul and enslave the mind. So, at least, Torquato found his -obligation; and even when on both sides it had been broken, after his -second imprisonment, he was never in spirit enfranchised from the yoke -of Alfonso, till death set him free. His own testimony concerning his -patron's munificence at this time, long after he had lost his favour, is -honourable to both:—"He raised me from the darkness of my low estate -to the light and glory of his court; he removed me from penury to -abundance; he exceedingly enhanced the value of my works, by often and -willing listening while I read, and treating their author with every -mark of esteem. He placed me at his table, and countenanced me with his -personal attention; and he never denied me a favour which I requested." -</p> - -<p> -Under these auspices, while Tasso was still vigorously prosecuting that -splendid crusade of his muse, the poetical siege of Jerusalem, and had -now nearly made himself master of it for an everlasting stronghold of -his poetical sovereignty, his exuberant mind poured out multitudes of -sonnets, canzoni, and other miscellanies in verse and prose—almost -entirely on transient themes, love fancies, and panegyrical attempts— -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">{Pg 140}</a></span> -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i9">——"to give a deathless lot</span><br /> -<span class="i2">To names inglorious, born to be forgot."</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -Among these, in the composition of which it might be questioned whether -he was wasting his genius or cultivating it, he produced something more -excellent, in the form of a pastoral drama. Accordingly, the most -beautiful offspring of his imagination—so far as refers to exquisite -grace of diction, and consummate skill in adorning a subject altogether -artificial, and feigning a state of society that never did, never could, -never ought to exist,—in a story not very natural though the -incidents are few, nor very happily connected or intelligibly -developed,—his "Aminta" appeared, written in flowing verse of various -measures without rhyme, and enriched with lyric chorusses of extraordinary -elegance. How the public exhibition of such a drama could be tolerated, -before the most exalted personages of the state, ladies of the highest -character, and religionists of the most plausible professions, is very -difficult for us, in our cold climate, and with our severer as well as -juster sentiments of decorum, to imagine. All that can be said in -extenuation of the audience, and perhaps of the poet, comes to this -presumption, that, though the piece abounds with descriptions and allusions -the most voluptuous and fascinating to awaken the most perilous passions in -youth, and which no gravity of age ought to endure, such were the -manners of the day, and so little of evil was apprehended, where the -serpent, that allured Eve with his wiles of beauty among the flowers of -paradise, put on this pastoral disguise of the innocence of the golden -age, that the fair and the virtuous alike imagined themselves as -guiltless in listening to his blandishments, as Milton represents the -mother of mankind to have been unsuspicious of danger, when she followed -the tempter to the forbidden tree, and entered into a parley with him -there, till at length, beguiled by his subtilty, "she plucked, she ate." -And here a subject too delicate to be handled on the present occasion -must be left to every one's conscience who indulges in the luxury of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">{Pg 141}</a></span> -such reading as the work under consideration furnishes. It is remarkable -that the author, designating himself under the name of <i>Tirsi</i>, seems -to have been forewarned of the malady which soon afterwards overwhelmed -him, and to which, no doubt, from constitutional temperament he had been -prone from his youth upward, and which, in premature old age, cast such -clouds of mystery over the gloom and splendour of his latter life. -"Knowest thou not what <i>Tirsi</i> wrote, when, fired with frenzy, he -wandered through the forest, at once moving laughter and pity among the -lovely nymphs and shepherds? Nor <i>wrote</i> he even then 'things worthy -to be laughed at, although he <i>did</i> such things.'" -</p> - -<p> -The duchess of Urbino being absent from Ferrara, when Tasso's muse, like -Habington's "halcyon," produced -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"The happy miracle of this rare birth,"</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -invited him to her delightful retirement of Casteldurante, where she -heard the pastoral strains from his own lips, which, though not eloquent -from natural infirmity, would yet convey the soul and passion, the -delicacy and pathos, of every passage, with an impression which no actor -on the stage, nor indeed any reader but himself, could give. The living -voice, in this case, would be the actual language of the spirit that -conceived the thoughts, speaking to the spirit of her who received them -through the ear, fresh and flowing from the fountain in his heart; for -the written copy, to the eye, would be but a translation, wanting the -incommunicable accompaniments of tone, look, expression, and perfect -intelligence of the whole in all its bearings and meanings, such as the -original author alone could possess; for, as Dr. Johnson said, "no -<i>words</i> can convey <i>sounds</i>;" and both sounds and words were -requisite to do justice to such verse as his. Tasso remained several months -with the duchess. -</p> - -<p> -All Italy soon echoed with the fame of this poetical phenomenon, which, -though not the first of the kind, (an indifferent model having been -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">{Pg 142}</a></span> -produced six years before, by one Arienti,) it was the first that had -power to compel almost universal admiration, and establish a precedent -and authority for that fantastic species of literary composition. -Imitations, by the most gifted of his contemporaries, sprang up in rapid -succession, and passed away as rapidly, with the exception of one, the -"Pastor Fido" of Guarini, which not only maintained its ground, but even -disputed that on which its forerunner stood, and from which no rivalry -has ever yet been able to remove it. The renown which Tasso acquired by -the "Aminta" naturally exasperated envy in proportion as it commanded -applause, and among the multitude of competitors who could not soar to -his elevation, there were not wanting those who employed every artifice -to bring him down to their level, that they might trample him under -foot. Whatever were the causes, Tasso to the end of his life was -persecuted as much by unmerciful critics as he was oppressed by -hard-hearted patrons. -</p> - -<p> -But the "Aminta" was not the only episodal enterprise of Tasso, while he -was slowly but unweariedly proceeding with the "Gerusalemme." Flushed -with the success of his pastoral drama, he set earnestly about the -construction of a regular tragedy; but he had not advanced far in the -second act, when the project was suspended, and the fragment of fine -promise which remains, compared with the completed performance long -afterwards, when his faculties were on the decline, exhibits a brilliant -but melancholy contrast of "the change" that had come "o'er the spirit -of his dream"—his dream of life, love, and glory, blighting his "May -of youth," and causing him in the prime of manhood to "fall into the sere -and yellow leaf." His "Torindo," as this failure was styled, was less a -failure than the "Torrismondo," as the resumed and perfected task was -called. -</p> - -<p> -Towards the conclusion of his toils on his main work (as he fondly -hoped), but the beginning of a series of miseries consequent upon it, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">{Pg 143}</a></span> -from which he found no end but in the grave, Tasso was seized with a -violent fever. This left him in such a state of bodily exhaustion, that -it was not till the following spring (1575), that from the last lines of -his poem he could look back upon all the intervening ones to the first, -as the links of a chain, more subtle than air, yet stronger than -adamant, which should deliver his thoughts as he had bound them in his -words, from generation to generation, to delight millions of minds, so -long as his country's language should be understood. He had already -enjoyed such exhilarating foretastes of fame by the circulation in -manuscript of portions of the poem, as they came completed from his -hands, that he was the less prepared to encounter the enmity and -opposition, which rancorous and intriguing rivals, or fanatic and -supercilious ecclesiastical censors of the press, immediately commenced, -and inveterately continued to manifest towards him to the close of life. -There was in Tasso—conscious as he must have been of his powers, and -confident as he must have felt in the exercise of his own judgment—a -readiness to submit to learned and candid criticism, and a willingness -to concede to dissentient opinions on minor points of taste, so far as was -consistent with manly independence,—which can rarely be found among -men of first-rate talents, but yet might be expected from a court poet, -accustomed in other matters to defer to superiors, be compliant towards -equals, and condescending to inferiors. This disposition, however, which -ought to have conciliated envy herself, only provoked her the more to -assume every shape of candour or malignity, as best suited her humour, -to torment and distract him, that she might revel over his wretchedness, -if she could not accomplish his fall. Years intervened while the -"Gerusalemme Liberata," in its finished form, was undergoing as many -ordeals almost as he had friends, and its author suffering almost as -many martyrdoms as he had enemies. Into the particulars of these -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">{Pg 144}</a></span> -persecutions it is not necessary to enter here. The poet was certainly -induced by the force of arguments used by some, and the terror of -inquisitorial powers exercised by others of his critics, to alter, -expunge, and amend many parts of the poem, which, after all, suffered -little from the processes to which it was thus exposed before its -publication. That publication, however, was long delayed by such -vexatious hinderances, and at last was effected surreptitiously, to the -great offence and injury of the author, then in confinement as a -lunatic. -</p> - -<p> -Tasso's malady was grievously aggravated by these excruciating -criticisms, when he found himself, on the one hand, charged with heresy -against Aristotle and good taste, and, on the other, with heresy against -the church and good morals. Fevers, headaches, strange dreams, waking -suspicions, restlessness, disappointment, dissatisfaction with his -patron, to whom he had dedicated his poem, and in honour of whom he had -created his imaginary hero, Rinaldo,—perhaps, too, the bitterness of -desponding passion, though that is questionable,—suggested to him the -idea of absconding from Ferrara and taking refuge at Rome, where he -purposed to bring out the "Gerusalemme," at his own pleasure, and hoped -to reap a considerable pecuniary benefit from the sale. Alfonso, -however, was not willing to lose the glory of the dedication to himself, -though he seems to have wanted the generosity, the humanity, the justice -to deal with the author except as an impotent creature in his power, who -could do him much honour by flattering his pride, but to whom he showed -at best but stinted kindness. To secure his selfish object, he made the -poet a prisoner near his own person,—both at Ferrara, and at his -palace of Belriguardo in the country,—a prisoner at large, indeed, -but under perpetual observation. Of this the sufferer was aware; and the -very idea of a human eye for ever upon him, restraining his looks, words, -and actions, poring over him while he slept, haunting his dreams, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">{Pg 145}</a></span> -entering into his very thoughts—for so he must have felt as though it -did—this alone was enough to madden a man of iron heart and millstone -brain, much more a poor hypochondriac, as Tasso had already become. -</p> - -<p> -Notwithstanding the jealousies of Alfonso, and the fascinations of his -sisters to detain him, the capricious bard escaped from his splendid -captivity to Rome,—and escaped even with the permission of the duke; -who gave him a letter of recommendation to the cardinal Hippolyto, to -befriend him as a stranger there, for the avowed purpose of obtaining -the accustomed indulgence granted to visiters during the jubilee. Here -he met with the cardinal Ferdinand de' Medici, afterwards grand duke of -Tuscany, who renewed to him in person the tender of an honourable asylum -(formerly intimated to him in private), should he be disposed to leave -altogether the service of Alfonso. The offer was gratefully -acknowledged, but not formally accepted; and after six weeks of holidays -(as he felt them to be) spent in the luxury of literary intercourse, and -the renewal of the impressions which the scene of Rome's posthumous -glory in her magnificent ruins, and her not less imposing revival in her -hierarchal pomp, had left on his mind in youth, he returned by way of -Sienna and Florence to Ferrara. Here, while his poem was going through a -second round of critical purgatory, and his soul was sinking under the -burden of censures laid upon him, like the spirits of the proud in -Dante, condemned to bear enormous stones along the uneven uphill road, -he received the appointment of historiographer to the house of Este, -with a small stipend, which laid upon him another cobweb obligation to -remain at Ferrara. What were the duties of this office it is of no -consequence to inquire; he does not seem even to have performed any, nor -perhaps did he owe any; his fable of the origin of that family from his -hero Rinaldo—the Rinaldo of his "Gerusalemme"—had already -conferred on it more of that glory which princes covet, than the true -history of all its ancestors might have done. When the results of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">{Pg 146}</a></span> -aforesaid second revisal of his poem were communicated to him, in -despair of conciliating his critics, and determined not to yield -altogether to their incompetent authority, on points where he felt -himself strong in poetical power to produce the very effects which they -deprecated, but which he had aimed at and achieved most triumphantly, he -composed an interpretation of the whole as an extended allegory, -spiritualising its heroes and its scenes, with more perverse ingenuity -than felicity of success. Of this it may be fairly said, that if the -original were mainly fiction, the moral was wholly so. His censors, -however, persisted in condemning the voluptuous passages to which he -himself was most attached, because he knew them to be the most -beautiful, and recked not that they were the most seductive. In this -respect the poet himself was the Rinaldo of his sorceress muse, who by -her enchantments had wholly captivated his heart, and carried him away -to her "limbo of vanity;" from which Sperone and Antoniano, his -remorseless critics, in vain endeavoured to deliver him; as Carlo and -Ubaldo had rescued his hero from the thralls of Armida in her island of -sensual delights. He never yielded all, though he conceded many things, -and sacrificed several extravagant inventions, by which the poem, was -rather mended than mutilated. -</p> - -<p> -An incident occurred about this time, which exhibited Tasso not less in -the character of a hero than he had hitherto figured in that of the -laureate of heroes. Suspecting one of his friends to have been guilty of -opening his trunks with false keys, to pry into his secrets among his -papers, he gently remonstrated with the offender, who resented the -charge by giving him the lie, and received in return a blow upon the -face. This rencontre took place in the court of the palace, and was -therefore sufficiently notorious. The cowardly aggressor—one Maddalo, -a notary—walked away with the dishonour on his brow, but meditating -in his heart the most atrocious vengeance. Accordingly, having enlisted -three of his kindred in the quarrel, they sallied forth, armed, to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">{Pg 147}</a></span> -assail the poet; and finding him abroad in the street, they fell upon -him from behind. Tasso promptly turned round, drew his sword, and dealt -so dexterously with it, that the ruffians were soon put to flight; -though their fears of being apprehended, no doubt, to their "speed lent -wings," till they found refuge under the roofs of various friends. The -circumstance gained him no small reputation, and gave rise to a couplet -which was often repeated:— -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"Con la penna e con la spada</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Nessun vai quanto Torquato."</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"With the sword and with the pen,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Tasso beats all other men."</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -It is not practicable, in this succinct memoir, to trace the sufferer -through all the details which have been recorded of his miseries from -penury, pride, ambition, and disappointment, the wrongs inflicted on him -by patrons and rivals, and above all, those growing symptoms of a mind -diseased, occasioning suspicions, jealousies, misunderstandings, and -quarrels with his friends and contemporaries; while that insidious -malady, which no medicine can reach, was making its unchecked ravages -upon his constitution, and inveterately fixing upon him its evil -influences, so that, with brief and distant lucid intervals, his -remaining days were passed in horror and despondency, whether amidst the -darkness of the dungeons of Ferrara, or wandering amidst the broad -sunshine on foot, and depending for bread and shelter upon casual -hospitality, from province to province throughout Italy. Imagining that -his enemies—enemies as imaginary, in this case, as were his fears of -them—had accused him to Alfonso of treason, and to the pope of -heresy, he at length grew so outrageous, that, one day, for some -unaccountable provocation, he drew a dagger upon a servant, and assaulted -him in an apartment of the duchess of Urbino. Being instantly disarmed, he -was confined, by order of the duke, within the precincts of the palace. -Here, when for the first time he found himself a prisoner, he was -overwhelmed with anguish, and bitterly bewailed his fate. As soon as he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">{Pg 148}</a></span> -could again command his passion, he wrote a very penitential letter to -Alfonso, suing for pardon and release. Both were granted to him; and he -was removed, under the eye of the duke himself, to the palace of -Belriguardo, in the country, that he might recover his health and -spirits, amidst scenes and with the society in which he had formerly -delighted to be placed. With a delicate regard to one of his most -grievous temptations—that he had been guilty of heresy, Alfonso -introduced to him the head of the holy inquisition at Ferrara, who, -after duly examining him, fully absolved him from all imputations of the -kind, and assured him that he was yet a good catholic. Not contented -with this, he suddenly left Belriguardo, and took refuge in a convent of -St. Francis, from which he sent word to his patron, that as soon as he -should be sufficiently restored he intended to enter himself among the -fraternity. But nothing could calm the troubled waters of his mind; he -still conceived himself under the displeasure of the duke, and that his -acquittal by the inquisitor was invalid. In this turmoil of doubts and -self-reproaches, he importuned Alfonso and the duchess of Urbino with -letters concerning his imaginary offences, and imploring comfort and -assurance which they could not give, because he would not receive. With -Leonora he appears never to have had that freedom and frequency of -correspondence which he had hitherto been permitted to hold with her -elder sister. Whether this be in favour of his presumed passion or not -must be left to those who are skilled in the mysteries of love-making -between unequal parties. On this subject, as on the poet's strange -melancholy, and the severity with which it was visited by his patron, -whether for the punishment of the lover or the cure of the maniac, it -would be futile to argue here. After all the explanation and -mystification by Tasso's biographers, the general impression has been, -is, and probably will remain, that his love for Leonora was real; that -his imprisonment was vindictive on the part of her brother, and that his -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">{Pg 149}</a></span> -frenzy was the effect of hopeless passion and impotent resentment -against oppression. "Historians," says Ugo Foscolo, "will be ever -embarrassed to explain aright the reasons of Tasso's imprisonment: it is -involved in the same obscurity as the exile of Ovid. Both were among -those thunder-strokes that despotism darts forth. In crushing their -victims they terrified them, and reduced spectators to silence. There -are incidents in courts, that, although known to many persons, remain in -eternal oblivion—contemporaries dare not reveal, and posterity can -only divine them." -</p> - -<p> -In the following summer, Tasso, bewildered and desperate, and not -knowing whither to turn, or in whom to confide, at length fled secretly -from Ferrara to visit his sister at Torrento, whom he had not seen since -they were children together. She was now a widow, the mother of two -sons, and dependent upon her uncles, who still withheld her mother's -dowry, for the means of subsistence. With that caution to do every thing -by stealth, which characterises the hallucination of one who fancies all -the world conspiring to do him harm, he presented himself before her in -the habit of a shepherd, affecting to be the bearer of certain letters -from himself. He found her alone; her children being absent. The letters -represented her brother at Ferrara as surrounded by enemies, and in the -most imminent danger of his life, unless she interposed in his behalf, -and rescued him from their machinations. When she had read the -distressing intelligence, she implored the supposed messenger to tell -her all, the worst, at once. He answered by a recital of miseries so -aggravated, in a tone so earnest and impassioned, that, whether she -suspected him or not, she fainted with alarm. When she had been -sufficiently recovered, the cunning minstrel changed the hand that -played upon her, like Timotheus on his harp, and, from excess of pity -for her brother's sufferings, gently awoke all her tenderness of -affection, by old and beautiful recollections of former days, and hopes -yet possible to be realised in years to come. At length, when she was -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">{Pg 150}</a></span> -well prepared, he discovered himself fully to her, and they were brother -and sister again in a moment, and thenceforth to the end of life. With -her he remained in comparative tranquillity for several months, being -all the while unacknowledged in the neighbourhood, except as Cornelia's -cousin from Bergamo, who, coming to Rome, had availed himself of the -opportunity to visit her. -</p> - -<p> -But, as might be expected, his self-tormenting mind became unquiet -amidst scenes of repose, which, from day to day, delighted him at first, -but, from day to day, presenting little change of aspect or incident, he -sighed again for Ferrara, choosing rather the agony of life to that rest -which was no longer supportable. Thither, then, he returned, on the -assurance of pardon from the duke, and the restoration of his papers. It -was soon after his arrival, that an act of indiscretion attributed to -him by some, and denied by others of his biographers, is said to have -caused him to be put in ward as a person of deranged intellect. Being in -company with Alfonso and his sisters, in the presence of the court, in -reply to a question from Leonora, Tasso gave her an involuntary salute, -their faces being so near together that he felt attraction to be -irresistible. The duke, astonished and indignant, turned to his -attendants and exclaimed, "See to what a lamentable condition this great -man has been brought by the loss of his reason!" But the date of this -circumstance happens to be as disputable as the fact; for it is certain -that the poet had not long resided at Ferrara, when, still unsatisfied -with the duke's conduct towards him, he again withdrew from the city, -and successively sought temporary refuge at Mantua, Urbino, Florence, -Padua, Turin, and Venice. Being ill at ease every where, by a fatality -of instinct, as it might be deemed, he returned to Ferrara, and thence -departed no more till after a confinement of seven years. For, imagining -himself coldly received at court, and unworthily repulsed when he sought -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">{Pg 151}</a></span> -an audience, he vented his anguish of disappointment in bitter -invectives against the duke, who, amidst the festivities of his new -nuptials with a young bride, his third wife, a daughter of the duke of -Mantua, was little inclined to hearken to the complaints and -supplications of one whom he had long looked upon as insane. On this -ground he was committed to St. Anne's hospital, as a lunatic, which in -those days of medical ignorance of the proper treatment of such patients -was to be punished as a criminal for his misfortune. The following -extract must stand in place of multifarious details of the poet's -feelings under this long restraint. His imprisonment commenced in March, -1579. Soon afterwards he thus expressed himself in a letter to his -friend Scipio Gonzaga:— -</p> - -<p> -"Ah me! I had intended to compose two heroic poems of noble argument, -and four tragedies, of which I had contrived the plots. Many works in -prose also, on the most exalted and useful subjects, I had contemplated; -purposing so to unite philosophy and eloquence, that I might leave an -eternal monument to my memory in the world. Alas! I hoped to close my -life with glory and renown, but now, borne down under the load of my -misfortunes, I have lost all prospect of fame and distinction. Indeed I -should consider myself abundantly happy, if, without suspicion, I could -but quench the thirst with which I am tormented; and if, as one of the -multitude, I could lead a life of freedom in some poor cottage, if not -in health, which I can no longer be, yet exempt from this anguish. If I -were not honoured, it would be enough for me not to be abominated; and -if I could not live like men, I might at least quench the thirst that -consumes me, like the brutes which freely drink from stream and -fountain. Nor do I fear so much the vastness as the duration of this -calamity; and the thought of this is horrible to me, especially as in -this place I can neither write nor study. The dread, too, of perpetual -imprisonment increases my melancholy, and the indignities which I suffer -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">{Pg 152}</a></span> -exasperate it; while the squalor of my beard, my hair, and my dress, the -sordidness and the filth of the place, exceedingly annoy me. But, above -all, I am afflicted by solitude, my cruel and natural enemy; which; even -in my best state; was sometimes so distressing, that often, at the most -unseasonable hours, I have gone in search of company. Sure I am, that if -she who so little has corresponded to my attachment, if she saw me in -such a condition; and in such misery, she would have some compassion -upon me." -</p> - -<p> -Though such statements must be received with some allowance for the -power of self-torturing which he possessed in no small degree, and -exercised with as little forbearance as though he were his own most -implacable enemy, yet, according to Tasso's representation, the -treatment which he experienced under the hands of his brother-poet, -Agostino Morti, formerly a disciple of Ariosto, the keeper of the -hospital, was almost as bad as that which he received at his own. He -says that by this man he was not allowed the necessaries of life, the -medicines which his bodily disease required, nor the spiritual -consolations which his heart-sickness needed: moreover, that his -meditations were disturbed by the inmates of the house, so that he could -not proceed with the preparation of his works for the press; but above -all, that he was under the power of witchcraft, Morti being in league -with certain magicians to destroy him by enchantments; and as this was a -capital crime, he threatens to accuse the keeper to the duke.<a name="NoteRef_41_41" id="NoteRef_41_41"></a><a href="#Note_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> His -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">{Pg 153}</a></span> -sonnets to the cats of the hospital, imploring them to lend him the -light of their eyes to write by, are specimens of that <i>kind</i> of mirth -which suits and sets off melancholy, in a certain "humorous sadness." -Their genuineness, however, is not certain, and they are hardly -translatable. -</p> - -<p> -Whatever were the actual circumstances of Tasso's mental alienation and -corporal sufferings from disease or ill usage, his life, from the period -of his first imprisonment, was to himself like one of <i>the opium-eater's -dreams</i>—splendours and horrors, alternations of agony and rapture, -changes sudden, frequent, and strangely contrasted: he inhabited a world -of <i>unrealities</i>, of which the joys and sorrows, the hopes and fears, -were the more real in proportion as they were ideal, and therefore -incurable; acting upon the soul itself like that effect upon the bodily -senses, excruciatingly susceptible of impressions of pain, so happily -imagined, and not less felicitously expressed by the most polished of -our own poets:— -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"Say what their use, were finer optics given?</span><br /> -<span class="i2">To inspect a mite, not comprehend the heaven;</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Or touch, if tremblingly alive all o'er,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">To smart and agonise at every pore;</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Or, quick effluvia darting through the brain,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Die of a rose in aromatic pain;</span><br /> -<span class="i2">If nature thunder'd in his opening ears,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And stunn'd him with the music of the spheres.</span><br /> -<span class="i2">How would he wish that heaven had left him still</span><br /> -<span class="i2">The whispering zephyr and the purling rill."</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i18">POPE's <i>Essay on Man</i>, Epist. I.</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -And such a being, too exquisitely sensitive, is every poet, whose -imagination or whose passion overmasters his reason and his judgment. -Tasso was eminently such—a poet in every thing, and all life long. -</p> - -<p> -Meanwhile editions of his "Gerusalemme" were multiplying throughout -Italy, and beyond the Alps and the Pyrenees; while the mind that -conceived and produced it was wandering, like a lost star through the -infinity of space, unaccompanied by any kindred planet, and unattracted by -any parent sun; and the poet himself—he whom monarchs had delighted -to honour, the associate of sovereigns, who had been the favourite of -princesses, and the admiration or the envy of the highest intellects of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">{Pg 154}</a></span> -his age—was treated as a brute, out of whose living frame the -rational soul had departed, and whose animal appetites were to be subdued -by severe abstinence, or controlled by harsh discipline. -</p> - -<p> -Yet in his solitude, when the first rigours of his imprisonment had been -relaxed, and an apartment of less discomfort was allotted to him, he -pursued, with unabated ardour and intensity, his studies, so far as he -had the means, and poured out, as he was ever wont, his sorrows and his -hopes, his remembrances and his imaginations, in every form of verse. -Indeed, many of his most beautiful compositions are dated within the -term of his captivity. In course of time, as he grew calmer, his -friends, and illustrious strangers attracted by his fame, were permitted -to visit him. Occasionally, too, a day of light and liberty was granted, -and he was brought out of his prison-house to those splendid mansions -which he loved to inhabit, and which he was so well qualified to adorn. -Marfisa of Este, cousin to the duke, especially befriended him in this -manner, and entertained him at her delightful villa, where, in company -with her distinguished household and visiters, he looked abroad again in -sunshine, with all a poet's transport and all an invalid's delight, when -mere existence, void of suffering, is enjoyment. -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"See the wretch, who long has tost</span><br /> -<span class="i4">On the thorny bed of pain,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">At length repair his vigour lost,</span><br /> -<span class="i4">And breathe and walk again:</span><br /> -<span class="i2">The meanest floweret of the vale,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">The simplest note that swells the gale,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">The common air, the earth, the skies,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">To him are opening paradise."</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -So sang Gray, and so felt Tasso for a few hours of freedom,—but soon -remanded back to his lonely abode, he relapsed into despondency; and -though one such day, while it lasted, might seem to compensate for all -the past, yet when it was gone, its pleasures appeared too dearly -purchased by the misery of another day rendered more bitter by the -transient change. -</p> - -<p> -Having collected a volume of his fugitive verses, principally composed -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">{Pg 155}</a></span> -in prison, he published it with a dedication to the princesses, the -duchess of Urbino and Leonora; but the latter lived not to receive this -mournful proof of the fidelity of his gratitude, if not of his love. She -died, after a long illness, in 1581, aged 43 years. Tasso enquired -earnestly after her during her sickness, and offered to do any thing in -the power of his muse to beguile that part of her suffering which song -might soothe, while patiently bearing the rest, for which there was no -relief but from Heaven. After her death he became mute on that theme, -which most of his biographers would fain prove to have been the real -though covert one of many an amorous effusion among his sonnets and -lyrics. "Great griefs are silent." -</p> - -<p> -Among his wild imaginations, Tasso thought himself haunted in his prison -by a sprite—something akin to our old English -Robin-good-fellow—who (probably in the very person of his knavish -attendant) played all manner of petty mischievous pranks to plague him. -One extract from a letter on this subject will show how little command -of his reason he had at this time. He says, "The little thief has stolen -from me many crowns, I know not what number—for I do not, like -misers, keep an account of them—but perhaps they may amount to -twenty. He turns all my hooks topsy-turvy, opens my chests, and steals -my keys, so that I can keep nothing. I am unhappy at all times, -especially during the night, nor <i>do I know if my disease be frenzy, -or what is its nature.</i>" Far more frightful visitations he complains -of during this dreadful interval, all which seem to prove a lamentable -derangement of intellect, of which he was himself sometimes so -conscious, that he rouses all his powers of reasoning to convince -himself that he has not really lost his wits. To a friend he -writes—"I cannot defend any thing from my enemies, nor from the -devil, <i>except my will</i>, with which I will never consent to learn -any thing from him or his followers, or have any <i>familiarity with him -or with his magicians.</i> * * * * Amidst so many terrors and pains, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">{Pg 156}</a></span> -there appeared to me in the air the image of the glorious Virgin, with her -Son in her arms, encircled with clouds of many colours, so that I ought by -no means to despair of her grace. <i>And though this might be an illusion, -because I am frenetic</i>,—troubled with various phantasms, and full -of infinite melancholy,—yet, by the grace of God, I can sometimes -<i>cohibere assensum</i> (withhold my assent), which, as Cicero says, being -the act of a sound mind, I am inclined to believe it was a miracle of -the Virgin."—This vision he celebrates in one of his most brilliant -sonnets, and also in an elegant madrigal, ascribing to her grace the -marvellous cure of his mental affliction. -</p> - -<p> -In whatever way that cure may have been temporarily effected, Tasso, -after more than seven years' confinement, was liberated in 1586, at the -special intercession of the prince of Mantua. Alfonso refused to allow -him an audience, and he left Ferrara like a transport released from -prison, to go into perpetual banishment; for the duke remained -inexorable, and, indeed, implacable, to the end of his victim's life. -For a while Tasso enjoyed the sudden transition, again being lodged in -the palace of Mantua, faring sumptuously, and being admitted to the -high, amiable, and intellectual society of nobles, ladies, and scholars. -This pleasant season was not, however, without relapses of his fearful -disease: the evil spirit came upon him at times, and all the enchantment -of his harp could not drive it away. -</p> - -<p> -During several years afterwards, the poet wandered about, as his father -had done, from city to city, and from court to court, experiencing all -the vicissitudes of what is called fortune, but which, in his case, -appears to have been the lot which he chose and cut out for himself. -Princes were ever ready to open their doors to him, and wherever he was -known, he was honoured according to the reputation which he had so -painfully but unprofitably acquired; his patrons having only afforded -him hospitality while he abode with them, and booksellers having been -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">{Pg 157}</a></span> -enriched at his expense by the spoils of his genius, in a country where -the property of literary men in their own works was little acknowledged -and less respected. His controversy with the <i>Della Cruscan</i> academy -during his imprisonment, the members of which had invidiously prejudiced -the public mind against him, the living, whom their favour might have -benefited, by exalting Ariosto, the dead, whom their preference could -not serve,—while it grievously galled him, rather tended to spread -the knowledge, and, necessarily with that knowledge, the fame of his -"Gerusalemme," than permanently to injure his fair fame. But he himself, -from scruples of conscience and infirmity of mind, became dissatisfied -with it, and employed no small portion of his brief remaining life in -remodelling it, under the title of "Gerusalemme Conquistata,"—a -scheme in which he utterly miscarried. His last great poetical attempt, and -worthy of him in his palmy state, was a work on the creation, entitled -the "Sette Giornate" (the Seven Days), which he left unfinished. It was -composed in <i>versi scidti</i>, which nearly correspond to English blank -verse. There are many passages in this magnificent fragment, which were -evidently so familiar to Milton's mind, that he fell into the same -trains of thought, and imitated them in the style peculiar to himself, -repaying as much as he borrowed, "stealing and giving odours." -</p> - -<p> -Tasso, soon tiring of Mantua, and even languishing for Ferrara, though -never permitted to return thither, wore away the residue of his -desultory life, principally at Bergamo, Florence, Rome, and Naples. In -the latter city (his sister being dead), when it was too late for him to -enjoy the possession of it, he recovered his mother's long-disputed -dowry, or such a portion of it as, at an earlier period, might have -rendered him independent of those eleemosynary supplies from precarious -hands, on which he generally subsisted. About the same time the pope -also settled a pension upon him, and consented to allow him the honour -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">{Pg 158}</a></span> -of a coronation, such as had been granted to Petrarch, two centuries -before. But wealth and honour, such as mortal hands could confer or -withhold at pleasure, came too late for him. In his latter years, too, -he became acquainted with Manso, marquis of Villa, his last patron, and -his first biographer; known in this country as, in his old age, -befriending our Milton, then a youth, on his travels in Italy, as, in -his own youth, he had befriended Tasso sinking to the grave under -premature decay. -</p> - -<p> -One of the most remarkable circumstances of the last days of Tasso was -the imagination, that he was occasionally visited by a spirit—not the -mischievous Robin-good-fellow of his prison, but a being of far higher -dignity, with whom, alone or in company, he could hold sublime and -preternatural discourse, though of the two interlocutors none present -could see or hear more than the poet himself, rapt into ecstasy, and -uttering language and sentiments worthy of one who, with his bodily, yet -marvellously enlightened eyes and purged ears, could distinguish the -presence and the voice of his mysterious visitant. Manso gives a strange -account of such an interview, when he himself stood by, yet perceived -nothing but the half-part which the poet acted in the scene. -</p> - -<p> -"One day," says the marquis, "as we were sitting alone by the fire, he -turned his eyes towards the window, and held them a long time so -intensely fixed, that when I called him he did not answer. At last, -'Lo!' said he, the courteous spirit, which has come to talk with me; -lift up your eyes and you shall see the truth.' I turned my eyes thither -immediately; but though I looked as keenly as I could I beheld nothing -but the rays of the sun, which streamed through the window-panes into -the chamber. Meanwhile Torquato began to hold, with this unknown being, -a most lofty converse. I heard, indeed, and saw nothing but himself; -nevertheless his words, at one time questioning, and at another -replying, were such as take place between those who reason closely on -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">{Pg 159}</a></span> -some important subject. * * * * Their discourse was marvellously -conducted, both in the sublimity of the topics, and a certain unwonted -manner of talking, that exalted myself into an ecstasy; so that I did -not dare to interrupt Torquato about the spirit which he had announced -to me, but which I could not see. In this way, while I listened between -transport and stupefaction, a considerable time elapsed; at length the -spirit departed, as I learned from the words of Torquato, who, turning -to me, said, 'From this day forward, all your doubts will be -removed.'—'Rather,' I replied, 'they are increased; for though I have -heard many wonderful things, I have seen nothing to dispel my doubts.' -He smiled, and said, 'You have seen and heard more of him than -perhaps—' here he broke off, and I, unwilling to trouble him, forbore -to ask further questions; as it was more likely that his visions and -frenzies would disorder my own mind, than that I should extirpate his -true or imaginary opinion." -</p> - -<p> -Throughout the year 1594 the poet was so manifestly breaking down, both -in his bodily and mental faculties, that his early dissolution was -anticipated by all his friends. He arrived at Rome on the 10th of -November; when on being introduced to the pope, his holiness, in the -most condescending terms, told him that he intended to bestow upon him -"the crown of laurel, that from him it might receive as much honour as, -in times past, it had conferred on others." The winter proving very -tempestuous, the ceremonial was deferred till the succeeding spring. As -the time approached when all his dreams of ambition were to be thus -consummated, Tasso drooped daily both in spirits and in strength, so -that from the 10th of April, when he was seized with violent fever, no -hope could be entertained of preserving his life. Being informed of his -danger, he thanked the physician for communicating tidings so welcome. -Instead, then, of the vain glories of coronation in this world, he set -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">{Pg 160}</a></span> -himself to prepare, according to his religious views, for his last -change to that eternal state, where nothing could avail him but to have -found that mercy, which is the only hope of sinful man beyond the grave. -On the 25th of April he quietly expired, with the words upon his lips -(of which the last were inaudible), "<i>Into thy hands, O Lord! I commend -my spirit.</i>" He was aged fifty-one years. -</p> - -<p> -The personal and poetical character of Tasso are so strikingly betokened -in the incidents of his life, that, in a memoir, necessarily so -circumscribed as the present, no further remark on either need be -introduced here. To enter into a critical examination of his writings, -which should at all do justice to their extent, their diversity and -their excellence, of various kinds whether in prose or verse, would -require a distinct essay, equal in length to the whole of this article. -This, however, is little to be regretted, for, of all the Italian poets, -Tasso is the best known in our country; indeed, he has been almost -naturalised, for his greatest work has been oftener translated than any -other continental poem,—so that the style, the story, the sentiments, -the actors, the scenes, the whole fable, with all its embellishments and -adjuncts, are better known to general readers than those of the "Faerie -Queene," and, perhaps, it may be said, than those of "Paradise Lost" -itself, except among that "fit audience," which, "though few," Spenser -and Milton must for ever "find," while English poetry holds its -place—and that the highest, hitherto—in the literature of -Christendom. -</p> - -<p> -Besides several inferior versions, those of the "Jerusalem Delivered," -by Fairfax, Hoole, Hunt, and Wiffin, have each some peculiar merit, -though it must be confessed, that, in each, so far as regards the -diction, that peculiar merit belongs rather to the translation than to -the author, the grace and harmony of whose verse, unsurpassed in his own -language, is absolutely unapproachable in ours. Fairfax's version, in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">{Pg 161}</a></span> -the original stanza, is masculine and free; Hoole's, in the heroic -couplet, is easy and commonplace, but as a mere entertaining tale, the -most <i>readable</i> of the four; Hunt's, in the same measure, may lay -great claim to indulgence for any defect in vigour, on the score of the -classic taste and learning which it displays. Wiffin's is unquestionably -the best; and it is his own fault that it is not as good as any -reasonable judge could desire a translation of Tasso to be: but, having -chosen to hamper himself, and to encumber his author, with the intricate -stanza of Spenser, containing an extra-Alexandrine line beyond the -Italian octave, he has been compelled to amplify his original <i>one -eighth</i>, which must deduct at least in the same proportion from the -compactness, precision, and symmetry of every corresponding section. How -could a master of versification like Mr. Wiffin, himself a genuine poet, -choose to run such a race, carrying such a weight? He has won it, -nevertheless, though not in the style that might have been wished; yet -he that shall hereafter beat him must be a rival, who, beyond the Alps, -would have been a worthy competitor with Tasso himself, had they been -countrymen and contemporaries. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">{Pg 162}</a></span> -</p> - -<p><br /></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_37_37" id="Note_37_37"></a><a href="#NoteRef_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a>The translation is from Dr. Black's valuable Life of -Tasso, from which other occasional quotations may be hereafter made, -with this brief but grateful acknowledgment.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_38_38" id="Note_38_38"></a><a href="#NoteRef_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a>See note, page 117.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_39_39" id="Note_39_39"></a><a href="#NoteRef_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a>It is curious and provoking to observe in how momentary -and contemptible a circumstance originated this enduring injury to the -reputation of one of the greatest poets by one of the greatest critics. -In a note to the clause in Satire IX., Boileau says, "<i>Un homme de -qualité fit un jour ce beau jugement en ma présence.</i>" So, because "a -fool of quality" ("<i>un sot de qualité</i>," as he words it in the verse) -once happened to "say, in the hearing of a wit, that he preferred the -"Gerusalemme" to the "Æneid," "all Europe" has been made to "ring from -side to side," for a century and a half, with the <i>clinquant</i> of Tasso -against the gold of Virgil.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_40_40" id="Note_40_40"></a><a href="#NoteRef_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a>Milton, in the context, has manifestly imitated both Tasso -and Fairfax;—Tasso in the description of the angel's descent, and -Fairfax in the lively circumstance here quoted, and which is not in the -original:—</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">"On Libanon at first his foot he set,</span><br /> -<span class="i0"><i>And shook his wings</i>, with rory May dews wet."</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -The "fragrance" is Milton's own; and here we have the process of one -thought, carried onward by three poets, to consummate beauty and -perfection in the last.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_41_41" id="Note_41_41"></a><a href="#NoteRef_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a>Well might Collins, a kindred spirit, both in his powers -of song and in his "moody madness," thus celebrate the great Italian, -whose "Godfrey of Bulloigne" he only knew through Fairfax's -translation:—</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i6">——"In scenes, which, daring to depart</span><br /> -<span class="i0">From sober truth, are still to nature true,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">And call forth fresh delight to fancy's view,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">The heroic muse employ'd her Tasso's art.</span><br /> -<span class="i0">How have I trembled when, at Tancred's stroke,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Its gushing blood the gaping cypress pour'd;</span><br /> -<span class="i0">When each live plant with mortal accents spoke,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">And the wild blast upheaved the vanish'd sword;</span><br /> -<span class="i0">How have I sat, when piped the pensive wind,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">To hear his harp by British Fairfax strung!</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Prevailing poet! <i>whose undoubting mind</i></span><br /> -<span class="i0"><i>Believed the magic wonders which he sung.</i>"</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i12"><i>Ode on the Highland Superstitions.</i></span> -</div></div></div> - -<p><br /><br /><br /></p> - -<h4><a id="CHIABRERA">CHIABRERA</a></h4> - -<h4>1552-1637.</h4> - -<p> -Gabbriello Chiabrera was born at Savona, a town on the sea-shore, not -far from Genoa, on the 8th of June, 1552. He was born fifteen days after -his father's death, and his mother, Gironima Murasana, being young when -she was left a widow, married again; which circumstance caused Chiabrera -to be brought up by an uncle and aunt, brother and sister to his father, -who were both unmarried. At the age of nine, his uncle, who resided at -Rome, took him thither, and gave him a private tutor, who taught him -Latin. He was twice during childhood assailed by dangerous fevers, which -left him so weak and spiritless, that his uncle placed him at the -Jesuits' college, that he might regain vigour and hilarity in the -company of boys of his own age. The experiment succeeded, and Chiabrera -became robust and healthy to the end of his long life. During his -juvenile years, his application, memory, and studious habits attracted -the applause of his instructors; and the Jesuits were desirous of -inducing him to become one of them. The youth showed no disinclination; -but his uncle watched over him, and prevented that sacrifice of liberty -and independence, which would have rendered him miserable through life. -When he was twenty this good uncle died; but he had emancipated himself -from monkish influence, and after paying his relations at Savona a short -visit, he returned again to Rome, where coming accidentally into contact -with the cardinal Comaro Camerlingo, he entered his service, in which he -remained some years. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">{Pg 163}</a></span> -</p> - -<p> -His residence at Rome, however, came to a disastrous termination: he was -insulted by a Roman gentleman, and being forced by the laws of honour to -avenge himself, the consequences obliged him to quit the city; nor was -he permitted to return till eight years after. He now took up his abode -in his native town, and grew to love the leisure and independence of his -life. At one time his tranquillity was disturbed by another quarrel, in -which he was wounded; but with his own hand, as he tells us, took his -revenge. He was forced, on this, to absent himself from Savona; and -remained, as it were, outlawed for several months, when at last a -reconciliation being brought about, he returned and enjoyed many years -of complete tranquillity. -</p> - -<p> -Chiabrera had been born rich, but he was negligent of his affairs, so -that at last his fortune was reduced to a mere competence; and this was -at one time even endangered by a lawsuit at Rome, all his property there -being confiscated; but it was returned to him, through the intervention -of cardinal Aldobrandini. At the age of fifty he married, but had no -children. With the few interruptions above recorded, he passed a life of -peaceful leisure, content with his fortunes, honoured and esteemed by -every body, and rendered happy by the exercise of his talents and -imagination. While at Rome in his early life, he had cultivated the -friendship of literary men; and during his leisure, on his return to -Savona, he occupied himself by reading poetry as a recreation. His own -genius developed itself as he studied the productions of others. The -Greek poets particularly delighted him; and perceiving how much they -excelled all other writers, he made them his study, till, his emulation -being awakened, he wrote some odes in imitation of Pindar: these being -much admired, he was encouraged to continue, still making the Greek -lyrical poets his models, though he did not confine his admiration to -them only. Homer he preferred to all other writers; he was charmed by -the versification and imagery of Virgil; and appreciated in Dante and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">{Pg 164}</a></span> -Ariosto, the power which they possessed of felicitously describing and -representing the objects which they desire to bring before their -readers.<a name="NoteRef_42_42" id="NoteRef_42_42"></a><a href="#Note_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> -</p> - -<p> -Chiabrera had the ambition of forming a new style; as he expressed it, -he meant to follow the example of his countryman, Columbus, and to find -a new world, or be wrecked in the attempt. His wish was, to transfuse -the spirit of the Greeks into the Italian language. He perceived that -the fault common to the poets of his day, was a certain cowardice of -style, and an obedience to arbitrary laws, which limited and chilled the -poetic fervour. He shook off these trammels, and adopted every possible -mode of versification, and even bent the dialect of Petrarch and Tasso -to new and unknown forms of expression. He was no lover of rhyme, -preferring to it a majestic harmony in the arrangement of syllables and -sound, which he found more musical and expressive than the mere jingle -of a concluding word. His style thus became at once novel and exalted. -He adorned his verses with pompous epithets and majestic turns of -expression: he was harmonious and dignified, fervent and spirited.<a name="NoteRef_43_43" id="NoteRef_43_43"></a><a href="#Note_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> -</p> - -<p> -As he dedicated nearly the whole of his long life to the composition of -poetry, he has left a vast quantity, much of which has never been -printed,—narrative poems, dramas, odes, canzoni<a name="NoteRef_44_44" id="NoteRef_44_44"></a><a href="#Note_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a>, sonnets, &c.; but -his canzoni, or lyrics, far excel all the rest. This results from his -style being at once more original and beautiful than his ideas. We are -apt to say, as we read, we have seen this before, but never so well -expressed. He does not, like Petrarch, anatomise his own feelings, and -spend his heart in grief: even in his love poetry, while he complains, -he does not lament, and there is a sort of laughing and vivacious grace -and a liquid softness diffused over these poems in particular, which is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">{Pg 165}</a></span> -infinitely charming. One of his most celebrated, beginning— -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"Belle rose porporine,"</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -is in praise of his lady's smile. It is impossible for any thing to be -more airy and yet heartfelt—he speaks of how the earth is said to -laugh, when, at the morning hour, a rivulet or a breeze wanders -murmuring amid the grass, or a meadow adorns itself with flowers;—how -the sea laughs, when a light zephyr dips its airy feet in the clear -waters, so that the waves scarcely play upon the sands;—and how the -heavens smile when morning comes forth, amidst roseate and white -flowers, adorned in a golden veil, and moving along on sapphire wheels. -"When the earth is happy," he says, "she laughs; and the heavens laugh -when they are gay: but neither can smile so sweetly and gracefully as -you." The flowing measure, the admirable selection and position of the -words render this and other similar poems models of lyrical composition. -A fairy-like colouring, and a thrilling sweetness, like the scent of -flowers, invest them, and render them peculiar in their aerial vivacity -and spirited flow. -</p> - -<p> -These lighter and more animated productions have not been translated; -but, as a specimen of his more serious style, we select one of the -epitaphs or elegiac poems among those which Mr. Wordsworth has -translated, with his usual accuracy and force of diction:— -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">There never breathed a man who, when his life</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Was closing, might hot of that life relate</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Toils long and hard. The warrior will report</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Of wounds, and bright swords flashing in the field,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And blast of trumpets. He, who hath been doom'd</span><br /> -<span class="i2">To bow his forehead in the court of kings,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Will tell of fraud and never-ceasing hate,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Envy, and heart-inquietude, derived</span><br /> -<span class="i2">From intricate cabals of treacherous friends.</span><br /> -<span class="i2">I, who on shipboard lived from earliest youth,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Could represent the countenance horrible</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Of the vexed waters, and the indignant rage</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Of Auster and Boötes. Forty years</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Over the well-steer'd galleys did I rule:</span><br /> -<span class="i2">From huge Pelorus to the Atlantic pillars,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Rises no mountain to mine eyes unknown;</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And the broad gulphs I traversed oft and oft;</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Of every cloud which in the heavens might stir</span><br /> -<span class="i2">I knew the force; and hence the rough sea's pride</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Avail'd not to my vessel's overthrow.</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">{Pg 166}</a></span><br /> -<span class="i2">What noble pomp, and frequent, have not I</span><br /> -<span class="i2">On regal decks beheld! Yet in the end</span><br /> -<span class="i2">I learn that one poor moment can suffice</span><br /> -<span class="i2">To equalise the lofty and the low.</span><br /> -<span class="i2">We sail the sea of life—a <i>calm</i> one finds,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">And one a <i>tempest</i>—and, the voyage o'er,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Death is the quiet haven of us all.<a name="NoteRef_45_45" id="NoteRef_45_45"></a><a href="#Note_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></span> -</div></div> - -<p> -The tranquil life of Chiabrera was agreeably varied by his love, not -exactly of travelling, but of visiting the various cities of Italy, and -by the honours paid him by its princes, in recompence for his poetry, -which was enthusiastically admired by all his countrymen. He never made -any long stay away from home, except at Genoa and Florence, and there he -possessed friends who were glad to welcome him; for if he was of an -irascible, he was of a placable disposition, and though serious of -aspect, he was gay and good-humoured in society. The grand duke of -Tuscany, Ferdinand I., held him in high esteem, and employed him in -arranging various dramatic representations on the marriage of Mary de' -Medici with the king of France. Charles Emanuel, duke of Savoy, made him -generous offers of remuneration, if he would take up his abode at his -court; but Chiabrera wisely preferred his independence. It has been -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">{Pg 167}</a></span> -mentioned that he arranged the interludes of a comedy of Guarini, when -it was represented on occasion of the marriage of the son of the duke of -Mantua with a princess of Savoy. All these princes rewarded him with -gifts, or honours, which he seems to have set a still higher value upon; -lodging him in their palaces, sending their carriages for his -conveyance, and permitting him to remain covered in their presence. He -had been the intimate friend of cardinal Barberini, and when the latter -was created pope, under the name of Urban VIII., Chiabrera often visited -Rome, though he would never reside there; and the pope made him priestly -gifts of <i>agnus dei</i> and medallions, and in the year of the jubilee -wrote him a brief, or letter of compliment, similar to those sent to -sovereign princes and men of the highest rank. -</p> - -<p> -Chiabrera was always an orthodox catholic, "a sinner," he expresses it, -"but not without Christian devotion. He had Santa Lucia for his -advocate, and during a space of sixty years, he never failed twice a day -to devote himself to pious thoughts, which continued uppermost in his -mind all his life." His moderate desires and temperate habits assisted -to preserve him in uninterrupted good health. He died at the advanced -age of eighty-six, and was buried in his own chapel in the church of San -Giacomo. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">{Pg 168}</a></span> -</p> - -<p><br /></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_42_42" id="Note_42_42"></a><a href="#NoteRef_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a>Vita di se stesso.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_43_43" id="Note_43_43"></a><a href="#NoteRef_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a>Muratori.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_44_44" id="Note_44_44"></a><a href="#NoteRef_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a>There is no English word that gives the exact idea of a -canzone; we call such lyrical poems; yet in Italian they form a class -apart.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_45_45" id="Note_45_45"></a><a href="#NoteRef_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a><i>Per il Signor Giambattista Feo.</i></p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Uomo non è, che pervenuto a morte</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Non possa raccontar della sua vita</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Lunghi travagli. Il cavalier di Marte</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Dirà le piaghe, e lo splendor de' brandi,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Ed il suon delle trombe: il condannato,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Nelle gran Reggie, ad inchinar la fronte,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">De' Re scettrati, narrerà le frodi,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Le lunghe invidie, ed i sofferti affanni</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Infra le schiere de' bugiardi amici.</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Io, che mi vissi in su spalmate prore,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Potrei rappresentar l' orribil faccia</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Del mar irato, ed i rabbiosi sdegni</span><br /> -<span class="i0">E d'Austro e di Boöte. Anni cinquanta</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Commandai su galere a buon nocchieri:</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Dal gran Peloro all' Atlantei colonne</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Non sorge monte a gli occhi miei non noto,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">E gli ampj golfi veleggiai più volte:</span><br /> -<span class="i0">D' ogni nube, che in ciel fosse raccolta,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Seppi la forza, onde marino orgoglio</span><br /> -<span class="i0">A' legni miei non valse fare oltraggio.</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Che nobil pompa non mirai sovente</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Su regie poppe? E pure io provo al fine,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Che le disuguaglianze un' ora adegua.</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Tutti quaggiuso navighiamo in forse.</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Altri ha tempesta, ed altri ha calma, e poscia</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Nel porto della Morte ognun dà fondo.</span> -</div></div></div> - -<p><br /><br /><br /></p> - -<h4><a id="TASSONI">TASSONI</a></h4> - -<h4>1565-1635.</h4> - -<p> -Alessandro Tassoni was born at Modena, in 1565, of a noble and ancient -family. He was so unfortunate as to lose both parents in early -childhood; nor had he any near relative to watch over his tender years -and guard his interests. In consequence, scarcely had he emerged from -boyhood, than his inheritance was attacked by lawsuits, and he was -involved in the most annoying struggles with private enemies, while long -and painful illnesses unfitted him to cope with these evils. Still a -love of knowledge rose above the multiplied disasters that beset him, -and from his earliest years he was a student. He learnt the Greek and -Latin languages under Lazzaro Labadini, a learned and worthy man, but -somewhat of the Dominie Sampson species: simple-hearted and abstracted, -he was exposed to ridiculous mistakes; and his pupil records in his -celebrated poem, how, when a servant informed him of the death of a cow, -he sent to the apothecary's shop for drugs to cure her.<a name="NoteRef_46_46" id="NoteRef_46_46"></a><a href="#Note_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> While yet -under this master's tuition, he wrote a Latin poem named Errico, which -displayed an extraordinary smoothness of versification and command of -language. At the age of eighteen he took the degree of doctor of laws, -and in 1585 he entered the university of Bologna, where he continued -five years, applying himself to philosophy, under the most celebrated -masters. He afterwards studied jurisprudence at Ferrara, and acquired a -reputation for his learning and critical acumen. -</p> - -<p> -It was not till past thirty years of age that he appears to have -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">{Pg 169}</a></span> -seriously entered on the task of bettering his moderate fortunes. -<span class="sidenote1">1597.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -32.</span> -He visited Rome, and entered the service of cardinal Colonna. He -accompanied his patron to Spain, and two years after was sent by him to -Rome, to obtain permission from pope Clement VIII. to accept the -viceroyalty of Aragon. Succeeding in his mission, Tassoni returned to -the cardinal. It was during these journeys that he amused himself by -composing his "Considerations on Petrarch," which afterwards occasioned -so much controversy. The cardinal sent him again to Rome to manage his -affairs there; but a few years after, for some reason, with which we are -unacquainted, Tassoni quitted his service. -</p> - -<p> -Restored to independence, he visited Naples, and then took up his abode -at Rome. He now published his "Considerations on Petrarch," and his -"Thoughts on various Subjects," which exposed him to the attacks of the -literati of Italy. Tassoni was of a bold and original turn of mind; he -hated literary prejudices, and loved to set himself against received -opinions, merely because they were supported by the greater number. Thus -he attacked Homer, Aristotle, and Petrarch. He was singularly acute in -discovering minor defects, and his sarcastic and witty talent rendered -his criticisms doubly poignant. He was attacked for his publications and -he replied with a mixture of humour and bitterness peculiarly galling. -</p> - -<p> -He had thus become well known in Italy, when his reputation was raised -to its highest pinnacle by the "Secchia Rapita," or Stolen Bucket, a -serio-comic or mock-heroic poem, the first of the kind that had -appeared. A work of this nature is adapted only to the very region in -which it is composed; and even then, there are certain minds which never -relish travesti. How much more is Hudibras spoken of than read, and to -how many, except in select and peculiar passages, does it prove heavy -and tedious. To an English reader the "Secchia Rapita" must appear -greatly inferior to the work of Butler; it is coarser and more -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">{Pg 170}</a></span> -long-winded; besides that the rhymes, the wrenching and transformation -of language, the vulgarisms and idioms fall coldly on the ears of those, -who have not been habituated from infancy to their use or abuse. -</p> - -<p> -The "Secchia Rapita" is founded on those petty wars between two towns, -so common in Italy in the 14th and 15th centuries. The people of Modena -had, in 1325, discomfited the Bolognese at Zoppolino, and the vanquished -fled with such precipitation, that their pursuers entered their town -with them. The Modenese were driven out again, but carried off, as token -of their triumph, the bucket belonging to the public well of the city. -The Bolognese made an expedition to recover it, and this forms the basis -of the poem. The plebeian names of the "unwashed artificers" who compose -the several armies, their ridiculous proceedings, their combats, mocking -those of belted knights, are all infinitely relished by the Italians. -Tassoni is praised also for the various fancy he displays in -individualising the combatants, their combats, and the modes by which -they die, as well as for the dignity with which he invests the really -noble personages who take a part in the warfare. There are episodes -also, some more dignified, others more burlesque even than the main -subject of the poem; the gods and goddesses take part, and the kings of -Naples and Savoy are brought in on either side. The chief satire of the -poem falls on an unfortunate count di Culagna, under which name Tassoni -held up to ridicule count Paolo Brusantini, a noble of Ferrara, who had -provoked him by instigating a violent and infamous attack on one of his -works. Tassoni was unable to avenge himself openly, as Brusantini was a -favourite of his prince, but vowed future vengeance, and writing to a -friend he exclaims, "If God lends me life, he shall learn, in one way or -another, that he has furnished a work to the devil." The count di -Culagna falls in love with the Amazon of the poem, and resolves to -poison his wife: he makes a confidant of one Titta, a Romagnole, a -courtier of the papal court, who was in fact the lover of the countess, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">{Pg 171}</a></span> -and betrays to her the murderous design. The lady accordingly deceives -her husband, changes her soup plate with him, and then flies to the tent -of Titta. The count's physician, however, who had been applied to for -poison, has only furnished physic, and Culagna recovers. He hears of the -infidelity of his wife, and defies Titta to mortal combat. Titta is not -brave, but Culagna is trebly a coward. When his challenge is accepted, -he takes to his bed, makes his will, and declares that he is going to -die. His friends cannot inspire him with any valour, but his doctor, by -administering three or four large cups of wine, imparts the necessary -courage. The opponents meet; Titta's spear strikes the throat and chest -of the count, who falls to the ground, and is carried to his tent, to -bed, while Titta exults in his overthrow and death. The surgeon visits -Culagna's wound; but, to the surprise of all, the skin even is not -scratched: "Yet I saw something red," cries the count, "it was assuredly -my blood!" On this they examine him with more attention, and discover a -red riband hanging from his throat to his girdle. The blow of Titta -disordering his dress, had exposed this unfortunate silk of sanguineous -hue to the eyes of the frightened combatant, who at once believed that -he had received a mortal wound. Now, perceiving how he had been -deceived, the count thanked God most fervently, and, in his artless, -pious gratitude, pardoned his friend and his wife all the injuries they -had done him. Such is the outline of the principal episode of the -"Secchia Rapita," which concludes by a peace brought about by the pope's -legate; the bucket remaining, however, with the Modenese; and there it -probably is to this day. Goldoni saw it, in 1730, suspended by an iron -chain from the belfry of the cathedral. -</p> - -<p> -This poem was hailed with rapture, even in manuscript: for some time, -indeed, it was only known thus, and numerous copies were made at the -price of eight crowns each. As Tassoni had not spared his countrymen or -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">{Pg 172}</a></span> -his contemporaries, great obstacles were thrown in the way of its -publication; and even when printed at Venice and Padua, no edition was -really on sale till 1622, when it was published at Paris, under the -inspection of Marini. -</p> - -<p> -Tassoni's slender fortunes meanwhile did not permit him to preserve his -independence: he accepted the offers of Charles Emanuel, duke of Savoy; -but scarcely had he entered on his new service, than a series of -persecutions was commenced against him, which ended by his taking refuge -in private life. -<span class="sidenote2">1625.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -50.</span> -Again free from all slavery, disgusted by the inconstancy of men and the -intrigues of courts, he took up his abode at Rome, where he had a house -and vineyard, giving himself up to the enjoyment of solitude and study, -and deriving his chief pleasure from hunting and the cultivation of -flowers. Still he was not wholly weaned from the world, nor content to -be neglected: he said that he reminded himself of Fabricius expecting -the dictatorship; and to follow up this truly mock-heroic similitude, he -accepted the offer of cardinal Ludovisio, nephew of pope Gregory XV., -and entered his service, in which he remained till his patron's death. -He afterwards returned to his native town, and being taken into favour -by its reigning prince, he passed the remnant of his life prosperously, -under the shadow of that fame, which his works, his arduous studies, and -great talents caused to gather thick around him. After a few years spent -in peace and honour, he died on the 5th of April, 1635, in the -seventy-first year of his age. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">{Pg 173}</a></span> -</p> - -<p><br /></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_46_46" id="Note_46_46"></a><a href="#NoteRef_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a></p> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">La dove il Labadin, persona accorta,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Fe' il beverone alla sua vacca morta.</span> -</div></div></div> - -<p><br /><br /><br /></p> - -<h4><a id="MARINI">MARINI</a></h4> - -<h4>1569-1625.</h4> - -<p> -Giambattista Marini was born at Naples on the 18th of October, 1569. His -father, a celebrated jurisconsult, was desirous of bringing up his son -to the same profession; but the youth felt an unconquerable distaste to -the career of the law. Marini possessed a fervid and lively imagination, -and a facility in the composition of poetry which determined, without a -question, his destiny in life. There are many poets even, we may say, of -a higher class than Marini—many more sublime, more earnest, more -pathetic—but, in his degree, Marini is a genuine poet, and gave -himself up with confidence and ardour to the pursuit of that fame of which -he reaped so large a harvest. His father, angry at his resistance to his -wishes, was doubly indignant when he gave open testimony of his new -career, and actually published a volume of poetry: he turned him from -his house, and refused to supply him with the necessaries of life. -</p> - -<p> -But Marini was born under a more fortunate star than usually smiles upon -men who give themselves to the fervent aspirations of genius. Amiable -and generous as he was, he did not possess that stern independence of -disposition, nor that self-engrossed intensity of feeling, which often -render poets an intractable race. Several noblemen stepped forward to -assist and patronise the young adventurer in the groves of Parnassus. -<span class="sidenote1">1589.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -20.</span> -The duke of Bovino, the prince of Conca, and the marquess of Manso, the -friend of Tasso, offered him protection and shelter. He became -acquainted with Tasso, who encouraged him to pursue his poetic career; -and he published his Canzoni de' Baci, which acquired for him a great -reputation. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">{Pg 174}</a></span> -</p> - -<p> -He was concerned in some youthful scrapes; and having assisted a friend -to escape, who had been imprisoned on account of a love adventure, he -was himself thrown into a prison. He amused himself there by writing gay -and light-hearted verses; but soon after he escaped from confinement, -and fled to Rome, where he took up his abode with monsignore Crescenzi. -With him he visited Venice, but returned to Rome after a short absence, -and entered the service of cardinal Aldobrandini. At Venice he published -a volume of lyrical poetry, which established his fame. -</p> - -<p> -Marini was always a popular man, and beloved and esteemed by his -friends. When Paul V. was created pope, his patron, cardinal -Aldobrandini, was sent as legate to Ravenna, and Marini accompanied him. -He frequently visited Venice and Bologna, and formed intimacies with the -men of reputation and talent residing in those cities. He was devoted to -the cultivation of poetry; and here he first conceived the idea of the -"Adone." He accompanied the cardinal to Turin, where Charles Emanuel, -duke of Savoy, received him at his court with the most flattering marks -of distinction. Marini repaid him by a panegyric, which he called "Il -Ritratto" or the Portrait, and was rewarded by the gift of a gold chain, -and made cavalier of the order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus. When -cardinal Aldobrandini returned to Ravenna, the poet was invited to -remain at the Piedmontese court; and, with the consent of his former -patron, he accepted the offer. -</p> - -<p> -Marini's life was chiefly diversified by literary quarrels, in which he -came off with his usual good fortune. He had already sustained several -skirmishes with various authors, when the most deadly war was declared -against him by Gasparo Murtola, a Genoese, and secretary to the duke. He -believed himself to be the first poet of the age, and was indignant at -the favour shown to Marini. He levelled an attack of epigrams and -satirical sonnets against him, which Marini answered, and was considered -to have the best of the battle: they published these collectively -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">{Pg 175}</a></span> -afterwards, under the title of the Murtoleide and the Marineide: but -Murtola, still more angry at the advantages gained by his adversary in -this paper hostility, took a more injurious mode of showing his enmity: -he shot at him as he was walking in the public square, but, missing his -aim, wounded a favourite of the duke who was with him. Murtola was -thrown into prison, and condemned to death. Marini generously interceded -in his favour, and at his solicitation he was pardoned and liberated. -Murtola, more angry and envious than ever, brought forward a poem of his -enemy, which satirised the duke of Savoy. In vain Marini represented -that this work had been written at Naples in his youth, many years -before. He was thrown into prison, nor liberated till the marchese Manso -sent his testimony of the truth of what he had declared, as to the -period of its composition. His tranquillity does not appear to have -suffered by this persecution. He continued to devote himself to learning -and poetry: he applied himself to the study of the Holy Scriptures and -the writings of the Fathers, and published his poem on the Murder of the -Innocents, which he considered his best production. -</p> - -<p> -His fame, spread beyond the Alps, had induced queen Marguerite of France -to invite him to her court. Marini accepted her invitation; but by the -time he arrived in Paris his patroness had died. Queen Mary de' Medici -stepped forward, however, in her room, and the place of gentleman to the -king, with a pension of 2000 crowns, was bestowed on him. He became very -popular among the French nobility; many learnt Italian for the express -purpose of reading his works. He lived a happy and honourable life. His -great pleasure consisted in forming a valuable and extensive library, -and collecting pictures by the best artists. The queen showed him many -marks of favour: if she met him in the street, she was in the habit of -stopping her carriage, for the sake of conversing with him; and such -generosity was shown him by her, and his other noble patrons, that he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">{Pg 176}</a></span> -was enabled to buy a villa near Naples, on Mon Posilippo, whither he -intended at some future time to retire, and end his days. No doubt, in -the chill climate of Paris, under the dusky atmosphere of the north, his -lively imagination recurred with yearning to the beautiful and genial -land of his nativity. -</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote2">1623.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -54.</span></p> - -<p> -He published his "Adone" while at Paris. The popularity of this poem was -extraordinary; nothing was spoken of but it and its author, and the -rapid sale enriched Marini, though it also exposed him to much literary -enmity, and the censures of the church. Italian critics have since -become exceedingly indignant, and consider it the origin of the false -taste, the conceits, and flowery style of the seicentisti. But, while it -must be allowed that the imitators of Marini form a school of poetry -remarkable for its corrupt style, its mannerism, and false and -metaphoric imagery, it is impossible not to admit that the "Adone" -itself is a work of great beauty and imagination: it wants sublimity, -and deep pathos and masculine dignity; but its fancy, its descriptions, -its didactic passages, are animated by the undeniable spirit of poetry. -Marini possessed an extreme ease of versification, and a versatility and -fecundity of style that carries the reader along with it. The "Adone" is -founded on the well-known mythological story of Venus and Adonis. Cupid, -having been chastised by his goddess mother, in revenge, resolves to -wreak on her the miseries of love. He brings the son of Myrrha to the -shores of Cyprus, and while the Queen of Beauty is regarding the -beautiful youth as he sleeps, her wily son pierces her heart with his -love-poisoned arrow. She falls in love on the instant, and Adonis, on -awakening, is not slow to return her passion. Venus conducts him to her -palace, where Cupid relates to him his adventures with Psyche, and -Mercury those of Narcissus, Hylas, Actæon, and other victims of love. -He is then led through the gardens of pleasure, into the tower of -delight; but the loves of the goddess and her favourite are interrupted -by the jealousy of Mars, and Adonis flies in alarm from the angry god. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">{Pg 177}</a></span> -He falls afterwards into the hands of a fairy, who imprisons and annoys -him: he escapes, and, after many wanderings and adventures, returns to -Venus. It is then that he departs on that fatal hunting expedition which -brings on the catastrophe. Mars and the malicious fairy unite in sending -the hoar against him, by which he is destroyed: his death—the grief -of Venus—his interment—and the combats with which the goddess -celebrates his funeral, conclude the poem. Its chief fault is, that it is -terribly wiredrawn, even in the particular descriptions; for as to the -story itself, that forms but a slender portion of the whole composition. -Besides this, we are told that an allegory of youth is contained in the -temptations, pleasures, and fatal catastrophe of the young lover; and -this, as well as the unreal and fantastic nature of the personages, -deprives it of all vivid interest. It is far removed from the fire of -Ariosto, or the pathos and dignity of Tasso; still it is pleasing, -varied, and imaginative, and but for its length would to this day be a -more general favourite. -</p> - -<p> -The cardinal Ludovisio, nephew of pope Gregory XV., earnestly entreated -Marini to forsake Paris and repair to Rome. The king and queen of France -permitted him to accept the invitation; and he returned to Italy, -unterrified by the accusation that hung over his head, on account of the -licentiousness of his work. He was received at Rome with enthusiasm, and -his society was courted by every person of distinction. Here, as -elsewhere, however, he was involved in literary squabbles; so that at -last he resolved to retreat to the home he had prepared for himself at -Naples. The tribunal, meanwhile, demanded alterations in his poem, -accused of licentiousness and a tendency to impiety. Two of his friends -appeared to answer for him; but he permitted two stanzas only to be -altered. The poem of Marini is certainly in its very texture soft, -effeminate, and amorous; but there are no passages so reprehensible as -many in Ariosto: the "Orlando Furioso" was never denounced; and it is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">{Pg 178}</a></span> -singular that so pertinacious an outcry should have been raised against -the "Adone." -</p> - -<p> -Its author, however, was not destined to suffer persecution, nor to -enjoy his success for any long time. Soon after his return to Naples, he -established himself at his delightful villa at Posilippo, where his life -came to a sudden close: he fell ill of a painful malady, and died on the -25th of March, 1625, aged fifty-six. He was buried in the cloister of -the Theatin Fathers, to whom he had bequeathed his valuable library. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">{Pg 179}</a></span> -</p> - -<p><br /><br /><br /></p> - -<h4><a id="FILICAJA">FILICAJA</a></h4> - -<h4>1642-1707.</h4> - -<p> -Vincenzo da Filicaja was born at Florence, on the 30th of December, -1642. The families of both his parents were noble; his mother being the -daughter of Christofano Spini, one of the most distinguished families of -Tuscany. His father educated him with care, and he attended the public -schools of Florence. He gave early token of his literary and poetic -genius: his memory was tenacious, and his industry indefatigable; while -the seriousness of his disposition rendered retirement and study natural -and easy to him. Perceiving his inclination for learning, his father -sent him to the university of Pisa, to fit him for pursuing the legal -profession. Filicaja attended the lectures of the professors on this -subject; yet he could not induce himself to bestow his whole time on the -law, but applied himself also to philosophy and theology, and to the -imbuing himself with a perfect knowledge of the Latin and Italian -languages. He was naturally inclined to piety, and spent much of his -time in prayer and devout exercises. His habits were regulated by strict -principles of morality; and so devoted was he to the cultivation of his -intellect, that he always rose two hours before dawn, finding his mind -clearer, and more capable of grappling with the abstruse subjects of his -contemplation, in the early hours of morning. -</p> - -<p> -While yet a student at Pisa, when on a visit to his home during the -vacation, he fell in love; and his poetic talent first developed itself -in verses addressed to the beautiful and noble girl who was the object -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">{Pg 180}</a></span> -of his affection. She died soon after, and he lamented her death in -poetry; but the exact moral discipline to which he subjected his -inclinations reproached him for giving himself up to the influence of -passion; and he burnt all his love poetry, and made a resolution, which -he kept to the end of his life, of dedicating his genius to the -celebration only of moral and sacred subjects. -</p> - -<p> -After a residence of five years at Pisa, having taken the degree of -doctor of laws, he returned to Florence, and was placed under Giovanni -Federighi, a jurisconsult of eminence, that he might add to his -theoretical, a practical knowledge of law. At the age of thirty-two, he -married Anna, the daughter of the marchese Capponi. Soon after his -father died; and, freed from all restraint, he followed the bent of his -disposition, by retiring into the country, where he spent the greater -part of each year in domestic retirement, devoting himself to the -education of his two sons. -</p> - -<p> -Hitherto his poetic merits were unknown beyond the limits of a small -circle of friends; but public events called his genius to higher -flights. The Turkish army overrunning Hungary, laid siege to Vienna, and -filled Christendom with alarm. The enthusiastic piety of Filicaja added -to the natural disquietude inspired by such a disaster; and while the -fate of the war was in suspense, and afterwards, when victory drove the -infidels from the gates of the capital of Austria, he poured out his -terrors and his exulting triumph in odes, which breathe a pure and -elevated lyric spirit. -</p> - -<p> -At the time when he wrote, Italian poetry had received a check from that -unfortunate propensity men have to shackle the free course of genius by -rules and precedent. There was a distinction made between the poetic and -prosaic style; the former was founded upon Petrarch, and it became a law -to use no expressions but such as had his authority. The language of -Italian verse was thus becoming, as it were, a dead idiom; repeating -itself, and incapable of any original expressions. Filicaja disdained -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">{Pg 181}</a></span> -these shackles, and revivified his poetic diction by transfusing into it -many elevated and energetic modes of speech, hitherto reserved for prose -only. Facility, dignity, and clearness are his characteristics; and the -grandeur of his ideas gives force to the originality of his expressions; -which, emanating spontaneously, as they did, from a mind full of his -subject, found an echo in the hearts of his readers. -</p> - -<p> -His friends alone had hitherto been aware of his talent; but the -enthusiasm they felt on reading these spirited odes led them to give -copies; and they got into the hands of those princes who, as the leaders -of the armies against the Turks, were celebrated in them. One of his -finest odes he had addressed to John, king of Poland; who acknowledged -the honour in letters full of praises and thanks. Christina, queen of -Sweden, displayed in a more kind and liberal manner her admiration: -hearing that Filicaja had two sons, she insisted upon providing for -their education; declaring that she would bring them up as her own -children. She showed herself so generous, that the poet was accustomed -to say, that he could not look on his home and family without perceiving -the marks of her favour. While her modesty was such, that she insisted -that her bounty should be kept a secret; declaring she was ashamed it -should be known that she did so little for a man, whom she esteemed so -much; and her benevolence remained unknown till after her death. -Filicaja's life was not, however, wholly prosperous: on the death of -Christina, he became involved in pecuniary embarrassments, and he was -attacked by a dangerous malady. He lost, also, his eldest son, who, -since the queen's death, had been appointed page of honour to the grand -duke of Tuscany. The high opinion entertained of him by Cosmo III. -extricated him from a part of his difficulties. This prince named him to -the command of the city of Volterra. Ancient feuds and old and almost -irremediable abuses of various kinds, afflicted the town; and it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">{Pg 182}</a></span> -required all the influence which Filicaja obtained by his justice, his -benevolence, and urbanity to put an end to these evils. Volterra enjoyed -tranquillity and plenty under his direction; trade and the arts -flourished; and this venerable city was restored to a portion of its -former splendour: he thus became so dear to the citizens, that they -twice petitioned the grand duke to continue him in the government. Their -request was accorded; and when, at last, he was recalled, he carried -with him the universal regret. -</p> - -<p> -On his removal from Volterra, he was, for two years, governor of -Pisa,—a situation of high trust. On his return to Florence, he filled -several law offices of great power and emolument. He was popular and -beloved throughout: equitable, but benevolent; diligent and -conscientious, his virtues were adorned by his pleasing and affable -manners. His piety caused him to devote much of his leisure to -devotional exercises; and his taste led him to cultivate poetry. His -industrious habits enabled him to compose a great deal when his time was -otherwise much taken up by his public duties. He wrote much in Latin, a -small portion only of which has been published; and it displays a deep -knowledge and command of that language. He employed himself also in -correcting and adding to his Italian poetry. He was a severe critic on -his own works; and yet, mistrusting his judgment, he submitted them to -the further censorship of four selected friends. He was much beloved, as -well as admired, by all who knew him; and belonged to the Della Crusca -academy, and to the Arcadian,—of both of which he was the brightest -ornament. His last work was an "Ode to the Virgin," which occupied him -but a few days before his death. Filicaja was not only devout, but a -rigid catholic. One of the acts of his life previous to entering on a -new career, had been a pilgrimage to Loretto; and, in his dying moments, -a picture of the Virgin excited his pious and poetic thoughts. There is -great spirit and sweetness in this ode, in which he recurs to the love -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">{Pg 183}</a></span> -of his earlier days; and how, on losing the object, he transferred his -devotion, entire and for ever, to the mother of his Saviour. -</p> - -<p> -While thus employed, he was seized by an inflammation of his lungs. His -religious faith supported him in his sufferings, and did not forsake him -to the last. He died on the 24th of September, 1707, at the age of -sixty-five. He was buried in his family tomb in the church of San Piero, -at Florence. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">{Pg 184}</a></span> -</p> - -<p><br /><br /><br /></p> - -<h4><a id="METASTASIO">METASTASIO</a></h4> - -<h4>1698-1782.</h4> - -<p> -Metastasio was of obscure origin. He owed his prosperity, in the first -place, to the talents with which nature had endowed him; and, in the -second, to singular good fortune; while his amiable disposition and -excellent character gave a scope to the course of felicitous -circumstances; which, among men of genius, is frequently checked by -their impetuosity and thoughtlessness, or by the proud sense of -independence attendant upon their organisation. The name of the poet's -father was Felice Trapassi, a citizen of Assisi. His poverty had forced -him to enter into the Corsican regiment of the pope; and he added to his -slender means by acting as copyist. He married Francesca Galasti, of -Bologna; by whom he had two sons and two daughters. Later in life, he -saved money enough to enter into partnership in a shop of <i>l'arte -bianca</i>,—a sort of chandler, where maccaroni, oil, and other -culinary materials, are sold. His younger son, Pietro, was born at Rome, on -the 13th of January, 1698. The child gave early indications of genius; and -his father resolved to bestow on him the best education in his power; -and placed him, at a very early age, with a watchmaker, that he might -learn a respectable art. -</p> - -<p> -But the boy was born to pursue a nobler career. He was already a poet; -and, when only ten years old, attracted an audience in his father's shop -by his talents as improvisatore. It happened, one summer evening, that -Vincenzo Gravina, a celebrated jurisconsult, and renowned for his -learning and love of letters, was walking with the poet Lorenzini in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">{Pg 185}</a></span> -streets of Rome. Passing by Trapassi's shop, he was attracted by the -childish voice of the juvenile poet, who was in the act of reciting -extempore verses. He joined the audience; and, being perceived by -Pietro, the little fellow introduced some stanzas in his praise into his -effusion. Gravina, charmed by his talent and prepossessing appearance, -offered him money, which the child refused. The lawyer continued to -question him, and was so satisfied by the propriety and spirit of his -answers, that he immediately proposed to adopt him as his son; promising -to give him a good education, and to facilitate his career in the same -profession as himself. No objection could be raised to so generous and -beneficent an offer. The boy was not to be taken from his native town, -nor were his duties towards his parents to be interfered with. -</p> - -<p> -One of Gravina's first acts was to change his adopted son's, name from -the ignoble one of Trapassi to the better sounding appellation of -Metastasio, which was a sort of translation of his paternal name into -Greek. Gravina did not delay to cultivate the boy's understanding, so as -to fit him for a literary career. Being an idolater of ancient learning, -his first care was to initiate his pupil in the languages of the writers -of Greece and Rome, and then to imbue him with a knowledge of their -works. Metastasio showed himself an apt scholar: at the age of fourteen -he wrote a tragedy, which, in a letter written in after years, he freely -criticised. "My tragedy of 'Giustino,'" he says, "was written at the age -of fourteen, when the authority of my illustrious master did not permit -me to diverge from a religious imitation of the Greek models; and when -my own inexperience prevented me from discerning the gold from the lead -in those mines whose treasures were but just opened to me." The tragedy, -written thus in strict imitation, is necessarily frigid; nor does the -language bear the stamp of the ease and grace which so distinguished -Metastasio's after writings. -</p> - -<p> -He still continued to improvisare verses in company. This attractive art -renders the person who exercises it the object of so much interest and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">{Pg 186}</a></span> -admiration, that it is to be wondered that any one who has once -practised it, can ever give it up. The act of reciting the poetry that -flows immediately to the lips is peculiarly animating: the declaimer -warms, as he proceeds, with his own success; while the throng of words -and ideas that present themselves, light up the eyes, and give an air of -almost supernatural intelligence and fire to the countenance and person. -The audience—at first curious, then pleased, and, at last, carried -away by enthusiastic delight—feel an admiration, and bestow plaudits, -which, perhaps, no other display of human talent is capable of exciting. -The youth, the harmonious voice, and agreeable person of Metastasio added -to the charm: yet, fortunately, he gave up the exercise of his power before -it had unfitted him for more arduous compositions. He gives an account -of his success, and his quitting the practice, in a subsequent letter to -Algarotti. "I do not deny," he writes, "that a natural talent for -harmony and rhythm displayed itself in me earlier than is usually the -case; that is, when I was about ten years of age. This strange -phenomenon so dazzled my great master. Gravina, that he selected me as -soil worthy to be cultivated by so celebrated a man. Until I was -sixteen, he brought me forward to improvisare verses on any given -subject; and Rolli, Vanini, and Perfetti, then men of mature years, were -my rivals. Many people tried to write down our effusions while we -extemporised, but with no success; for, besides that they were no adepts -in short-hand, it was necessary to deceive us cleverly, otherwise the -mere suspicion of such an operation would have dried up my vein. This -occupation soon became burdensome and injurious to me; burdensome, -because I was perpetually obliged, by invitations which could not be -refused, to task myself every day, and sometimes twice a day,—now to -gratify some lady's whim, now to satisfy the curiosity of some high-born -fool, and now to fill up a blank in some grand assembly,—losing thus -miserably the greater part of the time necessary for my studies. It was -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">{Pg 187}</a></span> -injurious, because my weak and uncertain health suffered. It was -perceptible to every one that the agitation attendant on this exercise -of the mind, used to inflame my countenance and heat my head, while my -hands and extremities became icy cold. Gravina consequently exerted his -authority to prohibit me from making extempore verses,—a prohibition -which, from the age of sixteen, I have never infringed, and to which I -believe that I owe the remnant of reasonable and connected ideas that -are to be found in my waitings." He goes on to state the evils that -result to the intellect perpetually bent on so exciting a proceeding; -when the poet, instead of selecting and arranging his thoughts, and then -using measure and rhyme as obedient executors of his designs, is obliged -to employ the small time allowed him in collecting words, in which he -afterwards clothes the ideas best fitted to these words, even though -foreign to his theme: thus the former seeks at his ease for a dress -fitted to his subject; while the latter, in haste and disturbance, must -find a subject fitted to his dress. -</p> - -<p> -On withdrawing his pupil from the exercise of this fascinating art. -Gravina became aware that his education could not be carried on with -success amidst the pleasures and idleness of his life at Rome; and he -sent him to study under his cousin Camporese, who lived near the ancient -Cortona, a town of Magna Græcia, famous in antiquity for its schools of -philosophy. Metastasio was very happy at this period of his life; and, -in a letter written at an advanced age, he recurs to it with yearning -fondness. "Of how many dear and pleasing ideas, my friend," he writes to -Don Saverio Mattei, "you have awakened the recollection, by causing me -to go over in my thoughts the happy time I spent, not less usefully than -delightfully, between boyhood and adolescence, in Magna Græcia. I saw -again as if they were present all those objects which pleased me so much -at that time. Again I inhabited the little chamber, in which the sound -of the breakers of the neighbouring sea so often lulled me into the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">{Pg 188}</a></span> -sweetest sleep; and, by force of my imagination, I revisited in my boat -the shores of neighbouring Scalea; and the names and aspects of many -places recurred to me, before forgotten. I heard again the venerable -voice of the renowned philosopher Camporese; who, stooping to instruct -one so young, led me, as it were, by the hand among the vortexes of the -then reigning Descartes, of whom he was a strenuous advocate, and -attracted my boyish curiosity, by showing me in wax, as if in a game, -how globules were formed from atoms, and filling me with admiration of -the bewitching experiments of philosophy. It seems to me as if I again -saw him labouring to persuade me that his dog was formed upon the same -principle as a watch; and that the trinal dimension is a sufficient -definition of solid bodies. And I behold him smile, when, having kept me -long plunged in a dark reverie, by forcing me to doubt of every thing, -he perceived that I breathed again, on his assertion, 'I think, -therefore, I am;' the invincible proof of a certainty which I had -despaired of ever again attaining." Camporese died, unfortunately, in -the midst of these studies, and Metastasio returned to Rome. -</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote2">1718.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -20.</span></p> - -<p> -It was soon after his lot to lose his adopted father, Gravina. He -expresses, both in letters written at the time, and in after years, his -deep grief on the death of his benefactor. Gravina kept his word, of -considering him as his son; and, with the exception of a legacy to his -mother, left him heir to all that he possessed, to the amount of about -fifteen thousand crowns. Finding himself thus independent, and even rich -in his own eyes, Metastasio gave himself up to the study of poetry. -Hitherto the rules of Gravina had limited his reading: now he emerged -into freedom; and, having been before allowed only to peruse Ariosto, -among the Italians, he read the "Jerusalem Delivered" for the first -time. He was enchanted by the order and majesty of a single action, -conducted with art, and terminated with dignity. The grandeur of the -style, the vivid colouring and fervid imagination of Tasso, transported -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">{Pg 189}</a></span> -him with delight. Ovid was also an especial favourite; and it is -recorded that he regarded Marini with an approbation which that poet, -indeed, deserves, but of which, as the original corrupter of the Italian -style, and the leader of the degenerate Seicentisti, he is usually -deprived. -</p> - -<p> -Unfortunately, independence and youthful thoughtlessness led Metastasio -into other deviations from Gravina's lessons, less praiseworthy than -reading Tasso. The poet was warm-hearted, hospitable, and gay. He was -surrounded by companions ready to share the pleasures and luxuries which -his money procured; while he believed his future prospects secured by -the promises he received from influential protectors. Two years had not -passed before he was undeceived. He had squandered the greater part of -his fortune; he had made many enemies, and his friends fell off. With a -firmness worthy of his education, he stopped short of actual ruin; and, -disgusted with the society of Rome, and the treatment he had suffered, -he changed, on a sudden, his whole plan of life, following up his new -designs with zeal and perseverance. -</p> - -<p> -"There lived at Naples," says his biographer, Venanzio, "a rough incult -lawyer, called Castagnola, covered with rust and dust, and an enemy to -every thing that was not allied to forensic struggles and turmoils." -Wishing to place a barrier between his will and his inclinations, -Metastasio went to Naples, and chose this man for his master, believing -that his asperity and detestation of poetry would serve to guard him -against having again recourse to an art towards which nature impelled -him. For nearly two years he submitted to the control of Castagnola, and -devoted himself to the severest study. But he was well known at Naples, -and his talents were appreciated. He was perpetually solicited to -compose epithalamiums, theatrical pieces, and occasional verses. He -resisted the temptation as long as he could: at last, commanded by the -viceroy, he consented to write a drama, to celebrate the birthday of the -empress Elizabeth Christina, wife of Charles VI. He, however, obtained a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">{Pg 190}</a></span> -promise of secrecy, and hoped to conceal his crime from his master. To -accomplish this, he was obliged to steal for his work the hours usually -devoted to sleep; but his natural vein, checked for some time, flowed -with such felicity, that he accomplished his task before the appointed -time. The "Orti Esperidi" charmed his august employer, who bestowed on -it the highest praise, and presented the author with a purse containing -two hundred ducats. -</p> - -<p> -The success of this interlude on the stage confirmed the judgment of the -viceroy. It was admirably set to music, and the decorations were most -splendid. All Naples flocked to the representation—all Naples -resounded with its praises, and every one was eager to thank and applaud -the author. But Metastasio, reluctant to quit his legal studies, shrank -from the censures of his master, and continued to preserve the concealment -he had at first adopted: he even angrily denied the charge when he was -accused of being the writer, and put enquiry to fault; till at last the -discovery was made by the prima donna, Marianna Bulgarelli, usually -called La Romanina, from her native city. She had received the greatest -applause in the character of Venus, in this drama; and her gratitude and -admiration made her eager to learn to whom she owed her success. Despite -all his efforts, she discovered that Metastasio was the author, and she -lost no time in spreading the report throughout Naples. -</p> - -<p> -Castagnola was highly indignant. He treated his pupil with severity and -disdain; while, on the other hand, the Romanina used every argument to -inspire him with self-confidence, and to induce him to follow the career -for which he was formed by nature. He consented at last: he quitted the -angry lawyer, who refused even to listen to his farewell; and, at the -earnest invitation of his new friend, took up his abode at her house. -Marianna Bulgarelli had a society around her of distinguished men and -accomplished artists, and among these Metastasio found every -encouragement to pursue his new career. He studied the science of music -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">{Pg 191}</a></span> -under Porpora, the first composer of the day, and acquired a knowledge -of the art which greatly assisted the melody of his verses; so that, he -tells us, he never wrote any lyrical poetry without imagining an -accompaniment at the same time, which regulated its cadences and -modulated the sounds. His natural inclination led him to desire to write -tragedies; but, on reflection, he found that it was not sufficient that -tragedies should be written, if there were no actors to represent them, -nor an audience which could take interest in the representation. His -association with musical people, and a prima donna, led him to consider -the opera as the natural drama of Italy. Operatic dramas owed their -origin to Florence, the birthplace of so much that is great and -admirable, and were first brought forward in 1594. After that time they -fell into disrepute, till Apostolo Zeno, choosing in ancient mythology -and history the groundwork of his plots, brought out pieces that -acquired great popularity. To this species of composition Metastasio -accordingly turned his thoughts. Marianna encouraged him to proceed; -and, when he received the commission to furnish the Neapolitan theatre -with an opera for the carnival of 1724, she suggested the subject of -"Didone Abbandonata," or the desertion of Dido. In this, she filled the -part of the unfortunate queen; and her dignity, pathos, and musical -powers imparted an attraction to the piece, which filled the audience -with enthusiasm, while her heart warmed with gratitude towards the poet, -whose admirable conception and execution gave a scope to her talents, -before denied to them. The reputation of Dido spread through Italy: -during the carnival of the following year, it was acted at Venice, la -Romanina being still engaged to fill the principal part. Metastasio -accompanied his friend, and wrote, while in that city, another opera, -called "Siroe." -</p> - -<p> -This was the last appearance of Marianna on the stage: she was no longer -young, and retired from her profession. She took up her residence at -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">{Pg 192}</a></span> -Rome, and with some difficulty persuaded her friend to return to his native -city. The two families resided under the same roof—Marianna and her -husband—Metastasio with his father, elder brother, and two sisters. -The relations of the poet were indigent; but he possessed some property, -and his friend was comparatively rich. The household was in common; -Marianna acting as steward and housekeeper, while she still kept her -station beside the poet; encouraging him in moments of despondency; -suggesting subjects for his muse; and displaying, at all times, that -active and generous affection which so distinguished her. -</p> - -<p> -Metastasio did not, however, meet with the encouragement at Rome which -hailed his first exertions. He wrote his drama of "Cato," which was -acted in 1727: but it was not attended with his accustomed success. The -austere character of the Roman hero—the cold loves—and -disastrous ending—displeased the morbid tastes of the spectators, who -were unable to appreciate the simplicity of the plot, or the grandeur of -the sentiments. Metastasio had a true tragic bias for an unhappy -catastrophe; but his audience did not relish it, and, subsequently, he -adapted himself better to their tastes, and his operas have usually the -happy ending, then supposed more consonant to the inherent lightness of -musical dramas, or, probably, to the talents of the singers: as, in our -days, the sublime acting of Pasta has induced composers to bring forward -tragedies of the deepest dye, "Medea" and "Otello," as the subjects best -fitted for their art. -</p> - -<p> -Metastasio was discouraged: he was poor, and he had many enemies at -Rome, who prejudiced the pope against him, and rendered his abode very -disagreeable. At this moment, fortune came to his aid, and his whole -future life became prosperous and stable. In November, 1729, he received -a letter from prince Pio of Savoy, director of the imperial theatricals, -inviting him to become the court poet of Vienna. Apostolo Zeno was at -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">{Pg 193}</a></span> -that time poet laureate to the emperor Charles VI.; but he also, with -praiseworthy liberality, seconded the emperor in his wish to invite -Metastasio to his court; and the way was opened to him by the absence of -envy in one, who might have looked on him as a rival, but who generously -preferred regarding him as a fellow-labourer, or rather, successor, to -his own exertions. Metastasio at once accepted the offer with many -expressions of gratitude. He was allowed to delay his journey to Vienna -till the spring of 1730, and to fulfil his engagement of supplying the -Roman theatre with two pieces for the carnival. These were "Alexander in -India," and "Artaxerxes." The latter was a favourite from the first: the -poet considered it the most fortunate of his productions, and was -accustomed to say that he owed it more obligations than any other of his -dramas; since, even when set to indifferent music, it never failed to -meet with success. -</p> - -<p> -Metastasio thus made his appearance at Vienna, surrounded by the halo of -a recent triumph. He left Rome with pleasure; but he quitted his family -with regret: more than all he must have lamented his separation from his -generous and affectionate friend, Marianna, the encourager of his -youthful timidity, the chief promoter of his fortunate choice of a -profession, and his unwearied comforter during adverse circumstances. He -went to new scenes and to a new people, and adapted himself at once to -the change. He was kindly received by the emperor, and his heart -overflowed with gratitude for his condescension and beneficence. -</p> - -<p> -It is a strange fact, how little we are contented with negative -qualities in our fellow-creatures; and, indeed, how amiability, and even -generosity, become slight in our eyes, if unaccompanied by energy, -independence, and pride. Metastasio was the most amiable of men: his -disposition was affectionate and constant; yet he was derided in his own -time for his courtier-like qualities, and the gratitude he naturally -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">{Pg 194}</a></span> -evinced towards his imperial benefactors; and censured for a coldness of -heart of which we can find no trace in his writings or actions. There is -one circumstance that renders posterity more just, and, in particular, -induces those who write his biography to regard him with a favourable -eye: this is the publication of his letters. We possess a series from -the age of thirty to that of eighty-four, when he died, which let us -into the secrets of his heart, and display his good sense, his friendly -disposition, his justice, and the ready sympathy that he afforded to -those to whom he was attached, in a more undisguised manner than could -be known to his contemporaries. These letters prepossess the reader in -his favour; and, while the biographer finds few events to record, and -little of misfortune or error to mark his pages with high-wrought -interest, he may envy the tranquil career of the fortunate poet, and -wish that fate had made him the friend of such a man. -</p> - -<p> -Metastasio entered on his employments at Vienna in the year 1730, at the -age of thirty-two. He took up his abode in the house of Niccolo -Martinetz, who held a place in the court of the apostolic nuncio, and -with whom he remained to the end of his life. The dramas that he brought -out during the year succeeding to his arrival were eminently successful. -These were "Adriano," and "Demetrio;" and, during the three following, -he wrote the "Olimpiade," "Demoofonte," and "Issipile." Each, as it -appeared, excited still renewed admiration and applause. After the -representation of "Issipile," the emperor broke through his habitual -majestic reserve, and expressed his satisfaction to the poet, who was -enraptured by the unusual condescension. His imperial master soon after -testified his approbation in a more solid manner, by bestowing on him -the place of treasurer to the province of Cosenza in Naples, worth -annually 350 sequins. Unfortunately, the war of the Spanish succession -deprived him of this income, after he had enjoyed it but for a few -years. -</p> - -<p> -The poet's heart and soul were in his profession, and his operas were -written with that fervent and exalted spirit which marks the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">{Pg 195}</a></span> -compositions of genius; while his modesty engendered doubts concerning -their reception, which were delightfully dissipated by the triumph of -their success. His feelings are all ingenuously expressed in his letters -to Marianna Bulgarelli, who, together with her husband, still remained -at Rome with the poet's family. "I did not believe," he writes, "that I -should have been able to send you the good news I now give—I was so -entirely prepared for the contrary. My <i>Demetrio</i> was brought out last -Sunday, and with so great success, that the old people here assure me -they never witnessed such universal applause. The audience wept at the -Addio—my august master was not unmoved—and, notwithstanding the -respect paid to the imperial presence, the public could not restrain -themselves from giving marks of applause. My enemies have become my -applauders. I cannot express my surprise, for this opera is so -delicately touched, without any of that strong colouring that strikes at -once, that I feared that it was not adapted to the national taste. I was -mistaken—every one seems to understand it, and passages are recited -in conversation, as if it were written in German." While composing the -"Olimpiade," he thus addresses his friend:—"Here is a moral sonnet -which I wrote in the midst of a pathetic scene, that moved me as I wrote -it: so that, smiling at myself, when I found my eyes humid from pity at -a fictitious disaster, invented by myself, I expressed my feelings in -the sonnet I send. The idea does not displease me; and I did not choose -to lose it, as it will serve as an incitement for my piety." The thought -of the sonnet is, that, while he smiles at himself for weeping over -dreams and fables of his own invention, he may remember that every thing -that he fears and hopes is equally fictitious,—that all is false, his -existence a delirium, and his whole life a dream;—and it ends with a -prayer that he may awaken and find repose in the bosom of truth. -</p> - -<p> -Again, he writes, "Will you suggest the subject of an opera? Yes or no? -I am in an abyss of doubt. Oh! do not laugh, and say that the disease is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">{Pg 196}</a></span> -incurable; for indeed; the choice of a subject merits all this -inquietude and scepticism. It is my lot to be forced to make a choice; -and I cannot avoid it; otherwise I should continue to doubt until the -day of judgment; and then begin again. Read the third scene of the third -act of my 'Adrian;' remark the character which the emperor gives of -himself, and you will see my own.<a name="NoteRef_47_47" id="NoteRef_47_47"></a><a href="#Note_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> From this you may conclude; that I -know my faults; but not that I can correct them. This pertinacity in a -fault; which torments me without the recompence of any pleasure; and -which I clearly perceive; without being able to remedy; makes me often -reflect on the tyranny which the body exercises over the mind. If my -understanding is convinced, when reasoning calmly, that this excess of -indecision is a troublesome, tormenting, and useless vice, and an -obstacle to the execution of any design, why do I not get rid of it? Why -not abide by a resolution, so often taken, to doubt no more? The answer -is clear; that the mechanical constitution of the soul's imperfect -habitation gives a false colouring to objects before they reach it, as -rays of the sun appear yellow or green or red, according to the hue of -the substance which they traverse to meet our eyes. Hence it is clear, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">{Pg 197}</a></span> -that men for the most part do not act from reason, but from mechanical -impulse, subsequently adapting, by the force of their understanding, -their reason to their actions, so that the cleverest frequently appear -the most reasonable. Do not get weary, because I play the philosopher -with you; I have none else with whom to play it; and doing it thus by -letter, I call to mind conversations of this kind, which made us spend -so many happy hours together.—O, how much more matter for such has my -experience in the world given me! -<span class="sidenote1">July 4.<br /> -1733.</span> -We will again talk on these subjects, if fortune does not, through some -caprice, entangle the thread of my honourable but laborious life." -</p> - -<p> -A few months after fortune cut, rather than entangled, the thread of -these prospects; Marianna died, and, true to her feelings of -friendship<a name="NoteRef_48_48" id="NoteRef_48_48"></a><a href="#Note_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> to the end, she left the poet heir to her possessions, to -the amount of thirty thousand crowns. Metastasio writes thus to his -brother, on receiving this sad intelligence:— -</p> - -<p> -"In the agitation I feel from the unexpected death of the poor and -generous Marianna, I cannot long dilate. I can only say, that my honour -and my conscience have both induced me to renounce her bequest in favour -of her husband. I owe it to the world to undeceive it from a great -mistake,—that of fancying that my friendship was founded on avarice -and interested motives. I have no right to take advantage of the partiality -of my poor friend to the injury of her husband, and God will by some -other means make up for what I now renounce. I need nothing for myself; -I possess sufficient at Rome to maintain my family in decency, and if -Providence preserves to me my property in Naples, I will give my -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">{Pg 198}</a></span> -relations other marks of my affection, and think seriously of you in -particular. Communicate my resolution to my father, as I have not time -to write to him. Assure him of my intention always to contribute as -heretofore to his comfort, and even to increase my assistance, if my -Neapolitan income does not fail me. In short, make him enter into my -feelings, so that he shall not imbitter them by disapproving of my -honest and Christian determination. -</p> - -<p> -"You will continue to live with signor Bulgarelli, who will, I hope, -display towards you that friendly kindness which my conduct with regard -to him deserves. All will go on as before; only poor Marianna will never -return, nor can I hope for any consolation, and the rest of my life will -be insipid and painful." -</p> - -<p> -"I feel," he wrote to another friend on this occasion, "as if I were in -the world as in an unpeopled solitude; desolate as a man would feel, if, -transported in his sleep among the Chinese or Tartars, he should, on -awakening, find himself among a people whose language, manners, and -customs are alike unknown to him. In the midst of such fancies, so much -reason remains, as permits me to be aware how without foundation they -are, and how produced; but reflection has not yet sufficed to dissipate -them. You will have heard that I have renounced the bequest. I know not -whether this renunciation will be approved of by all, but I know that -neither my honour nor my conscience permit me to take advantage of the -excessive partiality of a woman to the injury of her relations, and that -the want of the riches which I refuse, is more tolerable than the shame -which they would produce in me." -</p> - -<p> -Metastasio was, with his accustomed modesty, disturbed by the fear, lest -his honourable conduct would be disapproved of by his friends and the -world; and he was agreeably surprised when, on the contrary, it met with -the general approbation it deserved. "I should be insincere," he writes -to the same friend, "if, affecting philosophy, I pretended to be annoyed -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">{Pg 199}</a></span> -by the kind approval which my country has universally yielded to my -renunciation of Marianna's bequest. It delights me in the first place, -and like a vow, confirms me in my opinion of the justice of the act; and -in the second, it surprises me, as being the testimony of the affection -of so great a mother for the least of her sons." -</p> - -<p> -This, during the space of ten years, from the time of his first arrival -in Vienna, was the only event that disturbed Metastasio's life. These -ten years are the period during which his poetic powers flourished most -vigorously, and during which his best as well as the greater number of -his works were produced. The favour they met confirmed his situation at -court, while they caused him to labour unintermittingly. It is difficult -to give one not versed in the Italian language a correct idea of the -peculiar merits of his poetry, and the excellences of his dramas. They -are not absolute tragedies: their happy conclusions, the introduction of -airs, and their being compressed into three acts, give them a lightness -and a brevity unlike the heavier march of tragedy. They are to a great -degree ideal, and yet possess the interest which passion and plot, -described and developed with masterly skill, necessarily impart. His -command of language is singularly great, and he adapted poetic diction -to dramatic dialogue with wonderful felicity. A long and profound study -of the genius of his native tongue gave him such extreme facility, that -the perfection of art takes the guise of the most unadorned nature; and -the flow and clearness of his verses so excite our sympathy, as to make -us feel as if the thoughts and sentiments which we find in his pages -were the spontaneous growth of our own minds. The magic of his style -renders sensible and distinct the most delicate and evanescent feelings, -so that it has been remarked<a name="NoteRef_49_49" id="NoteRef_49_49"></a><a href="#Note_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a>, that many of the movements of the -human soul, which the ablest writers have scarcely been able to indicate -in prose, and which, from their subtlety, are almost hidden from our -consciousness, are brought home to us in his verses with a lucid -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">{Pg 200}</a></span> -felicity of expression, that leaves no portion of them either obscure or -vague. He thus formed a language peculiarly his own. In his airs the -words flow in so unforced a manner and with such extreme propriety, that -they appear to place themselves: not one can be changed, not one -omitted. There is no pedantry, no affectation; simplicity is his -principal charm; it seems as if a child might utter them,—they are so -unstudied; and yet no other poet possesses to an equal degree the art of -clothing his ideas with the same easy grace. -</p> - -<p> -When we reflect on the singular perfection of his style, we are not -surprised that he preserved it with the most jealous watchfulness. He -was careful not to accustom his mind to the use of any language except -Italian, and never knew more of German than the few words "sufficient," -as he forcibly expresses it, "to save his life." Many nobles of Vienna -paid him the compliment of learning his language for the sake of -conversing with him, and Italian being in common use among the -well-educated, he did not lose so much as might be expected: yet he must -have felt the privation. He was right, however, in adhering to his -resolution. He was settled at Vienna for life, while at the same time -his present occupation and his future glory depended on his preserving -uninjured that delicacy of taste, and felicity of expression in his -native language, which characterises his compositions. But to return to -his operas. -</p> - -<p> -He himself has said, that if he were forced to select one of his dramas -to be preserved, while all the rest were annihilated, he should fix upon -"Attilio Regulo." The principal action of this play, founded on the -well-known heroism of Regulus, in dissuading his countrymen from an -exchange of prisoners, and his consequent return to servitude and a -cruel death in Carthage, is conducted with dignity and pathos. But the -interest of the piece is somewhat marred by an underplot, and the airs -interspersed are not among his best. Perhaps we are inclined to give the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">{Pg 201}</a></span> -preference among them to "Themistocles:" the dignity of the subject -raises it to this pre-eminence; but in pathos, tenderness, and -impassioned dialogue, the "Olimpiade" is unequalled. Devoted friendship -forms the action; the personages are placed in the most interesting -situations, and the language is sustained to the height of those -emotions which the clash of heroic feelings would inspire. There are -scenes in "Demofoonte" as fine as any to be found in Metastasio, but -there is a reduplication of plot which mars the unity of the action; as, -after deeply sympathising with the hero in his fears concerning his -wife's fate, through nearly four acts, we are somewhat exhausted, and -cannot well reawaken other sentiments, to mourn over the relationship -that he imagines that he has discovered to exist between them. Voltaire -and others have praised the scene between Titus and Sestus in the -"Clemenza di Tito," as surpassing the representation of any similar -struggle of feeling in any other dramatic poet; and the airs in that -piece are among his happiest compositions. It was the poet's aim and -pleasure, in all his writings, to make virtue attractive, and to paint -patriotism, self-sacrifice and the best affections of the soul, in -glowing and alluring colours. This gives a great charm to his dramas. We -live among a better race, and yet the sorrows and passions and errors of -the personages are represented in a manner to call forth our liveliest -sympathy. A heartfelt pathos reigns throughout, and if passages of -sublimity are rare (though there are several which merit that name), the -elevated moral feeling acts on our minds to prevent the enervating -influence of mere tenderness and grief.<a name="NoteRef_50_50" id="NoteRef_50_50"></a><a href="#Note_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">{Pg 202}</a></span> -</p> - -<p> -Besides his dramas, Metastasio composed at this period two canzonetti, -which are among the best of his productions. The "Grazie agli inganni -tuoi," or thanks of a lover to his lady for having disenchanted him by -her caprices, is written at once with feeling and spirit. The "Partenza" -is yet more beautiful. It was founded on the unfortunate attachment of a -Viennese nobleman for a public singer, who at last yielded to the -entreaties of his friends, in detaching himself from her, on condition -that Metastasio should write some verses of adieu. The lover must have -been satisfied, and the lady charmed, despite regret, by the passion, -tenderness, and beauty of the poem which celebrates their separation. -</p> - -<p> -Metastasio's tranquil and prosperous life was broken in upon in 1740, by -the death of the emperor Charles VI., who fell a victim to either poison -or indigestion, after eating mushrooms. The poet was unfeignedly -attached to his imperial master, whose moral and religious character was -congenial to his own; and the disturbed state of Europe, immediately -after, added to his regret. This prince had no son, and his daughter, -Maria Teresa, succeeded to him as queen of Bohemia and Hungary. Her -husband aspired to the imperial crown; but the influence of France -caused the duke of Bavaria to be elected, under the title of Charles -VII. This disappointment was not the only misfortune of the queen; the -king of Prussia invaded Silesia almost immediately after her father's -death, and Vienna being threatened with a siege, she was obliged to quit -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">{Pg 203}</a></span> -it, and to take refuge in Presburg. After a reign of four years, Charles -VII. died, and the husband of Maria Teresa, then grand duke of Tuscany, -was elected emperor in the year 1745, under the name of Francis I.: but -the war still continued, and its various success, and the disasters, -with which it was attended, gave the court little leisure or inclination -for amusement, until the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. -</p> - -<p> -On the death of Charles VI., several of the European sovereigns invited -Metastasio to their courts, and made him advantageous and honourable -offers; but, as Maria Teresa still continued him in the place he held -under her father, the poet felt that fidelity and gratitude alike -forbade him to change masters during her adversity. His naturally -sensitive mind was strongly agitated by the various success of the -empress queen's arms. His susceptibility of disposition did not allow -him to regard the course of events with a stoical eye; and to the -disquietude he suffered is attributed the bad state of health into which -he fell after the year 1745, when he was forty-seven years of age. His -malady was chiefly nervous; hysterical affections, and a rush of blood -to the head, were brought on by the slightest mental exertion, followed -by a total temporary inability to write, or even to think: he was thus -obliged entirely to suspend his poetic labours; and when he forced -himself to them, they bear the mark of a falling off in his powers. It -cannot be doubted that this unfortunate state was brought on in a great -degree by climate. He was a native of Rome, and, till the age of -thirty-two, had resided constantly in the south of Italy. What a dreary -contrast did Vienna present to the enchanting land in which he passed -his youth! The clear skies, the perpetual summer, the cheerful feelings -produced by the habits of a southern life, were injuriously changed for -the gloom of the freezing north. The very precautions which the natives -take to protect themselves from cold during the interminable winters, -the stoves, closed windows, and consequent want of fresh air and healthy -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">{Pg 204}</a></span> -exercise, being in diametrical opposition to the more hardy habits of -southern nations, are injurious to the health and spirits of those who -are accustomed to regard the "skiey influences" as friendly instead of -inimical to their comfort and well-being. Metastasio never left Germany -after he first entered it. A part of his occupation, in the sequel, -became the teaching the archduchesses, daughters of Maria Teresa, -Italian: this was an office he felt that he could not desert, with any -grace, even for a limited number of months. The kindness of the empress -in yielding to the total suspension of all theatrical composition on his -part, forced on him by ill health, bound him yet more devotedly to her. -As he grew older, he became a man of habit, and consequently averse to -travelling. It is impossible, however, not to believe, that if he had -varied his residence in Germany by occasional visits to his native -country, the disease under which he laboured, which embittered though it -did not shorten existence, would have been dissipated and cured. -</p> - -<p> -Metastasio's life, we are told, is only to be found in his letters, yet -these detail no event; one of them contains, indeed, an offer of -marriage to a lady, whose name is omitted: it is well written, and with -considerable delicacy of sentiment; but, as he had no acquaintance with -the object, and aspired to her alliance on account of her character, and -his friendship for her father, his feelings could not be very deeply -interested. Many of his letters are addressed to his brother, and they -display a warm interest for his family. After the death of Marianna, the -management of his affairs in Italy devolved on his relatives, and many -are taken up with directions and advice. Leopold, and the rest of -Metastasio's family, fell into the common error of supposing, that since -he was in favour at court, the greatest prosperity would flow in upon -him. The poet endeavoured to undeceive him:—"Princes and their -satellites," he writes, "have neither the will nor power to confer -benefits correspondent to the notions people are pleased to form. I do -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">{Pg 205}</a></span> -not know what definition merit bears among them; and I religiously -abstain from inquiring, placing it among those mysteries which are -beyond, though not contrary to, our understanding. Following these -principles, I do all that is enough to prevent my feeling remorse for -sins of omission; but I never allow hope to interfere in the guidance of -my cautious line of conduct. It is a long time since I have ceased to be -the dupe of hope, and it would be shameful to become such at our age. -Expect less, therefore, on my account, and you will find the scales more -even. This letter speaks more freely than any other, as I write only for -you, and among other earthly goods, I desire for you the most useful of -all,—a clear perception, if not of all, of the greater part of those -innumerable errors, contracted through our lamentable education, and our -intercourse with fools." -</p> - -<p> -These sentiments did not float merely on the surface of Metastasio's -mind,—he made them the guides of his actions. As he says, gratitude -and duty regulated his conduct, but no servile hunting after greater -benefits mingled with the deference he manifested towards those in -power. He acted on the defensive in his intercourse with courts, with -such consistency of purpose, that he refused the honours chiefly valued -there, and declined the various orders, and the title of count, which -the emperor Charles VI. had offered to bestow on him. -</p> - -<p> -It is from passages such as these, interspersed in his letters, that we -can collect the peculiar character of the man—his difference from -others—and the mechanism of being that rendered him the individual -that he was. Such, Dr. Johnson remarks, is the true end of biography, and -he recommends the bringing forward of minute, yet characteristic details, -as essential to this style of history; to follow which precept has been -the aim and desire of the writer of these pages. -</p> - -<p> -In other letters Metastasio writes concerning his works, and explains -his views in the developement of his dramas; but he never makes himself -the subject-matter without an apology. "Never in my life," he writes on -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">{Pg 206}</a></span> -one occasion, "did I before write so much concerning myself. I perceive -this at the end of my letter, and blush, not because I feel myself -guilty of too great self-love, but because I shall appear so to you. -Remember that few people distrust themselves to a fault, as I do; and in -communicating to you the perfection which I desire to attain, I do not -fancy that I am exempt from those defects, to which human nature and my -own weakness expose me." -</p> - -<p> -All his letters to his brother express the most earnest and affectionate -interest. It is the more necessary to mention this, as one of the -calumnies propagated against him was, an aversion to render service to -his relatives. "You know," he writes to his brother, "that your honour -and welfare have always been the objects of my solicitude, and that I -never proposed to myself any reward, except the agreeable consciousness -that my endeavours to introduce you and sustain you in the career of -letters, have not failed of success; if you think that you owe me any -gratitude, pay it by increasing my self-satisfaction on this account. -You can never show yourself more generous to me than by meriting that -esteem which begins to be your due." -</p> - -<p> -On the death of their father he writes with great feeling:—"The loss -of our poor father did not surprise, while it filled me with the liveliest -grief. I measure your sorrow by my own. I feel that it will require time -to render me reasonable. I thank you for your fraternal kindness in the -midst of your affliction. Dear brother, you now fill the place of a -father in his stead: do it worthily, and if there is any thing that I -can do to comfort you, demand it from me without reserve: your consolation -will produce mine. My poor sisters!—how lost they will feel -themselves! take care of them, dear Leopold: reflect how much fewer -supports they have than we against the assaults of passion, especially -of that feeling which is derived from the most sacred of nature's laws. -Adieu. If I have always loved you, consider how this affection is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">{Pg 207}</a></span> -augmented by the loss of him who possessed before so large a proportion -of it. Let yours increase also." -</p> - -<p> -His brother distinguished himself afterwards by some writings in favour -of religion; and it appears that he even had the design of writing the -poet's Life. Metastasio, while he praised Leopold for occupying himself -in a praiseworthy manner, advised him against publishing controversial -arguments, which would occasion him to be attacked by the cleverest men -of Europe; and which, doubtless, were not stamped with that talent which -could insure success. Metastasio, while deprecating the spread of -unbelief occasioned by the French philosophers of those days, yet joined -with the throng in fearing their attacks, and in flattering -Voltaire,—showing in how great awe he stood of the enmity and sarcasm -of that wonderful man. It is supposed that Leopold died in 1770, after -which date no more letters appear addressed to him. -</p> - -<p> -One of the principal correspondents of Metastasio, and to whom his most -agreeable letters are addressed, is Farinelli. The poet and the singer -were nearly of the same age; both began their career at Naples at the -same time; which causes Metastasio to give his friend the affectionate -appellation of his twin. Both met with immediate and complete success; -and they formed a friendship, which the letters of the poet prove to -have been maintained on his side with sentiments of the warmest -affection, and the most active wish to render service. After having met -with the greatest applause in the various theatres of Europe, Farinelli -was invited to Spain, in 1737; where his voice had the peculiar effect -of calming and solacing the accesses of malady to which the king, Philip -V., was subject. On this account he was retained at the Spanish court, a -large income was settled on him, and he never sang again on the public -stage, being, to please the Spanish notions of etiquette, made cavalier -of the orders of St. Jago and Calatrava, that he might be considered of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">{Pg 208}</a></span> -rank sufficient to attend the private hours of the monarch. Philip V. -died in 1746, but Farinelli continued in equal favour with his -successor. His prosperity continued till the accession of Charles III., -in 1763, when he was ordered to quit Spain, and, with singular cruelty, -not permitted to make choice of an abode. At last, Bologna was -prescribed to him as the place that would best please the Spanish -monarch,—we are not told for what reason, except that Farinelli was -as a foreigner in that city, and cut off from all personal intercourse with -his friends. -</p> - -<p> -An interesting volume might be formed out of Metastasio's letters to the -singer. They are full of enthusiastic friendship; now dwelling on -alterations made to operas for the peculiar benefit of Farinelli,—now -on more personal topics. Metastasio's days were clouded by ill health, -and his genius impaired through the same cause; but it did not check the -overflow of his kind heart, nor injure the happy influence of his -contented disposition. It is difficult, however, to select passages, -since the interest consists in the openness, friendship, and warmth of -the whole, and mere isolated extracts would be devoid of attraction. The -whole correspondence is replete with frank exhibitions of the writer's -mind, and the style is remarkable for its vivacity as well as elegance. -</p> - -<p> -With the exception of his physical sufferings, which were rather -annoying than painful, and that sensibility of character which could not -fail to chequer his life with a thousand various emotions, Metastasio's -latter years was singularly prosperous, and perfectly monotonous. A few -weeks spent each autumn in Moravia was his only change. The empress -kindly excused him from forcing his powers to compose new dramas, and -his occupation principally consisted in the easy task of instructing the -archduchesses in Italian. When the empress Maria Theresa died, the -emperor Joseph II. continued to him his protection; and the esteem and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">{Pg 209}</a></span> -even affection in which he was held at the imperial court prevented the -death of his benefactress from injuring his fortunes, or disturbing his -repose. -</p> - -<p> -He filled, however, a place in the public eye which exposed him to a -good deal of trouble. As the first Italian poet of the day, each minor -aspirant to the laurel sent their verses for his criticism, or rather -approval. He has been accused of lavishing praise without moderation or -judgment. It is difficult for one author not to flatter other authors, -since severity of criticism will be attributed to envy or ill-humour; -and, besides, the Italian genius is singularly inclined to superlative -panegyric. But it may be remarked that, though Metastasio gilds the -pill, he never fails, particularly to his friends, to point out the weak -points of their works, and to bestow sagacious and valuable -observations. -</p> - -<p> -When Dr. Burney visited Vienna in 1772, Metastasio was an old man; and -his life, uninterrupted by any events, flowed on in one unbroken and -quiet stream. "He lives," writes the doctor, "with the most mechanical -regularity, which he suffers none to disturb. He has not dined from home -these thirty years. He studies from eight o'clock in the morning till -noon. Then he is visited by his acquaintance. He dines at two; and at -five receives his most intimate friends. At nine, in summer, he goes out -in his carriage, pays visits, and sometimes plays at ombre. He returns -at ten o'clock, sups, and goes to bed before eleven. In conversation he -is constantly cheerful; fanciful, playful, and sometimes poetical; never -sarcastic or disputatious; totally devoid of curiosity concerning the -public news or private scandal in circulation; the morality of his -sentiments resembles that of his life. In confidence with few, but -polite to all, his affection to his countrymen is great, and extends to -ecclesiastics, painters, musicians, poets, and ministers from the -Italian states, who are all sure of his kindness and good offices. I was -no less astonished than delighted to find him look so well; he does not -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">{Pg 210}</a></span> -seem more than fifty years of age. There is painted on his countenance -the genius, goodness, propriety, and benevolence, which characterise his -writings. I could not keep my eyes off his face,—it was so pleasing -and worthy of contemplation." -</p> - -<p> -He thus spent in ease and peace the last years of his life. It has been -said that, like Dr. Johnson, he had a great aversion to any allusion -being made to death in conversation, and carefully avoided all -lugubrious subjects. He continued to live with his friend Martinetz, -whose daughter, Marianne, being educated by Gluck, became a celebrated -musician; and in this family he met with that respect, attachment, and -attention that rendered old age easy. -</p> - -<p> -His last letter was written to Farinelli. He complains of the "dreadful -season," and says, that he "cannot find a friend or acquaintance who -does not complain of ill health."—"We are all equally obliged," he -writes, "to have recourse to resignation. My neighbour prays for me, and -I pray for my neighbour; and we all are wishing better health to our -afflicted friends. My complaints obstinately defend their posts, and I -my patience." -</p> - -<p> -This letter is dated in March, 1782, and was written but a short time -before he died. Though advanced to the age of eighty-four, his death was -unexpected, as the vigour of his constitution, and his vivacity and -unbroken powers, promised several years more of life; nor did his -nervous indispositions threaten dissolution, for they neither interfered -with his sleep nor appetite, nor the enjoyment he both conferred and -received in his domestic circle. A fever, attended with weakness and -loss of speech, and lethargy, carried him off after an illness of only -twelve days. He died tranquilly, and without pain, on the 12th of April, -1782. He left the family of Martinetz his heirs to considerable wealth; -his property consisting of about 130,000 florins, in addition to many -valuables presented to him by sovereign princes. He was sincerely -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">{Pg 211}</a></span> -regretted at Vienna; and Martinetz struck a medal in his honour. Nor was -he forgotten in his native country; and the various literary academies -of Italy vied with each other in offering poetic testimonials of -veneration to his worth and genius. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">{Pg 212}</a></span> -</p> - -<p><br /></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_47_47" id="Note_47_47"></a><a href="#NoteRef_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a></p> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">"Ah, tu non sai</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Qual guerra di pensieri</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Agita l'alma mia.</span><br /> -<span class="i6">* * * *</span><br /> -<span class="i6">Trovo per tutto</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Qualche scoglio a temer. Scelgo, mi pento;</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Poi d' essermi pentito</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Mi ritorno a pentir. Mi stanco intanto</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Nel lungo dubitar, tal che dal male</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Il ben non distinguo: alfin mi veggio</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Stetto dal tempo, e mi risolvo al peggio."</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">"Ah, thou knowest not the war of struggling thoughts</span><br /> -<span class="i0">That agitates my soul. I find in all</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Some peril still to dread. I choose; and then,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">My choice repent—and then again regret</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Having repented; while protracted doubt</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Wearies my mind, so that the ill from good</span><br /> -<span class="i0">No longer I distinguish; till at length</span><br /> -<span class="i0">The flight of time impels me to the worst."</span> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_48_48" id="Note_48_48"></a><a href="#NoteRef_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a>We have made no remark on the nature of this kind-hearted -and generous woman's attachment. In Italy it is customary to look on -such as formed by friendship only, and to consider that they are -rendered respectable by constancy. The Italians lavish the greatest -praise on Marianna Bulgarelli for her perception of the poet's merits, -her zeal in persuading him to, and assisting him in, his arduous career; -and the disinterested affection which caused her at once to make a -sacrifice of her own feelings, and to advise his journey to Vienna. Her -errors are those of her country. Any one who has visited Italy must at once -censure, and deeply deplore, the social system there carried on—a -system which blights the affections, degrades the moral feeling, and -causes almost universal unhappiness. But it is unjust to heap the -censure of a system belonging to a whole country, and carried on for -centuries, on the head of an individual, whose virtues, we may presume -to say, redeemed an error, the very existence of which is, after all, -uncertain.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_49_49" id="Note_49_49"></a><a href="#NoteRef_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a>Baretti.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_50_50" id="Note_50_50"></a><a href="#NoteRef_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a>There is a curious instance in Metastasio of a poet using -the same image adopted by a preceding writer, which yet, it is probable, -that the later one had not read. The explanation may be, that both drew -it from an ancient writer; but we have been unable to find it. The -passages are subjoined as, if both are unborrowed, it forms a curious -though natural coincidence of thought.</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i6">And as goodly cedars,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Rent from Oeta by a sweeping tempest,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Jointed again, and made tall masts, defy</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Those angry winds that split 'em, so will I</span><br /> -<span class="i0">New pieced again,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">And made more perfect far,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Stand and defy bad fortunes.</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i10">FLETCHER, <i>Tragedy of "Valentinian.</i>"</span> -</div></div> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Spezza il furor del vento</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Robusta quercia, avezza</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Di cento verni, e cento</span><br /> -<span class="i0">L' ingurie a tollerar.</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">E se pur cade al suolo</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Spiega per l' onde il volo,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">E con quel vento istesso</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Va contrastando il mar</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i10"><i>Adriano.</i></span> -</div></div></div> - - -<p><br /><br /><br /></p> - -<h4><a id="GOLDONI">GOLDONI</a></h4> - -<h4>1707-1792.</h4> - -<p> -The life of Goldoni, written by himself, is, as well as his comedies, a -school, not of crabbed philosophy, but of Italian manners, in their -gayest, lightest guise. At a time when it is hoped that a change is -taking place in the system of society in that country, resulting in a -great degree from the concourse of English, it is interesting to observe -what they were anterior to the French revolution, and to remark the -state of the Italians before they awoke to the sense of their -oppression, or, rather, while oppression was in exercise only of the -first of its effects—the demoralisation of its victim, before the -second stage of its influence, that of producing a noble and impatient -disdain of servitude. -</p> - -<p> -Carlo Goldoni was born at Venice, in the year 1707, in a large and good -house, situated between the bridge of Nomboli and that of Donna Onesta. -The Venetians, who, when on land, spend their lives in running up and -down the bridges that cross the canals, make them the chief land-marks -of their directions. The family of Goldoni came originally from Modena. -His grandfather, while studying at Parma, formed an intimacy with two -Venetian nobles, who persuaded him to accompany them to Venice; and the -death of his father rendering him soon after independent, he established -himself in the native city of his friends. He had an employment under -government, and was sufficiently rich, but not at all economical. He -loved the drama; comedies were played in his own house; the most -celebrated actors and singers were at his orders; and he was for ever -surrounded by a concourse of theatrical people. His son had married a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">{Pg 213}</a></span> -lady of the Salvioni family, and resided with his father. Carlo was -born in the midst of all the bustle and hilarity attendant on a -predilection for actors and acting: his first pleasures were derived -from plays; his first recollections were of histrionic gaiety; and his -future life retained the colouring imparted by the amusements of his -early years. -</p> - -<p> -He was the delight of the family. His mother devoted herself to his -education, and his father to his amusement. He made a puppet theatre for -him, and, with two or three friends, drew the cords and acted plays to -the boy's infinite delight. But a change soon came over this holiday -life. His grandfather died, in 1712, from the effects of a cold, caught -at an assembly. His extravagance had dissipated his fortune; and, from -abundance and luxury, the family fell into the narrowest circumstances. -The prospects of the father of Goldoni were dark. He had no employment -and no profession, and his inherited property was all sold or mortgaged. -In the midst of this distress, his wife gave birth to a son: this added -to the solicitude of the father; but, unwilling to be the prey of -useless gnawing cares, he set out on a visit to Rome, for the sake of -diverting his thoughts. His wife remained at home with her sister, and -two sons. The second, never a favourite, was put out to nurse; and she -devoted herself to Carlo. He was gentle, obedient, and quiet. At the age -of four he could read and write and say his catechism; on which they -gave him a tutor. He grew to love books, and made progress in grammar, -geography, and arithmetic; but the old instinct survived, and plays were -his favourite reading. There were a good many in his father's library: -he pored over them at his leisure hours, copied the passages that -pleased him most; and, incited by a noble hardihood, at the age of -eight, wrote a comedy. Some laughed at it; his mother scolded and kissed -him at the same time; while others insisted that it was too clever to -have been written by a child of his age, and that his tutor must have -helped him. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">{Pg 214}</a></span> -</p> - -<p> -Meanwhile his father, instead of returning after a short visit, remained -four years at Rome. He had a rich friend there, who received him -cordially, lodged him in his own house, and introduced him to Lancisi, -physician and private attendant to Clement XI. He attached himself -warmly to Goldoni, who was clever and agreeable, and sought to advance -himself. Lancisi advised him to study medicine. The advice was taken. -After attending lectures and hospitals for four years at Rome, he took -his doctor's degree; and his patron sent him to Perugia to exercise his -profession. He became in vogue in this town: if he were not the best -physician in the world, he was an agreeable man, and quickly gained the -esteem and friendship of the first families. Thus fortunately situated, -he resolved to have his son with him. He does not appear to have thought -of inviting his wife also; and the mother and child were separated, to -the deep grief of the former. Carlo quitted Venice for the first time, -in a felucca. He disembarked at the mouth of the Marecchia, and it was -proposed that he should continue his journey on horseback. Carlo had -never seen a horse except at a distance: he was frightened when placed -on the saddle, confused when told to hold reins and whip; but, as the -novelty wore off, he made acquaintance with this new and strange animal, -and fed him with his own hands. -</p> - -<p> -On arriving at Perugia he was placed at school. His first trial by the -masters, for the purpose of judging what progress he had made in Latin, -was infelicitous; he became the ridicule of his companions; his masters -conceived a slight opinion of his abilities; his father was in despair, -and Carlo fell ill from mortification. The holidays drew near, when it -was usual for the scholars to present a Latin composition, as a specimen -of their powers, on which their advancement to a higher class was -determined upon. Carlo had no hope of any such promotion. The day came: -the master gave out the theme; the pupils wrote. The boy summoned all -his powers; he thought of his honour, his father, his mother; he saw his -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">{Pg 215}</a></span> -companions look at him and laugh; rage and shame animated him to -redoubled exertions; he felt his memory clear—his thoughts free: he -finished, sealed, and delivered his paper before any of his comrades. -Eight days after, the school was assembled—the decision announced: -Goldoni had the first place—his translation was without a fault. He -now received compliments on all sides, and his father was desirous of -rewarding him. He was aware of his love for theatricals, and shared it. -He assembled a company of young actors in his own house, and erected a -theatre. A play was got up, in which Goldoni took the part of prima -donna, and was much applauded; but his father told him that, though not -devoid of talent, he would never make a good actor, and after experience -proved the justice of his decision. -</p> - -<p> -The signora Goldoni bore her husband's absence very philosophically; but -she could not consent to continue separated from her son: she entreated -her husband to return; and, on his refusal, removed herself to Perugia. -But, accustomed to the soft air of Venice, the climate of that city, -placed on the summit of a hill, and surrounded by mountains, disagreed -with her: other circumstances tended to disgust her husband with -Perugia; and, as soon as Carlo had finished his course of education at -the school, they resolved to return to Venice. Passing through Rimini in -their way, they were received kindly by a friend, who persuaded them to -leave Carlo for the sake of his pursuing his studies under a celebrated -professor. His parents embarked for Chiozza. Chiozza is a town -twenty-five miles from Venice, built, like that city, upon piles in the -midst of the sea; it contains 40,000 inhabitants; the population were -divided between rich and poor; the rich wore a wig and a cloak; the -poor, a cap and a capote. These last, who were fishermen and sailors, -while their wives fabricated lace, had often more money than many -individuals of the class named rich. The signora Goldoni took a liking -to this place; and her husband was averse to return to Venice till his -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">{Pg 216}</a></span> -circumstances should have become more easy. To further this end, he was -obliged to make a journey to Modena: he proposed to his wife to -establish herself at Chiozza till his return; and she consented. -</p> - -<p> -Carlo, meanwhile, remained at Rimini. He did not like his master, who, -bigotted to rules and systems, wearied him to death: he escaped from -him, to read Plautus, Terence, Aristophanes, and the fragments of -Menander; and soon the incarnate spirit of drama arriving at Rimini, he -was wholly turned from his abstruser studies. A company of actors made -their appearance, and Goldoni became familiar with them: he went behind -the scenes; joined in their parties of pleasure; and they, being all -Venetians, were happy to find a countryman. One Friday it was announced -that they were leaving Rimini, and that a boat was engaged to carry them -to Chiozza. "To Chiozza!" said Carlo, "My mother is at -Chiozza!"—"Come with us, then," cried the director. "Yes, come -with us," cried the whole company, "come in our boat; you will have a -pleasant passage; it will cost you nothing: we shall laugh, dance, and -sing, and be as happy as the day is long." A boy of fourteen could -scarcely resist so strong a temptation. His master refused leave, and -the friends of his family interfered with objections. There was but one -resource: Carlo put two shirts in his pocket, and hurried to hide -himself in the boat. It made sail, and he was on his way to Chiozza. The -light-hearted rambling life of strolling comedians was alluring beyond -measure to a mirthful lad, who loved plays better than any thing in the -world. The company consisted of twelve, besides scene-shifters, -mechanists, and prompters; there were eight men servants, and four -women, two nurses, a quantity of children, dogs, cats, apes, parrots, -birds, pigeons, and a lamb. The prima donna was ugly, clever, and cross; -the suicidical drowning of her cat diversified the time; and, after a -prosperous and merry voyage, the whole cargo, with the exception of poor -puss, arrived safe at Chiozza. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">{Pg 217}</a></span> -</p> - -<p> -The signora Goldoni received her son with a mixture of gladness and -scolding, which evinced no violent disapprobation of his truant -disposition; but he himself began to regret it, and to reflect seriously -on the consequences, when he read a letter just received from his -father. Business had taken Goldoni from Modena to Pavia. The governor of -Pavia was named the marchese di Goldoni-Vidoni. On hearing of the -arrival of a namesake in his town, he sent for him, and invited him to -dinner. The governor belonged to one of the best families of Cremona; -but he considered that Cremona and Modena were not far distant from each -other, and he had the whim of finding out and assisting a poor relation: -he promised to get a presentation for Carlo to a college of the -university of Pavia, and the father gladly consented to accept it. He -set out to seek his son with this news, and found him sooner than he -expected, and was by no means pleased at a scrape which promised little -for his future steadiness; but Carlo was penitent, and Goldoni gloved -actors, and was acquainted with several of this very company in -question: so, good easy man! he forgave the runaway, and accompanied him -to thank the companions of his voyage. -</p> - -<p> -Goldoni's fame as a physician had spread to Chiozza, and he found it -worth his while to establish himself, and to enter upon practice there: -while waiting for the presentation for the university of Pavia, he -resolved to initiate his son in the rudiments of a profession which he -intended him hereafter to pursue. He did not put him to the more -difficult part of the medical science; but made him accompany him in his -visits to his patients, as the easiest mode of giving him a superficial -knowledge. Carlo did not like this plan, though he was forced to submit. -But passive obedience of will does not conquer the mind: with all his -gaiety, the youth was subject to fits of hypochondria and low spirits, -and under the paternal discipline he lost his appetite, and grew thin -and serious. His mother easily extracted from him the cause of his -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">{Pg 218}</a></span> -dejection, and sought to bring a remedy. She represented to her husband, -that the patronage of the marchese Goldoni could be of no possible -service to their son in a medical career; while, on the contrary, if -they brought him up to the bar, a senator of Milan could without -difficulty open to him the road of fortune. She advised his going to -study under an uncle at Venice, proposing to accompany him herself, and -to stay with him till his removal to Pavia. Goldoni resisted for a long -time, but at last he became aware that her representations were -reasonable: poor Carlo listened to the discussion with tearful eyes and -a beating heart; and his indisposition vanished as soon as his father's -consent was given. Four days after, he and his mother set out for -Venice. They were kindly received by signor Paolo Indric, who had -married his father's sister; and Carlo found his home with him perfectly -delightful. The study of law was infinitely to be preferred to his -father's medical initiation at Chiozza; he fulfilled his duties with -exactitude, and his uncle was satisfied with him. -</p> - -<p> -Meanwhile he enjoyed his residence at Venice. "Oh! la triste ville que -Vénice!" Madame de Genlis exclaimed, on entering the sea-paved city. -Scarcely any but a French person would echo her exclamation; and <i>we</i>, -who people the palaces and bridges with the shades of Othello, -Desdemona, Pierre, and Belvidera, find a peculiar charm in its strange -and beautiful appearance. There is something charming to the imagination -in the wide-spread lagunes, in the palaces rising from the waves, the -sea that flows through the streets, and the sombre-looking but luxurious -gondolas: no picture, no description, can convey an idea of Venice, that -is, of the impression made by its singular aspect, and the modes and -machinery of daily life—dissimilar to those of every other city in -the world. The young Goldoni, as a native, yet returning to it after so -long an absence, was enchanted by the novelty of all he saw. His stay, -however, was short; the presentation to a College at Pavia arrived: he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">{Pg 219}</a></span> -was forced to quit Venice; and, after a harried visit to Chiozza to join -his father, they set out together. -</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote1">1723.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -16.</span></p> - -<p> -On arriving at Milan, several obstacles presented themselves to impede -his entrance into the university, which, being under clerical -jurisdiction, required a number of attestations and documents, with -which the travellers were wholly unprovided, and which could only be -obtained at Venice. Signora Goldoni hastened thither to get them, while -the father and son enjoyed themselves at Milan, hospitably entertained -by their kind and noble soi-disant relation; till, the necessary papers -having arrived, they pursued their way to Pavia, and Goldoni left his -son at his college. -</p> - -<p> -The university of Pavia was on a more expensive and luxurious footing -than is usual in Italy, and dissipation and liberty were the order of -the day. The students were regarded in the town like officers in -garrison: the men hated, and the women welcomed them; while the studies -principally followed up were dancing, fencing, music, and games of -hazard: the latter were prohibited, and, therefore, the more sought -after. Carlo's youth, gaiety, and Venetian dialect pleased generally; -and he easily suffered himself to be seduced from study to pleasure. -</p> - -<p> -His success caused him to make many enemies among his fellow-students, -augmented by the distinction derived from the kindness of the marchese -Goldoni; still he passed two years happily enough, returning to Chiozza -during the vacations, and spending his time between unforced studies and -pleasant society. But misfortune was at hand to blight his happiness. -The time approached when he was to take his degree; and this very moment -was seized upon by his college enemies to ensure his disgrace. He had -been admitted into the university at sixteen: the legal age was -eighteen. He was a boy among men, and an easy prey. A serious quarrel -arose between the inhabitants of Pavia and the students: four among the -latter, who had conspired to ruin poor Carlo, persuaded him to revenge -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">{Pg 220}</a></span> -himself and his comrades by a satire. The verses of which he was the -author attacked and insulted many families: his four false friends -dispersed them and betrayed him: the outcry was prodigious; and, despite -every exertion made by his protectors, Goldoni was expelled. The youth -repented very bitterly at once his imprudence and the easiness of his -disposition. Shame and regret overwhelmed him, and the idea of his -parents' reproaches filled him with terror. To escape these he meditated -plans of flight, resolving to seek his fortunes at Rome. It appeared of -slight import to him that he should go on foot without money or -resources, so that he could fly from those who were justly offended. -This idea was frustrated by the vigilance of those about him: he was -sent back to his family under the especial care of the master of the -boat, who never lost sight of him; and a good monk, who was a passenger -with him, comforted him by his pious but kind admonitions. His mother's -affection and his father's easiness of nature led them to pardon his -fault, from which he had suffered severely enough. A few days after he -accompanied his father to Friuli. Goldoni exercised his profession as -physician at Udine, and Carlo studied the law under an eminent advocate; -after a short time, the former proceeded to Gorizia, to the house of -count Landieri, lieutenant-general of the army of the emperor Charles -VI. The count was ill, and having heard of the skill of Goldoni, sent -for him. Carlo, left behind at Udine, got into several youthful scrapes, -very little to his credit: he found himself deceived and betrayed; and, -fearing a dangerous termination, he hurried away, and found his father -at Vispack, where count Landieri had a mansion. They remained there for -some months, till the count was convalescent, hospitably entertained, -and very happy. A dramatic puppet-show was got up, which exercised the -theatrical talents of Carlo; and afterwards he made a tour to Laubeck, -Gratz, and Trieste, with the count's secretary. On his return to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">{Pg 221}</a></span> -Vispack, he and his father set off on their journey home, the latter -having happily effected the cure of his patient, who rewarded him -handsomely for his trouble. "We arrived at Chiozza," said Goldoni, "and -were received as a fond mother receives a son, and a wife a beloved -husband, after a long absence. I was delighted to see again a virtuous -mother who was tenderly attached to me. After having been deceived and -betrayed, I needed the consolation of being loved. This, indeed, was -another species of attachment, but, until I felt a virtuous and -engrossing passion, my mother's love formed my greatest happiness." Soon -after his arrival at Chiozza, his father received a letter from a cousin -at Modena, to inform him that the duke of that state had revived an -ancient decree, which forbade the possessor of any landed property -within it, to absent himself without an express permission from the -sovereign, which it was very expensive to obtain. This relation added, -that his best course would be to send his son to Modena, which would -satisfy the law, and he might there pursue his legal studies. The advice -was followed, and the youth sent to Modena. -</p> - -<p> -He went by water; and the master of the boat was a very religious man: -each evening he invited the passengers to join him in prayers. When -Goldoni arrived at Modena, this man, whose name was Bastia, asked him -where he meant to lodge, and, learning that he had his lodgings to seek, -asked him to select his house as his place of abode; and, with the -assent of his cousin, who had been the cause of his journey, Goldoni -agreed to the proposal. He found that the family of Bastia was equally -devout with himself; father, sons, and daughters, all were given up to -pious exercises. No great amusement could be derived from their society; -but, as they were respectable people, and lived in concord, Goldoni was -satisfied and happy under their roof. He grew as religiously inclined as -themselves, while, as is often the case in youth, this sentiment was -accompanied by feelings of despondency and even terror. One day he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">{Pg 222}</a></span> -happened to pass through the public square while an unfortunate -churchman was doing public penance for his conduct towards a female -penitent. The sight struck him in the most painful manner: he brought it -home to his own heart; he thought of his past life, his expulsion from -college, his adventures in Friuli: the world seemed beset with -multiplied dangers, and there was no refuge from them, except in total -retirement. He wrote to his parents to express a part of these feelings, -and to declare his resolve of entering the order of Capuchin monks. His -parents acted on this occasion with prudence: they were both, especially -his mother, pious, but without bigotry. They wrote in answer, that he -should do exactly as he pleased, but in the mean time entreated him to -return to them without delay. He immediately obeyed: he was received -with caresses, and no opposition was made to his project. His father -proposed to take him to Venice, and he refused with that boldness which -the fancy of acting in immediate obedience to God, alone inspires; but, -on being told that he was to be introduced to the guardian of the -Capuchins, he consented. They went to Venice, visited their relations -and friends, dining with one and supping with another: he was even -tricked into going to the theatre. His low spirits and ascetic vocation -vanished insensibly, and he returned to Chiozza cured of every wish to -shut himself up in a cloister. -</p> - -<p> -It became matter of anxiety to know what to do with him. His brother, an -adventurous, gallant youth, had entered the army, and was in garrison. -But Carlo was nothing; the plaything of fortune, all the expense gone to -on his account had been of no avail; the only resource seemed to be to -obtain an employment under government; and, at the moment when it -appeared impossible to succeed in so doing, one presented itself to -them. The republic of Venice governed the towns under their dominion -through an officer called a podestà, who had under him a chancellor, or -criminal judge, who was assisted in his duties by a vice-chancellor, or, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">{Pg 223}</a></span> -as he was called, a coadjutor; and where there was much to do, this -officer also had an assistant. These places were more or less lucrative, -but were always desirable, since they included the privilege of dining -at the governor's table, and making one of his society. The father of -Goldoni was intimately acquainted with the governor of Chiozza, and with -the judge, and through their means Carlo was employed to assist the -coadjutor. -</p> - -<p> -Goldoni was not of a noble and enterprising disposition, but he -possessed great integrity, and that habit of scrupulously examining his -own motives, and those of others, which makes a part of the nature of -one whose bent it was to enter into and describe character. On this -occasion he was earnest to do his duty, and interested to observe the -variety of human action and motive, which presented themselves to his -enquiry in the exercise of his office as assistant to the criminal -judge. He acquitted himself to the satisfaction of his superiors; and, -when the governor of Chiozza was changed, and the chancellor was -appointed to go to Feltri, the latter offered Goldoni the place of -coadjutor, which was eagerly accepted. -</p> - -<p> -Feltri is at a distance of 180 miles from Venice, high up among the -mountains, whose snows besiege it during the winter, and block up the -streets and houses. Goldoni found plenty of amusement here, for there -was a company of comedians; and he also fell in love. He assures us that -this was his first passion, and a sincere one; but the future writer of -comedies had not that tenderness and passion of soul which creates a -profound and engrossing attachment. He made parties of pleasure for the -lovely girl, who returned his affection, and got up a tragedy for her -amusement, which did not amuse her at all; for, too bashful to act -herself, with all the delicacy of love, she was pained at witnessing her -lover's familiar conduct with other women. "Poor girl!" exclaims -Goldoni, with naïveté; "she loved me tenderly and sincerely, and I -loved her with all my heart; and I may say that she was the first person -for whom I felt a sincere attachment. She was desirous of marrying me; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">{Pg 224}</a></span> -and would have become my wife, but for some considerations which -prevented my proposing for her." These considerations were a notion he -formed that her beauty was of a delicate, evanescent species, and that -she would soon fade and become old, while he remained in the pride of -youth. Such was the force of his first passion, that it was at once -overcome by selfish foresight, and the habit, innate in him, of -dissecting the materials of life, despoiling them of their sunny gloss, -and handling the most frail, yet precious, among them with a roughness -that iron and rock could not have resisted. This dry, analytical spirit -is very apparent in his comedies: he dignifies it with the name of -morality and honour; but its root is often in coldness and tameness of -feeling and fancy. -</p> - -<p> -On his return from Feltri his father had accepted a medical situation at -Bagnacavallo, a town of Romagna, near Ravenna. Carlo joined him; but, -after a short time, the elder Goldoni fell ill of a malignant fever, and -died in the month of March, 1731, when his son was four and twenty years -of age. He was sincerely lamented by his wife and son, who wept together -over their loss. As soon as the funeral was over, Goldoni accompanied -the widow to Venice, and established her with her sister at the house of -a relation. She was most anxious to have her son resident with her, and -her persuasions, and those of other friends, induced him to yield, and -to enter on the profession of barrister at Venice. The profession of -advocate at Venice was exceedingly honourable; the first men of the city -practised it: but there were 240 registered barristers, and few among -them rose to eminence; the rest spent their time in running after -briefs. Goldoni, however, was of a sanguine disposition, and did not -doubt that he should rank among the most celebrated pleaders at the bar. -He calculated how much could be gained, and found that a barrister might -make an income of 2000<i>l</i>. a year,—a large fortune at Venice, -which at that time, before it fell under the Austrians, whose aim is to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">{Pg 225}</a></span> -ruin it by the imposition of a vexatious taxation, was one of the cheapest -places in the world. It is true that the beginning of a forensic career -is in all countries trying to the patience; and, while Goldoni indulged -in castles in the air with regard to future eminence, he spent his time -attending the courts without a brief, or in waiting for clients, who did -not appear: still he might hope for better success than the major part -of his brethren of the robe, since, during the first six months of his -being at the bar, he carried on and won a cause; but his destiny -concurred with the genius still unformed and dormant within him to draw -him another way. -</p> - -<p> -At the very moment of triumph on gaining his suit, and when he might -fairly hope for an influx of clients, an incident occurred to destroy -his prospects, causing him to form the resolution to quit Venice. -</p> - -<p> -He had fallen in love with a lady at Venice, who, though forty years of -age, was as fair and beautiful as a girl. She was rich and unmarried: -the affection was mutual, and he already looked forward to their union, -when the attentions of a noble awakening the ambition of the lady, she -jilted him for his patrician rival. This lady had a married sister with -two daughters, one deformed and the other ugly, but not without -attraction; she had beautiful eyes, a laughing countenance, and -graceful, fascinating manners. She had often deprived her beautiful aunt -of lovers, and inspired her with jealousy. She tried to win Goldoni from -her; and, on her tergiversation, vengeance induced him to make the niece -an offer. Her mother entered into her plans, and the contract of -marriage was drawn up and signed; but when the moment came to fulfil it, -a variety of doubts presented themselves to Goldoni's mind. He was -himself in debt, and several years must pass before he could hope to -make an income at the bar. The mother of his promised bride was wholly -unable to fulfil the conditions of the marriage contract, and he found -that he should be burdened with the expense of his wife's family. He -consulted his mother, and his own sense of prudence: he had become very -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">{Pg 226}</a></span> -much in love but, in his light heart, every motive and impulsa was -stronger than the strongest affection: frightened at the prospect before -him, he made a sudden determination; paid his debts, threw up his -profession, and quitted Venice; leaving a letter for the unfortunate -girl's mother, attributing to her his sudden departure, and promising to -return if she would fulfil the conditions of the contract. He received -no answer. -</p> - -<p> -Again he was thrown on the world, and all his prospects of future -subsistence were centred in a tragedy, called "Amalassunta," which he -had written in his leisure hours. It has been mentioned how, born amidst -theatricals, his early pleasures had all been derived from plays. When -he first went to Pavia, he had studied the ancient drama; and, finding -that Italy had no theatre, he had already conceived the idea of -bestowing one on her, on a more enlarged plan, more intricate as to -plot, and more diversified as to character, than those of Plautus and -Terence. In the course of his youth, to get up a play was his chief -pleasure; and now, with "Amalassunta" in his pocket, he felt sure that -his fortune would be made at Milan, at the theatre of which city he -intended to offer it; and, with this expectation, his happy disposition -caused him easily to forget prospects, friends, love, and -disappointments,—all but his mother; while the pleasure of freedom -easily consoled him for the loss of his bride. -</p> - -<p> -Poor and almost friendless, the first piece of good fortune that -happened to him was finding at Bergamo the noble who had been governor -at Chiozza when he was vice-chancellor. He presented himself at his -palace, and was kindly received. The governor perceiving that he was -depressed in spirits, enquired the cause: and Goldoni confessed that he -was penniless: his kind protector offered him his purse and a home at -his house. Goldoni contented himself with borrowing ten sequins, and, in -lieu of the latter offer, asked for letters of introduction at Milan, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">{Pg 227}</a></span> -which were instantly given him. These served him in good stead in that -capital. The Venetian resident received him kindly, asked the object of -his journey, and, when Goldoni had recounted his adventure, offered to -lend him money, which was declined. -</p> - -<p> -"Amalassunta" was the anchor of his hope, and he lost no time in seeking -the actors and directors of the theatre. He paid a visit to the first -ballerina, whom he had formerly known, and offered to read his opera to -her circle of actors, and musicians, and theatrical patrons. His offer -was accepted: he took the manuscript from his pocket, and -commenced—"Amalassunta!" The chief actor, Caffariello, began to -object, in the first place, to so long and ridiculous a name. Every one -joined in the laugh thus raised, except the poor author, who went on to -read the list of dramatis personæ. New censure followed the too great -number of persons introduced; and, when it was found that the opera -commenced by a scene between the two principal actors, he was told that -would never do: the chief singers would never consent to begin during all -the bustle of the first entrance of the audience. The criticisms multiplied -as he went on, till a kind amateur, count Prata, took him by the hand, -and, leading him into another room, asked him to read the opera to him -alone. Poor Goldoni consented, and the whole piece was gone through. -When finished, the count pointed out its defects, not with regard to -plot and situation, but to operatic rules; how he had given airs of -passion and interest to secondary personages, and curtailed the first of -what they considered their just proportion. The count would have gone on -to find more fault, but Goldoni begged him to take no more trouble, and -took his leave. He returned, mortified and miserable, to his inn. His -first impulse was to burn his unlucky opera. The waiter asked him if he -would sup. "No," he replied, "no supper, only a good fire." While this -was making, he looked over his poor "Amalassunta:" it appeared to him -very beautiful, and worthy of a better fate: the actors were in fault, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">{Pg 228}</a></span> -not it. Yet; after all his pains, his hopes were fallen; and, in a fit -of desperation, he cast it on the flaming brands, glad to see it burn, -and busy in collecting all the fragments, that none might escape -destruction. While thus employed, he began to recollect that no disaster -which had yet happened to him, had ever caused him to go to bed -supperless. He recalled the waiter, ordered his repast, ate it with a -good appetite, and went to bed to sleep till morning. It is no wonder -that love could exercise so little power over so well-regulated an -appetite! -</p> - -<p> -The next morning he was obliged to reflect seriously on his desperate -situation, and he paid Signor Bartolini, the Venetian resident, a visit, -that he might consult with him. He asked for a private interview, and it -was granted; and then he related the occurrences of the previous -evening, the impertinent criticisms of the actors, and the decisive -judgment passed by count Prata, and ended by declaring that he was -totally at a loss what to do. Bartolini laughed at his recital, and -asked to see the opera. "The opera?" cried Goldoni, "I have not got -it!"—"Where is it, then?"—"I burnt it; and with it my hopes, my -possessions, and my whole fortune." The minister laughed still more at this -<i>dénouement</i>, and ended by offering him the situation of gentleman -in his palace, with a good suite of rooms. Goldoni now found that he had -gained by his loss: without doubt, as he declares himself, he was a -lucky man, and it was his own fault whenever he fell into misfortune. -Yet he did this so frequently, that the best part of his luck was that -cheerful buoyant disposition which never allowed him to be overwhelmed -by adversity, and an integrity that always kept him from any -dishonourable scrape. -</p> - -<p> -"Amalassunta" was burnt, but Goldoni's predilection for theatricals -continued as strong as ever. There arrived at Milan a singular man, -named Buonafede Vitali, who had talents and knowledge enough to practise -as a regular physician, but who preferred strolling as a mountebank, -under the name of the Anonymous. As a part of the paraphernalia of his -trade, he had with him a company of comedians. Goldoni sought out this -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">{Pg 229}</a></span> -man, who availed himself of his protection, to obtain leave for his -company to act on the Milanese theatre. There were several good actors -among them, but their representations were made on the old Italian plan. -Goldoni was particularly scandalised by a travestie of the story of -"Belisarius," given out as a tragedy; and, to prevent the future -degradation of historical names and sentiments, he promised to write a -tragedy on the subject, but was interrupted by events of greater moment. -</p> - -<p> -The king of Sardinia allying himself with France against the Austrians, -in the war of 1733, he sent an army of 15,000 men, to which was added -some French troops, to occupy Milan. That city being too wide in circuit -for defence, it was forced to receive the soldiers; who immediately -entered on the siege of the citadel. On this event, the Venetian -resident was ordered by his government to quit Milan, and to take up his -abode at Crema: he had before quarrelled with his secretary, and he took -this opportunity to dismiss him, and to install Goldoni in his place. He -was now fully employed, and his situation was at once honourable and -lucrative; but soon after he lost the good graces of the minister, -though not from any fault of his own. His brother had quitted the -Venetian service, and, seeking employment, visited him at Crema. He -introduced him to the governor, who gave him the situation of gentleman -of his chamber, formerly occupied by Goldoni; but both were violent and -irritable, and they did not agree. The resident dismissed his gentleman, -and no longer regarded Goldoni with the same favour as heretofore. They -had a quarrel; Goldoni asked for his dismission, and set out for Modena, -where his mother was residing. -</p> - -<p> -The country through which he passed on his way was the seat of war; -robbers took occasion of the unsettled state of the country, and the -roads were unsafe: Goldoni was the sufferer; the little carriage in -which he travelled was attacked by five men, who robbed him of his -money, watch, and effects, while he escaped across the country, glad to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">{Pg 230}</a></span> -preserve the clothes he had on. After running a long way, he came to an -avenue of trees, by which flowed a rivulet. He drank of its waters in -the hollow of his hand, and then, fatigued in body, but more composed in -mind, he proceeded quietly along the avenue, till he encountered some -peasants, to whom he related his misfortune, and who in return told him -that there were a set of outlaws who took advantage of the war to attack -not only travellers, but gentlemen's seats and cottages; while a number -of men of some wealth near, who had formed themselves into a company to -purchase the spoils of war, became their accomplices by becoming the -purchasers of the stolen goods. "Such," exclaims Goldoni, "are the -miseries of war, which fall alike upon friends and enemies, and ruin the -innocent!" The sun was now declining, and the peasants offered Goldoni a -part of their supper, of which, notwithstanding his disaster, he partook -with appetite. They then guided him to a village, and recommended him to -the care of the curate, who received him hospitably. To him he related -his adventures, making his manuscript tragedy of "Belisarius," then in -his pocket, the principal hero of the tale. He was invited to read it. -The curate, two abbés, and the servants of the house, were his -audience; and they all applauded it with enthusiasm. The offers and -kindness of these good simple-hearted people filled Goldoni with -gratitude. Unwilling, however, to burden them with his maintenance, he -hastened to take leave; the curate lent him his horse, and sent his -servant with him to defray the expenses of the day's journey to Brescia. -</p> - -<p> -From Brescia, Goldoni proceeded to Verona. He was in a deplorable -situation; he only possessed a few sequins, lent him by an adventurer -whom he met by accident at Brescia; but with "Belisarius" in his pocket, -he did not fear the enmity of fortune, and "Belisarius" did not prove so -false a friend as "Amalassunta." When at Verona, he went to the -celebrated amphitheatre, a portion of which was arranged as a theatre, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">{Pg 231}</a></span> -and here a drama was about to be performed. To his infinite joy, he -discovered in the principal actor a man who had formed one in the -companions of the mountebank at Milan, and for whom he had promised to -write "Belisarius." He instantly went behind the scenes, and was -welcomed with joy. He was on the moment installed poet to the company. -"Belisarius" was read, approved, and the parts distributed. In the month -of September they proceeded to Venice. Goldoni was presented to the -proprietor of the theatre, who received him with kindness. On the 24th -of November, 1734, he being then twenty-seven years of age, "Belisarius" -was acted, and met with the most complete success. All actors in Italy -are strollers, and looked upon with a good deal of contempt. Goldoni -might have been expected to regret the exchange he had made from the -honourable profession of an advocate, for that of poet to a theatre; but -his light heart and easy temper were not to be afflicted by trifles of -this nature, and the talent that perpetually impelled him to take -interest in theatricals, prevented him from feeling degraded by his -association with the professors of the art: and their existence and all -its vicissitudes bear another aspect under a sunny sky, and amidst a -laughter-loving people, unspoilt by pride. Goldoni had much of the -spirit of Gil Blas in his disposition, and possessed in his own person -all the talent which belongs, not to the hero of that book, but its -author. Several pieces, operas, and interludes of his were brought out; -and in the spring he accompanied the actors to Padua and to Friuli, -where, leaving them, he returned to Venice to see his mother, who had -arrived there from Modena. His success as an author, and the talent he -displayed, raised him in the estimation of his fellow-citizens. His -relations crowded around him; and he repaid their kindness by relating -his adventures to his old uncles and aunts, making those laugh, who had -never laughed before. In September the actors returned to Venice, and he -recommenced his labours, which were not all literary, but interspersed -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">{Pg 232}</a></span> -by those occasioned by the jealousy of the actors, or rather of the -actresses. After the winter season had passed, he consented to accompany -the manager to Genoa and Florence, and was glad, without expense, to -visit two of the most celebrated cities of Italy. -</p> - -<p> -He was delighted with the aspect of Genoa; and the first good fortune -that happened to him, was to gain 200 crowns in the lottery; the second, -to marry a girl, "who," he tells us, "was beautiful, virtuous, and -prudent, and who, after all he had suffered from the treachery of women, -reconciled him to the sex." -</p> - -<p> -His acquaintance began in the true Italian style: he saw her at an -opposite window, and, pleased with her appearance, saluted her. She -curtsied, and hastily withdrew, nor again presenting herself at the -window. His curiosity was thus excited; he made enquiries, and learnt -that her father's name was Corrio; that he was a notary, with a large -family and small fortune. He contrived to make acquaintance, and within -a month asked permission to marry his daughter. The affair was soon -concluded: he was married in July; and, omitting the promised visit to -Florence, returned to Venice at the beginning of September. -</p> - -<p> -Hitherto Goldoni's pieces had been rifaccimenti of old dramas. -"Griselda," "Don Giovanni," and "Rinaldo di Mont' Albano," were -melodramas or tragedies, written in the old style. But at this time, -finding that the company of actors at Venice, through various changes, -had become one of great excellence, he began to think the time arrived -when he might enter on the reform of the Italian theatre, which he had -long meditated: he commenced writing comedies of character, which are -the genuine source of the dramatic merit, following the example of -Molière, who had surpassed all ancient models, and even now stands -alone, as the first comic writer in the world. "Was I wrong," he asks, -"in presuming to enter upon such an undertaking? for my natural bent -leading me to write comedies, excellence in the art was the proper aim -of my endeavours." -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">{Pg 233}</a></span> -</p> - -<p> -The old comedy in Italy was on a singular system: there were four masks -on which all the farcical incidents turned. Pantaloon, a Venetian -merchant, who was the father of the heroine; a garrulous, kind-hearted -old gentleman. The doctor, a Bolognese, also an old man, whose learning -was opposed to Pantaloon's simplicity: and two Bergamese servants. -Brighella and Harlequin. Brighella, a clever rogue; Harlequin, a greedy -simpleton; his many-coloured clothes symbolising the poverty that forced -a patched garment. The actors who filled these respective parts seldom -played any others. It required ready wit and cleverness; for the plot -only being sketched, and the scenes indicated, the dialogue was left to -their own invention. Of course, no great refinement could be expected: -practical tricks and broad jokes were sure to command the laughter and -applause of the audience; while, there being in the Italian character -something peculiarly adapted to extempore exercises of the intellect, -and a vivacity that renders them good actors, many people regarded this -rude but amusing effort at drama, as something at once so national and -so genuine, as rendered it preferable to the studied productions of the -closet. Goldoni, on the contrary, saw farce take place of comedy, and -the whole action and conduct of the piece often sacrificed to the -petulance of a favourite mask; while no real sentimental interest, nor -any comic incident out of the common routine, could be introduced. He -proceeded, however, slowly in the reform he meditated. At first writing -only the more serious portions of his plays; then the parts of the masks -themselves, and only after some time, and at intervals, dispensing with -them altogether. Nor, at the time of which we are writing, did he bring -out any of his best dramas; though those which he did produce were -eminently successful. -</p> - -<p> -To add to the respectability, and, as he hoped, to the emoluments of his -situation, the relations of his wife obtained for him the Genoese -consulship at Venice. This office, however, turned out more honourable -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">{Pg 234}</a></span> -than lucrative: no salary attended it, and the fees did not amount to -more than 100 crowns a year. To do the republic he served honour, he had -taken a better house and increased his number of servants, and found -himself considerably embarrassed. To add to these annoyances, his income -from Modena failed him; and he came to a resolution to make a journey, -with the triple object of bringing out a comedy with a part for a -favourite actress at Bologna, to solicit a salary at Genoa, and to look -after his possessions at Modena: the first object failed before he set -out, through the sudden death of the actress, while an unexpected -disaster rendered the two latter even more imperative than before. His -brother, who was out of employ, introduced to him a Ragusan of agreeable -and gentlemanly manners. He asserted that he was sent on the secret -service of raising a regiment of 2000 men for his state. He showed his -commission as colonel, offered a company to Goldoni's brother, and the -office of auditor, or judge, to the author. Goldoni, always -easy-tempered and credulous, though a little frightened by the danger -incurred if the Venetian state should come to suspect these proceedings, -was soon talked over, and, on an alleged emergency, lent the man a large -sum of money. The fellow was an adventurer: he ran off with the money, -and left Goldoni so disagreeably implicated by his tricks, that he -judged that his only resource was to quit Venice on the instant. The -Ragusan had disappeared on the 15th of September, and on the 18th of the -same month Goldoni and his wife embarked for Bologna. -</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote2">1741.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -34.</span></p> - -<p> -Their journey was full of "many accidents of flood and field." The -melancholy and thoughtfulness occasioned by his disaster vanished under -the influence of his happy temperament; and his wife was even better -skilled than he in that best philosophy which makes light of worldly -misfortunes. On their arrival at Bologna, he was surrounded by the -directors of theatres, who asked for comedies. He gave them three, and -wrote another on the subject of the Ragusan swindler, in which he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">{Pg 235}</a></span> -comforted himself, and dissipated the rest of his regrets, by -representing to the life all the actors in that too real drama. This -task concluded, he was about to proceed to Modena, when he heard that -the duke was absent at the Spanish camp at Rimini, and that his best -chance of pursuing his claims was to accompany Ferramonti, a celebrated -pantaloon, to the latter town; where, in default of justice being done -him by his sovereign, he might have a further resource in the company of -actors to which this comedian belonged. This latter staff turned out the -stoutest of the two: the duke changed the conversation when Goldoni -mentioned his claims on the ducal bank; but as long as the carnival -lasted, he supplied the actors with dramas, and lived a comfortable life -at Rimini. At length it became necessary to depart for Genoa. The armies -which then occupied the country rendered it impossible to get horses; -and he and some other travellers agreed to embark for Pesaro. The sea -was high, the passengers suffered: weary of their sea voyage, they -disembarked half way, at Cattolica, and, leaving their effects to the -care of servants, proceeded in a cart to Pesaro. -</p> - -<p> -A new misfortune here awaited him. The Spanish army had changed -quarters, and were replaced by their enemies, the Austrians. The -soldiers entered Cattolica, and seized on the boat, the servants, and -the effects of the unlucky passengers. All was lost: trunks and -band-boxes, dresses and jewels, were the spoil of the ravagers: even the -signora Goldoni was moved by so overwhelming a calamity: but some remedy -was to be found. Goldoni resolved to apply in person to the Austrian -officers for the restitution of his property; and his wife, with great -cheerfulness, prepared to accompany him. Pesaro is ten miles distant -from Cattolica: with great difficulty they hired a carriage to take -them. The vetturino was very averse to the job, but showed no signs of -discontent. When three miles from Pesaro, the pair alighted to walk a -short distance; and the cunning fellow, seizing the opportunity, turned -his horses' heads, and gallopped back to Pesaro, leaving them in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">{Pg 236}</a></span> -middle of the road. No house, no living being was to be seen; the -inhabitants had fled on the arrival of the armies. Signora Goldoni began -to cry. "Courage!" said the husband; "it is but six miles to Cattolica: -we are young and strong; it will not do to turn back; let us walk on." -The journey was not, however, an easy one; the road was crossed by -several torrents, and the bridges were broken. Goldoni carried his wife -over the swollen streams; but they had been obliged to make a circuit in -search of a ford, and found themselves fatigued beyond measure. At -length they arrived at the first advanced post of the Austrians. Goldoni -presented the passport with which he came provided, and they were -conducted to the commanding officer. The colonel at first took them for -two wandering pedestrians; but, reading the passport, he made them sit -down, and, looking kindly on them, said: "What, are you signor -Goldoni?"—"Alas! Yes," replied the other. "Author of -'Belisarius?'"—"I am indeed."—"And this lady is the signora -Goldoni?"—"She is the last good I possess in the world."—"I -hear you came on foot."—"Alas! sir, you heard the truth." Goldoni -now explained the nature of his expedition, and the officer reassured -him: he restored his luggage, and liberated his servant, and, happy in -the recovery of their property, Goldoni and his wife returned to Rimini. -</p> - -<p> -After spending some weeks happily in this town, he set out on a tour -through Tuscany, meaning to proceed afterwards to Genoa. He visited -Florence, Siena, Volterra, and then arrived at Pisa. While walking -about to see the "liens" of this town, he passed by a palace, and, -perceiving that a great concourse of people were entering its gates, he -looked through, and saw a large court, and the company all seated in a -circle round. He asked a servant in livery, who waited, what the -occasion was of so large an assembly. "That assembly," replied the man, -"is a colony of the Arcadians of Rome, called the Alphean colony; that -is, the colony of Alpheus, a celebrated river of Greece, which flows -near the ancient Pisa of Aulis." Goldoni asked if he might make one of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">{Pg 237}</a></span> -the audience, and the servant ushered him to a seat. After a variety of -pieces of poetry had been read, he sent the servant round to ask if a -stranger might be permitted to recite; and, on being answered in the -affirmative, he repeated an old sonnet of his, which, with a little -alteration, seemed extemporised à propos for the occasion. The Pisans, -charmed at once by the compliment and the talent of the stranger, -crowded round him. He made many acquaintances, was invited to their -houses, and their cordial kindness seemed at one time to change the -whole tenour of his life for ever. For, invited and pressed by them, and -promised protection and patronage, he became a pleader once again, and -for three years practised at the Pisan bar. Briefs flowed in, clients -were numerous, all were satisfied, and Goldoni, content with his lot, -abjured the theatre. He was too well known to be without temptations to -break his resolution: actors wrote to him for plays, and he tried to -refuse, and then, yielding to the desire, he wrote pieces for them in -hours borrowed from sleep, and gave his days entire to his profession. -Still law and the drama contended for him, and his heart was with the -latter, though he tried to turn his back on her, and to devote himself -to her rival. But he lost the game. A manager, named Mendebac, arrived -at Pisa with a company. Goldoni went to see the representations. They -acted his comedy of "La Donna di Garbo," which he considered his best -piece: he had written it for a favourite actress; but she died, and he -had never seen it acted. The wife of the manager was young, beautiful, -and a good performer, and she took the part of the Donna di Garbo. It is -difficult exactly to translate, in one word, this expression: as used by -the Tuscans it means, the worthy woman—the woman whose conduct is -upright and estimable. The heroine of the piece, however, deserves more -the name of the cunning than the worthy; and her chief merit consists in -her success. Rosaura is the daughter of a lace-maker of Pavia; and her -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">{Pg 238}</a></span> -mother's house being frequented by many of the students and professors -of the university, she acquires a good deal of the scholastic pedantry -of the schools. She is seduced by a student, who deserts her; on which, -for the sake of revenge, she gets, herself introduced as a servant into -the house of his father, where, by pleasing every body, and adapting -herself to their humours, and by great display of learning, she hopes to -force her lover into a marriage, and succeeds. This is by no means one -of the best of Goldoni's comedies, but it pleased on the stage; and on -this occasion the principal part being filled up by the wife of the -manager, who was a clever actress, it met with the greatest approbation. -Goldoni, warmed by success, enticed by the offers of the manager, and -drawn on by the instinctive bent of his disposition, suddenly resolved -to leave Pisa and the profession which he was pursuing with so much -advantage, and returning to Venice, to enter again on the task of -writing comedies for its theatre. Such a determination was sufficiently -strange and imprudent; but Goldoni's love for his art was such, that he -never regretted the sacrifice he made; on the contrary, being now wholly -devoted to the drama, his enthusiasm rose, and, filled with projects for -its reform, he worked with an ardour, which was rewarded by success, and -which inspired his best pieces. -</p> - -<p> -It is, perhaps, difficult for a person who has never visited Italy to -enter with zest into all the merits of Goldoni. His perfect fidelity to -nature, the ease of his dialogue, and the dramatic effect of his pieces, -can only be entirely appreciated in the representation. The best of them -have often a slight plot, but the interest is kept alive by the variety -of the dialogue. It was only slowly, however, that he proceeded to the -reform of the Italian comedy; the substitution of natural incident for -violent and forced situations, and the higher properties of comedy for -the mere burlesque of farce. Obliged to bring out his plays in quick -succession, they are, of course, unequal, and did not meet always with -the same approbation. Unfortunately, his first season ended with a piece -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">{Pg 239}</a></span> -which had no success. The company for which he wrote, had to contend -with others, longer established in the city; and; at the end of the -carnival; these circumstances combined to afford a dreary prospect for -the following year. At this moment Goldoni stepped forward in the most -singular manner; to the assistance of the manager. He publicly promised -sixteen new comedies for the next season; and the audience, wondering -and anxious, instantly engaged all the boxes. His enemies ridiculed, his -friends trembled for him; but he felt secure that he could fulfil his -engagement, although at the moment he had not conceived the plot or plan -of one of the promised sixteen. -</p> - -<p> -This certainly was a great stretch of invention and mental labour. Out -of the sixteen, for he completed the whole number, there were not more -than three or four mediocre ones, and some were among his best. The -"Donne Puntigliose," or Punctilious Ladies, is exceedingly amusing. A -Sicilian trader's wife from the country, desires to be received among -the noble ladies of Palermo: she contrives to get herself invited to -small parties, where there are many men, and no lady except the mistress -of the house; but finds it impossible to get admitted to their -ceremonious assemblies. At last, an old countess, high-born, but poor, -promises to give a ball, to which she shall be invited, on certain -conditions, to which the low-born lady readily consents, though they -draw rather largely on her purse. But to her consternation, as soon as -she enters the ball-room, every woman flies as if she brought infection -with her, and leaves her alone with her hostess. The punctilious -scruples of those who try to make use of her without derogating from -their own dignity, and who are ever ready to receive, but never to -confer favours, form a very amusing picture of manners. "Pamela" was -among the most successful of these pieces. Richardson's novel of -"Pamela" is a great favourite with the Italians; and Goldoni was often -asked to write a drama on the subject. As the Venetian laws are severe -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">{Pg 240}</a></span> -against the children of a <i>mésalliance</i>, he considers the catastrophe -of the novel as not inculcating a recommendable line of conduct. He, -therefore, transformed Gaffer Andrews into a Scottish lord of the -rebellion of '45, and gave Pamela good blood to render her marriage with -her lover a commendable act on his part. This comedy had the greatest -success. "The Donna Prudente" was equally a favourite. The story is -founded on a jealous husband, afraid of ridicule, who is tortured by the -attentions of the cavaliere servente of his wife, yet who dares not -encounter the laughter that would ensue if he forbade the service. The -prudent lady exerts herself with success to get rid of her cavaliere -without its being supposed that her conduct arises from her husband's -jealousy. The last of his sixteen was a purely Venetian subject, written -almost entirely in the Venetian dialect: it is called "I Pettegollezzi," -or The Gossipings, and turns on the misfortunes brought on the heroine -through the gossip of her female acquaintances. It was brought on the -last day of carnival. "The concourse," Goldoni writes, "was so immense, -that the price of the boxes was tripled and quadrupled; and the applause -was so tumultuous, that those who passed near the theatre were uncertain -whether the sound was that of mere plaudits, or of a general revolt. I -remained tranquil in my box, surrounded by my friends, who cried for -joy. When all was over, a crowd of people came for me, forced me to -accompany them, and carried, or rather dragged, me to the Ridotto, and -overwhelmed me with compliments, from which I would fain have escaped. I -was too tired to support all this ceremony; and, besides, not knowing -whence all this enthusiasm sprang, I was angry that the piece just -represented should be more extolled than many others which were of -greater merit. By degrees I discovered the true motive of the general -acclamation: it celebrated the triumph of my fulfilled engagement." -</p> - -<p> -Goldoni was now forty-three years of age. His invention had not yet -fallen off, but he tried his strength too much. An illness was the -consequence of this extraordinary exertion, and he felt the effects of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">{Pg 241}</a></span> -it all his life after; yet during the ensuing season he brought out -scarcely a smaller number, and, as he proceeded, attained a yet purer -style of comedy; and he became the censor of the manners, and satirist -of the follies, of his country. The peculiar system of what is called -service, paid by gentlemen to the ladies of their choice, all over -Italy, would have presented an ample field both for ridicule and -reprehension, could he have ventured on it openly; but he was obliged to -treat it with the same reserve, when bringing it on the stage, as is -used when it is spoken of in society; and he could attack only the -ridicule, not the real evils of the system. This comedy, called the -"Villeggiatura," which turns on this subject, is particularly amusing; -but it can scarcely be called an attack upon it. An Italian gentleman, -returned lately from Paris, offers to serve a lady in the French manner: -he is not to perform those thousand services required of the cavaliere -servente, nor to attend on her, nor to be of any use or amusement to -her: they are to be friends secretly; and, to preserve their friendship -more sacredly, they must abstain from nearly all intercourse with each -other. The lady, accustomed to be constantly waited upon, and to find in -her cavaliere a resource against the ennui of solitude, is at a loss to -understand the good that is to result from a negative of all the -ordinary uses of friendship. The "Smanie della Villeggiatura" attacks -another of the foibles of the Venetians. It is their custom, each -autumn, to spend several weeks at their country seats; but, instead of -this being a period of economy and retirement, it was the fashion to -invite their friends, and to transport with them the dissipation of the -city. Besides this, it being necessary, as a mark of fashion, to retire -to a villa, those who were poor, and did not possess one, fancied -themselves obliged to hire a house, and to go beyond their wealthier -neighbours in the number of their guests and the splendour of their -entertainments: nor can any idea be formed out of the country of the -sort of fanaticism with which this custom was pursued; even to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">{Pg 242}</a></span> -bringing ruin on those who imagined themselves forced to so unnecessary -an expense. Goldoni wrote three comedies on this subject: the first -consisted in describing the preparations for the villeggiatura, or visit -to the country. It has for its subject the difficulties of a a poor -proud family, who were bent on following the general example; the -thousand obstacles that rendered it almost impracticable; and the envy -with which they view and vie with the preparations of their wealthier -acquaintance. At length they depart triumphant, resolving to forget -their debts and difficulties until their return. The second comedy -consists of the adventures in the country; where, in the midst of -gambling, pleasure, and apparent enjoyment, a thousand annoyances -distract, and jealousy and envy prevent, all real happiness. The third -comedy, of the return from the country, shows the unfortunate lovers of -rural pleasures overwhelmed by debt; surrounded by a thousand -difficulties, sprung up while there; and saved only, when on the verge -of ruin, by a kind and prudent friend who assists them, on their promise -never to undertake a villeggiatura again. These plays are without the -masks, and give a perfect representation of Italian conversation and -manners. As he wished to criticise the Venetians, he did not venture to -place the scene at Venice; but the audience easily brought home to -themselves the faults and follies of the Tuscans or Neapolitans. In thus -making a detail of some of the best of his plays, it is impossible to do -more than to indicate those which appear the best worth reading. The -"Vedova Scaltra," or The Gay Widow, was a great favourite in Italy. A -rich widow, with four lovers from four different nations, seeks from -each a proof of love, and gives her hand to the Italian, who, by his -jealousy, evinces, she imagines, the sincerest testimony of the tender -passion. The "Feudatario" has in it more of farce than he usually -admits, and is peculiarly amusing; as well as the "Donna del Maneggio," -or Managing Lady, whose avaricious husband, after incurring a thousand -ridiculous disasters, ends by placing the disposal of his property in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">{Pg 243}</a></span> -his wife's hands. It would be too long and uninteresting to enter on -even this brief notice of more; but we may mention the titles of some of -his best, to guide any one who wishes to read only a portion of the vast -quantity he wrote: among these may be named "Il Cavaliere e la Dama," -"Il vero Amico," "La Moglie Saggia," "L'Avanturiere Onorato," "Molière -e Terenzio," which he names himself as the favourite offspring of his -pen. -</p> - -<p> -He spent many years thus respectably and happily. He loved his wife and -his domestic circle. The applause of a theatre perpetually ringing in -his ears, he was gratified by the consciousness that he was reforming -the national taste. Sometimes he was attacked for what he considered the -chief merit of his dramas. The advocates of the old comedy condemned his -new style as puerile and tame. He defended himself, and was satisfied -that he obtained the victory. During the summer, when the theatres at -Venice were closed, he visited the various cities of Italy; and his life -was diversified, and his invention refreshed, by these occasional tours. -He had reason to be dissatisfied with the manager, Mendebac, who had -allured him from Pisa, as he not only was illiberal enough not to add to -his salary on these extraordinary efforts, but appropriated the profits -arising from the publication of his works. Goldoni was unwilling to -enter into a lawsuit with him; he contented himself, therefore, by -bringing out an edition of his play at Florence; and as soon as his five -years' engagement with Mendebac was over, he transferred himself to the -theatre of San Luca, on terms at once more advantageous and honourable. -</p> - -<p> -With some few reverses, attendant on an entire change of actors, and his -ignorance of the peculiar abilities of the company, to which he was not -accustomed, his career on this new stage was equally successful. He -wrote several comedies in verse, which became peculiar favourites. This -success was the occasion of his being invited to Rome during the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">{Pg 244}</a></span> -carnival: but his dramas did not succeed so well there. The actors, -unaccustomed to his style, were unable to give them with any effect, and -the Roman audience called out for Puncinello. -</p> - -<p> -In 1750, he received an offer from the French court of an engagement for -two years, on very advantageous terms. Goldoni hesitated a little about -accepting it. A few years before, his brother had returned to Venice, a -widower, with two children. Goldoni gave up to him all his property in -Modena, and adopted the children, having none of his own. He made a good -income in Italy; but he had no provision for old age: still he was -unwilling to leave his native country—whose climate and people were -dear to him—where he was honoured, loved, and applauded. He made some -enquiries with regard to the possibility of getting a pension from the -Venetian government; but this appearing a vain hope, he considered it -right to close with the offer of the king of France. He hesitated the -more before taking this step, as, although the engagement in question -was but for two years, he felt that, once in Paris, and acquiring an -honourable maintenance, it was probable that he should never see Italy -again. -</p> - -<p> -During the carnival of 1761, the last pieces he wrote for the Venetian -theatre were represented: one, the last acted, was a sort of allegorical -leave-taking, which was so understood by the audience; and the -acclamations and adieus of the public moved him to tears. He left Venice -in April 1761, accompanied by his wife. His mother was dead; his niece -he placed in a convent, under the superintendence of a respectable -family at Venice; his nephew was soon to follow him. As he passed -through Italy, on his way to France, he was received at the various -towns with distinction and kindness. He spent some little time at Genoa, -with his wife's relations, and then they proceeded by slow stages to -Paris. -</p> - -<p> -Goldoni's <i>débût</i> as an author in the French capital was not a happy -one. The Italian comedians there were not accustomed to regular -comedies, which they were to learn by heart, but to the old style of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">{Pg 245}</a></span> -their native farce, where the plot and arrangement of the scenes were -all that was written, and they filled up the dialogue themselves. -Goldoni wrote two or three pieces for them on this plan without success. -His stay in Paris was, however, decided by the post of Italian master to -the daughters of Louis XV. being bestowed on him. He knew so little of -French, that he gained as much knowledge from the princesses as he -imparted to them. His salary was very slender, but it was increased in -the sequel; and his nephew also was provided for by the post of Italian -teacher in the military school. -</p> - -<p> -Goldoni was charmed by the French actors; and his ambition was excited -to write a comedy to be represented by the excellent comedians who then -flourished. His desire was fulfilled to the utmost. He brought out "Le -Bourru Bienfaisant," into which he endeavoured to instil the spirit of -French dialogue and plot with great success; so that Voltaire praises it -as the best French comedy written since Molière. He wrote another on -the same plan; but it fell to the ground, and he at last desisted from -adding to the immense number of pieces of which he is the author. -</p> - -<p> -He lived tranquilly and content with his moderate means. His niece was -married at Venice; his nephew settled happily at Paris. The revolution -did not, fortunately, disturb the repose of his last years. The National -Convention confirmed his pension to him, and continued it to his widow -after his death. Goldoni died in the year 1792, at the age of -eighty-five. No man was ever more born for the career which he pursued. -His heart was excellent, and his disposition gay. He never allowed -himself to be cast down by adversity, and met the attacks of his enemies -with good humour, or such replies as caused the laugh to be on his side. He -is numbered by his countrymen as among the best of their authors,—an -opinion confirmed by all those sufficiently cognisant with the Italian -language and manners to enter into the spirit of his compositions. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">{Pg 246}</a></span> -</p> - -<p><br /><br /><br /></p> - -<h4><a id="ALFIERI">ALFIERI</a></h4> - -<h4>1749-1803.</h4> - -<p> -The Italian poets of the early ages were eminently distinguished for -their patriotism. The haughty spirit of Dante burst forth into indignant -denunciations against the oppressors of his country; the gentler, but -not less fervent, Petrarch was never weary of adjuring its rulers to -bestow upon it the blessings of justice and peace; and the latter years -of Boccaccio's life were ennobled by his public services, and his -earnest endeavours to implant a love and reverence for literature in the -minds of his countrymen. The pages of Roman history and the writings of -Roman poets made them proud of the country which had given them birth, -and which added to its moral grandeur, of having been once the sovereign -and civiliser of the world,—the natural affection inspired by its -being, from its fertility, the diversity of its woods, lakes, and -mountains, and surrounding sea, the most beautiful country upon earth. -</p> - -<p> -The national spirit died away in after times. The devastating wars -carried on in the Peninsula by France and the emperor, the rise of minor -principalities, and the struggles of rival states, so excited the -passions and absorbed the interests of the Italians, that they became -incapable of enlarged views for the good of their country. The -depressing influence of courtly servitude checked the free spirit of the -writers; Ariosto and Tasso were both conspicuous for personal -independence of character; but they did not extend their love of liberty -to any exertions for the redemption of Italy. A darker day was at hand. -The Peninsula, divided and weakened, became a mere province. A Spanish -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">{Pg 247}</a></span> -viceroy reigned over Naples, and the northern portion was controlled by -France and Austria. The Italians were taught to take pride in the -virtues of slaves; in submission, patience, and repose. The prosperity -of the country was gone, its trade destroyed, its armies annihilated. No -scope was given to generous ambition; no career offered, by entering on -which a man might exercise the peculiar privilege of the free—that of -instructing their fellow countrymen: to be inoffensive to the ruling -powers was the aim of all. The love of money—not the love of gain, -for to gain was impossible, but mere parsimony, arising from the necessity -of regarding the domestic expenditure as the only business of -life—engrossed the fathers of families; the women were uneducated and -degraded, and though they preserved, as is often the case in a depraved -state of society, a nature more generous, artless, and kindly than the -other sex, yet these virtuous feelings found no scope for their -developement, except in the passion of love. While the law of -primogeniture interested not only the large class of younger sons, but -even the heads of families, who wished to prevent their children from -marrying, to establish a system of society, which, beginning by -subverting the best principles of morality, ended by destroying all -social happiness. While the higher orders were thus occupied by -money-saving and intrigue, the lower orders were tamed by hard labour, -and rendered submissive by the priests. The writers were the servants of -princes: they administered to the pleasures of their countrymen, without -uttering one word that could call them from their state of debasement, -or inspire a love of the active and disinterested virtues. -</p> - -<p> -Full of talent as the Italians are, and formed by nature for the noblest -scenes of action, doubtless "many a village Hampden" was born and died -in obscurity and inaction; and yet this expression gives rise to a false -notion. The peasants of Italy have no education, and, although -infinitely superior in talent, perhaps, to any other peasantry in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">{Pg 248}</a></span> -world, are incapable of that generalisation of ideas which produces -patriotism. But, among the better sort of gentry,—men of simple -habits and strong good sense, among the men of science and the professors -at the universities,—there were individuals who mourned over the ruin -of Italy. These men did not so much dwell on the ancient greatness of Rome, -as on the achievements of their countrymen during the middle ages. -Literature had been revived by them; the arts had flourished among them: -they were proud of the past, but they despaired of the present. -</p> - -<p> -The voice of liberty was silent. The Italians hated and despised their -masters, but never dreamed of rebelling against them. Tuscany was -slothful under a mild sway, whose tyranny was never felt, except by the -few who believed that they were not merely <i>fruges consumere nati</i>, -and were bitten with a noble mania for benefiting their race. Piedmont was -ruled by a prince, who, by cultivating in his subjects, not a martial, -but a military spirit (a very different thing), gave his idle nobles -something to do. Lombardy was crushed by foreign bayonets. The voice of -liberty was silent, when the French revolution awoke the world, and the -hope of freedom spoke audibly in the hearts of all; and, afterwards, -when the victories of Napoleon crushed this hope, they could not impose -a silence for ever broken. Its language is now felt and understood from -one end of the country to the other, and the day must come when the -oppressors will be unable to oppose the veto of mere physical force to -the overpowering influence of moral courage. -</p> - -<p> -It was while Italy yet reposed submissive and mute, that a poet was -born, who dedicated all the powers of his mind to the awakening his -countrymen from their lethargy—to strengthening their enervated -minds, and spreading such knowledge and such sentiments abroad among them, -as would at once reveal their degraded state, and give them energy to -aspire to a better. -</p> - -<p> -Vittorio Alfieri was born at Asti, in Piedmont, on the 17th of January, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">{Pg 249}</a></span> -1749. His parents were noble, wealthy, and respected. To these three -circumstances Alfieri attributes many of the prosperous circumstances -that attended his literary career. "Since I was born noble," he says, "I -could attack the nobility without being accused of envy; since I was -rich, I was independent and incorruptible; and the respectability of my -parents prevented my ever being ashamed of my rank." -</p> - -<p> -His father was named Antonio Alfieri, and his mother was Monica Maillard -de Tournon, whose family, originally from Savoy, had long been -established at Turin. His father was a man of blameless life: he had -never entered on any public office, and was without a spark of that -ambition which might have led him to seek distinction at court. He was -fifty, five when he married, and his wife, though very young, was -already a widow. Their eldest child was a daughter. Two years after, to -the infinite joy of his father, Vittorio was born. He was put out to -nurse, at a village called Rovigliasco, two miles from Asti; but such -was the tenderness of his father, that he went on foot each day to see -the child. This was a strong mark of affection, and testified also his -simple and unostentatious disposition: for the Italian nobility usually -love repose beyond all things, and their greatest pride is never to go -on foot. This solicitude unfortunately cost him his life: he caught cold -on occasion of one of his visits, and died after a few days' illness, -leaving his wife about to give birth to another son, who, however, died -in his infancy. She was an amiable and excellent woman, and still young -when her second husband died; so that she was induced to marry a third -time. Her husband was a cadet, of another branch of the Alfieri family; -but, by the death of his elder brother, he in process of time inherited -the wealth of his family, and became very rich. This marriage proved a -very fortunate one. The cavaliere Giacinto was handsome and amiable; the -couple grew old together in happiness; and the lady, as she advanced in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">{Pg 250}</a></span> -years, gained the love and respect of all by her piety and works of -charity and kindness. -</p> - -<p> -On the marriage of his mother, Vittorio and his sister went to live in -their father-in-law's house, who proved himself a kind parent to the -orphans. Although his health was not robust, Alfieri's childhood was -little interrupted by sickness; and his first grief was experienced at -the age of seven, when his sister Julia was sent to a convent for her -education. Although he was, at first, permitted to see her every day, -yet he felt, on her removal from the parental roof, that violence of -emotion and boiling of the blood which was apt to seize on him, in after -life, when forced to separate from any one to whom he was warmly -attached. Thus his sensibility developed itself early; and sensibility -and pride, both exalted into passions rather than feelings, were always -the prominent traits of his disposition, and which at last, from the -excessive influence they exercised over him, generated that gloomy -melancholy to which he was a victim. -</p> - -<p> -Alfieri remained at home, under the tutelage of a worthy priest, named -Don Ivaldi, with whose assistance he began to learn the rudiments of -Latin. His disposition was, for the most part, taciturn and placid: now -and then he became loquacious and gay in the extreme, and, at other -times, the melancholy already nascent in his heart, filled him with -strange and passionate thoughts. He was obstinate when treated unkindly, -but readily yielded to affection; and, above all, he was susceptible, to -a painful degree, of the sense of shame. When, as a punishment for -childish faults, any sort of public penance was imposed on him, he -endured such transports of agony as affected his health for weeks. -</p> - -<p> -At the age of nine, his uncle, the cavaliere Pellegrino Alfieri, who was -his guardian, returned from a tour in France and England, and visited -Asti, on his way to Turin. He found his nephew happy under the domestic -roof, but learning little or nothing; accordingly, he thought this a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">{Pg 251}</a></span> -very bad state of things, and insisted that he should be placed at the -public school at Turin, where ignorance, rather than knowledge, was -taught, but where, as he would be neglected and enslaved, it was to be -supposed that his education would prosper better than under the -indulgent care of a fond mother. She was obliged to consent, and parted -from her son with reluctance and tears. The boy's grief at the moment of -separation was vehement; but it was quickly dissipated by the delight of -travelling post, and the pleasure he took in bribing the postilions to -go at their utmost speed. He was accompanied by a servant only; and, -while the old man slept, the little fellow sat proud and gay in the -carriage, as it whirled past village and town in quick succession. When -arrived at Turin, his uncle received him kindly. He was at first -depressed by the change of scene, and missed the caresses of his loving -mother; but soon he became so joyous, and even riotous, that the -cavaliere Pellegrino hastened to place him at the academy: and here he -was, at the age of nine, torn from the domestic circle to which he was -accustomed, at a distance from all his friends, isolated and abandoned. -The only species of education, such as it was, entered upon at the -academy, regarded their literary studies: the feelings were left to form -themselves; lessons of morality and the duties of life making no part of -the instruction afforded the pupils. -</p> - -<p> -"The academy," Alfieri tells us, "was a large, handsome quadrangular -building, with a large court in the middle; two sides of the square were -occupied by the students, the other two by the king's theatre and royal -archives. The side occupied by us, who were called of the second and -third apartment, was opposite the latter; that occupied by the students -of the first apartment being opposite to the king's theatre. The upper -gallery on our side was called the third apartment, and was devoted to -the younger boys and lower schools. The gallery on the ground floor was -called the second, and occupied by the pupils rather more advanced in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">{Pg 252}</a></span> -age: a portion of these studied at the university, another edifice -adjoining to the academy; the rest received their education in the -military college. Every gallery contained at least four chambers, each -occupied by eleven youths, over which an assistant, or usher, -presided,—a poor fellow, whose only payment consisted in being -boarded and lodged free of expense, while he studied theology or law, at -the university; or, if he were not a poor student, he was an old and -ignorant priest. A third portion of the side destined to the first -apartment was occupied by the king's pages, to the number of twenty or -twenty-five, who were totally separated from us of the second, at the -opposite angle of the court, and close to the galleries of the archives. -We, the younger pupils, could not have been worse placed. On one side, -was a theatre which we were only permitted to visit about five or six -times during the carnival; on the other, the pages who attended on the -court, and who, continually hunting and riding, appeared to enjoy much -freer and happier lives than the poor imprisoned boys; besides these, we -overlooked the proceedings of the first class, which was composed almost -entirely of foreigners, Russian and German, with a large proportion of -English;—this class was restrained by no rule except that of being in -by midnight; and their apartment was a mere lodging house to them, -instead of being a place of education." -</p> - -<p> -Alfieri was placed in the third apartment: he had the luxury of a -servant to attend on him; but the fellow, unchecked by superior -authority, became a sort of petty tyrant over his young master: in all -other respects, he was on an equality with the rest of his comrades. -</p> - -<p> -The basis of the system of education consisted in strict imprisonment, -little sleep, and unwholesome food. To this was added a certain degree -of parrot knowledge of the Latin language: the boys were taught to -construe Cornelius Nepos; but so little pains were taken, or, rather, so -little power was there in their instructors to enlarge their stores of -real knowledge, that Alfieri tells us, that not one of them knew who the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">{Pg 253}</a></span> -men were whose lives they read; nor what the country, government, or -times were in which they lived, nor even what thing government was. The -boy made progress, however, in what he was taught: his emulation was -excited, and his memory was cultivated; but, on the other hand, he grew -sickly and stunted in growth, the effects of bad food and too little -sleep. He had only his drunken, his dissipated servant to attend on him -when he was ill; who often, on such occasions, left him half the day -alone, which increased the constitutional melancholy of his disposition. -His pleasures were few; and the want of all affectionate treatment -blighted his life. It seems strange to us that his mother did not visit -him, and that he never went home for a vacation: but such were the -customs of the country, and he was brought up in conformity with them. -</p> - -<p> -The spirit of emulation, caused him, in some degree, to distinguish -himself, and he advanced to higher classes and attended lectures on -philosophy, humanity, and mathematics; but such was the style in which -they were taught, that, when he had gone through six books of Euclid, he -was unable to demonstrate the fourth proposition; and, though he studied -a whole year under the famous Beccaria, he did not comprehend a word of -what he was taught. This is the less extraordinary, since, speaking the -patois of Piedmont, Italian was as a foreign language; and, though he -contrived to obtain a copy of Ariosto, he was unable to understand a -word of it. His teachers were, for the most part, equally ignorant; so -that while his time was devoted to Latin, his native language was a -sealed book to him. He had a few relations at Turin, and when he became -really ill, they interfered that he should have more sleep and better -food; but he continued a puny and ailing boy. -</p> - -<p> -Some few pleasures diversified his life. His uncle found that the education -of his sister Julia was entirely neglected at Asti, and she was removed -to a convent at Turin. She was fifteen—in love—and divided -from the object of her affections. Her brother became her confidant: he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">{Pg 254}</a></span> -visited her twice a week, and tried to inspire her with constancy and -resolution; but youthful spirits were of more avail than the lessons of -romance, and, in short time, she was consoled. Another pleasure he -enjoyed was, when a relation took him, on one occasion, to the opera -buffa, sung by the best comic singers of Italy. The opera was the -"Mercante di Malmantile." The spirit and vivacity of the music made a -profound impression on him, leaving, as it were, a trail of harmony in -his ears and heart, so that for many weeks after he remained immersed in -an excessive, but not painful, melancholy. During this time he abhorred -and nauseated his usual studies, while a world of fantastic images -crowded his mind; and had he known how, he would have composed verses, -and have expressed the most lively emotions, had not all language in -which to express them been denied to him, through the ignorance of his -teachers. This was the first time that music exercised so great an -influence over him, and it remained long impressed upon his memory. At -all times he was excessively susceptible to the impressions made by -harmony, and he found that vocal music, especially female voices, -possessed a peculiar power to disturb and agitate his mind. Nothing, he -tells us, awakened in him more violent or various emotions; and almost -all his tragedies were conceived while in the act of listening to music, -or a few hours after. One other pleasure that he enjoyed during this -period, was spending a fortnight with his uncle at Cuneo. This little -journey did his health good, and occasioned him infinite delight. It was -here that he wrote his first sonnet, addressed to a lady admired by his -uncle, and who pleased him. As he knew nothing of Italian, or, as it is -called, Tuscan, this sonnet must have been very bad. It pleased the -lady; but his uncle, who was a soldier, and of an austere disposition, -and who, though imbued with sufficient knowledge of history and -government, despised poetry, ridiculed the boyish effusion, and put all -thought of writing another out of his head. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">{Pg 255}</a></span> -</p> - -<p> -At the age of fourteen, the circumstances of his life were considerably -altered. His guardian uncle died. By the Piedmontese laws, children of -fourteen are considered, to a certain degree, of age, and are allowed -the entire disposal of their incomes; while a trustee is appointed to -prevent their alienating any part of the principal or real property. -Alfieri was thus raised at once to independence; and, to add to his -comfort, his servant, who had tyrannised over him, and who, unwatched, -and unchecked, had fallen into the worst vices, was dismissed. Alfieri -parted from him with regret, despite his ill-treatment, and showed the -kindliness of his heart by visiting him twice a week, and giving him -what money he could spare. He tells us that he can ill account for his -attachment to one who had shown so little kindness to him: he could not -attribute it to generosity on his part; but partly to habit, and partly -to the talents of the man, who, besides being singularly sagacious, was -accustomed to tell him long adventures and tales full of imagination and -interest. -</p> - -<p> -The first fruit he reaped from the death of his uncle was being -permitted to attend the riding school, which had been before denied. He -was then of diminutive stature and weak of frame, and little able to -control his horse; but perseverance, and a great desire of success, -supplied every other defect. To this noble exercise he owed the good -health, robustness, and increase of stature, that he soon acquired. The -next great event that followed was, his being removed from the second to -the first apartment of his college. In the second, the students were -mere boys, and they were kept in strict discipline; in the first, entire -freedom and idleness was the order of the day. He made his entrance on -the 8th of May, 1763. His comrades were almost all foreigners, many were -French, a still greater number were English. An excellent table was -served in the best style, and all breathed luxury, comfort, and freedom. -Much amusement, a great deal of sleep and of riding, gave Alfieri -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">{Pg 256}</a></span> -renewed health and spirits. He spent his money on horses or dress. His -trustee quarrelled with him for his extravagance, but that did not alter -the state of things. With liberty and money he acquired friends and -companions in every amusement and enterprise. "Yet," he says, "in the -midst of this busy vortex, being little more than fourteen, I was not -nearly so unreasonable as I might have been. From time to time, I felt a -silent impulse within me to apply to study, and a good deal of shame for -my ignorance, concerning the extent of which I never deceived myself, -nor others. But, grounded in no one study, undirected by any, not really -acquainted with a single language, I knew not how nor to what to apply -myself. I read French romances, and conversed with foreigners, and -forgot the little Italian I had before contrived to pick up from my -Ariosto. At one time I took it into my head to immerse myself in the -thirty-six volumes of Fleury's Ecclesiastical History, making extracts -in French; but soon I threw it aside, and took to romances and the -'Arabian Nights.'" -</p> - -<p> -Riding, and horses, and fine clothes were his passions. He and his -friends went out in troops, leaping over every obstacle, fording rivers, -and breaking down the unfortunate animals they rode, till at last no one -would let them any. But these active exercises invigorated Alfieri's -health, strengthened his frame, and filled him with spirit and -resolution; preparing his mind to support, and even to make good use of, -the physical and moral liberty he afterwards acquired. -</p> - -<p> -The youth of the first apartment were perfectly free, but they were all -young men: Alfieri was as a boy among them, being only fifteen; and it -was considered right that his servant should attend him constantly, and -act as a check upon him. The man who had replaced his former tyrant was -a foolish, good-humoured fellow, who easily yielded to bribery and -persuasion, and let his young master do as he pleased. But this did not -satisfy the youth's pride; he resolved to be on an equality with his -comrades, and, without saying a word to his valet, or to any one, went -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">{Pg 257}</a></span> -out alone. He was reproved by the governor, but repeated his offence -immediately. On this he was put under arrest for a few days; but no -sooner was his prison door opened, than, in open defiance, he went out -again unaccompanied; and although, on the renewal of his offence, the -term of his imprisonment was prolonged, it was without avail. At length -he declared that his arrest must be perpetual, since as soon as he was -set at liberty he should exercise the same privilege, being resolved not -in any way to be on a different footing from his comrades; that the -governor might remove him from the first, and replace him in the second -apartment, but that he insisted upon being put in possession of all the -rights of his companions. On this he was kept confined for more than -three months; nor would he make any request to be liberated, but, -indignant and stubborn, had died rather than have yielded. "I slept -nearly all day," he tells us; "towards evening I got up from my bed, -and, having a mattrass placed near the fireplace, I stretched myself -upon it on the ground. Not choosing to receive the usual college dinner, -I caused food to be brought into my room, and cooked pollenta and -similar things at my fire. I never dressed myself, nor allowed my hair -to be touched, and became an absolute savage. Though I was not allowed -to quit my room, my friends were permitted to visit me; but I was sullen -and silent, and lay like a lifeless body, not replying to any thing that -was said; and thus I continued for hours, with my eyes fixed on the -ground, and full of tears, though I never suffered one to escape from -them." -</p> - -<p> -This obstinacy must have annoyed his masters considerably, and they -were, no doubt, glad to make use of the first fair occasion for -restoring him to liberty. The marriage of his sister gave them a -pretext, of which they availed themselves. Julia married count Giacinto -di Cumiano on the 1st of May, 1764: the wedding took place at the -beautiful village of Cumiano, ten miles from Turin. Alfieri enjoyed the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">{Pg 258}</a></span> -spring season and his newly recovered liberty with intense delight, and, -on his return to college, was admitted to all the privileges of the -class of students to which he belonged. The control over his income -being now almost entirely in his own hands, he launched out into a -variety of expenses, the first of which was the purchase of a horse, a -fiery but delicate animal, which he loved so passionately, that he could -never after call him to mind without emotion: if it was ill, he could -neither eat nor sleep. The delicacy of this beloved horse was the -occasion of his buying another; and after that he bought carriage -horses, and cab and saddle horses, till he had a stud of eight, to the -great dissatisfaction of his trustee; but, as he could set his -reprehensions at nought, he gave no ear to them, but plunged into every -kind of expense, principally in dress, competing in extravagance with -the English members of the university. In the midst of this vanity, the -ingenuousness of his disposition manifested itself. He made display -among the rich foreigners, who were his associates; but, when he was -visited by his poorer friends and countrymen, who, though of noble -birth, were yet straitened in means, he was accustomed to change his -dress, to put on modest attire, and even to hide his finery, that he -might not appear to possess any superiority over them: this delicacy of -feeling extended itself to other parts of his conduct, and showed the -genuine urbanity and benevolence of his disposition. -</p> - -<p> -In the autumn of 1765, he made a short journey to Genoa with his -trustee: this was the first time that he had left Piedmont; and here, -for the first time, he saw the sea, the aspect of which transported him -with admiration, and so exalted his imagination, that he says, if he had -understood any language, or had had any poetry before him, he should -certainly have composed verses. During this journey, to his infinite -delight, he visited his native town, and his mother, whom, strange to -say, he had not seen for seven years. There seems something -incomprehensible in a state of society that should admit of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">{Pg 259}</a></span> -propriety, or, rather, enforce the necessity, of a boy of nine being -separated from all maternal care, and left to struggle as he might, -during the precarious season of childhood and of adolescence, without a -parent's eye to watch over his well-being, and administer to his health -and happiness. On his return to Turin, he was not a little proud among -his countrymen of his journey to Genoa; but among the English, German, -Polish and Russian students he felt the utmost rage and shame to think -that they had seen countries so much more distant. This uneasy sense of -inferiority inspired him with a passion for travelling, and made him -resolve to visit the various lands of which his comrades were natives. -</p> - -<p> -In the first impulse of expectant manhood, he had petitioned to be -allowed to enter the army. As he grew older he began to find that his -liberty was dearer to him than any military parade; but, as he did not -withdraw his request, he found himself admitted, in 1766, as ensign into -the provincial regiment of Asti. He had chosen this, as the duties -attendant on it were slight, it being only required to assemble for -review for a few days twice a year: however, this necessity annoyed him, -especially as it forced him to quit the university, where he would have -been well pleased to remain; but there was no help, and he left college, -after an abode of nearly eight years. He took a small apartment in the -same house with his sister, and spent all he could in horses and all -sorts of luxuries, as well as in dinners given to his friends. A dislike -of military discipline, and a love of travelling, made him soon after -ask a year's leave of absence; and he set out for Rome and Naples under -the care of an English Catholic, who was about to make that tour, as -tutor to two young Flemish gentlemen. It was with great difficulty that -he obtained the necessary permission; the king was averse to the nobles -leaving the country, and it was only by a thousand petty artifices and -intrigues that at last he succeeded in his wishes. -</p> - -<p> -Agitated by an inexplicable disquietude of mind, ignorant of all with -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">{Pg 260}</a></span> -regard to literature and the arts, that could make travelling -interesting. Alfieri had at this time but one pleasure in a journey, -which was, going along the high road with the greatest possible speed. -His companions were as little awake to rational inquiry as himself; and -the only one among them, he tells us, who had common sense, was his valet, -who also acted as courier,—a man named Elia, who served him for -many years with the greatest fidelity. The first city at which the party -stopped was Milan. They went to see the curiosities, and visited the -Ambrosian library. The treasures of the collection were wasted upon -Alfieri: when an autograph of Petrarch was shown him (perhaps the Virgil -on whose cover the poet has recorded his passionate sorrow on the death -of Laura), he, barbarian like, pushed it away, saying, it was nothing to -him. This act did not arise from mere indifference; but partly from a -grudge he felt against Petrarch, arising from his not being able to -understand his poetry; and shame for his own ignorance took the guise of -contempt of another's genius. On visiting Florence, the only object that -called forth any emotion was the sight of Michael Angelo's tomb; when -the recollection of the fame which had been acquired by this master of -his art filled him with ideas that he could not define; and the thought -rose in his mind, that those men only were truly great, who left some -enduring monument of genius behind them. But these notions were vague -and transitory; he lived only for the present hour, even while that -afforded no one object to occupy or please him. -</p> - -<p> -On leaving Florence, he hurried through Pisa and Siena; but such is the -magic of the name, that the approach to Rome made his heart palpitate, -and his torpid soul warmed into something like enthusiasm. He was -charmed by the magnificent aspect which the eternal city presents as it -is entered by the Porta del Popolo; and scarcely had he alighted at the -hotel in the Piazza di Spagna, than he hurried off co behold the wonders -of the place. Ignorance narrows the intellect, and takes the living -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">{Pg 261}</a></span> -colours from the imagination. Alfieri, after all, regarded coldly those -objects which render Rome a city of absolute enchantment. He was best -pleased with St. Peter's. At each successive visit, the solemn vastness -of the mighty aisles of the cathedral made a deeper impression; the -splendour of the architecture, the sublime stillness of its -incense-breathing atmosphere, and the soft twilight that reigns beneath -its dome, kindled his soul to something like poetic inspiration. But -even these feelings could only for a few moments appease the -restlessness that pursued him, and he hurried away from Rome with all -the impatience of one ill at ease in himself. At Naples he grew still -more disturbed and melancholy: music, which he loved, only tended to -increase his gloom; and his reserve prevented him from forming any -intimacies. All day he drove from place to place, in those droll little -Neapolitan <i>calesine</i>, which go at such a prodigious rate under the -guidance of their Lazaroni drivers,—"Not," he says, "that I wished to -visit remarkable objects, for I had no curiosity nor knowledge about -them, but merely for the sake of being on the road: I was never satiated -of rapid motion, but a moment's quiescence filled me with annoyance." -... "And thus I lived, a riddle to myself, believing that I had -capacity for nothing; feeling no decided impulse or emotion, except a -continual melancholy; never finding peace nor quiet, yet not knowing -what I desired; blindly obeying my nature, although I neither studied -nor comprehended it. Many years afterwards I perceived that my -unhappiness proceeded from the want, nay the necessity, which I have, to -have at once my heart occupied by some worthy object, and ray mind by -some ennobling pursuit; for, whenever either of these two fail me, I -remain incapable of the other, satiated and weary, and beyond all things -miserable." -</p> - -<p> -In the midst of this disturbed and unprofitable state, he nourished the -ardent desire to travel on and on, beyond the mountainous boundaries of -his country, uncontrolled and alone. For this purpose he applied to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">{Pg 262}</a></span> -Sardinian minister; and, representing how correct his conduct was, and -how capable he showed himself of managing his own affairs, he besought -him to obtain leave from their sovereign, that he might detach himself -from the tutor, and proceed alone. To his great joy, his request was -complied with; and, with infinite delight, he left Naples for Rome, -eager to make use of his entire independence, and to find himself -solitary and lord of himself, on the high road, more than three hundred -miles distant from his native Piedmont. -</p> - -<p> -How little does mere freedom of will satisfy the mind, when not -ministered to and filled by thoughts that go beyond the present moment. -The aimless uneasiness of Alfieri was not to be dissipated by the mere -ability of satisfying his craving for locomotion. He obtained leave of -absence for another year, and permission to visit France and England: -but the same spirit accompanied him of melancholy and ennui; and all -objects were stale and unprofitable to his languid senses. Motive was -absent; and his ardent feelings, left to prey on themselves, produced -tears and regret but no power of finding a means of exercising them with -advantage and happiness. If his ignorance was ever brought home to him, -he was rendered uncomfortable, but felt no wish to improve. He tells us -that, at Rome, he was accustomed to visit each day the count of Rivera, -minister of Sardinia,—a worthy old man, who showed him every -kindness, and gave him the best advice. One morning he found the count -occupied in reading the sixth book of the Æneid; and when Alfieri entered, -he signed to him to approach, and began to recite the beautiful lamentation -for Marcellus. Six years before, Alfieri had translated, and known by -heart, the greater part of Virgil; but he had now forgotten it, and felt -thoroughly ashamed, but with little courage to amend; so that the result -of this scene was only that he sullenly ruminated over his disgrace, and -never went near the count again. The desire of some sort of interest -drove him into a fit of avarice. He was slenderly provided with means -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">{Pg 263}</a></span> -for his ultramontane journey; and he resolved to save all he could in -Italy, that he might not be restricted when among foreigners. He -followed up his system of parsimony with his usual ardour, and carried -it to an excess which became its cure, since he got weary of the -privations and annoyances he thus brought on himself. -</p> - -<p> -From Rome he proceeded to Venice, passing through Ferrara without a -thought of Ariosto or Tasso; and Padua, without visiting either living -professors, or the tomb of the illustrious dead in the neighbourhood. -What was Petrarch to him? he again asked himself; he wrote in an unknown -tongue, of which, after all, he felt ashamed of being ignorant. He was -pleased with Venice, and was diverted by its amusements; yet the spring -season brought his usual annual fit of melancholy, and he spent many -days brooding over he knew not what, and weeping he knew not why. -Spurred on by restlessness, he hurried away from Venice: he passed -solitarily and ennuied through the beautiful cities of Lombardy, seldom -presenting letters of recommendation, and always keeping out of the way -of acquaintances: proud and shy, he hated new faces; and besides, his -desire of travelling made him avoid the ties of friendship and even of -love, though once or twice the smiles of beauty almost softened his -heart. All his desire was to hasten to France, and to enjoy the delights -he there promised himself. He was destined to be disappointed; for his -ill-regulated imagination always exaggerated the pains and pleasures of -the future, while it did not possess the better power of exalting and -adorning the objects which in anticipation had appeared so desirable, -and which in possession grew contemptible and barren. -</p> - -<p> -One of the singularities of Alfieri's character was the extravagant -hatred of France which he cherished all his life. He attributed this, in -the first place, to a vehement childish dislike of his French -dancing-master. Still he read nothing but French books, French was the -language he commonly spoke, and he left Italy in eager anticipation of -the pleasures of Paris. But Alfieri did not know his own nature; nor was -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">{Pg 264}</a></span> -he aware that he could find happiness through the medium of his passions -and intellect only, while amusement and even dissipation had the effect -of wearying and disgusting him. The circumstance of his first entrance -into Paris sufficed to cloud his stay; nay, the feelings of his whole -life were influenced by the painful impression then made. It was the -month of August, in Italy so sunshiny and festal; a drizzling rain, -accompanied by a chilling temperature of air, impressed him most -disagreeably; the streets, houses, and people were all mean, dirty, and -impertinent in his eyes; his illusions vanished, and, but for a sense of -shame, he would on the instant have quitted the city he had come so far -to visit. The lapse of a quarter of a century did not erase the profound -traces of disgust and aversion that were then trenched in his mind. At -the time, the principal effect of his disappointment was a little to -diminish his passion for travelling; and to find that, beyond the Alps, -he learned to appreciate the beauties of the divine country he had been -so eager to quit. -</p> - -<p> -He delayed his departure from Paris till January, and then hurried to -London, which delighted as much as Paris had disgusted him; and he thus -gives evidence of a fact of which many English, who have travelled, must -be aware—that there is something in Italy and the Italians, in the -rural beauty of the country, and in the unpretending but highly gifted -natives, more congenial to our taste, than in the peculiar habits and -manners of the French. Industry does here, in beautifying the landscape, -what nature does beyond the Alps; while in France, there is a discomfort -and a desolation apparent in the midst of its civilisation and plenty, -which is singularly disagreeable. In this country, the roads, the inns, -the horses, the women, all charmed Alfieri; the appearance of general -competence, the activity of life, and the cleanliness and comfort of the -houses, diminutive as they struck him to be, made an agreeable -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">{Pg 265}</a></span> -impression, which each successive visit renewed. Yet he led a strange -life—avoiding society, although in the midst of it. He had been -accompanied from Paris by a friend; and he amused himself, each morning, -by driving him about town, and acting the coachman for him at night, -sitting on the box for hours, and taking pride in his dexterity in -extricating his carriage amidst the difficulties and confusion attendant -on the vast multitude of equipages that throng round places of amusement -during the London season. This did for a little while; then, in -obedience to his wandering propensity, he made a tour to Portsmouth, -Bristol, and Oxford. He was pleased with all he saw; and began to -entertain a wish to settle in a country whose aspect was so agreeable, -where the manners were simple, the women modest and beautiful, the laws -equitable, and the men free. The enthusiasm he felt, made him disregard -the melancholy generated by the gloomy climate, and the ruinous expense -of living. He observes, and with justice, that Italy and England are the -only countries in which it is desirable to live: the former, because -there nature vindicates her rights, and rises triumphant over the evils -produced by the governments; the latter, because art conquers nature, -and transforms a rude ungenial land into a paradise of comfort and -laughing abundance. -</p> - -<p> -In June, he left England for Holland; and at the Hague for the first -time became really in love, and at the same time his heart opened itself -to friendship. The lady whom he admired, and who returned his affection, -was unfortunately a married woman, but an Italian education and habits -prevented any scruples of conscience from interrupting the felicity he -enjoyed. His friend was Don José d'Alcunha, Portuguese minister in -Holland. Alfieri describes him as clever and original, with a cultivated -understanding and firm unbending character: with tact and efficacy the -Portuguese awoke in his new friend shame for his idle, aimless life. It -was a curious circumstance, he tells us, that he never felt a strong -desire for mental improvement, except at such periods as when he was -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">{Pg 266}</a></span> -passionately in love, and his time so employed that he could bestow none -of it on literature. In process of time, when he became worthily -attached, he may have perceived in this, the beneficent action of the -passions in our nature, when their objects are what they ought to -be—ennobling and permanent. -</p> - -<p> -After a period of great happiness, he was forced to separate from the -lady to whom he was attached,—she being obliged to join her husband, -who had gone to Switzerland; and Alfieri suffered the mildest of the -punishments that result from loving one to whom you cannot consecrate -your life. But though a separation, attended neither by disastrous -incident nor infidelity, is the gentlest penance for such an error, it -visited the young Italian in no gentle manner. It was a natural wish, as -any one will acknowledge who has attended to his own sensations, on -first being subjected to passionate sorrow, that which he formed—for -being bled: prevented by his friend and a faithful servant from allowing -this bleeding to be fatal, his grief became gloomy and taciturn; Holland -grew hateful to him; and he returned to Italy with the utmost -speed—never resting till he found himself at Cumiano, in his sister's -villa, after a three weeks' journey, during which time he saw nothing -and said nothing, communicating only by signs with his faithful servant, -Elia, who never lost sight of him, and bore with exemplary patience his -caprices and heedless tyranny. -</p> - -<p> -This state of melancholy regret augmented his love of solitude, and -engendered, moreover, a desire to study: he passed the winter at Turin, -in his sister's house, seeing absolutely no society, and spending his -time in reading. He turned over the pages of Voltaire, Rousseau, -Helvetius, and Montesquieu; but his chief delight was derived from the -perusal of Plutarch's lives. His mind was strongly excited by the heroic -virtues of the great men of whom he read, and tears of mingled -admiration and indignation gushed from his eyes. He felt the misfortune -it was to be a native of Piedmont; and to have been born in a country, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">{Pg 267}</a></span> -and at a time, when no scope was afforded for word or action, scarcely -any for thought and feeling. -</p> - -<p> -In the spring of 1769 he set out on another and a longer tour. He had -been disappointed in a matrimonial project, proposed to him by his -brother-in-law. The young lady was rich and beautiful, but she preferred -a handsome young courtier to a man already remarkable for the -eccentricity of his conduct and the sombreness of his disposition: for -Alfieri, withdrawn from the common routine of society by his passionate -and earnest nature, could but awkwardly and reluctantly fulfil the -thousand minute duties which an Italian is accustomed to pay to his -lady; nor, on this occasion, did love inspire him with that devotion of -heart which might have proved acceptable in lieu of petty attentions. He -was now twenty, and, according to the laws of his country, of age—so -that his entire fortune was at his disposal: this consisted of an income -of 2500 sequins, or about 1200<i>l</i>. a year, and a large sum of ready -money; and, to augment the value of his possessions, he had acquired the -habits of rational economy, which sprang from the scantiness of the -allowance which his prudent trustee had made him. Thus he set out with -"money in his purse," and no love in his heart, except the tender -recollection of his half-extinguished Flemish flame; and if with a head -not much fuller of ideas, yet with a thousand sentiments awakened, which -afforded matter for thought. As he drove along, he read Montaigne, or -reflected on what he read—a little galled by finding that he could -not construe the Latin quotations, and still more so by being obliged to -skip the Italian ones. Vienna and Berlin were hastily visited, and seen -without pleasure: he had beheld the results of liberty in England, and -he had read of them in Plutarch, and his natural sense of independence -made him revolt from the military despotisms of the north. Instinctive -good sense served him better than the philosophy of Voltaire, and he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">{Pg 268}</a></span> -recognised the cloven foot of arbitrary power in the barrack capital of -the philosopher of Sans Souçi. He hurried away from these mockeries of -liberalism, and found more pleasure in the simplicity of the Swedes: the -contrast which barren nature afforded, in these frozen regions, to the -luxuriance and glory of Italy interested and pleased him; the velocity -of his sledge, as he proceeded through the silent pine forests, and over -the ice-covered lakes, fostered an agreeable melancholy; and he -describes his spring journey from Sweden to St. Petersburgh with a -vividness and beauty which it would spoil to abridge. Embarking at the -first breaking up of the frost on the Gulf of Bothnia, his boat had to -struggle through the floating ice; and the novelty of his situation was -a source of amusement. "This is the country of Europe," he says, "most -agreeable to me, from its savage rudeness; fantastic, gloomy, and even -sublime, ideas are created in the mind by the vast, undefinable silence -that reigns there, making you feel as if transported away from the -globe." St. Petersburgh disappointed him; nor would he see the empress -Catherine, whom he regarded as the murderess of her husband, and whose -conduct—having failed in her promise of bestowing a constitution on -her subjects—was unredeemed, in his eyes, by any mitigating -circumstances. -</p> - -<p> -From Russia he traversed Germany to Holland, and again visited England. -His time, during his second visit to this country, was engrossed by an -attachment for a lady of rank, who proved herself not only unworthy of -the affection of the husband whom she betrayed, but the lover to whom -she was false. The more violent passions of Alfieri were all roused to -their utmost vehemence by the various chances of this adventure, which -was attended by all those hairbreadth escapes, menacing dangers, and -final ruin and misery, which usually wait upon intrigue in England. -First it was love, accompanied by the "sin and fear" which attends on -mystery and deceit; then separation came to drive him to despair. The -London season over, the lady went to her country house near Windsor; and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">{Pg 269}</a></span> -Alfieri could only visit her clandestinely, on such nights when her -husband was absent in London. His impatience and agony during the -periods of separation were only appeased by excessive exercise: he rode -about all day, performing such feats of horsemanship as endangered his -life. Leaping a five-barred gate, with his thoughts wandering to his -lady, instead of being fixed on his bridle-hand, his horse fell on him, -and dislocated his shoulder; but that did not prevent a visit to Windsor -on the following evening, the last that he was destined to make. The -servants observed and watched him, and the husband of the lady had -intelligence of her infidelity; "and here," he writes, "it is impossible -not to laugh at the contrast between English and Italian jealousy, so -different are the passions in different characters, in another climate, -and, above all, under other laws. Every Italian would now expect to hear -of blows, poison, stabs, or, at least, of the imprisonment of the lady, -under such violent provocation: nothing of all this happened, though the -English husband adored his wife after his manner." It was much according -to the present customs, that the English husband, besides instituting -legal proceedings against his wife and her lover, called out the latter. -The duel was, however, a very harmless proceeding: Alfieri could not -fence, and his adversary was satisfied by merely drawing blood by a -scratch in the arm, carefully abstaining from inflicting the wound or -death which he had it in his power to bestow. A far deeper and more -painful wound was reserved for the Italian, when he learned how grossly -the lady had deceived him. A groom of her husband had formerly been her -lover: he still lived in the house; and, fearing that his lord would -risk his life in an encounter with Alfieri, he hastened to inform him -that the lady was totally unworthy such a chivalrous encounter. All -these disgraceful circumstances came out on the trial. Alfieri, maddened -and enraged, was yet unable, at first, to separate from his treacherous -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">{Pg 270}</a></span> -mistress. They travelled together in England, he furious at his own -weakness, and perpetually struggling to vanquish it; till, seizing on a -moment when shame and indignation were stronger than love, he left her -at Rochester, on her way to France with a relative, and returned to -London. In after times, the chief impression left on his mind from this -adventure was, a feeling of mixed respect and gratitude towards her -husband, who spared both his life and his purse, neither killing him, -nor demanding damages: the first the English noble, apparently, had at -his mercy; but it is unlikely, under all the circumstances, that the -latter should have been awarded him, to any great extent. -</p> - -<p> -After tempests like these, it was long before the impetuous and -sensitive soul of Alfieri settled into any thing like calm: paroxysms of -rage, love, grief, and despair succeeded one to the other, and his only -relief was derived from locomotion. He left London, and after visiting -his friend Alcunha at the Hague, he hurried on to Paris; he traversed -France, and entered Spain, struggling with the passion that warred -within him, and devoured by the gloomiest melancholy. At Barcelona he -bought two Spanish horses, and with these resolved to proceed on his -journey to Madrid. His carriage went on first, under the care of the -servants and muleteers; and he followed, chiefly on foot, his beautiful -Andalusian trotting beside him with the docility of a dog. This mixture -of idleness and change—of solitude and independence—soothed his -disturbed mind. He was given up to endless reverie, now engrossed by -melancholy and moral trains of thought; now possessed by images wild, -terrible, or gay. He knew no language, and could express nothing that he -felt—all was confused and vague, and mingled with violent transports -of grief and despair. He spoke to no one; and his taciturn, self-devouring -misery irritated him almost to madness. His faithful servant, Elia, who -followed him during all his journeys, had nearly become the victim to an -explosion of the pent-up volcano. In combing the count's long -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">{Pg 271}</a></span> -tresses,—which it was the fashion then to wear,—he accidentally -pulled one hair; and Alfieri, starting up like lightning, hurled a -candlestick at his head, which struck him on the temple and inflicted a -wound. Elia's Italian nature was roused, and he flew on his master. Other -people interfered, and no more harm was done. Alfieri told his servant -that he might kill him if he chose: he deserved it, and would take no -precautions against his vengeance; and he praises his own courage in -thus exposing himself, and the magnanimity of the man for not rising in -the night and murdering him as he slept. The whole scene is inexplicable -to our northern imaginations, and borders on the excesses of savage -nature. "It would be difficult for any one," says Alfieri, "to -understand the mixture of ferociousness and generosity on both sides, -who has not had experience of the manners and hot blood of the -Piedmontese." -</p> - -<p> -After a journey through Spain and Portugal more savage, wild, and -solitary than was even his wont. -<span class="sidenote1">1772.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -23.</span> -Alfieri returned to Turin; and here he seemed to be in greater danger -than he had ever been of losing all the exaltation of character and -feeling that clung to him despite his excesses, his ignorance, and the -total absence of all mental culture. He took a magnificent house, and -fitted it up with luxury and taste. He had a circle of friends, who -formed themselves into a society, with laws and regulations. One of -their amusements was a sort of literary budget, to which the various -members contributed writings for the recreation of the general society. -Alfieri wrote several papers, which obtained a good deal of applause: he -had a turn for satire, and that is always a popular style of writing in -a coterie. These compositions were all in French. -</p> - -<p> -A worse degradation than this sort of vegetative dissipation awaited the -count: he became a cavaliere servente. The lady was of rank, a good deal -older than himself, but of extraordinary beauty. She was noted for her -gallantries; and Alfieri, who was not in love, her style of beauty even -not being exactly to his taste, was drawn in, at first, by mere -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">{Pg 272}</a></span> -idleness, and a belief in the excessive attachment she bore him. Soon a -most vehement passion engrossed him. Friends, diversions, even horses, -were neglected; from eight in the morning till twelve at night he was -continually with her—discontented with his servitude, but unable to -stay away. -</p> - -<p> -It is difficult to understand, and impossible to sympathise with, the -sort of frenzy he describes. He did not esteem the lady, and he despised -himself for the humiliating state to which he was reduced. The situation -of a cavaliere servente is, we are told by high English authority in -such matters, "no sinecure." To be constantly in attendance is its chief -duty. A cavaliere sits with his lady, drives with her, walks with her, -goes to assemblies and the opera with her: he follows her like her -shadow, and no matrimonial exigence can equal the total abnegation of -all independent occupation to which the cavaliere must submit. The lady, -indeed, may equally become weary; but an Italian woman is used to this -excess of indolence. Her life is monotonous, her passage from one -amusement to the other invariable, sameness forming the essence of her -existence: nothing animates it except love, scandal, or quarrelling: -these, and the natural vivacity of southern blood, which can diversify -the indolence which would otherwise mantle over and incrust every -faculty. But all this was torture to the fiery spirit of the count, who, -born for better things, struggled with his fetters, and roared like a -lion in the toils. His slavery lasted for two years. At one time, the -nervous irritation produced a violent and inexplicable malady, which the -wits of Turin declared he had invented exclusively for himself. He was -unable for several days to swallow aliment in any shape; and the -convulsions brought on by any attempt to force it on him almost deprived -him of life. At another time, he acquired resolution enough to scheme a -journey to Milan, and actually set out; but scarcely had he passed the -gates of Turin than his heart failed him, and he returned, burning with -indignation against himself, to resume his chains. His friends saw and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">{Pg 273}</a></span> -pitied his miserable state, and their compassion aggravated his -sufferings, while it did not enable him to rise above the enthralment. -Day after day, month after month, he formed new resolves to extricate -himself, and for a long time in vain. -</p> - -<p> -At length, in the February of 1775, being now twenty-six years of age, -he, in desperation, came to a determination to break off the disgraceful -intercourse. His old remedy of change of place had proved of no avail, -so he resolved to remain on the same spot; to shut himself up in his own -house, which was opposite that of the lady, but to receive no letters, -hear no messages, and to be induced by no failing of the heart ever to -behold her more. In token of his fixed purpose, he cut off his long -hair, and sent it to a friend, as a proof that he could not present -himself in society so shorn and disfigured. -</p> - -<p> -And now a better day dawned on the tempest of passion that darkened his -soul. In Lisbon he had been acquainted with the abate Caluso, a man of -learning and talent, who had, in some degree, awakened in him a desire -for knowledge, while, with the utmost forbearance and kindness, he tried -to lighten the shame inspired by every glimmering light that displayed -his excessive ignorance. They had passed many long evenings together, -and Alfieri preferred his instructive but unpretending conversation to -the gaieties of society; and here he felt an awakening of that dormant -power of composition which afterwards was to expand into worthy and -perennial fruit. In Turin, also, he was acquainted with several -literati; and now, a voluntary prisoner, and passing many long hours in -entire solitude, unaware and almost unsought, a true, strong, and -enduring love of knowledge sprang up within him, never after to be -weakened or destroyed. The first token of the spirit of composition, was -a sonnet in commemoration of the freedom he had acquired. Some years -before, in Paris, he had bought a collection of Italian poets, and by -reading them had gained a slight knowledge of versification, and of his -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">{Pg 274}</a></span> -native language; yet so ludicrously imperfect was this, that, when he -showed his sonnet to a literary man, the first advice he received was to -learn to spell. Orthography, grammar, and rhythm were alike defective in -his production. He was not discouraged. This same friend, father -Paciaudi, had given him the "Cleopatra" of cardinal Delfino. Alfieri -fancied that he could write a better tragedy himself; and he began one -on the same subject. He consulted his friends upon it, and tried to gain -some instruction as to style and poetic laws, of which, hitherto, he had -remained in profound ignorance. His house became a sort of academy; -while he, desirous of learning, but proud and indocile, wearied himself -and all around him by his alternate fits of industry and despondency. At -length, a tragedy and a farce were the result of his endeavours, and -both were acted on the same nights, at the theatre of Turin, with -applause, on two consecutive evenings, and were given out for a third -representation. But Alfieri by this time began to discover the entire -want of merit of these productions: which prove, as we may judge from -the passages he has preserved, that ideas and feelings are of no avail -in composition, where there is a total absence of style, and an absolute -incapacity of finding language in which to clothe the naked and unformed -conceptions of the brain. On the third night, therefore, Alfieri -prevented the representation; and on the same night he was seized by so -vehement and burning a wish to deserve the applause of an audience, -that, he tells us, no fever of love had ever assailed him with similar -impetuosity. -</p> - -<p> -"And thus," he says, "at the age of seven and twenty, I entered into the -difficult engagement with the public and myself to become a writer of -tragedies; and these were the props I had to sustain me in my -undertaking,—a resolved, obstinate, and untamed spirit; a heart -boiling over with all sorts of emotions, among which predominated the -transports of love, and a profound and indignant abhorrence of every -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">{Pg 275}</a></span> -species of tyranny; a very slight recollection of the French tragedies I -had seen acted, having read and studied none; an entire ignorance of the -rules of the drama; and a total incapacity to command the language of which -I made use;—all this was surrounded by a husk, not so much of -presumption, as of petulance, and an impetuosity of character which -stood in the way of my ever, except with reluctance, acknowledging, -investigating, or giving ear to truth." -</p> - -<p> -The first thing he found he had to do, was to apply himself to a -spelling-book and grammar: this necessity was not admitted without a -struggle; but the ardour of his enthusiasm enabled him to triumph over -these petty but perplexing and irritating obstacles; and he gave himself -up to the study of language with a mixture of impatience and -perseverance that kept his mind in a perpetual tumult. He was under the -necessity of driving away all French words and forms of speech from his -mind, and of imbuing his thoughts in the idiom of Tuscany,—a work of -unspeakable labour, uniting the studies of a man with those of a child, -and sufficient to have overcome the resolution of any temper less ardent -and ambitious than his own. After all, it must be acknowledged that it -was to a great degree an insuperable difficulty; and, though overcome, -in appearance, by Alfieri, yet in composition he had always two -labours,—that of giving birth to ideas, and that of examining with -the attention and scepticism of a foreigner the words in which he clothed -them. This, perhaps, is the cause, that although, in process of time, -his prose style became unexceptionable, and that of his tragedies full -of fire and strength, his lyrics are such lamentable failures. -</p> - -<p> -For nearly a year he was given up to the ungrateful task of clearing -away the rubbish of another language, and placing the foundation stones -of a pure and classic Italian. He retired to a village near Turin, that -his attention might not be called off; and there, with a literary -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">{Pg 276}</a></span> -friend, he laboured at all that nauseates a schoolboy, with the still -greater disgust of mere verbal difficulties which is felt by a man. -After a year of much industry, he began to be aware that he should never -attain his object as long as he merely translated himself from the -French, which had become the language of his thoughts; and he resolved -to pass six months in Tuscany, to learn, to hear, speak, think, and feel -Tuscan only. -</p> - -<p> -In this journey he sought the acquaintance of the first literary men, -and exerted himself strenuously to acquire the knowledge of which he was -so deficient. He never deceived himself by fancying his deficiencies -were less than they were. He was born endowed with genius; uncultivated -and empty of all knowledge as his mind was, yet it was filled with -thought and feeling, and, during his solitary journeys and long -incommunicative days of reverie, he had studied his own character. At -one time he had kept a journal, in which he put down not only his -actions, but their motives, investigating his moral nature in its inmost -recesses. This was an exercise of mind which, joined to his natural -talent, peculiarly adapted him to developement of feeling and motive, -which is the essence of the tragic art; and it was towards this species -composition that, from the first, he felt himself irresistibly impelled. -</p> - -<p> -He had now fully entered on his dramatic enterprise. Several months -before, he had written his tragedies of "Philip" and "Polinices," in -French prose, which with unwearied industry, he put into Italian verse -three or four several times; endeavouring to form a rhythm adapted to -dialogue, and to concentrate and simplify his style as much as possible. -While studying Italian, he had also applied himself to re-learning -Latin; and the tragedies of Seneca suggested other subjects. "Antigone," -"Agamemnon," "Orestes," and "Don Garzia," were all conceived, and in -part written, while he was indefatigable in the labour, it cannot so -well be said of polishing his language, as of modelling and remodelling -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">{Pg 277}</a></span> -it, as his greater use of Tuscan, and his critical taste suggested. -</p> - -<p> -He had now an aim in life, from the pursuit of which he never deviated, -but followed it up with incredible enthusiasm and perseverance. His -labours were great in literature, yet confined chiefly to the formation -of style; and he translated Sallust, and other Latin authors, for the -sake of improving in force and conciseness. -<span class="sidenote1">1777.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -28.</span> -He did not continue in one place: after a few months spent at Florence, -he returned to Turin, recalled by the love of his friends and his stud: -but during the following spring he obtained the necessary permission of -the king to quit Piedmont and return to Tuscany, for the purpose of -imbibing at the purest source that energetic and concise language, which -he considered yielded in elegance and force of expression to no other in -the world. -</p> - -<p> -As the city where the purest Tuscan is spoken. Alfieri visited Siena, -and spent the summer there. He there formed an intimacy which served to -encourage him in his laborious pursuits; for he tells us he was never -capable of arduous and sustained undertakings, except when the feelings -of his heart were exercised by an intercourse of friendship or love. -Francesco Gori was of ignoble birth, and his ostensible pursuits were -those of traffic, which he pursued more for the sake of pleasing his -family than for gain. In the obscurity of his warehouse he occupied -himself with classical literature, and nurtured an admirable and -delicate taste for the fine arts. Extreme philanthropy formed the -essence of his character, and a warm-hearted sympathy, that led him to -forgive and love all mankind. The idle and opulent nobles of the city -could not, by their worthlessness, excite his hatred or contempt. With -Tacitus in his hand, and the pure love of liberty in his heart, how -could he hate the victims of tyranny? he might exclaim, with a poet of -modern days, whose political principles were equally derived from the -sensibility of his heart,— -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">{Pg 278}</a></span> -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"I hate thy want of love and truth:</span><br /> -<span class="i2">How should I then hate thee?"</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -Self-knowledge deracinated pride in himself, and contempt for others; -and thus, humbly occupied in his shop, he could extend forbearance to -all, except the primal causes of the degradation of his countrymen; -while his only happiness was derived from books, and his chief grief -from comparing himself and his times with the men and times of which he -read. -</p> - -<p> -There is a simplicity in Italian manners that renders the friendship -between count Alfieri and Gori, the mercer, by no means extraordinary. -To the sympathy produced by an agreement in opinions was added the -respect which Alfieri felt for the virtuous qualities of his -unpretending friend. Their talk was of the ancient glory of their -country, and of the literary ambition of Alfieri. In the course of -conversation, Gori suggested the conspiracy of the Pazzi as a good -subject for a tragedy. Alfieri was ignorant of the history of the -republic of Florence, and had never heard of the Pazzi. Gori placed the -Florentine annals of Machiavelli in his hands. Machiavelli (whatever his -motives were for writing "The Prince") was an enthusiastic republican. -He tells us in his letters, that while writing the history, he delighted -himself by exposing the conduct of the princes who had ruined Italy: his -spirit of freedom found an echo in Alfieri's heart, and so sharpened his -hatred of despotism, and his love of liberty, that, throwing aside his -tragedies, he wrote a treatise on tyranny,—a work of eloquence, but -rather a juvenile ebullition of feeling, than an argumentative essay. -</p> - -<p> -On the advance of winter, Alfieri transferred himself to Florence; and -here an event happened that altered the colour of his future life, -through the influence of a constant attachment, which, accompanied by -esteem for the good qualities and talents of its object, remained fixed -in his heart to the end of his life. -</p> - -<p> -Louisa de Stolberg, countess of Albany, was at that time twenty-five -years of age, beautiful and full of talent. Her rank and wealth gave her -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">{Pg 279}</a></span> -a distinguished place in society. She was the wife of the last of the -Stuarts who made pretensions to the throne of England, who unfortunately -disgraced his illustrious house, and even the private station to which -he was reduced, by habits the most deplorable. Alfieri now regarded his -future prospects as fixed: he had long determined never to marry, -considering that, under the despotic government to which he was a -subject, the ties of husband and father would add weight to the chains -imposed upon him: attached for life to a woman whom he esteemed worthy -of him, and beyond all things ambitious of distinguishing himself as an -author and a defender of the cause of liberty, he began to put into -execution the schemes which had long presented themselves to his -imagination, for acquiring entire personal freedom. The nobles of -Piedmont were in a peculiarly enslaved state: they could not quit the -territories of their sovereign except by especial leave, granted for a -limited time; nor could they publish any writings in a foreign country, -without the licence of their native prince, under penalty of a fine, and -even imprisonment, "if" (so the law was expressed) "it was necessary to -make a public example." These shackles were intolerable to a man of -independent mind, bent upon giving testimony of his abhorrence of -despotic rule: but few men would have freed themselves at the cost that -Alfieri paid. He came to a resolve to make a donation of the whole of -his property to his sister Julia, reserving to himself only the annual -income of 1400 sequins, or about 600<i>l</i>. a year, the half of his -actual receipt. To execute this design, the king's permission was -necessary, who readily gave it, "being," says Alfieri, "as willing to get -rid of me as I was to emancipate myself from his authority." -</p> - -<p> -The transfer, however, was not completed without a good deal of -annoyance; and Alfieri was irritated, at one time, into making a -declaration, that, if his brother-in-law would not receive the donation, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">{Pg 280}</a></span> -he must the count's abandonment of his whole property; and that he would -resign his claim to every possession rather than be fettered by the laws -attendant upon keeping it. In the exaltation of his imagination, he -almost imagined that this latter offer would be acted on; and, finding -himself reduced to merely a few thousand sequins of ready money, he fell -into his second fit of avarice, selling his horses, and all his -superfluous plate, furniture, and even dress, renouncing the Sardinian -uniform, to which he had adhered, from boyish vanity, even after -quitting the service. He spent a good deal of money in books; but this -was his sole expense; while his abstemiousness of living, directed by -economy, became of the most rigid kind. Thus, even in extremes, resolved -never to marry, resolved to be an author, he completed sacrifices, which -a thousand circumstances might afterwards have caused him to regret, but -which, he assures us, he never for a moment repented. He did not confide -the secret of this change in his affairs to the countess until it was -past recal; for, as their ultimate effect was to render their union more -stable and permanent, he felt that she might consider it right, as a -mark of her disinterestedness, to oppose them. When all was over, her -blame was of no avail, and she forgave the mystery he had practised. -</p> - -<p> -These various annoyances, joined to the perturbations of love, and the -ardour of his literary application, occasioned an illness from which he -only recovered when the season of summer brought that healthiness of -feeling, that lightness of spirit, and that energy for composition, -which summer and its heats always imparted to his constitution. During -this summer, Alfieri, as he tells us, "in a frantic delirium of a love -of freedom," wrote his tragedy of the "Pazzi," and that of "Mary Stuart" -(Mary Queen of Scots); the latter at the request of the countess of -Albany. During the following year he completed these and made the first -sketch of "Rosmunda," "Ottavia," and "Timoleon." Since his tragedies -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">{Pg 281}</a></span> -have become so numerous, and many of his best are written, it will be as -well to glance over them, and to give some account of his progress and -success in an art to which he devoted his life and fortune. -</p> - -<p> -Energy and conciseness are the distinguishing marks of Alfieri's dramas. -Wishing to bring the whole action of the piece into one focus, he -rejected altogether the confidantes of the French theatre, so that his -dramatis personæ are limited to the principals themselves. The -preservation of the unities of time and place also contributed to -curtail all excrescences; so that his tragedies are short, and all hear -upon one point only, which he considered the essence of unity of action. -Thus, in the "Merope," there are but four interlocutors, the queen and -her son, his foster-father, and the tyrant. Instead, therefore, as is -the case in the French dramas, of the action being carried on by a -perpetual talk about it, at once tedious and unnatural, the interest is -always at its height between the parties themselves; and it is singular, -in the "Merope" in particular, with what talent and success he keeps the -action in perpetual progress, and the passions developed by such slender -means. It was the turn of Alfieri's character to consider it a duty in -an author rather to conquer difficulties than to acquire facilities. He -would read no other tragedians, for fear of imitating them, and -abstained from a perusal of the great master of the art, Shakspeare, -from the same mistaken notion. Genius need not fear to be imitative; but -genius, unaided by cultivation, and by a study of what has gone before, -can never surpass what is already written: it were as if a scientific -man were to refuse to be initiated in the discoveries of science, that -he might pursue his labours in a new and original path. Thus he might, -we will say, re-invent gunpowder and printing, but never a new law and a -new power. To use a more homely illustration, it were as if an -agriculturist refused to manure the ground, and was bent on forcing the -native soil, to produce by labour what would arise with greater -fertility and ease if aided by extraneous nutriment. It is a law of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">{Pg 282}</a></span> -mechanics, never to waste power, but to proportionate on all occasions -the means to the end. If, instead of refusing to read the finest -dramatic works, Alfieri had studied in them the genius and essence of -the art; he might; instead of simply restricting his invention to the -bald and inconclusive expedient of contracting the personages of his -drama, have invented some original method of combining the simplicity of -design consequent on an observance of the unities, with a more natural -and inforced arrangement of plot, and with a greater variety and truth -of character. -</p> - -<p> -The great distinction between Shakspeare and almost every other dramatic -writer arises from his developement and variety of character: all his -personages are individuals. In other authors, we have a lover, an -ambitious man, a tyrant, or a victim of tyranny; but in Shakspeare it is -not the passion that makes the man, but the peculiar character of the -person that gives reality and life to the passion. Thus Richard III. and -Macbeth are both ambitious; but how differently do their respective -dispositions modulate their conduct and feelings! The cruel, remorseless -Richard can never, in a single line he utters, be mistaken for the weak, -vacillating usurper, whose cruelties result from the necessities of his -situation, and not from inborn ferocity of character. Juliet, Imogen, -and Rosalind, are alike girls in love; but how variously do they display -their sentiments! the ardent Italian, the fond, devoted wife, and the -sprightly, spirited daughter of an exiled prince, are all individuals -characterised by distinctive marks; so that a painter would give to each -a physiognomy utterly dissimilar the one from the other. If Alfieri had -read Shakspeare, he might have discovered and appreciated this -incomparable mark of his excellence; and his knowledge of the human -heart would have led him to imitate a model which, if succeeded in, -could not, from its very nature, bear any resemblance to mere -plagiarism. He himself felt that one tyrant should not quite resemble -another, nor one lover be but the mirror of another: but so it is with -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">{Pg 283}</a></span> -him, with few exceptions—situation, not character, forms the interest -of his pieces. -</p> - -<p> -Besides this, Alfieri was not an imaginative poet: his sonnets and -longer poems are failures; his tragedies are vacant of ideal imagery; -his sensible objects are never animated by a soul infused into them by -the speaker; his daggers and poisons, and all the other tragic -paraphernalia, are the mere things themselves—the poet's eye never -gives "to airy nothing a local habitation and a name." His inventive -powers consisted in being able to conceive situations of passion and -interest, and giving to his personages feelings and language at once -natural, powerful, and pathetic. -</p> - -<p> -His mode of writing his tragedies shows, indeed, how spontaneous was his -conception of the action of a piece, how mechanical the effort by which -he clothed it in verse. He was accustomed to throw off the design of the -intended action in a sketch of a few pages, and then to lay it by: after -an interval, he read this sketch, and, if it pleased him, he arranged -the plot into acts, and scenes, and speeches, putting down every idea -that presented itself, and the whole in prose; and again he put aside -his labour for future consideration. If, on reading it over, he felt his -imagination warmed and excited, and the ideas renew themselves in his -mind vividly and forcibly, then he completed his work by versifying it. -This is not the routine which a genuine poet follows: something of the -improvisatore's art is inherent in him, and he writes "in numbers, for -the numbers come." -</p> - -<p> -"Philip" was the first of Alfieri's tragedies: it was originally written -in French prose; and he was so well pleased with its conduct, that he -was never weary of composing and recomposing it in Italian verse, till -he was satisfied that the language was equal in vigour to the ideas it -expressed. The subject of "Philip" is the death of don Carlos, prince of -Spain; and the contrast of character in the three principal persons is -finely conceived and well executed. There is the obdurate, deceitful, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">{Pg 284}</a></span> -cruel tyrant. His son, educated near him, in perpetual fear and -suspicion, is never his dupe: he sees through all his subterfuges, and -perceives the snares laid for him in his pretended mercies; and love, -while it causes him to expose himself to his father's vengeance, only -renders him doubly watchful and cautious. Isabella, on the contrary, a -daughter of France, at the same time that, from feminine delicacy, she -is more restrained in her feelings, yet is unsuspicious, unguarded, and -ready to give credit to the professions of those around. Her heart opens -itself readily to hope; while that of her lover is impassive to every -delusion, and he regards with terror and grief the peril to which, in -her generous trustingness of nature, she heedlessly exposes herself. -</p> - -<p> -As the genius of Alfieri led him to depict the passions in their -simplest though most energetic form, unaccompanied by the influence of -manners, the metaphysical subtleties of Shakspeare, or the wild, but -deeply interesting intricacy of plot of Calderon and our old dramatists, -so classical subjects were treated by him with peculiar felicity. -"Agamemnon" and "Orestes" are among his best dramas: the dignity and -tenderness of Electra, the remorse and struggles of Clytemnestra, and -the haughty, rash disposition of Orestes, have more of truth, of nature, -and grace than is to be found among any modern tragedies on similar -subjects: but this very simplicity becomes, to a certain degree, -baldness in modern subjects; and though the conspiracy of the "Pazzi" -was written, he says, with a delirious enthusiasm for liberty, there is -a want of developement and relief that renders it more like the sketch -of a tragedy, than one filled out in all its parts. "Virginia," equally -pregnant with the spirit of liberty, has more grace and more pathos. -</p> - -<p> -While the mind of Alfieri was thus fully occupied by the composition of -his dramas, he was happy in the enjoyment of the friendship and love of -the persons dearest to him in the world. He was the <i>amico di casa</i> of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">{Pg 285}</a></span> -the countess of Albany; that is, he spent his evenings in her society, -and attended her in mornings during her visits and excursions: he kept -up a constant correspondence with Gori, at Siena; and the abbate Caluso, -the friend who had first awakened his desire for literary composition, -many years before, at Lisbon, and to whom he was warmly attached, came -from Turin, and spent a whole year at Florence, that he might enjoy his -society. But the tranquil course of happiness is seldom allowed to human -beings, especially when they feel and acknowledge their perfect -well-being, and repose content on the accomplishment of their desires. -The conduct of the unfortunate prince, who was the countess of Albany's -husband, poisoned every enjoyment, and, at last, forced his wife to -separate herself from him. Given up to the most degrading vice,—in -his drunken fits his ferocity and madness endangered her life, and she -lived night and day, haunted by the terror inspired by his outrages. -Alfieri exerted himself to obtain permission from the government for their -separation; and, that being obtained, she retired to a convent in -Florence, and afterwards, under the sanction of the pope, she removed to -another convent at Rome. -</p> - -<p> -Alfieri found that thus he had succeeded in saving the life of his -friend; but the separation necessary to prevent any injurious opinions -being formed as to the motives of his interference, was a cruel reward -for his exertions. Florence grew hateful to him in her absence; he -became incapable of every occupation, and his whole thoughts were bent -on contriving their re-union: it was matter of difficulty, but not -insuperable to his earnest endeavours. After some months, the pope -allowed her to quit her convent, and to take up her abode in the palace -of cardinal York; and Alfieri, having already quitted Florence and spent -some time at Naples, ventured at last to fix himself at Rome also, -having, as he tells us, paid court, made visits, and employed a thousand -servile and humiliating arts, from which his nature revolted, to obtain -the sufferance of the pope for his residence in the same city as the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">{Pg 286}</a></span> -countess. No honours, no glory, no worldly advantage, could have induced -him to submit to what he considered the excess of meanness and -degradation; love alone exalted the debasement in his eyes. -</p> - -<p> -Now again he was happy: he lived at the villa Strozzi, near the baths of -Dioclesian. He spent the long mornings in study, never leaving his house -except to ride over the solitary and uncultivated country around Rome, -whose immense and lonely expanse invited him to reverie and poetic -composition. He spent the evenings with the countess, retiring at eleven -to his tranquil home, which, divided from all others, rural though in -the city, and surrounded by objects of antique grandeur and natural -beauty, was an abode such as Rome only in the world can afford, and -peculiarly adapted to the noble poet's temper, character, and -occupations. -</p> - -<p> -His imagination received its happiest inspirations during this period. -Besides continual labour on his former compositions, he wrote the -tragedies of "Merope" and "Saul," both conceived and executed with a -fervour of inspiration that allowed him no pause between the various -operations into which he divided the composition of a tragedy. The -"Merope" was written in a sort of indignant burst, to prove that the -tragedy of Maffei on the subject, could be easily surpassed. The "Saul" -emanated from reading the Bible, in the study of which he at that time -occupied himself, and which awoke in him a desire to write several -dramas on scriptural subjects; had it not been that, fond of forming -resolutions and of adopting voluntary chains, since he cast away and -abhorred all others, he had determined to limit his tragedies to twelve. -The "Saul" and "Merope" caused him to exceed this number by two; but he -would not be allured to go beyond. -</p> - -<p> -The "Saul" is, there can be little question, the chef-d'oeuvre of -Alfieri: character forms the basis of the interest, and the situations -are deeply pathetic. Saul, in some degree, reminds the reader of king -Lear. The Hebrew king is not, like Shakspeare's dethroned monarch, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">{Pg 287}</a></span> -thrust from his state, and turned out by his children, a victim to the -pitiless elements, and, more bitter still, the sense of undeserved -injury from those whose duty it was to foster and shelter him. The -children of Saul, and his son-in-law David, surround him with -protestations of duty and a heartfelt wish to soothe him by their -affection and care; but he is struck by God; prosperity has departed -from his house, victory from his banner; and his vacillating reason -discerns rebellion and dethronement in the very submissions of those -around him. He struggles with the sense of ill fortune, and the sad -consciousness of the occasional aberrations of his intellect; now -lamenting the days of his prosperous youth, now melted to tenderness by -the caresses of his children; and again, seized upon by suspicion, envy, -and pride, he wildly and madly casts from him every support and hope, to -find himself, in the end, alone, defeated, lost; till in a transport of -shame and despair, he ends a life so tarnished and abhorrent. "Saul" is -the best of Alfieri's tragedies; and, if we were called upon to point -out his best scene, we should select the second act of that play. -</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote1">1782.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -33.</span></p> - -<p> -Alfieri felt proud and happy when he had completed his fourteen -tragedies. "That month of October," he writes, "was memorable to me, -since I enjoyed a repose no less delicious than necessary, after so much -labour: full to the brim of vainglory, I breathed no word of my -achievements to any but myself, and, with a sort of veiled moderation, -to her I loved; who, through her affection for me, probably, seemed well -inclined to believe that I was capable of being a great man, and always -encouraged me to do all I could to become one." His works, also, were -becoming known. A few of the nobility of Rome formed themselves into a -company, and acted his "Antigone," in which he took the part of Creon: -the representation was crowned with success. He was, besides, in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">{Pg 288}</a></span> -habit of reading his tragedies in society, partly for the sake of the -mute criticism displayed by the attention and interest they excited in -his audience; and, under the superintendence of his friend Gori, four -among his dramas were printed at Siena. -</p> - -<p> -But this very celebrity was the cause of the disaster that hung over his -head, and, by drawing attention to him, engendered enmity and -disturbance. His familiar intercourse with the countess, and the daily -habit of his life, in forming a part of the society she gathered around -her, began to excite censure: this roused at once his fears and -indignation. His mode of life was in strict accordance with the notions -of propriety, as they rule manners in Italy. Injurious and to be -deprecated as the system of society is, no individual thinks, when he -follows the example of the whole of his countrymen, that he should be -selected as an object for blame. However, in a moral and religious view, -the so-named friendship of the countess and Alfieri was blameable, yet -they scrupulously attended to the rules of decorum, which form the whole -of an Italian's conscience, generally speaking, and believed that they -had every right to be happy in each other. As we have said in another -place, we are not inclined to bestow vehement blame on individual -conduct, resulting from a system of manners which has endured for ages, -while that system itself merits the utmost abhorrence, and, we are happy -to be able to say, is in progress of being extirpated in Italy: until it -is, there can be no hope of moral regeneration, or for the happiness and -improvement of its inhabitants. -</p> - -<p> -However, it must be remembered that though, especially in those days, no -one would have been so unreasonable or barbarous as to prevent a lady -from having a cavaliere servente, yet the peculiar cavaliere she selects -is usually forbidden; and as much misery is often produced by an -interference in the lady's choice as by a total prohibition to be -allowed a friend at all. In the present instance, the husband of the -countess complained to his brother, the priests of the holy city were -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">{Pg 289}</a></span> -roused to a perception of the scandal, and the pope induced to consider -it right to interfere. Alfieri found only one mode of mitigating the -violence of the menaced storm, which was to meet it: he voluntarily -quitted Rome, and, to prevent any actual measures of prohibition and -banishment, went into voluntary exile. -</p> - -<p> -Affections and habits which had subsisted so long could not be thus -rudely torn up without intense suffering. After several years of -happiness, Alfieri found himself cast from the shelter he had selected, -wherein to place his warm and sensitive heart, upon solitude, -uncertainty, and bitter regret. Poetry and composition became -distasteful to him; he could not even enjoy his friend Gori's society, -whom he visited immediately upon quitting Rome: he was ashamed to annoy -him by his melancholy, and his restlessness and desire for travel -returned. He visited Venice, and wandered for some time in Lombardy, and -then again returned to Siena, to attend to the printing of six other -tragedies, although he had become indifferent even to the lately -engrossing desire of fame; and then he suddenly resolved to visit -England, for the sole purpose of buying horses. -<span class="sidenote1">1783.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -34.</span> -He had long put himself on short allowance with regard to these -favourite animals; but, having saved a large sum of ready money, during -several years, at first of parsimony, and then of economy, he determined -to spend it on the purchase and maintenance of a number of English -horses of the best breed. A journey thus undertaken, with but one -object, was executed with a mixture of impetuosity and persevering -patience characteristic of Alfieri. He went to England; he bought his -horses, fourteen in number, to equal that of his tragedies; he -transported them safely across the straits of Dover, conducted them with -unwearied care through France, and led them across Mont Cenis with a -success—they being injured neither in wind or limb—on which he -for the moment prided himself scarcely less than on his dramatic labours. -</p> - -<p> -On his return to Italy, he remained a few weeks at Turin; and the king -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">{Pg 290}</a></span> -showed a disposition to employ him under government. His minister -sounded the count: but he refused to entertain any proposition on the -subject; for, although he acknowledges that the sovereigns of the house -of Savoy were not tyrannically inclined, but showed every inclination to -benefit their subjects, his uncompromising, and even fierce, spirit of -independence spurned every shackle, and he felt to breathe more freely -when he had quitted the territories of Piedmont. The countess of Albany -was now on her way to Baden for the summer. She passed northwards along -the shores of the Adriatic, while Alfieri proceeded south, by Modena and -Pistoia, to Siena. He had resisted the temptation of crossing the narrow -portion of Italy between them, and obtaining a brief interview; but when -she had arrived at Baden, and he at Siena, this fortitude gave way, and -he suddenly left his horses, and his friend Gori, and posted with all -haste to Alsatia, there for three months to enjoy her society. -</p> - -<p> -During the two years of absence which he had endured. Alfieri had -forgotten poetry, study, glory, and his tragedies. But the countess's -presence awoke every dormant energy, and scarcely had he arrived, before -he conceived and wrote "Agis," "Sofonisba" and "Mirra." The last -deserves to be particularly mentioned as one of the best of his dramas, -particularly as he overcomes difficulties of the most appalling -description. "I had never thought," he says, "either of Myrrha or Biblis -as subjects for the drama. But, in reading Ovid's "Metamorphoses," I hit -upon the affecting and divinely eloquent speech of Myrrha to her nurse, -which caused me to burst into tears, and, like a flash of lightning, -awoke in me the idea of a tragedy. It appeared to me that a most -original and pathetic piece might be written, if the author could -contrive that the spectator should discover by degrees the horrible -struggles of the burning but pure heart of the more miserable than -guilty Myrrha, without her betraying the half, nor scarcely owning to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">{Pg 291}</a></span> -herself so criminal a passion. My idea was, that she should do in my -tragedy what Ovid describes her as relating, but do it in silence." -</p> - -<p> -There is something touchingly beautiful in the first description of -Myrrha, in a scene between her mother and her nurse. She is described as -so gentle, docile, soft, and pliable of nature—so fearful of doing -wrong—so sweetly earnest to please her parents—and now to be -labouring under a melancholy so dark and gloomy, as to deface her beauty, -and bow her in appearance to the grave. As the action is developed, the -notion that she is under a supernatural curse adds to the awe and pity of -the reader; but, at last, it must be confessed, her violence and frenzy -pass the bounds of modest nature, and the passion she nurtures fails in -exciting our sympathy. This is the fault of the subject; inequality of -age adding to the unnatural incest. To shed any interest over such an -attachment, the dramatist ought to adorn the father with such youthful -attributes as would be by no means contrary to probability: but then a -worse evil would ensue; and the more possible such criminal passion -becomes, the more violently does the mind revolt from dwelling on it. -</p> - -<p> -While at Baden, Alfieri received the afflicting intelligence of the -unexpected death of his friend Gori. This misfortune disturbed his -enjoyment of the last days of his visit, which of themselves were sad, -from the approximation of so painful and bitter a separation. With -reluctance and grief he left the countess and returned to Siena; but his -sorrow was too acute to admit of a prolonged stay in a town where he had -enjoyed the company of a friend lost for ever. He removed to Pisa; while -the countess took up her abode at Bologna. The Apennines only divided -them, but he dared not cross them. The gossip of the small Italian towns -is unconceivably eager and pertinacious; and it was necessary for her -future liberty to guard their conduct from all remark. Early in the -following spring, the countess departed for Paris, resolving to fix -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">{Pg 292}</a></span> -herself in France, where she had friends, relations, and resources. In -the month of August she again visited Baden, and Alfieri joined her. -Again his mind was vivified and warmed by happiness, and again two -tragedies were the result of the inspiration. The subjects were the -Brutus of the monarchy of Rome and the Brutus who died at Philippi. In -the first he displays great force and energy; but the second, we must be -permitted to say, is a complete failure. To make a perfect equality of -sacrifice between the two heroes, as Lucius Junius Brutus caused his -sons to be decapitated, so he makes his descendant, Marcus, assassinate -his parent. The idea that Cæsar was the father of Brutus is so totally -devoid of foundation, and so little in consonance with the simple -majesty of the character of the patriot, that it deteriorates from the -interest of the drama, and, instead of exalting him, the discovery, the -resolution he declares nevertheless to persist in the assassination, the -sympathy and admiration he gains, is all so feeble, so puerile, and so -false, that it is astonishing that Alfieri did not detect his mistake. -To us, who possess the most admirable portrait ever drawn of magnanimous -and single-minded virtue in Shakspeare's delineation of the character of -Brutus, this failure becomes more glaring, and gives further proof of -the Italian poet's error in not studying the pages of the greatest -writer the world ever produced. -</p> - -<p> -After some months spent at Colmar, the countess returned to Paris; while -Alfieri remained at the former place, writing letters and sonnets, -mourning over his separation, and correcting his tragedies. He passed -two or three years at this place, the countess joining him during the -summers. In that of 1787, he had a most dangerous illness. His friend, -the abbate Caluso, came from Turin to visit him; and but for this -illness, he had been perfectly happy. On the approach of winter that -year, he accompanied the countess back to Paris, and established himself -there. The death of her husband restored her to liberty; but a number of -circumstances led them to continue for some time in France. Whether they -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">{Pg 293}</a></span> -were married now, is a secret that never has been revealed; but their -union was acknowledged, and it was understood that their constant, -inviolable attachment had received from time a sanction which prevented -any blame from being cast on it by their relations and friends. Alfieri -mourned over the necessity that brought him back to his abjured -Gallicisms; but he was somewhat consoled, during a three years' -residence in Paris, by superintending and bringing out an edition of his -tragedies, on which he bestowed the last labours of correction with -regard to style, and brought the language as near to his standard of -perfection as he was capable of attaining. -</p> - -<p> -The disagreeable and, to his sensitive temperament, irritating task of -correcting the press, seems to have exercised an injurious influence -over his temper and genius. According to his own account, it dried up -his brain, quenched the fire of youthful enthusiasm, and prevented his -ever again writing with equal vigour and felicity. After terminating the -correction of his tragedies, he fortunately betook himself to writing -the memoirs of his life, which are the groundwork from which the present -pages are taken. It is written unaffectedly, and with great frankness -and self-knowledge; the style is unstudied, and the egotism of feeling -which produced it imparts extreme interest to the details. After -bringing down the history of his life till the year 1790, when he was -forty-one years of age, he still felt an utter inability to any high -flight in literature, and he occupied himself in translating the -"Æneid" and the Comedies of Terence. He had long enthusiastically -admired the versification of Virgil, and tried to model his own upon it, -adapting it, at the same time, to dramatic dialogue. This circumstance -is curious, since no style can be so opposite; the mellifluous, -dignified, and graceful flow of the Latin poet being a contrast to the -rough and concise energy of the modern Italian. This observation -regards, however, only his tragedies; less praise must be bestowed on -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">{Pg 294}</a></span> -his other productions in verse: his translation of the "Æneid" is -feeble in the extreme; his longer original poems are devoid of even -secondary merit; and his love sonnets are, to say all in a word, the -very antipodes of his immortal master, Petrarch. Alfieri is a great -tragedian: it is impossible to read his best dramas without being -carried away by the eloquence and passion of the dialogue, and deeply -interested by the situations of struggle or peril in which his -personages are placed. The rapidity of the action, and the earnestness -and life with which every scene is instinct, renders it impossible to -close the volume till the catastrophe ends all. Alfieri was also an -excellent prose writer: his treatise on "Princes and Literature" is full -of power; the style is correct, flowing, yet simple, and without -meretricious ornament. The pure spirit of independence burns like a holy -lamp throughout, and gives a charm to every sentiment and expression. -But never was line so distinctly drawn between the poetry of -circumstance, so to speak, and ideal poetry: In all the pages of Alfieri -there is not one imaginative image; and we feel this most in his lyrics, -since ideality is the soul of lyric poetry. He seems never to have been -conscious of this defect. He would readily have admitted that Dante and -Petrarch were superior to him in genius; but he seems unaware that they -possessed a quality of which not one glimmering ray is to be found in -the whole course of the flood of rhymes to the composition of which he -alludes frequently as being the overflowings of poetic inspiration. It -is possible that Alfieri might have been a great novelist, had he ever -turned his attention to that species of composition. Or had he continued -to invent, instead of drying his brain up with the irksome task of -correcting what he had already written, he might have bestowed on us -tragedies finer than any we have of his, or, at least, several equal to -the "Saul." But, with all his philosophy and self-examination, he did -not understand the texture and capabilities of his intellect. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">{Pg 295}</a></span> -</p> - -<p> -To return to his life in Paris. The disquietude arising from the French -revolution added to the irritable state of Alfieri's mind. We all see -the visible universe through a medium formed by our individual -peculiarities; but it is curious to find the advocate of liberty lay -most stress on his fear lest the tumults of Paris should interrupt the -completion of Didot's edition of his works. Probably his intense -abhorrence of the French prevented his fostering rational hopes for the -ultimate advantages to be gained by the overthrow of the time-worn and -corrupt monarchy of France, at the same time that it prevented his ever -being blinded by any illusion as to the real character of the events -passing around him. He prides himself on never having seen or conversed -with any one of the revolutionary leaders, and on having always regarded -the rise of a lawless democracy as the stepping-stone to military -despotism. From the first, he was eager to get away from these scenes of -bloodshed and horror, and in the spring of 1791 accompanied the countess -of Albany to England. This country did not please her; and he, grown -querulous and subject to the gout, was quickly disgusted by the climate, -and annoyed by the peculiar habits of life of the English. A great -portion of his and the countess's fortune was in the French funds; and -the fall of the assignats made it advisable for them to live in the -country where they still bore a value. This circumstance induced them to -return to Paris; and, resolving to fix themselves there, they took a -house, furnished it, and Alfieri collected a voluminous library: but the -whirlwind that swept over unhappy France included them in its -devastations. They became alarmed by the increase of lawless violence; -and when, on the 10th of August, 1792, Louis XVI. was dragged from the -Tuilleries and imprisoned in the Temple, they determined to fly from a -city, where it appeared that no one of rank or wealth could remain in -safety. The impetuosity of the poet's character was of great advantage -on this occasion. With infinite difficulty passports were obtained for -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">{Pg 296}</a></span> -the countess and himself; and they fixed on the 20th of August for their -departure. The impatience of Alfieri caused them to anticipate their -journey, and they set out on the 18th. With a good deal of difficulty -they passed the barrier of St. Denis, and hastened to a place of safety. -Two days after, on the 20th, the municipality of Paris sent to arrest -the countess: had she remained, she would have been thrown into prison, -and, in all probability, have fallen a victim during the massacres of -the 2d of September. Not finding her, their income arising from the -French funds was sequestrated, their furniture, horses, and books -confiscated, and though foreigners, they were both declared emigrants. -Alfieri chiefly lamented his library, and the edition of his works. Some -years after, a French general, then at Turin, with a good deal of -ostentation, offered to obtain the restoration of his books, a list of -which he sent him. Alfieri has left about 1600 volumes: the list -contained the names of 150 of the least valuable. He refused to avail -himself of what he ironically calls a "French restitution;" and surely, -if national contempt and hatred is ever pardonable, it was to be excused -in an Italian, who saw his country over-run by soi-disant liberators, -who displayed their friendly intentions by a thousand acts of plunder -and arrogance. -</p> - -<p> -Burning with an unquenchable hatred for all things French, Alfieri -returned to Florence with the countess of Albany, in which city he -remained till his death. In the tranquillity of his position, his love -of study awoke with renewed force. But whether it was that his fiery -temperament burnt itself quickly out, or that the ardour of his studies, -joined to ill health and intemperate abstemiousness, exhausted him. -Alfieri appears to have grown prematurely old. The spirit of invention -was dead within him; and nothing can be more deplorable than that which -he mistook for such, under whose influence he wrote laughterless -comedies and toothless satires, the most dolorous and innoxious that can -be imagined. Still, though original invention was dead, industry, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">{Pg 297}</a></span> -perseverance, and fervour in the pursuit of learning were as warm as -ever in his heart. He brought to a conclusion his translations of -Terence, the "Æneid," and Sallust: the latter is an excellent specimen -of style; but his poetic translations are languid and unworthy. As to -the unlucky "Misogallo," in which he accumulates, in prose and verse, -the whole force of his detestation of the French, it remains a monument -of how little men know themselves, and the mistakes to which genius is -liable, when it exchanges the nobler pursuit of the good and beautiful, -to soil itself by the pettier passions of our nature. -</p> - -<p> -While thus employed, a more genial pursuit occupied him for a short -period, which he calls waste of time, but which, by linking him in -agreeable intercourse with his fellow creatures, and wearing away the -rust produced by despondency and over-excited feelings, would have made -his latter years happier; but Alfieri, ever bent on fighting with -difficulties, and thwarting his natural tendencies, cast from him the -medicine offered to his diseased mind. Some friends of his, possessed of -histrionic talent, got up his tragedy of "Saul:" Alfieri filled the part -of the unfortunate king. Others of his plays were afterwards -represented, in which he also acted; but he always preferred the part of -Saul, which confirms our opinion, that it is, of all the characters he -has pourtrayed, the best fitted for the stage, and the nearest approach -to those unrivalled princes of the drama, the heroes of Shakspeare. -</p> - -<p> -After some months had been occupied by these representations, Alfieri -gave them up, and devoted himself exclusively to study. He had many -plans for composition: the chief of these were what he called -tramelogedie, or tragic melodramas, only one of which, "Abel," he found -energy to write, and this is an entire failure. He entered on a new field, -to which his genius was not adapted—the mingling of human beings -and spirits, of the passions of the heart and the airy creations of our -fancy; a species of composition which is to be found in perfection in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">{Pg 298}</a></span> -Calderon, and which Goëthe, Byron, and Shelley have made familiar to us -in modern times, and, according to their various capacities, adorned -with the mystery, fire, and glowing imagery peculiar to each.—But of -this creative power, that peoples our world with beings not of it, -though in it,—Alfieri was wholly destitute. We have already remarked -how entirely his writings are wanting in the more ideal attributes of -imaginative poetry. -</p> - -<p> -At the age of forty-six he applied himself with desperate ardour to the -study of the Greek language. Forty-six is no advanced age: how many men -are in their prime at that epoch! but it was not so with Alfieri; his -very memory failed him, but he persevered with his accustomed energy, -battling with difficulties as if they had been opponents, inspired with -a sense of opposition. Thus he read the most difficult authors, with the -notes of the scholiasts, learning an infinite multitude of verses by -heart, and acquiring, in the end, by dint of unwearied industry, a -considerable knowledge of the language. -</p> - -<p> -His health was infirm and his quiet disturbed by the progress of the -French armies. They came, they said, to liberate Italy, and, under this -pretence, destroyed its native governments, introduced their own crude -institutions, and then, on pretence of the opposition their tyranny met, -despoiling the Italians of their works of art, endeavouring even to -supplant their divine language, and treating with contempt and insolence -their peculiar manners and customs; so that any welcome given by the -Italians to these pretended friends only showed more plainly their -insulting pretensions and rapacity. When the French first appeared in -Florence, Alfieri and the countess hurried away as if it had been -visited by the plague. They established themselves at a villa in the -environs, having removed all their property from their house in the -city; and here they remained till the French were temporarily driven -from Tuscany. On their second invasion, Alfieri had no time to retreat, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">{Pg 299}</a></span> -and he satisfied his feelings of scorn and hatred by never speaking to a -Frenchman, or admitting the visits of the leaders of its armies. -</p> - -<p> -His melancholy increased with the irritation caused by political events, -by unwearied study, and the physical weakness produced by his systematic -abstinence. He was happy in the society of the countess of Albany, and -that of his dear friend, the abbate Caluso: but many long hours he spent -by himself in gloomy reverie. The bitterness and asperity of his mind -was thus increased, and his dislike of society prevented the beneficial -action of sympathy and mutual forbearance. He considered himself, to a -great degree, a disappointed man in his literary career, and was -ignorant of the universal applause bestowed upon his tragedies. He -divided his time with the most scrupulous exactitude, and his horses -were still dear to him. Many hours were spent in the aisles of Santa -Croce, or other churches of Florence, listening to the music, and -absorbed in reverie. -</p> - -<p> -During the last years of his life, he was visited each spring by a fit -of the gout, and each summer by a desire to employ himself upon original -composition, to which he devoted himself with an ardour which brought -on, each autumn, a dangerous illness. His six unlucky comedies were the -principal objects of these ill-fated labours; and his life was at last -their sacrifice. A theorist in all things, he imagined that, as the gout -proceeded from inflammation, it could be starved out of his frame; and -he commenced a system of abstinence that deprived him of the nutriment -necessary to support life. The countess in vain implored him not to -adhere to so senseless a plan: it has often happened that, by resisting -the prescriptions of physicians, and the aid of medicine, a man has -conquered inherent disease, and lived to an old age; but as soon as he -begins to administer remedies to himself, and to act from theories, -instead of from that long and arduous practice necessary to give the -smallest insight into the delicate structure of our physical nature, he -must become the victim: thus it was with Alfieri; hard study and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">{Pg 300}</a></span> -abstinence reduced his life to a mere flickering spark; he became a -skeleton in appearance; each day he took less nourishment, and the -weaker he grew, the more resolutely did he apply himself to study, as -the sole solace of his worn-out and burthensome existence. In the month -of October, 1803, he was attacked by gout in the stomach. The physicians -wished, by means of blisters and sinapisms, to draw it to the -extremities; but a childish dislike to the inconvenience which would -ensue, and the impossibility of taking his daily walk, if these remedies -were applied to his legs, caused him to refuse them. Opium was given -instead, and his pain was moderated; but still he sat up; and his mind -was rather excited than calmed by the narcotics administered: he -remembered as in dreams, but with the utmost vividness, various -incidents of his past life, or passages from his own writings and those -of others; and these he repeated to the countess, who sat by him -watching. No idea of approaching death seems to have entered his mind; -and the priest, who came to offer the usual offices of the catholic -religion to the dying, was sent away with an invitation to return on the -morrow; whether because he believed that by that time he should be -beyond such interference, or as a mere excuse for delay, cannot be told. -As he grew weaker, he sent for the countess, and when she came he -stretched out his hand, saying "Stringetemi la mano, cara amica; mi -sento morire." "Press my hand, dear friend; I am dying." These were his -last words. He died on the 8th of October, 1803, at the age of -fifty-five. -</p> - -<p> -He was buried in Santa Croce, and the countess of Albany erected a tomb -to his memory, sculptured by Canova. It is not one of his happiest -efforts; but the inscription, which has been called pretending, appears -to me simple and affectionate. "Louisa de Stolberg, countess of Albany, -to Vittorio Alfieri," is surely no impertinent obtrusion of the name of -his dearest friend; and it may be remarked, that, while the countess has -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">{Pg 301}</a></span> -been censured for recording her name so prominently. Alfieri, in the -epitaph he himself composed for her, makes it her chief praise that she -was "quam unice dilexit,"—the only love of the poet. -</p> - -<p> -This account of the life of a man who was endowed with the chief -attribute of genius,—that of spontaneously forming and manifesting -itself, despite every obstacle or adverse circumstance,—may be -concluded by the quotation of the sonnet in which he describes his own -person; a faithful translation of which, which we also append, appeared, -some years ago, in "The Liberal." It may be quoted with the more -propriety at the end of his life, since it was written when time had -robbed him of the graces of youth; giving instead those characteristic -marks stamped by the action of his disposition and pursuits. -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">"Sublime specchio di veraci detti</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Mostrami in corpo e in anima qual sono.</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Capelli or radi in fronte, e rossi pretti;</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Lunga statura e capo a terra prono;</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Sottil persona su due stinchi schietti;</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Bianca pelle, occhi azzurri, aspetto buono,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Giusto naso, bel labbro, e denti eletti,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Pallido in volto più che un re sul trono.</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">"Or duro, acerbo, ora pieghevol mite.</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Irato sempre e non maligno mai,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">La mente e il cor meco in perpetua lite,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Per lo più mesto, e tal or lieto assai,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Or stimandomi Achille, ed or Tersite;</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Uom, se' tu grande o vii? Muori, e il saprai."<a name="NoteRef_51_51" id="NoteRef_51_51"></a><a href="#Note_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></span> -</div></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">{Pg 302}</a></span></p> - -<p><br /></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_51_51" id="Note_51_51"></a><a href="#NoteRef_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a></p> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">"Thou lofty mirror, Truth, let me be shown</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Such as I am, in body and in mind.</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Hair plainly red, retreating now behind;</span><br /> -<span class="i0">A stature tall, a stooping head and prone;</span><br /> -<span class="i0">A meagre body on two stilts of bone;</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Fair skin, blue eyes, good look, nose well design'd;</span><br /> -<span class="i0">A handsome mouth, teeth that are rare to find,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">And pale in face, more than a king on throne.</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">"Now harsh and crabbed, mild and pleasant soon;</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Always irascible, no malignant foe;</span><br /> -<span class="i0">My head and heart and I never in tune;</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Sad for the most part, then in such a flow</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Of spirits, I feel now hero, now buffoon;</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Man, art thou great or vile?—die, and thou 'It know."</span> -</div></div></div> - -<p><br /><br /><br /></p> - -<h4><a id="MONTI">MONTI</a></h4> - -<h4>1754-1828.</h4> - -<p> -Monti is, without question, the greatest Italian poet that has appeared -since the golden days of its poetry: he alone emulates his predecessors -in the higher flights of the imagination. It has been pronounced of -Dryden, that if each of the princes of poetry surpassed him in their -peculiar vein, yet his fire and originality give him a near place beside -them. Thus Monti has not the sublimity of Dante, nor the tenderness of -Petrarch; neither the inventive flow of Ariosto, nor Tasso's epic -conception and voluptuous grace: but he has a fervour, a power of -imagery, an overflowing and redundance of ideal thought, that mark the -genuine poet. -</p> - -<p> -He came to revive the languid and unnatural style that flourished under -the reign of the Arcadians. Some few real poets had sprung up in Italy -in the interval between Ariosto and Monti: they are recorded in this -volume. Chiabrera and Filicaja are the chief. These men found in the -inspiration of their own minds the power that led them to adopt a style of -their own, and to bestow originality—which, in one shape or another, -is the vivifying soul of composition,—on their productions. -Metastasio carried clearness and grace of expression to a great perfection, -but he wanted strength and daring: Alfieri had not a trace of that sunshiny -and rainbow-like (so to speak) colour-giving power of fancy, without which -there is no real poetry. For the rest, the poets of those days were -Arcadians; the very word seems to express volumes of inane affectation, -and turgid, yet soulless, language. It is thus that a clever Italian -critic of the present day speaks of them:—"To the hyperboles and -conceits of the seicentisti, succeeded the follies and pastorals of the -Arcadians. The subject treated by these poets were restrained in narrow -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">{Pg 303}</a></span> -limits; they were all futile, trite, vulgar, or silly,—adulatory, or -false. A new-married pair, a nun,—the new-born babe of some sovereign -or noble,—the election of a cardinal, or a bishop, or even of an -abbé—a funeral or a feigned love; such were the favourite themes of -the Arcadians. Was a marriage in question,—Hymen was adjured to bring -its chains to link two hearts; and a new Hercules or Achilles was -prognosticated as the future result of the union. If a girl shut herself -up in the cloister, the poets expatiated on her happiness; they -described the heavenly bridegroom as descending and stretching out his -hand to her, while the mischievous Cupid angrily threw away his golden -quiver; a censurable mixture of sacred and profane imagery was thus -introduced, and their ideas were steeped in two fountains, in -contradiction one to the other, the Bible and mythology. The most -shameless flattery blotted their pages, as they praised one another, and -depicted themselves on the heights of Parnassus,—beside the waters of -Hypocrene,—in the company of Apollo and the Muses; and the wonders of -Orpheus and Amphion were renewed, to express the charms of each other's -verses. No Arcadian dared imagine himself enamoured of a human being: -she was no mortal woman, but a goddess,—a Venus sprung on the instant -from the foam of the sea: lips, and eyes, and hair, had all their -appropriate, still-repeated epithets: did their lady sigh, or did one -word escape the paling of her ivory teeth,—tempests fled, the winds -were stilled, and Jove was again tempted to transform himself into a -bull for her sake."<a name="NoteRef_52_52" id="NoteRef_52_52"></a><a href="#Note_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> -</p> - -<p> -Men can do strange things when they associate in companies, and keep -each other in countenance by a wide-spread folly, that bars out the -wholesome fear of ridicule. Thus, the Arcadians had colonies all over -Italy. They gave feigned names to each other; they lauded, and -celebrated, and crowned each other. Good sense and good taste were -sacrificed in the emulation each felt to transcend his rivals in a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">{Pg 304}</a></span> -sonorous and turgid system of words, in which neither passion nor -thought appeared.<a name="NoteRef_53_53" id="NoteRef_53_53"></a><a href="#Note_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> A new genius was wanted to trample on this -overgrowth of vanity or folly, and to gift the tamed and chained -language of Dante and Bojardo with wings and liberty. Such was the poet, -the incidents of whose life we now proceed to detail. -</p> - -<p> -Vincenzo Monti was born in Romagna, on the 19th of February, 1754. His -father's simple, and even humble, but pretty and agreeable, house was -situated among the vineyards and agricultural country which lies between -Fusignano and the Alfonsine, in the Ravennese territory. The air is -healthy and serene, the country fertile and diversified, and the style -of life of his parents such as at once cultivated simplicity of taste -and kindness of heart. Nothing can be more primitive and patriarchal -than the mode of life of the smaller landholders in Italy; and to this -class Monti's father belonged. The farm-house—or villa, as it is -called, if a little better than a cottage—is situated amidst the -ground they cultivate. The name of <i>podere</i> is given to these small -farms, enclosed by hedges, within whose limits grapes, corn, vegetables, -and fruits are all cultivated in a sort of picturesque confusion. The -vines, trained on trellises, form covered walks; and the sound of the -water-wheel is continually heard, and of the water trickling through the -conduits that lead it to the various parts of the grounds. The Italian -farmer works very hard, and the cottager still harder. He divides the -produce of the land with his landlord, entertains few servants, and his -habits are at once laborious and frugal. The parents of Monti were an -excellent specimen of the virtues of this unpretending race. They are -still remembered in the country by numbers of the poor whom they -assisted and comforted. Their children were brought up to consider it a -valuable privilege to bestow help upon those in want of the necessaries -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">{Pg 305}</a></span> -of life, and Vincenzo in particular inherited from them a warm heart and -a tenderness of feeling that caused him to be idolised in his domestic -circle. -</p> - -<p> -Monti passed his early boyhood in this rural retirement. To the end of -his life he remembered with fondness the days of his childhood, which -were spent gaily amidst a large family of three brothers, older than -himself, and five sisters. The reward for good behaviour among them was -a permission to distribute charity among the indigent,—a sacred, -soul-saving duty with catholics. The well-known benevolence of his -parents drew numbers to their house, where portions of food were -distributed to them. His mother never felt so happy as when thus -engaged; and it is related of her that, when, a few years after, the -family removed to Majano, where their charitable habits were at first -unknown, she complained in a sort of alarm that they were no longer -visited by the poor. The same biographer relates a story of Vincenzo. On -one occasion he was permitted to distribute the portions of food to -mendicants, who entered at one door and went out at the other: some -among them fancied that they could deceive the child, and returned -twice; and he, with ingenuous shame, turned away, and gave to them twice -without looking, that he might not be obliged to accuse them of their -trick. "An anecdote," continues his biographer, "perhaps scarcely worth -relating, only that it describes the character, or rather, it may be -said, the whole life of Monti, who, even in old age, frequently suffered -himself voluntarily to be imposed upon." Were a philosophical analysis -of Monti's disposition to be attempted, it might be discovered how this -sensitiveness to the shame of others, this sparing of their feelings in -preference to the assertion of truth and honesty, makes a part of the -same weakness that led him always to regard as a secondary consideration -moral truths and political integrity, when put in competition with the -happiness and welfare of his domestic circle. We call this sort of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">{Pg 306}</a></span> -sensibility weakness, because, though usually united to great private -rectitude of character, it is incompatible with the heroism of the -patriot and the martyr. -</p> - -<p> -For several years Monti had no instructors except his kind parents; but, -soon after their removal to Majano, he was sent to the seminary of -Faenza, which enjoyed a good reputation for the solidity of its -instruction; there he learnt early and well the Latin language. His -first attempts in Latin verse were, however, so singularly infelicitous, -that his master thought it necessary to put him into a lower class than -that in which he had first been placed. The boy, roused to indignation, -made no complaints, but secretly learned by heart the whole of the -Æneid; and persevered so earnestly in conquering the difficulties, that -his Latin verses soon became distinguished for a style and harmony that -announced his poetic talent. His second trial was so different from the -first, that his masters began to regard him as a sort of prodigy; and he -himself entered with delight and ardour on the study of the Roman poets. -The full force of his impetuous and fertile imagination was early -awakened by them, and he began to exercise the art peculiar to his -country of extemporising verses; but his master had the judgment to -withdraw him from an exercise so pernicious to the strength and critical -delicacy of poetry, and induced him to write with care and meditation. -He was yet a boy when, under this tutelage, he composed a volume of -elegies, several of which have been printed. -</p> - -<p> -It is the usual custom among the smaller landholders of Romagna to -destine their youngest sons to the agricultural labours of their farms; -and this was fixed as the career of Monti. He yielded to his father's -commands, but with reluctance. His mind was opened to the necessity of -cultivation, and mere manual labour and low-thoughted cares were -infinitely distasteful to him. His heart was with the Latin poets, from -whom he could not separate himself; and his dislike to every occupation -that was not intellectual grew to be insurmountable. His father thought -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">{Pg 307}</a></span> -it necessary to reprove him; and a scene ensued similar to one recorded -as having taken place, several centuries before, between Petrarch and -his father. Vincenzo, moved by his parent's reproof to a belief that his -literary predilections were reprehensible, made a resolution to renounce -them. He led his father into his chamber, and there, before him, threw -his favourite authors into a large fire. The good man, touched by this -act of docility, gave him twelve sequins; and the youth, unable to -resist the temptation thus held out, hastened to the neighbouring fair -of Luga, and spent the whole sum in buying over again the authors whose -works he had left at home, still warm in the ashes of the fire into -which he had thrown them. His father, seeing the inutility of combating -with his inclinations, sent him to the university of Ferrara, wishing -him to enter on the legal or medical profession. But, after a few vain -attempts to apply himself to these studies, Monti gave up every other -pursuit, and dedicated himself wholly to the cultivation of literature -and poetry. He still continued to write in Latin, and always retained a -predilection for this language, and later in life translated some of his -own works into it. His first Italian poem was "The Prophecy of Jacob." -It was, of course, inexact in versification, and unequal; but when Jacob -prophesies the future glory of the Lion of Judah, the style rises into -vigour, and even sublimity. At this time the "Visions" of Varino and the -sonnets of Minzoni, two Ferrarese poets, fell into his hands. They rose -above the inanities of the Arcadians, and indicated to him the path he -should pursue. Through reading them he was brought to the perusal of -Dante, and his soul opened at once to the conception of all that Italian -poetry contains of grand and beautiful. Henceforth Alighieri was his -model and master, and he regarded at once with admiration and a sort of -worship the elevated and godlike powers of this most inspired of poets. -He wrote the "Vision of Ezekiel" in a sort of imitation of his -favourite, in which he displayed that grandeur of imagery and command of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">{Pg 308}</a></span> -language which distinguish his compositions. -</p> - -<p> -Cardinal Borghese was at that time legate at Ferrara. Admiring the -youth's genius, he took him under his protection. On his return from his -legation, he obtained the elder Monti's consent to his son's -accompanying him to Rome. He was now eighteen. The first intimacy that -he formed in the capital was with Ennio Quirino Visconti, a man of vast -erudition; and under his direction Monti extended his classical -knowledge. It happened, while he was at Rome, that the Erme of Pericles -and Aspasia were discovered,—one in excavations made in the villa of -Cassius at Tivoli, the other at Cività Vecchia. Visconti wrote a -treatise on these marbles, and invited his friend to celebrate them in a -poem; and he wrote the "Prosopopea di Pericle," which is preserved in -the Vatican museum, written with great simplicity of style, and his -usual easy flow, yet fervour, of language. This was the first time that -he appeared in the character of a poet at Rome; and it was followed by -several other attempts. He thus attracted attention; but, having no -fixed situation, after remaining some years in the capital, he was on -the point of complying with his father's frequent requests that he would -return home, when a circumstance happened to change his plans. The -Arcadians of the Bosco Parrasio celebrated the Quinquenalli of Pius VI. -(1780, ætat. 26.); when Monti recited some of his compositions, which -attracted so much applause that the duke of Braschi, the pope's nephew, -sent for him the next day, and offered him the place of his secretary, -which was at once accepted. Monti remained at Rome in the house of the -prince, who treated him with all the kindness of friendship, and he -enjoyed full leisure to pursue his literary studies. -</p> - -<p> -Yet it is, perhaps, matter of regret that Monti should have been thus -employed. It is very difficult to make rules for the education of -genius, when, on the one hand, care and want may fetter, and even crush, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">{Pg 309}</a></span> -its loftiest aspirations; or too much case and leisure wean it from -habits of industry, and foster the dissipation of thought and feeling -which too frequently accompanies the poetic temperament. Monti's muse -had surely not been silent if he had remained in his father's farm, -surrounded by the luxuriant beauty of nature, and supported by conscious -worth and independence. But no people need so much sympathy as poets. -The interchange of thought and feeling, the fresh spirit of inquiry and -invention, that springs from the collision or harmony of different -minds, are with them a necessity and a passion. And though solitude is -named the mother of all that is truly sublime, yet this solitude ought -not to be that of desolation, but retirement to meditate on the stores -heaped up in our intercourse with our fellow-creatures. Monti, among the -uncultivated peasantry of Romagna, might have found his glowing -enthusiasm grow cool from the absence of appreciation, and the want of -sympathy and equal intercourse. -</p> - -<p> -Yet servitude at the court of Rome was no good moral school. To the -years he spent in the service of the pope's nephew, the habits of -dependence, and his daily intercourse with courtiers, may be attributed -that want of political integrity, and ready worship of ruling powers, -which was the great blot of Monti's character. The genuine glow of real -talent, the ambition natural to conscious genius, and the instinct of -one, in whom invention and the power of expression were indigenous, to -pour forth his ideas and sentiments, qualities which indefeasibly -belonged to him, would, in almost any situation, have made Monti a -writer. He might have been less refined in the farms of Romagna, but -more useful as a moral and dignified asserter of truth and independence. -Yet we must reflect that the germ of each man's character is born with -him, to be checked or fostered by education, but still there to colour -the tide of thought and influence the motives of conduct. And as -independence and strength of principle never displayed themselves as a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">{Pg 310}</a></span> -part of Monti's character, temptation might have found him as willing a -slave in the poverty of his farm as in the luxurious servitude of papal -Rome. -</p> - -<p> -At Rome, at least, he continued to cultivate his poetic tastes. He -produced several poems which kept alive his fame. On occasion of the -marriage of his patron, the duke of Braschi, he wrote an ode entitled -"Beauty of the Universe;" and he celebrated the journey of Pius VI. to -the imperial court in a poem entitled the "Apostolic Pilgrim." But he -aspired to signalise himself by some greater work, and long meditated -writing a tragedy. As early as 1779 he writes to a friend,—"I am -weary of writing verses on frivolous subjects. A tragic drama is the notion -that most delights me. But how can I satisfy the craving I have to write -a tragedy, since I am not able to tranquillise my mind, and am occupied -by affairs which have no connection with poetry? An hundred times I have -begun, and as often broken off." And in another letter he expresses a -feeling which has often entered the mind of any one deeply interested in -carrying on some literary labour:—"I have a ravenous desire," he -says, "to write tragedies, which preys upon me. This is my madness; and I -am in despair, because I fear to die before I finish one." -</p> - -<p> -His ambition was further excited by the emulation inspired by Alfieri. -This great tragedian was now residing at Rome; and Monti was present -when he read his "Virginia" in a society composed of the most celebrated -literati of the day. Monti listened with transport, and, burning with a -desire to rival this production, he instantly began his tragedy of -"Aristodemo," founded on a story he had read a few days before in -Pausanias. He was the more eager to accomplish his purpose, as lie -perceived the faults of Alfieri's style, and hoped to avoid them. The -fecundity of his imagination rendered it easy for him to rise above the -baldness and unideal versification of his rival; so that it has been -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">{Pg 311}</a></span> -pronounced, that a perfect tragedy would be produced, were "the grandeur -and penetration of Alfieri adorned by the style of Monti." "Aristodemo" -was acted with the greatest success at Rome in 1787. Monti writes to a -friend,—"My tragedy was represented yesterday evening at the theatre -of Valle. I was not present; but when it was over, my house was inundated -by my acquaintances, who seemed mad with delight. I ought not to mention -this, but I write to a friend, and I assure you that every one agrees -that so great a success and so much enthusiasm was never known at Rome -before." -</p> - -<p> -And here it is impossible not to remark the different feelings of -Alfieri and Monti. Alfieri entered upon his literary career when the -more brilliant portion of the fire of youth was passing away. He had -sufficient enthusiasm to animate him to mental labour, and to warm his -imagination to the conception of fictitious situations, but not enough -to foster the delusion of success. While he pretended stoicism and -disdain, he was very sensitive to criticism; but when applause was -afforded, he scanned the merits of his judges, was annoyed by the faults of -the actors, and never reaped the just reward of his toils—the sense -of triumph. While the more youthful Monti, early catching the spark of -enthusiasm from his audience and his friends, enjoyed, to its full -extent, the celebrity which a successful tragedy, more than any other -species of literary composition, is able to confer. -</p> - -<p> -The genius of Monti, however, was not that of a tragedian: lyrical and -imaginative rhapsodies, rather than the concatenation of a plot and the -impersonation of human passion, were the native bent of his mind. The -story of "Aristodemo" is eminently simple in its construction; the -interest is entirely confined to the principal character, and there is -almost no action to support the piece. Aristodemo had, to acquire the -popular favour, and his election to the throne of Mycene, resolved to -sacrifice his daughter, when some angry god required that the blood of a -virgin should be shed on his altar. To save the girl, her lover declares -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">{Pg 312}</a></span> -that she has yielded to him, and is about to be a mother. In his fury -the father destroys her, and afterwards discovers that she is innocent. -To add to his misfortunes he loses his only other child, a little girl -of three years old, in a skirmish with the Spartans. Henceforth he is -pursued by remorse; the spectacle of his murdered daughter for ever -haunts him, and horror and despair darken his soul. The tragedy opens, -fifteen years after these events, at the conclusion of a war with -Sparta, with the discussion for a treaty of peace, when the prisoners on -both sides are to be given up. Among those taken by Aristodemo is a -girl, to whom he has attached himself with paternal fondness, and who -devotes herself to mitigating his sufferings. She, of course, is -discovered to be his long lost daughter; but this is not made known to -him till the last scene, when the agonies of remorse, joined to sorrow -at losing his last consolation, have driven him to destroy himself. The -pure but warm attachment between him and his unknown child is delicately -and sweetly described, while his passionate and remorseful ravings, -though they rise to sublimity, shock us by going beyond ideal terrors -into images palpably disagreeable. From this sketch it may be seen how -deficient in action the piece is. Aristodemo comes before us to lament -and to rave. Still, despite his woe, he is a hero and a king; and, when -the interests of his country require it, he can dismiss his private -griefs, and assert the majesty of the crown. His character is conceived -in the truth and sublimity of tragic nature; and the interest that -hovers over him, the dim but harrowing horrors of his spectral visions, -the mingled remorse, terror, and love that tear his heart, and the -poetry in which these overpowering passions are expressed, take -absolutely from the languor which the want of action might otherwise -impart. -</p> - -<p> -The success of "Aristodemo" induced Monti to write another drama. -"Galeotto Manfredi" is, however, a failure. It is founded on the passion -of jealousy. In his preface the poet mentions that it is wanting in -tragic dignity: such is not of necessity the fault of his subject, but -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">{Pg 313}</a></span> -it decidedly is of his method of treating it, and there is no poetry to -redeem it from the charge of mediocrity. -</p> - -<p> -He married, about this period, the daughter of the celebrated cavaliere -Giovanni Pickler, who had died a short time before. It is a singular -fact, that he made choice of his wife without having seen her, and not -on account of her extraordinary beauty, of which he was ignorant, but -from respect for the reputation of her father, and a wish to console his -afflicted family; while she accepted him on account of her admiration -for the author of "Aristodemo." And now we enter on a new epoch of -Monti's life, when he composed his most celebrated poem, and at the same -time gave to his productions that political groundwork which, from his -vacillation of principle, has not redounded to his honour. -</p> - -<p> -The French revolution was at its height; and the time-worn and absolute -governments of every country of Europe were shaken, as by an earthquake, -by the mere echo of the Parisian tocsin. The French, drunk with -enthusiasm, were eager to call the whole world into a fraternity of -liberty and equality; and many were the warm young hearts, long bowed -down by the yoke of the continental systems of slavery, that beat -responsive to the call. One of the persons sent by the French to spread -their revolutionary tenets beyond the Alps was Hugh Basseville. He was -the son of a dyer at Abbeville; the talents he early displayed induced -his father to wish him to pursue a more dignified career, and he -educated him for the church, as the only profession then open to the -lowly born. But Basseville studied theology only to find doubts as to -his creed; he soon abandoned the clerical profession, and, going to -Paris, gave himself up entirely to literature. He here fell in with two -Americans, who engaged him as their companion, or tutor, in a journey -they made through Germany. At Berlin, Basseville became acquainted with -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">{Pg 314}</a></span> -Mirabeau. Leaving his Americans he visited Holland, and wrote a work on -the Elements of Mythology, and a volume of amatory poems. When the -revolution began, he attached himself to the royal, or rather -constitutional, party, and instituted a journal which took that side. He -wrote also a "History of the French Revolution," dedicated to La -Fayette, with whom he was intimately acquainted; and the views he -developes are moderate and rational. He was naturally eloquent, and his -manners were agreeable, while he joined to these fascinating qualities -the more solid ones of industry, intelligence, and boldness, so that he -acquired the confidence and friendship of several of the Girondist -leaders. General Demourier named him secretary to the embassy at Naples; -and while there he visited Rome, for the purpose of secretly propagating -revolutionary doctrines. This imprudence cost him his life. On the night -of the 13th of January, 1793, he was assailed by the populace, and -received a stab, of which he died thirty-four hours after. In his last -moments, it is said that he was induced to regard his conduct, in -endeavouring to raise sedition against the pope, as criminal, and to -have exclaimed several times that he died the victim of folly. -</p> - -<p> -Monti, who lived in the service of the pope's nephew, and was thus -attached to the papal court, and without that ardour for liberty which -is so natural to many hearts, and which appears at once senseless and -even wicked to those who do not feel independence of thought to be the -greatest of human blessings, of course looked on the French revolution -as a series of crimes, and saw no redeeming good in the madness that -urged a whole nation to so terrific a mixture of heroism and guilt. He -was acquainted with Basseville, and, hearing the recantations of his -dying moments, celebrated at once the repentance of his friend, and the -awful tragedy acted almost at the same moment (Louis XVI. was beheaded -on the 19th of January, 1793), in a poem entitled the "Basvilliana." In -this he feigns that the great enemy of mankind contended with the angel -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">{Pg 315}</a></span> -of God for the soul of the murdered man. His death-bed remorse caused -the good spirit to remain triumphant; but as the crime-tainted soul -could not, according to the tenets of Catholicism, be received at once -into Paradise, the disembodied spirit of Basseville was condemned to -visit once more the banks of the Seine, and to view the horrors there -perpetrated, as the consequence of his guilty and impracticable -theories. The imagination of Monti developed itself in the happiest -manner in treating this theme; and the mingled emotions of horror and -grief that pervade the poem take a shape at once sublime and pathetic. -The soul of Basseville hovers over Paris at the moment that Louis XVI. -loses his head by the guillotine. The imagery with which he adorns the -scene is original and majestic. Four mighty shadows rush on the -scaffold, and hover over the dying monarch; shadows of former regicides, -who glory in the companionship of crime. Ravaillac, Ankerstrom, Damiens, -and one (the executioner of our Charles I.) who veils his face with his -hand, proudly assist in giving the fatal blow. Louis dies, and before -his beatified ghost Basseville prostrates himself; but his penance is -not got over, and he is forced to view other scenes of greater bloodshed -and more frightful violence; but as the poem enters upon these, it -breaks off abruptly, and is left unfinished. -</p> - -<p> -The style of this poem does not resemble modern Italian poetry, but is -modelled on that of Dante; so faithfully modelled, that many -expressions, ideas, and even whole lines are, as it were, transfused, -into Monti's verses. It is a singular fact that no poet was ever a -greater plagiarist than the author of the "Basvilliana;" but the verses -of others, which he thus employs, are framed, as it were, so -magnificently by original ones, and are placed with such propriety, and -acknowledged with such frankness, that, as an English author observes, -"so far from accusing him of plagiarism, we are agreeably surprised by -the new aspect which he gives to beauties already familiar to every -reader." And thus transfusion expresses his imitations better than the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">{Pg 316}</a></span> -word borrowing: for though the form of expression is the same, a new -soul and a new sense—not better, certainly, but different from their -former one—are breathed into them. In some sort Dante and Monti -resembled each other in the cast of their ideas. They were both painters -of the mind's images. Dante was the more faithful, delicate, and -heartfelt; but there is a shadowy grandeur joined to a perfection of -taste and fire of sentiment in Monti, which renders his poetry highly -fascinating and beautiful. -</p> - -<p> -The "Basvilliana" at once raised Monti's reputation higher than that of -any poet who had for centuries appeared in Italy; and he might have been -considered the laureate of royalty, but that his character was not -adorned by that sincere and exalted enthusiasm, without which no man -can, with any success, advocate any cause which embraces the interests -of human nature. -</p> - -<p> -The tide of French republicanism, checked a little in its first -advances, now swelled by Bonaparte's victories, overflowed the Alps and -deluged Italy. The Austrians, defeated at Montenotte, Lodi, and Arcoli, -were driven from Lombardy: and the Italians hoped to exchange servitude -to a foreign power for national independence; forgetting that liberty, -when given, may also be withdrawn, and that it is only by force that any -real freedom can be acquired. While resistance was made to the French -arms, the requisitions of the victor, and the seizure of the finest -works of art, might have opened their eyes to the real views of their -<i>soi-disant</i> deliverers. Napoleon himself had but one idea with -regard to liberty, which was a free scope to the exercise of his own -will. When that was given him, he could be generous, magnificent, and -useful; but when his measures were obstructed, no tyrant ever exceeded -him in the combinations of a despotism which at once crushed a nation, -and bore down with an iron hand every individual that composed it. -Bonaparte's ambition, however, could only be gratified in France, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">{Pg 317}</a></span> -the conquest of Italy was but the stepping-stone to the French empire. -Still, when all the north of the peninsula was subjected to him, when -the pope had submitted to his terms, and the haughty queen of Naples had -been induced to enter into a treaty with her sister's destroyers, he -could no longer with any grace refuse the shows of freedom so often -promised. On the 3d of January, 1797, the Cisalpine republic was -erected. -</p> - -<p> -Monti had been before invited to accept a professor's chair in the -university of Pavia, which he had refused. In the month of February -1797, general Marmont was sent to Rome on occasion of the treaty of -Tolentino, to carry letters from Bonaparte to the pope. Monti became -acquainted with him; being then in a bad state of health, and advised to -change the air of Rome for that of Tuscany, he accepted Marmont's -invitation, who offered him a seat in his carriage, and proceeded to -Florence. It may be imagined, that familiar intercourse with one of -Napoleon's generals was the foundation of Monti's admiration for the -French hero, and the cause of his opening his eyes to the good to be -derived from adhering to the new order of things in his native country. -At first he entertained the delusive hope that the blessing of liberty -had really been conferred on Italy by the French arms, and that his -countrymen would rise from chains and slavery to the enjoyment of -national independence under national institutions; and yet the -extravagant praise of Napoleon, which he indulges in, in all his poems -written at this time, does not bear the marks of a sincere patriotism. -Besides this, he had to struggle with many personal mortifications. The -"Basvilliana" was not forgotten. French exactions and French assumptions -had already alienated the minds of the noble born among the Italians. -They feared the conqueror, but disdained the masquerade of liberty in -which they were invited to play a part: thus the better classes shrunk -from forming a part of the new governments, and the offices devolved -upon men who had little to lose either in possessions or character. They -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">{Pg 318}</a></span> -regarded Monti with envy and aversion, and, instead of receiving him as -a convert with open arms, his superior claims as a man of talent caused -them to persecute him as an interloper and almost as a spy. The heads of -the government, indeed, at first favoured him: he was invited to Milan, -and elected central secretary of foreign affairs; but he was soon -disturbed by persecutions. "My arrival," he writes several years -afterwards, "was hailed by the usual abuse of the republican journals, -who censured the directory for employing an enemy of the republic. I -loved liberty; but the object of my love was the freedom described in -the writings of Cicero and Plutarch: that which was adored on the altars -of Milan appeared to me a prostitute, and I refused to worship her. -Hence my excommunication,—hence the public burning of the -'Basvilliana.' On this I was obliged to prostrate myself before the -idol. I sang her virtues, and became a revolutionary poet: I grew insane -with the rest, and my conversion procured me patronage and grace." -</p> - -<p> -It was not without a struggle that he stooped to these abject -submissions, and several events first intervened. The hatred of the -democrats, then the rulers of the Cisalpine republic, caused them to -pass a law which decreed that no one should be permitted to hold any -public employment who, since the year 1 of the French republic, had -published any books tending to throw odium on democracy. Monti's poem -was the principal object of this law; and one of his adversaries -exclaimed, "Let us get rid, not of the author of some foolish sonnet in -praise of kings, but of those who, with powerful enthusiasm and -Dantesque imagination, have inspired a hatred for democracy." This law -being passed, Monti lost his situation. He had published other poems -since the "Basvilliana;" but even these were not considered sufficiently -democratic. -</p> - -<p> -The "Musogonia," or Birth of the Muses, is almost entirely mythological; -but, in the concluding verses, he apostrophises Bonaparte. He implores -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">{Pg 319}</a></span> -him to be at once the Alexander and Numa of Italy: he beseeches him to -bestow laws upon her, and to unite her scattered members; and, with a -noble voice, he calls upon the Italians to cultivate concord and -unanimity. "Brothers!" he exclaims, "bear the voice of your brother! -What do you hope from divided opinions and counsels? Ah, let there be in -our country, in its danger, one mind, one courage, one soul, one life!" -The republicans perceived a hankering for royalty and tyranny in his -dislike of their measures. -</p> - -<p> -The "Prometeo" is a finer poem, or rather fragment, for but few of the -cantos are written. The subject of it is the history of Prometheus; but -we have only a small portion of it in the poem as it stands. It opens -with the foolish act of Epimetus. Jupiter had sent to him a casket -containing the various intellectual attributes and moral qualities, to -be distributed among the new creation on earth. Epimetus begins by -bestowing various qualities on animals, and is so prodigal of his gifts, -that when he comes to man he finds the casket empty. On this, he has -recourse to his wiser brother Prometheus, who reprimands him for his -folly. This opening is the weaker part of the poem. Lyrical outbursts -were more accordant to Monti's genius. The appearance of Constancy -before Prometheus is sublime, and the hero's prophecy of the future -state of man is full of fire and grandeur. It ends, however, by a -prophecy of Napoleon, on whom is heaped every epithet that admiration or -adulation could suggest. Jupiter gives him his lightning, which loses -none of its terrors in the young hero's hands. He shakes the bolts over -Germany, and the Rhetian Alps resound with the hoofs of the Gallic -cavalry. One after the other, Prometheus celebrates the glorious -victories achieved in Italy, and hails with enthusiasm French Liberty, -as the mother of heroes who shiver the chains that bound Ausonia, and -wipe the tears from universal Europe—obstructed in its beneficent -career only by the English robber. Bonaparte must have exulted in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">{Pg 320}</a></span> -bitter and venomous abuse that Monti never fails to heap upon England. -He tells us, in the preface to this poem, that its scope is to bring -into favour the neglected literature of Greece and Rome, and to merit -well from a free country by speaking in the accents of freedom. There is -something in the applause heaped on the conqueror that jars with our -notions of real independence and patriotism. -</p> - -<p> -Monti, at this time, entertained the idea of returning to republicanised -Rome. But his friends dissuaded him; and his reputation, and probably -his adulation of the victor, caused him soon after to be named -commissary of the province of the Rubicon. But a poet makes a bad -politician; and Monti's integrity stood in the way of his success, and -he was obliged to give up his office. He made many enemies, and, -naturally timid and fearful for the welfare of his family, he was -terrified into making a complete <i>amende</i> to the democrats of his -country by writing odes, whose violent sentiments went beyond those of -the most furious demagogues: and it is to these poems that he alludes -when he speaks of the worship he was forced to pay to the mockery of -liberty; and ever after he regretted his pusillanimity, and despised -himself for his concessions. -</p> - -<p> -At the time they gained this point, his enemies were pacified; and the -survivorship of the professor's chair of belles lettres in Brera, then -occupied by Parini, was bestowed on him. But scarcely had he overcome -the enmity of the friends of liberty and equality, than their star was -eclipsed, and their reign came to an end. -<span class="sidenote2">1799.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -45.</span> -During the absence of Bonaparte in Egypt, Suvaroff and the Austrians -crossed the Alps, and the French were driven from Italy. Her republics -vanished like a forgotten dream; and their partisans, Monti among them, -were forced to follow the retreating army of France, and to take refuge -beyond the Alps. -</p> - -<p> -Monti fell into a state of deplorable destitution. He had left his wife -and young daughter in Italy, and he roamed alone and friendless among -the mountains of Savoy. His sufferings during the brief period of his -exile were frightful. He wandered about, subsisting on the fruit he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">{Pg 321}</a></span> -picked up under the trees. Often seated on the rugged banks of a -torrent, he satisfied his hunger with roots and nuts, and wept as he -thought of Italy and his ruined fortunes. The benevolence of his heart -manifested itself in the midst of this adversity. It is related of him, -that, as he was wandering one evening in a narrow lane, near Chamberi, a -stranger accosted him and asked charity, relating that he had a sick -mother and five children. Monti's heart was moved: two sequins was all -that he possessed in the world; he gave one of them to the suppliant. -His health failed through the hardships that he endured; the labour of -collecting his food became intolerable, and he forced himself to gather -at one time sufficient for two days, so as to secure himself one of -uninterrupted rest. His wife, who had remained to put their affairs in -some order, now joined him. She found him stretched on a wretched bed, -weak from inanition, but disdaining to apply to any one for relief in -his need. She brought money with her, and proper food soon restored his -strength; nor did he again fall into such an extremity of disaster, -though it was long before the fickle goddess smiled upon him. -</p> - -<p> -The minister, Mareschalchi, invited him to Paris; and the new victories -of Bonaparte in Italy, on his return from Egypt in the following year, -revived his hopes of better times. Mareschalchi obtained that he should -be employed to write a hymn and an ode in celebration of the victory of -Marengo, which had driven the allies from Italy and restored it to the -French. He was to have been paid 1500 francs for these two poems, with -the further reward of the professorship of Italian literature in the -French university. But fortune was not weary of persecuting him; and -this remuneration was withheld, on its being represented to government -that he was, at heart, inimical to the French. Mareschalchi continued to -befriend him, and obtained 500 francs, or about 20<i>l</i>. "No small -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">{Pg 322}</a></span> -relief to me," he writes, "in my necessitous circumstances." He was very -eager to return to Italy, and he writes to his brother,—"Of the many -thousand refugees who were here, almost all have returned to their country, -because all have instantly received the necessary succour from home. I -alone find myself abandoned by my relations, in a strange country, -without friends, and without resources; unless, indeed, I can make up my -mind to renounce my country for the sake of earning my bread in some -office. But an irresistible sentiment is linked to the name of my native -land. I possess in Italy the objects dearest to my heart—my child, my -mother, brothers, friends, studies, habits; all, in short, that renders -life dear. I pant, therefore, to return; and I implore you to send me -assistance in the shape of a remittance for my journey, and to discharge -my debts here. Every delay injures my interests, particularly at this -moment. Direct to 'Citizen Vincenzo Monti, Post-office, Paris.' I shall -count the days and moments—make my account short, if my happiness is -dear to you." -</p> - -<p> -Soon after his wishes were fulfilled, and he celebrates his return to -his beloved Italy by a beautiful hymn, which begins— -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"Bella Italia, amate sponde,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Pur vi torno a riveder,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Trema il petto, e si confonde</span><br /> -<span class="i2">L' alma oppressa di piacer."</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -He does not forget the victor in this song of joy and triumph. Marengo -is mentioned with exultation; and Bonaparte celebrated with enthusiasm, -as liberating Italy from the barbarians, and again bestowing upon her -the blessings of freedom. -</p> - -<p> -On his arrival at Milan, Monti employed himself in correcting his poem, -entitled the "Mascheroniana," which he had begun amidst the Alps, when -overwhelmed by misery, an exile, weeping over the disasters of his -country and his own wrongs. Lorenzo Mascheroni, a celebrated -mathematician as well as an elegant poet, was forced to quit Italy at -the same time as Monti, and died in France shortly after. In this poem -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">{Pg 323}</a></span> -the poet vents all his spleen against his democratic enemies. In his -preface he exclaims, "Reader, if you really love your country, and are a -true Italian, read! but throw aside the book if, for your and our -misfortune, you are an insane demagogue, or a cunning trafficker in the -cause of liberty." The poem opens with the death of Mascheroni, and the -ascent of his soul to heaven. He here meets Parini, who laments the -unhappy condition of Italy. "When I saw her misery," he cries, "I -desired to die, and my wish was fulfilled. I first beheld her woe when -dressed in her new freedom, which was called liberty, but which, in -truth, was rapine. I then beheld her a slave, alas! a despised slave, -covered with wounds and blood, complaining to heaven that she was -betrayed by her own children—by the many foolish, base, and perverse -tyrants, not citizens; while the few remained mute or were destroyed. -Iniquitous law's were given her; discord waited on her, and pride, and -hate, and madness, ignorance and error; while the tears and sighs of the -people remained unheard. O, wretches! who spoke of virtue in -high-sounding words, and called themselves Brutus and Gracchus, while -they proved themselves traitors and monsters. But short-lived was their -joy. I saw the Russian and the Austrian swords destroy the hopes of the -fields of Italy, and the armed people commit crimes exceeding the supper -of Atreus and the vengeance of Theseus!" While Parini is thus pouring -out his angry and bitter denunciations, Mascheroni interrupts him. -"Peace, austere spirit!" he exclaims, "your country is again saved. A -deity has caught her by the hair, and drawn her from the abyss: -Bonaparte!" At this name, the frowning Parini raises his head, and a -smile illuminates his countenance. The victories of Egypt, of Marengo, -and Hohenlinden, are commemorated; and the "British felon" assailed with -the usual violence of hate. In the midst of the conversation of the -friends, God appears with his cherubim,—one the herald of peace and -pardon, the other of war and vengeance: they are sent out on the earth -to assist and wait on the Gallic hero. This poem, like so many others of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">{Pg 324}</a></span> -Monti, which celebrated what was then the present, and is therefore -truncated of its catastrophe, is a fragment. Such praise, dressed in all -the magnificence of poetry, must have sounded sweetly in Napoleon's ear. -The "Mascheroniana," whose chief object is to bestow on him new wreaths -of victory, is one of Monti's finest compositions. It is full of -strength, vehemence, and beauty. His imitation of Dante is even more -apparent than in the "Basvilliana." The machinery of the poem, and the -peculiar versification, are borrowed from the "Divina Commedia." But, as -we have before observed, Monti's was too original a mind to be a -plagiarist. What he took from another, he remoulded and brought forth in -a new form, in fresh and brilliant hues, all his own. He has not the -sublimity, the sweetness and pathos, nor the distinct yet delicate -painting, of his prototype; but no one can read his verses without -feeling that the true spirit of poetry breathes in every line, and that -the author pours out the overflowings of a genuine and rapt inspiration. -</p> - -<p> -His third tragedy of "Caius Gracchus" had been written at Paris, and he -occupied himself in finishing and correcting it on his return to Milan. -This tragedy has been praised by some as superior to "Aristodemo," but -it is difficult to coincide in this opinion. It possesses fine passages -and some energy, but it is wanting in poetry; and the characters want -the simple heroism of antiquity, and resemble rather violent Italians of -modern days. The defects of monotonous dialogue and often repeated -situations flow also from an observation of the unities, which, by -confining the subject in narrow limits, permit no variety of action, -and, except in peculiar instances, force the poet to repeat himself; -making one scene frequently little else than a repetition of what had -gone before. -</p> - -<p> -Monti had begun his literary and poetic life by servitude, when he -became secretary of the duke of Braschi. In his present desperate -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">{Pg 325}</a></span> -circumstances he saw no hope, except in conciliating the ruling power of -the continent, and entering on the service of the man who looked on all -men as merely engines to fulfil his vast and illimitable projects. -<span class="sidenote1">1802.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -48.</span> -Napoleon had by fresh victories driven the Austrians from Italy; and a -congress, called the Cisalpine, was held at Lyons, to fix on a form of -government for the north of the peninsula. This was a kind of mockery -that Bonaparte was fond of encouraging in the early days of his -elevation, since, under some of the forms of popular election, new -powers were, with a show of legality, bestowed on him. The Italians of -the congress fixed on a plan of government, at the head of which was to -be a president: they entreated Napoleon to accept this office, as the -disunited state of the country rendered ii unadvisable to elect an -Italian to it. Napoleon consented. This was a happy moment to bring -himself before the supreme power, and Monti seized on it. He wrote an -ode to Bonaparte, in the name of the Cisalpine congress; he chose the -motto from Virgil, and it was a happy one,— -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i8">"Victorque volentes</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Per populos dat jura."</span> -</div></div> - -<p> -The verses are very beautiful, and worthy of a better cause than laying -the liberties of his country prostrate at the first consul's feet. Still -Monti was aware that, degraded by long servitude and disunited by petty -passions, the Italians were ignorant of the nature of true liberty. He -saw party spirit, oppression, and rapine as the result of any attempt on -the part of his countrymen to govern themselves; he knew also how vain -it was to contend with the conqueror, and he was very probably sincere -in his belief that the welfare of his country was safest in his hands. -Still, while we admire the harmony of the verses and the beauty of the -imagery, we repine at the slavish spirit that lurks within them. -Bonaparte, who loved to be borne up by the wings of men's imaginations -into a superior sphere of glory and success, must have been pleased by -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">{Pg 326}</a></span> -the halo of poetry with which Monti stooped to adorn his name. -</p> - -<p> -He did not go unrewarded. When peace was restored to Italy, the -institutions for public education became objects of interest to the -government; and a professorship was offered Monti; either at Milan or -Pavia, at his choice. Monti preferred the latter, for the sake of -enjoying the society of the able professors who filled the chairs of -that university. He was diligent and conscientious in his attendance to -the duties of his situation, and his lectures were fully attended: the -best of his prose writings being his inauguration lecture, which had for -its subject the praise of the literary men of Italy, and the claiming -for them the merit of many discoveries usually attributed to the natives -of other countries. After three years spent at Pavia, he was invited by -the governor to Milan, and a number of offices and honours were bestowed -on him. He was made assessor to the minister of the interior for the -department of literature and the fine arts; he was named court poet and -historiographer, and made cavalier of the iron crown, member of the -institute, and of the legion of honour. Monti was no laggard in -fulfilling the duties of the first of these places. He wrote a variety -of poems in praise of Napoleon, and in celebration of his victories. In -the "Bard," a fictitious personage, Ullino, attended by the maiden -Malvina, while watching with enthusiastic admiration the advance of the -French arms, falls in with a young wounded warrior; they, of course, -take him home, and watch over his recovery, when he relates, at their -request, the events of the expedition to Egypt and the battles that -illustrated Napoleon's return to Europe. There is the merit of -enthusiasm and glowing description in portions of this poem. The canto -on the expedition to Egypt contains the best passages. -</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote2">1805.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -51.</span></p> - -<p> -When Napoleon was crowned king of Italy, Monti was commanded to celebrate -the event. He writes to Cesarotti,—"While you are robing the -magnificent spleen of Juvenal in beautiful and dignified Italian, I am -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">{Pg 327}</a></span> -sounding the Pindaric harp for the emperor Napoleon. The government has -commanded me, and I must obey. I hope that love of my country will not -make my thoughts too free; and that I may respect the hero, without -betraying my duty as a citizen. I am in a path where the wishes of the -nation do not accord with its political necessities, and I fear to lose -myself. St. Apollo help me! and do you pray that I may be endowed with -sagacity and prudence." This poem, in which he tries to trim his sail so -nicely between patriotism and servitude, is called "Il Benificio;" or -The Benefaction, a vision. It has great merit. All that Monti ever wrote -is graced with such a happy flow, and with so much beauty of imagery and -expression, that it is impossible not to admire as we read. He describes -Italy as appearing to him in a vision; she is personified by a woman, -wounded and drooping, the victim of grief and slavery. The poet, struck -with compassion and horror, evokes the shades of mighty Romans from -their tombs to assist the degraded queen of the world; but they turn in -scorn from the fallen and lost one. Then a warrior, godlike and -majestic, descends from the Alps,—Victory attends him,—yet he -disregards her, and prefers the olive to the laurel (a most unfortunate -compliment to a man whose whole soul was war). He approaches the -unfortunate prostrate being,—raises her, and bids her reign; nor -could the livid glare cast by the British cannon over the Tyrrhene sea -avail against him. The warrior smiles, and at his smile all danger -vanishes. Then the austere and noble spirit of Dante arises and -apostrophises Italy, telling her that the regal power of Napoleon was -exactly the restraint and law he had wished her to fall under; and, taking -the crown from her head, places it on that of the French emperor. Spain -salutes the new diadem. The German, still crimson with his own blood, -acknowledges the victor, and bends his eyes to earth; while the British -pirate, powerful in fleets and fraud, curses aloud. "I send you a copy -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">{Pg 328}</a></span> -of the Vision," Monti writes to a friend, "which I have written for the -coronation of our king: it has succeeded perfectly, and no work of mine, -since I began to write verses, has prospered so well." It is impossible -not to congratulate him on his success in attaining prudence. Assuredly -there was nothing too free in these verses; and Napoleon might accept -them without an unpleasant thought being awakened as to his usurpation, -tyranny, and rapacious, unbounded ambition. -</p> - -<p> -Every fresh victory, every new conquest, was a theme for the venal muse -of Monti; venal we have a right to call it, since he acknowledges the -bond of a salary and the necessity of obedience. Thus, on occasion of -the battle of Jena, he brought out the "Spada di Federico;" or, the -Sword of Frederic,—the most popular of his odes of triumph. In this -poem he images the spectral hand of the warrior king of Prussia -disputing with Napoleon the possession of his sword, and yielding to the -proud assumptions and tenacious grasp of the Gallic victor. Ten editions -of this work were sold in the space of five months, and it was -translated into the French and Latin languages. -</p> - -<p> -The attempted usurpation of the Spanish throne did not go uncelebrated. -The "Palingenesi" has for its subject the regeneration of mind and of -political institutions wrought in Spain, under the auspices of the -French emperor and his brother Joseph. If we could dismiss from our -minds the truth, and fancy, as Monti assumes, that a great and generous -nation had sunk into the depths of slavery and degradation through the -evil influence of a corrupt government, and that Napoleon was bent on -loosening its fetters and raising it to freedom and knowledge, it would -be impossible not to be filled with enthusiasm by the noble ideas and -grand imagery of this poem. But the taint of falsehood prevents any -sympathy, and our admiration of the imagination displayed is checked by -our contempt of the flatterer; while we smile at the bitter and violent -curses poured upon the English, whose motives for assisting the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">{Pg 329}</a></span> -Spaniards in resisting the French are painted in the most odious -colours. -</p> - -<p> -We wonder as we read. There is fire, sublimity, and power in every line. -Can these be inspired, as we are assured by Monti's friends, by the mere -desire of acquiring the loaves and fishes, if not for himself -individually, for his wife and daughter? Are the shadowy forms which he -invests with so much beauty—the conceptions into which he infuses so -much energy and seeming sincerity—the mere playthings of his thought, -and not the genuine offspring of a mind teeming and overflowing with a -sense of usefulness and truth? We cannot believe it; we are so apt to -forget what our feelings were when the occasion that called them forth -has vanished like morning mist. When Napoleon fell, men forgot the -wonder and admiration with which they had regarded him during his -prosperity. He had come on the time-worn world like an incarnation of -the memories of antiquity. The greatest sovereigns, who traced their -descent from the middle ages—the thrones of the world, so long the -objects of worship and fear—the crowns and sceptres which had been -looked upon as the sacred and inviolable symbols of divine right—were -all at his feet, dispossest, transferred, and broken. It could be no -wonder that men looked upon the cause of these things as something -prodigious and superhuman. Monti may be excused that he joined in the -common feeling of awe and admiration; while, afterwards, seeing how -little good arose from the breaking up of the ancient tyrannies, and how -the indomitable will of one man was enforced by means of treachery and -slaughter, he might forget that he could ever have been so blinded, and -fancy that acknowledged fear was the cause of an inspiration which -really sprung from the slavish worship of success, which is too -naturally inherent in human beings. -</p> - -<p> -Although Monti brought forward this disingenuous plea to excuse his -celebration of the hero of the age, he was sincere in one feeling,—an -attachment to the offspring of his brain, and in the indignation he felt -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">{Pg 330}</a></span> -against those who depreciated his poetic merits. The "Sword of Frederic" -was attacked by the critics with great asperity, and he replied with -still greater acrimony. He had been charged with mannerism and sameness, -especially in the machinery of his poems, in which visions, spectres, -and cloudy spiritual essences play for ever a principal part. He would -not allow this to be a defect, and railed at the unimaginative minds who -conceived it to be such. He tries to be jocose in his indignation, but -his laugh is bitter; and he heaps the accusations of ill faith and envy, -as well as of ignorance and bad taste, on those who attack him. There -may be justice in this, but there is no dignity. There is always a -degree of degradation in noticing the enmity of a race of ephemera, and -not calmly relying on the award of the public. -</p> - -<p> -Besides the poems above mentioned, Monti wrote several other poems in -praise of the conqueror. "The Jerogamia" and the "Api Panacridi" were -compositions which, whatever their apparent subject might be, turned, -after all, on the praise of the emperor. They maintained, if they did -not increase, the poet's fame. His best works were already written; and -these may be named to be the "Aristodemo," the "Basvilliana," passages -in the "Prometèo," the "Mascheroniana," and the "Palingenesi" and of his -shorter odes, that to Bonaparte, on occasion of the Cisalpine congress, -and his hymn on his return to Italy. -</p> - -<p> -Years began to tame the fire of his imagination, and he felt the spirit -of original composition fail him. His active mind turned to other -subjects on which to exercise it: his love of classical learning led him -to works of criticism and erudition, and he wrote "Remarks on the Winged -Horse of Arsinoe." A want of knowledge of the Greek language must, -however, have been a great drawback to this species of study; but we -must regard with still greater wonder, considering this defect, his next -enterprise, which was the translation of the Iliad. He had been looking -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">{Pg 331}</a></span> -out for a subject, and meditating in what way he could employ his -powers, when a word, spoken by chance by Ugo Foscolo, at once awoke in -his mind the desire and the energy requisite for so arduous a task. Not -being acquainted with Greek, he applied himself to every kind of literal -translation, and was, besides, mainly assisted by his friend Mustoxidi, -who explained passages, compared his version with the original, and -bestowed a degree of labour which, barren as it was of reputation to -himself, must be regarded as a singular proof of disinterested -attachment. Monti applied himself so vigorously to the task, that, in -spite of all his disadvantages, in less than two years he brought it to -a conclusion. -</p> - -<p> -This new labour yielded him a large harvest of reputation. Other Italian -translations of the Iliad already existed: that of Salvini is valuable, -from his profound knowledge of the Greek and Italian languages. It is -elegantly and faithfully translated, but it wants spirit; and the -sublime Homeric fire, which renders the Iliad the greatest of human -works, glimmers feebly in his version. The translation of Ceruti is as -faithful as is compatible with his ignorance of Greek; but, besides the -want of the true spirit of the original, his style, modelled on that of -Metastasio and Rolli, wants vigour and versatility. -</p> - -<p> -Monti possessed, beyond any other poet, the faculty of warming himself -with his subject, of penetrating himself with its soul, and imparting, -by the vivacity of his language and the glowing brightness of his -imagination, his own sentiments to the reader. The very act of -versifying seemed to be to him what the sound of song is to the -sensitive, in elevating and moving the soul. His mind possessed the -qualities of the harp, which gives forth sweet music when swept by the -breezes: thought with him was always pregnant with harmonious and -animated expression, with glowing and various imagery. On this has been -founded his excuse for writing with such apparent fervour on subjects -that did not really interest his feelings; and this facility is a good -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">{Pg 332}</a></span> -quality in a translator. Monti could conceive and imbibe the spirit of -the original, and give it out, in his own language, with vigour and -life. Visconti, in waiting to the poet, says, "The choice and variety of -diction and phrases, the equal and sustained tone of the verses, and the -noble simplicity of the style, place your work among the few that -transmit the poetic name with honour to posterity." This praise was -accompanied by a few judicious criticisms which showed the care and zeal -with which he had examined the translation. Monti paid attention to -them, and endeavoured to amend all the errors pointed out in the -subsequent editions of his work. -</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote2">1814.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -60.</span></p> - -<p> -When Napoleon was overthrown, and the north of Italy fell under the yoke -of the Austrians, Monti of course lost all his public employments, and -he was menaced in his old age by the miseries of hopeless poverty. But -his submissive disposition and plastic opinions were just of that sort -which kings delight to honour; and the emperor of Austria bestowed such -pensions on him as enabled him to pursue his studies in leisure and -competence. No doubt Monti felt glad, in common with all his countrymen, -to get rid of the antinational sway of the French, and hoped that a -better state of things would result from any change. His experience of -popular rule in Italy had disgusted him with it. He had not that zeal -and ardour of feeling resulting from a conviction that, however perilous -the passage from slavery to liberty, it must be attempted and persevered -in, with all its attendant evils, if men are to be brought back from -that cowardice, indolence, and selfishness which mark the slave, to the -heroism, patience, and intellectual activity which characterise the -freeman. Besides this, the armies of Austria admitted of no reply from -the unwarlike Italians. The remnants of their army which had returned, -wasted and broken, from the Russian campaign had been forced, after some -show of resistance, to capitulate: submission was their only resource, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">{Pg 333}</a></span> -and submission was in accordance with Monti's disposition. Nor did he -afterwards ever give umbrage to the jealous and revengeful government -whose pay he received, when hopes of better times and of redemption -warmed the hearts of all the nobler Italians to attempt the destruction -of their tyrants. He was acquainted with many of the Austrian victims; -and when we find in his letters complaints of sorrows and misfortunes, -we must attribute these to the real sympathy he felt for these unhappy -martyrs: but, though he sympathised with the men, it is probable that he -disapproved of their attempts. He was hopeless, and a hopeless struggle -presented to him only the too real picture of aggravated oppression in -general, and frightful individual suffering; he did not feel that -boiling of the heart, that fire of the spirit, which makes the great and -good risk all, rather than live subject to a power which exerted all its -leaden strength to press down genius, crush every exertion of mind, and -to reduce men as nearly as possible to the condition of the herds who -graze in the fields, without a thought beyond the food and rest which -the fertility of the soil and the beauty of the climate afford. Monti -was not one of these: his mind was active, and, in his way, he wished to -benefit his country. So when a thousand hearts were convulsed by the -throes arising from all the hopes and fears of a just rebellion, he -turned his attention to the study of the Italian language, to the task -of freeing it from the shackles which critics had thrown over it, and of -gifting it with the new spirit and animation which must arise from the -introduction of living forms of speech, instead of the classic and -restricted limitations imposed by the Della Crusca society. -</p> - -<p> -He composed few poems after the fall of Napoleon. When the emperor of -Austria sent the archduke John to receive the oath of fealty from the -provinces of Lombardy, he wrote, by command, a cantata, entitled -"Mistico Omaggio," or the Mystic Homage, which was brought out at the -principal theatre at Milan. When the emperor himself visited Italy he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">{Pg 334}</a></span> -celebrated the event by a poem, called "The Return of Astrea," and -another, named "The Invitation to Pallas." His style in these later -compositions joins harmony to dignity, and forms that mixture of -strength and sweetness which is so delightful in Metastasio. His last -poetic compositions were written at Pesaro, where he was debarred from -his usual occupations, and dispirited by a disease that attacked one of -his eyes; and he solaced himself by dictating various poems full of -grace and beauty, which he afterwards published under the title of -"Sollievo nella Malinconia," or "Relief of Melancholy." -</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote2">1812.</span></p> - -<p> -One of the most fortunate incidents of his life was the marriage of his -daughter to a man of singular merit. Costanza Monti was (is, we should -rather say) remarkable for her beauty and her talents; her poetry, -though there is little of it, is of a very high grade, and one poem, "On -a Rose," has sufficed to establish her fame in Italy. Count Giulio -Perticari sprung from a noble family of Romagna. His residence was at -Pesaro, and he there filled successively the offices of podestà and -judge. He devoted himself to literature, and had published works both in -prose and verse, by which he acquired considerable reputation. It must -be in the memory of all Italians, and all those strangers who visited -Italy during his lifetime, how he was beloved by every one who knew him. -No man was ever more popular, more universally pronounced the best of -men; and this praise resulted from the goodness and singleness of his -heart, the sweetness of his disposition, and his unpretending but -attractive manners. Writing concerning this marriage to his friends, -Monti speaks of it with pride and pleasure. He says, "Count Giulio -Perticari, of Pesaro, is a young man well cultivated in literature. I -say nothing of his moral qualities, which render him dear to all. It is -the most delightful match that paternal love can desire." -</p> - -<p> -After this period Monti's labours were chiefly confined to prose, and he -is considered in this manner to have greatly benefited the literature of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">{Pg 335}</a></span> -his country. The chief among these are the considerations on the -difficulty of well translating the poetry of the Iliad, and several -dialogues on the Italian language, full of acute criticism and wit. A -circumstance turned his attention still more entirely to the subject of -language. The government of Lombardy, wishing to show some encouragement -to literature, had ordered the Royal Institute of Milan to occupy itself -in the reform of the national dictionary; and Monti was requested by his -colleagues to publish his observations on the subject. He obeyed with -alacrity. His son-in-law, count Perticari, had devoted much attention to -this subject, and he became Monti's associate in the task. -</p> - -<p> -The great question in Italy is, whether the pure and classical language, -the only one not wholly barbarous and vulgar, is Italian or Tuscan; a -mixture drawn from the various dialects of the peninsula, or solely -founded on Petrarch, Dante, and Boccaccio, and other early Tuscan -authors. The academy Della Crusca espoused the latter side of the -question, and, forming a dictionary, expunged every word not to be found -in the authors named the Trecentisti. Monti, on the contrary, attacked the -<i>ipse-dixits</i> of this academy, and, pointing out innumerable errors -in their dictionary, undertook, as he called it, a crusade against the -Della Crusca. -</p> - -<p> -This is a question that has divided all the talents of Italy, and in -which it appears presumptuous in a foreigner to express any decision. -Still we may reason from general grounds, and from analogy. Every -portion of Italy has a distinct dialect. Immediately on leaving the -precincts of any town, an acute ear will detect in the person who lives -outside the gate a difference in the form of speech and pronunciation. -Many of the towns use a mere <i>patois</i>, which has never been written. -The Neapolitan, Romagnole, Genoese, and Milanese, each have a dialect, -devoid of grace, cacophonous, truncated of vowels, and unintelligible to -any but themselves; the Venetian being the only one distinguished for -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">{Pg 336}</a></span> -its own peculiar charms. To a stranger the language of the Romans has a -great charm: the <i>bocca Romana</i>, or Roman pronunciation, is clear, -soft, and yet emphatic. Their language is unidiomatic, and therefore easily -comprehended. You enter Tuscany, and come upon those terse and idiomatic -forms of speech which enraptured Alfieri, and which give so much energy -and animation to the expression of sentiment, so much clearness and -precision to narration or reasoning. But even these are not admitted by -the Della Crusca. The Florentine is still a dialect—the Pisan and the -Siennese fall under the same denomination: the principal difference is -that the grammar of all the Tuscans is pure, and that you may form your -speech on that of the peasantry and servants, without running any risk -of falling into errors and vulgarisms. Alfieri used to mingle in the -crowds assembled in the market-place of Sienna, there to imbibe from -unlearned lips the purest modes of the Italian language. The dictionary -Della Crusca was founded therefore on Tuscan, omitting its -peculiarities, and carefully registering any innovations that had crept -in since the era of the Trecentisti. It is obvious, under this tutelage, -that the Italian became, when written, virtually a dead language. No -author could adopt the forms of speech he made use of in the common -conversation. The language that they heard and spoke when moved by joy, -by grief, by love, or anger, was to be modified, corrected, and, so to -speak, translated, before it could be put in a book. The living impress -of the soul was to be taken from it, and, instead of putting down the -word that rose spontaneously to the lips, and ought to have flowed as -easily from the pen, the author hunted in the Della Crusca dictionary -for authorities, which shackled the free spirit of inspired genius with -chains and bolts forged from the works of the old writers, who -themselves wrote as they spoke, and created a language, simply by -putting down the forcible and graceful expressions then in colloquial -use. -</p> - -<p> -Still a great difficulty arises from any deviation from these rules. Was -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">{Pg 337}</a></span> -then the Florentine dialect, or the Siennese, or the Pisan, to be the -written language of the country? Each city would have rejected its -neighbour's, and still more would Lombardisms be regarded with disdain -by the inhabitants of the south. Language, pronunciation, idiom, all -form a habit to the eye and ear, which, beginning with our very birth, -cannot be afterwards discarded. No Tuscan ever would or even could -tolerate the introduction of any of the words or phrases belonging to -other dialects; and they endure the mistakes of foreigners with less -disgust than the uncouth pronunciation of their countrymen of the north -and east of the peninsula. Nor will they allow that even the well -educated among these use classic modes of speech. This is the point of -contention; for their antagonists insist, that they are in as full -possession as the Tuscans of pure Italian, drawing it from the same -sources— namely, the best writers of the country; and assert that they -are as well able to originate new modes of expression, and to turn with -as much elegance and force those already in use. -</p> - -<p> -Monti and Perticari both entered heart and soul into this dispute, which -speedily roused every literary person in Italy to take one side or the -other. The Tuscans, headed by the Della Crusca, were furious that their -long-acknowledged supremacy should be questioned; while Monti, resting -the merits of his opinion on the great authority of Dante, did not -hesitate in his attack. Several letters to his friend Mustoxidi display -his earnestness and sincerity in the cause. We extract passages from -them, as explanatory of his ideas and characteristic of the man. -</p> - -<p> -"The necessity of relaxing a little the intensity of the labour I have -in hand, led me for a few days among these mountains, where yours of the -2d found me. To fulfil my duty towards government, I have been obliged -to publish my remarks on the Della Crusca vocabulary, and the great -distinction of which it is necessary to remind the Italians; the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">{Pg 338}</a></span> -distinction I mean between the plebeian dialects, and that dignified -language spoken by all the well educated in the country, from the summit -of the Alps to the Lilybæum promontory. Founding my opinion on the -authority of Dante, in which both Petrarch and Boccaccio concur in a -surprising manner, I have undertaken to advocate that dignified Italian -which is not spoken but written; and to vindicate the rights of fourteen -provinces of Italy against the pretensions of a single one, which, -contrary to the principles of the great father of Italian literature, -has endeavoured to substitute the language in use in a single city, in -short a peculiar dialect, which, however beautiful, is only a dialect, -and can never fill the place of that universal language of which the -country has need. I do not know whether I shall treat this great cause -worthily; but I am convinced that whoever impugns the principles which I -establish, must begin by proving that Dante and the other two were mad. -I dare not believe that I have obtained a complete victory; but I have -laid the foundation-stones on which others of greater talent may one day -erect and finish the edifice." -</p> - -<p> -To another friend he writes:—"The treatise of Perticari on the -language of the Trecentisti, which will soon be published, is a -<i>chef-d'oeuvre</i>, displaying great philosophy and acute criticism. I -promise you that it will make a great sensation, and that the Crusca -with drooping head, <i>caudamque remulcens</i>, will not know what to -answer." -</p> - -<p> -"Grassi has written an excellent parallel of the Della Crusca dictionary -with that of Johnson and the Spanish academy, which are similar in their -plan; and you will perceive the Gothic condition of our vocabulary in -comparison with others. Assistance and support reach me from all parts -of Italy, even from Tuscany; so that I may say that the whole nation -sides with me." -</p> - -<p> -With more moderation he writes afterwards,—"We do not wish to rule; -but neither reason nor honour permit us to continue slaves. We only desire -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">{Pg 339}</a></span> -the right to have a voice in the defence of national rights against -municipal pretensions: for the rest, we will take the law from them." -</p> - -<p> -In fact, Monti must have felt the extreme difficulty of the question. In -England and France it is just to say, that the language of the well -educated all over the country may serve for authority as to language. -But the nobility and higher classes in Lombardy and Romagna all speak -their unintelligible dialects among themselves; it is only with -strangers, and when they write, that they have recourse to Italian. It -is impossible, therefore, that what they compose by rule, after study -and practice, can be the living language of a people in opposition to a -dialect, if you will, which, with few omissions and some change of -pronunciation, is the admiration of all who can appreciate the true -beauties of style; which is remarkable for passion and fervour combined -with concision and sweetness; for idiomatic phrases that realise and -stamp as it were the thought, instead of a periphrastic expression which -speaks of an idea or notion rather than giving expression to these -themselves. Monti was right in throwing aside the classical shackles of -the Della Crusca; but there is token in his letters that, in his heart, -he at last acknowledged that there was more of the living spirit of true -Italian abroad in the colloquial idiom of Tuscany, than in all the -well-turned sentences and set phrases of the well educated of the rest -of Italy. -</p> - -<p> -We cannot help thinking that Monti must have been very happy during the -prosecution of these labours. An active mind abhors repose, when it must -"cream and mantle like a standing pool." The aid and sympathy of his -amiable and cultivated son-in-law must have shed an infinite charm over -his labours, the zeal of his partisans have flattered, the attacks of -his enemies have animated him. He believed that he was delivering his -country from a superstition which clogged the springs of her literature, -and choked up its free course. To a great degree he was in the right, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">{Pg 340}</a></span> -and the proof is in the original and beautiful use made of his theory by -the Italian authors of the present day. -</p> - -<p> -Monti, loudly acknowledged to be the first Italian poet of his day, -continued to reside at Milan, devoted to literary pursuits, surrounded -by a circle of admirers, the chief not so much of a sect, as of Italian -literature. Yet he was often attacked, and was by no means tolerant of -criticism. His heart, however, was of better grain than his temper, and -his violent literary disputes with distinguished contemporaries, with -Mazza, Cesarotti, and Bettinelli, terminated in mutual friendship and -esteem. Angry when offended, and unmeasured in his expressions of -offence, yet the desire of reconciliation on the part of others was -always met by him with cordiality and ready forgiveness. He was the more -loved and admired the more he was known; one of the charms that attended -his intercourse was the beauty of his recitation. To hear him read -Virgil or Dante, was to find a deeper pathos in the laments of Dido, new -energy in the complaints of Ugolino. Fond of, devoted to his art, there -was no pedantry about him: he never thrust it upon the ignorant or -frivolous; but with his friends he loved to analyse the essence of -poetry, and to discuss the great question then in vogue in Italy of the -classic and romantic schools. There is a letter of his to a friend on -this subject, passages of which may be quoted as showing his opinions on -this subject, opinions which bear the stamp of truth. -</p> - -<p> -"A poet," he writes, "ought to paint the nature which he beholds. I -applaud the poetry of the North, which is in perfect accord with the -gloomy atmosphere from which it receives its inspiration. But Italian -poetry, born of a glad and happy sky, is mad when she would robe herself -in clouds, and study to paint a nature of which she can form no idea -except from imagination. And besides, should poetry, whose chief use is -to delight (and, in the miserable state of human beings, to delight is -to serve), ought she to appear rough and frowning, ruled by pedantry and -crabbed philosophy? Is it possible that no one knows how to distinguish -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">{Pg 341}</a></span> -the office of poet from that of philosopher? It is one thing to speak to -the senses, another to speak to the intellect. Naked and dry truth is -the death of poetry; for poetry and fiction are the same, and fable -being only truth disguised, this truth must be ornamented by flowers to -be gladly received. You scattered fresh and beautiful roses over your -poetic meditations when you speak of Greece and Rome; but, when you -leave these fields of perennial poetic beauty, and say that the thoughts -of the Greeks ran around in a narrow circle of images, and after -uttering this falsehood, you throw yourself with loosened reins into the -praise of the romantic school, then, my noble friend (pardon me if I -frankly declare my opinion), you are no longer the same. Had I been at -your side when you wrote your tender adieu to the gods of Greece, I should -have persuaded you not to continue it—nor to irritate the shade of -Schiller—of that Schiller whom, next to Shakspeare, I admire. Do you -not know that his best and favourite ode is entitled the 'Gods of -Greece?' in which he manifests his indignation against those who have -expelled them from the kingdom of the muses, and prays that they may be -recalled to adorn life and poetry. I conversed much with lord Byron -during the fifteen days' stay which he made at Milan. Do you know that -he trembled with rage when any one chanced, fancying that they paid him -a compliment, to praise the romantic school. Yet, in the sense in which -we understand it, no one was more romantic than he. But he disdained the -name, hating to find himself mixed up with the crowd of fools who -dishonour that noble school. I do not wish to play the preceptor with -you, but allow the true friendship that binds me to you to conclude with -a counsel which for many years I have myself followed, <i>inter utrumque -vola</i>; and, leaving the squabbles of party, let us use our best -endeavours to write good verses." -</p> - -<p> -We may add to this profession of the poet's faith with regard to the -classic and romantic schools, that Monti considered Homer, Dante, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">{Pg 342}</a></span> -Shakspeare as the first poets of the world; thus giving proof of the -justness of his taste, and demonstrating that originality and truth were -appreciated by him at their just value. Next to these three kings of the -art he placed Virgil, whom he loved as the friend of his boyhood. He -preferred Tacitus and Livy among the Latin prose writers, and -Machiavelli among the Italians. His opinions on these subjects were -delivered without arrogance, and without presuming to institute an -unappealable decision. -</p> - -<p> -The count and countess Perticari resided principally at Pescara; but -they held frequent intercourse with Monti at Milan. In the winter of -1821-22, Perticari having made some stay at Milan, Monti accompanied -him on his return home. Several of his letters to his wife written -during this excursion are published; and we cannot resist the temptation -of giving them to the reader, affording as they do demonstrations of his -affectionate heart, and of the pleasure he took in the society of his -amiable relative. The first of these is dated from Verona, 7th October, -1821. -</p> - -<p> -"I never made a merrier journey. We were six in company: a Brescian, a -Veronese, a Paduan, Mercandante, and us two. Day had scarcely dawned, -when we began to examine each other, and snuff-boxes went their amicable -round. An instant confidence sprung up among us, which led to much chat -and pleasantry. So gay were we, that we did nothing but laugh in chorus -till we arrived at the gates of Verona. Perticari and I ordered that our -luggage should be carried to the inn; being determined to remain free. -But the signore Mosconi, and Persica, had already left word at the best -inns that there was no room for Perticari and Monti; and, at the moment -when we arrived in the diligence, the countess Clarina and her daughter, -and the count, got into their carriage to meet and run away with us, as -if we had been two beautiful birds. Poor Mariano, who was accompanying -the porter with our luggage to the hotel, was pounced upon by the son of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">{Pg 343}</a></span> -the countess, ordered to turn right about and to follow him, he knew not -whither; not daring to resist, and fearing that his commander was a -custom-house officer. In short, it was not possible to resist the gentle -violence put upon us, and the cordial entreaties of my dear friend the -countess; and here we are welcomed, feasted, and honoured beyond -measure. -</p> - -<p> -"It was our intention only to remain three days at Verona, but we have -been obliged to promise not to go till Sunday. The countess means to -accompany us half-way on the road to Vicenza, where we shall arrive by -noon, and on Monday evening we shall be at Bassano, three hours' journey -only from Vincenza; thence to Passagno, and on to Padua, whence you -shall hear from us." -</p> - -<p><br /></p> - -<p style="margin-left: 60%;">"Venice, November 20. 1821.</p> - -<p> -"Not to leave you any longer waiting for news of us, I seize a moment -when every one is asleep (it being only five in the morning) to tell you -that yesterday we arrived safely at Venice. It would be a too -long-winded egotism to relate to you the kindness, the politeness, the -friendly contests, with which we have been every where welcomed. We had -been expected here for several days with impatience, and, at the moment -of our arrival, chance brought us into immediate contact with the baron -Tordero, who embraced us with indescribable delight. It being known that -we were going to call on the countess Albrizzi, an assembly gathered -together there; nor can I describe to you the demonstrations of joy with -which we were welcomed by that celebrated lady, and all her agreeable -friends. We remained till eleven, and should have staid longer had not -hunger (for we had not dined) recalled us to our inn; that, and the -circumstance that our friends, who had accompanied us from Padua, were -waiting for us. The merriment at table was prolonged till one in the -morning; so you see I have barely had three hours' sleep, and yet I -never was so well in my life." -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">{Pg 344}</a></span> -</p> - -<p><br /></p> - -<p style="margin-left: 60%;">"Pesaro, December 7. 1821.</p> - -<p> -"At length, yesterday, at the stroke of the ave-maria, we arrived, safe -and sound, at Pesaro, to the immense joy of our Constance; a joy, -nevertheless, mingled with bitterness, because her mother had not chosen -to accompany us: a circumstance which grieves me also, because I fear -that the severity of the winter, at Milan, which is here mild, may be -injurious to you. But, since you have been pleased to disappoint our -hopes, at least take particular care of your health, and do not expose -yourself to cold. -</p> - -<p> -"Surrounded by visits and compliments, I have no time at present for -more. Let it suffice that my health is flourishing, and that I hope that -yours is the same. Constance and Giulio embrace you fondly. Addio, -addio!" -</p> - -<p> -The following letter does not concern personal topics; but gives so -lively a picture of Italian manners, that it is well worthy to be -extracted:— -</p> - -<p><br /></p> - -<p style="margin-left: 60%;">"Pesaro, January 12. 1822.</p> - -<p> -"You have reason to complain of the infrequency of my letters, but I -study and write continually; and when I am buried among my books, with a -pen in my hand, you know how difficult it is to draw me away, and ought -to forgive me. -</p> - -<p> -"I am delighted to hear that, notwithstanding the clouds and snow that -infest Milan at this season, your health had not yet suffered. I entreat -you to take the greatest care of it. Mine is perfect. I never enjoyed so -benignant a winter. It is so mild, that I am dressed now as I am -accustomed to do at Milan in October. -</p> - -<p> -"For the sake of making a longer letter, I will relate an anecdote which -will make you laugh. -</p> - -<p> -"There is an ancient custom still existing at Fano, ten miles from -Pesaro, of celebrating a bull-fight at this season; to which a great -concourse of people resort from the surrounding towns. A few days ago -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">{Pg 345}</a></span> -the first celebration took place. A truly ferocious bull was turned into -the arena. It is a law, that whoever chooses to attack the animal may -descend into the lists. No one dared expose himself to this infuriated -creature, and all the dogs who ventured to assail him were tossed and -killed. At length a peasant presented himself, and, to the wonder of -all, approached the tremendous animal. He boldly went close to him; and -the bull became quite mild, allowing himself to be patted and stroked, -while he licked the hand that caressed him; every one was astonished, -when, all of a sudden, a fellow among the spectators starts up, and -calls out, 'The man is a sorcerer!' 'A sorcerer! a magician!' exclaimed -several others in a fury. 'Burn the magician! burn the magician!' every -one exclaims. The president of the games is also persuaded that this -prodigy can only be the work of the devil; and he sends four soldiers, -who seize on the magician, drag him from the lists, and throw him into -prison. The poor fellow asked the cause of this violence; he was told, -'You are a magician; you will be hanged and burnt!' 'What are you saying -about a magician?' cried the man; 'does not his excellency and his -reverence know that the bull let me touch him because he knew me? I am -his master.' This testimony, being confirmed by several who knew the man -to be the master of the bull, and who took oaths to this effect, ought -to have cured the president of his folly; but the poor magician is still -in prison, and they are still disputing what to do with him." -</p> - -<p> -At the same time that Monti writes thus to his wife, his letters to his -other friends are equally full of the pleasure he enjoyed at this time. -"You will like to know," he writes to one, "how I am passing my life. -Most happily; but not in idleness. Happily, because I am with my -children; and enjoy a season so mild and serene, that winter resembles -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">{Pg 346}</a></span> -the opening of spring. Not in idleness, because I pursue my studies, and -mean to give a last, short, critical treatise." -</p> - -<p> -But a few months after, in the July of the same year, 1822, Monti again -visited Pesaro, in circumstances that form a painful contrast with the -tranquil and domestic happiness that occasioned him so much pleasure -during his former one. Perticari had died, suddenly, and Monti went to -assist and console his sorrowing daughter. He thus writes, on this -occasion, to his friend Mustoxidi, in a letter dated Pesaro, 30th July, -1822:— -</p> - -<p> -"You will have heard from my wife the pitiable state in which I found my -poor Constance. My arrival has produced a happy change in this -unfortunate creature: my coming was like a sunbeam on a flower beaten -down by the tempest. But, again, her mind is distracted, sleep flies -from her eyes, and her health suffers dreadfully. I must applaud the -kind attentions of her mother-in-law, who is an angel of goodness. But I -perceive that the only way to preserve her from the most dangerous -consequences of excessive grief, is to take her from a place too full of -shocking associations. And I would not delay my journey, but for the new -regulation of the pontifical police, which does not permit any one to -leave these states without a passport countersigned by the Austrian -ambassador at Rome. As soon as I obtain this I shall set out, and -conduct this dear object of my compassion to the arms of her mother." -</p> - -<p> -This was a wound not easily healed, and never to be forgotten. In the -spring of the following year Monti still alludes to his loss with the -keenest grief. "Your letter," he writes to a friend, "afforded me -infinite pleasure and consolation. For a long time I have lived a -wretched life under the rod of adversity; and it is only when I enjoy -the society of some person dear to me, or hear from them, that I become -a little cheerful, and my spirits revive. Such has been the effect, dear -friend, of your letter to your poor Monti—poor indeed in every way, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">{Pg 347}</a></span> -and very unhappy. Unhappy in the death of Giulio; unhappy in the ill health -of Constance, who is wasting away with grief; unhappy in myself, as I am -deaf, old, and almost blind. For my eyes, owing to my over-use of them -in reading and writing by candle-light, are fallen into their old -state." -</p> - -<p> -The last volume of the "Proposta" was published in July, 1823; and, this -last prosaic labour finished, the imagination of Monti awoke again, and -he turned his thoughts once more to the composition of poetry. He -restored the true reading to the "Convito" of Dante, which he prized as -the basis and authority of his own theories concerning the Italian -language. He wrote, also, the idyl on the nuptials of Cadmus; and then -contemplated the completion of his poem of the "Feroniade," which he had -begun many, many years ago at Rome. When he was secretary to don Luigi -Braschi, duke of Nemi, and nephew of Pius VI., he was accustomed to -accompany his patron in his hunting expeditions: the usual course of -these excursions was the Pontine marshes, near Terracina, a spot -abundant in game. There is a fountain in that neighbourhood, supposed to -be that anciently dedicated to the Diva Ferronia, at which the hunters -were accustomed to drink to refresh themselves. The sight of that -insalubrious marshy tract of land, the drainage of which had just been -undertaken by the pope, for the purpose of restoring it to agriculture, -awoke in Monti the idea of paying his debt of gratitude to the house of -Braschi, by commemorating this munificent work; he instantly began his -task, and named his poem from the guardian genius of the place. The -circumstances of the times interrupted his design: it became more -profitable to celebrate the ambition of Napoleon than the piety of a -captive priest; and the work was neglected, thrown aside, and almost -forgotten. During the last years of the poet's life, his friends -solicited him to finish it. Perhaps, when many years and many changes -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">{Pg 348}</a></span> -had made much of his past life appear like an unconnected dream, the -memory of his early years came before him with all that charm and -vividness which youth often assumes in the eyes of age; and he was glad -to recur to a forgotten monument of bygone times. He yielded, therefore, -to the request of those about him, and had almost finished, when first -disease, and afterwards death, put an end to all his designs. It was -early in the year 1826 that he had thus renewed his poetic existence, -resolving not again to abandon it while his imagination remained -vigorous; but in the very opening of this enthusiasm, while every fear -was distant, and his active mind gladly met, each morning, the series of -duties and labour which he imposed on himself, he was seized by an -illness, through which every scheme and every hope was calamitously -overthrown. -</p> - -<p> -On the 9th of April, at about eleven o'clock, when he had retired, -rather to study than repose, a sudden apoplexy attacked him; and no -medical aid, nor any care, could restore him again to health. He lost -the use of his left side, and the vital powers appeared mortally -attacked. The news spread through Milan, and struck every one with -grief; the population crowded round his door, and this public -demonstration of kindness sensibly affected him. His mind remained clear -and strong throughout the attack, nor was he without sanguine hopes of -recovery. In the April succeeding his first seizure, we find him writing -to a friend: "I burn with a desire to revisit Florence before I die; -consequently I have resolved, next June, to go to the mud baths of -Albano, near Padua, whence I hope to receive a renewal of my strength -sufficient for my journey." These mud baths, however, were pronounced -hurtful instead of beneficial to his disorder, and he never went. Still -hope was alive, and he lingered on until the autumn of 1828, his life -being consumed in a slow martyrdom: his death-bed was attended by his -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">{Pg 349}</a></span> -wife and disconsolate daughter, whom, even to the last, he sought to -cheer by words of affection, and by smiles when he could not speak. He -expired on the 13th of October, 1828, at the age of seventy-four. -</p> - -<p> -The genius of Monti would, in times of less public excitement, have -adorned his name with the highest praise; and his faults would never -have been called into view. The studious and imaginative bent of his -mind would have led him to cultivate letters and poetry; and we should -glory in the exalted fancy of a creative poet, without any shame for the -man. His domestic character was amiable; he was zealous for his friends, -grateful for benefits; generous, kind, and true in all the ordinary -intercourse of life: but neither reverence for genius, nor attachment to -the man, ought to blind us to his political tergiversation, or to -suppose that there is virtue in that inborn slavishness of spirit that -could see no degradation in praising those whom he reprobated in his -heart, and in commemorating with applause acts the most injurious to the -common cause of humanity. There is retribution in our own consciences -for all our faults, and Monti felt this: his love of glory was great, -and he was often pained by being reminded of his political apostacies; -but too often, when irritated by censure, he was willing to cast the -blame upon others, instead of admitting his own want of rigid public -integrity. -</p> - -<p> -But take away this error, and, as a private character, Monti merited the -affection and esteem of all. The only fault of his disposition was -irritability and an inclination to anger; but he redeemed it by the -candour of his acknowledgments, and the uprightness of his conduct. -Warmth of heart and warmth of temper are too apt to be united in the -same disposition; but the kindness of his nature was rendered even more -apparent by this defect of temperament. He was sensitive to injury, and -his indignation was proportionate to his quick sense of injustice; but, -though his anger took the appearance of sternness and severity, it never -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">{Pg 350}</a></span> -led him to injure another, but evaporated in words, and might be said to -agitate the surface, but never penetrated into the depths, of his mind. -He was never guilty of an act of revenge,—on the contrary, he often -benefited those who injured him. His mind was, in short, of a uniform -texture; and what it wanted in dignity and grandeur was compensated for -by gentleness, tenderness, and ready sympathy with the sufferings of -others. He was beyond measure charitable to those in distress; and -infinite and unwearied compassion, we are told by one who knew him well, -was his prominent characteristic. The poor gladly celebrated the -charities he strove to conceal. This virtue sprung, doubtless, from -early habits acquired under the roof of his benevolent parents. He was -simple as a child in the midst of worldliness, and the good faith and -sincerity of his friendships were without a flaw. -</p> - -<p> -"In person," the same friend informs us who has furnished the public -with the principal documents on which this memoir is founded, "he was -tall and handsome: his forehead ample; the shape of his face regular; -and his eyes, gleaming from beneath his arched and full brows, shone at -once with a vivacious and soft light, which commanded both affection and -respect. An air of melancholy was diffused over his countenance, to -which the habits of reflection would have given a severe and even -disdainful expression, had not the sweetest smile illuminated it with -the gracious light of love. His carriage was dignified, his mien -serious, and his whole aspect was that of a man of talent, and of one -warmed and softened by the benevolence and affectionateness of his -disposition." -</p> - -<p> -We may conclude with this description of the outward man, emanating from -one who revered and loved him as a preceptor and a friend. The world, in -the days succeeding to those of revolution and preceding those of -reform, was much divided between those who despaired and those who -hoped. The latter now triumph; but Monti died before the milder light -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">{Pg 351}</a></span> -dawned on the world, and while change appeared inevitably accompanied by -bloodshed and misery. His compassionate heart preferred the peace of -submission, both for himself and others, to the suffering attendant on -defeated struggles; and errors springing from so humane a source may be -forgiven, even by those whose ardent natures lead them to overlook the -toil and danger of the journey, in the hope of attaining the -accomplishment of their desires. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">{Pg 352}</a></span> -</p> - -<p><br /></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_52_52" id="Note_52_52"></a><a href="#NoteRef_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a>Maffei; Storia della Litteratura Italiana.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_53_53" id="Note_53_53"></a><a href="#NoteRef_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a>Bonetti.</p></div> - - -<p><br /><br /><br /></p> - -<h4><a id="UGO_FOSCOLO">UGO FOSCOLO</a></h4> - -<h4>1778-1827.</h4> - -<p> -The most necessary quality of an author is, that he should impress us -with the conviction that he has something to say. In reading his pages, -we ought to feel that he puts down the overflowing of his mind—ideas -and notions which, springing up spontaneously, force a birth for -themselves from the womb of silence, and acquire an existence through -their own native energy and vitality. An author, therefore, is a human -being whose thoughts do not satisfy his mind, ruminated on merely in his -own isolated bosom: he requires sympathy, a world to listen, and the -echo of assent from his fellow-creatures. But this is not all. Few men -can be excited by a mere abstraction, by the images of their own mind, -and the desire of communicating them for the benefit of their -fellow-creatures. Pride or vanity mingle essentially in the fabric of a -writer's mind: the pride which leads him to desire to build up an -enduring monument for his name, formed from his own compositions; or the -vanity that leads him to introduce himself to the reader, and to court -the notoriety which usually attends those who let the public into the -secret of their individual passions or peculiarities. -</p> - -<p> -The three great authors of modern Italy form a singular contrast to each -other, as to their apparent motives for authorship. Alfieri, proud, -independent, and gloomy, sought at once to honour his own name, to exalt -and refine his countrymen, and to produce such works as would benefit -his species; while the vehement passions of his own soul were their -primal source and inspiration. Monti was a poet of the imagination. He -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">{Pg 353}</a></span> -wrote because the imagery, the melody, the aerial fabric of poesy were a -part of his essence. The subjects of his poems were of less consequence, -in his eyes, than the well treating them, or the variety, grandeur, and -fantastic ideality displayed in his verses. Thus, at the word of -command, he could celebrate the usurper, taint the struggles of a noble -and free nation, and adorn the naked form of despotism with garments of -beauty. Foscolo, on the contrary, was impelled to produce and reproduce -himself: and yet to this assertion we must put some limit, for Foscolo -was a man of learning and taste, and he was capable of giving light to -compositions formed by the rules of art, and adorned by the graces -culled from an intimate knowledge of the finest of human works. But -vanity was still the mainspring,—a vanity accompanied by honesty of -principle and independence of soul, and yet which was vanity—the -worship of self—the making his own individuality the mirror in which -the world was reflected. -</p> - -<p> -Ugo Foscolo was born in the island of Zante, about the year 1778. The -Ionian isles had long been under the dominion of Venice. The family of -Foscolo was of Venetian origin; and his father was a surgeon in the navy -of the republic. Little is known of his early years. He seldom mentioned -them in conversation, though his imagination sometimes delighted to -recur to the sunny land of his birth, and to regret it. In one of his -sonnets he exclaims,— -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">Ne più mai toccherò le sacre sponde</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Ove il mio corpo fanciulletto giacque</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Zacinto mia, che te specchi nell' onde</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Del Greco mar.</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">Tu non altro che il canto avrai del figlio,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">O materna mia terra; a noi prescrisse</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Il fato illacrimata sepoltura.</span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">O! never more shall I thy sacred shores</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Approach, where my young limbs first sprung to life,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Beloved Zante! who look'st upon the waves</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Of the Greek sea; and thou the song alone</span><br /> -<span class="i2">May'st claim of thy lost son, maternal land!</span><br /> -<span class="i2">For fate to him decrees an unwept tomb.</span> -</div></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">{Pg 354}</a></span></p> - -<p> -The Ionian islands were at that time held as colonies of the Venetian -government, and tyrannised over by the most odious and oppressive laws. -Among others, no schools nor colleges were allowed to exist, and the -youth of the islands were sent to Venice for the purposes of education. -At an early age, therefore, Foscolo repaired to the parent city. His -father, it would seem, was at this time dead, for we hear only of his -mother, to whom he was always tenderly attached; and it appears that -she, also, transferred herself to Venice at the same period. Foscolo -seldom mentioned his family, with the exception of his mother. He had -two brothers, one who died, it is reported by his own hand, about the -year 1797; the other enlisted as a soldier, and rose, from his good -conduct and valour, to the rank of captain of dragoons. -</p> - -<p> -When boyhood was passed, Foscolo was sent to the university of Padua, -and studied under Cesarotti. There was great dissimilarity in the tastes -and literary opinions of the master and pupil; and thus Foscolo soon -displayed his original and independent turn of mind. Cesarotti explained -and commented upon Homer, and undertook at the same time to emend and -improve the verses of the father of poetry. He preferred Voltaire to -Euripides, and Ossian to Homer. While a great portion of ridicule -attaches itself to such paradoxes, the real learning and extensive -reading of the professor benefited his scholars; and by liberating them -from the narrow system of instruction which had subsisted for many -years, he introduced them, as it were, from the paled and guarded park -of classical literature, to the wilds, the moors, the incult mountains, -in short, to all the vast variety of unfettered nature. -</p> - -<p> -Foscolo, though taught by the advocate of Ossian, was all his life a -worshipper of Homer. Studious, as well as ardent in his literary -pursuits, he became a critical scholar; and, admiring not only Greek -poetry, but the fabric and machinery which constitute its structure, he -modelled his own poetic productions on them, and made ancient mythology, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">{Pg 355}</a></span> -and allusions to classical history, the props as well as the ornaments -of his verses. At the same time he admitted Cesarotti's rules with -regard to the Italian language, and abandoned the dialect of the -Trecentisti,—so long held up as a model, and yet which had become a -dead tongue,—to form an animated, simple, living language, -introducing into it phrases and words of modern use; expressions for ever -on the lips of the Italians, though heretofore banished from their pens. -</p> - -<p> -We are told that, on leaving college, Foscolo hesitated whether to enter -the clerical profession, which held out the prospect of competency to -its followers; but he was fortunately turned aside from a profession -whose narrow rules and arbitrary laws were in direct opposition to his -impetuous and independent disposition. Instead of assuming the tonsure, -Foscolo resolved to follow in the steps of Alfieri, and to acquire fame -as a tragedian. -<span class="sidenote1">1797.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -19.</span> -He produced his drama of "Thyestes" at the early age of nineteen; and it -may be said to be a creditable production for a youth. It is from his -after works that we judge that it was not inexperience, but an absolute -defect of a certain species of talent, that made this boy's tragedy a -mere bald imitation of those of his illustrious predecessor. Alfieri was -not a fanciful poet; his talent lay in developing plot, animating -dialogue, and interesting the reader by the clash of passion, or the -concentrated feelings of a single person. Foscolo possessed far more of -the peculiar spirit of poetry; but it was of didactic poetry. He could -not invent incident, nor describe any feelings but such as originated in -his own heart. "Thyestes," founded on one of the domestic crimes of the -unfortunate house of Pelops, possesses all the faults of Alfieri's -tragedies. He imitated him in producing only a few personages on the -scene; so that, as a critic observes, it seems as if it were written -just after the deluge, when the human race congregated by threes and -fours: obscurity of plot is added to this simplicity of action, and the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">{Pg 356}</a></span> -purpose and aim of the poet is never clearly discerned. One scene -follows another, not because produced by the antecedent one, but because -it is necessary that something should be said and done, or all would be -at a full stop. The language is clear and energetic; but, as we are -uninterested by the ideas which it conveys, this must appear a very -secondary merit. -</p> - -<p> -"Thyestes," however, succeeded in the theatre; and, as success in -representation is certainly the test of dramatic merit, we might suppose -some latent energy in its concoction, unapparent to the reader, but that -its success appears to have arisen from political feeling. It was acted -for the first time on January 4. 1797, in the theatre of St. Angelo at -Venice, to a vast concourse of spectators, and was repeated with -applause for nine consecutive nights. The extreme youth of the author -filled the audience with admiration, and he was called for after the -representation. We cannot well discern the political allusions that gave -it its chief interest, except that the name of king and tyrant are made -synonymous; a style, it might be imagined, neither distasteful nor -injurious to a republican government, however aristocratic. It would -appear, however, that this avidity for liberal sentiments was the cause -of its temporary success; for it was never again acted on any stage in -Italy. -</p> - -<p> -Adversity meanwhile was hanging over the head of the poet. The fall of -Venice, which occurred in the autumn of the same year, deprived him of -the very name of country. Hatred of the Austrian is a sentiment -profoundly engraved in every Italian heart; and when Venice was made -over by treaty to the German despot, Foscolo became a voluntary exile. -Whether he was in danger of being marked out in any of the lists of -proscription does not appear; but as it is evident that he is the hero -of his "Letters of Jacopo Ortis," we gather from that book, that his -friends feared for his personal liberty if he remained, and besought him -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">{Pg 357}</a></span> -to shelter himself, while there was yet time, from the enmity of the new -government. "I have left Venice," Ortis writes, "to avoid the first and -most violent persecutions. How many victims remain! We Italians -ourselves bathe our hands in Italian blood. Let what will happen to me! -Since I despair of good, either for myself or my country, I can await in -tranquillity a prison or death." -</p> - -<p> -All these letters are full of the indignant struggles, and the sorrow, -as well as of the opinions which ruled the heart of Foscolo, as he found -himself driven a wanderer from his home, sometimes lamenting his own -misfortunes, sometimes those of his country. -</p> - -<p> -"How many of our fellow-citizens repent their flight from home," he -writes, "and mourn! for what can we expect except indigence and -indignity—or, at the best, that brief and sterile compassion which -uncivilised nations offer to the stranger exile? And where shall I seek -an asylum—in Italy? Unhappy land! and can I behold those who have -robbed, scorned, and sold us, and not weep with rage? Oh! if the tyrants -were one only, and if the slaves were less abject, my hand would -suffice. But those who now blame me for cowardice would then accuse me -of crime; and the prudent would lament over, not the heroism of one -resolved, but the frenzy of a desperate man. What can be done between -two powerful nations, who, from being sworn, ferocious, and eternal -enemies, colleague to enslave us? and where force alone does not avail, -the one cajoles us with the name of liberty, the other with that of -religion; and we, debased by ancient servitude and new-born licence, -groan, betrayed, enslaved, famished, and yet not roused, either by -treason or famine. Ah! if I could, I would destroy my house and all dear -to me, and myself with them; I would leave nothing for the tyrants to -triumph over. Were there not people who, to escape the Romans, robbers -of the world, gave to the flames their dwellings, their wives, their -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">{Pg 358}</a></span> -children, and themselves, burying their sacred independence among the -glorious ashes of their country?" -</p> - -<p> -Thus passionately attached to liberty, Foscolo was not to be deluded by -the false halo that then surrounded the name of Bonaparte, or by the -fallacious promises of the French republican crusaders. "Another set of -lovers of their country," he writes, "lament loudly. They exclaim that -they are betrayed and sold; but, if they had armed themselves, they -might have been conquered, but never had been betrayed; and if they had -defended themselves to the last drop of blood, the conquerors could not -have sold, nor would the conquered have sought to buy, them. Many of our -countrymen imagine that freedom can be bought with money. They fancy -that foreign nations come from a disinterested love of justice to -slaughter each other mutually on our fields, for the sake of liberating -Italy. But will the French, who have rendered the divine theory of -public liberty execrable, become Timoleons for our sakes? Many, -meanwhile, confide in the young hero, sprung from Italian blood, born -where our language is spoken. But I expect nothing useful or noble from -a cruel and base mind. What is it to me that he has the strength and roar -of the lion, if he have the soul of a fox—and glories in it? Yes! -base and cruel; nor are these epithets exaggerated. Has he not sold -Venice, with open and boasted barbarity? Selim I., who caused 30,000 -Circassian warriors, who had surrendered, confiding in his faith, to be -massacred on the shores of the Nile; and Nadir Shah, who, in our time, -massacred 300,000 Indians, are more atrocious, but less contemptible. -With these eyes I saw a democratic constitution signed by the young -hero; yes, it was subscribed by his own hand, and sent by Passeriano to -Venice for acceptance; and at that very time the treaty of Campo Formio -was already confirmed and ratified: Venice was sold; and the confidence -which the hero fostered in us all, has filled Italy with proscriptions -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">{Pg 359}</a></span> -and exiles. I do not blame the reasons of state, through which nations -are sold like flocks of sheep; it was ever so, and so will it ever be: -but I grieve for my country, which I have lost. '<i>He was born Italian, -and will one day regenerate his country</i>:' others may believe -this,—I never can. I replied, and shall always reply, 'Nature made -him a tyrant, and a tyrant cares not for his country, nor does he -possess one.'" -</p> - -<p> -Ruminating on all these violent and bitter feelings, the offspring of -patriotism and adversity, Foscolo took the road to Tuscany. "In this -blessed land," he writes, "poetry and letters first awoke from -barbarism. Wherever I turn, I behold the houses where were born, and the -turf that covers, those renowned Tuscans; and I fear at every step to -tread on their remains. Tuscany is a garden, its inhabitants are -naturally courteous, the sky serene, and the air full of life and -health; but I am not happy here. I hope always for better things on the -morrow, when I shall reach another town: but to-morrow arrives, and I -pass from city to city; and this state of exile and solitude grows each -day more unendurable. We Italians are foreigners and exiles even in -Italy; and scarcely do we leave our little native territory, than -neither understanding, nor fame, nor blameless habits can shelter us; -and we are lost if we endeavour to distinguish ourselves. Our very -fellow-citizens look upon all Italians who are not natives of their own -town, and on whose limbs the same chains do not hang, as strangers." -Thus Tuscany afforded no asylum to the fugitive. He desired to see no -one in Florence except Alfieri; and the retired and reserved habits of -the count prevented his seeking his acquaintance. He saw him, as he -describes in one of his poems, wandering silently along the most -solitary bank of the Arno, gazing anxiously on earth and heaven; but, -finding nothing living that could warm his heart, he took refuge in the -aisles of Santa Croce, while wished-for death overspread his countenance -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">{Pg 360}</a></span> -with pallid hues."<a name="NoteRef_54_54" id="NoteRef_54_54"></a><a href="#Note_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> The silence and the concentrated melancholy of -Alfieri made a deep impression on the mind of his admirer; and Foscolo -sought afterwards to imitate it in his own person, forgetful that his -natural impetuosity and vehemence were very dissimilar to the gloom and -pride of his model. -</p> - -<p> -From Florence, Foscolo pursued his way to Milan, which was then the -capital of the Cisalpine republic, and imparted its rights of -citizenship to all the wandering patriots of Italy. The new republic -afforded a strange spectacle: formed upon notions of Greek and Roman -liberty, picked up from learned priests, mingled with modern notions of -freedom, it displayed the most ridiculous anachronisms; and its members, -all Italians, yet strangers to each other, and regarding with oblique -looks all those born in a different city, met without amalgamating. The -young found hope and life in the new stage on which they were permitted -to act a part; and though ridicule and blame might be attached to many -of their public actions, still the more sanguine lovers of their country -hoped that, when the first springtide of enthusiasm should ebb, -prudence, unanimity, and strength would be the first born of national -independence. Foscolo, however, was not among those. Irascible and -misanthropic, and sensitively alive to the sufferings of his -fellow-creatures, he saw the evils around him, and desponded. -</p> - -<p> -One of the advantages derived from this new capital was, that it served -to draw together the most distinguished Italians within the walls of the -same city. Each town of the peninsula sent some man esteemed for his -talents; and names, scattered before over the surface of the country, -now congregated together. Foscolo had thus an opportunity of becoming -acquainted with all his more illustrious countrymen. In his "Letters of -Jacopo Ortis," he mentions Parini especially with reverence and -affection; and he became intimate also with Monti, who then displayed -fervour in the cause of liberty, while his inward dislike for the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">{Pg 361}</a></span> -members of the actual government must have accorded with the sentiments -of Foscolo. Two decrees, passed at that time, served, indeed, to show -that blame deservedly attached itself to them: one was the law enacted -to deprive of office all those who had formerly written against -liberty—an act of despotism levelled expressly against Monti; the -other was the sentence passed by the great council against the Latin -language: whether it was because Latin was the language of their religion -and the priests, or from mere stupid barbarism, they passed a decree to -prohibit its being taught in the public schools. Foscolo saw, in the -languages of the ancient world, not only the root of all our knowledge, but -also the most splendid monuments of human intellect: he knew how fallacious -and trivial all translations are; he was imbued to the heart with a love of -classic lore; and he saw, in the suppression of the Latin, the paramount -influence of the French language. No wonder that he, as well as every -well-educated man, regarded such a law and its promulgators with mingled -scorn and disgust. -</p> - -<p> -To make the resemblance between Foscolo and his imaginary hero, Jacopo -Ortis, the more exact, we are told that, at this very time, he fell in -love with a young lady of Pisa: his passions, naturally vehement, were -inflamed to their utmost by the influence of the most engrossing of them -all. The object of his attachment was singularly beautiful; her large -black eyes, rich raven hair, her dignified stature and noble carriage, -her whole person, in short, cast in the very mould of majestic beauty, -was formed to inspire admiration and love. She possessed also all that -natural talent which so usually falls to the lot of Italian women: her -voice was harmonious, and her proficiency in music great. She was known -afterwards to several of the biographers of her lover; and, with the -simplicity and frankness usual to the Italians, spoke openly of their -mutual attachment. One among them, after calling the lady "the flower of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">{Pg 362}</a></span> -all loveliness," adds, "We heard from her—for she yet -lives—that the few lines cited as being written by Teresa, in a -letter of Ortis, dated 17th September, 1798, were a part of a letter which -she wrote to Foscolo."<a name="NoteRef_55_55" id="NoteRef_55_55"></a><a href="#Note_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> Giuseppe Pecchio, in his Life of Foscolo, speaks of her -with great enthusiasm: "I saw her," he writes, "several times after she -was married, when, at a private theatre, she took the part of Isabella -in the 'Filippo' of Alfieri; and I still remember, with pleasure, her -dignified action and her expressive countenance, which filled the -audience with enthusiasm, and carried their feelings along with her." -</p> - -<p> -This attachment was not fortunate; and Foscolo suffered all the throes -of disappointment and grief. Violent in all his feelings, love possessed -his heart like a burning fire; he grew sullen and gloomy, only breaking -silence by muttering a few sentences indicative of his ardent desire for -self-destruction. He did not openly speak of his passion; but his -feelings overflowed on paper, and he wrote and published "The Letters of -Two Lovers," a sort of novel, which afterwards served as a foundation to -the "Letters of Ortis." While thus occupied by literature and love, he -added the duties of a more laborious profession. Bonaparte, having -created the Cisalpine republic, strove to raise an Italian army for its -defence. The Lombard legion formed the nucleus of these troops, and the -sons of the noblest families in Italy accepted commissions: among -others, Foscolo became an officer. -</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote2">1800.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -22.</span></p> - -<p> -The absence, however, of Bonaparte in Egypt, and the invasion of the -Austrio-Russian army, put a sudden end to the existence of the new -republic. At the same time that Monti fled across the Alps, and -wandered, a famished exile, among the ravines and woods of Savoy, -Foscolo, forced also to provide for his own safety, took refuge in -Genoa, and joined the French garrison commanded by Massena. It was here -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">{Pg 363}</a></span> -that the French made a last stand, endeavouring to stop the progress of -the invading army. The siege of Genoa was formed; and Foscolo, serving -under the French banners, had an opportunity of studying at once the -military art and the science of government during the various chances of -a long and arduous struggle. While day lasted, there were perpetual -combats along the whole line of mountains which surround Genoa to the -north; and the night was spent in popular assemblies, in which the -leaders strove to inspire the citizens with resolution to endure the -evils of the siege. These soon grew intolerable; and famine, and -consequent disease, made frightful ravages. Foscolo sometimes collected -the people together in a spot of the city made famous by the act of an -Austrian corporal, who (1748) struck with his cane a Genoese, who was -striving in vain to move a cannon: he endeavoured to animate his -audience to heroic deeds, by describing the magnanimous vengeance with -which their ancestors had vindicated the insult. Nor was he less forward -in the performance of his military duties; and his name occurs in the -lists of those who were most distinguished for their bravery. -</p> - -<p> -During the siege, on occasion of Napoleon's return from Egypt, and being -named consul, Foscolo addressed a letter to him from Genoa, which -prophesied the height to which he would hereafter rise, and besought him -to rest content with his present exaltation, nor to taint his -well-merited renown by schemes of unmeasured ambition. This letter, -which is of two pages only, is written with the freedom of a patriot and -the dignity of a disinterested and noble mind. He incurred no danger by -this address, but he displeased the ear of power; and the truth and -frankness of his representations form an honourable contrast with the -general adulation, and the barefaced flatteries, which other writers -addressed to the victor. -</p> - -<p> -The energetic mind of Foscolo was not satisfied by the arduous duties of -his profession, to which were added the not less exciting task of -guiding and animating the minds of the citizens of Genoa, when they -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">{Pg 364}</a></span> -flagged under the visitation of the most frightful calamities. It was at -this period that he wrote an ode to Luigia Pallavicini, on her falling -from her horse, which betrays no signs of the sufferings which he was -enduring, except its motto, taken from Horace: "Sollicitæ oblivia -vitæ." This poem is all grace, elegance, and classic allusion; but -there is no originality nor poetic fire. The machinery is mythological, -the imagery drawn from the same source; and it is rather the work of one -imbued with the poetry of the ancients, and translating remembered ideas -into his native language, than the outpourings of a mind inspired by -passion and nature. It is strange that Foscolo should have found time to -compose verses at a period when the town he inhabited was being -bombarded by the English fleet, when the Austrians were making daily -assaults, and the streets were filled by a famished and dying multitude. -But while Foscolo shared the labours and dangers of the garrison, he did -not partake their amusements; and while they were immersed in the -grosser pleasures of the bottle, of cards, and smoking, he took refuge -in his imagination, and found relief in the soothing and refined -feelings generated by study and poetry. -</p> - -<p> -Meanwhile Genoa, reduced by famine, surrendered on the 4th of June, -1800, with the condition that the garrison should be conveyed to France -by the English fleet. Foscolo accompanied his fellow-soldiers, but he -endured only a brief exile from his country. The battle of Marengo drove -the Austrians from Italy; the Cisalpine republic was restored; and -Foscolo, together with the rest of the Italian fugitives, returned to -Milan. -</p> - -<p> -Already known as an author and a man of letters, he increased his fame -at this period by the publication of the "Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis," -a romance which at once acquired great popularity, and, as being the -first that had been written in the Italian language, demanded the praise -of some sort of originality. Yet its chief fault is, that it is an -imitation. Foscolo could not invent incidents, nor weave the artful -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">{Pg 365}</a></span> -texture of a well-told story. The plot of "Ortis" is similar to that of -Goethe's more celebrated romance of "Werter." A youth of disappointed -expectations, and devoured by a morbid melancholy, falls in love with a -girl who is already betrothed to another. He resolves to die as soon as -the marriage shall take place; but, meanwhile, fosters his passion by -frequenting the society of the young lady. She had never been attached -to her intended husband, and is the victim of obedience to her father's -will, who, besides that his honour is engaged, would have found an -insuperable obstacle to the pretensions of Ortis in his plebeian birth. -His sorrowing daughter, while she obeys, returns the affection of her -passionate, adoring lover; her destined husband become jealous, her -father uneasy; and Ortis, called upon by duty and friendship, absents -himself from her society: he travels to Florence, to Milan, to Genoa; -and then, hearing of Teresa's marriage, retraces his steps to the -Euganean hills, the abode of his mistress, and fulfils his long-nurtured -intention of putting an end to his existence. The slight differences -between this story and "Werter" are founded on Foscolo's own attachment, -before alluded to. -</p> - -<p> -There is, indeed, this main difference between the work of Goëthe and -that of Foscolo,—that the former is, so to speak, a dramatic, and the -latter a didactic, author. Goëthe founded his story on the feelings of -another. He delineated the sentiments and passions of his unfortunate -young friend Jerusalem; and, putting himself in his place, filled out, -from his own experience and imagination, the various portions of a -picture, the most highly wrought, refined, and true that, perhaps, -exists in the world of fictitious portraits. Foscolo painted a <i>beau -idéal</i> of himself. So full was his mind of his own idea, that he -prefixed a portrait of Ortis, which was only a favoured likeness of -himself. Like the author, Ortis fled from Venice when it was made over -to the Austrians. Like the author, his heart was tortured by patriotic -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">{Pg 366}</a></span> -sufferings, and his soul was in arms against the oppressor. Ortis, like -Foscolo, saw misery and evil rife around him: compassion rose with him -into a passion; and his heart bled and burnt alternately, as he pitied -the victim, and abhorred the tyrant. Ortis, like Foscolo, meditated -suicide as the cure for all evils, and regarded death as a harbour -whence to retreat from the tempests of life. Yet Foscolo did not, like -Ortis, destroy himself; because, we are apt to say, he is in this -greater than his prototype, since he felt powers and capacities within -him that led him to continue to endure the evils of life, to raise for -himself a name among his fellow-creatures, to benefit and to exhort -them; while Ortis, like a weak plant that wants all self-erecting power, -fell prostrate, and was trampled on by the iron heels of destiny. -Egotists, perhaps, are, of all people, the least likely to put an end to -themselves; yet they like to dwell on their own deaths, and, feeling -that the drama of their lives is incomplete without a striking -catastrophe, they ponder on it, and, if led to bring themselves forward, -are pretty sure to adorn their lives by describing its disastrous -conclusion. -</p> - -<p> -This morbid shrinking from the woes of existence, this total want of -fortitude, added to a lively sensibility, presents a picture which, a -few years ago, was the model by which the youth of Europe delighted to -dress their minds. Men need a career—an hope, an aim: the French -revolution first gave new life to these natural instincts, and then, -aided by Napoleon's despotism, blighted and tore them up. Since then, a -better day has dawned, and men are glad to live for the morrow, since -each day is full of spirit-stirring expectation. The influence of a book -like "Ortis" is null now: it was pernicious at the time when it was -written. And yet, in representing his hero as a self-destroyer, Foscolo -was not without moral aim. The Italians fear death to the extent of the -most contemptible cowardice; they consider any one insane who engages in -any actions that even remotely endanger his life; and Foscolo was -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">{Pg 367}</a></span> -earnest to prove that death was not the worst of evils, but that it -might be sought voluntarily as a refuge from slavery or woe. We find, -therefore, conjoined to intolerance of personal suffering, the most -ardent patriotism, integrity, and independence of spirit; lively -compassion for the physical evils of the poor, which are too often -disregarded; and observations on life and our natural feelings, full of -delicacy and profound truth. What more true than the remark, "that we -are too proud to give our compassion, when we feel that we can give -nothing else?" What can come more home to a man of sensibility than the -exclamation of Ortis,—"I am always in perfect harmony with the -unhappy, for indeed I always find something wicked in the prosperous?" And, -again, when he says, "Let us gather up a treasure of dear and soothing -feelings, which, during the course of years, destined, perhaps, to be -sad and persecuted, may awaken the memory that we have not always been -unhappy." Another merit which these letters have may be mentioned, which -an Italian author has also discovered: they display a love for, and an -observation of, nature, seldom found among their greatest writers. The -Italians, generally speaking, are not lovers of nature: full of passion -and talent, yet they do not ally themselves to the mighty mother, nor do -their pulses beat responsive to her varied and living phenomena. Dante -alone, perhaps, displays a true feeling for external objects, describing -them as they are, and as they may be supposed to feel; while the others -dilate rather on their beauty, as if they presented a scenic exhibition, -than were in themselves animated beings to feel and have existence. The -rambles of Ortis amidst the Euganean hills; the sentiments with which he -contemplates a tempest and the succeeding calm; the glories of summer, -or tyranny of winter; resemble those so often to be found in English -authors, and give the work a charm peculiar to itself. The style, also, -of these letters (and the Italians make style a chief merit) is pure, -elegant, and forcible. It created a language hitherto unknown to his -countrymen, uniting the familiar and colloquial with the tasteful and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">{Pg 368}</a></span> -the expressive. It is too rhetorical, even thus, for our ears; but the -Italians easily pardon inflation. -</p> - -<p> -The success of "Ortis" was immediate and striking. The Italians usually -love to be amused and made laugh; but they were caught by the charm, and -content to weep over the misfortunes of the victim of love. The author -had artfully contrived to mingle himself inextricably with the image of -his hero; and the ladies of Italy were interested by his appearance, -uncouth as it was, and his manners, dissimilar to the inanity of their -usual companions. He became what we call "a lion," and he himself fell -in love with one of his fair admirers; but, as is too often the case -where the author is more thought of than the man, this lady's love was -more of the head than the heart, and Foscolo, after a short period, was -dismissed. We are told that this lady was the daughter of the courteous -Marchesa F., mentioned by Sterne in his "Sentimental Journey." True -passion often enforces sympathy; otherwise, we cannot wonder that -Foscolo did not create a sentiment in another as strong as that which he -himself felt. In personal appearance he was not formed to excite tender -admiration. Pecchio, who knew him at this time, describes him in vivid -but no attractive colours. According to him, Foscolo was of middle -stature, rather strong and muscular of frame; he had thick, reddish, -rough hair, which added to his expression of wild vehemence, and -rendered his fits of gloomy silence, or transports of rage, more -horrible. His eyes were of a blueish grey, small, deep set, and -intensely sparkling. His complexion was ruddy; his features well formed, -except that his lips, though thin, protruded, having that animal-look -about the jaw which is the opposite of the <i>beau idéal</i> of the human -countenance: he wore his chin thickly covered with hair, which gave him -a sort of resemblance to an oran-outang. There is a story told of him -that a Frenchman said to him one day, "Vous êtes bien laid, monsieur;" -to which Foscolo wittily replied, "Oui, monsieur, à faire peur." On -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">{Pg 369}</a></span> -another occasion he was engaged in a duel with a friend, who -impertinently compared him to the animal above mentioned. To add to the -wildness and singularity of his appearance, he was fond, in an awkward -sort of imitation of Alfieri, of appearing immersed in thought, -maintaining a gloomy silence, interrupted only as he muttered, or rather -growled forth, various quotations or verses, in a voice which made an -Italian young lady once name him "a sentimental clap of thunder." Such -was the outward appearance and manners of the Italian Werter; and if he -met with success among the fair sex, it must be attributed to the ready -sympathy they are apt to afford to sincere feeling, and to a generous, -independent spirit. -</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote1">1802.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -24.</span></p> - -<p> -When Bonaparte, under the name of first consul, rose to supreme power in -France, it became necessary to remodel the Cisalpine republic; and a -congress of 450 deputies was held at Lyons, to decide on the new form of -government. On this occasion Foscolo published an "Oration to -Bonaparte." A good deal of uncertainty exists as to the exact -circumstances under which this oration was composed. It has been -supposed that it was delivered publicly at the congress; but there is no -foundation for this idea, as Foscolo was not one of the deputies, and -did not accompany them to Lyons. It is said, on one hand, that he wrote -it at the desire of Bonaparte himself; and on the other, that the task -was entrusted to him by the triumvirate, who, under the title of -committee of government, were placed at the head of the Cisalpine -republic; and it is said that the oration was delivered before the -committee itself<a name="NoteRef_56_56" id="NoteRef_56_56"></a><a href="#Note_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>, which, considering its nature, can hardly be -believed. It commences with a grandiloquent eulogium of Napoleon; it -then diverges into indignant and sarcastic representations of the -mal-conduct of the heads of the republic. "Men," he describes them, "who -are neither statesmen nor warriors, formerly slaves, now tyrants, and -for ever slaves of themselves, and of circumstances, which they neither -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">{Pg 370}</a></span> -will nor can command; conscious of their own vices, and therefore timid -and discordant; cowardly with the bold, bold with the cowardly, they -crush accusations by bribery, and complaints by menaces. Men who took -the arms out of the hands of the militia soldiery, an army formed of -citizens, to give them to bands of runaway felons and deserters." He -then dilates on the miseries endured in Italy during the period of the -success of the Austrians and Russians, and describes Bonaparte's return -as the advent of a demigod; and he calls on him to complete his work by -assuming the supreme command, instead of leaving it to the triumvirate, -who betrayed the cause of liberty and oppressed their countrymen. -Independent as Foscolo was, we are surprised when he goes on to say, -that every patriotic Italian would elect Bonaparte for their legislator, -captain, father, and perpetual prince. But this surprise diminishes when -we read on, and find that he expects this supreme ruler to gift the -subject country with liberty. He entreats him not to entrust the state -to men, but to laws; not to the generosity of other nations, but to its -own force. "Let such be your institutions," he exclaims, "such your -example, such our strength, that no one shall dare rule us after you. -Who, indeed, would be worthy to succeed to Bonaparte? As you cannot live -for ever for us, let the seal of our liberty be set; you yourself -leaving it inviolate: and, with the whole nation, I call freedom our not -having (with the exception of Bonaparte) any magistrate who is not -Italian, nor any general who is not our fellow-citizen. If, while you -live, our liberty totters, what hope have we that it will endure after -you are withdrawn from the earth? No! there is no liberty, no property, -no life, no soul in any country, and under whatever form of government, -when national independence is fettered!" -</p> - -<p> -It is impossible that Foscolo, despite his assertions, and despite, -perhaps, his hopes, should not have been aware that the strongest chain -that can be imposed on the freedom of a nation is its having a foreign -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">{Pg 371}</a></span> -prince at the head of government. Still he vindicated the cause he -espoused, by demanding national institutions and a national army. The -style of the oration is forcible, but too rhetorical; and, though full -of truths that intimidated the oppressors and did honour to the free -spirit of the writer, calmer representations and closer reasoning would -command more of our admiration. Not that such would have availed with -the conqueror: Italy was, to him, only one other lever added to the vast -engine of military force which was to raise him to the throne of the -world. -</p> - -<p> -Yet, though not gifted with liberty, the present epoch was a happy one -for the north of Italy. After suffering from the persecutions of -demagogues, and from the devastations of war, it reposed contentedly -under the wise and liberal administration of Melzi. Foscolo continued to -inhabit Milan: by day immersed in study, his evenings were spent in -amusements. His sanguine disposition often led him to try the chances of -a gambling table: when he won, he launched out into extravagant -expenses; he bought horses and dress, and hired the most magnificent -apartments. When Fortune turned her back, all this show of prosperity as -suddenly disappeared; and he retired into a corner to study.<a name="NoteRef_57_57" id="NoteRef_57_57"></a><a href="#Note_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> In one -of these intervals of seclusion, he wrote a translation of the Hymn of -Callimachus on the Hair of Berenice, accompanied by a whole volume of -comments. The sort of learning which he here displayed obtained no -applause; but we are told that the erudition thus made show of had for -its aim, not the instructing the ignorant, but the ridicule of pedants -and book-worms. It is difficult, however, to cull wit from the dry bones -of verbal criticism. -</p> - -<p> -Under the presidency of Melzi, an Italian legion had been formed in -which Foscolo held a commission. When Bonaparte formed the camp at -Boulogne, for the avowed purpose of invading England, the division of -the Italian army to which the poet belonged made part of the vast -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">{Pg 372}</a></span> -assemblage of troops called together. He held the rank of captain, and -was attached to the staff of general Tulliè. The Italian troops were -stationed at St. Omer and Calais, at which latter place Foscolo entered -on the study of the English language. The spot which he selected for the -purpose of study was curiously chosen: he was often seen writing with -eagerness by the light of the lamp of the billiard-table, while his -fellow-officers were playing, drinking, and conversing around. -</p> - -<p> -To exercise himself in English, he undertook the translation of Sterne's -"Sentimental Journey;" and it is much praised for the purity of its -style. But the most curious part of the publication is a disguised -account of the translator. Foscolo's excessive vanity shines very -apparent in this account of himself, in which he indulges in an -egotistical description of his own singularities; and, according to his -old fancy, conducts himself to the grave, and writes his own epitaph. -The title-page of the translation declares the translator to be one -Didimo Chierico; and on the character of this Didimo (being himself) -Foscolo fondly dilates; mentions various works of his, the manuscripts -of which he says that he possesses; and records his eccentricities and -opinions in a manner which excites a smile, when we remember that he is -his own memorialist of trifles, which it would be hardly worth -mentioning when appertaining to the greatest men. "Didimo entertained," -he tells us, "strange systems, which, nevertheless, he did not defend by -argument; and, as apology to those who brought forward irresistible -reasons, he replied by the single word 'opinions.' He respected, also, -the systems of others, and, from carelessness or some other motive, -never tried to refute them; but always remained silent, without making -sign of dissent, except that he uttered the word 'opinions' with -religious seriousness. On these systems or notions he founded actions -and words worthy of laughter. He called don Quixote happy, because he -deluded himself with glory and love. He drove away cats, because they -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">{Pg 373}</a></span> -appeared to him the most silent of all animals; at the same time he -praised them, because, like dogs, they took advantage of society, and -enjoyed their liberty like owls. He did not believe that you could trust -any one who lived next door to a butcher, or near the place destined for -public executions. He believed in prophetic inspiration, and fancied -that he was acquainted with its source. He accused the nightcap, -dressing-gown, and slippers of husbands, as the cause of a wife's first -infidelity. He gave no better specimen of his knowledge: asserting that -the sciences were a series of propositions which had need of -demonstrations apparently self-evident, but substantially uncertain; and -that geometry, in spite of algebra, would remain an imperfect science, -until the incomprehensible system of the universe was known: and he -maintained that the arts could render truth more useful to men than the -sciences." -</p> - -<p> -"When travelling, he dined at the public tables: he easily became -familiar, though he spoke dryly to the ceremonious, proudly to the rich, -and avoided all sects and confraternities. He frequented mostly the -society of women; because he thought them more richly endowed by nature -with pity and modesty, two pacific qualities which, he said, alone -temper the combative propensities of human beings. He was listened to -readily; though I know not where he found matter of discourse, since he -would talk a whole evening without uttering a word concerning politics, -religion, or scandal. He never asked questions, that he might not lead -others to answer falsely. He was glad to receive his acquaintances at -home; but when walking he liked to be alone, or with strangers to whom -he took a fancy; and if any of his acquaintance approached, he took a -book from his pocket, and, in room of salutation, recited scraps from a -modern translation of the Greek poets; on which he was left alone." -</p> - -<p> -And thus he goes on, for several pages, describing eccentricities, -partly natural, partly assumed, which he wished should attract -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">{Pg 374}</a></span> -attention, as is evident by his thus introducing them to the public, who -would otherwise have been ignorant of their existence. -</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote2">1805.</span></p> - -<p> -On his return to Italy, he became intimate with general Caffarelli, -minister of war of the kingdom of Italy. Warmed by the recent sight of -the encampment of Boulogne, he proposed to the general to make a new -edition of the military works of Montecucoli, with notes. The text was -furnished him by the marchese Trivulzio, and the edition was brought out -with great splendour; but Foscolo is accused of having used his -imagination, rather than critical acumen, in the emendation of his -author. -</p> - -<p> -The north of Italy was enjoying a great degree of prosperity at this -time. Melzi gave encouragement to all undertakings that tended to -elevate the Italian character; and literary men were held in that esteem -which ensures their exerting themselves to bestow on their country the -richest harvest of their talents. Foscolo, though he still held his -captain's commission, was, in honour of his literary character, exempted -from the toils of service; and, taking advantage of the liberty allowed -him, he left Milan for a time, and took up his residence at Brescia. He -resided in a small house, situated on an open hill, not far from the -city. Here he was accustomed to study till sunset; and, whether alone or -in company, he would recite the poetry of the ancients, or his own, -which he was then occupied in composing. The Brescians are a happy, gay -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">{Pg 375}</a></span> -people; they live less in the town than the inhabitants of the rest of -Italy, and take peculiar pleasure in rural amusements; they are -hospitable and fond of festivity; not very refined, they are yet -open-hearted and cordial, and noted for bravery when in the field. -Foscolo's neighbours admired and visited him; persons of every sect and -opinion, even the priests, flocked to his house; and often seated under -a wide-spreading fig tree which was in his garden, he held forth to a -numerous audience. The Brescians are naturally enthusiastic: he had the -art of inflaming the souls of the young, and they crowded round him as, -with stentorian voice, he uttered his moral apophthegms. When night -closed in, he left his rustic drawing room, and visited the theatres; -and was often seen paying homage to the dark eyes of some Brescian -beauty.<a name="NoteRef_58_58" id="NoteRef_58_58"></a><a href="#Note_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> -</p> - -<p> -It was here that he wrote the most perfect of his poems—his "Ode on -Sepulchres." The elegance and pure taste of this composition have caused -it to be compared to Gray's well-known "Elegy;" but it is more classical -in its ideas and construction, and would rather remind the reader of -Milton's "Lycidas." Every verse is harmonious music; and the melancholy -that is cast over it is graceful and touching, not harrowing and sombre. -A law had been passed at Milan instituting a public cemetery without the -walls of the city, in which all the dead were to be promiscuously -buried, without marks of distinction. The poet, addressing Pindemonte, -begins by commenting upon the notion that funeral pomp and an honourable -tomb are of no avail to the dead; and then he speaks of the sacred -sentiment that leads us to live still with our lost friends, and makes -the spot of their interment precious in our eyes. Alluding to the new -law, he apostrophises the muse, asking her if she does not love to -linger near the desecrated tomb of her Parini, whose venerated remains, -cast among the bodies of criminals, are scarcely protected from the -assaults of the houseless dog, while night birds hover, screaming, over -it. He speaks of the pious sentiments with which the sad relics of -mortality have ever been regarded since religion first instituted sacred -and social laws; and describes, in heartfelt but poetic language, the -various ways in which survivors love to pay homage to the beloved dead. -From tender and pathetic pictures of domestic bereavement, he then rises -to describe the ennobling sentiment inspired by a sight of the tombs of -the great and good. He apostrophises Florence, and gracefully brings in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">{Pg 376}</a></span> -the well-known predilection of Alfieri for the aisles of Santa Croce; -and then, taking a still higher flight, he describes Providence and -destiny as presiding over the graves of the worthy, and vindicating -their unforgotten names, even from the silent turf that covers them; -and, carried away by his love for classic lore, with no forced -digression, he concludes by speaking of the mounds that still mark the -spot where the warriors of Greece died on the Trojan shore, and -describes Homer, the poet blind and old, wandering around, and bestowing -on them the immortal fame of which they would otherwise have been -deprived. -</p> - -<p> -This anatomy of a poem can convey but a slight and incomplete idea of -its merits. The harmony of the versification—the tender and soft -melancholy diffused throughout—the grace of the transitions—and -the continual rising in his subject to the end, are all lost. Nor could a -translation do justice to these, since, as evanescent as they are -delicate, they would be lost in another language. The whole poem is -Foscolo's masterpiece. -</p> - -<p> -He also published at this time his translation of the first book of the -Iliad. Monti was bringing out his version, and there was much hardihood -in Foscolo's rivalship. His knowledge of Greek, contrasted with the -other's ignorance, no doubt instigated him. To remove any unpleasant -feeling, he dedicated it to Monti; in which he speaks at once with -modesty of his own attempt, and in high praise of Monti's genius. It is -difficult for a stranger to judge between the merits of the translators; -but even if Foscolo's is the best, it is a mere fragment. He never -published more than the first and third books; while Monti went through -the labour of the entire translation, and bestowed a complete work on -his country. -</p> - -<p> -In 1808, Foscolo was installed professor of eloquence in the university -of Pavia—a chair formerly filled by Monti and Cesarotti. The choice -was universally popular; and his introductory oration, "On the Origin and -Use of Letters," was listened to with enthusiasm. He had refused to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">{Pg 377}</a></span> -introduce any praise of Napoleon into it, and the whole was conceived in -the spirit of personal and political independence. This fault was -visited with singular severity; since, after a short time, the -professorship of eloquence at Pavia was entirely suppressed, under the -pretence of a reform in the plan of studies, but in reality as a mark of -disapprobation. Petty jealousy and the vain desire of ruling even the -thoughts of the subject world, induced Napoleon on all occasions to -punish severely any demonstration of independence. Nor was the vengeance -confined to Foscolo and Pavia alone. The literary professorships at -Bologna and Padua were also abolished, as well as those for the Greek -and oriental languages; for history, and, in short, all except those -instituted to teach law, medicine, and the sciences. Several learned and -excellent men were thus deprived of an honourable living. The nation was -at once robbed of all easy access to a liberal education, and to the -inappreciable knowledge of those languages which contain the most -glorious monuments of man's genius: and thus Napoleon gave testimony to -the Italians of the truth of Alfieri's axiom, that absolute monarchs -hate the historian, the poet, and the orator, and give the preference to -the sciences.<a name="NoteRef_59_59" id="NoteRef_59_59"></a><a href="#Note_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> -</p> - -<p> -Foscolo retreated from the university to the seclusion of the Lake of -Como; giving proof of his pure and ardent love of nature, so rare among -Italians, by his retirement from cities to the sublime and luxuriant -scenery of this lake. He took up his residence at a villa named the -Pliniana, built on the site of the fountains whose periodical ebb and -flow the younger Pliny records in his letters. The lake, paled in by -mountains, bathes the walls of the villa; and the neighbouring banks, -clothed with myrtle and arbutus, overhang the waters, and cast their -deep shade on the clear depths: the precipitous mountain rises behind, -diversified by chestnut woods; and here and there are seen huge -cypresses, whose spires seem to pierce the skies, when regarded from the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">{Pg 378}</a></span> -terraced garden of the villa. The flowing fountains keep up a perpetual -murmur; and, perhaps, in all the varied earth there is no spot which -affords such a combination of the picturesque, the beautiful, the rich, -the balmy, and the sublime. The house itself, without being ruinous, is -huge and desolate; but its vast cool halls are a pleasant refuge against -the heats of mid-day. Here Foscolo studied through the morning, varying -his life by spending his evenings with the family of count Giovio, a man -of education and learning, whose young and gay family served to -dissipate the fumes of melancholy in which the poet was rather fond of -indulging.<a name="NoteRef_60_60" id="NoteRef_60_60"></a><a href="#Note_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> -</p> - -<p> -He here commenced his "Ode to the Graces:" this was a favourite -composition, yet left unfinished. He was never weary of altering or -improving—of softening its language, or adding new melody to the -versification. It is purely classical in its idea, yet varied by the -most beautiful touches of natural beauty. He occupied himself also by -finishing his tragedy of "Ajax." The same faults are discoverable in -this drama as in his juvenile production of "Thyestes." It is founded on -the dispute between Ulysses and Ajax for the arms of Achilles, and the -self-destruction of the latter. The action ends almost before it begins; -the scenes are frigid, the interest null; still it excited a good deal -of expectation; and reading, as he did, speeches and scenes to various -friends, its representation on the stage was looked forward to with -eagerness at Milan. The theatre was crowded on the first night, and the -audience sat patiently and listened for a long time to scene following -scene, of sonorous words, high-sounding declamations, and vehement -apostrophes, all leading to nothing, ending in nothing—exciting no -sympathy, but wearying the ear. At length they grew tired; and though -they listened to the conclusion, it was evident that they were delighted -to be dismissed. -</p> - -<p> -It was a strange accident, that a drama which thus failed of eliciting -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">{Pg 379}</a></span> -any interest in the audience, and the great fault of which was dulness, -should have excited a persecution against its author. His enemies spread -the report that the tragedy had a political aim; that Napoleon was -symbolised in Agamemnon, the king of kings; and that general Moreau was -pictured in Ajax, who deserved, but did not obtain, the arms of -Achilles. There seems to have been no real foundation for this -supposition, but Foscolo did not deny it: he preserved a mysterious -silence; whether from disdain, or from a covert pleasure in the -annoyance of government, is uncertain. The ministers of Napoleon were -inquisitorial and revengeful; not to praise their emperor was sin -sufficient to render any author obnoxious, and any expressions that -could be distorted into blame were criminal. The cities of Italy, whose -inhabitants are forbidden all political discussions, and who are shut -out from the pursuits that naturally excite ambition, are singularly apt -to diversify the monotony of their lives by gossiping. Such a -supposition as the one above mentioned spread rapidly through Milan: men -met together to wonder and dispute; they worked themselves up into an -idea that something had been done, and that something would ensue; while -the spies of the police excited and reported each unguarded expression. -The city became disturbed by the notion of Foscolo's attempt to bring -Napoleon on the stage as an object of censure, and in expectation of the -punishment with which his boldness would be visited; while he, silent -and mysterious, refused to offer any explanation. It was intimated -accordingly to him, that he would do well to change the air; and, -submitting to an exile from Milan, he again visited Tuscany. -</p> - -<p> -He took the house at Camaldoli, near Florence, which had, in ages gone -by, been inhabited by Galileo. He alludes to this in his "Ode to the -Graces," in some verses which describe the nocturnal murmur of the -distant Arno, which flowed clear yet hid beneath its willows, and -visited the ear of the astronomer as he watched the star of eve. It was -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">{Pg 380}</a></span> -here, he records, that dawn, and the moon, and the sun displayed to him, -with various tints, the serene clouds that hung below the Alps, or -illumined the plain which stretches to the Tyrrhene sea; a wide-spread -scene of cities and woods, diversified by the labours of the happy -husbandman, by temples; or the hundred hills with which, adorned by -caverns, and olive groves, and marble palaces, the Apennines encircle -the lovely city, where Flora and the Graces have garlands.<a name="NoteRef_61_61" id="NoteRef_61_61"></a><a href="#Note_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> In one -point, the poetry of Foscolo may be compared to the more didactic parts -of Milton. He never omits a romantic or classical allusion; and, -bringing forward all that ennobles and animates his subject, adorns it -with human interest. Whoever reads in the original the verses I have so -lamely translated into prose, cannot help remembering various passages -inspired by the memory of Tuscany, which show like pictures of Claude in -the pages of the most graceful as well as the most sublime of our poets. -</p> - -<p> -We cannot refrain from observing, in this place, that we possess a -proof, in the bent of Foscolo's genius, of how little the intellect is -often in accord with the heart. Wild, vehement, gloomy almost to -savageness, independent even to an incapacity of yielding to the common -rules of society, he could not depict the wild furies of Ajax, nor, -indeed, the more burning throes that often tore his own heart. His best -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">{Pg 381}</a></span> -compositions, on the contrary, seem to emanate from an impassioned but -brooding spirit, nursed in soft melancholy and elegant and fanciful -reverie. As we have before mentioned, he was purely a didactic writer; -but perhaps no modern poet ever displayed so much harmony, grace, and -truth of description. We have not the fantastic imagery nor the fire of -Monti; neither the storms of the deep, nor the thunders of the sky; but -an inland landscape, where the balmy air broods over waving forest and -murmuring stream, and the heart of man reposing seems to take refuge -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"In that sweet mood where pleasant thoughts</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Bring sad thoughts to the mind."</span> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="sidenote1">1813.<br /> -Ætat.<br /> -35.</span></p> - -<p> -When the result of his Russian invasion shook Napoleon's throne, Foscolo -returned to Milan. Public events were undergoing a vast change. -Napoleon, defeated by his own ambition, retired to what seemed to him -the narrow circle of France, and appeared for a while to stand at bay, -while a universal attack was made on him. His authority, every where -shaken, tottered in Italy. The English, who had assisted so gloriously -in the emancipation of Spain, sent emissaries to Italy, to invite the -people to throw off the French yoke. It would have been of no avail to -have invited them to exchange servitude under France for that under -Austria, and the words liberty and national independence were pronounced -as a spell to rouse them. Lord William Bentinck published a manifesto -calling on them to assert their freedom; he conjured the soldiers to -vindicate their country's rights, and to acquire for it that liberty -which Spain, Portugal, and Holland reaped from the fall of Napoleon. His -voice found an echo in every heart. "We are told that the name of -independence was on the lips of all; nor at any crisis of any nation in -the world were so much ardour and unanimity shown, as by the Italians at -this moment."<a name="NoteRef_62_62" id="NoteRef_62_62"></a><a href="#Note_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> While thus the allies tried to win the Italians to -their side, the treaty of Fontainebleau and the abdication of the French -emperor placed the peninsula at their feet. The viceroy of Italy, prince -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">{Pg 382}</a></span> -Eugêne, crossed the Alps; the south of Italy fell into the hands of its -old rulers; while Milan, left to itself, assembled a senate to discuss a -new form of government. The point disputed was, whether prince Eugêne -or a prince of the house of Austria should preside over them; but they -fancied that their independence was secure under the one or the other. -The latter proposition carried the day; for when the senate, recording -the virtues of the viceroy, was about to solicit the allies to set him -over them, a vast multitude surrounded their house, composed of every -class—nobles, commonalty, artificers, rich and poor—even women -of rank joined in the tumult—crying out for the independence of their -country, and "No viceroy! No France!" A placard went about, saying, -"Spain and Germany have cast away the yoke of France from their -necks—Italy must imitate them;" while magistrates and people called -aloud, "We will have electoral colleges, and no Eugêne." The senate -fled—the people, roused to violence, rushed to destroy the partisans -of the French, and the unfortunate Prini was torn to pieces. Liberty (alas! -blood-stained) seemed to win the day; but it was a mock victory. The -electoral colleges were convened, and they created a regency; it was -decreed that the allies should be solicited to grant the independence of -the kingdom, and a free constitution with an Austrian but independent -prince at its head. Legates were sent to the emperor Francis, at Paris, -with these demands. He replied, that he also was Italian—that his -soldiers had conquered Lombardy, and that the answer would be given at -Milan. The Austrians entered Milan on the 28th of April. Bellegarde took -possession of it in the name of Austria on the 23d of May. The kingdom -of Italy was at an end; its independence was crushed and exchanged for -an ignominious and cruel servitude.<a name="NoteRef_63_63" id="NoteRef_63_63"></a><a href="#Note_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> -</p> - -<p> -At the commencement of these changes Foscolo remained unmoved. He -pursued his studies in silence and seclusion, and seemed to forget the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">{Pg 383}</a></span> -political crisis among his literary occupations. But when Napoleon fell, -he sided with the independents against the French party; though at the -same time he gave proof of his courage and humanity by exerting himself -vigorously, though vainly, to save the unfortunate Prini. At the same -time he resumed his military duties; and when the regency was -established, he was promoted to the rank of <i>capo squadrone</i>, or -colonel. To the last he took an active part in asserting the liberty of -his country. When the Austrian soldiers entered Milan, the city -submitted peacefully, but not silently. Six thousand soldiers of the -civic guard assembled, and, in presence of the occupying army, placed in -the hands of the English general, Macfarlane, an address which they -begged might be laid before the allies, claiming national independence -and a constitution. Foscolo drew up this address. We are told that it -was brief, energetic, and dignified<a name="NoteRef_64_64" id="NoteRef_64_64"></a><a href="#Note_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a>; a precious monument of the -author's patriotism. -</p> - -<p> -But Foscolo was not allowed to reap any good from his firm adherence to -the cause of liberty. The Austrians looked on him with suspicious eyes, -and he was not popular among his countrymen. He had quarrelled with -Monti, and had many enemies. He saw no mode of maintaining himself: he -foresaw that he should be persecuted, and perhaps entered into plots for -the subversion of government. At this moment, some member of the -Austrian government, knowing the benefit that would accrue to their -cause if they could win Foscolo as a writer, asked him to furnish a plan -for a public journal. He consented, refusing at the same time to write -in it; but this slender act of civility was tortured into one of -apostacy by his enemies, and too late he found that he had given room to -calumny. Pecchio relates a conversation which he had with him, which, if -he did not suspect Foscolo of treason to his country, was unkindly -carried on by him. They met without the eastern gate of the city, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">{Pg 384}</a></span> -Foscolo walked on for some time without speaking. At length he suddenly -addressed his companion, saying, "You, who are accustomed to speak the -truth both to friends and enemies, tell me what is said of me in -public." Pecchio replied, "If you continue your intercourse with Austrians, -your enemies will assert that you are their spy." This answer was as a -thunderbolt to Foscolo—his countenance darkened—he quickened -his steps, and said no more. The next day, without taking leave of any -one, without passport, and without money, he set out in disguise for -Switzerland. Whether his proud heart rebelled against continuing any -longer among his suspicious countrymen, or whether, as some said, he was -implicated in a plot among the soldiers, which was just then discovered, -or whether, hopeless and sick at heart, he yearned for new scenes and a -new life; whatever his motive was, he became henceforth a voluntary -exile, and, leaving friends and country, began an untried career; adding -one more to the number of unfortunate wanderers whom political changes -had driven from their homes abroad on the earth. -</p> - -<p> -At first Foscolo took refuge in Switzerland, and remained for two years -in the city of Zurigo. He did little during that interval, except -publish a sort of unintelligible Latin satire, called "Dydymi Clerici -Prophetæ Minimi Hypercalypseos, Liber singularis;" which is written in -imitation of the prophecies of the Bible, and satirises Paradisi and -others who enjoyed offices in the fallen kingdom of Italy. Without a key -it is impossible to understand it—alluding, as it does, to people -little known, and to facts still more obscure; and when understood is -not praised, even by his countrymen, who might be supposed to take some -interest in a personal satire on men with whom they were acquainted. -</p> - -<p> -Foscolo found tranquillity at Zurigo; and his disposition, not being -inclined to intrigue, would have permitted him to remain there in peace; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">{Pg 385}</a></span> -but he was poor, and obliged to seek a country where he could turn his -talents to some account. England, the refuge of exiles, was the place to -which he repaired. There were liberal men there, who, ashamed of the -part which the country had permitted lord Castlereagh to play, in -sacrificing to despotism the very men whose desire of freedom he had -sought to excite, readily and generously welcomed the victims of our -foreign secretary's cruel policy. Foscolo, on his arrival, was visited -by the most distinguished men of the country; the Whig party received -him with open arms, and he made one of the circle assembled at Holland -House. He was treated with all the cordiality considered due to a man of -integrity and a patriot, banished by a foreign despot, and refusing to -become the pensioner of the oppressors of his country; while, at the -same time, he met with the mingled respect and curiosity which an author -of acknowledged talents excites: and even lord Sidmouth, armed with the -terrors of the alien act, assured him that he should remain unmolested -during his sojourn. -</p> - -<p> -A little time somewhat destroyed the illusion which first adorned his -name. The English are very ready to receive any one as a lion, but not -fond of fostering intimacies with any whose habits and manners do not -perfectly assimilate with their own. The vehement gestures, wild looks, -and loud voice of the Italian, were all in contradiction to the -etiquette of English society; and no foreigner is capable of perceiving -any thing but dulness and ice in the mild, high-bred, and unpretending -manners of the aristocracy of this country. The English enjoy society in -their own way; and there is a charm to us in the perfect liberty each -one enjoys—no one encroaching, or being encroached upon. But the -sensitiveness which leads us to give freedom to others, renders us -jealous of any assumption of it on their part. Foscolo had no real hold -on the society of which he made a part, except through his talents, and -the respect his independence and integrity commanded: but respect is a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">{Pg 386}</a></span> -cold feeling, and can be indulged while we keep the object of it at a -distance. His talents ceased to amuse, joined as they were to pride, to -vehemence, and to habits which would not alter, but could not please. -</p> - -<p> -Foscolo ceased to be a lion; and he retired to the neighbourhood of St. -John's Wood, near the Regent's Park; and, surrounding himself by his -books, and visited by a few friends, he led a life at once retired and -eccentric. When Pecchio visited his friend in this retreat, in 1822, he -was struck by the apparent desolation of the spot (South Bank) in which -his house was situated; and at the same time by the appearance of three -lovely sisters, who were the household servants of the poet,—named by -his visiters the three Graces; in allusion at once to their beauty and -Foscolo's poem.<a name="NoteRef_65_65" id="NoteRef_65_65"></a><a href="#Note_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> He supported himself chiefly by writing in the -Quarterly Review; and we owe to this mode of exercising his pen one of -the most delightful of his productions, the "Essays on Petrarch." These -are four in number: on the Love of Petrarch,—on his Poetry,—on -his Character,—and a Parallel between him and Dante. On the whole, we -are almost inclined to say that Foscolo scarcely does justice to the -generous, amiable, and faithful lover of Laura. The pride and unbending -disposition of Dante were more in accordance with his own character. But -the discrimination, the taste, and enthusiasm of these Essays render -them one of the most delightful books in the world. The volume in which -they are collected is enriched, also, by several of lady Dacre's -translations from Petrarch, which are unequalled for fidelity and grace; -preserving the spirit and feeling of the original, and yet arraying them -in flowing and melodious English verse. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">{Pg 387}</a></span> -</p> - -<p> -Foscolo published also a translation of the third book of the Iliad; and -his tragedy of "Ricciarda." Though founded on a story of the middle -ages, there is no more interest in this last drama than his preceding -ones: the feelings and situations are forced and unnatural. Fraternal -hatred is the mainspring of the plot: Guelfo detests his half-brother, -Averardo; and, on the death of their father Tancred, goes to war with -him, to deprive him of his portion of their common heritage. As a -further mark of hate, he betroths his daughter Ricciarda to Guido, the -son of Averardo, merely to discover whether she loves her cousin or not; -and, finding that she does, separates them with violent denunciations, -and resolves to marry her to another. The drama opens while the brothers -are at war. On account of the unfortunate unities—which force the -author to bring all the persons together in one place, however improbable -it may be that they should there meet—the poet causes Guido -to leave his father's camp, and to secrete himself in Guelfo's palace, -for the sake of watching over Ricciarda's safety, whose life he imagines -to be menaced by her father. The action chiefly turns on Averardo first -sending a friend, and then coming himself in disguise, to induce Guido -to return to him; in Guelfo's denunciations against his daughter; and in -scenes between the lovers. At length Averardo assaults and enters his -brother's palace; and Guelfo, finding himself defeated, first kills -Ricciarda, to prevent her marrying Guido, and then stabs himself; while -Guido swears that he will soon follow his mistress to the tomb. The only -beauty of the tragedy consists in the character of Ricciarda, her -struggles between filial piety and love, her obedience to her father, -and her devotion to her lover. But the whole is conceived in one unvaried -tone of hate and unhappy love—of meditated murder and suicide. -You neither perceive the end that the author has in view, nor that there -can be any end except by their all dying. Foscolo dedicated this tragedy -to lord William Russell. His politics naturally brought him into contact -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">{Pg 388}</a></span> -with what was then the opposition party; and this alliance was drawn -closer when the exiles of Parga applied to him to draw up the petition -to be presented to parliament. He assented gladly, and wrote four -hundred pages without avail; former treaties preventing the English from -interference in behalf of the Pargiotes. -</p> - -<p> -Foscolo found difficulty in obtaining the means of life, and lady Dacre -in particular interested herself in pointing out some method by which he -might turn his talents to account. She proposed, and zealously promoted, -the course of lectures on Italian literature which Foscolo delivered in -1823. Mr. Stewart Rose was another of his real and anxious friends; and -Foscolo's acknowledged talents, and the interest excited by his exile, -facilitated their endeavours. His lectures were numerously attended, and -brought him a thousand pounds;—a small sum, if on it he was to found -a sufficient income to maintain him for the rest of his life; a large one -to an Italian, accustomed to look on a few hundred crowns as riches. And -thus it was that the success that attended his undertaking was, in the -end, fruitful of annoyance and disaster. The poet's head was -turned—he fancied his treasure inexhaustible, and he set about -spending it with as much knowledge as a child would have had of its real -quantity and value. He built a house, furnished it expensively, and adorned -it with all those luxuries that cost largely and are of least intrinsic -value. His entrance hall was adorned by statues, and he had a conservatory -filled with the rarest flowers; while the three Graces still waited on him, -and did not contribute to the economy of his household. As all the houses -in the suburb of St. John's Wood, which he continued to inhabit, are -distinguished by a name, he, to the no small puzzle of the common -people, christened his Digamma Cottage; in commemoration of a literary -victory which he believed achieved by his "Essay on the Digamma." "I -went to see him," Pecchio writes, "on my return from Spain, in August, -1823. I found him inhabiting a new house, surrounded by all the luxury -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">{Pg 389}</a></span> -of a financier suddenly become rich. I was astonished, and could not -account for this sort of theatrical change; it appeared to me a dream. -I thought to myself, Ugo Foscolo has followed in the steps of doctor -Faustus, and has entered into some compact with the fiend -Mephistopheles. He certainly displays good taste; and if he be not rich, -he deserves to be so; and if all I see is not a vision, he deserves that -it should be real. But too truly it was a vision: little or nothing of -what I saw was paid for; it was the palace of king Theodore, tapestried -with promises to pay. His destiny was similar to that of him of whom -Young says—" -</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"A man who builds, and wants wherewith to pay,</span><br /> -<span class="i2">Provides a home from which to run away."<a name="NoteRef_66_66" id="NoteRef_66_66"></a><a href="#Note_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></span> -</div></div> - -<p> -Poor Foscolo too soon paid the penalty of his inexplicable want of -common sense; he became pressed by his creditors, his goods were seized, -and he, threatened by arrests, was obliged to leave his villa, which so -resembled a castle in the air, and to hide in a lodging in an obscure -corner of London. He was now obliged to provide for his daily -necessities by writing articles for various reviews and magazines. The -merit and success of his "Essays on Petrarch" suggested to Mr. -Pickering, a London bookseller, the idea of an edition of Dante, -Petrarch, Boccaccio, and Tasso, with preliminary notices and critical notes -by Foscolo. The offer was tolerably liberal, being 600<i>l</i>. for the -whole work, if completed in two years. But even now Foscolo was ruined -by another mistake. Had he provided Essays similar to the admired ones -already written, adding a few critical and historical observations, it -had been well; he would have produced, at no great cost to himself, a -popular work that had repaid the bookseller for his speculation. But -Foscolo had already given token of a predilection for verbal and minute -criticism. His prefatory notice to Boccaccio consisted of a critical -history of editions, totally uninteresting to the general reader, and of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">{Pg 390}</a></span> -no value except to book collectors. The commentary on Dante is somewhat -less confined in its topics; and, with great subtlety and talent, he -compares various readings, and gives reasons for his own selection. But -even in this his observations are almost entirely grammatical and -verbal, though interspersed by others of great acuteness on the meaning -and intentions of Dante. Still his work, altogether, bore no similarity -to his delightful Essays, which portray the character, spirit, and -history of Petrarch and Dante in so new and attractive a manner. -</p> - -<p> -Unfortunately, intense labour was required for a work so little alluring -or profitable; and Foscolo spent months collating, consulting, and -emending: producing, in the end, a work to be read with tedium and -fatigue. While thus diligently occupied, and at the same time harassed -by many cares, ill lodged, and full of chagrin and mortification, he -fell ill. He grew thin, and a tendency to dropsy manifested itself; the -consequence of an affection of the liver, from which he had long -suffered. A few friends visited him; and, dividing his time between them -and his literary labours, he never left the house. Yet his work did not -advance. He and his bookseller were at cross purposes. Mr. Pickering -desired a popular and saleable publication, which he supposed would cost -not much more time than the author's celebrated articles in the reviews. -Foscolo wished to immortalise himself by a work of labour and erudition, -which should become a text book and authority to all who hereafter read -or wrote upon the poets in question. -</p> - -<p> -Anxieties thus grew upon him. Economy, and a desire for tranquillity and -better air, induced him to leave London; and he hired a small house at -Turnham Green. Here the last months of his life were spent A few friends -visited him: some of these were English; but they consisted mostly of -the exiles driven from the south of Europe by the ill success of the -attempted revolutions of 1820-21. The canon Riego was one among them, -who attached himself warmly to Foscolo, admiring his independence and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">{Pg 391}</a></span> -consistency. Meanwhile his disease gained ground, and it became publicly -known that small hopes were entertained for his recovery. This -announcement excited universal sympathy; and his rich or noble English -friends, who, from incompatibility of manners and character, had fallen -from him, came forward to offer assistance. The friends around him -declined receiving more than fifty pounds to meet the exigencies of the -moment; and even this supply was concealed from Foscolo, whose pride -would have been deeply and uselessly mortified by the sense of pecuniary -obligation. Money, indeed, was not the only kindness proffered: lord -Holland sent wine, the duke of Devonshire, game; but the kindness and -services most deeply felt, were those of the canon Riego, who spared no -trouble to assist and comfort his dying friend. Foscolo was sensible of -his friendship, but feared that it might become officious; and he wrote -to him, thanking him warmly, but entreating him to do no more. "I beg of -you," he writes, "and it is my most earnest prayer, that you do not -inform any one, man or woman, of my situation, for the purpose of -obtaining assistance. I make this fervent request, because I heard of -something of the kind from miss Florida. But your kindness on this point -would only cruelly torture my heart, increase the sufferings of my mind, -and the sickness of my body." -</p> - -<p> -He lingered two months after this letter. On the day of his death he was -visited by his noble countryman, count Capo d'Istria, who, passing -through London to assume the presidentship of Greece, paid the homage of -a visit to the most renowned author of modern Greece. Foscolo was now in -a state of torpor, and unconscious of the honour done him. -</p> - -<p> -To the last he was patient, submissive to his medical attendants, and -courageous; commenting on the inevitable advances of death with -fortitude and calmness. He died on the 10th of October, 1827. His -funeral was private and modest; his remains were followed to the grave -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">{Pg 392}</a></span> -by five friends, and they were buried in the neighbouring churchyard of -Chiswick, where, a little to the left of the church, amidst a crowd of -tombstones, is to be found one, inscribed simply: -</p> - -<blockquote><p class="center"> -Ugo Foscolo,<br /> -Obiit XIV. Die Septembris,<br /> -A. D. 1827.<br /> -Ætatis 52.<a name="NoteRef_67_67" id="NoteRef_67_67"></a><a href="#Note_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> -</p></blockquote> - -<p> -The character of Foscolo, and his literary merits, may be gathered from -the foregoing biography. Consistency was among his most prominent -virtues, for his writings and actions were in strict accordance one with -the other. He always rose superior to the blows of fortune, and -preserved his independence in the midst of the disasters brought on him, -either by the misfortunes of his country or his own imprudences. Vanity, -that assumed the appearance of disdain, rendered him difficult of -access, but compassion and warmth of heart were hidden by this outside. -Fearful of being thought servile, he ran into the opposite extreme, and -was little apt to praise even those to whom praise was due. Vehement in -his opinions, yet he disliked dispute; and if ever led into it, in a few -minutes sheltered himself again in silence. His heart was a stranger to -the feeling of hatred, but neither was he very open to friendship; he -was intimate but with few, and even with these he was reserved. He -preferred the society of women, and in early life loved with sincerity -and passion; and there was delicacy and refinement in all his feelings -with regard to the fair sex. As he expresses himself, in Ortis, "I have -been taught by some how to seduce and betray, and I might perhaps have -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">{Pg 393}</a></span> -seduced and betrayed, but the pleasure I anticipated fell coldly and -bitterly on my heart, which has never been tamed either by time or -reason; and thus you have often heard me exclaim, that all depends on -the heart, which neither heaven, men, nor we ourselves can ever change." -The sincerity of his feelings had their reward—since his affections -had on some occasions met a return, which his uncouth appearance and -strange manners would never have commanded, and which was due only to his -truth. He loved solitude and study, was abstemious in his habits, but not -of strong health, and was often devoured by the deepest gloom. He spoke -well, and detested all artifice and deceit. To these virtues we may add -his constant attention to and affection for his mother. Strange, wild, -and imprudent, his faults chiefly hurt himself; and even the impetuosity -of his character seldom led him into any acts that injured or annoyed -others. -</p> - -<p> -As an author, he may be said to be a bad tragedian, and not a good -novelist; but he was an elegant writer, conversant with the depths and -the refinements of the human heart. His subtle turn of mind led him too -much to verbal and minute criticism—his love of the ancients -sometimes injured the warmth and originality of his productions; but we may -name two among them as nearly perfect in their several species;—the -"Essays on Petrarch," in prose; and, in verse, his "Ode on Sepulchres," -which, for harmony, grace, sweetness, and pure taste, is perhaps unequalled -by any other poem in the world. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">{Pg 394}</a></span> -</p> - -<p><br /></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_54_54" id="Note_54_54"></a><a href="#NoteRef_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a>Dei Sepolcri di Ugo Foscolo.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_55_55" id="Note_55_55"></a><a href="#NoteRef_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a>See the biographical notice of Foscolo, prefixed to the -"Ultime Lettere di Jacopo Ortis. Londra, 1829."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_56_56" id="Note_56_56"></a><a href="#NoteRef_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a>Pecchio, "Vita di Ugo Foscolo."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_57_57" id="Note_57_57"></a><a href="#NoteRef_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a>Pecchio.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_58_58" id="Note_58_58"></a><a href="#NoteRef_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a>Pecchio.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_59_59" id="Note_59_59"></a><a href="#NoteRef_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a>Hobhouse's Illustrations of the Fourth Canto of -Childe Harold.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_60_60" id="Note_60_60"></a><a href="#NoteRef_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a>Pecchio.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_61_61" id="Note_61_61"></a><a href="#NoteRef_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a></p> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i6">"Con elle (le Grazie)</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Qui dov' io canto Galileo sedea</span><br /> -<span class="i0">——a spiar l' astro</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Della loro regina, e il desviava</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Col notturno rumor l' acqua remota</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Che sotto ai pioppi della riva d' Arno</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Furtiva e argentea gli volava al guardo,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Qui a lui l' Alba, la Luna e il Sol mostrava</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Gareggianti di tinte, or le serene</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Nubi sulle cerulee Alpe sedente</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Ora il piano che——alle tirrene</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Nereidi, immensa di città e di selve</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Scena—e di templi e d' arator beati,</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Or cento colli, onde Appenin corona</span><br /> -<span class="i0">D' ulivi e d'antri, e di marmoree ville</span><br /> -<span class="i0">L' elegante città, dove con Flora</span><br /> -<span class="i0">Le Grazie han serti, e amabile idioma."</span> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_62_62" id="Note_62_62"></a><a href="#NoteRef_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a>Storia d' Italia, scritta da Carlo Botta.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_63_63" id="Note_63_63"></a><a href="#NoteRef_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a>Carlo Botta.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_64_64" id="Note_64_64"></a><a href="#NoteRef_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a>Pecchio.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_65_65" id="Note_65_65"></a><a href="#NoteRef_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a>It was on account of one of these Graces that Foscolo -believed himself obliged to challenge one Graham, an American. When they -met in the field, the poet received, but did not return, his adversary's -fire, and the affair terminated without a reconciliation.. Graham was at -that time a reporter to a newspaper, and had served Foscolo as -translator of his works. He afterwards got into difficulties, committed -a forgery, and was obliged to leave this country. Soon after, he fell in -a duel in America.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_66_66" id="Note_66_66"></a><a href="#NoteRef_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a>Pecchio, Vita di Ugo Foscolo.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Note_67_67" id="Note_67_67"></a><a href="#NoteRef_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a>There is an error in this inscription with regard to the -day of Foscolo's death, and also probably of his age, since it is -supposed that he was not more than forty-nine when he died. His -countrymen also regret that instead of the above inscription, that was -not adopted which he wrote for himself, under the feigned name of Didimo -Chierico, which runs thus:—</p> - -<p class="center">Didymi Clerici<br /> -Vitia: virtus: ossa<br /> -Hic: post: annos . . .<br /> -Conquiescere cœpere.</p></div> - -<p><br /><br /><br /></p> - -<h4>END OF THE SECOND VOLUME.</h4> - -<p><br /><br /><br /></p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMINENT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC MEN OF ITALY, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL VOL. 2 (OF 3) ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. -</div> - -<div style='margin:0.83em 0; font-size:1.1em; text-align:center'>START: FULL LICENSE<br /> -<span style='font-size:smaller'>THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE<br /> -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK</span> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person -or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the -Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when -you share it without charge with others. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work -on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the -phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: -</div> - -<blockquote> - <div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most - other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions - whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms - of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online - at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you - are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws - of the country where you are located before using this eBook. - </div> -</blockquote> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg™ License. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format -other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain -Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -provided that: -</div> - -<div style='margin-left:0.7em;'> - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation.” - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ - works. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works. - </div> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right -of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™ -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread -public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state -visit <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/donate/">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. -</div> - -</div> - -</body> -</html> diff --git a/old/65110-h/images/eminent02_italy_cover.jpg b/old/65110-h/images/eminent02_italy_cover.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 61480c7..0000000 --- a/old/65110-h/images/eminent02_italy_cover.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/65110-h/images/figure01.jpg b/old/65110-h/images/figure01.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index de4d61e..0000000 --- a/old/65110-h/images/figure01.jpg +++ /dev/null |
